Wikipídiya iglwiki https://igl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogb%C3%A1_ogbolo MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.17 first-letter Áméwn igò Egwéyí Úkọ̀lá Énéagwu Úkọ̀lá énéagwu Wikipídiya Úkọ̀lá Wikipídiya Fáílú Úkọ̀lá fáílú MediaWiki Úkọ̀lá MediaWiki Éwn malábó Úkọ̀lá éwn malábó Abune Úkọ̀lá abune Gbúgbe Úkọ̀lá gbúgbe TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 3 1144 44485 44316 2026-08-28T13:41:08Z MediaWiki message delivery 218 /* Reminder: Starter Kit Virtual Meeting */ new section 44485 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Igala Wikipedia == Hello, Agnes, and also a ping to other active contributors to the Igala Wikipedia on Incubator: @[[Énéagwu:Charipearl|Charipearl]], @[[Énéagwu:Aboh Joseph|Aboh Joseph]], @[[Énéagwu:Austinea3|Austinea3]], @[[Énéagwu:Samardhorah|Samardhorah]], @[[Énéagwu:Benjamin Blessing|Benjamin Blessing]], @[[Énéagwu:Godfrey Emmanuel|Godfrey Emmanuel]], @[[Énéagwu:Biba993|Biba993]], @[[Énéagwu:NuhudeenHayatudeen|NuhudeenHayatudeen]], @[[Énéagwu:Iamgreaced|Iamgreaced]], @[[Énéagwu:Ogalihillary|Ogalihillary]] and others. I am pleased to be able to officially welcome you to the Igala Wikipedia! As you probably know, the wiki was created some days ago, and I've been importing the wiki during the past days, but it's taken me a while – sorry about the delay. When a wiki is brand new, there are some issues that you might need to be aware of. Firstly, the statistics in [[Special:Statistics]] might not be correct yet, but they will usually update within a few days. Secondly, interwiki links via Wikidata are not possible yet, but when they become available, I will use [[User:JhsBot|JhsBot]] my bot to fix interwiki links for all pages that have the [[Template:INTERWIKI|interwiki template]]. I suggest that you start a community discussion page (village pump) where matters concerning the wiki can be discussed. Maybe at [[Wikipedia:Áyí Amójá]], which is linked in the sidebar? If you have any questions or need any assistance, please feel free to ask me. Good luck with your brand new Wikipedia, and keep up the good work! [[Énéagwu:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:Jon Harald Søby|úkọ̀lá]]) 14:47, 30 ochu ekele 2024 (WAT) :Just for the record, I see that WhatLinksHere is not working properly yet. I don't think I've ever seen that before. Doesn't that usually work immediately after importing pages? For example, notice that [[Igala-Benin War]] links to [[Igala Kingdom]] via a normal <nowiki>[[wikilink]]</nowiki>, but [[Special:WhatLinksHere/Igala Kingdom]] doesn't list any pages. I don't think this is something affected by [[mw:Manual:initSiteStats.php|initSiteStats.php]] (which is run on Wikimedia wikis daily), but maybe I'm wrong about that. I guess we'll see what happens in the next 24 hours. - [[Énéagwu:Dcljr|dcljr]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:Dcljr|úkọ̀lá]]) 02:01, 1 ochu ekelu 2024 (WAT) ::Heh… now [[Special:WhatLinksHere/Igala Kingdom]] lists this talk page (only). - [[Énéagwu:Dcljr|dcljr]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:Dcljr|úkọ̀lá]]) 08:14, 1 ochu ekelu 2024 (WAT) :::Thanks for bringing this to our attention maybe we can still give it a little time like you suggested or when the deployment is fully completed it might work. I also notice our wikipedia logo hasnt been uploaded too [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:AgnesAbah|úkọ̀lá]]) 08:21, 1 ochu ekelu 2024 (WAT) :Thank you for the warm welcome and the update on the Igala Wikipedia's progress. It's truly exciting to see our language represented in such a significant way online. :I appreciate the effort you've put into importing the wiki, and I understand that these things can take time. No need to apologize for any delay – the important thing is that you're making progress [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:AgnesAbah|úkọ̀lá]]) [[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:Jon Harald Søby#c-AgnesAbah-20240501070400|08:04, 1 ochu ekelu 2024 (WAT)]] [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:AgnesAbah|úkọ̀lá]]) 08:07, 1 ochu ekelu 2024 (WAT) == Flower of the month == [[File:Wild Flower on the Obudu Mountains.jpg|thumb|<center>Wild Flower on the Obudu Mountains</center>]] Dear AgnesAbah. For your huge efforts on Igala Wikipedia I want to award you with the [[:als:Wikipedia:Blueme vum Monet|Flower of the month]]. Best regards, --[[Énéagwu:Holder|Holder]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:Holder|úkọ̀lá]]) 11:43, 5 ochu ekelu 2024 (WAT) :Wow thank you very much. This really means alot to me and the entire community members [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:AgnesAbah|úkọ̀lá]]) 13:31, 5 ochu ekelu 2024 (WAT) == Notice of expiration of your sysop right == <div dir="ltr">Hi, as part of [[:m:Global reminder bot|Global reminder bot]], this is an automated reminder to let you know that your permission "sysop" (Abó ma ní óda) will expire on 2024-12-19 22:05:41. Please renew this right if you would like to continue using it. <i>In other languages: [[:m:Global reminder bot/Messages/default|click here]]</i> [[Énéagwu:Leaderbot|Leaderbot]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:Leaderbot|úkọ̀lá]]) 20:43, 13 ochu ekegwe-eji 2024 (WAT)</div> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Affiliations Committee News (October-December 2024)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:Affiliations Committee 2024 05.jpg|256px|right|thumb|AffCom at its Strategic Retreat in Frankfurt]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 4|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 4}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;">Affiliates Strategy Update: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#Affiliate Strategy Updates|Notes from the 2024 AffCom strategic retreat]] Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|User group application pause lifted]] Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report|Activities reports around the world]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue4_#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement at WikiIndaba]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#AffCom_Administrative_Updates|Mari Avetisyan appointed new AffCom secretary]]</div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 4|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 04:04, 5 ochu ekeji 2025 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=28060527 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2025: Important Updates for Organizers & Jury == Hello Community Organizers and Jury, Thank you for organising Feminism and Folklore writing competition on your wiki. Feminism and Folklore is the largest Wikipedia contest organized by community members. We congratulate you in joining and celebrating our cultural heritage and promoting gender equality on Wikipedia. To encourage boost for the contributions of the participants, we're offering prizes for Feminism and Folklore local prizes. Each Wikipedia will have three local winners: # First Prize: $25 USD # Second Prize: $20 USD # Best Jury Article: $15 USD All this will be in '''gift voucher format only'''. Prizes will only be given to users who have more than 5 accepted articles. No prizes will be given for users winning below 5 accepted articles. Kindly inform your local community regarding these prizes and post them on the local project page The Best Jury Article will be chosen by the jury based on how unique the article is aligned with the theme. The jury will review all submissions and decide the winner together, making sure it's fair. These articles will also be featured on our social media handles. We're also providing internet and childcare support to the first 75 organizers and Jury members for those who request for it. Remember, only 75 organizers will get this support, and it's given on a first-come, first-served basis. The registration form will close after 75 registrations, and the deadline is <nowiki>'''</nowiki>March 5, 2025<nowiki>'''</nowiki>. This support is optional and not compulsory, so if you're interested, fill out the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeum8md6FqHY1ISWRLW5bqOAv_lcd1tpVtMMZfWKRDU_IffLQ/viewform?usp=dialog Form] Each organizer/jury who gets support will receive $40 USD in gift voucher format, even if they're involved in more than one wiki. No dual support will be provided if you have signed up in more than one language. This support is meant to appreciate your volunteer support for the contest. We also invite all organizers and jury members to join us for Advocacy session on '''Saturday, Feb 28, 2025'''. This session will help you understand the jury process for both contests and give you a chance to ask questions. More details are on [[meta:Event:Telling untold stories: How to document gendered narratives in Folklore on Wikipedia|Event:Telling untold stories: How to document gendered narratives in Folklore on Wikipedia - Meta]] Let's celebrate our different cultures and work towards gender equality on Wikipedia! Best regards, Stella and Tiven Wiki loves folklore international team [[User:SAgbley|SAgbley]] ([[User talk:SAgbley|talk]]) 04:39, 25 February 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/Community_Prizes&oldid=28309519 --> == Follow-Up: Support for Feminism and Folklore 2025 Contributions == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2025 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {{center|''{{int:please-translate}}''}} Dear {{PAGENAME}}, I hope this message finds you well. We noticed that your community has signed up for the [[meta:Feminism and Folklore 2025|Feminism and Folklore Writing Contest]], but there have been only a few contributions submitted via the [https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/campwiz/ Campwiz tool] so far. We completely understand that challenges may arise, and we’d love to support you and your participants in streamlining the submission process. To assist your community, here’s a step-by-step guide to adding articles to the campaign. Feel free to share these instructions with your participants: === How to Submit Articles via Campwiz === '''Tool link:''' https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/campwiz/ # Access the Tool #* Visit Campwiz and log in with your Wikimedia account (same as your Wikipedia credentials). # Select the Campaign #* Scroll through the list of campaigns and click on your campaign. # Add Your Article #* Click on "'''+ SUBMIT NEW ARTICLE'''" button. #* Enter the exact title of your article in the “Tiltle” field. #* Click on "'''CHECK'''" button. #* If you have more articles to submit, click on the '''"SUBMIT ANOTHER"''' button. # Check your submissions. #* To check if your submissions went through please click on the '''"DETAILS"''' button #* Click on the '''SUBMISSIONS''' Button to see the list of your submissions. === Need Help? === * Technical issues? Ensure article titles are spelled correctly and meet the campaign’s theme (feminism, folklore, or gender-related topics). * Eligibility questions? New articles must follow Wikipedia’s notability guidelines. * Still stuck? Send an email to '''support@wikilovesfolklore.org'''! You can also reach out on the campaign’s Talk page. Your commitment to amplifying untold gendered narratives in folklore is invaluable, and we’re excited to see your community’s contributions come to life. Let’s work together to make this campaign a success! Looking forward to your response, Best regards,<br> Stella<br> Feminism and Folklore Organizer -[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 07:29, 17 March 2025 (UTC) </div> </div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF2&oldid=28410476 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2025 Jury Evaluation Guidelines & Results Submission == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2025 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {{center|''{{int:please-translate}}''}} Dear {{PAGENAME}}, Thank you once again for your commitment and dedication to the [[meta:Feminism and Folklore 2025|Feminism and Folklore 2025]] campaign! As we near the conclusion of this year’s contest, please follow the official jury guidelines when evaluating submissions: ===Jury Guidelines:=== * Articles must be created or expanded between 1st February and 31st March 2025. * Minimum article size: 3000 bytes and at least 300 words. * No poor or machine-translated content. * Articles must align with the Feminism and Folklore themes (feminism, gender, culture, folklore). * Articles should not be orphaned – they must be linked to at least one other article. * Submissions must not violate copyright rules and should follow local notability guidelines. * All articles must include proper references according to your local Wikipedia’s citation policies. * Once your local jury process is complete, kindly submit only the top 3 winners on the official results page: ===Submission Link:=== https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025/Results Please include the following for each winner: * Username * Link to the local user talkpage * Their ranking (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) For more information, you can also refer to the main contest page: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025 If you need help or have any questions, feel free to reach out. Warm regards, <br> Stella Sessy Agbley<br> Coordinator, Feminism and Folklore -[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 10:48, 10 April 2025 (UTC) </div> </div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF2&oldid=28410476 --> == Invitation: Gendering the Archive - Building Inclusive Folklore Repositories (April 30th) == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2025 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {{center|''{{int:please-translate}}''}} Dear {{PAGENAME}}, You are invited to a hands-on session focused on [[meta:Gendering the Archive: Building Inclusive Repositories for Folklore Documentation | Gendering the Archive: Building Inclusive Repositories for Folklore Documentation]]. This online workshop will guide participants on how to create, edit, and expand gender-inclusive folklore articles and multimedia archives on Wikipedia and Wikidata. The session will be led by Rebecca Jeannette Nyinawumuntu. === Objectives === * '''Design Inclusive Repositories:''' Learn best practices for structuring folklore archives that foreground gender perspectives. * '''Hands-On Editing:''' Practice creating and improving articles and items on Wikipedia and Wikidata with a gender-inclusive lens. * '''Collaborative Mapping:''' Work in small groups to plan new entries and multimedia uploads that document underrepresented voices. * '''Advocacy & Outreach:''' Discuss strategies to promote and sustain these repositories within your local and online communities. === Details === * '''Date:''' 30th April 2025 * '''Day:''' Wednesday * '''Time:''' 16:00 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1746028800 Check your local time zone]) * '''Venue:''' Online (Zoom) * '''Speaker:''' Rebecca Jeannette Nyinawumuntu (Co-founder, Wikimedia Rwanda & Community Engagement Director) === How to Join === * '''Zoom Link:''' [https://us06web.zoom.us/j/89158738825?pwd=ezEgXbAqwq9KEr499DvJxSzZyXSVQX Join here] * '''Meeting ID:''' 891 5873 8825 * '''Passcode:''' FNF@2025 * '''Add to Calendar:''' [https://zoom.us/meeting/tZ0scuGvrTMiGNH4I3T7EEQmhuFJkuCHL7Ci/ics?meetingMasterEventId=Xv247OBKRMWeJJ9LSbX2hA Add to your calendar] '''' === Agenda === # Welcome & Introductions: Opening remarks and participant roll-call. # Presentation: Overview of gender-inclusive principles and examples of folklore archives. # Hands-On Workshop: Step-by-step editing on Wikipedia and Wikidata—create or expand entries. # Group Brainstorm: Plan future repository items in breakout groups. # Q&A & Discussion: Share challenges, solutions, and next steps. # Closing Remarks: Summarise key takeaways and outline follow-up actions. We look forward to seeing you there! Best regards,<br> Stella<br> Feminism and Folklore Organiser -[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 10:28, 24 April 2025 (UTC) </div> </div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF2&oldid=28410476 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Affiliations Committee News (January-March 2025)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:WMB meeting in Belo Horizonte in 2023 (day 02) 059.jpg|256px|right|thumb|Wikimedia Brasil, the latest chapter to be recognized by AffCom]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 5|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 5}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;"> Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|Recognition of Wikimedia Brasil and four user groups]] Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report|Activities reports around the world]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue 5#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement at Wikimedia+Libraries and Wikisource conferences]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#AffCom_Administrative_Updates|Welcoming new AffCom voting and advisory members]] Upcoming AffCom Events: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#Upcoming_AffCom_Events|AffCom at ESEAP Strategy Summit]]</div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 5|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 02:30, 26 ochu ekele 2025 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=28324741 --> == Final reminder that the deadline for submitting your Feminism and Folklore 2025 results == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;> Hello {{PAGENAME}} [[File:Feminism and Folklore logo.svg | right | frameless]] I hope this message finds you well. This is a final reminder that the deadline for submitting your Feminism and Folklore 2025 results on Meta has elapsed. For participant prizes to be processed, your community must submit the necessary information as soon as possible. Please use the following link to submit your results: [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025/Results Submit your results] We have extended the {{font color||yellow|'''submission deadline to 12 June 2025'''.}} Kindly note that failure to submit by this date will result in your group’s participants not receiving any prizes from us. Thank you for your attention to this important matter and for your continued contributions to the Feminism and Folklore campaign. Warm regards,<br> Stella<br> On behalf of Feminism and Folklore Team<br> [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 12:39, 08 June 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:FnF_2025_reminder_list&oldid=28842648 --> == Notice of expiration of your sysop right == <div dir="ltr">Hi, as part of [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot|Global reminder bot]], this is an automated reminder to let you know that your permission "sysop" (Abó ma ní óda) will expire on 2025-07-20 14:27:37. Please renew this right if you would like to continue using it. <i>In other languages: [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot/Messages/default|click here]]</i> [[Énéagwu:Leaderbot|Leaderbot]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:Leaderbot|úkọ̀lá]]) 20:43, 13 ochu ekebie 2025 (WAT)</div> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Affiliations Committee News (April-June 2025)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:MNL25 - day one 08.jpg|256px|right|thumb|AffCom session at the ESEAP Strategy Summit 2025 in Manila, the Philippines]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 6|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 6}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;">Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|Recognition of Wikimedia Aotearoa New Zealand and Assamese Wikimedia Community User Group]] Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report|Activities reports around the world]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue 6#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement at the ESEAP Strategy Summit]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#AffCom_Administrative_Updates|Results of the AffCom officers election]] Upcoming AffCom Events: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#Upcoming_AffCom_Events|Meet AffCom at Wikimania]]</div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 6|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 07:25, 5 ochu ekejo 2025 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=28820920 --> == Invitation to Organise Feminism and Folklore 2026 == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"><em>{{int:please-translate}}</em></div> Dear {{PAGENAME}}, Hope you’re doing well. I’m reaching out with some exciting updates about '''[[m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026]]'''. Thanks to the amazing support from organizers like you, the campaign has grown into one of the biggest and most collaborative initiatives in the entire Wikimedia movement. Your efforts have played a huge part in that, and we’re truly grateful. We’re hoping to make the 2026 edition even larger and even more community-driven. We’d be very happy to have you join again as an organizer. The sign-up process is simple this year: #Create your local event page (you can copy from the [[:m:Feminism_and_Folklore/Sample|sample]]) #Set up your Fountain or [https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/campwiz/ CampWiz] campaign. #Add your campaign link to the 2026 '''[[:m:Feminism_and_Folklore_2026/Project_Page|registration list]]''' The focus of the campaign remains the same - creating or expanding Wikipedia content on feminism, women’s issues, gender topics, and diverse folk traditions from around the world. International and local prizes will continue as before. '''Special Prize for 2026:''' Every participant will receive a Wikipedia 25 digital postcard as a token of appreciation for contributing to the global movement during Wikipedia’s 25th anniversary year. This will be sent to all contributors who take part in the campaign. We’re also adding an optional one-time internet and childcare support for organizers who may need extra assistance to carry out their local campaign. This is entirely optional and meant to help those who might otherwise face challenges in organizing. More details will be shared soon. If you’re unable to organize this year, no worries at all - please feel free to share the invitation with others in your community who might be interested. If you have any questions or would like to discuss plans, you can reach us on the [[:m:Talk:Feminism and Folklore 2026|talk page]] or by email. Looking forward to collaborating again, '''Wiki Loves Folklore International Team''' --[[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 19:18, 12 ochu ekegwe-eji 2025 (WAT) </div></div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf25&oldid=29792058 --> == Affiliations Committee News (July-December 2025) == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> [[File:At Wikimania 2025 127.jpg|256px|right|thumb|AffCom at Wikimania 2025 in Nairobi, Kenya]]<br> <div style="column-count:1;">Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|Recognition of Wikimedia Georgia: recognized & announced September 2025]] Recognition Status Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#Recognition Status Report|Updates of affiliate applications]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue 7#AffCom at WikiConference North America|AffCom at WikiConference North America]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#AffCom and EDs Discuss Affiliate Ecosystem|AffCom and EDs Discuss Affiliate Ecosystem]] AffCom Events: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#AffCom Administrative Updates|AffCom at Wikimania]]</div> </div> Affiliations Committee News (July-December 2025) <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 7|This newsletter is best translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 7}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 7|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]</div><section end="announcement-content" /> [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 11:11, 13 January 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Buszmail@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=29907013 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2026 starts soon == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge; padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr" style="padding: 1em 2em;"> <div style="text-align: center; width: 100%;">''{{int:please-translate}}''</div> ;Invitation to Organize Feminism and Folklore 2026 Dear {{BASEPAGENAME}}, We are pleased to invite you to organize the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026]]''' writing competition on your local Wikipedia. The international campaign will run from '''1 February to 31 March 2026''' and aims to improve coverage of feminism, women’s histories, gender-related topics, and folk culture across Wikipedia projects. ;About the Campaign '''Feminism and Folklore''' is a global writing initiative that complements the '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2026|Wiki Loves Folklore]]''' photography competition. While Wiki Loves Folklore focuses on visual documentation, this writing campaign addresses the '''gender gap on Wikipedia''' by improving encyclopedic content related to folk culture and women. ;What Can Participants Write About? Communities can contribute by creating, expanding, or translating articles related to: * Folk festivals, rituals, and celebrations * Folk dances, music, and traditional performances * Women and queer figures in folklore * Women in mythology and oral traditions * Women warriors, witches, and witch-hunting narratives * Fairy tales, folk stories, and legends * Folk games, sports, and cultural practices Participants may work from curated article lists or generate new article suggestions using campaign tools. ;How to Sign Up as an Organizer Organizers are requested to complete the following steps to register their community: # Create a local project page on your wiki [[:m:Feminism and Folklore/Sample|(see sample)]] # Set up the campaign using the '''CampWiz''' tool # Prepare a local article list and clearly mention: #* Campaign timeline #* Local and international prizes # Request a site notice from local administrators [[:mr:Template:SN-FNF|(see sample)]] # Add your local project page and CampWiz link to the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Meta project page]]''' ;Campaign Tools The Wiki Loves Folklore Tech Team has introduced tools to support organizers and participants: * '''Article List Generator by Topic''' – Helps identify articles available on English Wikipedia but missing in your local language Wikipedia. The tool allows customized filters and provides downloadable article lists in CSV and wikitable formats. * '''CampWiz''' – Enables communities to manage writing campaigns effectively, including jury-based evaluation. This will be the third year CampWiz is officially used for Feminism and Folklore. Both tools are now available for use in the campaign. '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/ Click here to access the tools]''' ;Learn More & Get Support *For detailed information about rules, timelines, and prizes, please visit the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026 project page]]'''. * Join the office hours on 23 January 2026 and connect with the international Team. ([[:m:Event:Wiki Loves Folklore 2026 Office Hours|sign up now]]) If you have any questions or need assistance, feel free to reach out via: * '''[[:m:Talk:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Meta talk page]]''' * Email us using details on the contact page. ;Join Us We look forward to your collaboration and coordination in making Feminism and Folklore 2026 a meaningful and impactful campaign for closing gender gaps and enriching folk culture content on Wikipedia. Thank you and best wishes, '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026 International Team]]''' ---- ''Stay connected:'' [[File:B&W Facebook icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]]&nbsp;[[File:B&W Twitter icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]] </div></div> --[[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 17:31, 18 ochu ajodudu 2026 (WAT) :Dear Feminism and Folklore 2026 International Team, :Thank you so much for reaching out and for the kind invitation to organize the Feminism and Folklore 2026 writing competition on my local Wikipedia. :Feminism and Folklore is a campaign we deeply value because of its focus on amplifying women’s histories, folk knowledge, and gender-related narratives that are often underrepresented. I look forward to working with my local community to support these goals and encourage meaningful contributions during the campaign period. :I will carefully go through the guidelines and begin the necessary steps, including creating the local project page, setting up CampWiz, and preparing our article list. I also plan to join the upcoming office hours to connect with the international team and learn more. :Thank you once again for the trust and continued support for local organizers. I’m looking forward to collaborating with you to make Feminism and Folklore 2026 impactful and successful. :Warm regards, :Agnes Abah [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:AgnesAbah|úkọ̀lá]]) 19:37, 20 ochu ajodudu 2026 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf25&oldid=29949330 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2026 – Community Organisers & Jury == Hello {{PAGENAME}}!, Thank you for taking the lead in organising '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' in your community. We truly appreciate your efforts! To ensure a smooth and successful campaign, please make sure you have: * Fully completed all details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Feminism and Folklore 2026 Project Page]]: * Started promoting the campaign within your community. * Requested a local administrator to place a '''sitenotice''' about the campaign so users are notified. * Used the '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/fnf/ Article List Generator Tool]''' and shared the generated article lists with your community. === Internet & Childcare Support === Community organisers and jury members who require '''internet and childcare support''' (non-mandatory, opt-in, request-only support) should fill the support request form '''by 22 February 2026'''. '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeutXEF1yTnJfExWUYPIf6SkhcnTgul07BeI-biqT4RE_vsrA/viewform Link to the form]''' Requests submitted after this date will not be entertained. === Important Participation Guidelines === * Minimum article size: '''3000 bytes and 300 words''' (final decision may be set by local organisers). * If your country is not listed on the Article list generator tool, please contact us. === Community Engagement === * Keep your community active and motivated throughout the campaign. * Share your achievements and notable articles with us so we can highlight them globally. * In the support form, please indicate if you would like a '''quick coordination call after the campaign'''. Let’s make '''Feminism and Folklore''', under the banner of '''#WeTogether''', help bridge the '''gender gap''' and '''folklore gap''' on Wikipedia worldwide. 🌍✊ Thank you for your collaboration! ''If someone from your community organisers or jury has missed this message feel free to share this message with them.'' Feminism and Folklore International Team. –[[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 06:17, 16 ochu ekeji 2026 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=30083330 --> == Next Steps and Feedback meeting for Feminism and Folklore Organizers == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge; padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr" style="padding: 1em 2em;"> <div style="text-align: center; width: 100%;">''{{int:please-translate}}''</div> Dear Organizer, I hope this message finds you well. First and foremost, on behalf of the International Team I want to extend my gratitude to you for your efforts in organizing the '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' campaign on your local Wikipedia. Your contribution has been instrumental in bridging the gender and folk gap on Wikipedia, and we truly appreciate your dedication to this important cause. As the campaign has ended I wanted to inform you about the next steps. It's time to commence the jury process using the CampWiz or Fountain tool where your campaign was hosted. Please ensure that you update the details of the jury, campaign links and the names of organizers accurately on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|sign-up page]]. Once the jury process is completed, kindly update only the top 3 winners details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|results page]] accordingly. The deadline for jury submission of results is '''April 30, 2026'''. However, if you find that the number of articles is high and you require more time, please don't hesitate to inform us via email or on campaign Meta Wiki talk page. We are more than willing to approve an extension if needed. Should you encounter any issues with the tools, please feel free to reach out to us on Telegram for assistance. Your feedback and progress updates are crucial for us to improve the campaign and better understand your community's insights. Therefore, we kindly ask you to spare just an hour to collectively share your progress and achievements with us during our '''[[:m:Event:Feminism and Folklore 2026 Post-Campaign Office Hour|community feedback session]]'''. Your input will greatly assist us in making the campaign more meaningful and impactful. Thank you once again for your hard work and dedication to the Feminism and Folklore campaign. Your efforts are deeply appreciated, and we look forward to hearing from you soon. Warm regards, [[User:Tiven2240|Tiven2240]] on behalf of Feminism and Folklore International Team <nowiki>#WeTogether</nowiki> </div></div> --[[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 12:57, 11 ochu ekele 2026 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=30391231 --> == Affiliations Committee News (January-March 2026) == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <!-- == Affiliations Committee News (January-March 2026) == --> <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 8|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 6}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. [[File:AffCom_and_GRDC_members_at_APP_meeting,_Lisbon_2026_01_(cropped).jpg|220px|right|thumb|AffCom and GRDC members at APP meeting, Lisbon, Portugal]] <div style="column-count:1;"> Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|This past quarter, AffCom recognized no new Affiliates due to the pause in recognizing new affiliates.]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#AffCom Conflict Intervention|AffCom is currently addressing eight ongoing affiliate conflict cases received in previous quarters.]] Affiliate Recognition Pause Extension: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#Affiliate Recognition Pause Extension|The Wikimedia Foundation, together with the AffCom, has extended the pause on new affiliate recognition until September 1, 2026.]] New Affiliate Model Development Efforts: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#New Affiliate Model Development Efforts|The Affiliations Committee held collaborative meetings with the Global Resource Distribution Committee (GRDC) to explore the development of a new affiliations model.]] Towards a Healthy Ecosystem of Wikimedia Organizations: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#Towards a Healthy Ecosystem of Wikimedia Organizations: Updates on the Movement Organizations Pilot, GRDC, and AffCom|Two major pilot initiatives were launched to address long-standing questions about the roles of movement organizations and the future of resource allocation.]] <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 8|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]</div><section end="announcement-content" /> [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 03:50, 03 May 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Buszmail@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=30057452 --> == Final Reminder: Submission of Local Winners for Feminism and Folklore 2026 == Dear Feminism and Folklore organiser, This is a friendly reminder that the deadline for submitting the names and details of your local winners for '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' is '''5 June 2026'''. Please ensure that your community's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|winner information]] is submitted before this date. Communities that do not provide their winner data by the deadline will unfortunately not be eligible for prize distribution, and the international organizing team will not be able to accommodate late submissions received after 5 June 2026. Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter and for your participation in the campaign. Best regards, '''Feminism and Folklore International Organizing Team''' --[[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 03:09, 3 ochu ekefa 2026 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30627457 --> == Invitation to try the Starter Kit Dashboard and share your feedback == Hello @[[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]], Apologies this message is not in your native language. As an admin in the Igala Wikipedia, you are invited by the [[mw:Language_Onboarding_and_Development|Language Onboarding and Development]] initiative to use the Starter Kit Dashboard. This tool will help you perform essential tasks such as importing infoboxes, tracking your Wikipedia’s activity and growth and connecting with members of the broader Wikimedia community for technical guidance. Starter Kit Dashboard organizes essential setup tasks, making it easy for you to complete them so contributors can begin editing and learning quickly. As an admin, you can also use the Dashboard to track your Wikipedia’s progress and growth. Using this tool will help us evaluate how it can improve the onboarding experience for administrators, and the insights you provide will be used to enhance the experience for new wikis graduating from the incubator. Visit [[mw:Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit|this page]] to learn more about the Starter Kit. Here's how to get started: * Access the Starter Kit Dashboard here: [http://starterkit.toolforge.org/ http://starterkit.toolforge.org] * Login with your wiki credentials, enter the target wiki url (e.g., https://hi.wikipedia.org * Follow the steps shown in the video below to use the tool. [[Fáílú:Wikipedia_Starter_Kit_Dashboard_MVP_Demo_Video.webm|816x816px|Wikipedia Starter Kit Dashboard MVP Demo Video]] * After exploring the Dashboard, please share your feedback on [[mw:Talk:Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit|this page,]] focusing on the following questions: ** The parts of the starter kit you expect to use most often, and how you plan to use them. ** The essential tasks you tried, and how easy or difficult they were to complete. ** The wiki tasks you would like the starter kit to guide you through or automate in the future. Most of the tasks that will result in edits on the wiki can be reverted like an edit from the “view history”, so don't be afraid to try them several times. We would appreciate it if you could submit your feedback by June 26, 2026, so we can begin analyzing it to identify areas for improvement. If you have any questions or need assistance, please let me know. Thank you so much for your contributions to your Wikipedia and for helping us shape this tool for new and small Wikipedias. We will keep you updated on any additional things added to the starter kit in the future. Best regards, [[Énéagwu:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:UOzurumba (WMF)|úkọ̀lá]]) 20:40, 11 ochu ekefa 2026 (WAT) :This will really be helpful to Igala Wikipedia. I will review and get back before 26th June 2026 [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:AgnesAbah|úkọ̀lá]]) 23:53, 15 ochu ekefa 2026 (WAT) ===Appreciating your feedback on the Starter Kit Dashboard tool=== Dear [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]], Thank you for taking the time to explore the [http://starterkit.toolforge.org/ Starter kit dashboard] and for sharing your thoughtful feedback. Your insights are invaluable to us, and we truly appreciate your continued commitment to the Wikipedia community. We are currently working on the feedback we received. You can view the tasks we are currently working on here: https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/maniphest/?project=PHID-PROJ-jry4odhdvqbzs7ptr3vw&statuses=open()&group=none&order=newest#R The next phase of our work will be to share the tool broadly with various communities in the movement. If you haven't yet had the chance to submit your feedback, you're still welcome to share your thoughts on [[mw:Talk:Language Onboarding and Development/Starter kit|the feedback page]]. Best regards, [[Énéagwu:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:UOzurumba (WMF)|úkọ̀lá]]) 04:49, 31 ochu ekebie 2026 (WAT) :Thank you your message i have filled the feedback form and we will love to use the tool in our community [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:AgnesAbah|úkọ̀lá]]) 00:34, 6 ochu ekejo 2026 (WAT) == Thank you for organising Feminism and Folklore 2026 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]] Dear {{PAGENAME}}, Your dedication, coordination, and hard work played a vital role in making this year's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign successful. We truly appreciate the time and effort you invested in engaging your community and supporting participants. As we have completed the jury phase and begin planning for next year's campaign, we would like to learn from your experiences. Please complete the organisers' feedback form and share your insights, challenges, and suggestions on how we can improve the campaign. '''This feedback form is mandatory for all organisers''', as it helps us evaluate the campaign and make meaningful improvements for future editions. '''Form link [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf6IsGAsxkTEWTwueyLg-gBjRVlY3g2kTNj3xRhDiILiQnQwQ/viewform?usp=dialog here]''' Please submit your response by '''25 June 2026'''. Thank you once again for your invaluable contributions and for helping make Feminism and Folklore a global success. We look forward to working with you again in the future! Regards, '''Feminism and Folklore Team''' --[[Énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:MediaWiki message delivery|úkọ̀lá]]) 13:05, 18 ochu ekefa 2026 (WAT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30704175 --> == Invitation to attend the Starter Kit virtual meeting == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> Greetings! As a contributor who has actively been involved in testing the [https://starterkit.toolforge.org/ Starter Kit tool], the [[mw:Language Onboarding and Development|Language Onboarding and Development]] initiative would like to invite you to join a virtual meeting where you can ask questions and learn more about the tool. Your experience using the Starter Kit is incredibly valuable not only for helping us improve the tool, but also for helping other Wikimedia communities learn from your experiences. We would love to hear how you've been using the Starter Kit, what you've accomplished with it, what has worked well, where you've encountered challenges, and what suggestions you have for making it more useful. Your insights will help shape future improvements and provide practical examples that other communities can learn from as they begin using the Starter Kit themselves. '''Here's what we would like you to do:''' *Sign up for one of the three virtual meetings: https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit/Office_hours#Office_hours. Please attend one of the virtual meetings with your questions and thoughts. *Come prepared to share your experience using the Starter Kit - what you've used it for, what you've accomplished, any challenges you've faced, and any ideas or suggestions you have. *A user manual is now available with detailed guidance on the Starter Kit and the tasks you can perform: https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit Thank you so much for your collaboration in this work. We look forward to seeing you at one of the virtual meetings. Best regards, </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]]</bdi> 20:09, 12 ochu ekejo 2026 (WAT) :Thank you so much for the invite I will definitely attend one session [[Énéagwu:AgnesAbah|AgnesAbah]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:AgnesAbah|úkọ̀lá]]) 20:12, 12 ochu ekejo 2026 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:UOzurumba_(WMF)/sandbox_Invitation_to_attend_the_Starter_Kit_virtual_meeting_list&oldid=30916582 --> == Reminder: Starter Kit Virtual Meeting == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> Greetings! This is a friendly reminder to attend the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit Starter Kit] virtual meeting. Date and time: '''Today, Saturday, August 29th, 2026, 01:00–02:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1787965200 check your local time here]) This is a casual session where you can learn more about the Starter Kit tool, ask any questions, and share your thoughts; no need to have tried the tool beforehand. If you haven't signed up yet, you can do so here: https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit/Office_hours#Session_2:_Saturday_29_August_2026,_01:00_UTC See you soon! </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]]</bdi> 14:41, 28 ochu ekejo 2026 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:UOzurumba_(WMF)/sandbox_Invitation_to_attend_the_Starter_Kit_virtual_meeting_list&oldid=30916582 --> 57v25woq2nsyin1yz96r901bgomw92e 3 2668 44483 44311 2026-08-28T13:30:53Z MediaWiki message delivery 218 /* Reminder: Starter Kit Virtual Meeting */ new section 44483 wikitext text/x-wiki == Invitation to try the Starter Kit Tool == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> Greetings! As one of the active editors on this Wikipedia, you're invited by the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development Language Onboarding and Development] initiative to learn about the Starter Kit, try it out, and join a virtual meeting where you can ask questions about the tool.<br> '''What the tool does'''<br> The Starter Kit helps small or new Wikipedia contributors complete essential tasks, like importing infoboxes, tracking your wiki's growth and health metrics, and connecting with members of the broader Wikimedia community for technical guidance. Some features require certain user rights, but three of the six tasks are open to any autoconfirmed editor, so most active editors can get started right away. '''Here's what we would like you to do:''' * Read the manual for more detail on the tool and the tasks you can perform: https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit * Access the Starter Kit tool: https://starterkit.toolforge.org/ and log in with your Wikimedia account to try it out. * Sign up for one of three virtual meetings: https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit/Office_hours#Office_hours, where you can: ** Learn more about the tool. ** Ask questions and share your thoughts. Thank you so much for using the tool, and we look forward to your attending the virtual meeting. 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As one of the active editors on this Wikipedia, you're invited by the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development Language Onboarding and Development] initiative to learn about the Starter Kit, try it out, and join a virtual meeting where you can ask questions about the tool.<br> '''What the tool does'''<br> The Starter Kit helps small or new Wikipedia contributors complete essential tasks, like importing infoboxes, tracking your wiki's growth and health metrics, and connecting with members of the broader Wikimedia community for technical guidance. Some features require certain user rights, but three of the six tasks are open to any autoconfirmed editor, so most active editors can get started right away. 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As one of the active editors on this Wikipedia, you're invited by the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development Language Onboarding and Development] initiative to learn about the Starter Kit, try it out, and join a virtual meeting where you can ask questions about the tool.<br> '''What the tool does'''<br> The Starter Kit helps small or new Wikipedia contributors complete essential tasks, like importing infoboxes, tracking your wiki's growth and health metrics, and connecting with members of the broader Wikimedia community for technical guidance. Some features require certain user rights, but three of the six tasks are open to any autoconfirmed editor, so most active editors can get started right away. 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As one of the active editors on this Wikipedia, you're invited by the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development Language Onboarding and Development] initiative to learn about the Starter Kit, try it out, and join a virtual meeting where you can ask questions about the tool.<br> '''What the tool does'''<br> The Starter Kit helps small or new Wikipedia contributors complete essential tasks, like importing infoboxes, tracking your wiki's growth and health metrics, and connecting with members of the broader Wikimedia community for technical guidance. Some features require certain user rights, but three of the six tasks are open to any autoconfirmed editor, so most active editors can get started right away. '''Here's what we would like you to do:''' * Read the manual for more detail on the tool and the tasks you can perform: https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit * Access the Starter Kit tool: https://starterkit.toolforge.org/ and log in with your Wikimedia account to try it out. * Sign up for one of three virtual meetings: https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit/Office_hours#Office_hours, where you can: ** Learn more about the tool. ** Ask questions and share your thoughts. Thank you so much for using the tool, and we look forward to your attending the virtual meeting. Best regards, </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]]</bdi> 22:17, 11 ochu ekejo 2026 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:UOzurumba_(WMF)/sandbox/Invitation_to_try_the_Starter_Kit_Tool_message_list&oldid=30913073 --> == Notice == Please do not copy paste untranslated text when creating articles. You may forget to translate them if you did't do that before publishing them. [[Énéagwu:Pristome|Pristome]] ([[Úkọ̀lá énéagwu:Pristome|úkọ̀lá]]) 07:48, 24 ochu ekejo 2026 (WAT) == Reminder: Starter Kit Virtual Meeting == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> Greetings! This is a friendly reminder to attend the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit Starter Kit] virtual meeting. Date and time: '''Today, Saturday, August 29th, 2026, 01:00–02:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1787965200 check your local time here]) This is a casual session where you can learn more about the Starter Kit tool, ask any questions, and share your thoughts; no need to have tried the tool beforehand. If you haven't signed up yet, you can do so here: https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Onboarding_and_Development/Starter_kit/Office_hours#Session_2:_Saturday_29_August_2026,_01:00_UTC See you soon! </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]]</bdi> 14:30, 28 ochu ekejo 2026 (WAT) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:UOzurumba_(WMF)/sandbox/Invitation_to_try_the_Starter_Kit_Tool_message_list&oldid=30913073 --> 08uxk8ar366sumy20o2488tn59bfrej 0 2690 44519 44403 2026-08-29T00:07:15Z Obutuson 910 /* Missionaries */ 44519 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Colonial Nigeria''' formed part of the [[British Empire]] from the mid-nineteenth [[century]] until 1 October 1960, when [[Nigeria]] achieved independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] in 1861 and established the [[Oil River Protectorate]] in 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Overview == Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed [[Crown Colony]] and [[British protectorate|protectorate]] government on parts of [[West Africa]] which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both [[autocratic]] and [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Commerce === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> ==Royal Niger Company== {{Main|Royal Niger Company}} [[File:Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888-1899).svg|thumb|Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888–1899)]] [[File:British stamps used at Akassa.jpg|thumb|British stamps used in 1898 at [[Akassa]] by the Royal Niger Company]] The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the [[Niger River]], as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis-à-vis, local merchants. In the 1870s, therefore, [[George Taubman Goldie]] began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at [[Lokoja]], which was the main trading port of the company,<ref>"Northern Nigeria: The Illo Canceller and Borgu Mail" by Ray Harris in ''[[West Africa Study Circle|Cameo]]'', Vol. 14, No. 3, Whole No. 90, October 2013, pp. 158–160.</ref> from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River<ref name=Hermann2011 /> The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Officials of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. One 1885 treaty read: <blockquote>We, the undersigned King and Chiefs […] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory […] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government … [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.).<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /></blockquote> The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. The council was headed by a Governor. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 10–12.</ref> However, the company did accept that local kings could act as partners in governance and trade. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 12–13. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. […] They needed special personnel: such officials who knew the local conditions and who could communicate between the Company and the indigenous people. […] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents."</ref> The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms.<ref name=Hermann2011>Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 44.3, 2011.</ref> By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. In 1886, Taubman secured a [[royal charter]] and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Under Goldie's direction, the [[Royal Niger Company]] was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces.<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. The appointment of [[Joseph Chamberlain]] as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 13–15.</ref> Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === E chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Lancaster House]] in [[London]] in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==References == ===Notes=== {{reflist}} ===Sources=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Further reading== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] c73ny2iyiz7bwqrkrpjxpzcjk6hym1d 44520 44519 2026-08-29T00:10:35Z Obutuson 910 /* Overview */ 44520 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Colonial Nigeria''' formed part of the [[British Empire]] from the mid-nineteenth [[century]] until 1 October 1960, when [[Nigeria]] achieved independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] in 1861 and established the [[Oil River Protectorate]] in 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed [[Crown Colony]] and [[British protectorate|protectorate]] government on parts of [[West Africa]] which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both [[autocratic]] and [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Commerce === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> ==Royal Niger Company== {{Main|Royal Niger Company}} [[File:Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888-1899).svg|thumb|Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888–1899)]] [[File:British stamps used at Akassa.jpg|thumb|British stamps used in 1898 at [[Akassa]] by the Royal Niger Company]] The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the [[Niger River]], as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis-à-vis, local merchants. In the 1870s, therefore, [[George Taubman Goldie]] began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at [[Lokoja]], which was the main trading port of the company,<ref>"Northern Nigeria: The Illo Canceller and Borgu Mail" by Ray Harris in ''[[West Africa Study Circle|Cameo]]'', Vol. 14, No. 3, Whole No. 90, October 2013, pp. 158–160.</ref> from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River<ref name=Hermann2011 /> The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Officials of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. One 1885 treaty read: <blockquote>We, the undersigned King and Chiefs […] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory […] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government … [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.).<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /></blockquote> The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. The council was headed by a Governor. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 10–12.</ref> However, the company did accept that local kings could act as partners in governance and trade. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 12–13. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. […] They needed special personnel: such officials who knew the local conditions and who could communicate between the Company and the indigenous people. […] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents."</ref> The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms.<ref name=Hermann2011>Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 44.3, 2011.</ref> By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. In 1886, Taubman secured a [[royal charter]] and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Under Goldie's direction, the [[Royal Niger Company]] was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces.<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. The appointment of [[Joseph Chamberlain]] as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 13–15.</ref> Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === E chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Lancaster House]] in [[London]] in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] bqudobl7hvrw9inl2ltrj4kw0sakw1d 44521 44520 2026-08-29T00:18:06Z Obutuson 910 /* Commerce */ 44521 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed [[Crown Colony]] and [[British protectorate|protectorate]] government on parts of [[West Africa]] which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both [[autocratic]] and [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> ==Royal Niger Company== {{Main|Royal Niger Company}} [[File:Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888-1899).svg|thumb|Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888–1899)]] [[File:British stamps used at Akassa.jpg|thumb|British stamps used in 1898 at [[Akassa]] by the Royal Niger Company]] The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the [[Niger River]], as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis-à-vis, local merchants. In the 1870s, therefore, [[George Taubman Goldie]] began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at [[Lokoja]], which was the main trading port of the company,<ref>"Northern Nigeria: The Illo Canceller and Borgu Mail" by Ray Harris in ''[[West Africa Study Circle|Cameo]]'', Vol. 14, No. 3, Whole No. 90, October 2013, pp. 158–160.</ref> from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River<ref name=Hermann2011 /> The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Officials of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. One 1885 treaty read: <blockquote>We, the undersigned King and Chiefs […] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory […] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government … [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.).<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /></blockquote> The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. The council was headed by a Governor. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 10–12.</ref> However, the company did accept that local kings could act as partners in governance and trade. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 12–13. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. […] They needed special personnel: such officials who knew the local conditions and who could communicate between the Company and the indigenous people. […] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents."</ref> The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms.<ref name=Hermann2011>Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 44.3, 2011.</ref> By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. In 1886, Taubman secured a [[royal charter]] and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> Under Goldie's direction, the [[Royal Niger Company]] was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces.<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. The appointment of [[Joseph Chamberlain]] as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 13–15.</ref> Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties.<ref name=Hermann2011 /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === E chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Lancaster House]] in [[London]] in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] p85q78jk1x0owrdm49zcju2ncq31iog 44522 44521 2026-08-29T00:20:59Z Obutuson 910 /* Royal Niger Company */ 44522 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed [[Crown Colony]] and [[British protectorate|protectorate]] government on parts of [[West Africa]] which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both [[autocratic]] and [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === E chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Lancaster House]] in [[London]] in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] hbc6v78sat4xibaa03cwsafzqqwol6x 44523 44522 2026-08-29T00:24:47Z Obutuson 910 /* Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ */ 44523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji parts of [[West Africa]] which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both [[autocratic]] and [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === E chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Lancaster House]] in [[London]] in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] do92tr3o4j5l8jgkhdqaqw8h1emzmwc 44524 44523 2026-08-29T00:26:47Z Obutuson 910 /* Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ */ 44524 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === E chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Lancaster House]] in [[London]] in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] 0luzzhcqzvimreylexr6owb3umkk6m7 44525 44524 2026-08-29T00:32:40Z Obutuson 910 /* Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58) */ 44525 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === E chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] ci9s5wkkuhdbsxdqbr6l2gwhz5rcbes 44526 44525 2026-08-29T00:37:12Z Obutuson 910 /* E chi agboji lọka */ 44526 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually in the course of the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area at the 1885 [[Berlin Conference]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] sep8fw6wefvb1moc9y67bp9041cawm5 44527 44526 2026-08-29T07:40:19Z Obutuson 910 44527 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. From 1886 to 1899, much of the area was ruled by the [[Royal Niger Company]], authorised by charter, and governed by [[George Taubman Goldie]]. In 1900, the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] 5l6nymjwp3uwx2h62a5g03p431wfe7u 44528 44527 2026-08-29T07:45:17Z Obutuson 910 /* Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ */ 44528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], the two territories were amalgamated as the '''Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria''', while each of the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos) retained considerable regional autonomy. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] k4eygiywgi9jm8mxha7iftjc2f605kz 44529 44528 2026-08-29T07:49:56Z Obutuson 910 /* Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ */ 44529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], ogbegbele meji lẹ mu rida kpo chi '''Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria''', abalẹ nugo ogbegbele kpaka mi ẹta (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate ma'nyu Colony eyi Lagos) nwọju ukpahi gwẹ eyi ku ma du ni ọla ma le. Progressive constitutions after [[World War II]] provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial-period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which [[Nigeria]] gained its independence.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] s12cmuae4p9qa5o0etvgvv0ig0hrxjv 44530 44529 2026-08-29T07:58:04Z Obutuson 910 /* Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ */ 44530 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ẹla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], ogbegbele meji lẹ mu rida kpo chi '''Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria''', abalẹ nugo ogbegbele kpaka mi ẹta (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate ma'nyu Colony eyi Lagos) nwọju ukpahi gwẹ eyi ku ma du ni ọla ma le. Ọda eyi ale gbọgba anubi [[World War II|ogwu Ile II]] ma chi ọda lẹ dufu to ki di uña nwa amonẹ wewe ku ma neke dufu koji kpai gọmẹti eyi uja'ibe nwu am'ibo ojanẹ Nigerian. Adiko ki ami ẹnẹfu ni ukpáhíu oji Nigeria che gbanẹ gbo kwi ọdọ 1900 wa ti 1960, anubi lẹ taki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. After initially adopting an [[indirect rule]] approach, in 1906 the British merged the small [[Lagos Colony]] and the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] into a new [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]], and in 1914 that was combined with the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in [[London]] and in [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] tu02r81nqm3nvxjs8jhdeb4tf4nk56c 44531 44530 2026-08-29T08:05:56Z Obutuson 910 /* Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ */ 44531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], ogbegbele meji lẹ mu rida kpo chi '''Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria''', abalẹ nugo ogbegbele kpaka mi ẹta (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate ma'nyu Colony eyi Lagos) nwọju ukpahi gwẹ eyi ku ma du ni ọla ma le. Ọda eyi ale gbọgba anubi [[World War II|ogwu Ile II]] ma chi ọda lẹ dufu to ki di uña nwa amonẹ wewe ku ma neke dufu koji kpai gọmẹti eyi uja'ibe nwu am'ibo ojanẹ Nigerian. Adiko ki ami ẹnẹfu ni ukpáhíu oji Nigeria che gbanẹ gbo kwi ọdọ 1900 wa ti 1960, anubi lẹ taki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. Anubi ki ma chi [[indirect rule|ku ma chi agboji li ọka]] chanẹ ejeodudu, efu ọdọ 1906 ami British mi ọkẹkẹ [[Lagos Colony]] kpai [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] du dama tefu [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] titọ, ma'nyu efu ọdọ 1914 ma mi elẹ du dama kpai [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] todu ku ma chanẹ Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> uña agboji ma'nyu ami choja eni amonẹ le ogbegbele ọmọ chanẹ ababa lefu ọwọ white Britons, dama yi [[London]] ma'nyu efu [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a [[Money | money economy]]—specifically the British [[pound sterling]]—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] m928dhfdkynhmynd7efmwj3itdbqya0 44532 44531 2026-08-29T08:13:02Z Obutuson 910 /* Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ */ 44532 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], ogbegbele meji lẹ mu rida kpo chi '''Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria''', abalẹ nugo ogbegbele kpaka mi ẹta (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate ma'nyu Colony eyi Lagos) nwọju ukpahi gwẹ eyi ku ma du ni ọla ma le. Ọda eyi ale gbọgba anubi [[World War II|ogwu Ile II]] ma chi ọda lẹ dufu to ki di uña nwa amonẹ wewe ku ma neke dufu koji kpai gọmẹti eyi uja'ibe nwu am'ibo ojanẹ Nigerian. Adiko ki ami ẹnẹfu ni ukpáhíu oji Nigeria che gbanẹ gbo kwi ọdọ 1900 wa ti 1960, anubi lẹ taki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. Anubi ki ma chi [[indirect rule|ku ma chi agboji li ọka]] chanẹ ejeodudu, efu ọdọ 1906 ami British mi ọkẹkẹ [[Lagos Colony]] kpai [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] du dama tefu [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] titọ, ma'nyu efu ọdọ 1914 ma mi elẹ du dama kpai [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] todu ku ma chanẹ Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> uña agboji ma'nyu ami choja eni amonẹ le ogbegbele ọmọ chanẹ ababa lefu ọwọ white Britons, dama yi [[London]] ma'nyu efu [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Wa li ọla eyi ẹgba ukpahiu ami choja lẹ, am'ibo British mi ọda ọna kùma nyì aja le du wa todu ku ma neke ni ile kwi ojanẹ Africa. Ugbo ki chi ogbo gaga efu uche ma lẹ chi ọna kuma chi [[Money | Ọkọ]] le —lefu ọkọ ma ku ma dọ ki British [[pound sterling]]—ku ma neke tene lefu taxation, ku ma ra nwi ami cooperative , ku ma gba lefu odu chi uta'eji onẹ.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in [[Nigeria]] to the present day.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] hbe4jagtf5w7qkxnzm3bivtdry36ig7 44533 44532 2026-08-29T08:17:04Z Obutuson 910 /* Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ */ 44533 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], ogbegbele meji lẹ mu rida kpo chi '''Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria''', abalẹ nugo ogbegbele kpaka mi ẹta (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate ma'nyu Colony eyi Lagos) nwọju ukpahi gwẹ eyi ku ma du ni ọla ma le. Ọda eyi ale gbọgba anubi [[World War II|ogwu Ile II]] ma chi ọda lẹ dufu to ki di uña nwa amonẹ wewe ku ma neke dufu koji kpai gọmẹti eyi uja'ibe nwu am'ibo ojanẹ Nigerian. Adiko ki ami ẹnẹfu ni ukpáhíu oji Nigeria che gbanẹ gbo kwi ọdọ 1900 wa ti 1960, anubi lẹ taki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. Anubi ki ma chi [[indirect rule|ku ma chi agboji li ọka]] chanẹ ejeodudu, efu ọdọ 1906 ami British mi ọkẹkẹ [[Lagos Colony]] kpai [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] du dama tefu [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] titọ, ma'nyu efu ọdọ 1914 ma mi elẹ du dama kpai [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] todu ku ma chanẹ Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> uña agboji ma'nyu ami choja eni amonẹ le ogbegbele ọmọ chanẹ ababa lefu ọwọ white Britons, dama yi [[London]] ma'nyu efu [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Wa li ọla eyi ẹgba ukpahiu ami choja lẹ, am'ibo British mi ọda ọna kùma nyì aja le du wa todu ku ma neke ni ile kwi ojanẹ Africa. Ugbo ki chi ogbo gaga efu uche ma lẹ chi ọna kuma chi [[Money | Ọkọ]] le —lefu ọkọ ma ku ma dọ ki British [[pound sterling]]—ku ma neke tene lefu taxation, ku ma ra nwi ami cooperative , ku ma gba lefu odu chi uta'eji onẹ.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> Adu ami ichi kpai Ukẹdọno ojoji ojoji wa dama ki mu di ojanẹ ka che wa di ẹdọ ekwa wa nyọnyọ yi efu [[Nigeria]] ẹnwu lẹ la dẹwa gbo w'eñini.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == In the 1700s, the [[British Empire]] and other European powers had settlements and forts in [[West Africa]] but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. [[Adam Smith]] wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the [[Americas]], thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the [[East Indies]], they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the [[United States|America]]." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> In 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === The principal commodities of legitimate trade were [[palm oil]] and [[Palm kernel oil|palm kernels]], which were used in Europe to make [[soap]] and as [[Lubricant|lubricants]] for machinery before [[Petroleum product|petroleum products]] were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] q4uvhyfsk4isrnxcg0nrwbecem12ly8 44534 44533 2026-08-29T08:37:21Z Obutuson 910 /* Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che */ 44534 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], ogbegbele meji lẹ mu rida kpo chi '''Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria''', abalẹ nugo ogbegbele kpaka mi ẹta (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate ma'nyu Colony eyi Lagos) nwọju ukpahi gwẹ eyi ku ma du ni ọla ma le. Ọda eyi ale gbọgba anubi [[World War II|ogwu Ile II]] ma chi ọda lẹ dufu to ki di uña nwa amonẹ wewe ku ma neke dufu koji kpai gọmẹti eyi uja'ibe nwu am'ibo ojanẹ Nigerian. Adiko ki ami ẹnẹfu ni ukpáhíu oji Nigeria che gbanẹ gbo kwi ọdọ 1900 wa ti 1960, anubi lẹ taki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. Anubi ki ma chi [[indirect rule|ku ma chi agboji li ọka]] chanẹ ejeodudu, efu ọdọ 1906 ami British mi ọkẹkẹ [[Lagos Colony]] kpai [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] du dama tefu [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] titọ, ma'nyu efu ọdọ 1914 ma mi elẹ du dama kpai [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] todu ku ma chanẹ Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> uña agboji ma'nyu ami choja eni amonẹ le ogbegbele ọmọ chanẹ ababa lefu ọwọ white Britons, dama yi [[London]] ma'nyu efu [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Wa li ọla eyi ẹgba ukpahiu ami choja lẹ, am'ibo British mi ọda ọna kùma nyì aja le du wa todu ku ma neke ni ile kwi ojanẹ Africa. Ugbo ki chi ogbo gaga efu uche ma lẹ chi ọna kuma chi [[Money | Ọkọ]] le —lefu ọkọ ma ku ma dọ ki British [[pound sterling]]—ku ma neke tene lefu taxation, ku ma ra nwi ami cooperative , ku ma gba lefu odu chi uta'eji onẹ.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> Adu ami ichi kpai Ukẹdọno ojoji ojoji wa dama ki mu di ojanẹ ka che wa di ẹdọ ekwa wa nyọnyọ yi efu [[Nigeria]] ẹnwu lẹ la dẹwa gbo w'eñini.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == Efu adiko 1700s, am'ibo [[British Empire]] ma'nyu am'ibo ẹnẹfu ku ma kwi ojanẹ ọdọda kíbo wa dodo yi [[West Africa]] ama ma gboji chanẹ egbẹ janẹ ọna ku ma du gbi ukpahi nyọwọ chakadu ta'n. [[Adam Smith]] ki ọtakìda efu ọdọ 1776 kakini ami ojanẹ Africa "nyọ tule ma'nyu ma nwọ ni uwewe ti [[Americas]] le,todu lẹ ma jẹ ki ọgba eyi ami European agba nyọ gba'n. Ama am'ibo Europeans che gbẹgujẹ aluka anẹ eyi ki b'ejujọ dama oji coast eyi Africa ma'nyu efu [[East Indies]], ma la chanẹ e gbi ogbegbele lẹ nyọwọ wewe dabi ọna ku ma na gbada yi amì ojanẹ eyi [[United States|America]] tano." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] in 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> Efu ọdọ 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === Uchanẹ ẹnwu ku ma gboji ta ẹgba lẹ chi [[palm oil|ekpo ẹkpẹ]] ma'nyu [[Palm kernel oil|Unọ ẹkpẹ]], ku ma du chi [[soap|Ọchẹ]] ma'nyu [[Lubricant|ekpo ulọla]] nwi ami ẹnwu ebije ojanẹ Europe taki uchanẹ anẹñwù ki ya di [[Petroleum product|petroleum]] chukọlọ chanẹ edufu. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] 0p7k49bfjl35t2vfgfhzs8nmbi59jtc 44535 44534 2026-08-29T08:39:45Z Obutuson 910 /* Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che */ 44535 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], ogbegbele meji lẹ mu rida kpo chi '''Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria''', abalẹ nugo ogbegbele kpaka mi ẹta (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate ma'nyu Colony eyi Lagos) nwọju ukpahi gwẹ eyi ku ma du ni ọla ma le. Ọda eyi ale gbọgba anubi [[World War II|ogwu Ile II]] ma chi ọda lẹ dufu to ki di uña nwa amonẹ wewe ku ma neke dufu koji kpai gọmẹti eyi uja'ibe nwu am'ibo ojanẹ Nigerian. Adiko ki ami ẹnẹfu ni ukpáhíu oji Nigeria che gbanẹ gbo kwi ọdọ 1900 wa ti 1960, anubi lẹ taki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. Anubi ki ma chi [[indirect rule|ku ma chi agboji li ọka]] chanẹ ejeodudu, efu ọdọ 1906 ami British mi ọkẹkẹ [[Lagos Colony]] kpai [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] du dama tefu [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] titọ, ma'nyu efu ọdọ 1914 ma mi elẹ du dama kpai [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] todu ku ma chanẹ Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> uña agboji ma'nyu ami choja eni amonẹ le ogbegbele ọmọ chanẹ ababa lefu ọwọ white Britons, dama yi [[London]] ma'nyu efu [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Wa li ọla eyi ẹgba ukpahiu ami choja lẹ, am'ibo British mi ọda ọna kùma nyì aja le du wa todu ku ma neke ni ile kwi ojanẹ Africa. Ugbo ki chi ogbo gaga efu uche ma lẹ chi ọna kuma chi [[Money | Ọkọ]] le —lefu ọkọ ma ku ma dọ ki British [[pound sterling]]—ku ma neke tene lefu taxation, ku ma ra nwi ami cooperative , ku ma gba lefu odu chi uta'eji onẹ.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> Adu ami ichi kpai Ukẹdọno ojoji ojoji wa dama ki mu di ojanẹ ka che wa di ẹdọ ekwa wa nyọnyọ yi efu [[Nigeria]] ẹnwu lẹ la dẹwa gbo w'eñini.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == Efu adiko 1700s, am'ibo [[British Empire]] ma'nyu am'ibo ẹnẹfu ku ma kwi ojanẹ ọdọda kíbo wa dodo yi [[West Africa]] ama ma gboji chanẹ egbẹ janẹ ọna ku ma du gbi ukpahi nyọwọ chakadu ta'n. [[Adam Smith]] ki ọtakìda efu ọdọ 1776 kakini ami ojanẹ Africa "nyọ tule ma'nyu ma nwọ ni uwewe ti [[Americas]] le,todu lẹ ma jẹ ki ọgba eyi ami European agba nyọ gba'n. Ama am'ibo Europeans che gbẹgujẹ aluka anẹ eyi ki b'ejujọ dama oji coast eyi Africa ma'nyu efu [[East Indies]], ma la chanẹ e gbi ogbegbele lẹ nyọwọ wewe dabi ọna ku ma na gbada yi amì ojanẹ eyi [[United States|America]] tano." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Ẹnwu abakwanẹ ki dabọ ọla lẹ chi uchanẹ eyi [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] efu ọdọ 1787 as a refuge for [[Freedman|freed slaves]], the independent [[missionary]] movement intended to bring [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> Efu ọdọ 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === Uchanẹ ẹnwu ku ma gboji ta ẹgba lẹ chi [[palm oil|ekpo ẹkpẹ]] ma'nyu [[Palm kernel oil|Unọ ẹkpẹ]], ku ma du chi [[soap|Ọchẹ]] ma'nyu [[Lubricant|ekpo ulọla]] nwi ami ẹnwu ebije ojanẹ Europe taki uchanẹ anẹñwù ki ya di [[Petroleum product|petroleum]] chukọlọ chanẹ edufu. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] saxjtx4s4tnjb2flv3rqsjh9vr42uti 44536 44535 2026-08-29T08:42:32Z Obutuson 910 /* Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che */ 44536 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|British colony and protectorate (1914–1960)}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=August 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox country | native_name = | conventional_long_name = Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1914–1954)}}}}<hr/>Federation of Nigeria<ref name="constitution1954">{{cite web |title=The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954 |url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf |page=16 |access-date=24 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>{{small|{{nobold|(1954–1960)}}}} | common_name = Nigeria (1914–1960) | era = [[World War I]]{{*}}[[Interwar period]]{{*}}[[World War II]]{{*}}[[Cold War]] | status = Colony | status_text = | empire = British Empire | government_type = [[Colony]] and [[protectorate]]<ref name="Britannica">{{cite book |last=Armitage|first=John|title=Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951 |year=1952 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. |location=London |page=456 |url=https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up}}</ref><br/>(1914–1954)<hr/>[[Federation]]<ref name="constitution1954" /><br/>(1954–1960) | event_start = | date_start = 1 January | year_start = 1914 | event_end = Independence | date_end = 1 October | year_end = 1960 | event1 = Autonomous federation | date_event1 = 1 October 1954 | event2 = | date_event2 = | event3 = | date_event3 = | event4 = | date_event4 = | event_pre = | date_pre = | event_post = | date_post = | p1 = Northern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p1 = Flag of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | p2 = Southern Nigeria Protectorate | flag_p2 = Flag of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914).svg | s1 = Federation of Nigeria | flag_s1 = Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | flag = Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960) | flag_type = Flag<br>(1952–1960) | image_coat = Badge of Nigeria (1952–1960).svg | symbol_type_article = Coat of arms of Nigeria | symbol_type = Badge<br>(1952–1960) | image_map = Colonial Africa Nigeria 1913 map.svg | image_map_caption = Nigeria (red)<br>[[British possessions]] in Africa (pink)<br> as of 1914 | capital = [[Lagos]] | national_motto = | national_anthem = [[God Save the King|God Save the King/Queen]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugorji|first1=Basil|title=From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Outskirts Press |isbn=9781432788353 |page=183}}</ref>{{center|[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga]]}} | common_languages = [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]{{·}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]]{{·}}[[Ibo language|Igbo]]{{·}}[[English language|English]] and other [[Languages of Nigeria|regional languages]] | religion = [[Christianity]]{{·}}[[Islam]]{{·}}[[Religion in Nigeria|Traditional beliefs]] | currency = [[British West African pound]]<br/>(1914–1958)<hr/>[[Nigerian pound]]<br/>(1958–1960) | leader1 = [[George V]] | year_leader1 = 1914–1936 | leader2 = [[Edward VIII]] | year_leader2 = 1936 | leader3 = [[George VI]] | year_leader3 = 1936–1952 | leader4 = [[Elizabeth II]] | year_leader4 = 1952–1960 | title_leader = [[List of British monarchs|British monarch]] | representative1 = [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] | year_representative1 = 1914–1919 | representative2 = [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]] | year_representative2 = 1919–1925 | representative3 = [[John Stuart Macpherson|Sir John Stuart Macpherson]] | year_representative3 = 1948–1954 | representative4 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | year_representative4 = 1954–1960 | title_representative = [[List of Governors-General of Nigeria|Governor]] | deputy1 = [[James Wilson Robertson|Sir James Wilson Robertson]] | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = | year_deputy2 = | title_deputy = | legislature = Legislative Council<ref>{{cite book|last=Awa|first=Eme O. |title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21 21]|author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1946–1951)<hr/>House of Representatives<ref>{{cite book |last=Awa| first=Eme O.|title=Federal Government in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |page=[https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130 130] |author-link=Eme Awa}}</ref><br/>(1951–1960) | stat_year1 = 1924 | stat_area1 = 872050 | ref_area1 = <ref name=TheEmpirein1924>{{cite web|title=The British Empire in 1924 |url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm |website=The British Empire|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> | stat_pop1 = 18,500,000 | ref_pop1 = <ref name="TheEmpirein1924" /> | stat_year2 = 1952 | stat_area2 = 876953 | ref_area2 = <ref name="Britannica" /> | stat_pop2 = 31,156,027 | ref_pop2 = <ref>{{cite book |last=Darlington |first=Mgbeke |title=Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector |year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781449024550|page=29}}</ref> | today = [[Nigeria]]<br/>[[Cameroon]]{{ref|a|a}} | drives_on = left | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | footnotes = {{unbulleted list |{{longitem |{{note|a|a}} [[Bakassi peninsula]]; governed by Nigeria until 2008}} }} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | iso3166code = omit }} {{History of Nigeria}} {{History of Cameroon}} '''Egbi Nigeria nyọwọ''' onwu chi uchanẹ ọwọ [[British Empire]] akwi iko eyi alimeji-ẹgwẹla gbo ati ọjọ ki ochu ẹgwa nolu ejeodudu efu ọdọ 1960, ẹgba ki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria |title=Nigeria - Independent Nigeria |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> Britain [[Lagos Treaty of Cession|annexed]] [[Lagos Colony|Lagos]] efu ọdọ 1861 kpai uchanẹ [[Oil River Protectorate]] efu ọdọ 1884. Ujuwe British na nagbada yi efu ugbo Niger adiko 19th century, ama am'ibo Britain ma gboji gbọmọ nyọwọ chaka duno gbo ati ọdọ 1885. Ami ukpahi European ki bọ che numa ukpahi e gbẹgujẹ ami Britain oji ọwọ ọmọ yi 1885 [[Berlin Conference|Ujeju udama Berlin]]. Akwi ọdọ 1886 wa ti ọdọ1899, ogbegbele we we eju ọmọ lẹ chẹ dọwọ [[Royal Niger Company]], ẹnẹ ki chi agboji chi [[George Taubman Goldie]]. Edu ọdọ 1900, am'ibo [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] ma'nyu [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] kwefu ọwọ ami company. Adiko gọbina [[Frederick John Dealtry Lugard|Frederick Lugard]], ogbegbele meji lẹ mu rida kpo chi '''Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria''', abalẹ nugo ogbegbele kpaka mi ẹta (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate ma'nyu Colony eyi Lagos) nwọju ukpahi gwẹ eyi ku ma du ni ọla ma le. Ọda eyi ale gbọgba anubi [[World War II|ogwu Ile II]] ma chi ọda lẹ dufu to ki di uña nwa amonẹ wewe ku ma neke dufu koji kpai gọmẹti eyi uja'ibe nwu am'ibo ojanẹ Nigerian. Adiko ki ami ẹnẹfu ni ukpáhíu oji Nigeria che gbanẹ gbo kwi ọdọ 1900 wa ti 1960, anubi lẹ taki [[Nigeria]] wa ni ọla nwu.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> == Ego ojí nwu fẹlẹ == Lefu ẹgba ki iko ami agboji ojoji na lale , am'ibo British mi [[Crown Colony]] ma'nyu gọmẹti [[British protectorate|protectorate]] du chi ọchuchu noji uchẹ ugbo kíbo yi [[West Africa]] ku ma wa dọki Nigeria, ọna ki ọda chi [[autocratic]] ma'nyu [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]]. Anubi ki ma chi [[indirect rule|ku ma chi agboji li ọka]] chanẹ ejeodudu, efu ọdọ 1906 ami British mi ọkẹkẹ [[Lagos Colony]] kpai [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] du dama tefu [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] titọ, ma'nyu efu ọdọ 1914 ma mi elẹ du dama kpai [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] todu ku ma chanẹ Colony ma'nyu Protectorate eyi Nigeria.<ref>John M. Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</ref> uña agboji ma'nyu ami choja eni amonẹ le ogbegbele ọmọ chanẹ ababa lefu ọwọ white Britons, dama yi [[London]] ma'nyu efu [[Nigeria]].<ref>Carland (1985), ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'', p. 48.</ref> Wa li ọla eyi ẹgba ukpahiu ami choja lẹ, am'ibo British mi ọda ọna kùma nyì aja le du wa todu ku ma neke ni ile kwi ojanẹ Africa. Ugbo ki chi ogbo gaga efu uche ma lẹ chi ọna kuma chi [[Money | Ọkọ]] le —lefu ọkọ ma ku ma dọ ki British [[pound sterling]]—ku ma neke tene lefu taxation, ku ma ra nwi ami cooperative , ku ma gba lefu odu chi uta'eji onẹ.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994 /> Adu ami ichi kpai Ukẹdọno ojoji ojoji wa dama ki mu di ojanẹ ka che wa di ẹdọ ekwa wa nyọnyọ yi efu [[Nigeria]] ẹnwu lẹ la dẹwa gbo w'eñini.<ref name=Carland1985page90 /> == Uchanẹ amẹnwu ki am'ibo British che == Efu adiko 1700s, am'ibo [[British Empire]] ma'nyu am'ibo ẹnẹfu ku ma kwi ojanẹ ọdọda kíbo wa dodo yi [[West Africa]] ama ma gboji chanẹ egbẹ janẹ ọna ku ma du gbi ukpahi nyọwọ chakadu ta'n. [[Adam Smith]] ki ọtakìda efu ọdọ 1776 kakini ami ojanẹ Africa "nyọ tule ma'nyu ma nwọ ni uwewe ti [[Americas]] le,todu lẹ ma jẹ ki ọgba eyi ami European agba nyọ gba'n. Ama am'ibo Europeans che gbẹgujẹ aluka anẹ eyi ki b'ejujọ dama oji coast eyi Africa ma'nyu efu [[East Indies]], ma la chanẹ e gbi ogbegbele lẹ nyọwọ wewe dabi ọna ku ma na gbada yi amì ojanẹ eyi [[United States|America]] tano." {{source?|date=June 2024}} Ẹnwu abakwanẹ ki dabọ ọla lẹ chi uchanẹ eyi [[Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate|Sierra Leone Colony]] efu ọdọ 1787 ma mi ọmọ du chi ugbo ku ma di [[Freedman|Adu ku ma tọnọ]] wa daru, uchanẹ ulẹ eyi [[missionary|ukọchẹ]] omi ni ola mi chanẹ todu ki du [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo State|Edo Kingdom]], and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based [[African Association]]. Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the [[British West Indies|West Indies]], [[Company rule in India|India]], and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<ref name=IsicheiPage362>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 362.</ref> The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was [[Gombe Abba|Gombe-Abba]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yaya |first=Haruna Gimba |date=2021-06-12 |title=Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British |url=https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/ |access-date=2022-12-24 |newspaper=[[Daily Trust]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> until when the then Emir of Gombe, [[Umaru Kwairanga]] (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of [[Gombe Emirate]], Modibbo Bubayero, to [[Nafada]] town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. === Aja ami adu kpai ọwọ edu no=== {{Main|Slavery in Nigeria}} [[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Negroland and Guinea including the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]], 1736, by London cartographer [[Hermann Moll]]]] European [[slave trading]] from [[West Africa]] began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the [[Bight of Benin]] (also known as the [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]) became the next most important hub. [[Ouidah]] (now part of [[Benin]]) and [[Lagos]] were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the [[Portuguese Empire]]. In the [[Bight of Biafra]], the major ports were [[Calabar|Old Calabar]] ([[Akwa Akpa]]), [[Kingdom of Bonny|Bonny]] and [[Kalabari Kingdom|New Calabar]].<ref>David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 21–46.</ref> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<ref name=Richardson2004>David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 47–68.</ref> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<ref>Randy J. Sparks, ''The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey''; Harvard University Press, 2004; {{ISBN|0-674-01312-3}}; Chapter 1: "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10 A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767]".</ref> Efu ọdọ 1807, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] enacted the [[Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act]], prohibiting [[British subject|British subjects]] from participating in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the [[blockade of Africa]]. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<ref name=InyangBassey2014>Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", ''Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences'' 5.20, September 2014.</ref> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed [[Freetown]] in [[Sierra Leone]], declaring it a [[Crown Colony]] in 1808.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</ref> The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the [[Edo Empire]]. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had [[End of slavery in France|abolished slavery]] following the [[French Revolution]], although it briefly re-established it in its [[French West Indies|Caribbean colonies]] especially [[Martinique]] under [[Napoleon]]. [[Louisiana Purchase|France sold Louisiana to the United States]] in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain [[Saint-Domingue]] ([[Duvalier dynasty|Haiti]]) from the [[Haitian Revolution]]. By the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. Lagos became a major [[Slave fort|slave port]] in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the [[human trafficking]] which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British [[Royal Navy]] was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<ref name=Ojo2008>Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</ref> Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</ref> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</ref> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<ref name=Ojo2008 /><ref>Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies]", ''World Economic History Congress'', Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</ref> === Ami akonẹ ẹnwu === [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Portuguese Roman Catholic]] priests who accompanied traders and officials to the [[West Africa|West African]] coast introduced [[Christianity]] to the [[Edo Empire]] in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the [[Church of England]]'s [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS). Other [[Protestant denominations]] from [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] also opened missions and, in the 1860s, [[Religious order (Catholic)|Roman Catholic religious orders]] established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the [[Igbo people|Igbo]]; the CMS worked among the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] as the first [[Anglican Diocese on the Niger|Anglican Bishop of the Niger]]. Crowther, a liberated [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some [[Christianity in Africa|African Christian]] communities formed their own independent churches.<ref name="Nigeria">[http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/ Influence of Christian Missions"], in [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''Nigeria: A Country Study'', Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</ref><ref group="n">All of this section to this point is from ''Nigeria: A Country Study'' (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</ref> The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 11–12.</ref> === Aja eta ma'nyu ela === Uchanẹ ẹnwu ku ma gboji ta ẹgba lẹ chi [[palm oil|ekpo ẹkpẹ]] ma'nyu [[Palm kernel oil|Unọ ẹkpẹ]], ku ma du chi [[soap|Ọchẹ]] ma'nyu [[Lubricant|ekpo ulọla]] nwi ami ẹnwu ebije ojanẹ Europe taki uchanẹ anẹñwù ki ya di [[Petroleum product|petroleum]] chukọlọ chanẹ edufu. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 million a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined [[Slavery in Nigeria|slavery]] and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Initially, most [[palm oil]] (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the [[Ngwa]], [[Nri Kingdom]], [[Awka]] and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the [[Niger Delta]] for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the [[Economy of Nigeria|domestic economy]], especially to grow the staple food crop, [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]s and kola nuts, in northern [[Igboland]] for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<ref name=Richardson2004 /> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<ref name=Etemad /> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] to the production of palm oil as a [[cash crop]].<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</ref> The Niger Delta and [[Calabar]], which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Because of the hazards of [[Climate of Africa|climate]] and [[Tropical disease|tropical diseases]] for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at [[Onitsha]], where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, [[John Beecroft]] was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from [[Dahomey]] to [[Cameroon]]. Beecroft was the British representative to [[Bioko|Fernando Po]], where the [[African Slave Trade Patrol]] of the [[Royal Navy]] was stationed. In 1850, the British created a "[[Court of equity|Court of Equity]]" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local [[Efik people|Efik]] traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the [[Bight of Biafra]].<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the [[Industrial Revolution]] of 1750–1790.<ref name=Etemad>Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa ''c''. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, ''From Slave Trade to Empire'' (2004), pp. 69–81.</ref> === Benin Expedition === The Benin Expedition of 1897 was a punitive military campaign carried out by the British Empire against the Kingdom of Benin (in present-day Nigeria). After a British delegation was killed near Benin City, Britain launched a large-scale assault, capturing and burning the capital, exiling Oba Ovonramwen, and effectively ending the kingdom’s sovereignty. Thousands of artworks—now known as the Benin Bronzes—were looted and dispersed to museums and private collections across Europe and North America. The expedition became a defining episode of colonial violence and remains central to ongoing debates about restitution and the return of cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The British raid on Benin 1897 |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/discover-catalogue/the-british-raid-on-benin-1897 |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.nms.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pugh |first=Cresa |date=8 October 2025 |title=Echoes of History: Legacies of the Benin Bronzes and Restitution Within the Black Atlantic |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/echoes-of-history-legacies-of-the-benin-bronzes-and-restitution-within-the-black-atlantic/05BD13761BCD2FB3FB14A701241D3A36 |journal=The Journal of African History |language=en |volume=66 |pages=e17 |doi=10.1017/S0021853725100637 |issn=0021-8537|doi-access=free }}</ref> === Ulẹ etene ẹnwu titọ === {{Further|European exploration of Africa}} At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arab]] [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|slave traders]]. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than {{convert|1500|km}}, passing through the western portions of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near [[Bussa, Nigeria|Bussa]]. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer [[Hugh Clapperton]] learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<ref name=Kryza>Kryza, F. T. (2007). ''The Race for Timbuktu''. Harper Collins, New York. {{ISBN|978-0-06-056064-5}}.</ref> His servant, [[Richard Lander]], and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, [[quinine]] had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a [[Liverpool]] merchant, [[Macgregor Laird]], opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, [[Heinrich Barth]], who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. == Ẹnwu ejeodudu ki am'ibo colonial che == === E gbi Lagos nyọwọ === {{Main|Lagos Colony}} [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)]] British Prime Minister [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul [[John Beecroft]] to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king [[Akitoye|Akitoye of Lagos]] sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy [[Reduction of Lagos|bombarded Lagos]] in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|treaty]] with the newly installed Oba [[Akitoye]], who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a [[Crown Colony]] in 1861 via the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]].<ref>Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" ''ANU Historical Journal'' (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. {{ISSN|0001-2068}}</ref> British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of [[Lagos Colony]] was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from [[Dahomey]] and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the [[Ilorin Emirate|emirate of Ilorin]], the British Governor—assisted by the [[Church Missionary Society|CMS]]—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. [[Lagos Colony|Colonial Lagos]] was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the [[Empire of Brazil]] and [[Spanish Cuba]]. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British [[Colonial Office]] in London.<ref name=Carland1985Page2>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 2.</ref> Captain [[John Hawley Glover|John Glover]], the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the [[Nigerian Police Force]].<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</ref> In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa dollar]], to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the [[pound sterling]].<ref name=Hermann2011 /> In 1891, the [[African Banking Corporation]] founded the [[Bank of British West Africa]] in Lagos.<ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), pp. 15.</ref> === Ami uña ugbo ku ma gba ekpo nyọwọ === {{Main|Niger Coast Protectorate}} [[File:Niger Coast Scott 44.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria]] on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894]] After the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the [[Oil Rivers Protectorate]], which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the [[Court of equity|equity courts]] established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as [[Lokoja]], the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<ref name=Carland1985Page2 /> In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<ref name=AsiegbuPageXxv /> == Ugbo kuma di Ami Choja gbẹnwu nyọwọ == The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics, and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 372–373.</ref><ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</ref> In 1892, the [[British Armed Forces]] set out to fight the [[Ijebu Kingdom]], which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British [[Maxim gun|Maxim]]s, the earliest [[machine gun]]. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of [[Yorubaland]], which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 365–366.</ref> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<ref name=InyangBassey2014 /><ref>Tamuno, ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State'' (1972), p. xiv.</ref> [[File:King Koko in His War Canoe.png|upright=1.25|thumb|''King Koko in His War Canoe'', London ''Daily Graphic'', 30 March 1895; depicting [[Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe|King Frederick William Koko]]—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company]] In 1896–1897, the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a [[Benin Expedition of 1897|larger retaliatory force]] captured [[Benin City]] and drove [[Ovonramwen]], the Oba of Benin, into exile.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 367.</ref> The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the [[Aro Confederacy]], the British launched the [[Anglo-Aro War]] of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</ref><ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</ref> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</ref> A campaign against the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured [[Kano (city)|Kano]] in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 369–371.</ref> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 60–62.</ref> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 64.</ref> Lugard informed the leaders of conquered [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]]: <blockquote>The [[Fula people|Fulani]] in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 68.</ref></blockquote> == Adiko ki Uja'ibe gọmẹti defu ọwọ Ọfẹ Onu == {{further|Northern Nigeria Protectorate|Southern Nigeria Protectorate|Provinces of Nigeria}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = The new Home and Colonial Offices, Westminster, 1875. Wellcome L0004550.jpg | width1 = 198 | alt1 = 1875 illustration of British Colonial Office | caption1 = The British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Westminster]], created in the 1860s by architect [[George Gilbert Scott]]; illustrated in 1875 | image2 = Foreign & Commonwealth Office main building.jpg | width2 = 192 | alt2 = Same building today | caption2 = Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Office]] | footer = }} === Ale tefu gọmẹti ọfẹ eje === Concrete plans for transition to [[Crown colony|Crown rule]]—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a ''Memorandum on [[British possessions]] in West Africa'', which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between [[Lagos Colony]], the [[Niger Coast Protectorate]] and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 50.</ref> In the same year, the British created the [[Royal West African Frontier Force]] (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel [[Frederick Lugard]]. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</ref> Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|Earl of Selborne]], in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the [[Anglo-French Convention of 1898]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</ref> The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]], and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<ref name=Hermann2011 /><ref name=Swindell1994>Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", ''Paideuma'' 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</ref> === Adiko ami agboji Colonial === In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at [[Whitehall]]. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</ref> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, [[William A. Baillie-Hamilton|William Baillie Hamilton]], [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], and Charles Strachey.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 31.</ref> Olivier was a member of the [[Fabian Society]] and a friend of [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 32–33.</ref> [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-71-65.jpg|thumb|Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria]] Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were [[Henry McCallum]], [[William MacGregor]], [[Walter Egerton]], [[Ralph Moor]], [[Percy Girouard]], [[Henry Hesketh Bell|Hesketh Bell]] and [[Frederick Lugard]]. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 35–37.</ref> Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 104–109.</ref> <blockquote> # To pacify the country; # To establish settled government in the newly won districts; # To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; # To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; # To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and # To extend the railways.</blockquote> Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<ref name=Carland1985Egerton /> From 1895 to 1900, a [[Rail transport in Nigeria|railway]] was constructed running from Lagos to [[Ibadan]]; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to [[Osogbo|Oshogbo]], {{convert|100|km}} away, in 1905–1907, and to [[Zungeru]] and [[Minna]] in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 135–153.</ref> Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<ref name=Swindell1994 /> === Frederick Lugard === [[Frederick Lugard]], who was appointed as High Commissioner of the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from [[Nyasaland]] and established [[Uganda Protectorate|British presence in Uganda]]. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Sir Frederick Lugard]] (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the [[Fulani]] emirs of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. Lugard's success in [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate|northern Nigeria]] has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. === Adiko afa'dama === [[File:Southern and Northern Nigeria c. 1914.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914]] Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction). Antrobus, Fiddes, and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 79–84.</ref> Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<ref name=Carland1985amalgamation /> Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</ref> In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as [[Governor of Hong Kong]] to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May, 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<ref name=Carland1985Page89>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 88–89.</ref> [[John Anderson (colonial administrator)|John Anderson]] diplomatically suggested: <blockquote>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<ref name=Carland1985Page89 /></blockquote> The task of unification was achieved on the eve of [[World War I]]. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and [[protectorate]] was presided over by a [[proconsul]], who was entitled the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General of Nigeria]]. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF [[Nigeria Regiment]].<ref>Asiegbu, ''Nigeria and its British Invaders'' (1984), p. xxxi.</ref> Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: <blockquote>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the [[British Windward Islands|Windwards]], it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<ref name=Carland1985page90>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 90.</ref></blockquote> The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 92–100.</ref> === Edu onẹ gbeju chi agboji lọka === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houten roeiboot onderdeel van de miniatuurvoorstelling van een roeiboot met een Europeaan en vier roeiers. TMnr 3441-7a.jpg|thumb|Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer]] [[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911]] The Protectorate was centrally administered by the [[Colonial Service|Colonial Civil Service]], staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were [[Resident minister|Residents]] and [[District officer|District Officers]], responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</ref> Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the [[Nigerian traditional rulers|traditional rulers]]—mostly [[emir]]s in the north and often [[Oba (ruler)|oba]]s in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<ref>Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</ref> Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer]] developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Commissioner of Native Revenue in Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 70–71.</ref> In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the [[Sultan of Sokoto]], the [[Emir of Kano]] and the [[Oba of Benin]]—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—[[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northern]], [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western]] and [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|the colonial government]] took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<ref name="palmer">[[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]]</ref> This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<ref name="palmer"/> In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the [[Oba of Benin]], whose office was closely identified with [[Edo religion]], was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]], appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. {{Quote box|width=36%|In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators.|Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 67.</ref>}} In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. [[Hausa language|Hausa]] was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the [[Jos Plateau]]. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The [[Nigeria Regiment]] of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against [[Schutztruppe|German colonial forces]] in [[Cameroon]] and in [[German East Africa]]. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former [[German Cameroon]] were [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] to Britain by the [[League of Nations]] and were administered as part of Nigeria. The [[British entry into World War I]] saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the [[Central Powers]]. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]]'s [[Liberal government, 1905–1915|Liberal government]] and subsequent [[Asquith coalition ministry|war coalition]] favored allowing international [[free trade]]. In 1916, [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] led the majority of the [[Conservative and Unionist Party]] to vote against Party Leader [[Bonar Law]] on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] led by [[David Lloyd George]] featuring Conservatives and [[Coalition Liberal|Lloyd George's supporters]] in the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], while Asquith and the [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|remainder of the Liberals]] entered opposition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=166–167 |oclc=489636152}}</ref> Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to [[Kaduna (city)|Kaduna]] in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<ref name=Carland1985Page66>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</ref> ===Amẹnwu ku ma che adiko Clifford === <!--[[File:Flag of Nigeria (1914–1952).svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Flag of British Colonial Nigeria]]--> [[File:Africa Whitehall.jpg|thumb|Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by [[Henry Hugh Armstead]] ]] Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), [[Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)|Sir Hugh Clifford]], was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. This experiment in prohibition began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939.<ref>Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." ''International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 31.1 (1998): 23-51.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883 online]</ref> Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Further Development of Colonial Policy |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. [[Herbert Richmond Palmer|Sir Richmond Palmer]], acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<ref name=palmer/> The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<ref name="countrystudies.us"/> === Uchobi oga Influenza efu ọdọ 1918 === The [[Spanish flu|Influenza pandemic]] made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Oluwasegun|first=Jimoh Mufutau|date=2017-06-01|title=Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=412–424|doi=10.1177/0021909615587367|s2cid=146894627|issn=0021-9096|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-03-29|title=The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic|url=https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2021-05-20|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<ref name=":1" /> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<ref name=":0" /> Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1 influenza A]], the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagunwa|first=Omololu|date=2020-12-21|title=African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic|url=https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455|journal=Christian Journal for Global Health|volume=7|issue=5|pages=52–64|doi=10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455|s2cid=234371554|issn=2167-2415|doi-access=free}}</ref> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<ref name=":0" /> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<ref name=":0" /> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<ref name=":0" /> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ohadike|first=D. C.|date=July 1981|title=The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=379–391|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019587|pmid=11632223|s2cid=29770303|issn=0021-8537|url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Alu e nọkọ ma'nyu alu e chi ọkọ le == {{Main|Economy of Nigeria|Economy of the British Empire}} [[File:1910s loom Lagos Nigeria by H Hunting of Paterson Zochonis 4545440293 University of Toronto.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the [[PZ Cussons|Patterson Zuchonis]] trading company]] The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</ref> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), p. 119.</ref> After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to [[wage labour]]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), pp. 386–388.</ref><ref>Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; ''Economic Development and Cultural Change'' 13.4, July 1965.</ref> Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 127–128.</ref> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 380.</ref> Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|turned to Persia]] for oil.<ref>Carland, ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria'' (1985), pp. 184–198.</ref> European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the [[cowrie]], which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in [[Oloko]], a [[census]] related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the [[Women's War]]. ==Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism== {{more citations needed section |date=July 2019}}{{Main|Nigerian nationalism}} [[File:Administrative Map of Nigeria (1924).png|thumb|Map showing the regions and provinces of Nigeria in 1924]] British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the [[interwar period]] derived both from an older political particularism and broad [[pan-Africanism]], rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging [[Westernized|Westernised]] elite. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as [[Marcus Garvey]] and [[W.E.B. Du Bois]]. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the [[West African Students Union]], founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness, and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]]; the emergence of independent [[Christianity in Nigeria|Christian churches in Nigeria]] (as of [[Black church|black denominations in the United States]]) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. [[File:Colonial era Lagos.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Colonial Lagos circa 1910]] In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the [[Nigeria Union of Teachers|Nigerian Union of Teachers]]; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<ref>Isichei, ''A History of Nigeria'' (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</ref> A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was [[Herbert Macauley]], often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the ''[[Lagos Daily News]]''. He also led the [[Nigerian National Democratic Party]], which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including [[H.O. Davies]] and [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]]. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism (this was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time). Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of [[Harold Laski]] at the [[London School of Economics]], whose political orientation was considered left-wing. By 1938, the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]] so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later, internal divisions arose that were dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]]. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. === Ogwu ọgbọdu ilẹ eyi ẹgba ekeji === {{Main|Military history of Nigeria during World War II}} During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in the [[East African campaign (World War II)|Ethiopian campaign]]. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. The [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]] was largely the creation of Chief [[Obafemi Awolowo]], General Secretary of [[Egbe Omo Oduduwa]] and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the [[Western Region, Nigeria|Western Region]]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]]. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were [[Samuel Akintola]] of [[Ogbomoso]] and the [[Adesoji Aderemi|Oni of Ife]], the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba [[irredentism]] in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. The [[Northern People's Congress]] (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was [[Ahmadu Bello]], the [[Sardauna of Sokoto]]. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] and [[Aminu Kano]]—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the [[Middle Belt]] who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|separatist movements]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria – Emergence of Nigerian Nationalism |url=https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260209013416/https://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm |archive-date=2026-02-09 |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Country Studies |editor-last=Metz |editor-first=Helen Chapin |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1991 |language=en}}</ref> In 1950 [[Aminu Kano]], who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the [[Northern Elements Progressive Union]] (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] (NCNC). The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary system of government]], with regional assemblies and a federal [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]]. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the [[British Parliament]] at [[Westminster]] and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] and his appointed [[Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)|Executive Council]], the so-called [[Richards Constitution]] (after Governor-General [[Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton|Sir Arthur Richards]], who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the [[Richards Constitution]]. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called [[Macpherson Constitution]], after the incumbent Governor-General [[John Stuart Macpherson]], went into effect the following year. The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the [[Lyttleton Constitution]], enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. === Ami ugbo ku ma ni ọla ma le-(1957) === {{Main|Federation of Nigeria}} In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally [[Self-governing colony|self-governing]] under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the [[Federal government of Nigeria|Nigerian federal government]] at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. In the immediate [[Post-war|post-World War II period]], Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although [[per capita income]] in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the [[gross domestic product]] during the decade. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the [[Petroleum industry in Nigeria|discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits]]. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by [[Shell plc|Shell]] and [[BP|British Petroleum]]. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at [[Oloibiri Oilfield|Olobiri]] in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at [[Port Harcourt]]. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The [[1954 Nigerian general election|election of the House of Representatives]] after the adoption of the [[Constitution of Nigeria|1954 constitution]] gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian [[Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)|Federal Executive Council]]. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], was appointed [[Prime Minister of Nigeria]]. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. === Ujeju todu ọda yi ojanẹ UK (1957–58)=== {{Main|Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)}} ọla emu li ugbo ọda gọmẹti titọ nwi ojanẹ Nigeria ki n'ọla nwu titọ ma fu ujeju le che yi [[Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)|Unyi Lancaster]] efu [[London]] efu ọdọ 1957 ma'nyu ọdọ 1958, ẹnẹ ki la chi agboji efu ujeju lẹ chi [[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] [[Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton|Alan Lennox-Boyd]], [[Member of Parliament (UK)|M.P.]], the British [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in [[1959 Nigerian general election|December 1959]]; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with [[Dominion of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Sierra Leone]]. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. ==Omi ni ola mi eyi Nigeria (1960)== {{Main|First Nigerian Republic}} By a British [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<ref name="Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"/> Azikiwe was installed as [[List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria|Governor-General]] of the federation and [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|Balewa]] continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the [[British monarch]] as head of state and was appointed by [[the Crown]] on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. In February 1961, a [[1961 British Cameroons referendum|plebiscite]] was conducted to determine the disposition of the [[Southern Cameroons]] and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the [[Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959|Northern Cameroons]], however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. ==Go nugo== *[[British West Africa]] *[[Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo]] *[[Bandele Omoniyi]] ==Ekọ tanẹ== {{reflist|group=n}} ==Ugbo utene == ===Ekọ tanẹ=== {{reflist}} ===Ẹrẹ nwu=== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria] at the [[Library of Congress]] ==Egba t'ọgba== * Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996. * Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. ''Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History''. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. {{ISBN|0-88357-101-3}} *Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. ''The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis'' (London: Longmans, 1966). * Burns, Alan C. ''History of Nigeria'' (3rd ed. London, 1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075 online free]. * Carland, John M. ''The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914''. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-8179-8141-1}} * Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1#1 (1956), pp.&nbsp;5–14, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608 online] * Fafunwa, A. Babs. ''History of education in Nigeria'' (Routledge, 2018). * Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (Cambridge UP, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68157-5}} [https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo online free to borrow] * Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''Historical dictionary of Nigeria'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). * Isichei, Elizabeth. ''A History of Nigeria''. (Longman, Inc., 1983). {{ISBN|0-582-64331-7}} * Larymore, Constance. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070 A Resident's wife in Nigeria]''. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908). * Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." ''Itinerario'' 43.3 (2019): 516–542. * Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). ''From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s''. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. {{ISBN|0-714-65691-7}} * Tamuno, T. N. ''The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914''. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5 *Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909 == Ale t'ọdọda == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8 Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914] — ''[[Pan-Atlantic University]], School of Media and Communication exhibit.'' {{British overseas territories}} {{Nigeria topics}} [[Category:Colonial Nigeria| ]] [[Category:British West Africa]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa|Nigeria]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Palm oil production in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Nigeria]] [[Category:1914 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Former colonies in Africa]] [[Category:20th century in Nigeria]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1914]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1960]] 1dydidugrfr4e92dc4p2hket0hqdqkf 0 2699 44486 2026-08-28T15:47:58Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Short description|Village in Nigeria}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} '''Kono''' is a village in [[Rivers State]], [[Nigeria]]. It is situated on the coast in [[Khana, Nigeria|Khana]] Local Government Area,<ref>{{cite news |title= Community lauds Omehia over programmes|url= http://www.thetidenews.com/article.aspx?qrDate=07/22/2007&qrTitle=Community%20lauds%20Omehia%20over%20programmes&qrColumn=RIVERS |location=Port Harcourt, Nigeria|date=2007-07-22 |access..." 44486 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Village in Nigeria}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} '''Kono''' is a village in [[Rivers State]], [[Nigeria]]. It is situated on the coast in [[Khana, Nigeria|Khana]] Local Government Area,<ref>{{cite news |title= Community lauds Omehia over programmes|url= http://www.thetidenews.com/article.aspx?qrDate=07/22/2007&qrTitle=Community%20lauds%20Omehia%20over%20programmes&qrColumn=RIVERS |location=Port Harcourt, Nigeria|date=2007-07-22 |accessdate=2007-10-07 |newspaper=[[The Tide (Nigeria)|The Tide]]}}</ref> about 45 miles (72.4&nbsp;km) from [[Port Harcourt]]. The dialect spoken in Kono is [[Khana language|Khana]], and the people are [[Ogoni people|Ogoni]]. Former Footballer [[Joseph Yobo]] was born and grew up in Kono. The present traditional Ruler in Kono is Mr Anson Monday Nwige. The Community has about four oil wells. It can boast of ethnic and cultural events which include the Waaro festival and Nwikorobee Festival. These festivals attract many visitors. ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Rivers State}} {{coord|4.6010|7.5027|type:city|display=title}} [[Category:Populated places in Rivers State]] {{RiversNG-geo-stub}} c1f8co89eivkwc4xr4jucmiblmn0tap 44487 44486 2026-08-28T16:00:29Z Obutuson 910 /* References */ 44487 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Village in Nigeria}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} '''Kono''' chi efewo ki di ojanẹ [[Rivers State]], [[Nigeria]]. I di ejuọwọ gọmẹti eyi ọwọ anẹ [[Khana, Nigeria|Khana]],<ref>{{cite news |title= Community lauds Omehia over programmes|url= http://www.thetidenews.com/article.aspx?qrDate=07/22/2007&qrTitle=Community%20lauds%20Omehia%20over%20programmes&qrColumn=RIVERS |location=Port Harcourt, Nigeria|date=2007-07-22 |accessdate=2007-10-07 |newspaper=[[The Tide (Nigeria)|The Tide]]}}</ref> u jiji abẹki unefu nwu che dabi aluka 72.4&nbsp;km akwi ojanẹ [[Port Harcourt]]. I chi ku ma ka yi Kono chi [[Khana language|Khana]], kpaì am'ibo ọmọ chi [[Ogoni people|Ogoni]]. Ẹnẹ yi ku ma dọ ki [[Joseph Yobo]] ki ri bọlu nwu Nigeria kwobi chi Kono ma bi, i la nwọ gbakpa ọmọ nugo. Adiko ẹgba ki dẹ ẹnẹ ki chi onu ma yi Kono chi Mr Anson Monday Nwige ch'odu nwu. Efewo lẹ che ni ura ekpo eyi anẹñwù ebije mi mi ẹlẹ. Ma neke buba ẹnwu ọgwu abẹki ogwuchọkpọ ku ma dọ ki Waaro festival ma'nyu Nwikorobee . Ami uche uyọ dama lẹ a dọ ami ononojo wewe kwi ugbo ojoji ojoji wa. ==Ẹtẹ nwu == {{Reflist}} {{Rivers State}} {{coord|4.6010|7.5027|type:city|display=title}} [[Category:Populated places in Rivers State]] {{RiversNG-geo-stub}} 30jeq4zpg5mspaqhck5h4fdxcohmssd 0 2700 44488 2026-08-28T16:06:17Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "'''Mfon''' ({{pronunciation|Mfon_01.ogg|listen}}) is a common [[Efik]] and [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]] given name. It means 'grace' and can be used in longer names, like ''Daramfon'' ('celebrate grace') or ''Mfon-Abasi'' ('God’s grace'). Notable people with the name include: * [[Mfon Ekpo]], Nigerian entrepreneur and author * [[Mfon Udoh]], Nigerian footballer * [[Mfon Udoka]] (born 1976), Nigerian-American basketball player ==See also== * [[Fon (title)]], sometimes spe..." 44488 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mfon''' ({{pronunciation|Mfon_01.ogg|listen}}) is a common [[Efik]] and [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]] given name. It means 'grace' and can be used in longer names, like ''Daramfon'' ('celebrate grace') or ''Mfon-Abasi'' ('God’s grace'). Notable people with the name include: * [[Mfon Ekpo]], Nigerian entrepreneur and author * [[Mfon Udoh]], Nigerian footballer * [[Mfon Udoka]] (born 1976), Nigerian-American basketball player ==See also== * [[Fon (title)]], sometimes spelled 'mfon', a chieftain or king of a region of Cameroon * [[MegaFon]], a phone operator with the stock symbol MFON {{given name}} [[Category:Surnames]] [[Category:Surnames of Nigerian origin]] [[Category:Given names of Nigerian origin]] [[Category:Ibibio given names]] 6yd3hxeae0km4tan8gawgr5b0vpecqm 44489 44488 2026-08-28T16:18:21Z Obutuson 910 44489 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mfon''' ({{pronunciation|Mfon_01.ogg|listen}}) chi odu ki chẹ kpọranẹ ki am'ibo [[Efik]] kpai [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]] cha du ri amonẹ. Ẹtẹ odu lẹ chi 'ojile' ma'nyu ma neke du dọ dama efu ami odu ki dẹ gbọlọ, dabi ''Daramfon'' ('e gwogwu ojile') abẹki ''Mfon-Abasi'' ('ojile eyi Ọjọ'). Am'ibo ojima ki odu kọ abalẹ chi: * [[Mfon Ekpo]], Ẹnẹ Nigeria kiya nyaja kpai ọtakada ẹkọ gẹ * [[Mfon Udoh]], Ẹnẹ Nigeria ki ya ri bọlu * [[Mfon Udoka]] (mabi ọdọ1976), Ẹnẹ Nigerian-American kiya ri bọlu eyi agba ==Go Nugo == * [[Fon (title)]], iko kibo ma kọ abai 'mfon', ajọfẹ abẹki onu ugbo ojanẹ Cameroon * [[MegaFon]], ẹnwu ku ma du gbọlajẹ ki ẹnwu ku ma du chi umeju nwu ugbo ku ma ta chi MFON {{given name}} [[Category:Surnames]] [[Category:Surnames of Nigerian origin]] [[Category:Given names of Nigerian origin]] [[Category:Ibibio given names]] 5kb51brci8e5usmmigzswbygv575960 0 2701 44490 2026-08-28T16:19:46Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Short description|Sports venue in Lafia, Nigeria}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=June 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2026}} [[File:Lafia_stadium.jp.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Lafia City Stadium gate]] '''Lafia Township Stadium''' is a multi-use [[stadium]] in [[Lafia]], Nasarawa State, central Nigeria.<ref name=ws>{{cite web |url= http://www.worldstadiums.com/africa/countries/nigeria.shtml|title= Stadiums in Nigeria|accessdate=22 April 2007 |work= World Stadiums}}</ref>..." 44490 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Sports venue in Lafia, Nigeria}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=June 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2026}} [[File:Lafia_stadium.jp.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Lafia City Stadium gate]] '''Lafia Township Stadium''' is a multi-use [[stadium]] in [[Lafia]], Nasarawa State, central Nigeria.<ref name=ws>{{cite web |url= http://www.worldstadiums.com/africa/countries/nigeria.shtml|title= Stadiums in Nigeria|accessdate=22 April 2007 |work= World Stadiums}}</ref> It is used mostly for [[football (soccer)|football]] matches and is the home stadium of [[Nasarawa United]]. The stadium has a capacity of 10,000 people.<ref name=ws/> It is in central Lafia City on Jos-Makurdi Road. ==References== {{reflist}} {{coord missing|Nigeria}} [[Category:Football venues in Nigeria]] [[Category:Lafia]] {{Nigerian Premier League venues}} {{Nigeria-sports-venue-stub}} psze1btmqnfwt77w2blwqon7gejv55d 44491 44490 2026-08-28T16:26:55Z Obutuson 910 /* References */ 44491 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Sports venue in Lafia, Nigeria}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=June 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2026}} [[File:Lafia_stadium.jp.jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Lafia City Stadium gate]] '''Lafia Township Stadium''' chi uña [[stadium]] ku ma neke du chi ẹnwu wewe yi ojanẹ [[Lafia]], Nasarawa State, alimeji Nigeria.<ref name=ws>{{cite web |url= http://www.worldstadiums.com/africa/countries/nigeria.shtml|title= Stadiums in Nigeria|accessdate=22 April 2007 |work= World Stadiums}}</ref> ojile ẹnwu ku ma du che chi [[football (soccer)|bọlu ẹrẹ]] ma du rọ ma'nyu ọmọ chi unyi stadium eyi ami [[Nasarawa United]]. stadium lẹ che nefu ki neke gbi onẹ mi 10,000.<ref name=ws/> I di alimeji efewo Lafia oji ọna Jos-Makurdi. ==Ẹtẹ kuma tene kwefu == {{reflist}} {{coord missing|Nigeria}} [[Category:Football venues in Nigeria]] [[Category:Lafia]] {{Nigerian Premier League venues}} {{Nigeria-sports-venue-stub}} qa0tvba734rxtilu2q4vm3b05xrn16x 0 2702 44492 2026-08-28T16:31:44Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{short description|Nigerian town}}{{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2026}} {{More citations needed|date=January 2024}} '''Degel''' is a town in [[Sokoto State]], northern [[Nigeria]]. Once a part of the [[Hausa people|Hausa]] city-state of [[Gobir]], Degel is particularly noted for being the home of [[Fula people|Fulani]] [[Islam|Islamic]] reformer [[Usman dan Fodio]] from 1774 to 1804. Dan Fodio built a large following in the area..." 44492 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Nigerian town}}{{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2026}} {{More citations needed|date=January 2024}} '''Degel''' is a town in [[Sokoto State]], northern [[Nigeria]]. Once a part of the [[Hausa people|Hausa]] city-state of [[Gobir]], Degel is particularly noted for being the home of [[Fula people|Fulani]] [[Islam|Islamic]] reformer [[Usman dan Fodio]] from 1774 to 1804. Dan Fodio built a large following in the area until, fearing his growing power, [[Yunfa]] of Gobir ordered him and his followers into exile, triggering the [[Jihad of Usman dan Fodio]].<ref name="Maishanu">{{cite journal|author1=Hamza Muhammad Maishanu|author2=Isa Muhammad Maishanu|title=The Jihad and the Formation of the Sokoto Caliphate|journal=Islamic Studies|year=1999|volume=38|issue=1|pages=119–131|url=http://irigs.iiu.edu.pk:64447/gsdl/collect/islamics/import/v38i16.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102042332/http://irigs.iiu.edu.pk:64447/gsdl/collect/islamics/import/v38i16.pdf|archive-date=January 2, 2018|jstor=20837029}}</ref><ref name="Chafe">{{cite journal|last=Chafe|first=Kabiru Sulaiman|title=Challenges to the Hegemony of the Sokoto Caliphate: A Preliminary Examination|journal=Paideuma|year=1994|volume=40|pages=99–109}}</ref> {{Coord missing|Nigeria}} == References == {{Reflist}}{{Sokoto-geo-stub}} fww3c8r0vzfocvy9vo8n9qeawtj9txw 44493 44492 2026-08-28T16:41:02Z Obutuson 910 44493 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Nigerian town}}{{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2026}} {{More citations needed|date=January 2024}} '''Degel''' is a town in [[Sokoto State]], northern [[Nigeria]]. Adiko ka ichi efewo ami [[Hausa people|akechi]] city-state am'ibo [[Gobir]], Degel chi ugbo ki amonẹ mọru unyi ami [[Fula people|Fulani]] [[Islam|ku ma chi abakpa]] Ẹnẹ ku ma dọ ki [[Usman dan Fodio]] akwi ọdọ 1774 gbo ati 1804. Dan Fodio wa chanẹ ukpahiu ogbegbele ọmọ gbo ati iko, ki okpo ukpahi nwu na gba nyọgba tabale, [[Yunfa]] eyi Gobir mu ọda du ki onwu kpai am'ibo ku ma tọbi ku ma kwi ojanẹ ọmọ, ẹnwu lẹ chi uchanẹ [[Jihad of Usman dan Fodio|Jihad eyi Usman dan Fodio]].<ref name="Maishanu">{{cite journal|author1=Hamza Muhammad Maishanu|author2=Isa Muhammad Maishanu|title=The Jihad and the Formation of the Sokoto Caliphate|journal=Islamic Studies|year=1999|volume=38|issue=1|pages=119–131|url=http://irigs.iiu.edu.pk:64447/gsdl/collect/islamics/import/v38i16.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102042332/http://irigs.iiu.edu.pk:64447/gsdl/collect/islamics/import/v38i16.pdf|archive-date=January 2, 2018|jstor=20837029}}</ref><ref name="Chafe">{{cite journal|last=Chafe|first=Kabiru Sulaiman|title=Challenges to the Hegemony of the Sokoto Caliphate: A Preliminary Examination|journal=Paideuma|year=1994|volume=40|pages=99–109}}</ref> {{Coord missing|Nigeria}} == Ugbo kuma tene kwo == {{Reflist}}{{Sokoto-geo-stub}} 7s878xj08vbqv4sfjuzr1sc836qy0yf 44494 44493 2026-08-28T16:42:28Z Obutuson 910 44494 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Nigerian town}}{{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2026}} {{More citations needed|date=January 2024}} '''Degel''' chi efewo ki defu ojanẹ [[Sokoto]], yi [[Nigeria]]. Adiko ka ichi efewo ami [[Hausa people|akechi]] city-state am'ibo [[Gobir]], Degel chi ugbo ki amonẹ mọru unyi ami [[Fula people|Fulani]] [[Islam|ku ma chi abakpa]] Ẹnẹ ku ma dọ ki [[Usman dan Fodio]] akwi ọdọ 1774 gbo ati 1804. Dan Fodio wa chanẹ ukpahiu ogbegbele ọmọ gbo ati iko, ki okpo ukpahi nwu na gba nyọgba tabale, [[Yunfa]] eyi Gobir mu ọda du ki onwu kpai am'ibo ku ma tọbi ku ma kwi ojanẹ ọmọ, ẹnwu lẹ chi uchanẹ [[Jihad of Usman dan Fodio|Jihad eyi Usman dan Fodio]].<ref name="Maishanu">{{cite journal|author1=Hamza Muhammad Maishanu|author2=Isa Muhammad Maishanu|title=The Jihad and the Formation of the Sokoto Caliphate|journal=Islamic Studies|year=1999|volume=38|issue=1|pages=119–131|url=http://irigs.iiu.edu.pk:64447/gsdl/collect/islamics/import/v38i16.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102042332/http://irigs.iiu.edu.pk:64447/gsdl/collect/islamics/import/v38i16.pdf|archive-date=January 2, 2018|jstor=20837029}}</ref><ref name="Chafe">{{cite journal|last=Chafe|first=Kabiru Sulaiman|title=Challenges to the Hegemony of the Sokoto Caliphate: A Preliminary Examination|journal=Paideuma|year=1994|volume=40|pages=99–109}}</ref> {{Coord missing|Nigeria}} == Ugbo kuma tene kwo == {{Reflist}}{{Sokoto-geo-stub}} 3tpk3r72ho2wooloifa9fzasgobso41 0 2703 44495 2026-08-28T16:48:09Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Short description|none}} {{unreferenced|date=September 2017}} This is a '''list of heads of government of British Cameroons''' {| class="wikitable" |- align=left ! width="25%" |Tenure ! width="30%" |Incumbent ! width="10%" |[[#Affiliations|Affiliation]] ! width="20%" |Notes |- |<small>1 October 1954 to 1 February 1959</small>||'''[[E. M. L. Endeley]]''', <small>Premier</small>||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- |<small>1 February 1959 to 1 October 1961</small>||'''John Ngu Fonc..." 44495 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{unreferenced|date=September 2017}} This is a '''list of heads of government of British Cameroons''' {| class="wikitable" |- align=left ! width="25%" |Tenure ! width="30%" |Incumbent ! width="10%" |[[#Affiliations|Affiliation]] ! width="20%" |Notes |- |<small>1 October 1954 to 1 February 1959</small>||'''[[E. M. L. Endeley]]''', <small>Premier</small>||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- |<small>1 February 1959 to 1 October 1961</small>||'''[[John Ngu Foncha]]''', <small>Premier</small>||<small>KDNP</small>||&nbsp; |} == Affiliations == {{clear}} {| style="margin:0 auto;" id=toc cellpadding=1 |- ! width="7%"| |- valign=top |<small>'''KNDP'''</small>||<small>'''[[Kamerun National Democratic Party]]''' ''British Cameroon-based''</small> |} == See also == *[[Cameroon]] **[[Politics of Cameroon]] **[[Heads of state of Cameroon]] **[[Heads of government of Cameroon]] **[[Colonial heads of British Cameroon|Colonial heads of British Cameroon (Cameroons)]] **[[Colonial heads of French Cameroon|Colonial heads of French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Heads of government of French Cameroon|Heads of government of French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Colonial heads of German Cameroon|Colonial heads of German Cameroon (Kamerun)]] **[[Colonial heads of Ambas Bay|Colonial heads of Ambas Bay (Victoria Colony)]] *[[Lists of office-holders]] {{DEFAULTSORT:British Cameroons Heads of Government}} [[Category:Government of Cameroon]] [[Category:Lists of heads of government]] [[Category:Cameroon history-related lists]] [[Category:British Cameroon]] jt82ivyg37vv1x142fualv877dmw5js 44496 44495 2026-08-28T16:57:35Z Obutuson 910 /* See also */ 44496 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{unreferenced|date=September 2017}} Eyi chi '''odu ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami British Cameroons''' {| class="wikitable" |- align=left ! width="25%" |Tenure ! width="30%" |Incumbent ! width="10%" |[[#Affiliations|Affiliation]] ! width="20%" |Notes |- |<small>1 October 1954 to 1 February 1959</small>||'''[[E. M. L. Endeley]]''', <small>Premier</small>||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- |<small>1 February 1959 to 1 October 1961</small>||'''[[John Ngu Foncha]]''', <small>Premier</small>||<small>KDNP</small>||&nbsp; |} == Ami ugwẹgwa == {{clear}} {| style="margin:0 auto;" id=toc cellpadding=1 |- ! width="7%"| |- valign=top |<small>'''KNDP'''</small>||<small>'''[[Kamerun National Democratic Party]]''' ''British Cameroon-based''</small> |} == Go nugo == *[[Cameroon]] **[[Politics of Cameroon|uja'ibe eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of state of Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of government of Cameroon|Ami agboji gọmẹti eyi Cameroon]] **[[Colonial heads of British Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi British Cameroon (Cameroons)]] **[[Colonial heads of French Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi Colonial eyi French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Heads of government of French Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Colonial heads of German Cameroon|Ami agboji Colonial ku ma chi German Cameroon (Kamerun)]] **[[Colonial heads of Ambas Bay|Ami agboji Colonial eyi Ambas Bay (Victoria Colony)]] *[[Lists of office-holders|Odu am'ibo kuma gwọnyu uña]] {{DEFAULTSORT:British Cameroons Heads of Government}} [[Category:Government of Cameroon]] [[Category:Lists of heads of government]] [[Category:Cameroon history-related lists]] [[Category:British Cameroon]] 8kxjvdg2hz10269cjuu7ykq1otxhcem 44497 44496 2026-08-28T16:59:05Z Obutuson 910 44497 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{unreferenced|date=September 2017}} Eyi chi '''odu ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami British Cameroons''' {| class="wikitable" |- align=left ! width="25%" |Adiko ! width="30%" |Abajoi ! width="10%" |[[#Affiliations|Affiliation]] ! width="20%" |Eko |- |<small>1 October 1954 to 1 February 1959</small>||'''[[E. M. L. Endeley]]''', <small>Premier</small>||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- |<small>1 February 1959 to 1 October 1961</small>||'''[[John Ngu Foncha]]''', <small>Premier</small>||<small>KDNP</small>||&nbsp; |} == Ami ugwẹgwa == {{clear}} {| style="margin:0 auto;" id=toc cellpadding=1 |- ! width="7%"| |- valign=top |<small>'''KNDP'''</small>||<small>'''[[Kamerun National Democratic Party]]''' ''British Cameroon-based''</small> |} == Go nugo == *[[Cameroon]] **[[Politics of Cameroon|uja'ibe eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of state of Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of government of Cameroon|Ami agboji gọmẹti eyi Cameroon]] **[[Colonial heads of British Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi British Cameroon (Cameroons)]] **[[Colonial heads of French Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi Colonial eyi French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Heads of government of French Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Colonial heads of German Cameroon|Ami agboji Colonial ku ma chi German Cameroon (Kamerun)]] **[[Colonial heads of Ambas Bay|Ami agboji Colonial eyi Ambas Bay (Victoria Colony)]] *[[Lists of office-holders|Odu am'ibo kuma gwọnyu uña]] {{DEFAULTSORT:British Cameroons Heads of Government}} [[Category:Government of Cameroon]] [[Category:Lists of heads of government]] [[Category:Cameroon history-related lists]] [[Category:British Cameroon]] k6a9xg8lebtf6dlm73yvvoge50wft5h 44498 44497 2026-08-28T17:01:02Z Obutuson 910 44498 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{unreferenced|date=September 2017}} Eyi chi '''odu ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami British Cameroons''' {| class="wikitable" |- align=left ! width="25%" |Adiko ! width="30%" |Abajoi ! width="10%" |[[#Affiliations|ami uchẹ ki gwẹgwa]] ! width="20%" |Ekọ |- |<small>1 October 1954 to 1 February 1959</small>||'''[[E. M. L. Endeley]]''', <small>Premier</small>||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- |<small>1 February 1959 to 1 October 1961</small>||'''[[John Ngu Foncha]]''', <small>Premier</small>||<small>KDNP</small>||&nbsp; |} == Ami ugwẹgwa == {{clear}} {| style="margin:0 auto;" id=toc cellpadding=1 |- ! width="7%"| |- valign=top |<small>'''KNDP'''</small>||<small>'''[[Kamerun National Democratic Party]]''' ''British Cameroon-based''</small> |} == Go nugo == *[[Cameroon]] **[[Politics of Cameroon|uja'ibe eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of state of Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of government of Cameroon|Ami agboji gọmẹti eyi Cameroon]] **[[Colonial heads of British Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi British Cameroon (Cameroons)]] **[[Colonial heads of French Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi Colonial eyi French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Heads of government of French Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Colonial heads of German Cameroon|Ami agboji Colonial ku ma chi German Cameroon (Kamerun)]] **[[Colonial heads of Ambas Bay|Ami agboji Colonial eyi Ambas Bay (Victoria Colony)]] *[[Lists of office-holders|Odu am'ibo kuma gwọnyu uña]] {{DEFAULTSORT:British Cameroons Heads of Government}} [[Category:Government of Cameroon]] [[Category:Lists of heads of government]] [[Category:Cameroon history-related lists]] [[Category:British Cameroon]] jtv8ex8iqmaaiswy0qybdnd3pu80q1h 44499 44498 2026-08-28T17:04:21Z Obutuson 910 44499 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{unreferenced|date=September 2017}} Eyi chi '''odu ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami British Cameroons''' {| class="wikitable" |- align=left ! width="25%" |Adiko ! width="30%" |Abajoi ! width="10%" |[[#Affiliations|ami uchẹ ki gwẹgwa]] ! width="20%" |Ekọ |- |<small>ọjọ ejeodudu ochu ẹgwa 1954 na ti ejeodudu ochu eji 1959</small>||'''[[E. M. L. Endeley]]''', <small>Premier</small>||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- |<small>ọjọ ejeodudu ochu eji 1959 na ti ejeodudu ochu ẹgwa 1961</small>||'''[[John Ngu Foncha]]''', <small>Premier</small>||<small>KDNP</small>||&nbsp; |} == Ami ugwẹgwa == {{clear}} {| style="margin:0 auto;" id=toc cellpadding=1 |- ! width="7%"| |- valign=top |<small>'''KNDP'''</small>||<small>'''[[Kamerun National Democratic Party]]''' ''British Cameroon-based''</small> |} == Go nugo == *[[Cameroon]] **[[Politics of Cameroon|uja'ibe eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of state of Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of government of Cameroon|Ami agboji gọmẹti eyi Cameroon]] **[[Colonial heads of British Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi British Cameroon (Cameroons)]] **[[Colonial heads of French Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi Colonial eyi French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Heads of government of French Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Colonial heads of German Cameroon|Ami agboji Colonial ku ma chi German Cameroon (Kamerun)]] **[[Colonial heads of Ambas Bay|Ami agboji Colonial eyi Ambas Bay (Victoria Colony)]] *[[Lists of office-holders|Odu am'ibo kuma gwọnyu uña]] {{DEFAULTSORT:British Cameroons Heads of Government}} [[Category:Government of Cameroon]] [[Category:Lists of heads of government]] [[Category:Cameroon history-related lists]] [[Category:British Cameroon]] 6yzjvhqui487an03o6mtyumxoiulkvu 44500 44499 2026-08-28T17:06:34Z Obutuson 910 44500 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{unreferenced|date=September 2017}} Eyi chi '''odu ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami British Cameroons''' {| class="wikitable" |- align=left ! width="25%" |Adiko ! width="30%" |Abajoi ! width="10%" |[[#Affiliations|ami uchẹ ki gwẹgwa]] ! width="20%" |Ekọ |- |<small>ọjọ ejeodudu ochu ẹgwa,efu ọdọ 1954 na ti ọjọ ejeodudu ochu eji, efu ọdọ 1959</small>||'''[[E. M. L. Endeley]]''', <small>Premier</small>||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- |<small>ọjọ ejeodudu ochu eji, efu ọdọ 1959 na ti ọjọ ejeodudu ochu ẹgwa, efu ọdọ 1961</small>||'''[[John Ngu Foncha]]''', <small>Premier</small>||<small>KDNP</small>||&nbsp; |} == Ami ugwẹgwa == {{clear}} {| style="margin:0 auto;" id=toc cellpadding=1 |- ! width="7%"| |- valign=top |<small>'''KNDP'''</small>||<small>'''[[Kamerun National Democratic Party]]''' ''British Cameroon-based''</small> |} == Go nugo == *[[Cameroon]] **[[Politics of Cameroon|uja'ibe eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of state of Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi Cameroon]] **[[Heads of government of Cameroon|Ami agboji gọmẹti eyi Cameroon]] **[[Colonial heads of British Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi British Cameroon (Cameroons)]] **[[Colonial heads of French Cameroon|Ami agboji ku ma chi Colonial eyi French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Heads of government of French Cameroon|Ami agboji eyi gọmẹti ami French Cameroon (Cameroun)]] **[[Colonial heads of German Cameroon|Ami agboji Colonial ku ma chi German Cameroon (Kamerun)]] **[[Colonial heads of Ambas Bay|Ami agboji Colonial eyi Ambas Bay (Victoria Colony)]] *[[Lists of office-holders|Odu am'ibo kuma gwọnyu uña]] {{DEFAULTSORT:British Cameroons Heads of Government}} [[Category:Government of Cameroon]] [[Category:Lists of heads of government]] [[Category:Cameroon history-related lists]] [[Category:British Cameroon]] sef3rx4qkn8qa96dttjq9hkucmprnwt 0 2704 44501 2026-08-28T17:10:40Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{short description|Nigerian sprinter}} {{morefootnotes|date=September 2023}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=September 2023}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}} {{MedalTableTop|medals= {{Medal|Sport | Men's [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]]}} {{Medal|Competition|[[IAAF World Championships in Athletics|World Championships]]}} {{Medal|Disqualified| [[1999 World Championships in Athletics|1999 Seville]] | 4x100 m relay}} }} '''Innocent Asonze''' (born 13 December 1972) is a..." 44501 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Nigerian sprinter}} {{morefootnotes|date=September 2023}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=September 2023}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}} {{MedalTableTop|medals= {{Medal|Sport | Men's [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]]}} {{Medal|Competition|[[IAAF World Championships in Athletics|World Championships]]}} {{Medal|Disqualified| [[1999 World Championships in Athletics|1999 Seville]] | 4x100 m relay}} }} '''Innocent Asonze''' (born 13 December 1972) is a former [[Sprint (running)|sprinter]] from [[Nigeria]]. Together with [[Francis Obikwelu]], [[Daniel Effiong]] and [[Deji Aliu]] he won a bronze medal in 4 x 100 metres relay at the [[1999 World Championships in Athletics]], but the team was later disqualified (in August 2005) because he failed a doping test in June 1999.<ref>[https://media.aws.iaaf.org/competitioninfo/c69f8028-39bc-4999-9b58-73756c1e3a08.pdf IAAF Statistics Handbook 201 Daegu]. IAAF. Retrieved 2020-01-23.</ref> == Personal bests == * [[100 metres]] - 10.04 (1997) * [[200 metres]] - 20.88 (1991) == See also == * [[List of sportspeople sanctioned for doping offences]] ==References== {{reflist}} == External links== * {{World Athletics}} {{Footer All-Africa Champions 4 × 100 m relay Men}} {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Asonze, Innocent}} [[Category:1972 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Nigerian men sprinters]] [[Category:African Games gold medalists for Nigeria]] [[Category:African Games gold medalists in athletics (track and field)]] [[Category:African Games athletes for Nigeria]] [[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1999 All-Africa Games]] [[Category:World Athletics Championships athletes for Nigeria]] [[Category:Athletes stripped of World Athletics Championships medals]] [[Category:Doping cases in the sport of athletics]] [[Category:Nigerian sportspeople in doping cases]] {{Nigeria-athletics-bio-stub}} gh25pn87z3yok0mwqof5kdcskxjulok 44502 44501 2026-08-28T17:13:07Z Obutuson 910 /* See also */ 44502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Nigerian sprinter}} {{morefootnotes|date=September 2023}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=September 2023}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}} {{MedalTableTop|medals= {{Medal|Sport | Men's [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]]}} {{Medal|Competition|[[IAAF World Championships in Athletics|World Championships]]}} {{Medal|Disqualified| [[1999 World Championships in Athletics|1999 Seville]] | 4x100 m relay}} }} '''Innocent Asonze''' (born 13 December 1972) is a former [[Sprint (running)|sprinter]] from [[Nigeria]]. Together with [[Francis Obikwelu]], [[Daniel Effiong]] and [[Deji Aliu]] he won a bronze medal in 4 x 100 metres relay at the [[1999 World Championships in Athletics]], but the team was later disqualified (in August 2005) because he failed a doping test in June 1999.<ref>[https://media.aws.iaaf.org/competitioninfo/c69f8028-39bc-4999-9b58-73756c1e3a08.pdf IAAF Statistics Handbook 201 Daegu]. IAAF. Retrieved 2020-01-23.</ref> == Ugbo ki nyọ tule == * [[100 metres]] - 10.04 (1997) * [[200 metres]] - 20.88 (1991) == Go nugo == * [[List of sportspeople sanctioned for doping offences]] ==Ugbo utene== {{reflist}} == Ale t'ọdọda == * {{World Athletics}} {{Footer All-Africa Champions 4 × 100 m relay Men}} {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Asonze, Innocent}} [[Category:1972 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Nigerian men sprinters]] [[Category:African Games gold medalists for Nigeria]] [[Category:African Games gold medalists in athletics (track and field)]] [[Category:African Games athletes for Nigeria]] [[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1999 All-Africa Games]] [[Category:World Athletics Championships athletes for Nigeria]] [[Category:Athletes stripped of World Athletics Championships medals]] [[Category:Doping cases in the sport of athletics]] [[Category:Nigerian sportspeople in doping cases]] {{Nigeria-athletics-bio-stub}} ia24ir02eguisbev377tofabswrl9qa 44503 44502 2026-08-28T17:20:46Z Obutuson 910 44503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Nigerian sprinter}} {{morefootnotes|date=September 2023}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=September 2023}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}} {{MedalTableTop|medals= {{Medal|Sport | Men's [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]]}} {{Medal|Competition|[[IAAF World Championships in Athletics|World Championships]]}} {{Medal|Disqualified| [[1999 World Championships in Athletics|1999 Seville]] | 4x100 m relay}} }} '''Innocent Asonze''' (mabi ọjọ ki ochu ẹgweji nolu mi ẹgwẹta efu ọdọ 1972) i chi ẹnẹ ki ya [[Sprint (running)|ri ule]] kwobi ki kwi ojanẹ [[Nigeria]]. Dama kpai [[Francis Obikwelu]], [[Daniel Effiong]] ma'nyu [[Deji Aliu]] i ni edu eyi ki gbi bronze efu ule era eyi 4 x 100 metres yi [[1999 World Championships in Athletics|1999 World Championships efu Athletics]], ama ma fu am'ibo nwu disqualified (efu ochu ẹjọ ọdọ 2005) todu ku ma li ogwu ẹgbiti efu ẹbiẹ nwu anubi ku ma chi anwago efu ochu ẹfa ọdọ 1999.<ref>[https://media.aws.iaaf.org/competitioninfo/c69f8028-39bc-4999-9b58-73756c1e3a08.pdf IAAF Statistics Handbook 201 Daegu]. IAAF. Retrieved 2020-01-23.</ref> == Ugbo ki nyọ tule == * [[100 metres]] - 10.04 (1997) * [[200 metres]] - 20.88 (1991) == Go nugo == * [[List of sportspeople sanctioned for doping offences|Ọdu am'ibo sports ki ọda mu todu ẹnwu ẹgbiti ku ma du tefu ẹbiẹ ma]] ==Ugbo utene== {{reflist}} == Ale t'ọdọda == * {{World Athletics}} {{Footer All-Africa Champions 4 × 100 m relay Men}} {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Asonze, Innocent}} [[Category:1972 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Nigerian men sprinters]] [[Category:African Games gold medalists for Nigeria]] [[Category:African Games gold medalists in athletics (track and field)]] [[Category:African Games athletes for Nigeria]] [[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1999 All-Africa Games]] [[Category:World Athletics Championships athletes for Nigeria]] [[Category:Athletes stripped of World Athletics Championships medals]] [[Category:Doping cases in the sport of athletics]] [[Category:Nigerian sportspeople in doping cases]] {{Nigeria-athletics-bio-stub}} 19dxw4crknmf43h442gn0e04czhcuw6 0 2705 44504 2026-08-28T17:26:49Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}} {{Speciesbox |image = |status = LC |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref = <ref name = iucn>{{cite iucn |author=Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). |author2=IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. |year=2019 |title=''Endodesmia calophylloides'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T143716772A143716774 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T143716772A143716774.en |language=en |access-date=27 April 2026}}</ref> |genus = End..." 44504 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}} {{Speciesbox |image = |status = LC |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref = <ref name = iucn>{{cite iucn |author=Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). |author2=IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. |year=2019 |title=''Endodesmia calophylloides'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T143716772A143716774 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T143716772A143716774.en |language=en |access-date=27 April 2026}}</ref> |genus = Endodesmia |parent_authority = [[George Bentham|Benth.]] |species = calophylloides |authority = [[George Bentham|Benth.]] }} '''''Endodesmia calophylloides''''' is a [[flowering plant]] [[species]] of the [[Family (taxonomy)|family]] [[Calophyllaceae]] and the sole [[species]] comprised in the [[genus]] '''''Endodesmia'''''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipni.org/n/433112-1|title=International Plant Names Index|website=www.ipni.org|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> It is a shrub or tree native to southern Nigeria and west-central tropical Africa, including Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, and Democratic Republic of the Congo.<ref name = powo>{{cite web |title=''Endodesmia calophylloides'' Benth. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:433112-1 |website=[[Plants of the World Online]] |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=1 May 2025}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Taxonbar|from=Q3544078|from2=Q15375170}} [[Category:Calophyllaceae]] [[Category:Monotypic Malpighiales genera]] [[Category:Flora of Nigeria]] [[Category:Flora of West-Central Tropical Africa]] [[Category:Least concern flora of Africa]] [[Category:Taxa described in 1862]] [[Category:Taxa named by George Bentham]] {{Calophyllaceae-stub}} q52yj1k7wv9y12uh9sfmr23u9fllkwu 44505 44504 2026-08-28T17:31:44Z Obutuson 910 /* References */ 44505 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}} {{Speciesbox |image = |status = LC |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref = <ref name = iucn>{{cite iucn |author=Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). |author2=IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. |year=2019 |title=''Endodesmia calophylloides'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T143716772A143716774 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T143716772A143716774.en |language=en |access-date=27 April 2026}}</ref> |genus = Endodesmia |parent_authority = [[George Bentham|Benth.]] |species = calophylloides |authority = [[George Bentham|Benth.]] }} '''''Endodesmia calophylloides''''' chi [[flowering plant|ugbẹ oli ododo]] ki kwefu [[Family (taxonomy)|akwọra,]] [[Calophyllaceae]] kpai ẹtẹ [[species|ugbẹ]] ki chẹ gwẹgwa efu [[genus]] '''''Endodesmia'''''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipni.org/n/433112-1|title=International Plant Names Index|website=www.ipni.org|access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref> I chi oli anẹ nwi ọwọ southern Nigeria kpai ọwọ west-central tropical Africa, dama kpai Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Republic eyi Congo, ma'nyu Democratic Republic eyi Congo.<ref name = powo>{{cite web |title=''Endodesmia calophylloides'' Benth. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:433112-1 |website=[[Plants of the World Online]] |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=1 May 2025}}</ref> == Ugbo utene == <references /> {{Taxonbar|from=Q3544078|from2=Q15375170}} [[Category:Calophyllaceae]] [[Category:Monotypic Malpighiales genera]] [[Category:Flora of Nigeria]] [[Category:Flora of West-Central Tropical Africa]] [[Category:Least concern flora of Africa]] [[Category:Taxa described in 1862]] [[Category:Taxa named by George Bentham]] {{Calophyllaceae-stub}} 4zzjipaokg327vpt5zl47p88digs5v3 0 2706 44506 2026-08-28T17:36:29Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Infobox name|name=Ajudua|gender=Male|language=Yoruba|origin=Nigeria|meaning=represents practicality, realism, reliability, discipline, sincerity and experience.}} '''Ajudua''' is a Nigerian surname. Notable people with the surname include: *[[Benedicta Ajudua]] (born 1980), Nigerian sprinter *[[Fred Ajudua]], Nigerian lawyer and criminal *[[Princess Pat Ajudua]] (born 1962), Nigerian lawyer and parliamentarian {{surname}} [[Category:Surnames of Nigerian origin]]" 44506 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox name|name=Ajudua|gender=Male|language=Yoruba|origin=Nigeria|meaning=represents practicality, realism, reliability, discipline, sincerity and experience.}} '''Ajudua''' is a Nigerian surname. Notable people with the surname include: *[[Benedicta Ajudua]] (born 1980), Nigerian sprinter *[[Fred Ajudua]], Nigerian lawyer and criminal *[[Princess Pat Ajudua]] (born 1962), Nigerian lawyer and parliamentarian {{surname}} [[Category:Surnames of Nigerian origin]] nsy583934xhkiifwelaa7atfj8pdum3 44507 44506 2026-08-28T17:41:00Z Obutuson 910 44507 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox name|name=Ajudua|gender=Male|language=Yoruba|origin=Nigeria|meaning=represents practicality, realism, reliability, discipline, sincerity and experience.}} '''Ajudua''' chi odu atta yi Nigeria. Am'ibo keju wewe mọ ma kpaì odu lẹ chi: *[[Benedicta Ajudua]] (mabi 1980), Ẹnẹ Nigeria ki ya ri ule *[[Fred Ajudua]], Ẹnẹ Nigeria kiya kajọ kpai ajoji *[[Princess Pat Ajudua]] (mabi 1962), Ẹnẹ Nigeria kiya kajọ kpai parliamentarian {{surname}} [[Category:Surnames of Nigerian origin]] js99zvjfpmeonno9ikcfm263dle7t90 0 2707 44508 2026-08-28T17:44:40Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}} {{Speciesbox |image = |status = VU |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Cheek, M. |date=2004 |title=''Hamilcoa zenkeri'' |volume=2004 |article-number=e.T45454A10999563 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T45454A10999563.en |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref> |display_parents = 4 |genus = Hamilcoa |parent_authority = [[Prain]] |species = zenkeri |authority =(Pax) ..." 44508 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}} {{Speciesbox |image = |status = VU |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Cheek, M. |date=2004 |title=''Hamilcoa zenkeri'' |volume=2004 |article-number=e.T45454A10999563 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T45454A10999563.en |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref> |display_parents = 4 |genus = Hamilcoa |parent_authority = [[Prain]] |species = zenkeri |authority =(Pax) [[Prain]] |synonyms_ref = <ref name=z/> |synonyms = ''Plukenetia zenkeri'' <small>Pax</small> }} '''''Hamilcoa''''' is a [[plant]] [[genus]] in the [[Family (taxonomy)|family]] [[Euphorbiaceae]] first described as a genus in 1912.<ref>[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11630048#page/113/mode/1up Prain, David. 1912. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information Kew 1912: 107] descriptions in Latin, commentary and range information in English</ref><ref>[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40020600 Tropicos, ''Hamilcoa'' Prain ]</ref> It contains only one known species, '''''Hamilcoa zenkeri''''', native to [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]].<ref name=z>[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=96059 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]</ref><ref>Govaerts, R., Frodin, D.G. & Radcliffe-Smith, A. (2000). World Checklist and Bibliography of Euphorbiaceae (and Pandaceae) 1-4: 1-1622. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.</ref><ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021" /> ==References== {{Reflist|2}} {{Taxonbar|from1=Q5644744|from2=Q5455747}} [[Category:Monotypic Euphorbiaceae genera]] [[Category:Flora of Nigeria]] [[Category:Flora of Cameroon]] [[Category:Stomatocalyceae]] [[Category:Vulnerable plants]] {{Euphorbioideae-stub}} 4hpll3dfohux8ivqzrfxfh667quqb15 44509 44508 2026-08-28T17:48:53Z Obutuson 910 /* References */ 44509 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}} {{Speciesbox |image = |status = VU |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Cheek, M. |date=2004 |title=''Hamilcoa zenkeri'' |volume=2004 |article-number=e.T45454A10999563 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T45454A10999563.en |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref> |display_parents = 4 |genus = Hamilcoa |parent_authority = [[Prain]] |species = zenkeri |authority =(Pax) [[Prain]] |synonyms_ref = <ref name=z/> |synonyms = ''Plukenetia zenkeri'' <small>Pax</small> }} '''''Hamilcoa''''' chi [[plant|oli]] [[genus]] ki kwi [[Family (taxonomy)|akwọra]] [[Euphorbiaceae]] ejeodudu ma juwe wu ki genus efu ọdọ 1912.<ref>[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/11630048#page/113/mode/1up Prain, David. 1912. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information Kew 1912: 107] descriptions in Latin, commentary and range information in English</ref><ref>[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40020600 Tropicos, ''Hamilcoa'' Prain ]</ref> ugbẹ katete ku ma dọ ki '''''Hamilcoa zenkeri''''', ugbo ki gbo ji dẹ chi [[Nigeria]] kpai [[Cameroon]].<ref name=z>[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=96059 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]</ref><ref>Govaerts, R., Frodin, D.G. & Radcliffe-Smith, A. (2000). World Checklist and Bibliography of Euphorbiaceae (and Pandaceae) 1-4: 1-1622. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.</ref><ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021" /> ==Ugbo utene == {{Reflist|2}} {{Taxonbar|from1=Q5644744|from2=Q5455747}} [[Category:Monotypic Euphorbiaceae genera]] [[Category:Flora of Nigeria]] [[Category:Flora of Cameroon]] [[Category:Stomatocalyceae]] [[Category:Vulnerable plants]] {{Euphorbioideae-stub}} lihnsonck6yljjjyp6nju54pz6xzmfz 0 2708 44510 2026-08-28T17:50:41Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}} {{Automatic taxobox |image = |display_parents = 3 |taxon = Plagiostyles |authority = [[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]] }} '''''Plagiostyles''''' is a [[plant]] [[genus]] in the [[Family (taxonomy)|family]] [[Euphorbiaceae]] first described as a genus in 1897.<ref>Pierre, Jean Baptiste Louis. 1897. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris 2: 1326</ref><ref>[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40010196 Tropicos, '..." 44510 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Species of flowering plant}} {{Automatic taxobox |image = |display_parents = 3 |taxon = Plagiostyles |authority = [[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]] }} '''''Plagiostyles''''' is a [[plant]] [[genus]] in the [[Family (taxonomy)|family]] [[Euphorbiaceae]] first described as a genus in 1897.<ref>Pierre, Jean Baptiste Louis. 1897. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris 2: 1326</ref><ref>[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40010196 Tropicos, ''Plagiostyles'' Pierre ]</ref> It is native to tropical [[Africa]].<ref name=h>[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=156765 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]</ref> ;Species<ref name=h/><ref>[http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Plagiostyles The Plant List, genus ''Plagiostyles'']</ref> # ''[[Plagiostyles africana]]'' <small>(Müll.Arg.) Prain</small> - [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Gabon]], [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda Province, Angola]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] # ''[[Plagiostyles pinnatus]]'' <small>Willd.</small> - [[Gabon]]<ref>ORSTOM. 1988. List of Vascular Plants of Gabon with Synonymy. Gabon Herbier National du Gabon, Yaounde</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q7200539}} [[Category:Stomatocalyceae]] [[Category:Euphorbiaceae genera]] [[Category:Flora of West-Central Tropical Africa]] [[Category:Flora of Nigeria]] {{Euphorbioideae-stub}} tl55ivpa327zxdz4kip9c8kt78q2v1f 44511 44510 2026-08-28T17:53:44Z Obutuson 910 /* References */ 44511 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Species of flowering plant}} {{Automatic taxobox |image = |display_parents = 3 |taxon = Plagiostyles |authority = [[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]] }} '''''Plagiostyles''''' chi [[plant|ẹnwu ugbẹ]] [[genus]] ki defu [[Family (taxonomy)|akwọra]] [[Euphorbiaceae]] ejeodudu kuma juwe ki genus efu ọdọ 1897.<ref>Pierre, Jean Baptiste Louis. 1897. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris 2: 1326</ref><ref>[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40010196 Tropicos, ''Plagiostyles'' Pierre ]</ref> i chẹnwù ki kpọru tropical [[Africa]].<ref name=h>[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=156765 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]</ref> ;Ami Ugbẹ<ref name=h/><ref>[http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Plagiostyles The Plant List, genus ''Plagiostyles'']</ref> # ''[[Plagiostyles africana]]'' <small>(Müll.Arg.) Prain</small> - [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Gabon]], [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda Province, Angola]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] # ''[[Plagiostyles pinnatus]]'' <small>Willd.</small> - [[Gabon]]<ref>ORSTOM. 1988. List of Vascular Plants of Gabon with Synonymy. Gabon Herbier National du Gabon, Yaounde</ref> ==Ugbo utene == {{Reflist}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q7200539}} [[Category:Stomatocalyceae]] [[Category:Euphorbiaceae genera]] [[Category:Flora of West-Central Tropical Africa]] [[Category:Flora of Nigeria]] {{Euphorbioideae-stub}} gy2ogsxc1vm9c0t04ky1owdbp9km6bv 44512 44511 2026-08-28T17:55:11Z Obutuson 910 44512 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Species of flowering plant}} {{Automatic taxobox |image = |display_parents = 3 |taxon = Plagiostyles |authority = [[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]] }} '''''Plagiostyles''''' chi [[plant|ẹnwu ugbẹ]] [[genus]] ki defu [[Family (taxonomy)|akwọra]] [[Euphorbiaceae]] ejeodudu kuma juwe ki genus chi efu ọdọ 1897.<ref>Pierre, Jean Baptiste Louis. 1897. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris 2: 1326</ref><ref>[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40010196 Tropicos, ''Plagiostyles'' Pierre ]</ref> i chẹnwù ki kpọru anẹ tropical [[Africa]].<ref name=h>[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=156765 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]</ref> ;Ami Ugbẹ<ref name=h/><ref>[http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Plagiostyles The Plant List, genus ''Plagiostyles'']</ref> # ''[[Plagiostyles africana]]'' <small>(Müll.Arg.) Prain</small> - [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Gabon]], [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda Province, Angola]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] # ''[[Plagiostyles pinnatus]]'' <small>Willd.</small> - [[Gabon]]<ref>ORSTOM. 1988. List of Vascular Plants of Gabon with Synonymy. Gabon Herbier National du Gabon, Yaounde</ref> ==Ugbo utene == {{Reflist}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q7200539}} [[Category:Stomatocalyceae]] [[Category:Euphorbiaceae genera]] [[Category:Flora of West-Central Tropical Africa]] [[Category:Flora of Nigeria]] {{Euphorbioideae-stub}} scygt8pu8ooek8vszwug9g0rf7e27ih 0 2709 44513 2026-08-28T17:58:21Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}}{{Automatic taxobox|display_parents=3|taxon=Dichostemma|authority=[[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]]<ref name=POWO/>}} '''''Dichostemma''''' is a [[genus]] of [[Flowering plant|flowering plants]] in the family [[Euphorbiaceae]], first described as a genus in 1896.<ref>Pierre, Jean Baptiste Louis. 1896. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris 1: 1259</ref><ref name="l">[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40029814 T..." 44513 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}}{{Automatic taxobox|display_parents=3|taxon=Dichostemma|authority=[[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]]<ref name=POWO/>}} '''''Dichostemma''''' is a [[genus]] of [[Flowering plant|flowering plants]] in the family [[Euphorbiaceae]], first described as a genus in 1896.<ref>Pierre, Jean Baptiste Louis. 1896. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris 1: 1259</ref><ref name="l">[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40029814 Tropicos Dichostemma Pierre ]</ref> It is native to tropical western and central Africa.<ref name="POWO">{{cite POWO|title=''Dichostemma'' Pierre|id=15314-1|access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref><ref>Govaerts, R., Frodin, D.G. & Radcliffe-Smith, A. (2000). World Checklist and Bibliography of Euphorbiaceae (and Pandaceae) 1-4: 1-1622. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.</ref> ; Species<ref name="POWO" /> # ''[[Dichostemma glaucescens]]'' <small>Pierre</small> - [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Gabon]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] # ''[[Dichostemma zenkeri]]'' <small>Pax</small> - Cameroon == References == {{Reflist}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q5272528}} {{Euphorbioideae-stub}} 4jbb4mt9tbp4jp4vdp1mrb8ojsvjodl 44514 44513 2026-08-28T18:01:53Z Obutuson 910 /* References */ 44514 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}}{{Automatic taxobox|display_parents=3|taxon=Dichostemma|authority=[[Jean Baptiste Louis Pierre|Pierre]]<ref name=POWO/>}} '''''Dichostemma''''' chi [[genus]] eyi [[Flowering plant|ami oli ododo]] efu akwọra [[Euphorbiaceae]], ọmama ku ma chi ujuwe ki genus chi efu ọdọ 1896.<ref>Pierre, Jean Baptiste Louis. 1896. Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris 1: 1259</ref><ref name="l">[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40029814 Tropicos Dichostemma Pierre ]</ref> I chi ẹnwu ki chẹ kpọrane yi ọwọ tropical western ma'nyu central Africa.<ref name="POWO">{{cite POWO|title=''Dichostemma'' Pierre|id=15314-1|access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref><ref>Govaerts, R., Frodin, D.G. & Radcliffe-Smith, A. (2000). World Checklist and Bibliography of Euphorbiaceae (and Pandaceae) 1-4: 1-1622. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.</ref> ; Ami Ugbẹ<ref name="POWO" /> # ''[[Dichostemma glaucescens]]'' <small>Pierre</small> - [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Gabon]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] # ''[[Dichostemma zenkeri]]'' <small>Pax</small> - Cameroon == Ugbo utene == {{Reflist}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q5272528}} {{Euphorbioideae-stub}} pqbk7uyrorynchvv1yocgxjkk2pc0jy 0 2710 44515 2026-08-28T18:08:10Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{unref|date=November 2025}} {{Infobox name|name=Azikiwe|gender=Male|language=Igbo|origin=Nigeria|meaning=The one who comes from the great forest' or 'the one who comes from the land of the great forest.|region=South East, Nigeria|nickname=Zik, Kiki, Azi.}} '''Azikiwe''' {{Audio|Ig-Azikiwe.ogg|audio}} is a [[Nigerians|Nigerian]] male given name and surname of [[Igbo language|Igbo]] origin. It means "the one who comes from the great forest' or 'the one who comes from th..." 44515 wikitext text/x-wiki {{unref|date=November 2025}} {{Infobox name|name=Azikiwe|gender=Male|language=Igbo|origin=Nigeria|meaning=The one who comes from the great forest' or 'the one who comes from the land of the great forest.|region=South East, Nigeria|nickname=Zik, Kiki, Azi.}} '''Azikiwe''' {{Audio|Ig-Azikiwe.ogg|audio}} is a [[Nigerians|Nigerian]] male given name and surname of [[Igbo language|Igbo]] origin. It means "the one who comes from the great forest' or 'the one who comes from the land of the great forest".{{cn|date=November 2025}} == Notable individuals with the name == * [[Nnamdi Azikiwe|Nnamdi '''Azikiwe''']] (1904 – 1996) Nigerian politician, statesman, and revolutionary leader. * [[Flora Azikiwe]] (1917 – 1983) The wife of [[Nnamdi Azikiwe|Nnamdi '''Azikiwe''']], the first [[First Lady of Nigeria]]. * [[Goodluck Jonathan]] (born 1957) Nigerian politician and a former Nigeria president. == References == {{reflist}}{{given name}} 87hwizpqkcjzi09u976vhmdimv5c9v0 44516 44515 2026-08-28T18:16:11Z Obutuson 910 /* References */ 44516 wikitext text/x-wiki {{unref|date=November 2025}} {{Infobox name|name=Azikiwe|gender=Male|language=Igbo|origin=Nigeria|meaning=The one who comes from the great forest' or 'the one who comes from the land of the great forest.|region=South East, Nigeria|nickname=Zik, Kiki, Azi.}} '''Azikiwe''' {{Audio|Ig-Azikiwe.ogg|audio}} i chi odu ki amibo [[Nigerians|Nigeria]] adu wu ami Ọnẹkẹlẹ name ma'nyu odu atta ki chanẹ kwi ugbo ami [[Igbo language|Igbọ]]. Ofe u chi "ẹnẹ ki kwi egbili eyi ẹgbitie' abẹki 'ẹnẹ ki kwi anẹ eyi egbili ugbítí".{{cn|date=November 2025}} == Am'ibo ki eju wewe mọma kuma ji odu lẹ == * [[Nnamdi Azikiwe|Nnamdi '''Azikiwe''']] (1904 – 1996) Ẹnẹ Nigeria ki defu uja'ibe, statesman, kpai agboji revolution . * [[Flora Azikiwe]] (1917 – 1983) Ọya [[Nnamdi Azikiwe|Nnamdi '''Azikiwe''']], onwu chi [[First Lady of Nigeria|First Lady eyi Nigeria]] ejeodudu. * [[Goodluck Jonathan]] (mabi 1957) Ẹnẹ Nigeria ki defu uja'ibe kpai ẹnẹ ki chi agboji Nigeria kwobi. == Ugbo utene == {{reflist}}{{given name}} ia9ca8ep4c2jo28srv0ztb09ffl29n8 0 2711 44517 2026-08-28T18:18:10Z Obutuson 910 Created page with "{{Short description|Town in Sokoto State, Nigeria}} {{other uses|Makwa (disambiguation)}} {{Unreferenced|date=April 2026}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2026}} '''Makwa''' (also spelled '''Makwia''') is a town in [[Sokoto State]], [[Nigeria]]. It is located at approximately {{coord|13|20|39|N| 04|15|30|E|region:NG_type:city(3000)}}, and has a population of roughly 3,000. ==References== {{Reflist}} Category:Populated places in..." 44517 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Town in Sokoto State, Nigeria}} {{other uses|Makwa (disambiguation)}} {{Unreferenced|date=April 2026}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2026}} '''Makwa''' (also spelled '''Makwia''') is a town in [[Sokoto State]], [[Nigeria]]. It is located at approximately {{coord|13|20|39|N| 04|15|30|E|region:NG_type:city(3000)}}, and has a population of roughly 3,000. ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Populated places in Sokoto State]] {{Sokoto-geo-stub}} iptwz4pqes55mukhtd72rmm2ra6twha 44518 44517 2026-08-28T18:20:52Z Obutuson 910 /* References */ 44518 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Town in Sokoto State, Nigeria}} {{other uses|Makwa (disambiguation)}} {{Unreferenced|date=April 2026}} {{Use Nigerian English|date=January 2023}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2026}} '''Makwa''' (ku ma nwọ kọ ru '''Makwia''') chi ojanẹ efu [[Sokoto State]], [[Nigeria]]. Ugbo ki dẹ che dabi {{coord|13|20|39|N| 04|15|30|E|region:NG_type:city(3000)}}, ma'nyu aluka amonẹ nwu che dabi 3,000. ==Ẹtẹ nwu == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Populated places in Sokoto State]] {{Sokoto-geo-stub}} d5226e06l9x7j7n846g1oftbe5bcba0