Wikipédia jvwiki https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Pendhapa MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.16 first-letter Médhia Mirunggan Parembugan Naraguna Parembugan Naraguna Wikipédia Parembugan Wikipédia Barkas Parembugan Barkas MédhiaWiki Parembugan MédhiaWiki Cithakan Parembugan Cithakan Pitulung Parembugan Pitulung Kategori Parembugan Kategori Gapura Parembugan Gapura TimedText TimedText talk Modhul Parembugan Modhul Acara Pembicaraan Acara Indhonésia 0 982 1753016 1738531 2026-08-20T08:10:56Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753016 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dwiaksara}} {{Coord|5|S|120|E|display=title}} {{Infobox country | latd = 6 | latm = 10.5 | latNS = S | longd = 106 | longm = 49.7 | longEW = E | conventional_long_name = Républik Indhonésia | native_name = ''Republik Indonesia'' | image_flag = Flag of Indonesia.svg | image_coat = National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg | common_name = Indhonésia | symbol_type = [[Garuda Pancasila|Lambang nagara]] | national_motto = "[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]" {{small|([[Basa Jawa Kuna]])}}<br />{{small|"Séjé-séjé nanging ajeg manunggal"}}<br />'''[[Idhéologi|Idhéologi nasional]]:''' [[Pancasila]]<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm |publisher=US Library of Congress |title=Indhonésia |edition=Country Studies}}</ref><ref name="Vickers">[[#Vickers|Vickers]], p. 117</ref> | national_anthem = ''[[Indonesia Raya]]''<br />{{small|"Indhonésia Agung"}}<br /><br /><center> </center> | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Indonesia ASEAN.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show ASEAN|default=1}} | capital = [[Jakarta]] | largest_city = capital | official_languages = {{plainlist| *[[Basa Indonesia]] (nasional) *[[Basa Jawa]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/162614/perda-no-2-tahun-2021|title=Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa}}</ref> (daérah)}} | demonym = | government_type = [[Républik|Républik konstitusional]] [[Sistem présidhènsial|présidhènsial]] [[Nagara manunggal|manunggal]] | leader_title1 = [[Présidhèn Indhonésia|Présidhèn]] | leader_name1 = [[Prabowo Subianto]] | leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidhèn Indhonésia|Wakil Présidhèn]] | leader_name2 = [[Gibran Rakabuming Raka]] | legislature = [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat]] | upper_house = [[Dewan Perwakilan Daerah]] | lower_house = [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] | sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Indhonésia|Adeg]] | established_event1 = ''[[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie]]'' | established_date1 = 20 Maret 1602 | established_event2 = [[Indhiya Nèderlan]] | established_date2 = 1 Januari 1800 | established_event3 = [[Sajarah Nusantara (1942-1945)|Kajègan Jepang]] | established_date3 = 9 Maret 1942 | established_event4 = [[Proklamasi Mardika Indhonésia|Bayawara mardika]] | established_date4 = 17 Agustus 1945 | established_event5 = [[Républik Indhonésia Sarékat]] | established_date5 = 27 Dhésèmber 1949 | established_event6 = RIS dibubaraké | established_date6 = 17 Agustus 1950 | established_event7 = [[Ordhe Anyar]] | established_date7 = 12 Maret 1967 | established_event8 = ''[[Sajarah Indhonésia (1998-saiki)|Réformasi]]'' | established_date8 = 21 Mèi 1998 | area_km2 = 1,904,569<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=UN Statistics|publisher=United Nations|date=2005|access-date=2007-10-31|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031023924/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|archive-date=2007-10-31}}</ref> | area_label = [[Laladan dharat|Dharat]] | area_rank = angka 14 | area_sq_mi = 735.358 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = | area_label2 = [[Laladan banyu|Banyu (%)]] | area_data2 = 4,85 | population_estimate = 255.461.700<ref name="bpsest">{{cite web | title =Population Projection by Province, 2010–2035 |url =http://www.bps.go.id/linkTabelStatis/view/id/1274 | publisher =Badan Pusat Statistik|access-date = 18 Mèi 2015 }}</ref> | population_census = 237.424.363<ref name="imf2"/> | population_estimate_year = 2015 | population_census_year = 2010 | population_census_rank = angka 4 | population_density_km2 = 124,66 | population_density_rank = angka 84 | population_density_sq_mi = 322,87 | GDP_PPP = $3,010 triliun<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_year = 2016 | GDP_PPP_rank = angka 8 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11.633<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = angka 102 | GDP_nominal = $936,955 miliar<ref name = "imf2">{{cite web | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=26&pr.y=7&sy=2010&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPPPSH&grp=0&a= | title = Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Indonesia | work = World Economic Outlook | publisher = International Monetary Fund | date = April 2016 | access-date = 26 Agustus 2016}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2016 | GDP_nominal_rank = angka 16 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3.620<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = angka 117 | Gini = 35.6 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2010 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 Maret 2011}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.707 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2018<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = steady<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2015|publisher=United Nations|access-date=15 Dhésèmber 2015}}</ref> | HDI_rank = angka 110 | currency = [[Rupiah]] (Rp) | currency_code = IDR | time_zone = [[Zona wektu Indhonésia|warna-warna]] | utc_offset = +7 tekan +9 | utc_offset_DST = +7 tekan +9 | time_zone_DST = [[Zona wektu Indhonésia|warna-warna]] | date_format = DD/WW/TTTT | drives_on = kiwa <!--Note that this refers to the side of the road used, not the seating of the driver--> | calling_code = [[+62]] | cctld = [[.id]] | footnote_a = {{note|a|a}} Pamaréntah resmi ngakoni mung [[Agama ing Indhonésia|enem agama]]: [[Islam]], [[Protèstan]], [[Katulik Roma]], [[Hindhu]], [[Buda]], lan [[Konghucu]].<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Heriyanto |title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia |journal=Marburg Journal of Religion |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=8 |date=August 2005 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |format=PDF|access-date=2 Oktober 2006}}</ref> | area_magnitude = 1 E+12|Pamérang wilayat wektu Indhonésia: [[Wektu Indhonésia Kulon]] (UTC+7), [[Wektu Indhonésia Tengah]] (UTC+8), [[Wektu Indhonésia Wétan]] (UTC+9) | official_website = [http://www.indonesia.go.id/ indonesia.go.id] | religion = [[Islam]]<br />[[Protèstan]]<br />[[Katulik]]<br />[[Hindhu]]<br />[[Buda]]<br />[[Konghucu]] }} '''Indhonésia''', resminé '''Républik Indhonésia''' ([[Basa Indonésia|basa Indhonésia]]: ''Republik Indonesia''), iku sawijining [[nagara berdaulat]] [[Pratélaning nagara transkontinéntal|transkontinéntal]] dumunung mligi ing [[Asia Kidul-Wétan]] karo sawatara tlatah ing [[Oséania]]. Dumunung ing antarané [[Samodra Hindia]] lan [[Samodra Pasifik|Pasifik]], iku nagara [[kapuloan]] gedhé dhéwé ing donya, kanthi punjul [[Pratélaning pulo ing Indhonésia|telulas èwu pulo]].<ref name="NG-Indonesia-Island">{{cite news | title = Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonesia | date = 8 Fèbruari 2012 | work = National Geographic Indonesia | url = http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2012/02/hanya-ada-13466-pulau-di-indonesia | language = Indonesia | access-date = 2016-08-29 | archive-date = 2017-12-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171228035556/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2012/02/hanya-ada-13466-pulau-di-indonesia | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>"The Naming Procedures of Indonesia's Islands", ''Tenth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names'', New York, 31 July – 9 August 2012, United Nations Economic and Social Council</ref> Indhonésia nduwé kira-kira populasi liwat 258 yuta wong lan [[Pratélaning nagara miturut cacah jiwa|nomer papat nagara paling akèh populasiné ing donya]], nagara [[Bangsa Austronésia|Austronésia]] paling akèh populasiné, uga [[Islam miturut nagara|nagara mayoritas Muslim]] paling akèh populasiné. Pulo paling padhet sa donya [[Jawa]] ngandhut punjul setengah saka populasi. Wangun papréntahan republik Indhonésia kalebu [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat|législatur]] lan [[Présidhèn Indhonésia|Présidhèn]] kapilih. Indhonésia duwé [[Pratélan provinsi ing Indhonésia|34 provinsi]], kang lima duwé status administratif mirunggan. Kutha krajan lan paling akèh kang ndunungi yakuwi [[Jakarta]]. Nagara duwé tapel wates karo [[Papua Niu Guinéa|Papua Nugini]], [[Timor Wétan]], lan [[Malaysia]] [[Malaysia Wétan|sisih wétan]]. Nagara tanggané kalebu [[Singapura]], [[Filipina]], [[Australia]], [[Palau]], lan tlatah [[India]] [[Kapuloan Andaman lan Nicobar]]. Indhonésia iku sawijining anggota pangadeg [[ASEAN]] lan anggota saka ékonomi utama [[G-20]]. Ékonomi Indhonésia iku [[Pratélaning nagara miturut PDB (nominal)|peringkat 16]] PDB nominal donya lan [[Pratélaning nagara miturut PDB (PPP)|gedhé dhéwé angka 8]] PDB ing [[Paritas daya tuku|PPP]]. Kapuloan Indhonésia wis tlatah wigati ing padagangan wiwit ing paling ing abad kaping 7, nalika [[Sriwijaya]] lan banjur mengko [[Majapahit]] dagang karo [[Tiongkok]] lan [[India]]. Panguwasa lokal nggunakaké modhèl budaya, agama lan pulitik manca saka awal abad [[Masèhi]], lan karajan [[Hindhu]] lan [[Buda]] ngrembaka. [[Sajarah Indhonésia]] wis diprabawai déning kakuwasan manca kepincut karo sumber daya alam Indhonésia. Pedagang [[Muslim]] lan sarjana [[Sufi]] nggawa [[Islam ing Asia Kidul-Wétan|Islam]] kang saiki dominan,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ma38W_8unrUC|title=Islam in Indonesia: Contrasting Images and Interpretations|first1=Jajat|last1=Burhanudin|first2=Kees van|last2=Dijk|date=31 Januari 2013|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nr3DuQKDfRYC|title=Indonesia: A Global Studies Handbook|first=Florence|last=Lamoureux|date=1 Januari 2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|via=Google Books}}</ref> sawatara kakuwasan Éropa nggawa [[Kristen]] lan perang siji liyané kanggo monopoli dagang ing [[Kapuloan Maluku]] ing [[Jaman Penjelajahan]]. Sawisé telung lan setengah abad [[Indhiya Nèderlan|kolonialisme Walanda]] wiwit [[Pulo Ambon|Amboina]] lan [[Batavia, Indhiya Nèderlan|Batavia]], lan pungkasanipun kabèh [[Kapuloan Indhonésia|kapuloan]] kalebu [[Timor]] lan [[Papua Kulon]], ing kaping diselani déning kakuwasan [[Portugis]], [[Prancis]] lan [[Inggris]], Indhonésia [[Révolusi Nasional Indhonésia|mardika]] sawisé [[Perang Donya II]]. Sajarah Indhonésia kang wis wiwit ora tenang, karo tantangan bencana alam, [[Pembantaian ing Indhonésia 1965-66|raja pati massa]], [[Korupsi ing Indhonésia|korupsi]], [[Pratélaning gerakan separatis aktif ing Asia#Indhonésia|separatisme]], [[Éra Pasca-Soeharto|prosès démokratisasi]], lan pèriode saka owah-owahan ékonomi kanthi rikat. Indhonésia dumadi saka atusan [[Golongan ètnis ing Indhonésia|golongan ètnis]] lan [[Basa-basa ing Indhonésia|linguistik]] asli. Golongan ètnis gedhé dhéwé – lan dominan ing pulitik – yaiku [[Wong Jawa|Jawa]]. [[Idèntitas nasional]] wis dikembangaké, dikukuhaké déning [[basa nasional]], karagaman etnik, pluralisme agama ing populasi mayoritas Muslim, lan sajarah kolonial lan kraman marang iku. Sesanti nasional Indhonésia, ''"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika"'' ("séjé-séjé nanging ajeg manunggal"), nuduhaké karagaman kang nagara. Sanajan populasi gedhé lan tlatah padhet kang ndunungi, Indhonésia duwé tlatah jembar ara-ara samun kang njurung [[karagaman hayati]] tingkat paling dhuwur kaping pindho ing donya. Indhonésia duwé sumber daya alam kalubèran kaya [[lenga]] lan [[gas bumi]], [[timah]], [[tembaga]] lan [[emas]]. Pertanian mligi mrodhuksi [[beras]], [[tèh]], [[kopi]], [[bumbon crakèn]] lan [[karèt]]. Partner dagang utama Indhonésia yaiku [[Jepang]], [[Amérika Sarékat]] lan nagara tangga [[Singapura]], [[Malaysia]] lan [[Australia]]. ==Étimologi== {{further|Jeneng Indhonésia}} Jeneng ''Indhonésia'' asalé saka pertalan Yunani saka ''[[Kali Sindu]]'' lan tembung ''nèsos'', tegesé "pulo Indhiya".<ref name = "EcoSeas1">{{cite book | last = Tomascik | first = T | author2=Mah, JA|author3=Nontji, A|author4=Moosa, MK |title = The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas&nbsp;– Part One | publisher = Periplus Editions | year = 1996 | location = Hong Kong | isbn = 962-593-078-7}}</ref> Jeneng kuwi wis ana ing abad kaping 18, adoh sadurungé Indhonésia mardika.<ref name = "indoety">{{cite news | last=Anshory |first=Irfan |title=Asal-usul Nama Indonesia |publisher=Pikiran Rakyat |date= 16 Agustus 2004 | url = http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |access-date=5 Oktober 2006|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |archive-date = 15 Dhésèmber 2006|url-status=dead|language=id}}</ref> Ing taun 1850, [[George Windsor Earl]], sawijining [[étnologi|étnolog]] Inggris, ngajokaké istilah ''Indunesians''—lan, pilihané, ''Malayunesians''—kanggo kang ndunungi "Kapuloan Indhiya utawa Kapuloan Malayu".<ref name="JIAEA_1">{{cite journal |last=Earl |first= George SW |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal= Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |page = 119}}</ref> Ing publikasi kang padha, muridé Earl, [[James Richardson Logan]], nggunakaké ''Indhonésia'' minangka sinonim kanggo ''Kapuloan Indhiya''.<ref name="JIAEA_3">{{cite journal |last=Logan |first= James Richardson | title = The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders | journal = Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=4:252–347}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George SW |title= On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal= Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages= 254, 277–8}}</ref> Nanging, akadhemisi Walanda nulis ing publikasi Indhiya Wétan padha wegah nggunakaké ''Indhonésia''. Nanging, padha nggunakaké istilah ''Kapuloan Malayu'' (''Maleische Archipel''); ''Indhiya Nèderlan'' (''Nederlandsch Oost Indië''), luwih kondhang ''Indië''; ''Wétan'' (''de Oost''); lan ''Insulinde''.<ref name = "Kroef">{{cite journal |title = The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_july-september-1951_71_3/page/166 |journal= Journal of the American Oriental Society |author = Justus M van der Kroef | volume = 71 | issue = 3 | pages = 166–71 | year = 1951 | doi =10.2307/595186 |jstor=595186}}</ref> Sawisé 1900, jeneng ''Indhonésia'' dadi luwih umum ing lingkungan akademik njaba Nèderlan, lan golongan nasionalis Indhonésia migunakaké kuwi kanggo èksprèsi pulitik.<ref name = "Kroef" /> [[Adolf Bastian]], saka Universitas Berlin, mopulèrke jeneng kuwi liwat bukuné ''Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894''. Pelajar Indhonésia kang pisanan nggunakaké jeneng iki yaiku [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|Suwardi Suryaningrat]] (Ki Hajar Dewantara), nalika ngedegaké kantor berita ing Nèderlan kang jenengé ''Indonesisch Pers-bureau'' ing 1913.<ref name="indoety"/> == Sajarah == ''Kanggo tulisan sabanjuré, pirsani [[Sajarah Indhonésia]]'' Ing samadyaning prabawa agama [[Hindhu]] lan [[Buda]], sawatara [[karaton]] ngadeg ing pulo [[Sumatra]] lan [[Jawa]] wiwit [[abad kaping 7]] nganti [[abad kaping 14]]. Tekaning pedagang-pedagang Arab saka Gujarat, [[India]] sabanjuré nepungaké agama [[Islam]] kang pungkasané dadi agama gedhé dhéwé ing Indhonésia. Wong-wong Éropa teka ing pawitaning abad kaping 16 lan nalika iku nemu nagara-nagara cilik. Nagara-nagara iku banjur kanthi gampang dikuwasani supaya sabanjuré uga bisa nguwasani dol-tinuku bumbon crakèn ing tlatah kono. Ing abad kaping 17, nagara [[Walanda]] kang nalika iku minangka nagara paling kuwat ing tlatah Éropa, nelukaké nagara [[Inggris]] (British) lan [[Portugal|Portugis]] (kajaba tlatah jajahan [[Portugal|Portugis]] ing Timor Wétan). Bangsa [[Walanda]] njajah Indhonésia nganti mangsané [[Perang Donya II|Perang Donya Kapindho]]. Wiwitané [[Walanda]] ngadegaké [[VOC|Syarikat Hindia Wétan Londho]], yaiku armada niyaga bumbon crakèn duwèké pamaréntah [[karajan]] Walanda, lan sabanjuré ing wiwitaning abad kaping 19 kanthi kekuwatan prajurité wiwit blak-blakan njajah tlatah Indhonésia. Samangsa [[Perang Donya II]], [[Walanda]] (Landa) dijajah karo [[Jerman]], nalika iku [[Jepang|Jepun]] nguwasani Indhonésia. Sawisé Indhonésia kapilut ing taun [[1942]], pihak Jepun sesora yèn para pejuwang Indhonésia iku kanca dedagangan kang kooperatif lan sedya nggelar prajurit yèn dibutuhaké. [[Soekarno]], [[Mohammad Hatta]], [[K. H. Mas Mansur]], lan [[Ki Hajar Dewantara]] banjur olèh kanugrahan saka Maharaja Jepun ing taun [[1943]]. Ing Maret 1945, pihak Jepang nggawé sawijining kumite kanggo mardikaké Indonésiya, sabubaré [[Perang Pasifik]] rampung ing taun iku. Kaanan iki kasurung déning organisasi para mudha, golongan pimpinan Soekarno nyoba supaya Indhonésia bisa mardika. Ing madya liya, Walanda ngirimaké prajurit kanggo ngrebut manèh Indhonésia. Samubarang pratingkah kebak getih kanggo nanggulangi para pejuwang kanggo mardika mau banjur kondhang kanthi sebutan 'tumindak pulisi' (''Actie Politioneel''). Pungkasané, Walanda gelem nampa hak bangsa Indhonésia kanggo mardika ing [[27 Dhésèmber]] [[1949]] sawisé kasurung-surung bangsa-bangsa liya, mligi [[Amérika Sarékat]]. Soekarno dadi [[présidhèn]] pisanan Indhonésia kanthi Mohammad Hatta dadi wakil présidhèn. Ing warsa [[1950-an]] lan [[1960-an]], pamarintah Soekarno wiwit mangayubagya blok sosialis, kaya ta [[Républik Rakyat Cina]] lan [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslawiya]]. Ing taun [[1960-an]] uga kedadèn konfrontasi adu tiyasa karo nagara tangga, [[Malaysia]], lan nggresulané para kawula amarga urip kecingkrangan tambah ndadra. Jendral [[Soeharto|Suharto]] dadi présidhèn ing taun [[1967]] kanthi alesan ngamanaké nagara saka anceman [[kuminisme]] tumrap Soekarno kang nalika iku sansaya tanpa daya. Sawisé Soeharto nyekel kuwasa, [[PKI]] dibubaraké lan warga Indhonésia kang dikira cawé-cawé lan mèlu kuminis akèh kang mati. Ing 32 taun papréntahan Soeharto iku mau [[Orde Baru]], kanggo mbèdakaké karo jaman Soekarno kang mau ''Orde Lama''. Suharto kasil nyedhakaké manèh Indonesiya marang nagara-nagara manca-lan kasil nuwuhaké ékonomi kang manjila, ora kétang ora warata. Ing wiwitan Orde Baru, strategi ékonomi nagara digawé déning sapérangan ahli ékonomi lulusan fakultas ékonomi ''University of California at Berkeley'', kang diwènèhi gelar "golongan Berkeley". Nanging, Soeharto lan sakancané bisa dilèngsèraké sawisé unjuk rasa kang sumrambah ing sadhéngah papan. Tambah manèh, nagara lagi keblandhang utang amarga krisis. Soeharto mudhun ing taun [[1998]]. Saka 1998 nganti [[2001]], ana telung (3) présidhèn kang mung sedhéla waé ngrasakaké kuwasa, yaiku: [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie|Bacharuddin Jusuf (BJ) Habibie]], [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] lan [[Megawati Soekarnoputri]]. Ing taun [[2004]] présidhèn Indhonésia kang anyar yaiku [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]. Indhonésia saiki nggémbol prakara akèh, wiwit saka dhuwit, pulitik, agama, lan rasa guyub. Acèh lan Papua nyoba luwar saka Nagara Kesatuan Républik Indhonésia. [[Timor Wétan]] malah wis ngumandhangké [[kamardikan]]é ing taun 2002 sawisé 24 taun dikuwasani Indhonésia lan 3 taun ing panggulawenthahé [[PBB]]. Masalah paling anyar kang katimpa nagara iki yaiku anané samubarang karusakan jalaran alam. Ing [[26 Dhésèmber]] [[2004]], [[tsunami]] nerjang puluhan éwu warga ing [[NAD|Acèh]] lan [[Pulo Nias]], [[Sumatra]]. == Pulitik == ''Kanggo tulisan luwih pepak, pirsani [[Pulitik Indhonésia]]'' [[Gambar:Ruang MPR.jpg|thumb|Pelantikan Présidhèn Indhonésia déning [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat]] ing [[Gedung DPR/MPR|Komplèks Parlemèn]] Jakarta, 2014.]] Indhonésia iku salah siji saka negara ing donya kang nganggo sistem dhémokrasi kanthi pas lan bener ing papréntahané, wujud nagara [[républik]] [[présidhèn]]sial multiparté kang dhémokratis. Kayadéné ing nagara-nagara dhémokrasi liyané, sistem pulitik kang didhasaraké marang Trias Pulitika yaiku pamisahan kakuwasan lègislatif, èksekutif lan yudhikatif. Kakuwasan lègislatif dicekel déning sawijining lembaga kang jenengé Majelis Permusyawatan Rakyat (MPR) kang dumadi saka rong badan yaiku DPR kang anggota-anggotané wujud wakil-wakil Parté Pulitik lan DPD kang anggota-anggotané makili provinsi. Saben laladan diwakili déning 4 wakil kang dipilih langsung déning rakyat ing laladané dhéwé-dhéwé. Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat ([[MPR]]) iku lembaga paling dhuwur nagara. Nanging sawisé amandemèn angka 4, MPR dudu lembaga paling dhuwur manèh. Kaanggotaan MPR owah sawisé Amandeman UUD 1945 ing pèriode [[1999]]-[[2004]]. Kabèh anggota MPR iku anggota DPR, ditambah anggota [[DPD]] (Dewan Perwakilan Laladan).<ref>{{cite book |title=Amandemen Ketiga Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 |url=http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_eng.pdf |format=PDF |author=Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat |authorlink=Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat |accessdate=2006-12-13 |archive-date=2006-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201025250/http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_eng.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Anggota DPR lan DPD dipilih liwat pemilu lan dilantik kanthi mangsa kalungguhan limang taun. Wiwit [[2004]], MPR iku parlemèn sistem rong kamar (bikameral), sawisé kacipta DPD minangka kamar kaloro. Sadurungé, anggota MPR iku kabèh anggota DPR ditambah Utusan Golongan. MPR wektu iki dipangajengi [[Hidayat Nur Wahid]]. Anggota MPR wektu iki ana 550 anggota DPR lan 128 anggota DPD. DPR wektu iki dipangajengi [[Agung Laksono]], déné DPD dipangajengi [[Ginandjar Kartasasmita]]. Lembaga èksekutif punjeré dumunung ana ing présidhèn, wakil présidhèn, lan kabinèt. Kabinèt ing wujud Kabinet Presidensiil saéngga para nayaka tanggung jawab marang présidhèn lan ora makili parté pulitik kang ana ing parlemèn. Sanajan mangkono, Présidhèn wektu iki yaiku [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] kang diusung déning Parté Dhémokrat uga nunjuk sawatara pamimpin Parté Pulitik supaya lungguh ing kabinèté. Tujuané kanggo njaga stabilitas papréntahan ngèlingi kuwaté posisi lembaga lègislatif. Nanging pos-pos wigati lan strategis lumrahé diisi déning nayaka asal saka wong kang dianggep ahli sajeroning bidhangé. Lembaga Yudikatif wiwit mangsa réformasi lan anané amandemèn [[UUD 1945]] diayahi déning [[Mahkamah Agung Républik Indhonésia|Mahkamah Agung]], [[Komisi Yudisial]], lan [[Mahkamah Konstitusi]], kalebu pangaturan administrasi para hakim. Sanajan mangkono Nayaka Hukum lan Hak Manungsa tetep ana ing kabinèt. == Wewengkon == ''Kanggo tulisan luwih pepak, pirsani [[Pratélan Provinsi Indhonésia|Laladan-Laladan ing Indhonésia]]'' {{Peta Indhonésia}} Indhonésia iku nagara paling jembar ing [[Asia Kidul-Wétan]] kang ketata sajeroning provinsi-provinsi, wektu iki dumadi saka 34 [[provinsi]], lima ing antarané wujud laladan istiméwa. Saben provinsi duwé badan legislatur lan gubernur. Provinsi dipérang dadi [[kabupatèn]] lan [[kutha]], kang dipérang manèh dadi [[kacamatan]] lan manèh dadi [[kalurahan]] lan [[désa]]. Provinsi [[Acèh]], [[Langsa]], [[DKI Jakarta]], [[Yogyakarta|D.I. Yogyakarta]], [[Papua]], lan [[Papua Kulon]] duwé hak istiméwa legislatur kang luwiih gedhé lan tingkat otonomi kang luwih dhuwur saka papréntahan punjer tinimbang provinsi liyané. Contoné, papréntahan Nanggroe Acèh Darussalam duwé hak kanggo minangka sistem kukum dhéwé; ing taun 2003, Acèh wiwit ngukuhaké kukum [[Syariah]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michelle Ann Miller |title=The Acèh law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism? |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |year=2004 |pages=333–351 |doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789}}</ref> Yogyakarta olèh status Laladan Khusus minangka pengakon marang peran wigati Yogyakarta sajeroning njurung sajeroning Revolusi.<ref>[[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; {{PDFlink|[http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/archive/Law5_1974.pdf Indonesia Law No. 5/1974 Concerning Basic Principles on Administration in the Region]|146&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 149884 bytes -->}} (''versi pertalan''). [[Présidhèn Indhonésia]] (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91</ref> [[Provinsi Papua]], nalika semana mau Irian Jaya, éntuk status otonomi mirunggan taun 2001.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dursin |first1=Richel |last2=Yamin |first2=Kafil |title=Another Fine Mess in Papua |work=Editorial |pages= |language= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=18 Novèmber 2004 |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05}}; {{cite news |title=Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta|publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=18 Novèmber 2004 |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |access-date=5 Oktober 2006}}</ref> Jakarta minangka laladan mirunggan kutha krajan nagara. [[Timor Leste|Timor Portugis]] didadèkaké provinsi [[Timor Wétan]] sasuwéné 1976–1999, kang sabanjuré misah minangka rèferèndum dadi Nagara [[Timor Leste]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burr |first1=W. |last2=Evans |first2=M.L. |title=Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto |work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62 |publisher=[[National Security Archive]], [[The George Washington University]], Washington, DC |date=6 Dhésèmber 2001 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |access-date=17 Sèptèmber 2006}}</ref> ;Provinsi ing lan kutha krajané === Tabel provinsi === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 100%;" |+ Provinsi Indhonésia<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.depdagri.go.id/pages/data-wilayah |title=Data Wilayah – Kementerian Dalam Negeri – Republik Indonesia<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2011-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222192208/http://www.depdagri.go.id/pages/data-wilayah |archive-date=2012-02-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Buku Induk—Kode dan Data Wilayah Administrasi Pemerintahan per Provinsi, Kabupaten/Kota dan Kecamatan Seluruh Indonesia |url=http://www.kemendagri.go.id/media/documents/2015/02/25/l/a/lampiran_i.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119071719/http://www.kemendagri.go.id/media/documents/2015/02/25/l/a/lampiran_i.pdf |publisher=Kementerian Dalam Negeri [Ministry of Home Affairs] |language=Indonesian |archive-date=2016-11-19}}</ref> |- ! [[Lambang nagara|Lambang]] ! Provinsi ! Akronim Indhonésia ! [[ISO 3166-2:ID|ISO]]<ref>[[ISO 3166-2:ID]] ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] [[ISO 3166-2|3166-2]] codes for the provinces of Indonesia)</ref> ! Kutha krajan ! Cacah jiwa (2015)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badan Pusat Statistik/Statistics Indonesia |url=https://bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/Penduduk-Indonesia-hasil-SUPAS-2015_rev.pdf |title=Hasil Survei Penduduk Antas Sensus 2015/Result of the 2015 Intercensal Population Census |date=November 2015 |isbn=978-979-064-912-5 |language=Indonesian, English |access-date=10 Juni 2018}}</ref> ! Jembar (km²) ! Kepadhetan <br />per km²<br />(2010) ! Unit geografis ! Cacahe<br />kutha lan <br />kabupatèn ! Cacahe<br />kutha ! Cacahe<br />kabupatèn |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Aceh.svg|60px]] || align="left" | {{sort|Aceh|[[Acèh]]}} || Acèh || ID-AC || align="left" | [[Banda Acèh]] || align="right" | 4,993,385 || align="right" | 57,956 || align="right" | 77 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 23 || align="right" | 5 || align="right" | 18 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Bali COA.svg|64x64px]] || align="left" | [[Bali]] || Bali || ID-BA || align="left" | [[Denpasar]] || align="right" | 4,148,588 || align="right" | 5,780 || align="right" | 621 || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Nusa Tenggara]] || align="right" | 9 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 8 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Bangka Belitung.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Bangka Belitung]] || Babel || ID-BB || align="left" | [[Kutha Pangkalpinang|Pangkalpinang]] || align="right" | 1,370,331 || align="right" | 16,424 || align="right" | 64 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 7 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 6 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Banten.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Banten]] || Banten || ID-BT || align="left" | [[Kutha Serang|Serang]] || align="right" | 11,934,373 || align="right" | 9,662 || align="right" | 909 || align="left" | [[Jawa]] || align="right" | 8 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 4 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Bengkulu.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Kutha Bengkulu|Bengkulu]] || Bengkulu || ID-BE || align="left" | [[Kutha Bengkulu|Bengkulu]] || align="right" | 1,872,136 || align="right" | 19,919 || align="right" | 84 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 9 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Central Java.png|73x73px]] || align="left" | [[Jawa Tengah]] || Jateng || ID-JT || align="left" | [[Semarang]] || align="right" | 33,753,023 || align="right" | 40,800 || align="right" | 894 || align="left" | [[Jawa]] || align="right" | 35 || align="right" | 6 || align="right" | 29 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Central Kalimantan.svg|77x77px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Tengah]] || Kalteng || ID-KT || align="left" | [[Kutha Palangkaraya|Palangka Raya]] || align="right" | 2,490,178 || align="right" | 153,564 || align="right" | 14 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan]] || align="right" | 14 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 13 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Central Sulawesi.svg|82x82px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Tengah]] || Sulteng || ID-ST || align="left" | [[Palu]] || align="right" | 2,872,857 || align="right" | 61,841 || align="right" | 41 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi]] || align="right" | 13 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 12 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of East Java.svg|79x79px]] || align="left" | [[Jawa Wétan]] || Jatim || ID-JI || align="left" | [[Surabaya]] || align="right" | 38,828,061 || align="right" | 47,799 || align="right" | 828 || align="left" | [[Jawa]] || align="right" | 38 || align="right" | 9 || align="right" | 29 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of East Kalimantan.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Wétan]] || Kaltim || ID-KI || align="left" | [[Samarinda]] || align="right" | 3,422,676 || align="right" | 139,462 || align="right" | 22 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan]] || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 3 || align="right" | 7 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of Arms of East Nusa Tenggara NEW.png|60px]] || align="left" | [[Nusa Tenggara Wétan]] || NTT || ID-NT || align="left" | [[Kupang]] || align="right" | 5,112,760 || align="right" | 48,718 || align="right" | 92 || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Nusa Tenggara]] || align="right" | 22 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 21 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Gorontalo.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Gorontalo]] || Gorontalo || ID-GO || align="left" | [[Kutha Gorontalo|Gorontalo]] || align="right" | 1,131,670 || align="right" | 11,257 || align="right" | 94 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi]] || align="right" | 6 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 5 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Jakarta COA.svg|60px]] || align="left" | {{sort|Jakarta|[[Jakarta|Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta]]}} || DKI || ID-JK || align="left" | [[Jakarta]] || align="right" | 10,154,134 ||align="right" | 664 || align="right" | 12,786 || align="left" | [[Jawa]] || align="right" | 6 || align="right" | 5 || align="right" | 1 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Jambi.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Jambi]] || Jambi || ID-JA || align="left" | [[Kutha Jambi|Jambi]] || align="right" | 3,397,164 ||align="right" | 50,058 || align="right" | 57 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 11 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 9 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Lampung Emblem.svg|83x83px]] || align="left" | [[Lampung]] || Lampung || ID-LA || align="left" | [[Bandar Lampung]] || align="right" | 8,109,601 ||align="right" | 34,623 || align="right" | 226 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 15 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 13 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Maluku coa.png|73x73px]] || align="left" | [[Maluku]] || Maluku || ID-MA || align="left" | [[Kutha Ambon|Ambon]] || align="right" | 1,683,856 ||align="right" | 46,914 || align="right" | 32 || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Maluku]] || align="right" | 11 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 9 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of North Kalimantan (2021 version).svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Lor]] || Kaltara || ID-KU || align="left" | [[Tanjung Selor]]|| align="right" | 639,639 || align="right" | 72,275 || align="right" | 10 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan]] || align="right" | 5 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 4 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of North Maluku.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Maluku Lor]] || Malut || ID-MU || align="left" | [[Kutha Sofifi|Sofifi]]|| align="right" | 1,160,275 ||align="right" | 31,982 || align="right" | 31 || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Maluku]] || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 8 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:North Sulawesi Emblem.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Lor]] || Sulut || ID-SA || align="left" | [[Kutha Manado|Manado]] || align="right" | 2,409,921 ||align="right" | 13,851 || align="right" | 162 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi]] || align="right" | 15 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 11 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of North Sumatra.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sumatra Lor]] || Sumut || ID-SU || align="left" | [[Kutha Medan|Medan]] || align="right" | 13,923,262 ||align="right" | 72,981 || align="right" | 188 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 33 || align="right" | 8 || align="right" | 25 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Papua 2.svg|60px]] || align="left" | {{sort|Papua|[[Papua]]}} || Papua || ID-PA || align="left" | [[Kutha Jayapura|Jayapura]] || align="right" | 3,143,088 ||align="right" | 319,036 || align="right" | 8 || align="left" | [[Papua]] || align="right" | 29 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 28 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Riau COA.svg|77x77px]] || align="left" | [[Riau]] || Riau || ID-RI || align="left" | [[Kutha Pekanbaru|Pekanbaru]] || align="right" | 6,330,941 ||align="right" | 87,023 || align="right" | 52 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 12 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 10 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Riau Islands.svg|77x77px]] || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Riau]] || Kepri || ID-KR || align="left" | [[Kutha Tanjungpinang|Tanjungpinang]] || align="right" | 1,968,313 ||align="right" | 8,201 || align="right" | 208 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 7 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 5 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Southeast Sulawesi COA.svg|69x69px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Tenggara]] || Sultra || ID-SG || align="left" | [[Kutha Kendari|Kendari]] || align="right" | 2,495,248 ||align="right" | 38,067 || align="right" | 51 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi]] || align="right" | 17 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 15 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of South Kalimantan.png|83x83px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Kidul]] || Kalsel || ID-KS || align="left" | [[Kutha Banjarmasin|Banjarmasin]] || align="right" | 3,984,315 ||align="right" | 38,744 || align="right" | 96 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan]] || align="right" | 13 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 11 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:South Sulawesi Emblem.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Kidul]] || Sulsel || ID-SN || align="left" | [[Kutha Makassar|Makassar]] || align="right" | 8,512,608 ||align="right" | 46,717 || align="right" | 151 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi]] || align="right" | 24 || align="right" | 3 || align="right" | 21 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:South Sumatra COA.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sumatra Kidul]] || Sumsel || ID-SS || align="left" | [[Kutha Palembang|Palembang]] || align="right" | 8,043,042 ||align="right" | 91,592 || align="right" | 86 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 17 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 13 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:West Java coa.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Jawa Kulon]] || Jabar || ID-JB || align="left" | [[Kutha Bandung|Bandung]] || align="right" | 46,668,214 ||align="right" | 35,377 || align="right" | 1,176 || align="left" | [[Jawa]] || align="right" | 27 || align="right" | 9 || align="right" | 18 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:West Kalimantan Emblem.svg|77x77px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Kulon]] || Kalbar || ID-KB || align="left" | [[Kutha Pontianak|Pontianak]] || align="right" | 4,783,209 ||align="right" | 147,307 || align="right" | 30 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan]] || align="right" | 14 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 12 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:West Nusa Tenggara COA.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Nusa Tenggara Kulon]]|| NTB || ID-NB || align="left" | [[Kutha Mataram|Mataram]] || align="right" | 4,830,118 ||align="right" | 18,572 || align="right" | 234 || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Nusa Tenggara]] || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 8 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:West Papua Province Emblem.svg|81x81px]] || align="left" | [[Papuah Kulon|Papua Kulon]]|| Pabar || ID-PB || align="left" | [[Kabupatèn Manokwari|Manokwari]] || align="right" | 868,819 ||align="right" | 97,024 || align="right" | 8 || align="left" | [[Papua]] || align="right" | 13 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 12 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of West Sulawesi.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Kulon]] || Sulbar || ID-SR || align="left" | [[Kabupatèn Mamuju|Mamuju]] || align="right" | 1,279,994 ||align="right" | 16,787 || align="right" | 73 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi]] || align="right" | 6 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 6 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of West Sumatra.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sumatra Kulon]] || Sumbar || ID-SB || align="left" | [[Kutha Padang|Padang]] || align="right" | 5,190,577 ||align="right" | 42,012 || align="right" | 110 || align="left" | [[Sumatra]] || align="right" | 19 || align="right" | 7 || align="right" | 12 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Yogyakarta COA.svg|60px]] || align="left" | {{sort|Yogyakarta|[[Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta]]}} || DIY || ID-YO || align="left" | [[Kutha Ngayogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] || align="right" | 3,675,768 ||align="right" | 3,133 || align="right" | 1,138 || align="left" | [[Jawa]] || align="right" | 5 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 4 |} == Géografi == [[File:Bromo-Semeru-Batok-Widodaren.jpg|jmpl]] ''a. Dununge, jembar, lan wates'' Indhonésia yaiku negara kapuloan paling jembar ing donya. Gunggunge/jumlahe pulo ing Indonesia ya sing gedhe apadene sing cilik nganti 17.508 pulo. Pulo-pulo kasebut sinebar ing wewengkon Indonesia kang nduweni jembar wewengkon 5.180.053 Km² kang kalebu saka jembare dharatan 1.922.570&nbsp;km² lan jembare banyu laut 3.257.483&nbsp;km². Adhedhasar astronomi, negara Indonesia dumunung watara 6°LU-11°LS lan watara 95° BT-141°BT. Wewengkon Indonesia paling lor yaiku [[Pulo Weh]] kang dumunung ing 6°LU lan wewengkon paling kidul yaiku [[Pulo Rote]], [[Nusa Tenggara Wétan]] kang dumunung ing 11°LS. Wewengkon Indonesia paling kulon yaiku Pulo Weh kang dumunung ing 95°BT, dene wewengkon Indonesia paling wetan yaiku kutha [[Merauke, Merauke|Merauke]] kang dumunung ing bujur 141°BT. Indonesia nduweni dawa bujure 460 lan jembar lintang 170. Adhedhasar [[Sistem koordhinat géyografis|geografi]], Indonesia dumunung ing antarane 2 bawana gedhe yaiku [[Asia|Bawana Asia]] lan [[Ostrali|Bawana Australia]] sarta ing antarane 2 samodra yaiku [[Samodra Indhi]] lan [[Samodra Pasifik]]. Adhedhasar [[Géologi|geologis]] Indonesia dumunung ing titik temune 2 deretan gunung-gunung yaiku [[Sirkum Pasifik]] lan [[Sirkum Mediterania]]. Sirkum Pasifik liwat [[Sumatra]], [[Jawa]], [[Bali]], [[Nusa Tenggara Kulon]], [[Nusa Tenggara Wétan]], nganti [[Kapuloan Banda]], dene Sirkum Mediterania liwat [[Kalimantan]] lan [[Sulawesi]]. Loro jalur gunung-gunung iku ketemu ing [[Sagara Bandha]]. Wewengkon Indonesia uga wewatesan karo sawetara wewengkon. Tapel wates Indonesia karo wewengkon liyane yaiku kaya ing ngisor. 1) Ing sisih lor, Indonesia wewatesan karo [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], [[Palau]], [[Filipina]], lan [[Sagara Cina Kidul]]. 2) Ing sisih kidul, Indonesia wewatesan karo [[Timor Wétan]], [[Ostrali]], lan [[Samodra Indhi]]. (3) Ing sisih kulon, Indonesia wewatesan karo Samodra Indhi (4) Ing sisih wetan, Indonesia wewatesan karo [[Papua Niu Guinéa]] lan [[Samodra Pasifik]]. ''b. Iklim'' Indonesia iklime tropis amarga dumunung ing antarane 2 garis balik (23 1/2°LU-23 1/2° LS). Iklim tropis mawa ciri yaiku udane dhuwur lan panas saben taun. == Ékonomi == ''Kanggo tulisan luwih pepak, pirsani [[Ékonomi Indhonésia]]'' [[Gambar:Muncan Bali Indonesia Rice-paddy-along-Jalan-Raya-Muncan-01.jpg|jmpl|Sawah ing Indhonésia]] Ing pungkasan taun 1990-an [[Ékonomi]] Indhonésia ngalami kamunduran amarga [[krisis ékonomi]] kang ngenani sapérangan gedhé [[Asia]] wektu iku nanging Ékonomi Indhonésia saiki wiwit stabil manèh. Indhonésia nduwé sumberdaya alam kang gedhé ing sanjabaning Jawa, antarané [[lenga mentah]], [[gas bumi]], [[timah]], [[tembaga]] lan [[emas]]. Indhonésia iku eksportir gas bumi gedhé dhéwé nomer loro ing [[bumi|donya]], ning akir-akir iki wiwit dadi importir lenga mentah. Kasil tetanèn kang utama antarané [[beras]], [[tèh]], [[kopi]], bumbon crakèn lan janganan [[lobak]]. Mitra dagang Indhonésia gedhé dhéwé yaiku [[Jepang]], [[Amérika Sarékat]] lan nagara-nagara tanggané yaiku [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]] lan [[Australia]]. Indhonésia nduwé akèh sumberdaya alam lan kang ndunungi, nanging isih ngadhepi masalah kamiskinan kang sapérangan gedhéné disebabaké korupsi mligi ing papréntahan. Bank sentral Indhonésia yaiku [[Bank Indhonésia]]. == Démografi == Gunggunge/jumlahe para pedunung ing Indhonesia ing taun 2015 yaiku 255,7 yuta jiwa. Ing taun 2015 iki, kira-kira tingkat padete nganti 475 jiwa/km² kanthi tingkat tuwuh 1,36% saben taun. Pemudhunan iki ana gandhengane saka suksese [[KB]] (Program Keluarga Berencana) kang dianakake pamrentah. Akeh-akehe, para kawula ing Indhonesia dumunung ing [[Jawa|Pulo Jawa]], disusul [[Sumatra]], [[Sulawesi]], lan [[Kalimantan]]. Meh ing saben pulo ditemokake wong-wong turunan Jawa. Sabanjure yaiku [[Sundha|suku Sundha]] (8%), [[Wong Madura|suku Madura]] (7%), lan turahane suku bangsa liya. Ing interaksi, para kawula Indhonesia migunakake [[Basa Indonésia]] kang asale saka [[Basa Malayu]] minangka basa resmi. Dene basa sedina-dina saben suku bangsa migunakake basa sukune dhewe-dhewe (basa ibu). Akeh-akehe para kawula Indhonesia ngrasuk agama [[Islam]], yaiku 88% saka cacahe para pedunung. == Budaya == [[Gambar:Borobudur.JPG|200px|thumb|Candhi Barabudhur ing Magelang, Jawa Tengah]] ''Kanggo tulisan luwih gamblang, pirsani [[Budaya Indhonésia]]'' Jinising kasenian ing Indhonésia akèh diprabawai karo sawatara kabudayan. Jogèd [[Jawa]] lan [[Bali]] iku kang kondhang, contoné, akèh olèh pangaribawa saka kabudayan [[Hindhu]]. Akèh candhi-candhi kang kawangun kaya ing tanah Indhia. Déné pagelaran [[wayang]] lan [[batik|bathik]] uga kawentar ing donya. Akèhing bebrayan lan agama agawé regeng kabudayan Indhonésia. == Kasil Alam == === Karèt === Karèt naté kondhang kanthi sebutan ‘enam ireng’ lan iku bebathi nguntungaké devisa ing jaman mbiyèn. Ing donya, saiki Indhonésia ngancik trap angka loro sawisé [[Malaysia]] ing babagan karèt. Nagara-nagara kang ngasilaké karèt liyané yaiku [[Thailand]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Nigeria]], [[Liberia]], [[Zaire]], [[Brazil]] lan [[Filipina]]. === Klapa Sawit === Kebonan klapa sawit sansaya jembar. Kasilé kaolah dadi lenga lan inti sawit. kasilé iki dièkspor menyang njaba nagara lan uga kanggo kabutuhané wong-wong Indhonésia dhéwé. === Tembako === Aréal tembako (mbako) ing taun [[1979]] kira-kira ambané 198.000 Ha. Ing antarané saka angka iku yaiku 183.000 Ha kaselenggarakaké déning rakyat, 2000 Ha diurusi cukong-cukong gedhé, lan 13.000 Ha didarbèni pamarintah (PTPN). === Emas lan Pérak === Emas lan pérak digulawentah déning PT Aneka Tambang ing Banten Kidul, karo Freeport Indhonésia lan wiji tembaga ing [[Papua]]. Kanthi prasaja, rakyat uga mèlu ngolah emas lan pérak kanthi cilik-cilikan. === Aspal Alam === Panambangan aspal kagiyaraké ing [[Sulawesi Kidul-Wétan]], Sakabèhé 19 lapangan gedhé lan cilik, lima ing antarané kaanggep becik. Yèn dikira sakabèhé, kira-kira 28,5 yuta ton. == Militèr == * [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|Militèr Indhonésia]] * [[TNI Angkatan Udara|TNI AU]] * [[TNI Angkatan Dharat|TNI AD]] * [[TNI Angkatan Laut|TNI AL]] == Deleng uga == {{portal|Indhonésia|Asia}} * [[Pratélan tokoh Indhonésia]] * [[Rupiah]] * [[Pratélan Provinsi Indhonésia]] * [[Pratélan kabupatèn lan kutha ing Indhonésia]] * [[Pratélan pulo ing Indhonésia]] * [[Pratélan parté pulitik ing Indhonésia]] * [[ASEAN]] {{clear}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Wacan luwih lanjut== * {{Cite book|ref=Friend |last=Friend |first=T. |title=Indonesian Destinies |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-674-01137-6}} * {{Cite book|ref=Ricklefs |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition |publisher=MacMillan |year=1991 |isbn=0-333-57689-6}} * {{Cite book|ref=Schwarz |last=Schwarz |first=A. |year=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=1-86373-635-2}} * {{Cite book|ref=Taylor |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=0-300-10518-5}} * {{Cite book|ref=Vickers |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-521-54262-6}} ==Pranala njaba== {{Sister project links|voy=Indhonésia}} {{Commons category|Indonesia|Category:Indhonésia}} ; Pamaréntah * [http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/ Pamaréntah Indhonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217185129/http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/ |date=2012-02-17 }} * [http://www.setneg.go.id/ Menteri Sekretaris Negara] {{id icon}} * [http://www.bps.go.id/ Badan Pusat Statistik] * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/ID.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012020339/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/ID.html |date=2014-10-12 }} ; Informasi umum * {{CIA World Factbook link|id|Indonesia}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/indonesia.htm Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426085755/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/indonesia.htm |date=2009-04-26 }} saka ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Indonesia}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14921238 Indonesia profile] saka [[BBC News]] * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286480/Indonesia Indonesia] ing ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' * {{Wikiatlas|Indonesia}} * {{osmrelation-inline|304751}} * [http://www.indonesia.travel/ Official Site of Indonesian Tourism] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ID Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia] saka [[International Futures]] {{Geographic location | Northeast = {{hlist |[[Samodra Pasifik]] |[[Palau]] |[[Sagara Pilipina]]}} | North = {{hlist |[[Sagara Sulawesi]] |[[Malaysia]] |[[Pilipina]] |[[Singapura]] |[[Sagara Cina Kidul]]}} | Northwest = {{hlist |[[Sagara Andaman]] |[[Teluk Benggala]] |[[India]]}} | West = [[Samodra Hindia]] | Centre = Indhonésia | East = [[Papua Nugini]] | Southwest = [[Samodra Hindia]] | South = {{hlist |[[Australia]] |[[Samodra Hindia]]}} | Southeast = {{hlist |[[Australia]] |[[Timor Wétan]] |[[Sagara Timor]] |[[Selat Torres]]}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Artikel kang ana gandhengane marang Indhonésia |list ={{Topik Indonesia}} {{Provinsi Indhonésia}} {{ASEAN}} {{GNB}} {{Asia}} {{APEC}} {{OKI}}}} {{artikel pilihan}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Indhonésia|*]] sa7uuh2x4g2u2zpj5omyj9k1k10d2ex Tata Surya 0 1797 1752898 1750784 2026-08-20T04:33:21Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752898 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Solar System True Color JV.png|right|upright=1.5|thumb|Gambaran umum Tata Surya (ukuran planit digambaraké saklaras ing skala, sauntara leté ora): [[Srengéngé]], [[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Bumi]], [[Mars]], [[Ceres]], [[Yupiter]], [[Saturnus]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptunus]], [[Pluto]], [[Haumea]], [[Makemake]] lan [[Eris]].]] <!--{{Spoken Wikipedia|Tata Surya.ogg|2010-09-10}}--> '''Tata Surya'''{{Ref label|A|a|none}} ana ing galaksi [[Bimasekti]] iku golongan barang langit kang kawangun saka sawijining [[lintang]] kang diarani [[Srengéngé]] lan kabèh objèk kang kraket déning gaya [[gravitasi]]né. Objèk-objèk mau kalebu wolung [[planit]] kang wis kauninga kanthi orbit awujud [[elips]], limang [[planit cilik]], 173 [[satelit alami]] kang wis kaidhèntifikasi{{Ref label|B|b|none}}, lan mayuta-yuta barang langit ([[meteor]], [[asteroid]], [[komet]]) liyané. Tata Surya kawangun saka Srengéngé, patang [[#Planit-planit pérangan njero|planit pérangan njero]], [[#Sabuk asteroid|sabuk asteroid]], patang [[#Planit-planit njaba|planit pérangan njaba]], lan ing pérangan paling njaba yaiku [[#Sabuk Kuiper|Sabuk Kuiper]] lan [[#Piringan kasebar|piringan kasebar]]. [[#Awan Oort|Awan Oort]] diprakirakaké ana ing [[#laladan paling adoh|laladan paling adoh]] kang leté watara kaping sèwu ing njaba pérangan kang paling njaba. Adhedhasar leté saka Srengéngé, wolung planit Tata Surya yaiku [[Merkurius]] utawa ''Buda'' (57,9 yuta [[km]]), [[Venus]] utawa ''Sukra'' (108 yuta km), [[Bumi]] (150 yuta km), [[Mars]] utawa ''Anggara'' (228 yuta km), [[Yupiter]] utawa ''Wrehaspati'' (779 yuta km), [[Saturnus]] utawa ''Saniscara'' (1.430 yuta km), [[Uranus]] (2.880 yuta km), lan [[Neptunus]] (4.500 yuta km). Wiwit madyaning [[2008]], ana limang objèk akasa kang kaklasifikasikaké minangka [[planit cilik]]. Orbit planit-planit cilik, kajaba Ceres, ana luwih adoh saka Neptunus. Limang planit cilik mau yaiku [[Ceres]] (415 yuta km ing sabuk asteroid; biyèné kaklasifikasikaké minangka planit kalima), [[Pluto]] (5.906 yuta km.; biyèné kaklasifikasikaké minangka planit kasanga), [[Haumea]] (6.450 yuta km), [[Makemake]] (6.850 yuta km), lan [[Eris]] (10.100 yuta km). Enem saka wolung planit lan telu saka limang planit cilik iku diubengi déning [[satelit alami]]. Saben planit pérangan njaba diubengi déning [[cincin planit]] kang kawangun saka awu lan partikel liyané. == Asal usul == Akèh hipotèsis ngenani asal usul Tata Surya wis ditélakaké para ahli, sapérangan ing antarané yaiku: [[Gambar:Pierre-Simon Laplace.jpg|thumb|upright|Pierre-Simon Laplace, pandhukung Hipotesis Nebula]] [[Gambar:GerardKuiper.jpg|thumb|upright|Gerard Kuiper, pandhukung Hipotesis Kondènsasi]] ;Hipotesis Nebula Hipotesis nébula pisanan ditélakaké déning [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] ([[1688]]-[[1772]])<ref>Swedenborg, Emanuel. 1734, (Principia) Latin: Opera Philosophica et Mineralia (English: Philosophical and Mineralogical Works), (Principia, Volume 1)</ref> taun [[1734]] lan disampurnakaké déning [[Immanuel Kant]] ([[1724]]-[[1804]]) nalika taun [[1775]]. Hipotesis sarupa uga dikembangaké déning [[Pierre Marquis de Laplace]]<ref>{{cite journal |year=1909| title= The Past History of the Earth as Inferred from the Mode of Formation of the Solar System| journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society | volume=48 | pages=119 | author=See, T. J. J. | url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-049X%28190901%2F04%2948%3A191%3C119%3ATPHOTE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U&size=LARGE | accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> kanthi indepènden nalika taun [[1796]]. Hipotesis iki, kang luwih ditepungi kanthi Hipotesis Nebula Kant-Laplace, nyebutaké yèn ing taap awal, Tata Surya isih wujud kabut raseksa. Kabut iki kawangun saka [[lebu]], [[ès]], lan [[gas]] kang diarani [[nébula]], lan unsur gas kang sapérangan gedhé [[hidrogen]]. Gaya gravitasi kang diduwèni njalari kabut iku nyusut lan mubeng kanthi arah tinentu, suhu kabut saya panas, lan akiré dadi lintang raseksa (srengéngé). Srengéngé raseksa terus nyusut lan mubeng tansaya rikat, lan cincin-cincin gas lan ès kalontar menyang saubengé Srengéngé. Akibat [[gaya]] [[gravitasi]], gas-gas mau saya padhet sairing karo pamudhunan suhuné lan minangka [[planit njero]] lan [[planit njaba]]. Laplace duwé pendhapat yèn orbit awangun mèh mbunder saka planit-planit wujud konsekuènsi saka pambentukané.<ref name=history>{{cite journal|title=The Solar System: Its Origin and Evolution|author=M. M. Woolfson<!-- [[Kategori:CS1 errors: redundant parameter‎]]|work=Physics Department, University of New York-->|journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=34|pages=1–20|year=1993|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1993QJRAS..34....1W&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=YES |accessdate=2008-04-16}}</ref> ;Hipotesis Planètisimal Hipotesis planètisimal pisanan ditélakaké déning [[Thomas C. Chamberlin]] lan [[Forest R. Moulton]] nalika taun [[1900]]. Hipotesis planètisimal nélakaké yèn Tata Surya awaké dhéwé kawangun akibat anané lintang liya kang liwat cukup cerak karo Srengéngé, nalika mangsa awal pambentukan Srengéngé. Kacerakan mau njalari dumadiné tonjolan ing lumahing Srengéngé, lan bebarengan prosès internal Srengéngé, narik matèri bola-bali saka Srengéngé. Èfèk gravitasi lintang ngakibataké kawanguné loro lengen spiral kang ndawa saka Srengéngé. Sauntara sapérangan gedhé matèri katarik manèh, sapérangan liya bakal tetep ing orbit, saya adhem lan saya padhet, lan dadi barang-barang kanthi ukuran cilik kang diarani [[planètisimal]] lan sapérangan kang gedhé minangka [[protoplanèt]]. Objèk-objèk mau silih tabrakan lan minangka planit lan rembulan, sauntara sisa-sisa matèri liyané dadi komèt lan astéroid. ;Hipotesis Pasang Surut Lintang Hipotesis pasang surut lintang pisanan ditélakaké déning [[James Jeans]] nalika taun [[1917]]. Planit dianggep kawangun amarga nyeraké lintang liya menyang Srengéngé. Kaanan kang mèh silih tabrakan njalari katariké sapérangan gedhé matèri saka Srengéngé lan lintang liya mau déning [[gaya]] [[pasang surut]] kekaroné, kang banjur kakondhènsasi dadi planit.<ref name=history /> Nanging astronom [[Harold Jeffreys]] taun 1929 mbantah yèn tabrakan kang kaya mangkono iku mèh ora mungkin dumadi.<ref name=history/> Mangkono uga astronom [[Henry Norris Russell]] nélakaké kaabotané marang hipotèsis mau.<ref>{{cite book|author=Benjamin Crowell|title=Conservation Laws|publisher=lightandmatter.com|year=1998-2006|chapter=5|url=http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch05/ch05.html|access-date=2012-07-11|archive-date=2010-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214161609/http://lightandmatter.com/html_books/2cl/ch05/ch05.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ;Hipotesis Kondhènsasi Hipotesis kondhènsasi awalé ditélakaké déning astronom Walanda kang jenengé [[G.P. Kuiper]] ([[1905]]-[[1973]]) nalika taun [[1950]]. Hipotesis kondhènsasi njelasaké yèn Tata Surya kawangun saka bal kabut raseksa kang mubeng minangka cakram raseksa. ;Hipotesis Lintang Kembar Hipotesis lintang kembar awalé ditélakaké déning [[Fred Hoyle]] ([[1915]]-[[2001]]) nalika taun [[1956]]. Hipotesis nélakaké yèn biyèné Tata Surya awaké dhéwé wujud loro lintang kang mèh padha ukurané lan silih cerak kang salah sijiné njeblug ninggal serpihan-serpihan cilik. Serpihan iku kaprangkep déning gravitasi lintang kang ora njeblug lan wiwit ngupengi lintang iku. == Sajarah panemon == [[Gambar:De Revolutionibus manuscript p9b.jpg|thumb|right|Modhèl heliosentris sajeroning [[manuskrip]] [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]].]] Lima [[planit]] paling cerak menyang Srengéngé saliyané [[Bumi]] ([[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Mars]], [[Yupiter]] lan [[Saturnus]]) wis ditepungi wiwit jaman biyèn amarga kabèh bisa dideleng kanthi mata langsung. Akèh bangsa ing donya iki duwé [[Planit#Sajarah jeneng-jeneng planit|jeneng dhéwé kanggo saben planit]]. Perkembangan èlmu pengetauan lan tèknologi pangamatan ing limang abad kapungkur nggawa manungsa kanggo mahami barang-barang langit kabébas saka slubung mitologi. [[Galileo Galilei]] (1564-1642) kanthi [[teleskop]] refraktoré bisa ndadèkaké mata manungsa "luwih tajem" sajeroning ngamati barang langit kang ora bisa diamati lumantar mata langsung. Amarga teleskop Galileo bisa ngamati luwih tajem, dhèwèké bisa ndeleng manéka owah-owahan wangun kekatonan [[Venus]], kaya déné Venus Sabit utawa Venus Purnama minangka akibat owah-owahan posisi Venus tumrap Srengéngé. Panalaran Venus ngiteri Srengéngé saya nguwataké téyori [[heliosentris]], yaiku yèn Srengéngé iku punjer alam samesta, dudu Bumi, kang sadurungé digagas déning [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543). Susunan heliosentris yaiku Srengéngé dikupengi déning [[Merkurius]] tekan [[Saturnus]]. Teleskop Galileo terus disampurnakaké déning èlmuwan liya kaya déné [[Christian Huygens]] (1629-1695) kang nemu [[Titan]], satelit Saturnus, kang ana mèh kaping 2 let orbit [[Bumi]]-[[Yupiter]]. Perkembangan teleskop uga diimbangi uga déning perkembangan pangétungan obah barang-barang langit lan gegandhèngan siji karo liyané lumantar [[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630) kanthi [[Hukum Kepler]]. Lan puncaké, [[Sir Isaac Newton]] (1642-1727) kanthi [[ukum gravitasi]]. Kanthi loro téyori pangétungan iki kang mungkinaké panggolèkan lan pangétungan barang-barang langit sabanjuré. Nalika taun [[1781]], [[William Herschel]] (1738-1822) nemu [[Uranus]]. Pangétungan tliti orbit Uranus nyimpulaké yèn planit iki ana kang ngganggu. [[Neptunus]] tinemu nalika sasi Agustus [[1846]]. Panemon Neptunus pranyata ora cukup njelasaké gangguan orbit Uranus. [[Pluto]] banjur tinemu taun [[1930]]. Nalika Pluto tinemu, Pluto mung dikawruhi minangka siji-sijiné objèk ngangkasa kang ana sawisé Neptunus. Banjur nalika taun 1978, [[Charon (satelit)|Charon]], satelit kang ngupengi Pluto tinemu, sadurungé sempat dikira minangka planit kang sabeneré amarga ukurané ora béda adoh karo Pluto. Para astronom banjur nemu watara 1.000 objèk cilik liyané kang papané ngliwati Neptunus (diarani [[objèk trans-Neptunus]]), kang uga ngupengi Srengéngé. Ing kana mungkin ana watara 100.000 objèk sakrupa kang ditepungi minangka Objèk [[Sabuk Kuiper]] (Sabuk Kuiper yaiku péranganing objèk-objèk trans-Neptunus). Welasan barang langit kalebu sajeroning Objèk Sabuk Kuiper ing antarané [[Quaoar]] (1.250&nbsp;km ing sasi Juni 2002), [[Huya]] (750&nbsp;km ing sasi Maret 2000), [[Sedna]] (1.800&nbsp;km ing sasi Maret 2004), [[Orcus]], [[Vesta]], [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], [[Hygiea]], [[20000 Varuna|Varuna]], lan [[Haumea (planit cilik)|{{mp|2003 EL|61}}]] (1.500&nbsp;km ing sasi Mèi 2004). Panemon {{mp|2003 EL|61}} cukup njalari héboh amarga Objèk Sabuk Kuiper iki dikawruhi uga nduwé satelit ing sasi Januari 2005 sanadyan kanthi ukuran luwih cilik saka Pluto. Lan puncaké yaiku panemon [[Eris (planit)|Eris]] (2.700&nbsp;km ing sasi Oktober 2003). Saliyané luwih gedhé saka Pluto, objèk iki uga nduwé satelit. == Struktur == [[Gambar:Masses of the planets en.svg|thumb|right|Pambandhing rélatif massa planit. Yupiter iku 71% saka total lan Saturnus 21%. Merkurius lan Mars, kang total bebarengan mung kurang saka 0.1% ora katon sajeroning diagram ing ndhuwur.]] [[Gambar:Oort cloud Sedna orbit-de.svg|thumb|right|Orbit-orbit Tata Surya kanthi skala kang sabeneré]] [[Gambar:Planetoid 90377 sedna animation location.gif|thumb|right|Illustrasi skala]] Komponèn utama sistem Tata Surya yaiku [[srengéngé]], sawijining [[lintang]] [[dhèrèt utama]] kelas G2 kang ngandhut 99,86 persèn massa saka sistem lan ndhominasi kabèh kanthi gaya gravitasiné.<ref>{{cite journal |author=M Woolfson |title=The origin and evolution of the solar system |doi= 10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00012.x |year=2000 |journal=Astronomy & Geophysics |volume=41 |pages=1.12}}</ref> [[Yupiter]] lan [[Saturnus]], loro komponèn gedhé dhéwé kang ngideri Srengéngé, nyakup kira-kira 90 persèn massa saluwihé.{{Ref label|C|c|none}} Mèh kabèh objèk-objèk gedhé kang ngorbit Srengéngé ana ing babagan édharan [[bumi]], kang lumrahé dijenengi [[èkliptika]]. Kabèh [[planit]] manggon cedhak banget karo èkliptika, sauntara komèt lan objèk-objèk sabuk Kuiper lumrahé duwé béda pojokan kang gedhé banget dibandhingaké èkliptika. Planit-planit lan objèk-objèk Tata Surya uga ngorbit ngupengi Srengéngé lawan arah jarum jam yèn dideleng saka ndhuwur kutub lor Srengéngé, kajaba [[Komèt Halley]]. [[Hukum Kepler|Hukum Gerakan Planit Kepler]] njabaraké yèn orbit saka objèk-objèk Tata Surya saubengé Srengéngé obah kanthi wangun èlips kanthi Srengéngé minangka salah siji titik fokusé. Objèk kang leté luwih cerak saka Srengéngé (sumbu ''sèmi-mayor''-é luwih cilik) duwé taun wektu kang luwih cendhak. Ing orbit èlips, let antarané objèk karo Srengéngé manéka variasi sakdawané taun. Let paling cerak antarané objèk karo Srengéngé dijenengi [[perihelion]], sauntara let paling adoh saka Srengéngé dijenengi [[aphelion]]. Kabèh objèk Tata Surya obah paling rikat ing titik perihelion lan paling alon ing titik aphelion. Orbit planit-planit bisa diarani mèh awangun bunderan, éwadéné komèt, asteroid lan objèk sabuk Kuiper akèh-akèhé orbité awangun [[èlips]]. Kanggo nggampangaké réprèsentasi, akèh-akèhé diagram Tata Surya nuduhaké let antarané orbit kang padha siji lan sijiné. Ing kasunyatané, kanthi sapérangan pangecualian, tansaya adoh panggonan sawijining planit utawa sabuk saka Srengéngé, saya gedhé let antarané objèk iku karo jalur ideran orbit sadurungé. Minangka conto, [[Venus]] manggon watara 0,33 [[ékan astronomi]] (SA) punjul [[Merkurius]]{{Ref label|D|d|none}}, éwadéné [[Saturnus]] iku 4,3 SA saka [[Yupiter]], lan [[Neptunus]] manggon 10,5 SA saka [[Uranus]]. Sapérangan upaya wis dicoba kanggo nemtokaké korélasi let antar orbit iki ([[ukum Titus-Bode]]), nanging nganti saiki ora ana siji téyori waé wis ditampa. Mèh kabèh planit-planit ing Tata Surya uga nduwé sistem sékundhèr. Akèh-akèhé iku barang pangorbit alami kang diarani satelit. Sapérangan barang iki nduwé ukuran luwih gedhé saka planit. Mèh kabèh [[satelit alami]] kang gedhé dhéwé manggon ing orbit sinkron, kanthi sasisih satelit ngadhep merang arah planit indhuké kanthi permanèn. Papat planit gedhé dhéwé uga nduwé cincin kang isi partikel-partikel cilik kang ngorbit kanthi bebarengan. === Tèrminologi === Sacara informal, Tata Surya bisa dibagi dadi telu laladan. Tata Surya pérangan njero nyakup papat [[planit kabumian]] lan [[sabuk asteroid]] utama. Ing laladan kang luwih adoh, Tata Surya pérangan njaba, ana papat gas planit raseksa.<ref>{{cite web |title=An Overview of the Solar System |author=nineplanets.org |url=http://www.nineplanets.org/overview.html |accessdate=2007-02-15}}</ref> Wiwit tinemu [[Sabuk Kuiper]], pérangan paling njaba Tata Surya dianggep wewengkon béda dhéwé kang ngambah kabèh objèk ngliwati Neptunus.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Horizons Set to Launch on 9-Year Voyage to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt |author=Amir Alexander |work=The Planetary Society |year=2006 |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2006/0116_New_Horizons_Set_to_Launch_on_9_Year.html |accessdate=2006-11-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222080327/http://www.planetary.org/news/2006/0116_New_Horizons_Set_to_Launch_on_9_Year.html |archivedate=2006-02-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sacara dinamis lan fisik, objèk kang ngorbit [[srengéngé]] bisa diklasifikasikaké sajeroning telung golongan: [[planit]], [[planit cilik]], lan [[Benda Cilik Tata Surya|barang cilik Tata Surya]]. Planit iku sawijining badan kang ngideri Srengéngé lan duwé massa cukup gedhé kanggo minangka buletan dhiri lan wis ngresiki orbité kanthi nginkorporasikaé kabèh objèk-objèk cilik ing saubengé. Kanthi définisi iki, Tata Surya duwé wolu planit: [[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Bumi]], [[Mars]], [[Yupiter]], [[Saturnus]], lan [[Neptunus]]. [[Pluto]] wis diuwalaké status planèté amarga ora bisa ngresiki orbité saka objèk-objèk Sabuk Kuiper.<ref name="FinalResolution"/> Planit cilik iku barang akasa dudu satelit kang ngupengi Srengéngé, duwé massa kang cukup kanggo bisa minangka buletan dhiri nanging durung bisa ngresiki laladan saubengé.<ref name="FinalResolution"/> Miturut définisi iki, Tata Surya duwé lima planit cilik: [[Ceres]], [[Pluto]], [[Haumea]], [[Makemake]], lan [[Eris]].<ref name=name>{{cite web|date=2008-11-07 <!--11:42:58-->|title=Dwarf Planets and their Systems|work= Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN) |url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/append7.html#DwarfPlanets| accessdate=2008-07-13 | publisher= U.S. Geological Survey }}</ref> Objèk liya kang mungkin bakal diklasifikasikaké minangka planit cilik yaiku: [[Sedna]], [[Orcus]], lan [[Quaoar]]. Planit cilik kang nduwé orbit ing laladan trans-Neptunus lumrahé ingaran "plutoid".<ref name="IAU0804">{{cite web |date=11 Juni 2008 |title=Plutoid chosen as name for Solar System objects like Pluto |publisher=[[International Astronomical Union]] (News Release-IAU0804), Paris |url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0804 |accessdate=2008-06-11 |archive-date=2008-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613121232/http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0804/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sisa objèk-objèk liya sabanjuré kang ngiteri Srengéngé yaiku barang cilik Tata Surya.<ref name="FinalResolution">{{cite news |title=The Final IAU Resolution on the definition of "planit" ready for voting |publisher=IAU |date=2006-08-24 |url=http://www.iau.org/iau0602.423.0.html |accessdate=2007-03-02 |archive-date=2009-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107044134/http://www.iau.org/iau0602.423.0.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Èlmuwan ahli planit migunakaké istilah gas, ès, lan watu kanggo ndhèskripsikaké kelas dat kang ana ing njero Tata Surya. ''Watu'' kanggo njenengi bahan mawa titik lebur dhuwur (luwih gedhé saka 500&nbsp;K), minangka conto [[silikat]]. Bahan batuan iki umum banget ana ing Tata Surya pérangan njero, wujud komponèn pambentuk utama mèh kabèh planit kabumian lan asteroid. Gas iku bahan-bahan mawa titik lebur asor kaya déné atom hidrogen, hélium, lan gas mulia, bahan-bahan iki ndhominasi wewengkon tengah Tata Surya, kang didhominasi déning Yupiter lan Saturnus. Éwadéné ès, kaya déné [[banyu]], [[metana]], [[amonia]] lan [[karbon dioksida]],<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.04.009 | bibcode=2007Icar..190..345F | title=Asymmetries in the distribution of H2O and CO2 in the inner coma of Comet 9P/Tempel 1 as observed by Deep Impact | year=2007 | author=Feaga, L | journal=Icarus | volume=190 | pages=345}}</ref> duwé titik lebur watara atusan drajat kelvin. Bahan iki arupakan komponèn utama saka sapérangan gedhé satelit planit raseksa. Dhèwèké uga wujud komponèn utama [[Uranus]] lan [[Neptunus]] (kang asring ingaran "ès raseksa"), sarta manéka barang cilik kang ana ing sacedhaké orbit Neptunus.<ref name=zeilik>{{cite book | pages=240 | author=Michael Zellik| title=Astronomy: The Evolving Universe | edition=9th | year=2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0521800900 | oclc=223304585}}</ref> Istilah ''volatiles'' nyakup kabèh bahan mawa titik umub asor (kurang saka atusan kelvin), kang kalebu gas lan ès; gumantung ing suhuné, 'volatiles' bisa tinemu minangka ès, cuwèran, utawa gas ing manéka pérangan Tata Surya. === Zona planit === [[Gambar:Solarsys.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|rifgt|Zona Tata Surya kang ngambah, planit pérangan njero, sabuk asteroid, planit pérangan njaba, lan [[sabuk Kuiper]]. (Gambar ora selaras karo skala) ]] Ing zona planit njero, [[Srengéngé]] iku punjer Tata Surya lan panggonané paling cedhak karo planit [[Merkurius]] (let saka Srengéngé 57,9&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>6</sup> km, utawa 0,39&nbsp;[[ékan astronomi|SA]]), [[Venus]] (108,2&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>6</sup>&nbsp;km, 0,72&nbsp;SA), [[Bumi]] (149,6&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>6</sup>&nbsp;km, 1&nbsp;SA) lan [[Mars]] (227,9&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>6</sup>&nbsp;km, 1,52&nbsp;SA). Ukuran dhiamèteré antara 4.878&nbsp;km lan 12.756&nbsp;km, kanthi massa jinis antara 3,95&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup> lan 5,52&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>. Ing antarané Mars lan [[Yupiter]] ana laladan kang ingaran [[sabuk asteroid]], kumpulan batuan métal lan mineral. Akèh-akèhé asteroid-asteroid iki mung duwé dhiamèter sapérangan kilomèter (pirsani: [[Pratélan asteroid]]), lan sapérangan duwé dhiamèter 100&nbsp;km utawa luwih. [[Ceres]], péranganing kumpulan asteroid iki, ukurané watara 960&nbsp;km lan dikategorikaké minangka [[planit cilik]]. Orbit asteroid-asteroid iki èliptis banget, malah sapérangan nyimpangi [[Merkurius]] ([[1566 Icarus|Icarus]]) lan [[Uranus]] ([[2060 Chiron|Chiron]]). Ing zona planit njaba, ana planit gas raseksa [[Yupiter]] (778,3&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>6</sup>&nbsp;km, 5,2&nbsp;SA), [[Uranus]] (2,875&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>9</sup>&nbsp;km, 19,2&nbsp;SA) lan [[Neptunus]] (4,504&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>9</sup>&nbsp;km, 30,1&nbsp;SA) kanthi massa jinis antara 0,7&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup> lan 1,66&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>. Let rata-rata antarané planit-planit karo Srengéngé bisa diprakirakaké kanthi migunakaké [[Hukum Titus-Bode|baris matématis Titus-Bode]]. Régularitas let antarané jalur ideran orbit-orbit iki kamungkinan wujud èfèk résonansi sisa saka awal kawanguné Tata Surya. Anèhé, planit [[Neptunus]] ora mijil ing baris matématis Titus-Bode, kang gawé para pangamat spékulasi yèn Neptunus wujud asil tabrakan kosmis. === Srengéngé === {{utama|Srengéngé}} [[Srengéngé]] iku lintang indhuk Tata Surya lan wujud komponèn utama sistem Tata Surya iki. [[Lintang]] iki ukurané 332.830 massa [[bumi]]. Massa kang gedhé iki njalari kapadhetan inti kang cukup gedhé kanggo bisa njurung kasinambungan [[fusi nuklir]] lan nyemburaké sapérangan ènèrgi kang ''dahsyat''. Akèh-akèhé ènèrgi iki dipancaraké menyang njaban akasa sajeroning wangun radhiasi èlètromagnètik, kalebu spèktrum optik. Srengéngé dikategorikaké sajeroning lintang cilik kuning (jinis G V) kang ukurané tengahan, nanging jeneng iki bisa njalari kasalahpahaman, amarga dibandhingaké karo lintang-lintang kang ana ing njero galaksi Bimasekti, Srengéngé kalebu cukup gedhé lan ''cemerlang''. Lintang diklasifikasikaké mawa [[dhiagram Hertzsprung-Russell]], yaiku sawijining grafik kang nggambaraké gegandhèngan pangaji [[luminositas]] sawijining lintang marang suhu lumahané. Lumrahé, lintang kang luwih panas bakal luwih ''cemerlang''. Lintang-lintang kang nuruti pola iki diarani ana ing [[dhèrèt utama]], lan Srengéngé panggoné persis ing tengah dhèrèt iki. Nanging, lintang-lintang kang luwih ''cemerlang'' lan luwih panas saka Srengéngé iku langka, éwadéné lintang-lintang kang luwih redhup lan adhem iku umum.<ref>{{cite web |year=2001 |author=Smart, R. L.; Carollo, D.; Lattanzi, M. G.; McLean, B.; Spagna, A. |title=The Second Guide Star Catalogue and Cool Stars |work=Perkins Observatory |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001udns.conf..119S |accessdate=2006-12-26}}</ref> Dipercaya yèn posisi Srengéngé ing dhèrèt utama kanthi umum wujud "pucuk urip" saka sawijining lintang, amarga durung entèké hidrogen kang kasimpen kanggo fusi nuklir. Saiki Srengéngé tuwuh tansaya padhang jingglang. Ing awal uripé, tingkat kacemerlangané iku watara 70 persèn saka kacermelangan saiki.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Towards a Solution to the Early Faint Sun Paradox: A Lower Cosmic Ray Flux from a Stronger Solar Wind|author=Nir J. Shaviv|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|doi=10.1029/2003JA009997|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astroph/0306477v2|accessdate=2009-01-26|year=2003|volume=108|pages=1437}}</ref> Srengéngé kanthi [[métalisitas]] dikategorikaké minangka lintang "populasi I". Lintang kategori iki kawangun luwih akir ing tingkat évolusi [[alam semesta]], saéngga ngandhut luwih akèh unsur kang luwih abot tinimbang hidrogen lan hélium ("metal" sajeroning sebutan astronomi) dibandhingaké karo lintang "populasi II".<ref>{{cite journal |author=T. S. van Albada, Norman Baker |title=On the Two Oosterhoff Groups of Globular Clusters |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1973-10-01_185_1/page/n482 |journal=Astrophysical Journal |volume=185 |year=1973 |pages=477–498 |doi=10.1086/152434}}</ref> Unsur-unsur kang luwih abot tinimbang [[hidrogen]] lan [[hélium]] kawangun ing njero inti lintang purba kang banjur njeblug. Lintang-lintang génerasi pisanan perlu cures luwih dhisik sadurungé alam semesta bisa dikebaki déning unsur-unsur kang luwih abot iki. Lintang-lintang tuwa dhéwé ngandhut metal sithik banget, éwadéné lintang anyar nduwé kandhungan métal kang luwih dhuwur. Tingkat métalitas kang dhuwur iki diprakirakaké duwé prabawa wigati ing pambentukan sistem Tata Surya, amarga kawanguné planit iku asil panggumpelan métal.<ref>{{cite web |title=An Estimate of the Age Distribution of Terrestrial Planets in the Universe: Quantifying Metallicity as a Selection Effect |author=Charles H. Lineweaver |work=University of New South Wales |date=2001-03-09 |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0012399 |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> ==== Médhium antarplanèt ==== [[Gambar:Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif|right|thumb|[[Lembar ilènan heliosfer]], amarga obah rotasi magnètis Srengéngé tumrap médhium antarplanèt.<!-- The heliospheric current sheet. -->]] Saliyané cahya, [[Srengéngé]] uga kanthi kasinambungan mancaraké semburan partikel kanthi momotan ([[plasma]]) kang ditepungi minangka [[angin surya]]. Semburan partikel iki nyebar metu kira-kira ing karikatan 1,5 yuta kilomèter per jam,<ref>{{cite web |title=Solar Physics: The Solar Wind |work=Marshall Space Flight Center |date=2006-07-16<!--Internet Archive estimate--> |url=http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml |accessdate=2006-10-03 |archive-date=2015-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813081520/http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> nyiptakaké atmosfèr tipis ([[heliosfer]]) kang ngrambah Tata Surya paling ora adohé 100 SA (deleng uga ''[[heliopause]]''). Kabèh iki ingaran [[médhium antarplanèt]]. Lésus géomagnètis ing lumahing Srengéngé, kaya déné [[semburan Srengéngé]] (''solar flares'') lan [[uncalan massa korona]] (''coronal mass ejection'') njalari gangguan ing heliosfer, nyiptakaké cuaca ruwang akasa.<ref name="SunFlip">{{cite web |url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast15feb_1.htm |title=The Sun Does a Flip |accessdate=2007-02-04 |last=Phillips |first=Tony |date=2001-02-15 |work=Science@NASA |archive-date=2009-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512121817/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast15feb_1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Struktur gedhé dhéwé saka heliosfer dijenengi [[lembar ilènan heliosfer]] (''heliospheric current sheet''), sawijining spiral kang dumadi amarga obah rotasi magnètis Srengéngé tumrap médhium antarplanèt.<ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm A Star with two North Poles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718014855/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm |date=2009-07-18 }}, April 22, 2003, Science @ NASA</ref><ref>Riley, Pete; Linker, J. A.; Mikić, Z., "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080205064113/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JGRA.107g.SSH8R Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations]", (2002) ''Journal of Geophysical Research'' (Space Physics), Volume 107, Issue A7, pp. SSH 8-1, CiteID 1136, DOI 10.1029/2001JA000299. ([http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf Full text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814052347/http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf |date=2009-08-14 }})</ref> [[Magnetosfer|Médhan magnèt]] bumi nyegah [[atmosfèr bumi]] interaksi karo angin surya. [[Venus]] lan [[Mars]] kang ora duwé médhan magnèt, atmosfèré entèk kakikis menyang njaba akasa.<ref>{{cite science |last=Lundin |first=Richard |date=2001-03-09 |title=Erosion by the Solar Wind |author=Rickard Lundin |journal=Science |volume=291 |issue=5510 |pages=1909 |doi=10.1126/science.1059763 |url=http://sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/291/5510/1909 |accessdate=2006-12-26|abstract=http://sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/291/5510/1909}}</ref> Interaksi antarané angin surya lan médhan magnèt bumi njalari dumadiné [[aurora]], kang bisa dideleng cedhak kutub magnètik bumi. Heliosfer uga duwé peran ngreksa Tata Surya saka [[sinar kosmik]] kang asalé saka njaban Tata Surya. Médhan magnèt planit-planit nambah peran pangreksan sabanjuré. Dhènsitas [[sinar kosmik]] ing [[médhium antarlintang]] lan kekuwatan médhan magnèt Srengéngé ngalami owah-owahan ing skala wektu kang dawa banget, saéngga drajat radhiasi kosmis ing njero Tata Surya dhéwé iku manéka variasi, sanajan ora dikawruhi sepira gedhéné.<ref name="Langner_et_al_2005">{{cite journal |last=Langner |first=U. W. |author2=M.S. Potgieter |year=2005 |title=Effects of the position of the solar wind termination shock and the heliopause on the heliospheric modulation of cosmic rays |journal=Advances in Space Research |volume=35 |issue=12 |pages=2084–2090 |doi=10.1016/j.asr.2004.12.005 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AdSpR..35.2084L |accessdate=2007-02-11}}</ref> Médhium antarplanèt uga wujud papan anané paling ora loro laladan mèmper piringan kang isiné lebu kosmis. Sing pisanan, méga lebu zodhiak, ana ing Tata Surya pérangan njero lan wujud jalaran cahya zodhiak. Iki kamungkinan kawangun saka tabrakan sajeroning [[sabuk astéroid]] kang disebabaké déning interaksi karo planit-planit.<ref>{{cite web |year=1998 |title=Long-term Evolution of the Zodiacal Cloud |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/workshops/1997/zodiac/backman/IIIc.html |accessdate=2007-02-03 |archive-date=2013-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501105418/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/workshops/1997/zodiac/backman/IIIc.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Laladan kaloro mbentang antarané 10 SA nganti watara 40 SA, lan mungkin disebabaké déning tabrakan kang mèmper nanging dumadi ing njero [[Sabuk Kuiper]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2003 |title=ESA scientist discovers a way to shortlist stars that might have planets |work=ESA Science and Technology |url=http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=29471 |accessdate=2007-02-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Landgraf |first=M. |author2=Liou, J.-C.; Zook, H. A.; Grün, E. |date=May 2002 |title=Origins of Solar System Dust beyond Jupiter |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=123 |issue=5 |pages=2857–2861 |doi=10.1086/339704 |url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-3881/123/5/2857/201502.html |accessdate=2007-02-09}}</ref> === Tata Surya pérangan njero === Tata Surya pérangan njero iku jeneng umum kang nyakup [[planit kabumian]] lan [[asteroid]]. Mliginé kagawé saka [[silikat]] lan logam, objèk saka Tata Surya pérangan njero nglingkup cerak karo [[Srengéngé]], radhius saka kabèh laladan iki luwih cendhak saka let antarané Yupiter lan Saturnus. ==== Planit-planit pérangan njero ==== {{utama|Planit kebumian}} [[Gambar:Terrestrial planit size comparisons.jpg|thumb|Planit-planit pérangan njero. Saka kiwa nengen: [[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Bumi]], lan [[Mars]] (ukuran miturut skala)]] Papat [[planit]] pérangan njero utawa planit kabumian (''terrestrial planit'') duwé komposisi batuan kang padhet, mèh ora duwé utawa ora duwé satelit lan ora duwé sistem cincin. Komposisi planit-planit iki mligi yaiku mineral kanthi titik lèlèh dhuwur, kaya déné silikat kang intip lan slubung, lan logam kaya déné wesi lan nikel kang intiné. Telu saka papat planit iki ([[Venus]], [[Bumi]] lan [[Mars]]) duwé [[atmosfèr]], kabèh duwé kawah météor lan sipat-sipat lumahan tèktonis kaya déné gunung geni lan lembah pecahan. Planit kang panggonané ing antarané Srengéngé lan Bumi ([[Merkurius]] lan [[Venus]]) diarani uga minangka planit infèrior. ===== Merkurius ===== : [[Merkurius]] (0,4 SA saka Srengéngé) iku planit paling cerak saka Srengéngé sarta uga paling cilik (0,055 massa Bumi). Merkurius ora duwé satelit alami lan ciri géologisé saliyané kawah météorid kang dikawruhi yaiku ''lobed ridges'' utawa ''rupes'', kamungkinan dumadi amarga pangerutan ing périodhe awal sajarahé.<ref>Schenk P., Melosh H.J. (1994), ''Lobate Thrust Scarps and the Thickness of Mercury's Lithosphere'', Abstracts of the 25th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 1994LPI....25.1203S</ref> Atmosfèr Merkurius kang mèh bisa dilirwakaké kapérang saka atom-atom kang uwal saka lumahané amarga semburan angin surya.<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |author=Bill Arnett |title=Mercury |work=The Nine Planets |url=http://www.nineplanets.org/mercury.html |accessdate=2006-09-14}}</ref> Gedhéné inti wesi lan tipisé kerak Merkurius isih durung bisa diterangaké. Miturut prakiran hipotésa lapisan njaba planit iki ucul sawisé dumadi tabrakan gedhé, lan ngrembakané ("akresi") penuhé kacandhet déning ènèrgi awal Srengéngé.<ref>Benz, W., Slattery, W. L., Cameron, A. G. W. (1988), ''Collisional stripping of Mercury's mantle'', Icarus, v. 74, p. 516–528.</ref><ref>Cameron, A. G. W. (1985), ''The partial volatilization of Mercury'', Icarus, v. 64, p. 285–294.</ref> ===== Venus ===== : [[Venus]] (0,7 SA saka Srengéngé) mawa ukuran mèmper bumi (0,815 massa bumi). Lan kaya déné [[bumi]], planit iki duwé slimut kulit silikat kang kandel lan mawa inti wesi, atmosfèré uga kandel lan duwé aktivitas géologi. Nanging planit iki luwih garing saka bumi lan atmosfèré kaping sanga luwih padhet saka bumi. Venus ora duwé satelit. Venus iku planit paling panas kanthi suhu lumahan ngancik 400&nbsp;°C, kamungkinan gedhé disebabaké gunggung gas omah kaca kang kakandhut ing njero atmosfèr.<ref>{{cite paper |author=Mark Alan Bullock |title=The Stability of Climate on Venus |publisher=Southwest Research Institute |year=1997 |url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bullock/Homedocs/PhDThesis.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |accessdate=2006-12-26 |archive-date=2007-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614202751/http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bullock/Homedocs/PhDThesis.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Tekan saiki aktivitas géologis Venus durung didhetèksi, nanging amarga planit iki ora duwé medhan magnèt kang bisa nyegah entèké atmosfèr, dinuga sumber atmosfèr Venus asalé saka gunung geni.<ref>{{cite web |year=1999 |author=Paul Rincon |title=Climate Change as a Regulator of Tectonics on Venus |work=Johnson Space Center Houston, TX, Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM |url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bullock/Homedocs/Science2_1999.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-11-19 |archive-date=2007-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614202807/http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~bullock/Homedocs/Science2_1999.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===== Bumi ===== : [[Bumi]] (1 SA saka Srengéngé) iku planit pérangan njero kang gedhé dhéwé lan paling padhet, siji-sijiné kang dikawruhi duwé aktivitas géologi lan siji-sijiné planit kang dikawruhi duwé mahluk urip. Hidrosfèr-é kang cuwèr iku kas ing antarané planit-planit kabumian lan uga wujud siji-sijiné planit kang diamati duwé lèmpèng tèktonik. Atmosfèr bumi béda banget dibandhingaké planit-planit liyané, amarga diprabawai déning anané mahluk urip kang ngasilaké 21% [[oksigèn]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth's Atmosphere: Composition and Structure |author=Anne E. Egger, M.A./M.S. |work=VisionLearning.com |url=http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?c3=&mid=107&l= |accessdate=2006-12-26 |archive-date=2007-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221231635/http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=107&l=&c3= |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bumi duwé siji [[satelit]], [[rembulan]], siji-sijiné satelit gedhé saka planit kabumian ing njero Tata Surya. ===== Mars ===== : [[Mars]] (1,5 SA saka Srengéngé) kanthi ukuran luwih cilik saka bumi lan Venus (0,107 massa bumi). Planit iki duwé atmosfèr tipis kang kandhutan mligi iku [[karbon dioksida]]. Lumahan Mars kang dikebaki gunung geni raseksa kaya déné [[Olympus Mons]] lan lembah retakan kaya déné [[Valles marineris]], nuduhaké aktivitas géologis kang terus dumadi nganti saiki. Warna abangé asalé saka warna karat lemahé kang sugih wesi.<ref>{{cite web |year=2004 |title=Modern Martian Marvels: Volcanoes? |author=David Noever |work=NASA Astrobiology Magazine |url=http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=1360&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> Mars duwé loro satelit alami cilik ([[Deimos]] lan [[Phobos]]) kang dinuga wujud [[asteroid]] kang kajebak gravitasi Mars.<ref>{{cite web |year=2004 |title=A Survey for Outer Satellites of Mars: Limits to Completeness |author=Scott S. Sheppard, David Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna |work=The Astronomical Journal |url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-3881/128/5/2542/204263.html |accessdate=2006-12-26}}</ref> ==== Sabuk asteroid ==== {{utama|Sabuk asteroid}} [[Gambar:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|Sabuk asteroid utama lan asteroid Troya]] [[Asteroid]] kanthi umum iku objèk Tata Surya kang kapérang saka batuan lan mineral logam beku.<ref>{{cite web|title=Are Kuiper Belt Objects asteroids? Are large Kuiper Belt Objects planets? |publisher=Cornell University|url=http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=601|accessdate=2009-03-01}}</ref> [[Sabuk asteroid]] utama ana ing antarané orbit [[Mars]] lan [[Yupiter]], leté watara 2,3 lan 3,3 SA saka [[Srengéngé]], dinuga wujud sisa saka bahan formasi Tata Surya kang gagal nggumpel amarga prabawa gravitasi Yupiter.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Petit, J.-M.; Morbidelli, A.; Chambers, J. | title=The Primordial Excitation and Clearing of the Asteroid Belt | journal=Icarus | year=2001 | volume=153 | pages=338–347 | url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/classes/ge133/reading/asteroids.pdf | format=PDF | accessdate=2007-03-22 | doi=10.1006/icar.2001.6702 | archive-date=2007-02-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221085835/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/classes/ge133/reading/asteroids.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref> Gradhasi ukuran asteroid iku atusan kilomèter tekan mikroskopis. Kabèh asteroid, kajaba [[Ceres]] kang gedhé dhéwé, diklasifikasikaké minangka [[Benda Cilik Tata Surya|barang cilik Tata Surya]]. Sapérangan asteroid kaya déné [[Vesta]] lan [[Hygiea]] mungkin bakal diklasifikasikaké minangka [[planit cilik]] yèn kabukti wis ngancik [[kasetimbangan hidrostatik]].<ref>{{cite web|title=IAU Planit Definition Committee|publisher=International Astronomical Union|year=2006|url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0601/newspaper/|accessdate=2009-03-01|archive-date=2009-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603001603/http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0601/newspaper/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sabuk asteroid kapérang saka maèwu-èwu, mungkin yutan objèk kanthi dhiamèter sakilometer.<ref>{{cite web |year=2002 |title=New study reveals twice as many asteroids as previously believed |work=ESA |url=http://www.esa.int/esaCP/ESAASPF18ZC_index_0.html|accessdate=2006-06-23}}</ref> Sanajan mangkono, massa total saka sabuk utama iki ora punjul saprasèwu massa bumi.<ref name=Krasinsky2002>{{cite journal |authorlink=Georgij A. Krasinsky |first=G. A. |last=Krasinsky |author2=[[Elena V. Pitjeva|Pitjeva, E. V.]]; Vasilyev, M. V.; Yagudina, E. I. |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2002Icar..158...98K&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=4326fb2cf906949 |title=Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt |journal=Icarus |volume=158 |issue=1 |pages=98–105 |date=July 2002 |doi=10.1006/icar.2002.6837}}</ref> Sabuk utama ora rapet, kapal ruwang akasa kanthi rutin mbrobos laladan iki tanpa ngalami kacilakan. Asteroid kang dhiamèteré watara 10 lan 10<sup>−4</sup>&nbsp;m ingaran météorid.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Beech, M. |author2=Duncan I. Steel |date=September 1995 |title=On the Definition of the Term Meteoroid |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=281–284 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1995QJRAS..36..281B&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=44b52c369007834 |accessdate=2006-08-31}}</ref> ===== Ceres ===== [[Gambar:Ceres - RC3 - Haulani Crater (22381131691) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Ceres]] [[Ceres]] (2,77 SA) iku barang gedhé dhéwé ing sabuk asteroid lan diklasifikasikaké minangka planit cilik. Dhiamèteré iku kurang sithik saka 1000&nbsp;km, cukup gedhé kanggo duwé gravitasi dhéwé kanggo nggumpel minangka bunderan. Ceres dianggep planit nalika tinemu ing abad ka 19, nanging di-réklasifikasi dadi asteroid nalika taun 1850an sawisé observasi luwih lanjut nemu sapérangan asteroid manèh.<ref>{{cite web |title=History and Discovery of Asteroids |format=DOC |work=NASA |url=http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/1_hist_dawn/history_discovery/Development/a_modeling_scale.doc |accessdate=2006-08-29}}</ref> Ceres diréklasifikasi lanjut nalika taun 2006 minangka planit cilik. ===== Golongan asteroid ===== [[Asteroid]] ing sabuk utama dibagi dadi golongan lan kulawarga asteroid dhedhasar sipat-sipat orbité. Satelit asteroid iku asteroid kang ngiteri asteroid kang luwih gedhé. Satelit-satelit iki ora gampang dibédakaké saka satelit-satelit planit, sok-sok mèh padha gedhéné karo pasangané. Sabuk asteroid uga duwé komèt sabuk utama kang mungkin wujud sumber banyu bumi.<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |author=Phil Berardelli |title=Main-Belt Comets May Have Been Source Of Earths Water |work=SpaceDaily |url=http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Main_Belt_Comets_May_Have_Been_Source_Of_Earths_Water.html |accessdate=2006-06-23 |archive-date=2011-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816083413/http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Main_Belt_Comets_May_Have_Been_Source_Of_Earths_Water.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Asteroid-asteroid Trojan ana ing titik L<sub>4</sub> atau L<sub>5</sub> [[Yupiter]] (laladan gravitasi stabil kang ana ing ngarep lan mburi sawijining orbit planit), sebutan "trojan" asring dipigunakaké kanggo objèk-objèk cilik ing [[Titik Langrange]] saka sawijining planit utawa satelit. Golongan Asteroid Hilda ana ing orbit résonansi 2:3 saka Yupiter, kang tegesé golongan iki ngiteri Srengéngé kaping telu kanggo saben loro ideran [[Yupiter]]. Pérangan njero Tata Surya uga dikebaki déning asteroid alasan, kang akèh ngethok orbit-orbit planit-planit pérangan njero. === Tata Surya pérangan njaba === Ing pérangan njaba Tata Surya ana gas-gas raseksa karo satelit-satelité kang mawa ukuran planit. Akèh komèt kanthi périodha cendhak kalebu sapérangan Centaur, uga duwé orbit ing laladan iki. Badan-badan padhet ing laladan iki ngandhut gunggung ''volatil'' (conto: banyu, amonia, métan, kang asring ingaran "es" sajeroning pangistilahan èlmu kaplanètan) kang luwih dhuwur dibandhingaké planit batuan ing pérangan njero Tata Surya. ==== Planit-planit njaba ==== {{utama|Raseksa gas}} [[Gambar:Gas giants and the Sun (1 px = 1000 km).jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Raseksa-raseksa gas sajeroning Tata Surya lan Srengéngé, dhedhasar skala]] Kapapat planit njaba, kang ingaran uga planit raseksa gas (''gas giant''), utawa [[planit jovian]], kanthi kasluruhan nyakup 99 persèn massa kang ngorbit Srengéngé. Yupiter lan Saturnus sapérangan gedhé ngandhut [[hidrogen]] lan [[hélium]]; Uranus lan Neptunus duwé proporsi ès kang luwih gedhé. Para astronom ngusulaké yèn kaloroné dikategorikaké dhéwé minangka raseksa ès.<ref>{{cite web |title=Formation of Giant Planets |author=Jack J. Lissauer, David J. Stevenson |work=NASA Ames Research Center; California Institute of Technology |year=2006 |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/uploads/File/People/djs/lissauer%26stevenson%28PPV%29.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-01-16 |archive-date=2009-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326060004/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/uploads/File/People/djs/lissauer%26stevenson%28PPV%29.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Kapapat raseksa gas iki kabèh duwé cincin, sanajan mung sistem cincin Saturnus kang bisa dideleng kanthi gampang saka bumi. ===== Yupiter ===== : [[Yupiter]] (5,2 SA), kanthi massa kaping 318 massa bumi, iku massané kaping 2,5 massa saka gabungan kabèh planit liyané. Kandhutan mligi iku [[hidrogen]] lan [[hélium]]. Sumber panas ing njero Yupiter njalari timbulé sapérangan ciri sèmi-permanèn ing atmosfèré, minangka conto pita pita awan lan [[Bintik Abang Raseksa]]. Sing dikawruhi, Yupiter duwé 63 satelit. Papat kang gedhé dhéwé, [[Ganymede]], [[Callisto]], [[Io]], lan [[Europa (satelit)|Europa]] ngatonaké kamèmperan karo planit kabumian, kaya déné gunung geni lan inti kang panas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geology of the Icy Galilean Satellites: A Framework for Compositional Studies |author=Pappalardo, R T |work=Brown University |year=1999 |url=http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/SFgate/SFgate?&listenv=table&multiple=1&range=1&directget=1&application=fm99&database=%2Fdata%2Fepubs%2Fwais%2Findexes%2Ffm99%2Ffm99&maxhits=200&=%22P11C-10%22 |accessdate=2006-01-16 |archive-date=2008-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212155912/http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin/SFgate/SFgate?&listenv=table&multiple=1&range=1&directget=1&application=fm99&database=%2Fdata%2Fepubs%2Fwais%2Findexes%2Ffm99%2Ffm99&maxhits=200&=%22P11C-10%22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ganymede, kang wujud satelit gedhé dhéwé ing Tata Surya, duwé ukuran luwih gedhé saka Merkurius. ===== Saturnus ===== : [[Saturnus]] (9,5 SA) kang ditepungi kanthi sistem cinciné, duwé sapérangan pepadhan karo Yupiter, minangka conto komposisi atmosfèré. Sanajan Saturnus gehdéné mung 60% volume Yupiter, planit iki mung duwé bobot kurang saka sapratelu Yupiter utawa kaping 95 massa bumi, agawé planit iki wujud sawijining planit kang paling ora padhet ing Tata Surya. Saturnus duwé 60 satelit kang dikawruhi tekan saiki (lan 3 kang durung dipesthèkaké) loro ing antarané [[Titan]] lan [[Enceladus]], nuduhaké aktivitas géologis, sanajan mèh kapérang mung saka ès waé.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cryovolcanism on the icy satellites |author=J. S. Kargel |work=U.S. Geological Survey |year=1994 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/n7435h4506788p22/ |accessdate=2006-01-16 |archive-date=2013-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031202057/http://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00613296 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Titan duwé ukuran luwih gedhé saka [[Merkurius]] lan wujud siji-sijiné satelit ing Tata Surya kang duwé atmosfèr kang cukup duwé arti. ===== Uranus ===== : [[Uranus]] (19,6 SA) kang duwé massa kaping 14 massa bumi, iku planit kang paling ènthèng ing antarané planit-planit njaba. Planit iki duwé kabédan ciri orbit. Uranus ngiteri Srengéngé kanthi ukuran poros 90 drajat ing [[ekliptika]]. Planit iki duwé inti kang adhem banget dibandhingaké gas raseksa liyané lan mung sithik mancaraké ènèrgi panas.<ref>{{cite web |title=10 Mysteries of the Solar System |author=Hawksett, David; Longstaff, Alan; Cooper, Keith; Clark, Stuart |work=Astronomy Now |year=2005 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AsNow..19h..65H |accessdate=2006-01-16}}</ref> Uranus duwé 27 satelit kang dikawruhi, kang gedhé dhéwé iku Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel lan Miranda. ===== Neptunus ===== : [[Neptunus]] (30 SA) sanajan luwih cilik sithik saka Uranus, duwé massa kaping 17 massa bumi, saéngga agawé planit iki luwih padhet. Planit iki mancaraké panas saka njero nanging ora akèh kaya déné Yupiter utawa Saturnus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Post Voyager comparisons of the interiors of Uranus and Neptune |author=Podolak, M.; Reynolds, R. T.; Young, R. |work=NASA, Ames Research Center |year=1990 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990GeoRL..17.1737P |accessdate=2006-01-16}}</ref> Neptunus duwé 13 satelit kang dikawruhi. Sing gedhé dhéwé, [[Triton]], géologiné aktif, lan duwé geyser nitrogèn cuwèr.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Plausibility of Boiling Geysers on Triton |author=Duxbury, N.S., Brown, R.H. |work=Beacon eSpace |year=1995 |url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/handle/2014/28034?mode=full |accessdate=2006-01-16 |archive-date=2009-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426005806/http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/handle/2014/28034?mode=full |url-status=dead }}</ref> Triton iku siji-sijiné satelit gedhé kang orbité walik arah (''retrogade''). Neptunus uga diampingi sapérangan planit minor ing orbité, kang ingaran Trojan Neptunus. Bendha-barang iki duwé résonansi 1:1 karo Neptunus. ==== Komèt ==== {{utama|Komèt}} [[Gambar:CometMcNaught MatakoheNZ.JPG|right|thumb|[[Komèt McNaught]] utawa [[C/2006 P1]] dideleng saka [[Matakohe, New Zealand]] tanggal [[20 Januari]] [[2007]] jam 9.03pm.]] [[Komèt]] iku badan Tata Surya cilik, lumrahé mung mawa ukuran sapérangan kilomèter, lan kagawé saka [[ès volatil]]<!-- (volatiles ices) -->. Badan-badan iki duwé èksèntrisitas orbit dhuwur, kanthi umum [[perihelion]]-é ana ing planit-planit pérangan njero lan panggonan [[aphelion]]-é luwih adoh saka [[Pluto]]. Nalika sawijining komèt ngleboni Tata Surya pérangan njero, ceraké let saka Srengéngé njalari lumahan èsé ngalami sumblimasi lan ionisasi, kang ngasilaké koma, buntut gas lan lebu dawa, kang asring bisa dideleng kanthi mata langsung. Komèt mawa périodha cendhak, duwé kalangsungan orbit kurang saka rongatus taun. Éwadéné komèt mawa périodha panjang, duwé orbit kang lumaku èwonan taun. Komèt mawa périodha cendhak dipercaya asalé saka [[Sabuk Kuiper]], éwadéné komèt mawa périodha dawa, kaya déné [[Hale-bopp]], asalé saka [[Awan oort|Awan Oort]]. Akèh golongan komèt, kaya déné [[Kreutz Sungrazers]], kawangun saka pecahan sawijining indhuk tunggal.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sekanina, Zdenek |year=2001 |title=Kreutz sungrazers: the ultimate case of cometary fragmentation and disintegration? |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic |volume=89 p.78–93}}</ref> Sapérangan komèt mawa orbit hiperbolik mungkin asalé saka njaba Tata Surya, nanging nemtokaké jalur orbité kanthi mesthi iku angèl banget.<ref name="hyperbolic">{{cite journal |last=Królikowska |first=M. |year=2001 |title=A study of the original orbits of ''hyperbolic'' comets |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |volume=376 |issue=1 |pages=316–324 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20010945 |url=http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=com_base_ora&url=articles/aa/full/2001/34/aa1250/aa1250.right.html&access=standard&Itemid=81 |accessdate=2007-01-02}}</ref> Komèt tuwa kang bahan volatilesé wis entèk amarga panas Srengéngé asring dikategorikaké minangka [[asteroid]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/x0358l71h463w246/ |title=The activities of comets related to their aging and origin |author=Fred L. Whipple |accessdate=2006-12-26 |date=April 1992 |archive-date=2012-05-24 |archive-url=https://archive.ph/20120524184654/http://www.springerlink.com/content/x0358l71h463w246/?MUD=MP |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==== Centaur ==== Centaur iku barang-barang ès mèmper komèt kang poros semi-majoré luwih gedhé saka [[Yupiter]] (5,5 SA) lan luwih cilik saka Neptunus (30 SA). Centaur gedhé dhéwé kang dikawruhi yaiku, [[10199 Chariklo]], kanthi dhiamèter 250&nbsp;km.<ref name=spitzer>{{cite web |title=Physical Properties of Kuiper Belt and Centaur Objects: Constraints from Spitzer Space Telescope |author=John Stansberry, Will Grundy, Mike Brown, Dale Cruikshank, John Spencer, David Trilling, Jean-Luc Margot |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0702538v2 |year=2007 |accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref> Centaur temonan pisanan, [[2060 Chiron]], uga diklasifikasikaké minangka komèt (95P) amarga duwé koma padha kaya déné komèt yèn nyedhaki Srengéngé.<ref>{{cite web |year=1995 |author=Patrick Vanouplines |title=Chiron biography |work=Vrije Universitiet Brussel |url=http://www.vub.ac.be/STER/www.astro/chibio.htm |accessdate=2006-06-23}}</ref> Sapérangan astronom nglasifikasikaké Centaurs minangka [[objèk sabuk Kuiper sebaran-menyang-njero]] (''inward-scattered Kuiper belt objects''), sairing karo sebaran metu kang manggon ing [[piringan kasebar]] (''outward-scattered residents of the scattered disc'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/Centaurs.html |title=List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects |work=IAU: Minor Planit Center |accessdate=2007-04-02}}</ref> === Laladan trans-Neptunus === [[Gambar:Outersolarsystem objectpositions labels comp.png|right|thumb|Plot kabèh objèk [[sabuk Kuiper]]]] [[Gambar:TheKuiperBelt Projections 55AU Classical Plutinos.svg|right|thumb|Dhiagram kang nuduhaké pambagian sabuk Kuiper]] Laladan kang ana adoh ngliwati Neptunus, utawa laladan trans-Neptunus, sapérangan gedhé durung dièksplorasi. Miturut praduga laladan iki sapérangan gedhé kapérang saka donya-donya cilik (kang gedhé dhéwé duwé dhiamèter sapralima bumi lan massané adoh luwih cilik saka rembulan) lan mligi ngandhut watu lan ès. Laladan iki uga ditepungi minangka [[laladan njaba Tata Surya]]<!-- (outer solar system) -->, sanajan manéka wong migunakaké istilah iki kanggo laladan kang ana ngluwihi sabuk asteroid. ==== Sabuk Kuiper ==== {{utama|Sabuk Kuiper}} Sabuk Kuiper iku sawijining cincin raseksa mèmper karo sabuk asteroid, nanging komposisi mligi iku ès. Sabuk iki manggon ana ing antarané 30 lan 50 SA, lan kapérang saka [[Bendha Cilik Tata Surya|barang cilik Tata Surya]]. Sanajan mangkono, sapérangan objèk Kuiper kang gedhé dhéwé, kaya déné [[Quaoar]], [[20000 Varuna|Varuna]], lan [[Orcus]], mungkin bakal diklasifikasikaké minangka [[planit cilik]]. Para èlmuwan mrakirakaké ana watara 100.000 objèk Sabuk Kuiper kanthi dhiamèter punjul 50&nbsp;km, nanging diprakirakaké massa total Sabuk Kuiper mung saprasepuluh massa bumi.<ref name="Delsanti-Beyond_The_Planets">{{cite web |year=2006 |author=Audrey Delsanti and David Jewitt |title=The Solar System Beyond The Planets |work=Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-01-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060525051103/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf |archivedate=2006-05-25 |url-status=live }}</ref> Akèh objèk Kuiper duwé satelit gandha lan akèh-akèhé duwé orbit ing njaba babagan èliptika. Sabuk Kuiper kanthi kasar bisa dibagi dadi "sabuk klasik" lan résonansi. Résonansi iku orbit kang agandhèng marang Neptunus (conto: loro orbit kanggo saben telu orbit Neptunus utawa siji kanggo saben loro). Résonansi kang pisanan awalé ing Neptunus dhéwé. Sabuk klasik kapérang saka objèk kang ora duwé résonansi karo Neptunus, lan manggon watara 39,4 SA tekan 47,7 SA.<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |author=M. W. Buie, R. L. Millis, L. H. Wasserman, J. L. Elliot, S. D. Kern, K. B. Clancy, E. I. Chiang, A. B. Jordan, K. J. Meech, R. M. Wagner, D. E. Trilling |work=Lowell Observatory, University of Pennsylvania, Large Binocular Telescope Observatory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Hawaii, University of California at Berkeley |title=Procedures, Resources and Selected Results of the Deep Ecliptic Survey |url=http://www.citebase.org/fulltext?format=application%2Fpdf&identifier=oai%3AarXiv.org%3Aastro-ph%2F0309251 |accessdate=2006-09-07 |archive-date=2012-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118131015/http://www.citebase.org/fulltext?format=application%2Fpdf&identifier=oai%3AarXiv.org%3Aastro-ph%2F0309251 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Anggota dari sabuk klasik diklasifikasikan sebagai ''cubewanos'', setelah anggota jinis pertamanya ditemukan (15760) 1992QB1 <ref>{{cite web |url=http://sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIS/3/PDF/20.pdf |format=PDF |title=Beyond Neptune, the new frontier of the Solar System |author=E. Dotto1, M.A. Barucci2, and M. Fulchignoni |accessdate=2006-12-26 |date=2006-08-24 |archive-date=2014-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825122005/http://sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIS/3/PDF/20.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===== Pluto lan Charon ===== [[Gambar:Pluto system 2006.jpg|left|thumb|[[Pluto]] lan katelu satelité]] [[Pluto]] (rata-rata 39 SA), sawijining planit cilik, iku objèk gedhé dhéwé kang dikawruhi ing Sabuk Kuiper. Nalika tinemu ing taun 1930, barang iki dianggep planit kang kasanga, dhéfinisi iki diganti nalika taun 2006 kanthi diangkaté dhéfinisi formal planit. Pluto duwé kamiringan orbit cukup èksèntrik (17 drajat saka babagan èkliptika) lan leté 29,7 SA saka Srengéngé ing titik perihelion (padha leté karo orbit Neptunus) tekan 49,5 SA ing titik aphelion. Ora cetha apa [[Charon]], satelit Pluto kang gedhé dhéwé, bakal terus diklasifikasikaké minangka satelit utawa dadi sawijining planit cilik uga. Pluto lan Charon, kaloroné ngiteri titik ''barycenter'' gravitasi ing ndhuwur lumahané, kang gawé Pluto-Charon sawijining sistem gandha. Loro satelit kang adoh luwih cilik Nix lan Hydra uga ngiteri Pluto lan Charon. Pluto ana ing sabuk résonan lan duwé 3:2 résonansi karo Neptunus, kang tegesé Pluto ngiteri Srengéngé kaping loro kanggo saben telung ideran Neptunus. Objèk sabuk Kuiper kang orbité duwé résonansi kang padha ingaran [[plutino]].<ref name="Fajans_et_al_2001">{{cite science |last=Fajans |first=J. |author2=L. Frièdland |date=October 2001 |title=Autoresonant (nonstationary) excitation of pendulums, Plutinos, plasmas, and other nonlinear oscillators |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=69 |issue=10 |pages=1096–1102 |doi=10.1119/1.1389278 |url=http://scitation.aip.org/journals/doc/AJPIAS-ft/vol_69/iss_10/1096_1.html |accessdate=2006-12-26 |abstract=http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=AJPIAS000069000010001096000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes}}</ref> ===== Haumea lan Makemake ===== [[Haumea]] (rata-rata 43,34 SA) lan [[Makemake]] (rata-rata 45,79 SA) iku loro objèk gedhé dhéwé kang dikawruhi ing njero sabuk Kuiper klasik. Haumea iku sawijining objèk kanthi wangun endhog lan duwé satelit loro. Makemake iku objèk paling kinclong ing sabuk Kuiper sawisé Pluto. Ing awalé dijenengi {{mp|2003 EL|61}} lan {{mp|2005 FY|9}}, nalika taun 2008 dijenengi lan status minangka planit cilik. Orbit kaloroné duwé inklinasi adoh luwih mbujur saka Pluto (28° lan 29°) <ref name=Buie>{{cite web |author=[[Marc W. Buie]] |date=2008-04-05 |title=Orbit Fit and Astrometric record for 136472 |publisher=SwRI (Space Science Department) |url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~buie/kbo/astrom/136472.html |accessdate=2008-07-13}}</ref> lan béda kaya déné [[Pluto]], kaloroné ora diprabawai déning [[Neptunus]], minangka péranganing golongan Objèk Sabuk Kuiper klasik. ==== Piringan kasebar ==== {{utama|Piringan kasebar}} [[Gambar:TheKuiperBelt Projections 100AU Classical SDO.svg|thumb|left|Ireng: kasebar; biru: klasik; ijo: résonan]] [[Gambar:Eris and dysnomia2.jpg|thumb|right|Eris lan satelité [[Dysnomia (satelit)|Dysnomia]]]] [[Piringan kasebar]] (''scattered disc'') silih potong karo sabuk Kuiper lan nyebar metu adoh luwih wiyar. Laladan iki dinuga wujud sumber komèt mawa périodha cendèk. Objèk piringan kasebar dinuga kaoncataké menyang orbit kang ora tinentu amarga prabawa gravitasi saka obahan migrasi awal Neptunus. Akèh-akèhé [[objèk piringan kasebar]] (''scattered disc objects'', utawa SDO) duwé perihelion ing njero sabuk Kuiper lan aphelion adohé mèh 150 SA saka Srengéngé. Orbit OPT uga duwé inklinasi dhuwur ing babagan èkliptika lan asring mèh kanthi pojok siku-siku. Sapérangan astronom nggolongaké piringan kasebar mung minangka péranganing sabuk Kuiper lan njuluki piringan kasebar minangka "objèk sabuk Kuiper kasebar" (''scattered Kuiper belt objects'').<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |author=David Jewitt |title=The 1000 km Scale KBOs |work=University of Hawaii |url=http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/kb/big_kbo.html |accessdate=2006-07-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021215074450/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/kb/big_kbo.html |archivedate=2002-12-15 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===== Eris ===== [[Eris]] (rata-rata 68 SA) iku objèk piringan kasebar gedhé dhéwé kang dikawruhi lan njalari wiwitané dhebat babagan dhéfinisi planit, amarga Eris mung 5%luwih gedhé saka Pluto lan duwé prakiran dhiamèter watara 2.400&nbsp;km. Eris iku planit cilik gedhé dhéwé kang dikawruhi lan duwé satelit siji, Dysnomia.<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |author=Mike Brown |title=The discovery of <s>2003 UB313</s> Eris, the <s>10th planit</s> largest known dwarf planit. |work=CalTech |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ |accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref> Kayadéné Pluto, orbité duwé èksèntrisitas dhuwur, kanthi titik perihelion 38,2 SA (mèmper let Pluto menyang Srengéngé) lan titik aphelion 97,6 SA kanthi babagan èkliptika mbujur banget. === Laladan paling adoh === Titik papan Tata Surya pungkasan lan ruwang antar lintang wiwit ora persis kadhéfinisi. Watesan-watesan njaba iki dumadi saka loro gaya tekan kang kapisah: angin surya lan gravitasi Srengéngé. Watesan paling adoh prabawa angin surya kira-kira leté kaping papat let Pluto lan Srengéngé. ''Heliopause'' iki ingaran minangka titik awal médhium antar lintang. Nanging [[Bal Roche Srengéngé]]<!-- (Sun's Roche sphere) -->, let èfèktif prabawa gravitasi Srengéngé, diprakirakaké nyakup watara kaping sèwu luwih adoh. ==== Heliopause ==== [[Gambar:Voyager 1 entering heliosheath region.jpg|right|thumb|[[Program Voyager|Voyager]] ngleboni ''[[heliosheath]]'']] ''Heliopause'' dibagi dadi rong pérangan kapisah. Méga angin kang obah ing karikatan 400&nbsp;km/dhetik nganti nabrak plasma saka médhium ruwang antarlintang. Tabrakan iki dumadi ing ''benturan'' tèrminasi<!-- (termination shock) --> kang kira kira ana ing 80-100 SA saka Srengéngé ing laladan lawan angin lan watara 200 SA saka Srengéngé ing laladan saarah jurusan angin. Banjur angin saya alon dramatis, saya mampet lan owah dadi kenceng, minangka struktur oval kang ditepungi minangka ''[[heliosheath]]'', kanthi kelakuan mèmper kaya déné buntut komèt, saya ngulur metu adohé 40 SA ing pérangan arah lawan angin lan matikel-tikel luwih adoh ing sisih liyané. Voyager 1 lan Voyager 2 dilapuraké wis nembus benturan terminasi iki lan ngleboni ''heliosheath'', ing let 94 lan 84 SA saka Srengéngé. Watesan njaba saka heliosfer, ''heliopause'', iku titik papan angin surya mandheg lan ruwang antar lintang kawiwitan. Wujud saka pucuk njaba heliosfer kamungkinan diprabawai saka dhinamika fluida saka interaksi médhium antarlintang lan uga médhan magnèt Srengéngé kang ngarah ing sisih kidul (saéngga mènèhi wujud bujel ing hemisfer lor kanthi let 9 SA, lan luwih adoh tinimbang hemisfer kidul. Saluwihé saka ''heliopause'', ing let watara 230 SA, ana benturan busur<!-- (bow shock) -->, jaluran ombak plasma kang ditinggalaké Srengéngé sairing iderané mubeng ing Bimasekti. Tekan saiki durung ana kapal njaba akasa kang ngliwati ''heliopause'', saéngga oraa mungkin ngawruhi kondhisi ruwang antarlintang lokal kanthi mesthi. Diarepaké satelit NASA voyager bakal nembus ''heliopause'' ing watara dhékade ngarep lan ngirim manèh data tingkat radhiasi lan angin surya. Kanggo iku, sawijining tim kang dibiyayani NASA wis ngembangaké konsèp "Vision Mission" kang bakal kusus ngirimaké satelit panjajak menyang heliosfer. ==== Méga Oort ==== {{utama|Méga Oort}} [[Gambar:Kuiper_belt_-_Oort_cloud-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Gambaran sawijining artis ngenani [[Méga Oort]]]] Sacara hipotèsa, [[Méga Oort]] iku sawijining massa mawa ukuran raseksa kang kapérang saka matrilyun-trilyun objèk ès, dipracaya wujud sumber komèt mawa périodha dawa. Méga iki nylubungi [[srengéngé]] ing let watara 50.000 SA (watara 1 taun cahya) tekan adohé 100.000 SA (1,87 taun cahya). Laladan iki dipracaya ngandhut [[komèt]] kang luwar saka pérangan njero Tata Surya amarga interaksi karo planit-planit pérangan njaba. Objèk Méga Oort obah alon banget lan bisa digoncangaké déning kaanan-kaanan langka kaya déné tabrakan, èfèk gravitasi saka liwaté [[lintang]], utawa gaya pasang galaksi, gaya pasang kang disurung [[Bimasekti]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2001 |author=Stern SA, Weissman PR. |title=Rapid collisional evolution of comets during the formation of the Oort cloud. |work=Space Studies Department, Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11214311&dopt=Citation |accessdate=2006-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |author=Bill Arnett |title=The Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud |work=nineplanets.org |url=http://www.nineplanets.org/kboc.html |accessdate=2006-06-23}}</ref> ==== Sedna ==== [[Gambar:Sedna-NASA.JPG|right|thumb|Foto teleskop [[90377 Sedna|Sedna]]]] 90377 Sedna (rata-rata 525,86 SA) iku sawijining barang semu abang mèmper Pluto kanthi orbit raseksa kang èliptis banget, watara 76 SA ing perihelion lan 928 SA ing aphelion lan duwé jangka orbit 12.050 taun. Mike Brown, panemu objèk iki nalika taun 2003, negesaké yèn Sedna ora wujud péranganing [[piringan kasebar]] utawa uga sabuk Kuiper amarga perihelioné adoh banget saka prabawa migrasi Neptunus. Dhèwèké lan sapérangan astronom liyané duwé pendhapat yèn Sedna iku objèk pisanan saka sawijining golongan anyar, kang mungkin uga nyakup 2000 CR105. Sawijining barang mawa titik perihelion ing 45 SA, aphelion ing 415 SA, lan duwé jangka orbit 3.420 taun. Brown njuluki golongan iki "Méga Oort pérangan njero", amarga mungkin dumadi liwat prosès kang mèmper, sanajan adoh luwih cedhak menyang Srengéngé. Kamungkinan gedhé Sedna iku sawijining planit cilik, sanajan wujud kabubunderané isih kudu ditemtokaké kanthi cetha. ==== Watesan-watesan ==== {{Deleng uga|Planit X}} Akèh prakara saka Tata Suryané awaké dhéwé kang isih durung dikawruhi. Médhan gravitasi Srengéngé diprakirakaké ndhominasi gaya gravitasi lintang-lintang saubengé nganti adohé rong taun cahya (125.000 SA). Prakiran ngisor radhius Méga Oort, ing sisih liya, ora luwih gedhé saka 50.000 SA.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Solar System: Third edition |author=T. Encrenaz, JP. Bibring, M. Blanc, MA. Barucci, F. Roques, PH. Zarka |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |pages=1}}</ref> Sanajan Sedna wis tinemu, laladan antarané [[Sabuk Kuiper]] lan [[Méga Oort]], sawijining laladan kang duwé radhius puluhan èwu SA, bisa ditélakaké durung dipetakaké. Saliyané iku, uga ana studi kang lagi lumaku, kang nyinaoni laladan antarané [[Merkurius]] lan [[Srengéngé]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2004 |author=Durda D.D.; Stern S.A.; Colwell W.B.; Parker J.W.; Levison H.F.; Hassler D.M. |title=A New Observational Search for Vulcanoids in SOHO/LASCO Coronagraph Images |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://ap/is/2000/00000148/00000001/art06520&unc=ml |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> Objèk-objèk anyar mungkin isih bakal tinemu ing laladan kang durung dipetakaké. === Dhimènsi === Pabandhingan sapérangan ukuran wigati planit-planit: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" style="font-size: 90%" |-bgcolor="#FFDEAD" ! Karakteristik ! [[Merkurius]] ! [[Venus]] ! [[Bumi]] ! [[Mars]] ! [[Yupiter]] ! [[Saturnus]] ! [[Uranus]] ! [[Neptunus]] |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Let orbit (yuta km) ([[ékan astronomi|SA]]) | 57,91 (0,39) | 108,21 (0,72) | 149,60 (1,00) | 227,94 (1,52) | 778,41 (5,20) | 1.426,72 (9,54) | 2.870,97 (19,19) | 4.498,25 (30,07) |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Wektu ideran (taun) | 0,24 (88 dina) | 0,62 (224 dina) | 1,00 | 1,88 | 11,86 | 29,45 | 84,02 | 164,79 |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Jangka rotasi | 58,65 dina | 243,02 dina | 23 jam 56 menit | 24 jam 37 menit | 9 jam 55 menit | 10 jam 47 menit | 17 jam 14 menit | 16 jam 7 menit |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Èksèntrisitas ideran | 0,206 | 0,007 | 0,017 | 0,093 | 0,048 | 0,054 | 0,047 | 0,009 |-align="right" | ! align="left" | [[Pojok inklinasi]] [[orbit]] (°) | 7,00 | 3,39 | 0,00 | 1,85 | 1,31 | 2,48 | 0,77 | 1,77 |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Pojok inklinasi [[ékuator]] marang orbit (°) | 0,00 | 177,36 | 23,45 | 25,19 | 3,12 | 26,73 | 97,86 | 29,58 |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Dhiamèter ékuator (km) | 4.879 | 12.104 | 12.756 | 6.805 | 142.984 | 120.536 | 51.118 | 49.528 |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Massa (dibandhingaké Bumi) | 0,06 | 0,81 | 1,00 | 0,15 | 317,8 | 95,2 | 14,5 | 17,1 |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Kapadhetan manengah (g/cm³) | 5,43 | 5,24 | 5,52 | 3,93 | 1,33 | 0,69 | 1,27 | 1,64 |-align="right" | ! align="left" | Suhu lumahan{{br}}min.{{br}}manengah{{br}}maks. | {{br}}-173&nbsp;°C{{br}}+167&nbsp;°C{{br}}+427&nbsp;°C | {{br}}+437&nbsp;°C{{br}}+464&nbsp;°C{{br}}+497&nbsp;°C | {{br}}-89&nbsp;°C{{br}}+15&nbsp;°C{{br}}+58&nbsp;°C | {{br}}-133&nbsp;°C{{br}}-55&nbsp;°C{{br}}+27&nbsp;°C | {{br}}{{br}}-108&nbsp;°C{{br}} | {{br}}{{br}}-139&nbsp;°C{{br}} | {{br}}{{br}}-197&nbsp;°C{{br}} | {{br}}{{br}}-201&nbsp;°C{{br}} |} == Kontèks galaksi == [[Gambar:Milky Way Spiral Arm.svg|thumb|right|Lokasi Tata Surya ing njero galaksi Bimasekti]] [[Gambar:Local bubble.jpg|thumb|right|Lukisan artis saka [[Gelembung Lokal]] <!-- (''Local Bubble'') -->]] Tata Surya ana ing galaksi [[Bimasekti]], sawijining [[Galaksi#Spiral|galaksi spiral]] kang dhiamèteré watara 100.000 taun cahya lan duwé watara 200 milyar [[lintang]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Magnetic fields in cosmology |author=A.D. Dolgov |year=2003 |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0306443 |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> Srengéngé manggon ing salah siji lengen spiral galaksi kang ingaran Lengen Orion<!-- utawa 'Local Spur' -->.<ref>{{cite web |title=Three Dimensional Structure of the Milky Way Disk |author=R. Drimmel, D. N. Spergel |year=2001 |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0101259 |accessdate=2006-07-23}}</ref> Panggonan [[Srengéngé]] leté watara 25.000 lan 28.000 taun cahya saka punjer galaksi, kanthi karikatan orbit ngupengi punjer galaksi watara 2.200 kilomèter per dhetik. Saben révolusiné duwé jangka 225-250 yuta taun. Wektu révolusi iki ditepungi minangka taun galaksi Tata Surya.<ref>{{cite web |title=Period of the Sun's Orbit around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year |first=Stacy |last=Leong |url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2002/StacyLeong.shtml |year=2002 |work=The Physics Factbook |accessdate=2007-04-02}}</ref> Apex Srengéngé, arah jalur Srengéngé ing ruwang semesta, cerak panggonané karo [[Herkules (rasi lintang)|rasi lintang Herkules]] kaarah ing posisi akir lintang [[Vega]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2003 |author=C. Barbieri |title=Elementi di Astronomia e Astrofisica per il Corso di Ingegneria Aerospaziale V settimana |work=IdealStars.com |url=http://dipastro.pd.astro.it/planets/barbieri/Lezioni-AstroAstrofIng04_05-Prima-Settimana.ppt |accessdate=2007-02-12 |archive-date=2005-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050514103931/http://dipastro.pd.astro.it/planets/barbieri/Lezioni-AstroAstrofIng04_05-Prima-Settimana.ppt |url-status=dead }}</ref> Panggonan Tata Surya ing njero galaksi duwé peran wigati sajeroning évolusi kauripan ing [[Bumi]]. Wangun orbit bumi iku mèmper bunderan kanthi karikatan mèh padha karo lengen spiral galaksi, mula bumi arang banget mbrobos jalur lengen. Lengen spiral galaksi duwé konsèntrasi supernova dhuwur kang duwé potènsi bebaya gedhé banget tumrap kauripan ing Bumi. Kaanan iki mènèhi Bumi jangka stabilitas kang dawa kang mungkinaké évolusi kauripan.<ref name="astrobiology">{{cite web |year=2001 |author=Leslie Mullen |title=Galactic Habitable Zones |work=Astrobiology Magazine |url=http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=139 |accessdate=2006-06-23}}</ref> Tata Surya manggon adoh saka laladan padhet lintang ing punjer galaksi. Ing laladan punjer, tarikan gravitasi lintang-lintang kang silih cerak bisa nggoyang barang-barang ing [[Méga Oort]] lan nembakaké komèt-komèt menyang pérangan njero Tata Surya. Iki bisa ngasilaké potènsi tabrakan kang ngrusak kauripan ing Bumi. Intènsitas radhiasi saka punjer galaksi uga mangaruhi perkembangan wujud urip tingkat dhuwur. Sanajan mangkoko, para èlmuwan duwé hipotèsa yèn ing lokasi Tata Surya saiki iki [[supernova]] wis mangaruhi kauripan ing Bumi ing 35.000 taun pungkasan kanthi nguncalaké pecahan-pecahan inti lintang menyang Srengéngé sajeroning wujud lebu radhiasi utawa bahan kang luwih gedhé liyané, kaya déné manéka barang mèmper [[komèt]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |author=|title=Supernova Explosion May Have Caused Mammoth Extinction |work=Physorg.com |url=http://www.physorg.com/news6734.html |accessdate=2007-02-02}}</ref> === Laladan lingkungan saubengé === Lingkungan galaksi paling cedhak saka Tata Suryaiku sawijining papan kang diarani [[Méga Antarlintang Lokal]] (''Local Interstellar Cloud'', utawa ''Local Fluff''), yaiku wewengkon kanthi méga kandel kang ditepungi kanthi aran [[Gelembung Lokal]] (''Local Bubble''), kang ana ing tengah-tengah wewengkon kang arang. Gelembung Lokal iki wanguné gronggongan mèmper jam gesik kang ana ing médhium antarlintang, lan mawa ukuran watara 300 taun cahya. Gelembung iki kebak sebaran [[plasma]] kanthi suhu dhuwur kang mungkin asalé saka sapérangan supernova kang durung suwé dumadi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Near-Earth Supernovas |work=NASA |url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm |accessdate=2006-07-23 |archive-date=2010-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313214652/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ing sajeroning let sepuluh taun cahya (95 triliun km) saka Srengéngé, gunggung lintang rélatif sithik. Lintang kang paling cerak yaiku sistem kembar telu [[Alpha Centauri]], kang leté 4,4 taun cahya. Alpha Centauri A lan B wujud lintang gandha mèmper karo Srengéngé, éwadéné Centauri C iku cilik abang (ingaran uga [[Proxima Centauri]]) kang ngideri kembaran gandha pisanan ing let 0,2 taun cahya. Lintang-lintang paling cerak sabanjuré yaiku sawijining cilik abang kang dijenengi [[Lintang Barnard]] (5,9 taun cahya), [[Wolf 359]] (7,8 taun cahya) lan [[Lalande 21185]] (8,3 taun cahya). Lintang gedhé dhéwé sajeroning let sepuluh taun cahya yaiku [[Sirius]], sawijining lintang kinclong dikategoriaké 'urutan utama' kira-kira duwé massa kaping loroné massa Srengéngé, lan dikupengi déning sawijining cilik putih kanthi jeneng Sirius B. Kaloroné leté 8,6 taun cahya. Sisa sistem saluwihé kang ana ing njero let 10 taun cahyaiku sistem lintang gandha cilik abang [[Luyten 726-8]] (8,7 taun cahya) lan sawijining cilik abang kanthi jeneng [[Ross 154]] (9,7 taun cahya).<ref>{{cite web |title=Stars within 10 light years |url=http://www.solstation.com/stars/s10ly.htm |work=SolStation |accessdate=2007-04-02 |archive-date=2007-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216125505/http://www.solstation.com/stars/s10ly.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lintang tunggal paling cerak kang mèmper Srengéngé yaiku [[Tau Ceti]], kang ana ing 11,9 taun cahya. Lintang iki kira-kira ukurané 80% bobot Srengéngé, nanging kakinclongané ([[luminositas]]) mung 60%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tau Ceti |url=http://www.solstation.com/stars/tau-ceti.htm |work=SolStation |accessdate=2007-04-02 |archive-date=2007-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103202726/http://www.solstation.com/stars/tau-ceti.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Planit njaba Tata Surya paling cerak saka Srengéngé, kang dikawruhi tekan saiki yaiku ing lintang [[Epsilon Eridani]], sawijining lintang kang luwih pudhar sithik lan luwih abang dibandhingaké Srengéngé. Panggoné watara 10,5 taun cahya. Planit lintang iki kang wis dipesthèkaké, kanthi jeneng [[Epsilon Eridani b]], kurang luwih ukurané kaping 1,5 massa [[Yupiter]] lan ngupengi indhuk lintangé kanthi let 6,9 taun cahya.<ref>{{cite web |title=HUBBLE ZEROES IN ON NEAREST KNOWN EXOPLANET |work=Hubblesite |year=2006 |url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2006/32/text/ |accessdate=2008-01-13}}</ref> == Cathetan == <div class="references-small"> <ol type="a"> <li>{{Note label|A|a|none}}[[Kapitalisasi]] istilah iki manéka. [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional]], badan kang ngurusi masalah panengeran astronomis, nyebutaké yèn [http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/ kabèh objèk astronomi dikapitalisasi jenengé] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090922205638/http://www.iau.org/public_press/themes/naming/ |date=2009-09-22 }} ('''Tata Surya'''). Nanging, istilah iki uga asring ditemoni sajeroning wangun huruf cilik ('''tata surya''')<!-- including in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/solar%20system ''Merriam-Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary''], and [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110143 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']. --></li> <li>{{Note label|B|b|none}}Delengen [[Pratélan satelit]] kanggo kabèh satelit alami saka wolu planit lan lima planit cilik.</li> <li>{{Note label|C|c|none}}Massa Tata Surya ora kalebu Srengéngé, Yupiter, lan Saturnus, bisa diétung kanthi nambahaké kabèh massa objèk gedhé dhéwé kang diétung lan migunakaké pangétungan kasar kanggo massa méga Oort (watara kaping 3 massa Bumi),,<ref>{{cite web|title=Origin and dynamical evolution of comets and their reservoirs|author=Alessandro Morbidelli|work=CNRS, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur|year=2006|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512256v1|accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> sabuk Kuiper (watara kaping 0,1 massa Bumi)<ref name="Delsanti-Beyond_The_Planets"/> lan sabuk asteroid (watara kaping 0,0005 massa Bumi)<ref name="Krasinsky2002" /> kanthi total massa kaping ~37 massa Bumi, utawa 8,1 persèn massa ing orbit ing saubengé Srengéngé. Yèn dikurangi nganggo massa Uranus lan Neptunus (kaloroné kaping ~31 massa Bumi), sisané kaping ~6 massa Bumi wujud 1,3 persèn saka massa sakabèhané.</li> <li>{{note label|D|d|none}}Astronom ngukur let ing njero Tata Surya kanthi [[ékan astronomi]] (SA). Siji SA leté watara let rata-rata Srengéngé lan Bumi, utawa 149.598.000&nbsp;km. Pluto leté watara 38&nbsp;SA saka Srengéngé, Yupiter 5,2&nbsp;SA. Siji [[taun cahya]] iku 63.240&nbsp;SA..</li></ol></div> == Réferènsi == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Deleng uga == * [[Asteroid]] * [[Satelit]] * [[Pluto]] * [[Planit cilik]] * [[Sabuk kuiper]] * [[Awan oort]] * [[Kronologi èksplorasi Tata Surya]] * [[Galaksi]] * [[Alam semesta]] * [[Alam semesta kaamati]] * [[Kosmologi]] == Pranala jaba == {{wikiportal|Astronomi}} * [http://orinetz.com/planit/viewsysblog.php?lang=2 Animasi interaktif Tata Surya jroning basa Indonésia] * [http://www.lightandmatter.com/planetfinder/id/ Sawijining applet sing nuduhaké lokasi saiki lintang-lintang lan planèt-planèt ing langit wengi.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212103228/http://www.lightandmatter.com/planetfinder/id/ |date=2009-12-12 }} * [http://www.michaelschultz.de/index_en.html Animasi interaktif planèt-planèt (145 tingkat zoom lan sapérangan èfèk wektu)] * [http://www.solarviews.com solarviews.com], tampilan multimedia Tata Surya. {{tata_surya}} <br /> {{Artikel Dhasar}} {{artikel pilihan}} [[Kategori:Tata Surya|*]] [[Kategori:Astronomi]] ayo07ntnygj04wumn8hr9wobvglp09c Afrika 0 2024 1752998 1730809 2026-08-20T07:38:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752998 wikitext text/x-wiki {{multiscript|aksara=ꦄꦥ꦳ꦿꦶꦏ}} [[Gambar:Africa (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|250px|Afrika]] '''Afrika''' iku [[bawana]] (bawana) sing gedhé dhéwé kaping loro sa [[donya]] sawisé [[Asia]]. Jembaré karo kapuloan ing saubengé ana 30,2 yuta km², iku minangka 6% lumahing [[bumi]] lan 20,4% lumah [[lemah]] donya.<ref name=Sayre>Sayre, April Pulley. (1999) ''Africa'', Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-1367-2.</ref> Ing tanah Afrika iku sing ndunungi ana kira-kira sak [[milyar]] jiwa (cacah taun 2009) lan kapérang dadi 61 wewengkon, yaiku nyakup kira-kira 14,72% sing ndunungi donya. Tanah Afrika iku kabagé dadi pirang-pirang tlatah sing luwih cilik, yaiku [[Afrika Lor]] ([[Maghribi]]), [[Afrika Kulon]], [[Afrika Tengah]], [[Afrika Pérangan Kidul|Afrika Kidul]], lan [[Afrika Wétan]]. Afrika diliwati garis [[katulistiwa]] lan duwé warna-warna [[iklim]]; iki minangka siji-sijiné bawana sing mbentang saka wates loré zona iklim sedheng bumi nganti wates kidulé.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visualgeography.com/continents/africa.html |title=Africa. General info |last=Visual Geography |first= |date= |accessdate=2007-11-24 }}</ref> Prakiran pertumbuhan ékonomi Afrika yaiku watara 5,0% ing taun 2010 lan 5,5% ing taun 2011.<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/02/pdf/c2.pdf IMF WEO Oct. 2010] Retrieved 15-10-2010</ref> == Étimologi == [[Gambar:Map_of_Africa_from_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_1890.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Péta Afrika 1890]] Tembung '''Afrika''' asal saka basa [[Basa Latin|Latin]], ''Africa terra'' — "Tanah Afri" (wujud jamak saka ''Afer'') — kanggo nuduhaké pérangan lor bawana mau, wektu iki minangka péranganing nagara [[Tunisia]], papan panggonan provinsi Romawi ing Afrika. Asal tembung ''Afer'' manawa saka [[basa Fenisia|basa]] [[aksara Fenisia|Fenisia]], ''afar'' tegesé "awu";<ref>Itineraria Phoenicia, Edward Lipinski, Peeters Publishers, p200, 2004, ISBN 90-429-1344-4 [http://books.google.fr/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&pg=PA200&dq=Itineraria+Phoenicia+Ifren&sig=opSH-an97IhmB6GtJjMvn7bt4tc#PPA200,M1 Book on ligne]</ref> utawa saka suku Bani Ifran,<ref name="book on ligne">The Berbers, by Geo. Babington Michell, p 161, 1903, Journal of Royal African people [http://www.jstor.org/pss/714549 book on ligne]</ref> sing manggon ing pérangan lor bawana iki cedhak [[Kartago]]; utawa saka basa [[basa Yunani|Yunani]] ''aphrike'' sing tegesé "tanpa adhem"; utawa saka basa [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ''aprica'' sing tegesé "cerah". == Sajarah == Afrika iku dadi padunungan [[manungsa]] sing paling wiwitan, saka bawana iki manungsa sabanjuré nyebar menyang bawana-bawana liya.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1058484.stm Genetic study roots humans in Africa], BBC News | SCI/TECH</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070828155004.htm Migration of Early Humans From Africa Aided By Wet Weather], sciencedaily.com</ref> Werna-warna [[fosil]] saka [[spésies|spesiés]] manungsa purba kang wujudé esih kaya kethèk uga akèh tinemu, kaya ta ''Australopithecus afarensis'' (dinuga kira-kira saka 3,9–3,0 yuta taun SM),<ref>Kimbel, William H. and Yoel Rak and Donald C. Johanson. (2004) ''The Skull of Australopithecus Afarensis'', Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-515706-0.</ref> ''Paranthropus boisei'' (k. 2,3–1,4 yuta taun SM),<ref>Tudge, Colin. (2002) ''The Variety of Life.'', Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860426-2.</ref> lan ''Homo ergaster'' (k. 1,9 yuta–600.000 taun SM).<ref name=Sayre/> Sawijining fosil kerangka manungsa purba sing misuwur diarani "Lucy", saiki disimpen ana ing musiyum nasional [[Addis Ababa]], [[Etiopia]]. Manungsa sing modhèren kanthi [[anatomi]] wiwit kapisanan wujud fosil ing Afrika saka 195.000 taun kapungkur, nanging panelitian [[biologi molekulèr]] nemu tandha-tandha prakiran wektu pamisahan nènèk moyang sakabèhé populasi manungsa modhèren yaiku 200.000 taun kapungkur.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=102968 |title=nsf.gov - National Science Foundation (NSF) News - New Clues Add 40,000 Years to Age of Human Species - US National Science Foundation (NSF)<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2011-06-08 |archive-date=2009-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210041439/http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=102968 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4269299.stm | work=BBC News | title=Age of ancient humans reassessed | date=February 16, 2005 | accessdate=April 10, 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/02/050223122209.htm The Oldest Homo Sapiens:] – URL retrieved May 15, 2009</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Alemseged, Z., Coppens, Y., Geraads, D. |title=Hominid cranium from Homo: Description and taxonomy of Homo-323-1976-896 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-physical-anthropology_2002-02_117_2/page/103 |journal=Am J Phys Anthropol |volume=117 |issue=2 |pages=103–12 |year=2002 |pmid=11815945 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.10032}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Stoneking, Mark; Soodyall, Himla |title=Human evolution and the mitochondrial genome |journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=731–6 |year=1996 |doi=10.1016/S0959-437X(96)80028-1}}</ref> Paternakan kéwan diprakirakaké wis diwiwiti taun 6000 SM ing [[Afrika Lor]].<ref>Diamond, Jared. (1999) "Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York:Norton, pp.167.</ref> Ing taun 4000 SM, iklim [[ara-ara Sahara|Sahara]] molai dadi garing lan banjur rikat banget dadi [[ara-ara]].<ref name="O'Brien">O'Brien, Patrick K. (General Editor). Oxford Atlas of World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. pp.22–23</ref> Akibaté wewengkon sing bisa kanggo panggonan wong tani dadi sithik, amarga iku nggarai mingrasi menyang [[Afrika Kulon]] kang wewengkoné nduwé iklim luwih [[tropis]].<ref name="O'Brien" /> Wiwit kira-kira taun 3300 SM, wiwit tinemu cathetan sajarah ing Afrika Lor, yaiku saka paninggalan [[peradaban]] [[Pirngon]] ing [[Mesir Kuna]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/235724.stm Were Egyptians the first scribes?], BBC News | Sci/Tech</ref> Salah sawijining peradaban paling kuna lan suwé umuré ing donya, kakuwaosan Mesir Kuna iku ngadeg lan nyebaraké warna-warna prabawa ing wewengkon-wewengkon liyané nganti tekan taun 343 SM.<ref>Hassan, Fekri A. (2002) ''Droughts, Food and Culture'', Springer. p. 17. ISBN 0-306-46755-0.</ref><ref>McGrail, Sean. (2004) ''Boats of the World'', Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 0-19-927186-0.</ref> Wong Fenisia saka Tirus (saiki ing [[Libanon]]) uga nuwuhaké punjer peradaban sing indepènden ing [[Kartago]] kang dumunung ana ing pasisir lor-wétan Afrika.<ref>Fage, J. D. (1979) ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21592-7.</ref><ref>Fage, J. D., et al (1986) ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. Vol. 2, p. 118.</ref><ref>Oliver, Roland and Anthony Atmore. (1994) ''Africa Since 1800'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42970-6.</ref> Ing taun 332 SM, [[Alexander Agung]] yasa kutha [[Alexandria]] ing Mesir, kang sabanjuré dadi kutha krajan sing mégah lan minangka panggonan panguwasa [[Pratélan pirangon#Dinasti Ptolemeus|Ptolemeus]] Mesir.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/PTOLEMY.HTM |title=Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt: 332 BC-395 AD |publisher=Wsu.edu |date=1999-06-06 |accessdate=2010-05-18 |archive-date=2010-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528152425/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/PTOLEMY.HTM |url-status=dead }}</ref> Perkembangan agama [[Kristen]] ing Afrika wis molai saka abad angka 1, yaiku wiwit diadegaké [[Gréja Ortodoks Koptik Alexandria|Gréja Ortodoks Alexandria]] déning Santo Markus sang Panginjil watara taun 43.<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' in the 4th century, states that st. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e. 41 or 43 A.D. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p28.</ref> Agama Kristen sumebar ing pirang-pirang tlatah saka [[Palestina]] nganti [[Mesir]], uga ngliwati wates kidulé wewengkon Romawi menyang Nubia lan abad angka 6 uga wis teka ing Ethiopia. Ing mangsa awal abad angka 7 nganti abad angka 8, agama [[Islam]] sumebar ana ing tlatah Afrika Sub-Sahara, mligi ngliwati jalur dagang lan migrasi.<ref name =Ayoub>{{cite book | last = Ayoub | first = Mahmoud M. | title = Islam: Faith and History | publisher = Oneworld | year = 2004 | location = Oxford | pages = 76, 92–3, 96–7 }}</ref> == Géografi == [[Gambar:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|250px|Foto Afrika kang dijupuk saka Apollo 17]] Afrika iku wewengkon kebak [[alas]] kang lembab, padhang pasir kang garing, lan alas [[tropis]]. Afrika ugi bawana kang kebak ''bukit'' kang dhuwur lan ing pucukipun diubengi [[salju]], [[sabana]], lan udan kabut [[angin]]. Afrika iku bawana gedhé dhéwé saka telu bawana ing belahan kidul Bumi lan sing gedhé dhéwé kaloro sawisé [[Asia]]. Jembaré kurang luwih 30.244.050&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (11.677.240 mil<sup>2</sup>) kalebu kapuloan ing saubengé, nyakup 20,3% saka total dharatan ing [[bumi]] lan didunungi punjul 800 yuta manungsa, utawa watara sapropitu populasi manungsa ing donya. Kapisah saka [[Éropa]] déning [[Sagara Tengah]], Afrika nyawiji karo [[Asia]] ing pucuk lor-wétan liwat [[Terusan Suez]] sing ambané 130&nbsp;km. [[Ujung Sinai]] sing diduwèni déning [[Mesir]] kerep dianggep kanthi geopolitis minangka péranganing Afrika. Saka ujung paling lor, [[Tanjung Spartel]] ing [[Maroko]], ing 37°21′ lintang lor, tekan ujung paling kidul, [[Tanjung Agulhas]] ing [[Afrika Kidul]], 34°51′15″ lintang kidul, kabentang wewengkon sing leté 8.000&nbsp;km; saka ujung paling kulon, [[Tanjung Verde]], 17°33′22″ bujur kulon, nganti ujung paling wétan, [[Ras Hafun]] ing [[Somalia]], 51°27′52″ bujur wétan, leté watara 7.400&nbsp;km. Dawaning garis pasisir 26.000&nbsp;km (minangka perbandingan, Éropa, sing duwé jembar 9.700.000&nbsp;km² duwé garis pasisir 32.000&nbsp;km). Lumrahe wewengkon Afrika awujud lemah kang garing. Kualitas lemah kang kurang apik lan gampang rusak. Akèh lemah kang kurang [[subur]] amarga ngandhut akèh laterit, yaiku jenise [[watu]] kang gawé warna abang lemah. == Pulitik == :''Deleng uga: [[Pratélaning parté pulitik ing Afrika miturut nagara]]'' Ana pratandha cetha saka tambahé jaringan antarané organisasi lan nagara Afrika. Contoné, ing perang sipil ing [[Républik Dhémokratis Kongo]] (biyèn [[Zaire]]), tinimbang nagara non-Afrika sugih kang ngintervénsi, nagara-nagara Afrika tetanggan dadi mèlu (deleng uga [[Perang Kongo Kapindho]]). Wiwit konfliké wiwit ing taun 1998, kira-kira kurban jiwa wis tekan 5 yuta. === Uni Afrika === [[File:Map of the African Union with Suspended States.svg|thumb|upright|Peta Uni Afrika karo nagara kang disuspènsi diwernani ijo]] {{Artikel utama|Uni Afrika}} [[Uni Afrika]] (AU) iku sawijining fédherasi 54-anggota dumadi saka kabèh nagara Afrika kajaba [[Maroko]]. Panunggalan iku kawangun, kanthi [[Addis Ababa]], [[Étiopia]], minangka kantor punjer, tanggal 26 Juni 2001. Panunggalan iku resmi diadegaké ing 9 Juli 2002<ref name="African Union 2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-union.org/official_documents/Speeches_&_Statements/HE_Thabo_Mbiki/Launch%20of%20the%20African%20Union,%209%20July%202002.htm|title=Launch of the African Union, 9 July 2002: Address by the chairperson of the AU, President Thabo Mbeki|author=Thabo Mbeki|date=9 July 2002|publisher=africa-union.org|location=ABSA Stadium, Durban, South Africa|accessdate=8 February 2009}}</ref> minangka penerus [[Organisasi Afrika Bersatu]] (''Organisation of African Unity, OAU''). Ing Juli 2004, [[Parlemèn Pan-Afrika]] (''Pan-African Parliament, PAP'') Uni Afrika dipindhah menyang [[Midrand]], ing Afrika Kidul, nanging [[Komisi Afrika ing Hak Manungsa lan Bangsa]] tetep ing Addis Ababa. Ana aturan kang isih berlaku kanggo desentralisasi institusi Federasi Afrika kang supaya padha dibagi déning kabèh nagara. Uni Afrika, aja bingung karo Komisi AU, wis kawangun déning [[Undhang-Undhang Konstitutif Uni Afrika]], kang yakuwi kanggo ndandani [[Komunitas Ékonomi Afrika]], sawijining persemakmuran keklumpukan, menyang nagara sing ing pengakuan internasionalé dikukuhaké. Uni Afrika nduwé pemerintah parlementer, yaiku [[Assembly of the African Union|African Union Government]], dumadi saka organ lègislatif, kahakiman, lan èksekutif. Iku dipanggedhèni déning Présidhèn lan Kepala Negara Uni Afrika, sing uga Présidhèn [[Parlemèn Pan-Afrika]]. Wong dadi Présidhèn AU amarga kapilih déning PAP, lan salajengipun éntuk panjurung mayoritas ing PAP. Kakuwasan lan otoritas saka Présidhèn Parlemèn Afrika asalé saka Undhang-Undhang Konstitutif lan [[Parlemèn Pan-Afrika|Protokol Parlemèn Pan-Afrika]], sarta warisan saka panguwasa présidhèn ditetapaké déning prajanjèn Afrika lan prajanjèn internasional, kalebu sing subordinating Sekretaris Jenderal ing Sekretariat [[OAU]] (Komisi AU) kanggo PAP. Pamarentah AU kasusun saka otoritas kabèh-uni (fédheral), regional, nagara, lan kotamadya, uga atusan institusi, sing bebarengan ngatur urusane dina-dina ing institusi. Hubungan pulitik kaya ta Uni Afrika ngewéhi pangarep-arep kanggo ko-operasi lan tentrem luwih antarané akèh nagara ing bawana iki. Penyalahgunaan hak manungsa ekstensif isih dumadi ing sawatara péranganing Afrika, asring wonten ing kelalaian saka nagara. Akeh pelanggaran kelakon kanggo alasan pulitik, asring minangka efek sisih perang sipil. Negara ing kana pelanggaran hak manungsa utama wis dilapurké akir-akir iki kalebu [[Républik Dhémokratis Kongo]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Sudan]], [[Zimbabwe]], lan [[Panté Gadhing]]. == Nagara-nagara == Sapérangan gedhé nagara ing Afrika iku tilas nagara jajahan, kajaba [[Afrika Kidul]], [[Etiopia]] lan [[Liberia]]. [[Républik Dhémokratis Kongo|Républik Dhémokrasi Kongo]] minangka tilas jajahan [[Bèlgi]]. [[Mesir]], [[Sudan]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Djibouti]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]] lan [[Botswana]], [[Wilayah Samudra Hindia Inggris]] tilas jajahan [[Karajan Manunggal]]. [[Maroko]], [[Aljazair]], [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]], [[Pasisir Gadhing]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Benin]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], [[Républik Afrika Tengah]], [[Gabon]], [[Républik Kongo|Kongo]] lan [[Madagaskar]] tilas jajahan [[Prancis]]. [[Togo]], [[Kamerun]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]] lan [[Namibia]] tilas jajahan [[Jerman]]. [[Libya]], [[Eritrea]], [[Somalia]] tilas jajahan [[Italia]]. [[Guinea Bissau]], [[Angola]], [[Malawi]], lan [[Mozambik]] yaiku tilas jajahan [[Portugal]]. Sarta [[Sahara Kulon]] sing tilas jajahan [[Spanyol]]. Saproteloné yaiku 15 saka 47 nagara kakurung déning dharatan. ===Wewengkon Afrika Lor=== Afrika lor kapérang saka nagara [[Aljazair]], [[Maroko]], [[Tunisia]], [[Libia]], [[Mesir]], lan [[Sudan]]. Ing kabèh nagara iki, sapérangan akèh padununge yaiku wong-wong [[Arab]] lan agamané [[Islam]]. Basa kang utawa ing wewengkon iki yaiku basa [[Arab]] lan [[Prancis]]. Awit 5000 taun kapungkur, ing sadawané wewengkon lor Afrika wis ana masarakat kang duwé kabudayan kang luhur. Kaya ta [[Mesir Kuno]], salah sijiné masarakat kang ngembangaké kabudayan kang luhur. Wewengkon Afrika Lor dadi laladan kang ngasilaké pangan, kaya ta: [[Kurma]], [[Zaitun]], lan [[Anggur]], ditandhur bareng karo sayur-sayuran lan [[pari]]. Wewengkon kang ditukuli [[suket]] dianggo kanggo ngingu [[wedhus]], lan raja-kaya liyané. Saka paternakan iki diasilake [[wol]] lan [[kulit]] mentah. ===Wewengkon Afrika Kulon=== Wewengkon sisih kulon Afrika kapérang saka nagara [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Niger]], [[Pasisir Gading]], [[Guinea]], [[Senegal]], [[Mauritania]], [[Benin]], [[Togo]], [[Kamerun]], [[Guinea Bissau]], [[Sao Tome]] lan [[Principe]], [[Guiena Ekuatorial]], [[Sahara Kulon]], [[Liberia]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Gambia]], [[Ghana]], lan [[Nigeria]]. Wewengkon kulon iki dadi wewengkon kapisan kang ditekani wong [[Éropa]]. Bangsa [[Portugis]] miwiti njajah ing taun 1400-an. ===Wewengkon Afrika Wétan=== Wewengkon iki kapérang saka nagara [[Etiopia]], [[Somalia]], [[Djibouti]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], lan [[Tanzania]]. Laladan iki awujud wewengkon gisik pasisir kang rata, munggah marang [[plato]] kang dhuwur, kang kapedhot déning tlaga lan gunung-gunung kang dhuwur. Ing Afrika Wétan akèh ditemoni masarakat keturunan kang béda-béda, duwé basa kang béda uga. Nanging sapérangan akèh nganggo [[basa Swahili]]. {{clear}} {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse" |-style="background:#ececec;" ! Jeneng [[wewengkon]] lan {{br}}territoral lan gendéra ! [[Pratélan nagara miturut jembar wewengkon|Jembar]]{{br}}(km²) ! [[Pratélan nagara miturut cacah sing ndunungi|Populasi]]{{br}}(prakiran 1 Juli 2008) ! [[Pratélan nagara miturut kapadhetan sing ndunungi|Kapadhetan Padunung]]{{br}}(per km²) ! [[Kutha krajan]] |-style="background:#eee;" |colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" align="center" | '''[[Afrika Wétan]]''' |- | {{flagicon|Burundi}} [[Burundi]] | style="text-align:right;"| 27.830 | style="text-align:right;"| 8.988.091<ref name="uscen">{{Cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl |title=USCensusBureau:Countries and Areas Ranked by Population: 2009 |access-date=2011-06-04 |archive-date=2013-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013230812/http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl |url-status=dead }}</ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 322,9 | [[Bujumbura]] |- | {{flagicon|Comoros}} [[Komoro]] | style="text-align:right;"| 2.170 | style="text-align:right;"| 752.438<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 346,7 | [[Moroni, Komoro|Moroni]] |- | {{flagicon|Djibouti}} [[Djibouti]] | style="text-align:right;"| 23.000 | style="text-align:right;"| 516.055<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 22,4 | [[Djibouti (kutha)|Djibouti]] |- | {{flagicon|Eritrea}} [[Eritrea]] | style="text-align:right;"| 121.320 | style="text-align:right;"| 5.647.168<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 46,5 | [[Asmara]] |- | {{flagicon|Etiopia}} [[Etiopia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.127.127 | style="text-align:right;"| 85.237.338<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 75,6 | [[Addis Ababa]] |- | {{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Kenya]] | style="text-align:right;"| 582.650 | style="text-align:right;"| 39.002.772<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 66,0 | [[Nairobi]] |- | {{flagicon|Madagascar}} [[Madagaskar]] | style="text-align:right;"| 587.040 | style="text-align:right;"| 20.653.556<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 35,1 | [[Antananarivo]] |- | {{flagicon|Malawi}} [[Malawi]] | style="text-align:right;"| 118.480 | style="text-align:right;"| 14.268.711<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 120,4 | [[Lilongwe]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritius}} [[Mauritius]] | style="text-align:right;"| 2.040 | style="text-align:right;"| 1.284.264<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 629,5 | [[Port Louis]] |- | {{flagicon|Mayotte}} [[Mayotte]] (Prancis) | style="text-align:right;"| 374 | style="text-align:right;"| 223.765<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 489,7 | [[Mamoudzou]] |- | {{flagicon|Mozambique}} [[Mozambik]] | style="text-align:right;"| 801.590 | style="text-align:right;"| 21.669.278<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 27,0 | [[Maputo]] |- | [[Réunion]] (Prancis) | style="text-align:right;"| 2.512 | style="text-align:right;"| 743.981(2002) | style="text-align:right;"| 296,2 | [[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint-Denis]] |- | {{flagicon|Rwanda}} [[Rwanda]] | style="text-align:right;"| 26.338 | style="text-align:right;"| 10.473.282<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 397,6 | [[Kigali]] |- | {{flagicon|Seychelles}} [[Seychelles]] | style="text-align:right;"| 455 | style="text-align:right;"| 87.476<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 192,2 | [[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]] |- | {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[Somalia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 637.657 | style="text-align:right;"| 9.832.017<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 15,4 | [[Mogadishu]] |- | {{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Tanzania]] | style="text-align:right;"| 945.087 | style="text-align:right;"| 41.048.532<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 43,3 | [[Dodoma]] |- | {{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Uganda]] | style="text-align:right;"| 236.040 | style="text-align:right;"| 32.369.558<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 137,1 | [[Kampala]] |- | {{flagicon|Zambia}} [[Zambia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 752.614 | style="text-align:right;"| 11.862.740<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 15,7 | [[Lusaka]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" align="center"| '''[[Afrika Tengah]]''' |- | {{flagicon|Angola}} [[Angola]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.246.700 | style="text-align:right;"| 12.799.293<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 10,3 | [[Luanda]] |- | {{flagicon|Cameroon}} [[Kamerun]] | style="text-align:right;"| 475.440 | style="text-align:right;"| 18.879.301<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 39,7 | [[Yaoundé]] |- | {{flagicon|Central African Republic}} [[Républik Afrika Tengah]] | style="text-align:right;"| 622.984 | style="text-align:right;"| 4.511.488<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 7,2 | [[Bangui]] |- | {{flagicon|Chad}} [[Chad]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.284.000 | style="text-align:right;"| 10.329.208<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 8,0 | [[N'Djamena]] |- | {{flagicon|Republic of the Congo}} [[Républik Kongo|Kongo]] | style="text-align:right;"| 342.000 | style="text-align:right;"| 4.012.809<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 11,7 | [[Brazzaville]] |-http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Africa& | {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} [[Républik Dhémokratis Kongo|Républik Dhémokrasi Kongo]] | style="text-align:right;"| 2.345.410 | style="text-align:right;"| 68.692.542<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 29,2 | [[Kinshasa]] |- | {{flagicon|Equatorial Guinea}} [[Guinea Khatulistiwa]] | style="text-align:right;"| 28.051 | style="text-align:right;"| 633.441<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 22,6 | [[Malabo]] |- | {{flagicon|Gabon}} [[Gabon]] | style="text-align:right;"| 267.667 | style="text-align:right;"| 1.514.993<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 5,6 | [[Libreville]] |- | {{flagicon|São Tomé and Príncipe}} [[São Tomé lan Príncipe]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.001 | style="text-align:right;"| 212.679<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 212,4 | [[São Tomé]] |-style="background:#eee;" |colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" align="center"| '''[[Afrika Lor]]''' |- | {{flagicon|Algeria}} [[Aljazair]] | style="text-align:right;"| 2.381.740 | style="text-align:right;"| 34.178.188<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 14,3 | [[Aljir]] |- | {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Mesir]]<ref>[[Mesir]] lumrahé dianggep sawijining nagara lintas bawana (''transcontinental nation'') kang manggon ing Afrika Lor lan Asia Kulon; gunggung sing ndunungi lan amba wewengkoné minangka pérangan Afrika waé, yaiku sisih kuloné [[Terusan Suèz]].</small><br /></ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 1.001.450 | style="text-align:right;"| 83.082.869<ref name="uscen"/> total, Asia 1,4m | style="text-align:right;"| 82,9 | [[Cairo]] |- | {{flagicon|Libya}} [[Libya]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.759.540 | style="text-align:right;"| 6.310.434<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 3,6 | [[Tripoli]] |- | {{flagicon|Morocco}} [[Maroko]] | style="text-align:right;"| 446.550 | style="text-align:right;"| 34.859.364<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 78,0 | [[Rabat]] |- | {{flagicon|Sudan}} [[Sudan]] | style="text-align:right;"| 2.505.810 | style="text-align:right;"| 41.087.825<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 16,4 | [[Khartoum]] |- | {{flagicon|Tunisia}} [[Tunisia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 163.610 | style="text-align:right;"| 10.486.339<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 64,1 | [[Tunis]] |- | {{flagicon|Western Sahara}} [[Sahara Kulon]]<ref name="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">[[Sahara Kulon|Républik Dhémokratis Arab Saharawi]] wis diakoni nagara berdaulat déning [[Uni Afrika]], nanging wektu iki sapérangan gedhé wewengkon Sahara Kulon dikuwasani déning [[Maroko]] sawisé mardika saka Spanyol ing taun 1976, lan statusé isih dadi pasulayan. Klaim Maroko iki ora diakoni kanthi internasional.</small><br /></ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 266.000 | style="text-align:right;"| 405.210<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 1,5 | [[El Aaiún]] |- | colspan=5 | ''Teritori Spanyol lan Portugal ing Afrika Lor'' |- | {{flagicon|Canary Islands}} [[Kapuloan Canary]] (Spanyol)<ref>The Spanish [[Canary Islands]], of which [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] are [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]]; population and area figures are for 2001.<br /></ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 7.492 | style="text-align:right;"| 1.694.477(2001) | style="text-align:right;"| 226,2 | [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]],<br />[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] |- | {{flagicon|Ceuta}} [[Ceuta]] (Spanyol)<ref>The Spanish [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br /></ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 20 | style="text-align:right;"| 71.505(2001) | style="text-align:right;"| 3.575,2 | — |- | {{flagicon|Madeira}} [[Madeira|Kapuloan Madeira]] (Portugal)<ref>The Portuguese [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.<br /></ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 797 | style="text-align:right;"| 245.000(2001) | style="text-align:right;"| 307,4 | [[Funchal]] |- | {{flagicon|Melilla}} [[Melilla]] (Spanyol)<ref>The Spanish [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br /></ref> | style="text-align:right;"| 12 | style="text-align:right;"| 66.411(2001) | style="text-align:right;"| 5.534,2 | — |-style="background:#eee;" |colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" align="center"| '''[[Afrika Pérangan Kidul|Afrika Kidul]]''' |- | {{flagicon|Botswana}} [[Botswana]] | style="text-align:right;"| 600.370 | style="text-align:right;"| 1.990.876<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 3,3 | [[Gaborone]] |- | {{flagicon|Lesotho}} [[Lesotho]] | style="text-align:right;"| 30.355 | style="text-align:right;"| 2.130.819<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 70,2 | [[Maseru]] |- | {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} [[Zimbabwe]] | style="text-align:right;"| 390.580 | style="text-align:right;"| 11.392.629<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 29,1 | [[Harare]] |- | {{flagicon|Namibia}} [[Namibia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 825.418 | style="text-align:right;"| 2.108.665<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 2,6 | [[Windhoek]] |- | {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Afrika Kidul]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.219.912 | style="text-align:right;"| 49.052.489<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 40,2 | [[Bloemfontein]], [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]]<ref>[[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of South Africa, while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat.<br /></ref> |- | {{flagicon|Swaziland}} [[Swaziland]] | style="text-align:right;"| 17.363 | style="text-align:right;"| 1.123.913<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 64,7 | [[Mbabane]] |-style="background:#eee;" | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" align="center"| '''[[Afrika Kulon]]''' |- | {{flagicon|Benin}} [[Benin]] | style="text-align:right;"| 112.620 | style="text-align:right;"| 8.791.832<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 78,0 | [[Porto-Novo]] |- | {{flagicon|Burkina Faso}} [[Burkina Faso]] | style="text-align:right;"| 274.200 | style="text-align:right;"| 15.746.232<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 57,4 | [[Ouagadougou]] |- | {{flagicon|Cape Verde}} [[Tanjung Verde]] | style="text-align:right;"| 4.033 | style="text-align:right;"| 429.474<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 107,3 | [[Praia]] |- | {{flagicon|Côte d'Ivoire}} [[Pasisir Gadhing]] | style="text-align:right;"| 322.460 | style="text-align:right;"| 20.617.068<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 63,9 |style="font-size:89%"| [[Abidjan]],<ref>[[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Côte d'Ivoire]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' seat.</ref> [[Yamoussoukro]] |- | {{flagicon|Gambia}} [[Gambia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 11.300 | style="text-align:right;"| 1.782.893<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 157,7 | [[Banjul]] |- | {{flagicon|Ghana}} [[Ghana]] | style="text-align:right;"| 239.460 | style="text-align:right;"| 23.832.495<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 99,5 | [[Accra]] |- | {{flagicon|Guinea}} [[Guinea]] | style="text-align:right;"| 245.857 | style="text-align:right;"| 10.057.975<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 40,9 | [[Conakry]] |- | {{flagicon|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]] | style="text-align:right;"| 36.120 | style="text-align:right;"| 1.533.964<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 42,5 | [[Bissau]] |- | {{flagicon|Liberia}} [[Liberia]] | style="text-align:right;"| 111.370 | style="text-align:right;"| 3.441.790<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 30,9 | [[Monrovia]] |- | {{flagicon|Mali}} [[Mali]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.240.000 | style="text-align:right;"| 12.666.987<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 10,2 | [[Bamako]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritania}} [[Mauritania]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.030.700 | style="text-align:right;"| 3.129.486<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 3,0 | [[Nouakchott]] |- | {{flagicon|Niger}} [[Niger]] | style="text-align:right;"| 1.267.000 | style="text-align:right;"| 15.306.252<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 12,1 | [[Niamey]] |- | {{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Nigeria]] | style="text-align:right;"| 923.768 | style="text-align:right;"| 158.259.000<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 161,5 | [[Abuja]] |- | {{flagicon|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha}} [[Saint Helena]], [[Pulo Ascension|Ascension]], lan [[Tristan da Cunha]] (Karajan Manunggal) | style="text-align:right;"| 410 | style="text-align:right;"| 7.637<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 14,4 | [[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]] |- | {{flagicon|Senegal}} [[Senegal]] | style="text-align:right;"| 196.190 | style="text-align:right;"| 13.711.597<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 69,9 | [[Dakar]] |- | {{flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Sierra Leone]] | style="text-align:right;"| 71.740 | style="text-align:right;"| 6.440.053<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 89,9 | [[Freetown]] |- | {{flagicon|Togo}} [[Togo]] | style="text-align:right;"| 56.785 | style="text-align:right;"| 6.019.877<ref name="uscen"/> | style="text-align:right;"| 106,0 | [[Lomé]] |-style=" font-weight:bold; " | Total Afrika | style="text-align:right; background:#eee;"| 30.368.609 | style="text-align:right; background:#eee;"| 1.001.320.281 | style="text-align:right; background:#eee;"| 33,0 |} == Deleng uga == * [[Pratélan nagara]] == Réferènsi == {{reflist|2}} == Pranala njaba == * {{Dmoz|Regional/Africa}} {{Afrika}} {{Wanwa}} {{Tlatah ing donya}} [[Kategori:Afrika| ]] j8lgtqkd4zebaadrm54mw06x41s1ngl Mohammad Hatta 0 2829 1752993 1730061 2026-08-20T07:27:37Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752993 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox wong}} '''Dr.(H.C.) Drs. H. Mohammad Hatta''' ({{lahirmati|[[Bukittinggi]]|12|8|1902|[[Jakarta]]|14|3|1980}}) inggih punika salah sawijining pejuang, nagarawan, lan pahlawan nasional wonten ing Indonésia.<ref name="pahlawan 1">[http://www.kaskus.us/showthread.php?t=3452851 www.kaskus.us] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125225521/http://www.kaskus.us/showthread.php?t=3452851 |date=2012-01-25 }} (dipunundhuh surya kaping 7 Juni 2011)</ref> Mohammad Hatta inggih dados wakil présidhèn ingkang kapisan wonten ing [[Indonésia]].<ref>[http://kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id/back_office/wapres/index.asp?box=detail&from_box=list_nama_lengkap&id=1&page=1&presiden=&search_presiden=&search_keyword=&activation_status= kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id]{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (dipunundhuh surya kaping 7 Juni 2011)</ref> Mohammad Hatta gadhah asma ingkang misuwur ing bebrayan inggih punika '''Bung Hatta''',<ref>[http://id.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/branded-content/2105554-profile-dr-muhammad-hatta/ Profile Dr Mohammad Hatta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528173155/http://id.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/branded-content/2105554-profile-dr-muhammad-hatta/ |date=2012-05-28 }} (dipunundhuh surya kaping 4 Juni 2011)</ref> nanging sajatosipun rumiyin asma alitipun inggih punika '''Mohammad Athar'''.<ref name="web 4"/> Bung Hatta punika misuwur dados Bapak Koperasi, lan namanipun dipun-ginakaken dados nama papan anggegana (papan anggegana) internasional wonten ing [[Jakarta]]. == Kulawargi == Bung Hatta miyos wonten ing Kampung Aur Tajungkang, Kutha [[Bukittinggi]] surya kaping [[12 Agustus]] [[1902]].<ref name="web 4"/> Bung Hatta punika putra saking H. Mohammad Djamil (bapak) lan Siti Saleha (ibu).<ref name="web 4"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzRwAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hatta:+Memoir&q=Hatta:+Memoir&hl=id|title=Mohammad Hatta: memoir : terbitan khusus satu abad Bung Hatta|last=Hatta|first=Mohammad|date=2002|publisher=Yayasan Hatta|isbn=978-979-97081-0-6|language=id}}</ref> Bung Hatta dipunkagungi putra 3 (tiga) saking garwanipun ingkang asma Rahmi Hatta.<ref name="web 4">[http://forum.um.ac.id/index.php?topic=9750.0 Biodata Mohammad Hatta]{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (dipunundhuh surya kaping 29 Juli 2011).</ref> Putra sapisan dipunparingi asma Meutia Farida Hatta (21 Maret 1947), kaping kalih ingkang asma Gemala Rabi’ah Hatta (1953) lajeng ingkang kaping tiga namanipun Halidah Nuriah Hatta (25 Januari 1956).<ref name="web 4"/> Putrinipun asma [[Meutia Hatta]] njabat minangka Mantri Nagara Pemberdayaan Perempuan sajeroning [[Kabinet Indonésia Bersatu]] pimpinan Présidhèn [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]. == Pendhidhikan == === Pendhidhikan ing Indonésia === [[Gambar:Id-Mohammad Hatta.ogg|right]] Pendhidhikan Mohammad Hatta inggih punika sapisan HIS (sekolah dhasar basa Walanda kanggé putra-putra pribumi).<ref name="buku">Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung hal 348</ref> Lan ugi Bung Hatta inggih pikantuk pendhidhikan dhasar ing Europese Largere School (ESL) ing Bukittingi (tamat 1916) lajeng Meer Vitgebreid Lagere Onderwijs (MULO) ing Padang (tamat 1919)).<ref name="internet 1">{{Cite web |url=http://id.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/branded-content/2105554-profile-dr-muhammad-hatta/ |title=id.shvoong.com |access-date=2012-07-06 |archive-date=2012-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528173155/http://id.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/branded-content/2105554-profile-dr-muhammad-hatta/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> dipunundhuh tanggal 8 Juli 2011 Lan panjenenganipun ugi pados ngèlmu ugi nglajengaken pendhidhikan ing Handle Middlebare School (Sekolah Menengah Dagang) ing Jakarta lulus warsa 1921.<ref name="internet 1"/> Wiwit saking sekolah menengah pertama punika panjenenganipun sampun sregep ndhèrèk organisasi, sanèsipun panjeneganipun inggih tiyang ingkang tanggap nglampahi ajaran [[agama Islam]].<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> Nalika sekolah wonten ing Jakarta, panjeneganipun nglajengaken kagiyatan kaliyan Jong Sumatranen Bond.<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> Panjenenganipun nalika samanten ugi asring wonten ing asrama Sekolah Tinggi Kedhokteran pepanggihan kaliyan kancanipun ingkang asma Bahder Djohan ingkang dados guru besar lan Rektor [[Universitas Indonésia]].<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> === Pendhidhikan ing Luar Negeri === Nalika Bung Hatta ndhèrèk organisasi lan dados Bendahara Jong Sumatranen Bond ing Padang (1916-1919) ingkang kedah tanggel jawab lan ulet.<ref name="web 4"/> Panjenenganipun nglajengaken [[pendhidhikan]] perguruan tinggi [[Walanda]] mundhut [[ékonomi]] wonten ing Nederland Handelshogeschool di Rotterdam (tamat minangka gelar Drs, 1932).<ref name="web 4"/> == Lelabetan == === Aktif wonten Organisasi === Mohammad Hatta ndhèrèk Indonesischee Vereniging, obahan internasional (Liga Tegen Imperalisme,Tegen Koloniale Onderdrukking en voor Nationale Onafhankelijkheid-Liga menetang Imperialisme, Menentang Penindasan Kolonial Mendukung Kemerdekaan Indonésia).<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> === Mangsa Pandhudhuk Jepang === Wonten ing mangsa punika Bung Hatta dados tiyang wigatos ingkang nomer kalih(2) ing pemimpin Pusat Tenaga Rakyat (Putera,[[1942]]-[[1943]]), lajeng ing Jawa Hokokai (Himpunan Kebaktian Rakyat Jawa, [[1943]]-[[1944]]).<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> Bung Hatta ugi ing Tyuo Sangi In (Dewan Pertimbangan Pusat, [[1943]]-[[1944]]);ugi dados penaséhat (sanyo) lan dados ketua dewan sanyo ([[1944]]-[[1945]]) ing departemen ékonomi.<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001. Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> Bung Hatta inggih dados anggota Panitia Penyelidik Adat-istiadat ([[1942]]), lan ingkang wigatos panjeneganipun ugi dados anggota Badan Penyelidik Usaha-Usaha kemerdekaan Indonésia (1945).<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> === Mangsa Revolusi === Bung Hatta minangka salah sawijining tokoh saking prokamator kemerdekaan [[Indonésia]].<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> Panjenenganipun dados tiyang ingkang wigatos nggantos pitung tembung ing [[Piagam Jakarta]] ingkang dipundadosaken Pambukaan UUD 1945:"dengan kewajiban menjalankan syari'at [[Islam]] bagi pemeluk-pemeluknya" dipun-gantos kaliyan "Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa".<ref name="buku">[Noer,Deliar.2001.Membincangkan Tokoh-Tokoh Bangsa.Mizan Pustaka:Bandung] hal 348</ref> === Sipat Nagarawan kagunganipun Bung Hatta === Manawi bangsa India ngadhahi Mahatma Gandhi minangka bapak nagarawan ingkang sedherhana, santun, bersahaja kanggé rakyatipun, lajeng Indonésia ngadhahi Bung Hatta.<ref name="web 1">[http://orange.web.id/bung-hatta-nagarawan-yang-uncorruptable/ orange.web.id]{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}(dipunundhuh surya kaping 14 Juli 2011)</ref> Salawas gesangipun, Bung Hatta kathah ngagem sipat santunipun dhumatheng sinten kemawon tiyangipun.<ref name="web 1"/> Menapa tiyangipun mungsuh manawi kanca.<ref name="web 1"/> Bung Hatta inggih sanget pakurmatanipun lan lajeng ngekanca ingkang raket kaliyan [[Bung Karno]], minangka ing taun 1950-an tiyang kekalih punika boten saged makarya sesarengan malih babagan pulitik.<ref name="web 1"/> Panjenenganipun lengser saking kalungguhan Wakil Présidhèn ing taun [[1956]], amarga pasulayan kaliyan Présidhèn [[Soekarno]]. === Pahargiyan Bung Hatta === Bung Hatta inggih dipuntunjuk dados tokoh [[HAM]] (Hak Asasi Manungsa).<ref name="web 2">[http://www.tribunnews.com/2010/12/11/patrialis-jangan-lupakan-jasa-bung-hatta www.tribunnews.com] (dipunundhuh surya kaping 18 Juli 2011)</ref> Pahargiyan punika saking mengeti lelabetan Bung Hatta minangka babagan perlindungan uga penegakkan HAM.<ref name="web 2"/> Mengeti dinten HAM punika dhumawah surya kaping 10 Dhésèmber ingkang wonten gegayutanipun kaliyan Bung Hatta.<ref name="web 3">[http://www.balitbangham.go.id/index/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=75%3Aseminar-tentang-pemikiran-bung-hatta-dan-perkembangan-ham-di-indonesia&Itemid=76 www.balitbangham.go.id] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304134248/http://www.balitbangham.go.id/index/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=75:seminar-tentang-pemikiran-bung-hatta-dan-perkembangan-ham-di-indonesia&Itemid=76 |date=2016-03-04 }}(dipunundhuh surya kaping 18 Juli 2011)</ref> Badan Penelitian lan Pengembangan HAM punika gadhah tujuan paring pangertosan malih bilih kula lan panjenegan sadaya minangka bangsa kedah mengeti lelabetanipun Bung Hatta kanggé kepentinganipun bangsa ingkang salajengipun.<ref name="web 3"/> Bung Hatta ugi dados Gelar Dhoktor Honoris Causa saking [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] (1956), [[Universitas Hasanuddin]] (1973), lan [[Universitas Indonésia]] (1975).<ref name="web 4"/> Panjenenganipun ugi nampi tanda jasa Bintang Républik saking [[Présidhèn]] [[Soeharto]] (15 Agustus 1972).<ref name="web 4"/> == Tilar donya == Bung Hatta tilar donya surya kaping [[14 Maret]] [[1980]] ing [[Jakarta]].<ref name="web 4"/> Panjenenganipun dipunsarèkaken ing Tanah Kusir, [[Jakarta]]. == Uga delengen == * [[Pratélan Wakil Présidhèn Indonésia]] == Rujukan == === Cathetan suku === {{Reflist}} === Dhaptar pustaka === {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |author = Arniati Prasedyawati Herkusumo | title = Chuo Sangi-in: Dewan Pertimbang Pusat Pada Masa Pendudukan Jepang|language = Indonesian |trans-title = Chuo Sangi-in: The Central Advisory Council during the Japanese Occupation | publisher =PT. Rosda Jayaputra |location = Jakarta, Indonesia| year = 1982 }} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1961 | orig-year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal |title=In Memoriam: Mohammad Hatta (1902–1980) |last=Kahin | first = George Mc. T | journal=Indonesia | volume = 30|year=1980 |pages=113–120 | url= https://cip.cornell.edu/DPubS?service=Repository&version=1.0&verb=Disseminate&view=body&content-type=pdf_1&handle=seap.indo/1107014423#}} * {{Cite book | last = Mrazek | first = Rudolf | title =Sjahrir: politics in exile in Indonesia | publisher = (SEAP Cornel South East Asia program | year = 1994 | isbn = 0-87727-713-3 }} * {{Cite book |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=The Co-operative Movement in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/cooperativemovem00hatt |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y. |year=1957}} * {{Cite journal |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=Colonialism and the Danger of War |url=https://archive.org/details/asian-survey_1961-11_1_9/page/n9 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=1| issue=9| pages=10–14 |date=November 1961 |doi=10.2307/3023504 |jstor=3023504}} * {{Cite journal |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=One Indonesian View of the Malaysia Issue |url=https://archive.org/details/asian-survey_1965-03_5_3/page/139 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=139–143 |date=March 1965 |doi=10.2307/2642403 |jstor=2642403}} * {{Cite journal | first = Klaas | last = Stutje |title=To Maintain an Independent Course: Inter-war Indonesian Nationalism and International Communism on a Dutch-European Stage |journal= Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies| volume = 39|year=2015 | issue = 3 |pages=204–220 | doi = 10.1080/03096564.2015.1101298 | s2cid = 146939108 |language= nl}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 | publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book | last = Sudarmanto| first = Y.B. | title = Jejak-Jejak Pahlawan dari Sultan Agung hingga Syekh Yusuf (The Footsteps of Heroes from Sultan Agung to Syekh Yusuf) | publisher = Grasindo |location = Jakarta | year = 1996 | language = id | isbn =979-553-111-5}} * {{Cite book | last = Weismann | first = Itzchak | title = The Naqshbandiyya: Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition | year = 2009 | publisher = Routledge | location = Abingdon-on-Thames | isbn = 978-0-415-48992-8 }} {{Refend}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/h/hatta/index.shtml Bung Hatta di TokohIndonésia.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830105129/http://www.tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/h/hatta/index.shtml |date=2007-08-30 }} * [http://www.deplujunior.org/menteri_luar_negeri.html?page=2120261782 Menteri Luar Negeri Drs. Muhamad Hatta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070120121942/http://www.deplujunior.org/menteri_luar_negeri.html?page=2120261782 |date=2007-01-20 }} * [https://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0208/09/nasional/turu27.htm Turun Gunung: Bung Hatta 11 Tahun di Walanda (20 September 1921 - 20 Juli 1932)] {{kotak wiwit}} {{kotak suksesi|kalungguhan = [[Pratélan Wakil Présidhèn Indonésia|Wakil Présidhèn Républik Indonésia]]|pendahulu=''ora ana''|pengganti = [[Hamengkubuwana IX|Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX]]|taun = 1945-1956}} {{kotak suksesi|kalungguhan=[[Pratélan Nayakotama Indonésia|Nayakotama Indonésia]]|pendahulu=[[Amir Sjarifuddin|Amir Sjarifoeddin]]|pengganti=[[Abdul Halim]]|taun=1948–1950}} {{Kotak_suksesi | kalungguhan = [[Mantri Jaban Rangkah]] Indonésia | taun = [[1949]]-[[1950]] | pendahulu = [[Agus Salim]] | pengganti =[[Mohammad Roem]]}} {{kotak rampung}} {{Wakil Présidhèn Indonésia}} {{Pancasila Indonésia}} {{Pahlawan Indonésia}} [[Kategori:Pahlawan nasional Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidhèn Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Nayakotama Indonésia]] [[Kategori:BPUPKI]] [[Kategori:Mantri Kabinet Hatta I]] [[Kategori:Mantri Kabinet Républik Indonésia Serikat]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Sosial Dhémokrat Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh HAM]] [[Kategori:Tokoh saka Bukittinggi]] [[Kategori:Lair 1902]] 8j22awwnzfabxzio12l0i0ytijuazmq Ramayana 0 3497 1752819 1752776 2026-08-19T12:04:14Z Meursault2004 3 /* Pertalan */ 1752819 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Rama and Hanuman fighting Ravana, an album painting on paper, c1820.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Rama]] ditulungi déning para wanara ing peperangan karo [[Rahwana]].]] '''''Ramayana''''' ([[basa Sangskreta]]: ''Rāmāyaṇa,'' Carakan: ꦫꦩꦪꦟ) iku salah siji saka rong wiracarita saka tanah [[India]] kang misuwur sanget. Wiracarita sijiné iku [[Mahabharata]]. Carita iki nyaritakaké [[Sita|Dèwi Sinta]], garwa Sri Rama kang diculik déning [[Rahwana]]. == Vèrsi == Kitab iki dianggep buku [[fiksi]] tuwa dhéwé sadonya yèn kitab [[Weda|Wéda]] ora lumebu pètungan. Kitab iku ditulis déning [[Valmiki|Walmiki]] kang kira-kira ing taun [[300 SM]]. Carita iki banjur nyebar lan akèh banget variasiné kang ana ing njero [[India]] dhéwé utawa ing donya.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacobi |first=Hermann |title=Das Ramayana, Geschichte und Inhalt nebst Concordanz nach den gedruckten Rezensionen |year=1893 |language=de |trans-title=The Ramayana: History, Contents with a Concordance of the Printed Recensions}}</ref> Ing tlatah [[Jawa]], naskah Ramayana tuwa dhéwé tinemu iku [[Kakawin Ramayana]]. Carita iki kasebar lan lumebu dadi lakon [[wayang]] kanthi irah-irahan ing sawatara panggonan. Carita iki katatah ing [[Candhi Prambanan]]. Ing candhi iku, uga kagelar sendratari Ramayana ing platarané. Sawetara iku, ing tanah [[Lumayu]] carita iki dadi kitab [[Hikayat Sri Rama]], ing [[Thailand]] dadi [[Ramakien]]. Sawetara ahli uga nemu yèn Ramayana sumebar uga ing [[suku Indian]], [[Amérika]]. Ana uga kang tinemu ing [[Siberia]]. Kang paling béda yaiku ing Sri Lanka[[Sri Lanka]]. Ing tlatah iki [[Rahwana|Ravana]] dadi wong kang becik lan [[Rama]] dadi wong kang ngrusak Lanka. [[Ravana]] iku kecathet salah sijiné raja kang naté nyekel kuwasa ing tlatah iki.<ref>{{cite book | author= [[Tapan Kumar Pradhan]]| title = Hinduism, Christianity & Islam - A Comparative Study of World Religions | publisher = Kohinoor Books | location = New Delhi | year = 2022 | page= 267-78| isbn = 978-81-952546-1-3 }}</ref> == Lakuné carita == Kejaba vèrsi Sri Lanka, lumrahé Ramayana nyritakaké lelakoné Sri Rama kang angrebut manèh [[Sita]]. Rahwana nyulik Sita supaya gelem dadi bojoné. Rama banjur ditulungi déning para wanara lan akhiré kasil ngrebut Sita. == Pratélan kitab == Wiracarita Ramayana ana pitu kitab kang asring sinebut ''Saptakanda''. Urutan kitab nuduhaké carita kang kadadéan ing sajeroné Wiracarita Ramayana. {| class=wikitable |- ! align=center bgcolor=silver| '''Jeneng kitab''' ! align=center bgcolor=silver| '''Katrangan''' |- | align=center| '''[[Balakanda]]''' | Kitab Balakanda iku wiwitane carita Ramayana. Kitab Balakanda[[Balakanda]] nyeritakaké Prabu [[Dasarata]] kang nduwé garwa cacahé telu, yaiku: [[Kosalya]], [[Kekayi]], lan [[Sumitra]]. Prabu Dasarata duwé putra papat, yaiku: [[Rama]], [[Bharata]], [[Lesmana]] lan [[Satrughna]]. Kitab Balakanda uga nyeritakaké Sang Rama menangaké sayembara lan ngepèk bojo [[Sinta]], putri Prabu [[Janaka]]. |- | align=center| '''[[Ayodhyakanda]]''' | Kitab Ayodhyakanda iku wosé babagan carita diguwaké Rama ning alas karo Dewi Sinta[[Sinta]] lan Lesmana[[Lesmana]] amarga saka panjaluké Dewi Kekayi. Sabubaré iku, Prabu Dasarata wis sepuh lan séda. Bharata ora kersa didadékaké Raja[[Raja]], banjur dhéwèké nusul Rama. Rama ora gelem bali menyang praja. Pungkasané Bharata nata ing praja makili Rama. |- | align=center| '''[[Aranyakanda]]''' | Kitab Aranyakakanda nyritakaké babagan uripé Rama, Sita, lan Lesmana ning satengahing alas nalika lagi nglakoni masa pengasingan. Ana ing saktengahing alas mau, Rama asring paring pitulungan marang para pratapa sing nalika tapa diganggu karo Raseksa[[Raseksa]]. Kitab Aranyakakanda iku uga nyritakaké babagan Sita [[Sita]] sing diculik karo Rahwana karo carita babagan paprangané Rahwana karo [[Jatayu]]. |- | align=center| '''[[Kiskindhakanda]]''' | Kitab Kiskindhakanda nyritakaké babagan lakon ketemuné Sang Rama karo Raja Kethèk kang aran [[Sugriwa]]. Sang Rama mbiyantu Sugriwa kanggo ngrebut kratoné saka [[Subali]], kakangé Sugriwa. Ning pérangan iku mau, Subali mati. Banjur Sugriwa didadékaké Raja ning Guwa Kiskindha. Sabanjuré Sang Rama karo Sugriwa ''bersekuthu'' kanggo numpes [[Alengka|Kraton Alengka]]. |- | align=center| '''[[Sundarakanda]]''' | Kitab Sundarakanda nyritakake lakon bala Kiskindha sing lagi yasa kreteg [[Situbanda]] sing nggabungake antarané India karo Alengka. [[Anoman]] sing dadi dutane Sang Rama lunga menyang Alengka lan ngadhep karo Dewi Sita. Ning kana, Anoman ditangkep. Nanging dhèwèké bisa ucul lan ngobong kutha krajan Alengka. |- | align=center| '''[[Yuddhakanda]]''' | Kitab Yuddhakanda nyritakake lakon paprangan antara laskar Wanara dhuweke Sang Rama karo wadyabala Raseksa Sang Rawana. Ceritane diwiwiti nalika usahane wadyabala Sang Rama bisa nyebrang sagara menyang Nagara Alengka. Nanging, bebarengan karo iku [[Wibisana]] ditudhung minggat karo Rahwana amarga kakean mènèhi pitedah. Ning paprangan, Rahwana dkalahake karo Rama nganggo senjatan senjata panah saktine Sang Rama. Sang Rama bali menyang [[Ayodhya]] kanthi Slamet bareng karo Dewi Sita. |- | align=center| '''[[Uttarakanda]]''' | Kitab Uttarakanda nyritakake lakon diguwake Dewi Sita amarga Sang Rama krungu kabar-kabar saka rakyat utawa warga sing ora percaya marang kasucèné Dewi Sita. Bnajur Dewi Sita manggon ning pratapan Rsi [[Walmiki]] lan nglairaké [[Kusa]] lan [[Lawa]]. Kusa lan Lawa mara menyang karajane Sang Rama nalika lagi dianakake upacara [[Aswamedha]]. Nalika iku dhèwèké kabèh nyanyikake Ramayan sing digubah karo Rsi Walmiki. |} == Pertalan == Ramayana wis dipertal ing pirang-pirang basa ing donya kaya ing ngisor iki :- * {{cite book|last=Goldman|first=Robert P.|title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Balakanda|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1990–2016}} * {{cite book |first=Ralph T. H. |last=Griffith |author-link=Ralph T. H. Griffith |year=1870–1874 |title=The Ramayan of Valmiki |publisher=Trübner |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rama/index.htm |via=Sacred-texts.org |ref=none}} ([[:gutenberg:24869|Project Gutenberg]]).}} (terjemahan Inggris lengkap paling awal) * {{cite book |first=Hari Prasad |last=Shastri |year=1952 |title=The Ramayana of Valmiki |publisher=Shanti Sadan |ref=none}} (terjemahan ) *{{cite book| last = Silva| first = W.A. | year = 1957| title = ''Valmiki Ramayana''.}} (Terjemahan Sinhala) *{{cite book| last = Fauche| first = Hyppolite | year = 1864| title = ''Le Ramayana : Poeme Sanscrit de Valmiky''.}} (Terjemahan Prancis) *{{cite book| last = Jacobi| first = Hermann | year = 1893| title = ''Das Ramayana : Geschichte und Inhalt nebst Concordanz''.}} (Terjemahan Jerman) == Deleng uga == * ''[[Kakawin Ramayana]]'' * [[Garudha]] * [[Wayang]] * [[Candhi Prambanan]] == Prabala njaba == * [http://www.valmikiramayan.net/resources.htm Ramayana Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061024135610/http://www.valmikiramayan.net/resources.htm |date=2006-10-24 }} * [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=4&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramayanainstitute.org%2Farchives%2FNIU_2001_Conference___Fair%2FPapers%2FEFFECTOFRAMAYANAONVARIOUSCULTURESANDCIVILISATIONS.pdf&ei=asyDRJa4CYOKpAKj0e3-CA&sig2=-cYn32x-HQZFePdNugQ_0A Èfèk Ramayana ing sadhéngah papan] == Referensi == {{Reflist}} {{Artikel Dhasar}} [[Kategori:Ramayana]] trf2xy5cmmu3wt3575etkl3jlpwv82o Bertrand Russell 0 3516 1753072 1733395 2026-08-20T09:44:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753072 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox philosopher|region=[[Filsafat Barat]]|era=[[Filsafat abad 20]]|color=#B0C4DE|image=Bertrand Russell transparent bg.png |caption=Russell ing 1949 |name=Bertrand Russell |birth_date=18 Mei 1872 |birth_place=Trellech, Monmouthshire, Wales |death_date=2 Februari 1970 (usia 97) |death_place=Penrhyndeudraeth, Merionethshire, Wales |nationality=[[Britania Raya]] |school_tradition=[[Filsafat analitik]] |main_interests= [[Logika]], [[Matematika]] |influences=[[Gottlob Frege]], [[G. E. Moore]], [[A. N. Whitehead]],}} '''Bertrand Arthur William Russell''', 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal|last=Kreisel|first=G.|author-link=Georg Kreisel|year=1973|title=Bertrand Arthur William Russell, Earl Russell. 1872–1970|journal=[[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]]|volume=19|pages=583–620|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1973.0021|jstor=769574|doi-access=free}}</ref> punika [[Matematika|matematikawan]], [[filsuf]], lan pamikir umum kelairan [[Britania Raya]]. Piyambak kagungan pangaribawa ing bidhang matematika, [[logika]], [[teori himpunan]], sarta mapinten-pinten cabang [[Filsafat analitik|filsafat analitis]].<ref name="stanford">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ "Bertrand Russell"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609090837/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/|date=9 June 2007}}, 1 May 2003.</ref> Piyambak dipunanggep salah satunggaling pamikir logika ingkang misuwur ing permulaning abad kaping 20. Piyambak ugi panjangkaring aliran filsafat analitis sesarengan kaliyan [[Gottlob Frege]], kancamitra piyambak [[George Edward Moore|G. E. Moore]], sarta muridipun [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Sesarengan kaliyan tiyang ingkang rumiyin dados gurunipun, inggih punika [[Alfred North Whitehead|A. N. Whitehead]], Russell nyerat [[Principia Mathematica]], karya ingkang nggadhahi peran wigati ing perkembangan logika klasik sarta salah satunggaling usaha ingkang ancik kangge ngringkes sedaya bidhang matematika dhateng logika ([[logisisme]]). Tulisan Russell kanthi irah-irahan "[[On Denoting]]" kaanggep paradigma ing filsafat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/descriptions/|title=Descriptions, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)|last=Ludlow|first=Peter}}</ref> Russell punika sami kaengga pasifis ingkang nganjuraken pamuangan dhateng [[imperialisme]] sarta ndherekaken [[Liga India]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rempel|first=Richard|year=1979|title=From Imperialism to Free Trade: Couturat, Halevy and Russell's First Crusade|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_july-september-1979_40_3/page/423|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|volume=40|issue=3|pages=423–443|doi=10.2307/2709246|jstor=2709246}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Political Ideals|last=Russell|first=Bertrand|publisher=Routledge|year=1988|isbn=0-415-10907-8|orig-date=1917}}</ref> Piyambak dipundhawahi jalaran pamanggihipun pasifis ing [[Perang Donya I]],<ref>Samoiloff, Louise Cripps. ''C .L. R. James: Memories and Commentaries'', p.&nbsp;19. Associated University Presses, 1997. {{ISBN|0-8453-4865-5}}</ref> saha rumiyin ndhukung kebijakan nyenengake [[Nazi Jerman]] anggitanipun [[Adolf Hitler]], sadherekipun nggantos pamanggihipun ing tahun 1943 bilih perang punika punapa ingkang sampun kedah dipunlampahi minangka pilihan ingkang awon piyambak. Sasampunipun [[Perang Donya II]], Russell ngakeni hegemoni global [[Amerika Serikat]], dipunmangertosi begja tinimbang hegemoni [[Uni Sovyèt|Soviet]] utawi boten wonten kapemimpunan global ingkang efektif, ngantos dipuncakupun ngangge [[senjata nuklir]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwwAAAAAMBAJ|title=Atomic Weapon and the Prevention of War|last=Russell|first=Bertrand|date=October 1946|website=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 2/7–8, (1 October 1946)|page=20}}</ref> Salajengipun piyambak ngecam [[totalitarianisme]] gaya [[Josef Stalin|Stalin]], kengingandhatengaken kaplongipun Amerika Serikat ing [[Perang Vietnam]], sarta dados salah satunggaling pamikir ingkang malih ageng nganjuraken pelucutan senjata nuklir.<ref name="Gallery">{{Cite web|url=http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bertrand|title=The Bertrand Russell oGallery|date=6 June 2011|website=Russell.mcmaster.ca|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928232717/http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bertrand|archive-date=28 September 2011|access-date=1 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ing warsa 1950, Russell pikantuk [[Hadiah Nobel]] ing Bidhang Sastra "minangka pengakuan dhumateng karya-karyamipun ingkang maneka werni saha wigati, ing mriki piyambak nganjuraken cita-cita kemanusiaan sarta kamerdhikaan mikir".<ref>[https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/index.html The Nobel Prize in Literature 1950&nbsp;— Bertrand Russell] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702151048/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/index.html|date=2 July 2018}} Retrieved on 22 March 2013.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9to64vR8RvQ|title=British Nobel Prize Winners (1950)|date=13 April 2014|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211123/9to64vR8Rv|archive-date=23 November 2021|url-status=live|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Piyambak ugi nampi [[Medal De Morgan]] (1932), [[Sylvester Medal]] (1934), [[Kalinga Prize]] (1957), sarta [[Jerusalem Prize]] (1963). == Sitiran == {{Artikel Dhasar}} {{Nobel Sastra}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Inggris|Russel]] [[Kategori:Lair 1872]] [[Kategori:Pati 1970|Russel]] {{stub}} d15li55sxe10ir516385dnbvv8wigts Statistika 0 3520 1752846 1751348 2026-08-20T00:33:58Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752846 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:The Normal Distribution.svg|thumb|Dhistribusi normal]] [[Gambar:Gretl screenshot.png|thumb|'''Gretl''', salah siji program komputer statistik]] '''Statistika''' iku èlmu kang nyinaoni cara gawé rencana, ngumpulaké, nganalisis, gawé interpretasi, lan présentasi [[data]]. Cekaké, statistika iku èlmu kang magepokan karo data. Istilah 'statistika' ([[basa Inggris]]: ''statistics'') béda karo 'statistik' (''statistic''). Statistika minangka èlmu kang magepokan karo data, déné statistik iku data, informasi, utawa asil panerapan algoritma statistika ing sawijining data. Saka kumpulan data, statistika bisa dipigunakaké kanggo nyimpulaké utawa ndèskripsi data; bab iki diarani [[statistika dhèskriptif]]. Sapérangan gedhé konsèp dhasar statistika duwé asumsi [[téyori probabilitas]]. Sawetara istilah statistika antarané: [[populasi (statistika)|populasi]], [[sampel]], [[unit sampel]], lan [[probabilitas]]. Statistika akèh dicakaké sajeroning manéka disiplin èlmu, yaiku èlmu-èlmu alam (umpamané [[astronomi]] lan [[biologi]] lan uga èlmu-èlmu sosial (kalebu [[sosiologi]] lan [[psikologi]]), lan ing babagan [[bisnis]], [[ékonomi]], lan [[indhustri]]. Statistika uga dipigunakaké sajeroning [[papréntahan]] kanggo manéka tujuan; [[sènsus kang ndunungi]] minangka salah siji prosedhur kang paling misuwur. Aplikasi statistika liyané kang saiki populèr yaiku prosedhur jajag panemu utawa ''polling'' (umpamané diayahi sadurungé pilihan umum), sarta [[jajag rikat]] (pétungan rikat asil pemilu) utawa ''quick count''. Ing babagan komputasi, statistika bisa uga dicakaké sajeroning [[pangenalan pola]] utawa [[kacerdhasan gawéan]]. == Sajarah == Panggunaan istilah ''statistika'' ngoyot saka istilah istilah sajeroning [[Basa Latin|basa latin]] modhèren ''statisticum collegium'' ("dewan nagara") lan basa Italia ''statista'' ("nagarawan" utawa "pulitikus"). [[Gottfried Achenwall]] (1749) migunakaké ''Statistik'' sajeroning [[basa Jerman]] kanggo kang sepisanan minangka jeneng saka kagiyatan analisis data kanagaraan, kanthi makna "èlmu ngenani nagara (''state'')". Ing wiwitan [[abad kaping-19]] wis ana pergeseran makna dadi "èlmu ngenani pangumpulan lan klasifikasi data". Sir John Sinclair ngenalaké jeneng (''Statistics'') lan pangertèn iki sajeroning [[basa Inggris]]. Mula, statistika kanthi prinsip wiwitané mung ngurus data kang dianggo lembaga-lembaga administratif lan papréntahan. Pangumpulan data terus lumaku, mligi liwat [[sènsus]] kang diayahi kanthi lumintu kanggo mènèhi informasi kapadunungan kang owah saben wektu. Ing abad kaping-19 lan wiwitan abad kaping-20 statistika wiwit akèh migunakaké babagan-babagan sajeroning [[matématika]], mligi [[peluang]]. Cawang statistika kang saiki wis akèh dipigunakaké kanggo njurung [[métodhe èlmiah]], [[statistika inferènsi]], dikembangaké ing paruh kapindho abad kaping-19 lan wiwitan abad kaping-20 déning [[Ronald Fisher]] (kang masang dhasar statistika inferensi), [[Karl Pearson]] (métodhe [[analisis régrèsi|régrèsi linear]]), lan [[William Sealey Gosset]] (nliti problem sampel ukuran cilik). Panggunaan statistika ing mangsa saiki wis nyentuh kabèh babagan èlmu, wiwit saka [[astronomi]] nganti [[linguistika]]. Babagan-babagan [[ékonomi]], [[biologi]] lan cabang-cabang terapané, sarta [[psikologi]] akèh diprebawani déning statistika sajeroning [[metodologi]]né. Akibaté banjur lair èlmu-èlmu gabungan kaya [[ékonomètrika]], [[biomètrika]] (utawa biostatistika), lan [[psikomètrika]]. Sanajan nda pihak kang nganggep statistika minangka cawang saka [[matématika]], nanging sapérangan pihak liyané nganggep statistika minangka babagan kang akèh kagandhèng karo matématika ndeleng saka sajarah lan aplikasiné. Ing [[Indhonésia|Indonésia]], kajian statistika sapérangan gedhé lumebu sajeroning fakultas matématika lan [[èlmu alam]], ana ing dhépartemen kang madeg dhéwé utawa kagabung karo matématika. == Konsep dhasar == Sajeroning aplikasi statistika ing permasalahan [[Èlmu|sains]], indhustri, utawa sosial, diwiwiti kanthi nyinaoni populasi. Makna ''populasi'' sajeroning statistika bisa ateges populasi barang urip, barang mati, utawa barang abstrak. Populasi uga bisa wujud pangukuran sawijining prosès ing sajeroning wektu kang béda-béda, yaiku misuwur kanthi istilah ''dhèrèt wektu''. Ngayahi pendataan (pangumpulan data) kabèh populasi dijenengaké [[sènsus]]. Sawiji sènsus wis mesthi mbutuhaké wektu lan biaya kang dhuwur. Mula, sajeroning statistika kerep diayahi panjupukan sampel (sampling), yaiku sapérangan cilik saka populasi, kang bisa makili kabèh populasi. Analisis data saka sampel sabanjuré dipigunakaké gawé generalisasi kabèh populasi. Yèn sampel kang dijupuk cukup representatif, inferensial (panjupukan kaputusan) lan simpulan kang digawé saka sampel bisa dipigunakaké kanggo nggambaraké populasi kanthi sakabèhané. Métodhe statistika ngenani cara njupuk sampel kang tepat dijenengaké [[tèhnik sampling]]. Analisis statistik akèh migunakaké [[probabilitas]] minangka konsèp dhasaré. Bab iki katon saka akèhé nganggo uji statistika kang njupuk dhasar ing sebaran peluang. Déné [[matématika statistika]] minangka cawang saka [[matématika terapan]] kang migunakaké [[téyori probabilitas]] lan [[analisis matématika]] kanggo ngantukaké dhasar-dhasar téyori statistika. Ana rong jinis statistika, yaiku [[statistika dhèskriptif]] lan [[statistika inferensial]]. Statistika dhèskriptif magepokan karo dhèskripsi data, umpamané saka ngitung rata-rata lan varians saka data mentah; migunakaké tabel-tabel utawa grafik saéngga data mentah luwih gampang “diwaca” lan luwih duwé makna. Déné statistika inferensial punjul iku, umpamané ngayahi [[pangujian hipotèsis]], ngayahi [[prédhiksi]] observasi mangsa ngarep, utawa gawé modhèl [[régrèsi]]. * [[Statistika dhèskriptif]] magepokan karo cara data bisa digambaraké didhèskripsi) utawa disimpulaké, kanthi numerik (umpamané ngitung rata-rata lan déviasi baku) utawa kanthi grafis (sajeroning wangun tabel utawa grafik), kanggo olèh gambaran sekilas ngenani data mau, saéngga luwih gampang ''diwaca'' lan duwé makna. * [[Statistika inferènsial]] magepokan karo pamodhèlan data lan ngayahi panjupukan kaputusan dhedhasar analisis data, umpamané ngayahi [[pangujian hipotèsis]], ngayahi èstimasi pengamatan mangsa ngarep ([[èstimasi]] utawa [[prédhiksi]]), gawé pamodhèlan gayutan ([[korélasi]], [[régrèsi]], [[ANOVA]], [[dhèrèt wektu]]), lan sapanunggalané. == Métodhe Statistika == === Loro jinis panelitèn: èksperimèn lan survé === Ana rong jinis utama panelitèn: [[èksperimen]] lan [[survei]]. Kaloroné padha-padha nyinaoni prabawa owah-owahan ing peubah penjelas lan perilaku pangowah rèspon akibat owah-owahan mau. Béda kaloroné dumunung ing cara kajiané. Sawiji èksperimèn nglibataké pangukuran marang sistem kang dikaji, mènèhi perlakuan marang sistem, lan banjur ngayahi pangukuran (manèh) kanthi cara kang padha marang sistem kang wis diperlakukan kanggo meruhi apa perlakuan ngowahi aji pangukuran apa ora. Bisa uga perlakuan diayahi kanthi simultan lan prabawané diukur ing sajeroning wektu kang uga bebarengan. Métodhe statistika kang gegandhèngan karo lumakuné sawijining èksperimèn disinaoni sajeroning [[rancangan pacoban]] (désain èksperimèn). Sajeroning survey,, ora diayahi manipulasi tmarang sistem kang dikaji. Data dikumpulaké lan gayutan (korélasi) antara manéka peubah diselidhiki kanggo mènèhi gambaran marang objèk panelitèn. Tèknik-tèhnik survai disinaoni sajeroning [[métodhe survei]]. Panelitèn jinis eksperimen akèh diayahi ing èlmu-èlmu rekayasa, umpamané tèhnik, [[èlmu pangan]], [[agronomi]], [[farmasi]], [[pemasaran]] (marketing), lan psikologi èksperimèn. Panelitèn jinis observasi paling kerep diayahi ing babagan èlmu-èlmu sosial utawa magepokan karo perilaku sadina-dina, umpamané ékonomi, psikologi lan pédagogi, kadhokteran masarakat, lan indhustri. === Tipe pangukuran === Ana papat [[jinis pangukuran]] utawa skala pangukuran kang dipigunakaké sajeroning statistika, yaiku: nominal, ordinal, interval, lan rasio. Kapapat skala pangukuran mau duwé tingkat panggunaan kang béda sajeroning riset statistik. * Skala ''nominal'' mung bisa mbédakaké samubarang kang asipat kualitatif (umpamané: jinis kelamin, agama, warna kulit). * Skala ''ordinal'' saliyané mbédakaké uga nuduhaké tataran (umpamané: pendhidhikan, tingkat kepuasan). * Skala interval wujud angka kuantitatif nanging ora duwé aji nol mutlak (umpamané: taun, suhu sajeroning Celcius). * Skala rasio wujud angka kuantitatif kang duwé aji nol mutlak. === Istilah wigati sajeroning statistika === ==== Null hypothesis ==== Interpretasi marang informasi statistik kerep nglibataké anané [[null hypothesis]] kanthi asumsi apa kang diusulaké minangka jalaran ‘’’ora’’’ duwé prabawa marang variabel kang diukur. Minangka ilustrasi kang prasaja yaiku kaanan kang diadhepi para juri ing sawijining pangadilan. Null hypothesis, H<sub>0</sub>, negasaké yèn wong kang kadakwa ora salah, déné hypothesis alternatif, H<sub>1</sub>, nyatakaké yèn wong kang kadakwa iku salah. Dakwan ana amarga kasujanan ananékasalahan. H<sub>0</sub> (status quo) ana ing posisi lelawanan karo H<sub>1</sub> lan bakal dianggep bener kajaba H<sub>1</sub> dijurung déning bukti-bukti kang nyata ("beyond a reasonable doubt"). Sanajan mangkono, kagagalan nulak H<sub>0</sub> ("failure to reject H<sub>0</sub>") ing prakara iki ora ateges ora salah, nanging mung anané bukti-bukti ora cukup. Mula para juri ora perlu nampa H<sub>0</sub> nanging gagal nulak (''fails to reject'') H<sub>0</sub>. Sauntara sawenèh wong ora bisa mbuktèkaké sawijining ''null hypothesis'' nanging bisa nguji cedhak orané saka kasunyatan nganggo [[Kakuwatan statistik|uji kakuwatan]], kang nguji kasalahan jinis loro (''type II errors''). ==== Error ==== Kanthi nganggo [[null hypothesis]] tinemu anané loro wangun kasalahan (''errorr''): * Kasalahan jinis 1, yaiku nalika ''null hypothesis'' salah nulak kanthi mènèhi sawijining "false positive". * Kasalahan jinis loro, yaiku nalika ''null hypothesis'' gagal ditulak lan sawijining prabédan aktual antara populasi mènèhi sawijining "false negative". ==== Èstimasi interval ==== Studi statistika mung njupuk sapérangan saka populasi amarga saka iku asilé ora makili kanthi wutuh saka populasi sakabèhané. Èstimasi kang diantukaké saka sampel mung kira-kira ("approximate") saka aji populasi. "[[Confidence intervals]] " agawé para statistikawan bisa nyatakaké sepira cedhaké asil ngira-ira saka sampel bisa cocog karo aji kang sabeneré ing populasi. Kerep dinyatakaké minangka expressed as 95% confidence interval. Sacara formal, sawijining pratélan 95% confidence interval tumrap sawjining aji iku rentangan (range), yèn sampling lan analisis dibolan-balèni ana ing kondhisi kang padha (yielding a different dataset), interval bakal kalebu aji kang sakbeneré 95 % saka kabèh pangujèn. Bab iki ora ateges yèn probabilitas aji sakbeneré ana ing confidence interval 95%. Saka perspèktif [[frequentist inference|frequentist]], klaim mau ora nalar, amarga aji sabeneré iku dudu sawijining " [[random variable]] ". ==== Signifikansi ==== Statistika arang mènèhi sawijining jawaban prasaja jinis ya utawa ora. Interpretasi kerep tiba marang tataran signifikansi statistik (level of statistical significance) kang dicakaké marang angka lan kerep tegesé probabilitas saka aji kang kanthi akurat nulak null hypothesis (kadhangkala ingaran minangka [[p-value]]). Signifikansi statistik ora mesthi ateges yèn asilé signifikan sajeroning kaanan nyata. Tuladha, sajeroning pasinaon ngenani usada manawa nuduhaké yèn sawijining obat duwé signifikansi statistik nanging mung duwé èfèk nguntungaké sethithik, amarga saka iku obat mau kaya-kaya ora bakal mbantu pasien kanthi nyata. === Tèknik-tèhnik statistika === Sawetara pangujian lan prosedur kang akèh dipigunakaké sajeroning panelitèn antarané: * [[Analisis régrèsi]] lan [[analisis korélasi|korélasi]] * [[Analisis varians]] (ANOVA) * [[Uji khi-kwadrat]] * [[Uji t-Student]] === Statistika Terapan === Sawetara èlmu kang migunakaké [[statistika terapan]] saéngga duwé tèrminologi kang mligi. Disiplin èlmu mau antarané: * Aktuaria (panerapan statistika sajeroning babagan asuransi) * Biostatistika utawa biometrika (panerapan statistika sajeroning èlmu biologi) * Statistika bisnis * Ékonomètrika * Psikomètrika * Statistika sosial * Statistika tèhnik utawa tèknometrika * Fisika statistik * Dhémografi * Eksplorasi data ([[pangenalan pola]]) * Literasi statistik * Analisis prosès lan kemometrika (kanggo analisis data kimia analis lan [[tèhnik kimia]]) Statistika mènèhi piranti analisis data tumrap manéka babagan èlmu. Kagunané warna-warna: nyinaoni keragaman akibat pangukuran, ngendhalèkaké prosès, ngrumusaké informasi saka data, lan mbiyantu panjupukan kaputusan dhedhasar data. Statistika, amarga sipaté kang objèktif, kerep dadi siji-sijiné piranti kang bisa diandelaké kanggo kaperluan-kaperluan ing ndhuwur. == Piranti alus == {{utama|Pratélan prangkat lunak statistika}} Pétungan statistika modhèren akèh diayahi déning komputer, lan malah sawatara pétungan mung bisa diayahi déning komputer mawa karikatan dhuwur, umpamané [[jaringan saraf tiron]]. Révolusi komputer wis nggawa implikasi perkembangan statistika ing mangsa ngarep, kanthi panekanan anyar marang statistika èksperimèntal lan èmpirik. == Sawetara kontributor statistika == * [[Carl Gauss]] * [[Blaise Pascal]] * [[Francis Galton|Sir Francis Galton]] * [[William Sealey Gosset]] (misuwur kanthi jeneng sesinglon "Student") * [[Karl Pearson]] * [[Ronald Fisher|Sir Ronald Fisher]] * [[Gertrude Mary Cox|Gertrude Cox]] * [[Charles Spearman]] * [[Pafnuty Chebyshev]] * [[Aleksandr Lyapunov]] * [[Isaac Newton]] * [[Abraham De Moivre]] * [[Adolph Quetelet]] * [[Florence Nightingale]] * [[John Tukey]] * [[George Dantzig]] * [[Thomas Bayes]] == Deleng uga == * [[Analisis varians]] (ANOVA) * [[Analisis régrèsi]] * [[Pratélan badan statistik nasional lan internasional]] * [[Pratélan Publikasi Statistika]] * [[Statistik Pangyasa Dhaérah]] * [[Pratélan topik-topik statistika]] * [[Pratélan ahli statistika]] * [[Panyalahgunaan statistika]] * [[Statistika multivariat]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} Lindley, D. Making Decisions. John Wiley. Second Edition [[1985]]. ISBN 0-471-90808-8 == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.hkshum.net/stats/ Penjelasan distribusi statistik untuk pelajar sekolah menengah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100519020235/http://www.hkshum.net/stats/ |date=2010-05-19 }}. * [http://www.stis.ac.id/ Sekolah Dhuwur Èlmu Statistik (STIS)] merupakan perguruan dhuwur kedinasan program D–IV, kang dikelola déning Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) sejak taun 1958. === Situs umum lan organisasi === * [http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/ Statlib: Data, Software and News from the Statistics Community (Carnegie Mellon)] * [http://www.cbs.nl/isi/ International Statistical Institute] * [http://www.mathcs.carleton.edu/probweb/probweb.html Situs web probabilitas] * [http://www.bps.go.id/ Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) Indonesia] * [http://www.bps.go.id/statcomm/isi/preface.html Ikatan Statistika Indonesia] === Kumpulan pranala === * [http://www.cbs.nl/isi/FreeTools.htm Peralatan statistika gratis pada web (ing ISI)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041010041329/http://www.cbs.nl/isi/FreeTools.htm |date=2004-10-10 }} * [http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat Materi untuk Sejarah Statistika (Univ. of York)] * [http://www.xycoon.com/ Sumberdaya statistika lan kalkulator (Xycoon)] === Pelajaran lan Buku Teks Online === * [http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html Electronic Statistics Textbook (StatSoft,Inc.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227054024/http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html |date=2009-02-27 }} * [http://www.vias.org/tmdatanaleng/ Teach/Me Data Analysis (a Springer-Verlag book)] * [http://www.richland.cc.il.us/james/lecture/m170/ Statistics: Lecture Notes (from a professor at Richland Community College)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041111013334/http://www.richland.cc.il.us/james/lecture/m170/ |date=2004-11-11 }} * [http://statistics.cyberk.com/splash/ CyberStats: Electronic Statistics Textbook (CyberGnostics, Inc)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320065509/http://statistics.cyberk.com/splash/ |date=2011-03-20 }} * [http://www.stat.ucla.edu/%7Edinov/courses_students.html A variety of class notes and educational materials on probability and statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028100025/http://www.stat.ucla.edu/%7Edinov/courses_students.html |date=2011-10-28 }} === Piranti alus statistika === * [http://www.r-project.org/ R Project untuk Komputasi Statistika (piranti lunak bébas)] * [http://www.socr.ucla.edu/ Statistics Online Computational Resource (UCLA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051214042105/http://www.socr.ucla.edu/ |date=2005-12-14 }} * [http://root.cern.ch/ Root Analysis Framework (CERN)] * [http://www.newmdsx.com/ Piranti lunak untuk penskalaan multidimensional] * [http://www.rosuda.org/Software/ Piranti lunak untuk analisis grafik interaktif] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201115427/http://www.rosuda.org/Software/ |date=2012-02-01 }} * [http://www.rank1st.com/website_monitoring/index.html Analisis lan Monitoring Situs Web] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517163139/http://www.rank1st.com/website_monitoring/index.html |date=2008-05-17 }} * [http://www.zaitunsoftware.com/ Zaitun Time Series. Piranti lunak analisis data runtun waktu(piranti lunak bébas)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902143358/http://www.zaitunsoftware.com/ |date=2011-09-02 }} === Sumber liya === * [http://www.sixsigmafirst.com/anova.htm ANOVA] * [http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/index.html Virtual Laboratories in Probability and Statistics (Univ. Alabama)] (<small>memerlukan MathML lan Java 2 Runtime Environment</small>) * [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-2/resources.htm Materi Pengajaran Probabilitas lan Statistika (ERIC Digests)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303145425/http://ericdigests.org/2000-2/resources.htm |date=2009-03-03 }} * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/marriage.htm Resampling: Gabungan Statistika lan Èlmu Komputer (ERIC Digests)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221061903/http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/marriage.htm |date=2009-02-21 }} * [http://www.execpc.com/~helberg/statframes.html Materi Statistika ing Internet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020802013805/http://www.execpc.com/~helberg/statframes.html |date=2002-08-02 }} * [http://www.conceptstew.co.uk/PAGES/s4t_glossary_A.html Glosarium statistika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019214825/http://www.conceptstew.co.uk/PAGES/s4t_glossary_A.html |date=2011-10-19 }} {{Statistics}} [[Kategori:Èlmu]] [[Kategori:Statistika]] gx3m7g8f5zd7axdeul6l414xpqufb3x Algir 0 3651 1752918 1734589 2026-08-20T04:57:38Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752918 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Country| native_name = الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشّعبية<br />ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵣⴰⵢⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴻⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ | common_name = Aljazair | image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg | image_coat = National Emblem of Algeria (bronze effect).svg | image_map = LocationAlgeria.svg | national_motto = بالشّعب وللشّعب<br />(Bil-sha'bi wa lil-sha'bi = "Déning rakyat lan kanggo rakyat") | national_anthem = [[Qassaman]] | official_languages = [[Basa Arab|Arab]] lain = [[basa Prancis|Prancis]], [[basa Berber|Bèrbèr]] capital = [[Aljir]] | capitals_coordinates = [http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=36_42_N_3_13_E_ 34°42' LU 3°13' BT] | largest_city = [[Aljir]] | government_type = [[Républik]] semi-présidhènsial | leader_titles = [[Présidhèn Aljazair|Présidhèn]]<br />[[Perdana Menteri Aljazair|Perdana Mentri]] | leader_names = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] <br /> [[Ahmed Ouyahia]] | area_rank = 11 | area_magnitude = | area = 2.381.741 | percent_water =-| population_estimate = 35.423.000 | population_estimate_year = 2010 | population_estimate_rank = | population_census = 29.100.867 | population_census_year = 1998 | population_density = 14.6 | population_density_rank = 204 | GDP_PPP_year = 2010 | GDP_PPP = US$251,117 miliar | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = US$4.435 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | sovereignty_type = [[Kamardikan]] | established_events =-Saka [[Prancis]] | established_dates = <br />[[5 Juli]] [[1962]]| currency = [[Dinar Aljazair|Dinar]] | currency_code = DZD | time_zone = | utc_offset = | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | cctld =.dz | calling_code = 213 | footnotes= }} '''Ganagara Dhémokratik Rakyat Algir'''<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brozolo |first=Luca G. Radicati di |year=1990 |title=Benemar v. Embassy of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-international-law_1990-04_84_2/page/573 |journal=[[American Journal of International Law]] |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=573–577 |doi=10.2307/2203476 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iusct.org/claims-settlement.pdf |title=Archive copy |access-date=2011-04-19 |archive-date=2011-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511082801/http://www.iusct.org/claims-settlement.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>http://www.mem-algeria.org/legis/Mines_ANNEX-29-04-03.pdf{{Pranala mati|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://maghrebeurope.ceth.fr/DAHOR-en.pdf |title=Archive copy |access-date=2011-04-19 |archive-date=2011-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511114746/http://maghrebeurope.ceth.fr/DAHOR-en.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ([[basa Arab]]: الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشّعبية, [[basa Berber]]: ''Tagduda tamegdayt taɣerfant tazzayrit'') utawa sok diarani '''Algir''' iku nagara ing tlatah [[Maghribi]], [[Afrika]]. Yèn miturut ambané wewengkon, Algir minangka nagara gedhé dhéwé ing [[Sagara Tengah]], gedhé dhéwé ing [[Nagara-nagara Arab|Donya Arab]], kaping pindo ing bawana Afrika<ref name="cia">{{cite web | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html | title = Africa: Algeria | work = CIA World Factbook | publisher = Cia.gov | date = | accessdate = 2009-12-07 | archive-date = 2012-09-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120930183539/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> sawisé [[Sudan]], lan kaping sewelas [[Pratélan nagara miturut amba wewengkon|sa donya]].<ref>Encarta MSN</ref> Aljazair bakal dadi nagara [[Afrika]] gedhé dhéwé sawisé wewengkon [[Sudan Kidul]] mardika déning Sudan ing tanggal 9 Juli 2011. Algir wewatesan karo [[Tunisia]] ing sisih lor-wétan, [[Libya]] ing sisih wétan, [[Maroko]] ing sisih kulon, [[Sahara Kulon]], [[Mauritania]], lan [[Mali]] ing sisih kidul-kulon, [[Niger]] ing sisih kidul-wétan, lan karo tlatah [[Sagara Tengah]] ing sisih lor. Algir jembaré ana 2.400.000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, lan sing ndunungi kira-kira ana 35,7 yuta.<ref name="ons-dz"> {{cite web | url = http://www.ons.dz/-Population-et-Demographie-.html | title = Population et Démographie | publisher = Office National des Statistiques | accessdate = 2010-03-13 }}</ref> Kutha krajané yaiku [[Aljir]]. Algir minangka anggota [[Liga Arab]], [[PBB]], [[Uni Afrika]], lan [[OPEC]]. Algir iku uga salah sawijining anggota pangadeg [[Uni Arab Maghribi]]. == Étimologi == Tembung ''Al-jazā’ir'' (الجزائر) sajeroning [[basa Arab]] tegesé "pulo-pulo", asliné iku cekakan saka ''Jazā’ir Banī Mazghanā'' (جزائر بني مازغان) sing tegesé "pulo-pulo kaum Bani Mazghana". Istilah sepisanan dipigunakaké déning [[Géografi|géografer]] jaman pertengahan kaya ta [[Al-Idrisi|Muhammad al-Idrisi]]. Ing jaman klasik, laladan Aljazair lor uga diarani [[Numidia]], kang biyèn wates wewengkoné uga kalebu [[Tunisia]] kulon lan [[Maroko]] wétan. == Géografi == Sabagéyan gedhé Aljazair dunungé ana antarané 19° lan 37° [[lintang lor]] (mung sithik ana ing sisih loré 37°), karo 9° [[bujur kulon]] lan 12° [[bujur wétan]]. Lumrahé laladan pasisir Aljazair wujud pabukitan lan sithik liyané pagunungan. Plabuhan alami ora akèh cacahé ing Aljazair. [[Pagunungan Ahaggar]] (basa Arab: جبال هقار‎ ''jibaalun Haghar'') utawa uga diarani Hoggar, minangka laladan dhataran dhuwur ing tengahé [[ara-ara Sahara]], ing wewengkon Aljazair kidul. Dumunungé pagunungan iku kurang luwih 1.500&nbsp;km sisih kidul saka kutha krajan Aljir. [[Tamanrasset]] yaiku kutha kang ana ing kana. Kutha-kutha mligi Aljazair yaiku Aljir, [[Oran]], [[Constantine]], [[Tizi Ouzou]], lan [[Annaba]]. == Pulitik == Aljazair iku dianggep réjim otoritèr, yèn miturut Indèks Dhémokrasi 2010<ref>{{cite web | title=Democracy Index 2010 | url=http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pd | work= | publisher= | date= | accessdate= }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> saka kalawarti internasional ''The Economist''. Laporan ''Freedom of the Press'' 2009 saka sawijining LSM Amérika Sarékat mènèhi Aljazair peringkat "ora bébas".<ref>{{cite web | title=Freedom of the Press 2009 | url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/2009/FreedomofthePress2009_tables.pdf | work= | publisher=[[Freedom House]] | date= | accessdate=2009-05-07 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520232850/http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/2009/FreedomofthePress2009_tables.pdf | archivedate=2009-05-20 | url-status=live }}</ref> Présidhèn minangka kepala nagara Aljazair, lan dipilih kanggo mangsa kalungguhan limang taunan. Sajatiné biyèn mangsa kalungguhan Présidhèn diwatesi mung kalih mangsa limang taunan, nanging wiwit 11 November 2008 amandemèn undhang-undhang déning Parlemèn wis mbusak batesan iki.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7724635.stm |title=Algeria deputies scrap term limit |publisher=News.bbc.co.uk |date=November 12, 2008 |accessdate=2008-11-24}}</ref> Padunung Aljazair duwé hak pilih ing umur 18 taun.<ref name="cia" /> Parlemèn Aljazair iku wujud sistem rong kamar (bikameral). == Provinsi lan dhistrik == [[Gambar:Algeria wilayat.png|thumb|left|Péta provinsi Aljazair lan nomoré miturut urut-urutané sing resmi]] {| border="0" |- | <br /><small>1</small> [[Provinsi Adrar|Adrar]] <br /><small>2</small> [[Provinsi Chlef|Chlef]] <br /><small>3</small> [[Provinsi Laghouat|Laghouat]] <br /><small>4</small> [[Provinsi Oum el-Bouaghi|Oum el-Bouaghi]] <br /><small>5</small> [[Provinsi Batna|Batna]] <br /><small>6</small> [[Provinsi Béjaïa|Béjaïa]] <br /><small>7</small> [[Provinsi Biskra|Biskra]] <br /><small>8</small> [[Provinsi Béchar|Béchar]] <br /><small>9</small> [[Provinsi Blida|Blida]] <br /><small>10</small> [[Provinsi Bouira|Bouira]] <br /><small>11</small> [[Provinsi Tamanghasset|Tamanghasset]] <br /><small>12</small> [[Provinsi Tébessa|Tébessa]] | <br /><small>13</small> [[Provinsi Tlemcen|Tlemcen]] <br /><small>14</small> [[Provinsi Tiaret|Tiaret]] <br /><small>15</small> [[Provinsi Tizi Ouzou|Tizi Ouzou]] <br /><small>16</small> [[Provinsi Aljir|Aljir]] <br /><small>17</small> [[Provinsi Djelfa|Djelfa]] <br /><small>18</small> [[Provinsi Jijel|Jijel]] <br /><small>19</small> [[Provinsi Sétif|Sétif]] <br /><small>20</small> [[Provinsi Saïda|Saïda]] <br /><small>21</small> [[Provinsi Skikda|Skikda]] <br /><small>22</small> [[Provinsi Sidi Bel Abbes|Sidi Bel Abbes]] <br /><small>23</small> [[Provinsi Annaba|Annaba]] <br /><small>24</small> [[Provinsi Guelma|Guelma]] | <br /><small>25</small> [[Provinsi Constantine|Constantine]] <br /><small>26</small> [[Provinsi Médéa|Médéa]] <br /><small>27</small> [[Provinsi Mostaganem|Mostaganem]] <br /><small>28</small> [[Provinsi M'Sila|M'Sila]] <br /><small>29</small> [[Provinsi Mascara|Mascara]] <br /><small>30</small> [[Provinsi Ouargla|Ouargla]] <br /><small>31</small> [[Provinsi Oran|Oran]] <br /><small>32</small> [[Provinsi El Bayadh|El Bayadh]] <br /><small>33</small> [[Provinsi Illizi|Illizi]] <br /><small>34</small> [[Provinsi Bordj Bou Arréridj|Bordj Bou Arréridj]] <br /><small>35</small> [[Provinsi Boumerdès|Boumerdès]] <br /><small>36</small> [[Provinsi El Tarf|El Tarf]] | <br /><small>37</small> [[Provinsi Tindouf|Tindouf]] <br /><small>38</small> [[Provinsi Tissemsilt|Tissemsilt]] <br /><small>39</small> [[Provinsi El Oued|El Oued]] <br /><small>40</small> [[Provinsi Khenchela|Khenchela]] <br /><small>41</small> [[Provinsi Souk Ahras|Souk Ahras]] <br /><small>42</small> [[Provinsi Tipasa|Tipasa]] <br /><small>43</small> [[Provinsi Mila|Mila]] <br /><small>44</small> [[Provinsi Aïn Defla|Aïn Defla]] <br /><small>45</small> [[Provinsi Naama|Naama]] <br /><small>46</small> [[Provinsi Aïn Témouchent|Aïn Témouchent]] <br /><small>47</small> [[Provinsi Ghardaïa|Ghardaïa]] <br /><small>48</small> [[Provinsi Relizane|Relizane]] |} == Démografi == Aljazair duwé cacah sing ndunungi 34.895.000 (prakiran Januari 2010), yaiku 99% minangka ètnis Arab utawa Berber.<ref name="cia" /> Turunaning para pangungsi saka [[Andalusia]], uga ana ing populasi sing ndunungi Aljir lan kutha-kutha liya.<ref>John Douglas Ruedy (2005). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA22&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Modern Algeria: the origins and development of a nation]''". Indiana University Press. p.22. ISBN 978-0-253-21782-0</ref> Mèh ora ana wong-wong katurunan [[Éropa]] ing Aljazair, sapérangan gedhé wis pindhah sawisé kamardhikan nagara iku saka [[Prancis]].<ref>Raimondo Cagiano De Azevedo (1994). ''"[http://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Migration and development co-operation.]"''. Council of Europe. p.25. ISBN 978-92-871-2611-5</ref> == Deleng uga == * [[Pratélan nagara]] * [[Pratélan nagara miturut bawana]] * [[Pratélan lagu kabangsan]] == Cathetan suku == {{reflist|2}} {{Afrika}} {{Bawana}} [[Kategori:Aljazair]] ggqvqa04mw7yairbeu7gjub4tsfct30 Banggaladésa 0 3667 1752984 1752003 2026-08-20T07:11:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752984 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pp-semi-template|small=yes}} {{Infobox_Country | native_name = গনপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ<br />Gôno Projatontri Bangladesh | common_name = Banggaladésa | image_flag = Flag of Bangladesh.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Bangladesh.svg | image_map = Bangladesh in its region.svg | national_motto = — | national_anthem = [[Amar Sonar Bangla]] <br /><br /><br /> | official_languages = [[Bahasa Bengali|Bengali]] | capital = [[Dhaka]] | capitals_coordinates = [http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=23_42_N_90_22_E_ 23°42′ LU 90°22′ BT] | largest_city = [[Dhaka]] | government_type = [[Républik]] [[parlemen]]ter | leader_title1 = [[Pratelan Presidhen Banggaladésa|Presidhèn]] | leader_name1 = [[Mohammed Shahabuddin]] | leader_title2 = [[Pratelan Nayakotama Banggaladésa|Penasihat Utama]] | leader_name2 = [[Muhammad Yunus]] | leader_titles = [[Présidhèn Banggaladésa|Présidhèn]] <br /> [[Perdana Menteri Banggaladésa|Perdana Menteri]] <br /> [[Perdana Menteri Banggaladésa|Kepala Papréntahan Sementara]] | leader_names = [[Iajuddin Ahmed]] <br /> kosong <br /> [[Fakhruddin Ahmed]] | area_rank = 91 | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | area = 144.000 | percent_water = 7% | population_estimate = 147.365.352 | population_estimate_year = 2006 | population_estimate_rank = 7 | population_census = - | population_census_year = - | population_density = 1.002 | population_density_rank = 7 | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = US$279,7 miliar | GDP_PPP_rank = 32 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = US$1.995 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 151 | sovereignty_type = [[Kamardikan]] | established_events = - Saka [[Pakistan]] | established_dates = <br />[[26 Maret]] [[1971]] | currency = [[Taka]] | currency_code = BDT | time_zone = | utc_offset = +6 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = +6 | cctld = .bd,.বাংলা | calling_code = 880 | footnotes = }} '''Banggaladésa''' utawa '''Bangladèsh''' iku nagara ing bawana [[Asia]]. Sing ndunungi cacahé kira-kira ana 147.365.352 jiwa lan jembaré nagara ana 144.000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. Nagara iki dunungé ana ing tlatah [[Asia Kidul]] sing wewatesan karo [[India]] ing sisih kulon, lor lan wétan, [[Myanmar]] ing sisih kidul-wétan, lan [[Lempongan Benggala]] ing sisih kidul. Bangladesh, bebarengan karo [[Benggala Kulon]] ing India, mbentuk kawasan etno-linguistik [[Banggala]]. ''Bangladesh'' (বাংলাদেশ) kanthi lèterlek tegesé "Nagara Banggala". [[Kutha krajan]] lan kutha gedhé dhéwé ing Bangladesh ya iku [[Dhaka]]. Tapel wates Bangladesh dikukuhaké liwat [[pamisahan India]] ing taun [[1947]]. Nagara iki wiwitané minangka swiwi wétan saka [[Pakistan]] ([[Pakistan Wétan]]) sing kapisah saka swiwi kulon 1.600 [[kilomèter]] adohé. Diskriminasi pulitik, basa, lan ékonomi nuwuhaké perpecahan antara kaloro sayap, sing pungkasané [[Perang Kamardikan Bangladesh|njeblugaké perang kamardikan]] taun 1971 lan madegé nagara Bangladesh. {| class="infobox borderless" |+Simbul nasional Banggaladesa (Resmi) |- ! '''State animal''' | | [[Gambar:Panthera tigris.jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State bird''' | | [[Gambar:Oriental Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis)- Male calling in the rain at Kolkata I IMG 3746.jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State tree''' | | [[Gambar:Mango blossoms.jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State flower''' | | [[Gambar:Nymphaea pubescens (9149867657).jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State aquatic marine mammal''' | | [[Gambar:PlatanistaHardwicke.jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State reptile''' | | [[Gambar:Gavial-du-gange.jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State fruit''' | | [[Gambar:(Artocarpus heterophyllus) Jack fruits on Simhachalam Hills 01.jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State fish''' | | [[Gambar:Ilish.JPG|50px]] |- ! '''State mosque''' | | [[Gambar:Baitul Mukarram (Arabic, بيت المكرّم; Bengali, বায়তুল মুকাররম; The Holy House).jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State temple''' | | [[Gambar:Hindu Temple in Dhaka.jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State river''' | | [[Gambar:Boat on Jamuna River.jpg|50px]] |- ! '''State mountain''' | | [[Gambar:Keokradong.jpg|50px]] |- |} == Pamérangan administratif == Bangladesh kapérang dadi pitung divisi (''bibhag'')<ref><http://www.bdnews24.com/details.php?cid=2&id=151976&hb=top></ref><ref name="CIA2007">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html |title=CIA World Factbook 2007 |access-date=2010-10-05 |archive-date=2021-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101182840/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> sing dijenengi miturut jeneng kutha krajané: [[Divisi Barisal|Barisal]] (বরিশাল), [[Divisi Chittagong|Chittagong]] (চট্টগ্রাম), [[Divisi Dhaka|Dhaka]] (ঢাকা), [[Divisi Khulna|Khulna]] (খুলনা), [[Divisi Rajshahi|Rajshahi]] (রাজশাহী), [[Divisi Sylhet|Sylhet]] (সিলেট), dan [[Divisi Rangpur|Rangpur]] (রংপুর). Divisi kapérang manèh dadi dhistrik (''zila''). Ana watara 64 dhistrik ing Bangladesh. Saben dhistrik kapérang dadi ''upazila'' (sub dhistrik) utawa ''thana'' (stasiun pulisi). Saben stasiun pulisi, kajaba sing ana ing laladan metropolitan, dipérang manèh dadi sawatara kesatuan. Kesatuan-kesatuan iki dumadi saka akèh désa-désa. Ing wewengkon metropolitan, stasiun pulisi kapérang dadi ''ward'', sing dipérang manèh dadi ''mahallas''. Ora ana pejabat kapilih ing tingkat divisi, dhistrik utawa upazila, lan papréntahan mung dumadi saka pejabat pamaréntah. Pamilihan langsung sing milih ketua lan sawatara anggota dianakaké ing saben kesatuan (utawa ''ward''). [[Dhaka]] iku minangka kutha krajana lan kutha gedhé dhéwé ing Bangladesh. Kutha utama liyané ya iku [[Chittagong]], [[Khulna]], [[Rajshahi]], [[Sylhet]], [[Barisal]], [[Bogra]], [[Comilla]], [[Mymensingh]] lan [[Rangpur]]. Ing kutha-kutha mau dianakaké pamilihan walikutha, lan ing munisipalitas liyané milih ketua. Walikutha lan ketua duwé mangsa kalungguhan limang taun. [[Gambar:Bangladesh divisions english.png|thumb|Divisi-divisi ing Bangladesh.|al=|kiri]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Kutha ! Populasi kutha (kira-kira 2008)<ref name="bbsgov">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/pby/pk_book_08.pdf |title=Statistical pocket book Banggaladésa – 2008 |publisher=[[Banggaladésa Bureau of Statistics]] | accessdate=2009-10-10}}</ref> ! Populasi metro (kira-kira 2008)<ref name="bbsgov"/> |- | [[Dhaka]] | 7.000.940 | 12.797.394 |- | [[Chittagong]] | 2.579.107 | 3.858.093 |- | [[Khulna]] | 855.650 | 1.388.425 |- | [[Rajshahi]] | 472.775 | 775.495 |- | [[Sylhet]] | 463.198 | <nowiki>-</nowiki> |- | [[Barisal]] | 210.374 | <nowiki>-</nowiki> |- | [[Rangpur]] | 251.699 | <nowiki>-</nowiki> |} == Géografi lan iklim == [[Gambar:Satellite image of Bangladesh in October 2001.jpg|thumb|left|Citra Bangladesh saka satelit.]] [[Gambar:Cox's Bazar panorama.jpg|thumb|200px|Sesawangan [[Cox's Bazar]].]] [[Gambar:Boat in river, Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|200px|Kapal ing [[Jaflong]], [[Sylhet]].]] Bangladesh dumunung ing Delta [[Kali Gangga]]-[[Kali Brahmaputra]]. Delta iki kadhapur déning patemon [[Kali Gangga]] (jeneng saenggon [[Kali Padma|Padma]] utawa ''Pôdda''), [[Kali Brahmaputra|Brahmaputra]] ([[Kali Jamuna|Jamuna]] utawa ''Jomuna''), [[Kali Meghna|Meghna]], lan anak-anak kali sing mili saka Himalaya. [[Alluvium|Tanah aluvial]] sing dienepaké déning kali-kali iku nyiptakaké dharatan sing subur. Sapérangan gedhé Bangladesh dumunung ana ing 12 mèter sangisoré lumahing sagara, lan diprecaya watara 50% lemah bakal banjir yèn lumahing sagara mundhak nganti 1 m. <ref name=ali>{{cite journal | last = Ali | first = A | year = 1996 | title = Vulnerability of Banggaladésa to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_water-air-and-soil-pollution_1996-11_92_1-2/page/171 | journal = Water, Air, & Soil Pollution | volume = 92 | issue = 1-2 | pages = 171-179 }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == {{Sisterlinks}} * [http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd Portal papréntahan resmi Pamaréntah Bangladesh] * {{bn}} [http://www.parliamentofbangladesh.org/indexeng.html Parlemen Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100222021802/http://www.parliamentofbangladesh.org/indexeng.html |date=2010-02-22 }} * {{CIA World Factbook link|bg|Banggaladésa}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bangladesh.htm Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081026124922/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bangladesh.htm |date=2008-10-26 }} pada ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Banggaladésa}} * [http://banglapedia.org/ Banglapedia], Ensiklopedia Nasional Bangladesh * [http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/index.asp?lang=eN&iso3=BGD&subj=1&paia= Profil Nagara FAO: Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623175240/http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/index.asp?lang=eN&iso3=BGD&subj=1&paia= |date=2011-06-23 }} * [http://www.bssnews.net/ ''Bangladesh National News Agency (BSS)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413023501/http://www.bssnews.net/ |date=2009-04-13 }} {{Asia Kidul}} {{Asia}} {{Negara-negara Parsemakmuran}} {{Non-Blok}} {{SAARC}} {{OKI}} [[Kategori:Banggaladésa]] ky74d4ipzbg68e08whke0caw1m8263l Orgasme 0 4071 1753037 1647168 2026-08-20T08:42:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753037 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Podkowiński-Szał_uniesień-MNK.jpg|jmpl|360x360px|''Lukisan Frenzy of Exultations'' (1894), déning Władysław Podkowiński]] '''Orgasme''' (saka tembung basa Yunani ὀργασμός ''orgasmos'' sing tegesé "kabagyan, abuh"; uga '''klimaksing sèks''') ya iku uculing kabagyan sèksual sing katumpuk sing ujug-ujug nalika siklus réspon sèksual, sing ngasilaké ing kontraksi otot sing ritmis ing panggul sing dadi ciri khas kanggo kepénaking sèks.<ref name="M&J2">{{Cite book|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=0-316-54987-8|page=366|last1=Masters|first1=William H.|first2=Virginia E.|last2=Johnson|author3=Reproductive Biology Research Foundation (U.S.)|title=Human Sexual Response|year=1966}}</ref><ref name="Rosenthal2">See [https://books.google.com/books?id=d58z5hgQ2gsC&pg=PT153 133–135] for orgasm information, and [https://books.google.com/books?id=d58z5hgQ2gsC&pg=PT96#v=onepage&q&f=false page 76] for G-spot and vaginal nerve ending information. {{cite book|first=Martha|last=Rosenthal|title=Human Sexuality: From Cells to Society|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2012|isbn=0618755713}}</ref><ref name="health.discovery.com2">{{cite web|title=Orgasm|publisher=Health.discovery.com|accessdate=21 April 2010|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/human-biology/orgasm.htm}}</ref> Iki dialami déning wong lanang lan wong wadhon, orgasme iku dikuwasani déning sistem saraf otonomis utawa sistem saraf paksa. Orgasme iku asringé dikaitaké karo tumindak-tumindak kepaksa, kalebu kejèling otot ing sawenèh area ing awak manungsa, sènsasi euforia sing umum lan, asringé, owahing awak lan vokalisasi.<ref name="Rosenthal">See [https://books.google.com/books?id=d58z5hgQ2gsC&pg=PT153 133–135] for orgasm information, and [https://books.google.com/books?id=d58z5hgQ2gsC&pg=PT96#v=onepage&q&f=false page 76] for G-spot and vaginal nerve ending information.</ref> Période sawisé orgasmé (uga dimudhengi minangka période refractori) ya iku kerepé sawiji pengalaman sing nglegakaké uwong, digaètaké karo uculing neurohormones oxytosin lan prolaktin uga endorphins (utawa "morphine éndogén").<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Exton MS, Krüger TH, Koch M|title=Coitus-induced orgasm stimulates prolactin secretion in healthy subjects|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychoneuroendocrinology_2001-04_26_3/page/287|journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology|volume=26|issue=3|pages=287–94|date=April 2001|pmid=11166491|doi=10.1016/S0306-4530(00)00053-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Orgasmé manungsa lumrahé diasilaké saka timulasi sèks fisik ing penis kanggo wong lanan (lumrahé mbarengi éjakulasi), lan ing clitoris kanggo wong wedhok.<ref name="Rosenthal"/><ref name="Weiten3">{{cite book|title=Psychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century|isbn=1-111-18663-4|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2011|page=386|access-date=5 Januari 2012|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CGu96TeAZo0C&pg=PT423&dq=#v=onepage&q=false|author1=Wayne Weiten|author2=Dana S. Dunn|author3=Elizabeth Yost Hammer}}</ref><ref name="O'Connell3">{{Cite journal|author=O'Connell HE, Sanjeevan KV, Hutson JM|title=Anatomy of the clitoris|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-urology_2005-10_174_4/page/1189|journal=The Journal of Urology|volume=174|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=1189–95|date=October 2005|pmid=16145367<!-- deprecated [[en:Template:Cite web#Lay summary]] |lay-url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5013866.stm Time for rethink on the clitoris -|lay-source=[[BBC News]]|lay-date=11 June 2006 -->|doi=10.1097/01.ju.0000173639.38898.cd|last2=Sanjeevan|last3=Hutson}}</ref> Stimulasi sèks bisa dilakukaké dhéwé-dhéwé (kanthi masturbasi) utawa kanthi karo partner sèks (penetratif sèks, non-penetratif sèks, utawa skagiyatan sèksual liyané). Èfèk-èfèk kaséhatan sing ngepungi orgasmé manungsa iku warna-warna. Ana akèh réspon-réspon psikologis kagiyatan sèksual, kalebu sawiji kaanan lega sing kagawé déning prolaktin, uga owah-owah ing jero [[sistem saraf pusat]] kaya ta a temporary mudhing kagiyatan [[Métabolisme|metabolik]] sing sedéla ing pérangan gedhéné cerebral cortex kamangka ora ana owahan utawa mundhaké kagiyatan metabolik ing area-area limbik (i.e., "ngewatesi") ing jero utek manungsa.<ref name="Georgiadis"><cite class="citation journal">Georgiadis JR, Reinders AA, Paans AM, Renken R, Kortekaas R; Reinders; Paans; Renken; Kortekaas (October 2009). </cite></ref> Uga ana akèh dhisfungsi sèksual, kaya ta anorgasmia. Èfèk iku mau njalari panemu-panemu kultural marang orgasme, kaya ta kapitayan tmenawa orgasme lan kerep orané utawa konsistèn apa orané wigati utawa ora ana sangkut pauté kanggo maremé wong ing sawiji ubungan sèksualé,<ref name="Kinsey Institute2">{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Sexuality Questions to the Kinsey Institute: Orgasm|publisher=iub.edu/~kinsey/resources|access-date=3 Januari 2012|url=http://www.iub.edu/~kinsey/resources/FAQ.html#orgasm|archive-date=2012-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105131500/http://iub.edu/~kinsey/resources/FAQ.html#orgasm|url-status=dead}}</ref> lan téyori-téyori bab fungsi-fungsi biologis lan evolutionèré orgasme.<ref name="Geoffrey Miller2">{{cite book|author=[[Geoffrey Miller (psychologist)|Geoffrey Miller]]|title=The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature|publisher=[[Random House|Random House Digital]]|year=2011|pages=238–239|access-date=27 Agustus 2012|isbn=0307813746|url=https://books.google.com/?id=QG-8PbZb4csC&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238&dq=The+human+clitoris+shows+no+apparent+signs+of+having+evolved+directly+through+male+mate+choice.#v=onepage&q=The%20human%20clitoris%20shows%20no%20apparent%20signs%20of%20having%20evolved%20directly%20through%20male%20mate%20choice.&f=false}}</ref><ref name="Wallen K, Lloyd EA2">{{cite journal|title=Female sexual arousal: genital anatomy and orgasm in intercourse|journal=Hormones and Behavior|date=May 2011|pmid=21195073|pmc=3894744|doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.12.004|volume=59|issue=5|pages=780–92|author=Wallen K, Lloyd EA.|last2=Lloyd}}</ref> Orgasme ing kéwan uwis disinaoni kanthi ora pati signifikan tinimbangé orgasmené manungsa, nanging panlitèn bab subyèk iki mau isih tetep ana. == Rujukan == <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <references /></div> [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani]] 8clctk6zy4dzn69bdm9n82lm31csvop Jakabélék 0 5213 1753069 1734008 2026-08-20T09:40:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753069 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet | bgcolour = #EDD58B | name = Mars | symbol = [[Gambar:Mars symbol (bold).svg|24px|alt=♂|Simbol astronomis Mars]] | image = [[Gambar:Mars Valles Marineris.jpeg|240px|Planit Mars]] | caption = Mars dilihat olèh [[teleskop luar angkasa Hubble]] | orbit_ref = <ref name=horizons>{{cite web | last = Yeomans | first = Donald K. | date = 2006-07-13 | url = http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons | title = HORIZONS System | publisher = NASA JPL | accessdate = 2007-08-08 }} — Di situs, pergi ke "web interface" dan lalu pilih "Ephemeris Type: ELEMENTS", "Target Body: Mars" and "Center: Sun".</ref> | epoch = [[J2000]] | aphelion = 249.209.300 km{{br}} 1,665&nbsp;861 [[Ékan Astronomi|SA]] | perihelion = 206.669.000 km{{br}} 1,381&nbsp;497 SA | semimajor = 227.939.100 km{{br}} 1,523&nbsp;679 SA | eccentricity = 0,093&nbsp;315{{br}} | period = 686,971 dina{{br}} 1,8808 [[taun julian (astronomi)|taun Julian]]{{br}} 668,5991 [[penanggalan di Mars|sol]] | synodic_period = 779,96 dina{{br}} 2,135 taun Julian | avg_speed = 24,077 km/s | inclination = 1,850° menyang [[Ekliptika]]{{br}}5,65° marang [[ekuator]] [[srengéngé]]{{br}}1,67° marang [[babagan Invariabel]]<ref name=meanplane>{{cite web |date=2009-04-03 |title=The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter |url=http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif |accessdate=2009-04-10 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420194536/http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif |archivedate=2009-04-20 |url-status=live }} (dihasilkan melalui [http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ Solex 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524145440/http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ |date=2015-05-24 }} ditulis olèh Aldo Vitagliano; lihat pula [[babagan Invariabel]])</ref> | asc_node = 49,562° | arg_peri = 286,537° | satellites = 2 | physical_characteristics = yes | equatorial_radius = 3.396,2 ± 0,1&nbsp;km{{Ref label|A|a|none}}<ref name=Seidelmann2007>{{cite journal | last= Seidelmann| first= P. Kenneth | author2= Archinal, B. A. | author3= A'hearn, M. F. | display-authors= etal | title= Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006 | journal= Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy | volume=98 | issue=3 | pages=155–180 | year=2007 | doi=10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y | accessdate=2007-08-28 }}</ref>{{br}}0,533 Bumi | polar_radius = 3.376,2 ± 0,1&nbsp;km{{Ref label|A|a|none}}<ref name=Seidelmann2007/>{{br}}0,531 Bumi | flattening = 0,005&nbsp;89 ± 0,000&nbsp;15 <!-- calculated from data in ref name=Seidelmann2007 --> | surface_area = 144.798.500&nbsp;km²{{br}}0,284 Bumi | volume = 1,6318{{e|11}} km³{{br}}0,151 Bumi | mass = 6,4185{{e|23}} kg{{br}}0,107 Bumi | density = 3,934 g/cm³ | surface_grav = 3,69 [[Percepatan|m/s²]]{{br}}0,376 ''[[gaya-g|g]]'' | escape_velocity = 5,027 km/s | sidereal_day = 1,025&nbsp;957 hari{{br}}24,622&nbsp;96 h<ref name=nasa/> | rot_velocity = 868,22 km/jam | axial_tilt = 25,19° | right_asc_north_pole = 21 j 10 m 44 d{{br}}317,681&nbsp;43° | declination = 52,886&nbsp;50° | albedo = 0,15<ref name="nssdc">{{cite web | author=Williams, David R. | title=Mars Fact Sheet | work=National Space Science Data Center | publisher=NASA | date=September 1, 2004 | url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html | accessdate=2006-06-24 | archive-date=2011-04-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110403001003/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> | magnitude = +1,8 hingga −2,91<ref name="nssdc"/> | angular_size = 3,5—25,1"<ref name="nssdc" /> | temperatures = yes | temp_name1 = [[Kelvin]] | min_temp_1 = 186&nbsp;K | mean_temp_1 = 227&nbsp;K | max_temp_1 = 268&nbsp;K<ref name=nasa>{{cite web | title = Mars: Facts & Figures | publisher = NASA | url = http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric | accessdate = 2007-03-06 }}</ref> | temp_name2 = [[Celsius]] | min_temp_2 = −87&nbsp;°C | mean_temp_2 = −46&nbsp;°C | max_temp_2 = −5&nbsp;°C | adjectives = [[Martian]] | atmosphere = yes | surface_pressure = 0,6–1,0 [[Pascal (ékan)|kPa]] | atmosphere_density = | atmosphere_composition = 95,72% [[Karbon dioksida]]{{br}} 2.7% [[Nitrogen]]{{br}} 1.6% [[Argon]]{{br}} 0.2% [[Oksigen]]{{br}} 0.07% [[Karbon monoksida]]{{br}} 0.03% [[Uap air]]{{br}} 0.01% [[Nitrogen monoksida]]{{br}} 2.5 ppm [[Neon]]{{br}} 300 ppb [[Krypton]]{{br}} 130 ppb [[Formaldehida]]{{br}} 80 ppb [[Xenon]]{{br}} 30 ppb [[Ozon]]{{br}} 10 ppb [[Metana]]{{br}} }} '''Jakabélék''' utawa '''Anggara''' yaiku [[Planit|graha]] kaping papat saka [[srengéngé]]. Jenengé dijupuk saka jinis lelara arupa mata kang abang lan perih. Graha iki asring diarani "lintang abang" amarga yén dideleng saka kadohan katon semu abang. Iki amarga anané wesi (III) oksida ing palumahané jakabélék.<ref name=nasa_hematite>{{cite web|title=The Lure of Hematite|work=Science@NASA|publisher=NASA|date=March 28, 2001|url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast28mar_1.htm|access-date=June 12, 2013|archive-date=September 14, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120914152901/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast28mar_1/|url-status=deviated|archivedate=September 14, 2012|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120914152901/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast28mar_1/}}</ref> Jakabélék iku graha kang isiné [[watu]] kanthi tawang-panawang kang tipis. Ing lumahing Jakabélék ana tlawah, [[gunung geni]], lebak, [[ara-ara]], lan tudung [[ès]]. Kalpaning ngingser lan jantraning mangsa jakabélék méh padha karo [[Bumi]]. Ing Jakabélék ana Gunung Olimpus, gunung kang paling dhuwur ing [[Tata Surya|Suryamandala]]. Bar Kuwi ana ''Valles Marineris'', lebak paling amba ing Suryamandala. Saliyané iku, ing sisih lor ana ledokan Borealis kang ambané nganti tekan 40% lumahing Anggara. Paryantaning Jakabélék luwih bisa kanggo manggon urip tinimbang kahanane lintang wuluh. Sanajan mangkono, kaanan kayaiku ora cukup sidi kanggo uripé manungsa. Hawa kang rada adhem lan seregané kang asor, ditambah manéh karo caruban hawa ing kang isiné karbondioksida, ndadékaké manungsa kudu nganggo piranti ambegan yén kepéngén manggon ing kana. Misi-misi menyang planit abang iki, nganti tekan pungkasané abad kaping 20, durung bisa kasil nemu tipak panguripan ing kana, sanajan kang paling prasaja. Planit duwé 2 satelit, yaiku [[Phobos]] lan [[Deimos]]. Planit iki mbutuhaké 686 [[dina]] kanggo ngubengi [[srengéngé]]. Planit iki uga nindakaké rotasi. Suwe rotasiné yaiku 25,62 jam. Ing planit Mars, ana fitur unik ing laladan [[Cydonia Mensae]]. Fitur iki wujudé kaya bukit yèn dideleng saka dhuwur katon kaya rai manungsa. Akèh kang nganggep yèn bukit iku bukti saka peradaban kang wis suwé musnah ing Mars, sanajan saiki wis kabukti yèn fitur iku mung kenampakan alam biyasa. Ing [[mitologi Yunani]], planit iki idhéntik karo déwa perang, yaiku Aries, putra [[Zeus]] lan [[Hera]]. == Ciri fisik == [[Gambar:Mars Earth Comparison.png|thumb|left|Perbandhingan ukuran [[Bumi]] lan Mars.]] Mars duwé jari-jari kira-kira setengahé jari-jari Bumi kurang luwih 6000 m. Planit iki kurang madhet yèn dibandhingaké karo Bumi. Volume Planit Mars mung watara 15% lan massané mung 11% saka massa Bumi. Ambané luwih ciyut saka ambané laladan panggonan garing ing Bumi.<ref name="nssdc">{{cite web | author=Williams, David R. | title=Mars Fact Sheet | work=National Space Science Data Center | publisher=NASA | date=September 1, 2004 | url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html | accessdate=2006-06-24 | archive-date=2011-04-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110403001003/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Mars luwih gedhé tinimbang [[Merkurius]], nanging Merkurius luwih padhet. Mula rong planit iki nduwé tarikan [[gravitasi]] kang meh mirib ing permukaané. Gravitasi Mars luwih kuwat kira-kira kurang saka 1%. Ukuran, massa, lan gravitasi lumah Mars ana ing watarané Bumi lan Bulan (diaméter Bulan mung separoné diaméter Mars, yèn Bumi kaping pindhané; Bumi kaping sangané Mars, lan Bulan siji para sangané). Kenampakan lumah Mars wernané abang semu kuning téla amarga ana wesi(III) oksida, kang luwih misuwur kanthi aran hematite.<ref name="rust">{{cite web|last=Peplow|first=Mark|title=How Mars got its rust|work=BioEd Online|publisher=MacMillan Publishers Ltd.|url=http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news-print.cfm?art=953}}</ref> === Géologi === Miturut pengamatan [[orbit]] lan priksanan kumpulan [[meteorit]] Mars, lumah Mars kaisi [[basalt]]. Sapérangan bukti nuduhaké yèn sapérangan lumah Mars ngandhut silika kang luwih akèh tinimbang basalt biyasa, mirib [[watu]] andesit ing Bumi. lumah Mars akèh kang ditutupi awu [[besi(III) oksida]] kang marakake katon abang.<ref name=sci300a>{{cite journal|last=Christensen|first=Philip R.| display-authors= etal|date=June 27, 2003|title=Morphology and Composition of the Surface of Mars: Mars Odyssey THEMIS Results|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2003-06-27_300_5628/page/2056|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5628|pages=2056–2061|doi=10.1126/science.1080885|pmid=12791998|bibcode = 2003Sci...300.2056C }}</ref><ref name=sci300b>{{cite journal|last=Golombek|first=Matthew P.|date=June 27, 2003|title=The Surface of Mars: Not Just Dust and Rocks|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2003-06-27_300_5628/page/2043|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5628|pages=2043–2044|doi=10.1126/science.1082927|pmid=12829771}}</ref> Saiki Mars ora duwé [[medan magnet]] global,<ref name="magnetosphere">{{cite web|date=2006-11-09|title=Magnetic Fields and Mars|publisher=Mars Global Surveyor @ NASA|author=Valentine, Theresa; Amde, Lishan|url=http://mgs-mager.gsfc.nasa.gov/Kids/magfield.html}}</ref> nanging asil pengamatan nuduhaké yèn sapérangan kerak planit termagnetisasi, medan magnet global tau ana ing jaman biyèn. Salah siji téyori kang dibiwara taun [[1999]] lan diperiksa ulang ing [[Oktober]] [[2005]] (kanthi direwangi ''[[Mars Global Surveyor]]'') nuduhaké yèn 4 miliyar taun kepungkir, [[téyori dinamo|dinamo]] Mars mandheg fungsine lan ndadèkaké medan magnete ilang.<ref name="plates">{{cite web|publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center|title=New Map Provides More Evidence Mars Once Like Earth|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2005/mgs_plates.html|access-date=2013-06-14|archive-date=2012-09-14|archive-url=https://archive.ph/20120914153601/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2005/mgs_plates.html|url-status=deviated|archivedate=2012-09-14|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120914153601/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2005/mgs_plates.html}}</ref> Uga ana téyori yèn ana asteroid kang gedhé banget tau nabrak Mars lan matèni medan magnete.<ref>{{cite|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/05/090511-mars-asteroid.html|title="Supergiant" Asteroid Shut Down Mars's Magnetic Field|publisher=[[National Geographic]]}}</ref> Inti Anggara, yang jari-jarinya diperkirakan sebesar 1.480&nbsp;km, terdiri dari [[besi]] dan 14-17% [[sulfur]]. Inti [[besi(II) sulfida|besi sulfida]] ini cair. Lapisan di atas inti Anggara yaiku [[mantel]] silikat yang membentuk banyak objek tektonik dan vulkanik di Anggara, tetapi saat ini mantel tersebut wis tidak aktif. Di atas lapisan mantel yaiku kerak, yang ketebalan rata-ratanya sakiwa-tengené 50&nbsp;km, dan ketebalan maksimumnya 125&nbsp;km.<ref name=jacque03>{{cite news|author=Jacqué, Dave|url=http://www.anl.gov/Media_Center/News/2003/030926mars.htm|title=APS X-rays reveal secrets of Mars' core|publisher=Argonne National Laboratory|date=September 26, 2003|accessdate=2006-07-01}}</ref> Aktivitas géologi isih kadadéan Mars. [[Athabasca Valles]] iku panggonan miline [[lava]] wiwit 200 yuta taun kapungkur. Aliran banyu ing graben [[Cerberus Fossae]] ana watara 20 yuta taun kapungkur, kang dadi pratandha anané intrusi vulkanik.<ref name=ag44_4>{{cite journal|author=Mitchell, Karl L.; Wilson, Lionel|title=Mars: recent géological activity: Mars: a géologically active planit|journal=Astronomy & Geophysics|volume=44|issue=4|pages=4.16–4.20|year=2003|doi=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.44416.x|bibcode=2003A&G....44d..16M}}</ref> Nalika [[19 Fèbruari]] [[2008]], gambar kang diabadhikake déning ''[[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]]'' nuduhukae bukti anané longsor ing tebing kang dhuwuré 700&nbsp;m.<ref name=dc080304>{{cite web|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/03/04/mars-avalanche.html|title=Mars avalanche caught on camera|date=2008-03-04|work=Discovery Channel|publisher=Discovery Communications|accessdate=2009-03-04}}</ref> === Lemah === Adhedhasar dhata saka wahana ''[[Phoenix (wahana antariksa)|Phoenix]]'', lemah Mars<!-- bersifat alkalin dan--> kapérang saka unsur [[magnesium]], [[sodium]], [[potasium]], lan [[klorida]]. Nutrien iku bisa tinemu ing kebun Bumi lan wigati kanggo thukulé tuwuhan.<ref name=bbc080627>{{cite news|title=Martian soil 'could support life'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7477310.stm|publisher=BBC News|date=June 27, 2008}}</ref> Percobaan kang dilakoni wahana Phoenix yèn lemah ing Mars ngandhut [[pH]] 8,3, lan [[uyah (kimia)|uyah]] [[perklorat]].<ref name="marssalt">{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/space/2008-08-04-mars-soil_N.htm|title=Scientists: Salt in Mars soil not bad for life|last=Chang|first=Alicia|agency=Associated Press|work=USA Today}}</ref><ref name=jpl_soil>{{cite web|title=NASA Spacecraft Analyzing Martian Soil Data|url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/phoenix/release.php?ArticleID=1816|publisher=JPL|access-date=2013-06-28|archive-date=2017-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170522063940/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/phoenix/release.php?ArticleID=1816|url-status=deviated|archivedate=2017-05-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170522063940/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/phoenix/release.php?ArticleID=1816}}</ref> [[Cerat (mineralogi)|Cerat]] bisa tinemu ing Anggara. Cerat anyar asring ana ing pèrèng curam kawah, palung, lan lembah. Cerat wiwitane wernané peteng saya suwé warna cerat dadi tansaya padhang. Kadhang-kadhang cerat methungul kanthi ukuran kang cilik banjur tambah amba nganti tekan atusan mèter. Cerat uga nututi pinggiran watu. Miturut téyori kang ana, cerat iku lapisan lemah awarna peteng ing ngisor kang ana amarga longsor utawa anané badhé awu.<ref name=jpl_dust_devil>{{cite web|url=http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ESP_013751_1115|title=Dust Devil Etch-A-Sketch (ESP_013751_1115)|publisher=NASA/JPL/University of Arizona|date=2009-07-02}}</ref> Ana penjelasan liyané kang ana gegayutane karo [[banyu]] lan thukulé organisme.<ref name=gpl29_23_41>{{cite journal | author=Schorghofer, Norbert; Aharonson, Oded; Khatiwala, Samar | title=Slope streaks on Mars: Correlations with surface properties and the potential role of water | journal=Geophysical Research Letters | volume=29 | issue=23 | pages=41-1 |date=December 2002 | doi=10.1029/2002GL015889 | bibcode=2002GeoRL..29w..41S }}</ref><ref name=oleb33_4_515>{{cite journal | author=Gánti, Tibor | display-authors= etal | title=Dark Dune Spots: Possible Biomarkers on Mars? | journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere | volume=33 | issue=4 | pages=515–557 |date=October 2003 | bibcode=2003OLEB...33..515G }}</ref> == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.kompas.co.id/kompas-cetak/0609/04/ilpeng/2923896.htm Semburan Karbon Dioksida ing Planet Anggara]{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{tata surya}} [[Kategori:Planit]] bvn6ca2rj7hpzykpjky1anzkpa5hpee Alexander Graham Bell 0 7765 1752927 1746453 2026-08-20T05:09:56Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752927 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Person | name = Alexander Graham Bell | image = Alexander Graham Bell.jpg | image_size = 225px | caption = Alexander Graham Bell taun 1910 | birth_date = 3 Maret 1847 | birth_place = [[Edinburgh]], [[Sekotlan]], [[Karajan Manunggal Agung]] | death_date = {{death date and age|1922|8|2|1847|3|3|df=y}} | death_place = [[Beinn Bhreagh]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Kanada]] | death_cause = [[Pernicious anemia]] | education = [[University of Edinburgh]]<br />[[University College London]]<br /> | occupation = Penemu, Ilmuwan, Profesor (Boston University) | known_for = Penemu telepon | spouse = [[Mabel Hubbard]] <br />(married 1877–1922) | parents = [[Alexander Melville Bell]]<br />Eliza Grace Symonds Bell | children = (4) Loro anak tilar donya ing mangsa cilik lan loro anak wadon. | relatives = [[Gardiner Greene Hubbard]] (Mertua)<br />[[Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor]] (Keponakan)<br />[[Melville Bell Grosvenor]] (cicit)}} '''Alexander Graham Bell''' ([[Edinburgh]], [[Sekotlan]], [[3 Maret]] [[1847]] – Baddeck [[Nova Scotia]], [[Kanada]], [[2 Agustus]] [[1922]]) menika satunggiling penemu, ilmuwan, lan insinyur ingkang lair wonten ing Skotlandia nanging dados warga negara Kanada-Amerika. Karyanipun ingkang paling misuwur inggih punika nglamaraken paten telepon praktis ingkang sepisanan. Wonten ing warsa 1885, piyambakipun miwiti ngadegaken perusahaan [[American Telephone and Telegraph Company]] (AT&T).<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11375/ |title = Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory Notebook, 1875-1876 |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1875-1876 |accessdate = 2013-07-23 |archive-date = 2015-02-03 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150203003124/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11375/ |url-status = dead }}</ref> Karyanipun ingkang paling misuwur inggih punika nglamaraken paten telepon praktis ingkang sepisanan. Wonten ing warsa 1885, piyambakipun miwiti ngadegaken perusahaan American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T). Latar mburi kulawarganipun ing babagan [[elokusi]] lan [[wicara]], sarta ibu lan garwanipun ingkang [[tuli]], gadhah pengaruh ageng dhateng karyanipun. Panalitènipun ing babagan krungu lan wicara ngasilaken penemuan telepon,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmR0MOQAu0UC|title=Bell: Alexander Bell and the Conquest of Solitude|last=Bruce|first=Robert V.|date=1990|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-9691-2|location=Ithaca, New York|page=419}}</ref> ingkang kangge piyambakipun nampi paten sepisanan saking Amerika Serikat wonten ing tanggal 7 Maret 1876. Bell anggenipun ndeleng penemuan tilpun minangka gangguan dhateng karya ilmiah lan nampik gadhah telepon wonten ing ruang studinipun<ref>{{cite book|title=Alexander Graham Bell: An Inventive Life|last=MacLeod|first=Elizabeth|date=1999|publisher=Kids Can Press|isbn=978-1-55074-456-9|location=Toronto, Ontario|page=19}}</ref>. Ing pungkasan gesangipun, Bell nindakaken penemuan ing babagan [[telekomunikasi optik]], [[hidrofoil]], lan [[aeronautika]]. Minangka presi[[den kapindho saking National Geographic Society]] wiwit tanggal 7 Januari 1898 dumugi 1903, Bell gadhah pengaruh ageng dhateng organisasi lan majalahipun. Karyanipun ing babagan [[hereditas]] dipunanggep minangka studi bab warisan manungsa ingkang paling wigati lan migunani wonten ing Amerika abad kaping 19.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stansfield|first=W. D.|date=2005-01-01|title=The Bell Family Legacies|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-heredity_january-february-2005_96_1/page/n8|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=96|issue=1|pages=1–3|doi=10.1093/jhered/esi007|issn=0022-1503|pmid=15618310|doi-access=}}</ref> Sumbangan Bell dhateng ilmu dasar dipunpisahaken saking penemuanipun, ingkang minangka salah satunggaling aspek wigati saking warisanipun. == Réferènsi == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Uga delengen == * [[Tilpun]] * [[Tilpun Reis]] == Pranala njaba == {{Wikiquote}} * [http://www.bellhomestead.ca/ Bell Homestead, National Historic Site] * [http://www.alexanderbell.com/ Alexander Bell.com - Telecom Pionneers by Phonebook of the World.com] * [http://histv2.free.fr/bell/bell1.htm Pidato Bell] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041113090503/http://histv2.free.fr/bell/bell1.htm |date=2004-11-13 }} di hadapan American Association for the Advancement of Science di [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] padha [[27 Agustus]] [[1880]], menghadirkan [[fotopon]]. Dimuat sebagai "On the Production and Reproduction of Sound by Light" di ''American Journal of Sciences'', Third Series, vol. '''XX''', #118, Oktober 1880, hh. 305 - 324; dan sebagai "[[Selenium]] and the Photophone" di ''[[Nature]]'', September 1880 {{National Geographic}} {{Commons category|Alexander Graham Bell}} {{Artikel Dhasar}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bell, Alexander Graham}} [[Kategori:Lair 1847]] [[Kategori:Pati 1922|Bell]] {{Amérika-Serikat-bio-stub}} lgj2pc9tie1s02ig8tw4115yzfmv1ge Soeharto 0 8035 1752934 1744735 2026-08-20T05:17:50Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752934 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_President |honorific-prefix = |name = Soeharto<br>ꦯꦸꦲꦂꦡ |nationality = [[Indonésia]] |image = President_Suharto,_1993.jpg |order = [[Présidhèn Indonésia|Présidhèn Indonésia ke-2]] |term_start = 12 Maret 1967 |term_end = 21 Mèi 1998 ({{age|1967|3|12|1998|5|21}} taun) |vicepresident = [[Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX]] (1973 - 1978) <br />[[Adam Malik]] (1978 - 1983) <br /> [[Umar Wirahadikusumah]] (1983 - 1988) <br /> [[Sudharmono]] (1988 - 1993) <br /> [[Try Sutrisno]] (1993 - 1998) <br /> [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie|B.J. Habibie]] (1998) |predecessor = [[Soekarno]] |successor = [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]] |order2 = [[Mantri Pertahanan Républik Indonésia|Mantri Pertahanan kaping 14]] |term_start2 = [[28 Maret]] [[1966]] |term_end2 = [[17 Oktober]] [[1967]] |president2 = [[Soekarno]] |predecessor2 = [[Abdul Haris Nasution]] |term_start3 = [[17 Oktober]] [[1967]] |term_end3 = [[28 Maret]] [[1973]] |president3 = Soeharto |successor3 = [[Maraden Panggabean]] |birth_date = {{birth date|1921|6|8}} |birth_place = {{flagicon|Walanda}} [[Kemusuk]], [[Bantul]], [[Yogyakarta]], [[Indhiya Nèderlan]] |death_date = {{death date and age|2008|1|27|1921|6|8}} |death_place = {{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]] |nationality = {{flag|Indonesia}} |party = [[Golkar]] |spouse = [[Siti Hartinah]] |children = [[Siti Hardijanti Rukmana]] (Tutut) <br /> [[Sigit Harjojudanto]] (Sigit) <br /> [[Bambang Trihatmodjo]] (Bambang) <br /> [[Siti Hediati Hariyadi]] (Titiek) <br /> [[Hutomo Mandala Putra]] (Tommy) <br /> [[Siti Hutami Endang Adiningsih]] (Mamiek) |occupation = [[Militer]], [[Politisi]] |religion = [[Islam]] |signature = Suharto signature.svg }} '''Soeharto''' (lair ing Dusun Kemusuk, [[Argamulya, Sedayu, Bantul|Désa Argamulya]], [[Sedayu, Bantul|Kacamatan Sedayu]], [[Kabupatèn Bantul]], 8 Juni 1921 - [[Jakarta Kidul]], 27 Januari 2008) yaiku [[Présidhèn]] [[Indonesia]] sing kaping loro sawisé [[Soekarno]]. Ing mancanagara dhèwèké misuwur kanthi sebutan '''''The Smiling General''''' ([[basa Jawa]]: ''Jenderal kang mèsèm'') amarga dhèwèké asring mèsèm ing sangarepé [[wartawan]] saben acara kang resmi. Sadurungé dadi présidhèn dhèwèké dadi pimpinan militèr nalika jaman [[Jepang]] lan [[Walanda]], kanthi pangkat Mayor Jendral. Sawisé tanggal [[30 September]], Soeharto mratélakaké PKI iku kudu diresikake, lan dhèwèké dadi pimpinan oprasi iku. Operasi iki ngentèkaké 500.000 nyawa.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), p. 288; Friend (2003), p. 113; Vickers (2005), p. 159; {{cite journal |title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonésian Killings of 1965 - 1966 |author=Robert Cribb |journal=Asian Survey |volume=42 |issue=4 |date=2002 |pages=550–563 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550}}</ref> Dhèwèké dadi présidhèn sawisé [[Supersemar]] kang dadi ''kontrovèrsial'' ing masarakat, ing tanggal 12 Maret 1967. Nalika iku dhèwèké dadi Pejabat Sementara Présidhèn lan dipilih dadi Présidhèn ing tanggal [[21 Maret]] [[1967]] déning [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara]]. Jèndral Soeharto dipilih déning [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat]] ing taun 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, lan 1998. Ing taun [[1998]], dhèwèké mundur saka présidhèn ing tanggal 21 Mèi taun 1998, bebarengan karo prastawa [[Geger Mèi 1998]]. Dhèwèke dadi présidhèn paling suwé ing [[Indonesia]]. Sawisé Soeharto lengser saka jabatane minangka présidhèn, nganti saiki isih akèh kang diperkarakaké. Nalika [[Orde Baru]], jaman Soeharto mimpin akèh pangyasa kang ndadèkaké majuné nagara kang ayem, ékonomi maju lan infrastruktur. Soharto uga matesi warganagara Indonésia keturunan [[Tionghoa]], nguwasani [[Timor Timur]], lan dianggep dadi rézim paling [[korupsi]] kanthi $AS 15 miliar tekan $AS 35 miliar.<ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0921295.html Sepuluh pemimpin paling korup di Dunia], infoplease.com (diakses tanggal 13 Juni 2012)</ref> Usaha kanggo nggawa Soeharto ing pengadhilan ora kasil amarga lara. Amarga lara, Soeharto kapundhut ing Jakarta tanggal 27 Januari 2008. == kulawarga == [[Gambar:Suharto family.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Soeharto lan kulawargané]] Jèndral Soeharto dhaub karo [[Siti Hartinah|Ibu Tien]] ing [[Sala]] nalika tanggal 26 Dhésèmber 1947, lan duwé putra cacahé nem, ya iku [[Sigit Harjojudanto]], [[Siti Hardijanti Rukmana]] (Tutut), [[Bambang Trihatmodjo]], [[Siti Hediati Hariyadi]] (Titiek), [[Hutomo Mandala Putra]] (Tommy), kaliyan [[Siti Hutami Endang Adiningsih]] (Mamiek). == Kauripane lan sekolahé == Nalika tanggal 8 Juni 1921, Sukirah nglairaké anak lanang ing omah biyasa ing Dhusun Kemusuk, Désa Argomulyo, Kacamatan Sedayu, Bantul, Yogyakarta. Lairé Soeharto diréwangi déning [[dhukun bayi]] kang asmané Mbah Kromodiryo, adhine simbahe Sakirah, Mbah Kertoirono. Déning bapaké, Kertoredjo aliyas Wagiyo aliyas Panjang aliyas Kertosudiro bayi lanang iki dijenengi Soeharto. Dhèwèké iku anak nomer telu saka Kertosudiro karo Sukirah. Karo bojo sing pisanan, Kertosudiro ngasilaké anak loro. Kertosudiro lan Sukirah ora suwé banjur pegatan saka lairé Soeharto. Sukirah nikah manèh karo Pramono lan dikaruniai anak pitu, salah sijiné Probosutedjo. Durung genep 40 dina, Soeharto digawa menyang omahé Mbah Kromo, amarga ibune lara lan ora bisa nyusoni. Awit cilik Soeharto dimong déning Mbah Kromo. Disinauni ngadek, lumaku, lumayu, lan dolanan ing sawah. Soeharto asring dijak Mbah Kromo ing sawah. Ing sawah Soeharto uga seneng nalika diajak Mbah Kromo ing sawah, apa manèh nalika Mbah Kromo lagi [[luku|ngluku]] lan mecuti [[kebo]]né. Awit saka kono Soehaarto sinau dadi pemimpin. Saliyané iku Soeharto uga seneng golèk [[welut]], kecèk dolanan [[banyu]]. Nalika gedhé Soeharto urip bareng mbahe lanang, Mbah Atmosudiro, bapaké ibuné. Soeharto sekolah nalika umur wolung taun, nanging asring ngaléh sekolahé. Wiwitané ing [[Sekolah Dasar|SD]] Désa Puluhan, [[Godhéan, Sléman|Godhéan]]. Banjur ngalèh ing SD Pedes ([[Yogyakarta]]) amarga bapak lan ibu tiriné, Pramono pindhah omah ing Kemusuk Kidul. Kertosudiro banjur mindhah Soeharto ing [[Wuryantara, Wanagiri]], [[Jawa Tengah]]. Soeharto dititipaké ing omahé buliké kang nikah karo mantri tani jenengé Prawirowihardjo.<ref name="Soeharto2">[http://vetonews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=561%3APerjalanan+Panjang+Pulitik+Mantan+Presiden+Soeharto&Itemid=34 Perjalanan Panjang Pulitik Mantan Presidhèn Soeharto] (diakses tanggal 17 Juni 2012)</ref> Soeharto ditampa minangka putra tuwa dhéwé. Soeharto banjur disekolahaké. Soeharto seneng tetanèn wiwit urip ing Wuryantara, lan asring diwarahi Pak Liké sing dadi mantri tani. Bali sekolah, Soeharto sinau ngaji ing langgar karo kanca-kancané tekan wengi. Saliyané iku dhèwèké mèlu Hizbul Wathan. Ing kono Soeharto wiwit nepungi [[Kartini|Radèn Ajeng Kartini]] lan [[Pangéran Dipanagara]] saka koran tekan désa. Sawisé lulus saka (SR) patang taun, Soeharto disekolahake ing [[Wanagiri]]. Sawisé umur 14 taun, Soeharto urip ing omahé Hardjowijono. Pak Hardjowijono iku kancané bapaké. Amarga asring diajak, Soeharto ngrewangi Kiyai Darjatmo nggawé resèp obat tradhisional kanggo nambani wong lara. Soeharto bali ing Kemusuk, lan nerusaké sekolahé ing [[Sekolah Menengah Pertama]] Muhammadiyah ing [[Yogyakarta]]. Ing sekolahan mau para siswane éntuk migunakaké sarung lan tanpa nganggo sepatu, utawa diéntuké nggunakaké [[sandhal]]. Ssawisé lulus SMP, Soeharto péngin nerusaké ing [[Sekolah Menengah Atas|SMA]] nanging, kahanan ékonominé ora njurung. Banjur Soeharto mbalik ing [[omahé]] buliké ing Wuryantara. Ing kono dhèwèké makarya ing Bank Désa (Volk-bank). Ora suwé anggoné makarya banjur Soeharto metu. Nalika taun 1942, Soeharto maca ana selèksi murid ''het Koninklijke Nederlands-Indische Leger (KNIL)''. KNIL iku wadya karajan [[Hindia-Walanda]]. Dhèwèké ndhaftar lan ketampa. Dhèwèké wis tau dadi sérsan nalika Walanda nyerah marang [[Jepang]]. Sersan Soeharto banjur mbalik ing Dhusun Kemusuk. Saka kono Soeharto miwiti uripé ing militèr. == Urip ing militèr == Tanggal 1 Juni 1940, Soeharto ditampa minangka murid ing sekolah militèr ing Gombong, [[Jawa Tengah]]. Sasuwéne nem sasi ngalkoni sinau dhasar militèr, dhèwèké lulus minangka lulusan paling apik, lan olèh pangkat kopral. Dhèwèké dadi prajurit pilihan lan teldhan ing Sekolah Bintara, Gombong lan resmi dadi anggot TNI tanggal 5 Oktober 1945. Dhèwèké mèlu anggota prajurit kolonial Walanda, KNIL. Nalika [[Perang Donya II]] taun 1942, Soeharto dikirim ing menyang [[Bandung]] dadi wadya cadhangan ing Markas Besar Angkatan Darat seminggu. Sawisé pangkaté dadi sersan wadya KNIL, Soeharto banjur dadi komandhan peleton, komandan kompi ing militèr kang dipanggedhèni [[Jepang]] kang misuwur minangka PETA, komandan resimen kanthi pangkat mayor, lan komandan batalyon kanthi pangkat letnan kolonel. Sawisé Perang Kamardhikan rampung, Soeharto dadi Komandan Brigade Garuda Mataram kanthi pangkat letnan kolonel. Soeharto mimpin Brigade Garuda Mataram ing operasi mungsuh pambrontak [[Andi Azis]] ing [[Sulawesi]]. Banjur Soeharto dipilih minangka Komadan APRIS (Angkatan Perang Républik Indonésia Serikat) Sektor [[Makasar|Kutha Makasar]] kang duwé kuwajiban ngamanke kutha saka mantan KNIL/KL. Nalika tanggal 1 Maret 1949, Soeharto mèlu oprasi kang kasil ngrebut kutha [[Yogyakarta]] suwéné nem jam. Usul iku saka [[Hamengkubuwana IX|Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX]] marang kepada [[Soedirman|Panglima Besar Soedirman]] yèn Brigade X kang dipanggedhèni déning Letkol Soeharto supaya énggal nyerang Yogyakarta lan nguwasai kutha mau suwéné nem jam kanggo mbuktèkaké yèn [[Indonésia|Républik Indonésia]] isih ana. Nalika umur 32 taun, Soeharto dipindhah ing Markas Divisi lan diangkat dadi Komandan Rèsimèn Infenteri 15 kanthi pangkat letnan kolonel (1 Maret 1953). Nalika tanggal [[3 Juni]] [[1956]], Dhèwèké diangkat dadi Kepala Staf Panglima Wadya lan Teritorium IV Diponegoro ing [[Semarang]]. Saka Kepala Staf, Soeharto diangkat dadi punggawa Panglima Wadya lan Teritorium IV Diponegoro. Tanggal 1 Januari 1957, pangkaté dadi kolonel. Soeharto uga wis tau dipecat [[Abdul Harris Nasution|Jenderal Nasution]] saka Pangdam Diponegoro.<ref name="suharto1">[http://news.okezone.com/read/2008/01/28/1/78644/pernah-dipecat-nasution-hingga-berkuasa-30-tahun Pernah dipecat Nasution hingga berkuasa 30 tahun]; (diakses tanggal 16 Juni 2012)</ref> Kedadéyan mau nalika tanggal 17 Oktober 1959.<ref name="suharto1"/> Soeharto dipecat amarga nggunakaké jabatané kanggo nggolèk [[dhuwit]] kanggo awaké dhéwé kanthi cara njaluk dhuwit marang perusahaan ing Semarang.<ref name="suharto1"/> Banjur Soeharto dipindhahaké ing Sekolah Staf lan Komando Angkatan Darat (SESKOAD) ing [[Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon]]. Nalika umur 38 taun, Soeharto mèlu kursus C SSKAD (Sekolah Staf dan Komando AD) ing Bandung lan pangkaté mundhak dadi brigadir jenderal nalika 1 Januari 1960. Banjur Soeharto diangkat dadi Deputi I Kepala Staf Angkatan Darat nalika umur 39 taun. Nalika 1 Oktober 1961, Soeharto nduwé kalungguhan rangkep, ya iku Panglima Korps Wadya I Caduad (Cadangan Umum AD) lan Panglima Kohanudad (Komando Pertahanan AD). Nalika taun 1961 Soeharto olèh tugas dadi Atase Militer Républik Indonésia ing [[Beograd]], [[Paris]] ([[Prancis]]), lan Bonn ([[Jerman]]). Ing umur 41 taun, pangkaté mundhak dadi mayor jenderal (1 Januari 1962) lan dadi Panglima Komando Mandala Pembebasan Irian Barat lan ngrangkep dadi Deputi Wewengkon Indonésia Wétan ing [[Makasar]]. Bali saka Indonésia Wétan, Soeharto kang wis munggah pangkat dadi mayor jenderal, ditarik bali ing markas ABRI déning Jenderal A.H. Nasution. Ing taun 1962, Soeharto diangkat minangka Panglima Komando Cadangan Strategis Angkatan Darat (Kostrad) nganti 1965. Nalika tanggal 2 Januari 1962, Brigadir Jenderal Soeharto diangkat dadi Panglima Komando Mandala Pembebasan Irian Barat. Mayor Jenderal Soeharto dilantik minangka Mantri Panglima Angkatan Darat lan diwènèhi tugas supaya numpes [[Parté Kuminis Indonésia]] (PKI) lan antek-anteke. Sawisé diangkat dadi Panglima Komando Strategis Angkatan Darat (Kostrad) nalika tanggal 1 Mèi 1963, Soeharto ngadegaké Komando Operasi Pemulihan Keamanan lan Ketertiban (Kopkamtib) kanggo ngimbangi G-30-S kang gégér 1 Oktober 1965. Tanggal 3 Oktober 1965, Mayjen Soeharto diangkat dadi Panglima Kopkamtib. == Dadi Présidhèn == Nalika tanggal 1 Oktober 1965, gégér prakara [[G-30-S/PKI]]. Soeharto dadi pimpinan Angkatan Darat. Saliyané dadi Pangad, Jenderal Soeharto uga diangkat dadi Pangkopkamtib déning [[Soekarno|Présidhèn Soekarno]]. Sasi Maret 1966, Jenderal Soeharto nampa [[Layang Préntah Sewelas Maret]] saka Présidhèn Soekarno lantaran jenderal Basuki Rachmat, Amir Machmud, lan M Yusuf. Isiné Supersemar ya iku mènèhi kuwasa marang Soeharto kanthi atas nama Présidhèn/Panglima Tertinggi/Panglima Besar Revolusi supaya ngamanake kabèh pérangan kanggo gawé ayemé papréntahan lan lumakuné révolusi. Tugasé, mbalikaké ayem lan tentremé lan gawé ayemé ajarané Bung Karno.<ref name="Soeharto3"/> Sedina sawisé prastawa sipersemar, 12 Maret 1966, Menpangad Letjen Soeharto mbubaraké PKI lan mutuské yèn PKI dilarang ing Indonésia. Marga kahanan pulitik kang rusuh, amarga gègèr G-30-S/PKI, sidang Istimewa MPRS, Maret 1967, milih Pak Harto minangka [[Présidhèn]]. Soeharto dadi Prèsidhen RI kapindho, nalika sasi Maret 1968. Soeharto dadi présidhèn kurang luwih telung puluh taun, utawa kaping nem mngliwati Pemilu. Soeharto mundur saka présidhèn tanggal 21 Mèi 1998.<ref name="Soeharto3">[http://biografi.rumus.web.id/2010/10/biografi-presiden-soeharto.html Biografi Presiden Soeharto] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623103342/http://biografi.rumus.web.id/2010/10/biografi-presiden-soeharto.html |date=2012-06-23 }} (diakses tanggal 17 Juni 2012)</ref> Jénderal Soeharto dadi présidhèn tanggal 12 Maret 1967 sawisé lapuran pertanggungjawabané Présidhèn Soekarno (NAWAKSARA) ora ditampa déning MPRS. Banjur Soeharto dadi présidhèn lantaran asil Sidhang Umum MPRS (Tap MPRS No XLIV/MPRS/1968) tanggal 27 Maret 1968. Saliyané iku dhèwèké uga ngrangkep kalungguhan dadi dadi Mantri Pertahanan/Keamanan. Awit tanggal 1 Juni 1968 diarani [[Orde Baru]]. Susunan kabinèt kang diumumké tangal 10 Juni 1968 diarani Kabinèt Pangyasa kang nggawé program ''Rencana Pangyasa Lima Tahun I''. Nalika tanggal 15 Juni 1968, Présidhèn Soeharto mbéntuk Tim Ahli Ékonomi Présidhèn, Prof Dr Widjojo Nitisastro, Prof Dr Ali Wardhana, Prof Dr Moh Sadli, Prof Dr Soemitro Djojohadikusumo, Prof Dr Subroto, Dr Emil Salim, Drs Frans Séda, dan Drs Radius Prawiro. Nalika tanggal 3 Juli 1971, présidhèn nglantik 100 anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat|DPR]] saka Angkatan Bersenjata lan mènèhi 9 kursi wakil Provinsi Irian Kulon kanggo wakil saka [[Parté Golongan Karya|Golkar]]. Sawisé bisa nggandhèng parté pulitik Soeharto kepilih dadi Présidhèn lantaran Sidhang Umum MPR (Tap MPR No IX/MPR/1973) tanggal 23 Maret 1973. Ing jabatané sing kapindho, [[Hamengkubuwana IX|Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX]] dipilih dadi [[wakil présidhèn]]. Nalika umur 55 taun, Soeharto wis wayahé pènsiun saka militèr (Keprres No 58/ABRI/1974). Ing wayah iku Soeharto wis dadi panguwasa. Sawisé dadi panguwasa Soeharto wiwit nglakokaké tumindak kang ngetokaké kekuwatané. Nalika 20 Januari 1978, Présidhèn Soeharto nglarang nerbitaké pitu kalawarti, ya iku [[Kompas]], [[Sinar Harapan]], [[Merdeka]], [[Pelita]], [[The Indonésian Times]], [[Sinar Pagi]], lan [[Pos Sore]]. Nalika tangal 22 Maret 1978, Soeharto dilantik manèh dadi présidhèn kang kaping telu lan [[Adam Malik]] kang dadi wakil prèsidhèné. Sidhang Umum [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat|MPR]] 1 Maret 1983 mutusaké yèn Soeharto dadi présidhèn kang kaping papat lan [[Umar Wirahadikusumah]] minangka wakil présidhèn. Lantaran Tap MPR No V taun 1983, MPR ngangkat Soeharto minangka Bapak Pangyasa Républik Indonésia. Nalika 16 Maret 1983, Présidhèn Soeharto gawé wara-wara susunan Kabinèt Pangyasa IV kang isiné ana 21 mantri, 3 mantri koordinator, mantri mudha 8, lan punggawa satingkat mantri 3. Nalika 1 Januari 1984, Présidhèn Soeharto ngisi formulir arep dadi anggota Golkar lan wiwit iku dhèwèké dadi anggota Golkar. == Mundhun saka Keprèsidhènnan == Taun [[1997]], miturut [[Bank Dunia]], 20 tekan 30% dhuwit kanggo yasa Indonésia disalahgunaké. ''Krisis finansial'' [[Asia]] ing taun mau ndadèkaké Soeharto kudu utang lan kudu dipriksa déning [[IMF]]. Sanajan dhèwèké wis ora péngin manèh dadi présidhèn ing pèriode 1998 - 2003, nanging Soeharto tetep kapilih dadi présidhèn déning parlemèn ing sasi Maret 1998. Bareng ana kedadéan dhémonstrasi, rerusuh, kahanan pulitik lan militèr, lan pucuké nalika gedhong DPR/MPR RI dikuwasani déning para dhémonstran, Présidhèn Soeharto mundur tanggal 21 Mèi 1998. Wakil Présidhèn Républik Indonésia, B.J. Habibie, nggantèni dadi Présidhèn. Ing Credentials Room, [[Istana Merdeka]], dalan Medan Merdeka Utara, [[Jakarta]], Présidhèn Soeharto maca pidhato pungkasanékang isiné kaya mangkéné: {{cquote|''Sejak beberapa waktu terakhir, saya mengikuti dengan cermat perkembangan situasi nasional kita, terutama aspirasi rakyat untuk mengadakan reformasi di segala babagan panguripan berbangsa dan bernagara. Atas dhasar seserepan saya yang mendalam terhadap aspirasi tersebut dan terdorong olèh keyakinan bahwa reformasi perlu dilaksanakan kanthi tertib, damai, dan konstitusional.'' ''Demi terpeliharanya persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa sarta kelangsungan pangyasa nasional, saya telah menyatakan rencana pembéntukan Komite Reformasi dan mengubah susunan Kabinet Pangyasa VII. Namun demikian, kenyataan hingga hari ini menunjukkan Komite Reformasi tersebut tidak dapat terwujud karena tidak adanya tanggapan yang memadai terhadap rencana pembéntukan komite tersebut.'' ''Dalam keinginan untuk melaksanakan reformasi dengan cara sebaik-baiknya tadi, saya menilai bahwa dengan tidak dapat diwujudkannya Komite Reformasi, maka owahan susunan Kabinet Pangyasa VII menjadi tidak diperlukan lagi.'' ''Dengan memperhatikan keadaan di atas, saya berpendapat sangat sulit bagi saya untuk dapat menjalankan tugas papréntahan nagara dan pangyasa dengan baik. Oleh karena itu, dengan memperhatikan ketentuan Pasal 8 UUD 1945 dan kanthi sungguh-sungguh memperhatikan pandangan pimpinan DPR dan pimpinan fraksi-fraksi yang ada di dalamnya, saya memutuskan untuk menyatakan berhenti dari kalungguhan saya sebagai Présidhèn RI terhitung sejak saya bacakan tetélan ini padha hari Kamis, 21 Mèi 1998.'' ''Pernyataan saya berhenti dari kalungguhan sebagai Présidhèn RI saya sampaikan di hadapan saudara-saudara pimpinan DPR dan juga ya iku pimpinan MPR padha kesempatan silaturahmi. Sesuai Pasal 8 UUD 1945, maka Wakil Présidhèn RI, Prof. Dr. Ing. BJ Habibie yang akan melanjutkan sisa waktu kalungguhan Présidhèn/Mandataris MPR 1998-2003. Atas bantuan dan panjurung rakyat selama saya memimpin nagara dan bangsa Indonésia ini saya ucapkan terima kasih dan minta maaf bila ada kesalahan dan kekurangan-kekurangannya semoga bangsa Indonésia tetap jaya dengan Pancasila dan UUD 1945.'' ''Mulai hari ini pula Kabinet Pangyasa VII demisioner dan kepada para mantri saya ucapkan terima kasih. Oleh karena keadaan tidak memungkinkan untuk menyelenggarakan pengucapan sumpah di hadapan DPR, maka untuk menghindari kekosongan pimpinan dalam menyelenggarakan papréntahan nagara, kiranya saudara wakil présidhèn sekarang juga akan melaksanakan sumpah kalungguhan présidhèn di hadapan Mahkamah Agung RI.''}} Sawisé nglakoni sumpah kalungguhan, [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie|BJ Habibie]] resmi dadi Présidhèn angka 3 RI. Ora suwé Mantri Pertahanan Keamanan kang ngrangkep Panglima ABRI Jéndral [[TNI]] Wiranto nguda rasa yèèn: {{cquote|''kapisan, memahami situasi yang tumuwuh dan aspirasi masarakat, ABRI mendukung dan menyambut baik permintaan berhenti Bapak Soeharto sebagai Présidhèn RI sarta berdasarkan konstutusi mendukung Wakil Présidhèn Bapak BJ Habibie sebagai Présidhèn RI.'' ''Kedua, ABRI yang tetap kompak dan satu berharap dan mengajak kepada seluruh rakyat Indonésia untuk menerima kehendak pribadi Présidhèn Soeharto tersebut yang telah sesuai dengan konstitusi, yakni Pasal 8 UUD 1945. Ketiga, dalam hal ini, ABRI akan tetap berperan aktif guna mencegah penyimpangan dan hal-hal lain yang dapat mengancam keutuhan bangsa.'' ''Keempat, menjunjung tinggi aji luhur budaya bangsa, ABRI akan tetap menjaga keselamatan dan kehormatan para mantan Présidhèn/Mandataris MPR kalebu Bapak Soeharto beserta keluarganya. Kelima, ABRI mengajak semua pihak agar bersikap tenang, mencegah terjadinya haruhara dan tindak sikara yang akhirnya akan merugikan masarakat sendiri. ''}} == Ngupadaya kahanan kang lagi krisis lan anané oposisi == [[Gambar:Suharto resigns.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Pidhato]] Présidhèn Soeharto tanggal 21 Mèi 1998]] Krisis monetèr kang lagi usum ing [[Asia]] ing taun 1997 uga dirasakaké [[Indonesia]]. Krisis iku uga kena ing babagan ékonomi. Tanggal 8 Oktober 1997, Présidhèn njaluk tulung ing IMF lan [[Bank Dunia]] kanggo ngurangi krisis. Présidhèn njaluk supaya warga masarakat ora bingung lan sabar ngadhepi krisis monetèr (29 November 1997). Ing kahanan krisis kang tambah ngrekasaké warga masarakat, akèh kang padha nganakaké protès marang Présidhèn. Tanggal 10 Maret 1998, MPR gawè putusan nganggkat Soeharto dadi présidhèn kang nomer pitu. Ing taun iki kang dadi wakil Prof Ing BJ Habibie. Tanggal 17 Maret 1998, Soeharto menehaké gajiné kanggo ngurangi rekasané warga amarga krisis moneter. Saliyané iku uga dhèwèké njaluk para mantri supaya gaji pokoké diwènèhaké kanggo ngurangi rekasané warga amarga krisis moneter. Ngadhepi tuntutan supaya dhèwèké mundur saka Présidhèn, tanggal 1 Mèi 1998, Soeharto ngendika réformasi disiyapaké wiwit taun 2003. Nalika ing [[Mesir]] tanggal 13 Mèi 1998, Présidhèn Soeharto gelem mundur yèn pancèn rakyat Indonésia njlauk dhèwèké mundur. Sewelas mantri babagan ékonomi lan indhustri (''ekuin'') Kabinèt Pangyasa VII mundur awit tanggal 20 Mèi 1998. Krisis ékonomi nggawé kahanan ing pamarintah kang dipanggedhèni dhèwèké kocar-kacir. 70 dina sawisé dilantik dadi Présidhèn kaping pitu Soeharto mundur saka jabatané. Présidhèn Soeharto mudhun tanggal 21 Mèi 1998. Pas jam 09.00 WNIKB (Wekdal Nuswantara Iréng Kilèn), Soeharto mudhun saka jabatané minangka présidhèn. Nalika iku acara télévisi nyiaraké kadadéan iku. Tanggal 12 - 20 Mèi 1998 dadi dina-dina kang nemtokaké marang nasibé kalungguhan Présidhèn Indonésia. Mahasiswa kang protès nyebar ing saben laladan ing Indonésia. Mahasiswa Trisaksi, [[Jakarta]] nganakaké dhémo lumaku tumuju Gedhung MPR/DPR kang. Tanggal 12 Mèi 1998, krungu kabar papat mahasiswa Trisakti mati. Matiné mahasiswa Trisakti kasebar ing ngendi-endi plantaran pawarta, kalawarti lan sapanunggalané. Dina [[Kemis]], 14 Mèi 1998, kutha [[Jakarta]] rusuh gedhé, dhémo ing ngendi-endi. Tanggal 15 Mèi 1998, rombongan Présidhèn tekan ing pangkalan udara utama TNI AU Halim Perdanakusuma saka [[Kairo]], [[Mesir]] saperlu [[Konfrensi Tingkat Tinggi]] (KTT) Golongan 15 (Group 15/G-15). Wiwit tanggal 16 Mèi 1998, Présidhèn nganakaké rembugan karo pimpinan-pimpinan [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat|DPR]]. Tanggal 17 Mèi 1998, Mantri Pariwisata, Seni, lan Budaya [[Abdul Latief]] ngajokaké surat mundur saka kalungguhan mantri. Tanggal 18 Mèi 1998, kurang luwih éwon mahasiswa ngroyok Gedhung MPR/DPR. Kedadéyan mau mandheg sawisé Soeharto mundur saka Présidhèn tanggal 21 Mèi 1998. == Uga delengen == * [[Pratélan Présidhèn Indonésia]] * [[Pratélan buku ngenani utawa déning Soeharto]] == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} == Kapustakan == * {{cite news |date=22 February 2006 |title=Two former strongmen, Soeharto-Lee Kuan Yew meet again |publisher=ANTARA |access-date=22 February 2006 |url=http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 |archive-date=25 March 2007 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070325054315/http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 }} * {{cite book |last=Aarons |first=Mark |date=2008 |chapter=Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA69 |editor1=David A. Blumenthal |editor2=Timothy L. H. 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(31 October 1997) * {{cite web| title=CIA Stalling State Department Histories| work=The National Security Archive| url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/| access-date=23 May 2005| archive-date=8 March 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308035956/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/| url-status=live}} * {{cite news| last=Colmey| first=John| title=The Family Firm| date=24 May 1999| publisher=TIME Asia| url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010208155758/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=8 February 2001}} * {{cite book |last=Conboy |first=Kenneth J. |date=2003 |title=Kopassus: Inside Indonesia's Special Forces |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789799589880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |access-date=20 April 2021 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323145048/https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |url-status=live }} * Robert Cribb, "Genocide in Indonesia,1965–1966". Journal of Genocide Research no.2:219–239, 2001. * {{cite book |last=Elson |first=Robert E. |date=2001 |title = Suharto: A Political Biography |location=Cambridge UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-77326-1}} * {{cite book |last=Dijk |first=Kees van |date=2001 |title=A country in despair : Indonesia between 1997 and 2000 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=9789067181600 }} * {{cite book |last=Friend |first=Theodore |date=2003 |title=Indonesian Destinies |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-01834-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo |url-access=registration }} * {{cite web | title=H.AMDT.647 (A003): An amendment to prohibit any funds appropriated in the bill to be used for military education and training assistance to Indonesia | url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: | publisher=THOMAS (Library of Congress) | access-date=4 February 2006 | url-status=dead | 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|isbn=0-00-635721-0}} * {{cite book|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=2018|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-57469-4|access-date=21 November 2021|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608032221/https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|url-status=live}} *{{cite news |date=1993 |title=Public Expenditures, Prices and the Poor |publisher=World Bank |url=http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/2f56edbf2ef22ff185256b2100754284?OpenDocument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323210822/http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/2f56edbf2ef22ff185256b2100754284?OpenDocument |archive-date=23 March 2007 }} * {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |date=1991 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1300 |edition=2nd |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-333-57690-X}} * {{cite book |last=Rock |first=Michael T. |date=2003 |title=The Politics of Development Policy and Development Policy Reform |others=William Davidson Institute Working Paper Number 632 |publisher=The University of Michigan Business School |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/40018/wp632.pdf?sequence=3 |access-date=11 June 2013 |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212120254/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/40018/wp632.pdf?sequence=3 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Purdey |first=Jemma |date=2006 |title=Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia, 1996–1999 |location=[[Honolulu]] HI |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=9780824830571}} *{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Geoffrey B. |date=2018 |title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965-66 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=9781400888863 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW0wDwAAQBAJ }} * John Roosa, Pretext for Mass Murder: 30 September Movement & Suharto's Coup D'état. The University of Wisconsin Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-299-22034-1}}. * {{cite news| last=Simpson| first=Brad| title=Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice"| date=9 July 2004| publisher=National Security Archive| url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm| access-date=17 June 2005| archive-date=5 February 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205191327/http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm| url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Adam |date=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=9780813388816 |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw }} * {{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Bradley |date=2010 |title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 |url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |location= |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0804771825 |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213245/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |url-status=live }} * {{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm| title=Suharto tops corruption rankings| work=BBC News| date=25 March 2004| access-date=4 February 2006| archive-date=13 November 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113042444/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm| url-status=live}} * {{cite news| title=Sukarno Removes His Defense Chief| work=[[New York Times]]| date=22 February 1966}} * {{cite news| title=Tapol Troubles: When Will They End?| date=April–June 1999| publisher=Inside Indonesia| url=http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305190845/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view| archive-date=5 March 2012| df=dmy-all}} * {{cite book| author=Pramoedya Ananta Toer| title=The Mute's Soliloquy: A Memoir| publisher=Penguin|date=2000| isbn=0-14-028904-6}} * {{cite web| title=United Nations High Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/97: Situation in East Timor| url=http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument| publisher=United Nations| access-date=4 February 2006| archive-date=4 February 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204035327/http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument| url-status=live}} *{{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |date=2005 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521542623 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri }} * {{cite book |last=Wanandi |first=Jusuf |author-link=Jusuf Wanandi |date=2012 |title=Shades of Grey: A Political Memoir of Modern Indonesia 1965–1998 |location=Singapore |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789793780924 }} * {{cite book| title=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA| last=Weiner| first=Tim| publisher=Doubleday| place=New York|date=2007| isbn=978-3-596-17865-0| chapter=Chapter 15, CIA and Indonesia| title-link=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA}} * {{cite journal| last1=Wertheim| first1=W.F.| title=Whose plot?-New light on the 1965 events| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-asia_1979_9_2/page/197| journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia|date=1979| volume=9| issue=2| pages=197–215| doi=10.1080/00472337985390191}} * {{cite book |last=Wiranto |author-link=Wiranto |date=2011 |title=7 Tahun Menggali Pemikiran dan Tindakan Pak Harto 1991–1997 |trans-title=7 Years Exploring the Thoughts and Actions of Pak Harto 1991–1997 |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Citra Kharisma Bunda |isbn=9786028112123}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Soeharto}} [[Kategori:Artikel mawa basa krama]] [[Kategori:Lair 1921]] [[Kategori:Pati 2008]] [[Kategori:Pratélan tokoh Indonésia kang ana ing prangko]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh militèr]] [[Kategori:Biografi]] [[Kategori:Présidhèn Indonésia]] 5yqewbxmyoerf2kc095lh1y72v376uf Eris (planit) 0 19650 1752989 1748546 2026-08-20T07:17:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752989 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet | bgcolour = #FFA0FF | name = Eris | symbol = [[Gambar:Eris symbol (bold).svg|24px|⯰]] | image = [[Gambar:Eris and dysnomia2.jpg|240px|Eris (centre) and Dysnomia (left of centre), taken by the [[Hubble Space Telescope]].]] | caption = Eris (Tengah) and [[Dysnomia (moon)|Dysnomia]] (kiri dari tengah).{{br}}[[Teleskop luar akasa Hubble]]. | discovery = yes | discoverer = [[Michael E. Brown|M. E. Brown]],{{br}}[[Chad Trujillo|C. A. Trujillo]],{{br}}[[David L. Rabinowitz|D. L. Rabinowitz]]<ref name="discovery">{{cite web | author=Staff | date=2007-05-01 | url=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/lists/NumberedMPs.html | title=Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets | publisher=IAU: Minor Planit Center | accessdate=2007-05-05 }}</ref> | discovered = [[21 Oktober]] [[2003]]<ref name="discovery" /> | mp_name = '''136199 Eris''' | alt_names = {{mp|2003 UB|313}}<ref name="designation">{{cite web | author=Staff | date=2004-02-29 | url=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/MPDes.html | title=Minor Planit Designations | publisher=IAU: Minor Planit Center | accessdate=2007-05-05 }}</ref> | mp_category = [[planit katai]],{{br}}[[Obyek trans-Neptunus|TNO]],{{br}}[[plutoid]],{{br}} dan [[Piringan tersebar|SDO]]<ref name=MPC>{{cite web |title=List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects |publisher=Minor Planit Center |url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/Centaurs.html |accessdate=2008-09-10}}</ref> | epoch = [[6 Maret]], [[2006]]{{br}}([[Julian day|JD]] 2453800.5)<ref><!---[http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/astdys/astibo?list_objects:0;main AstDyS database] ---> [http://asteroid.lowell.edu/ Asteroid Observing Services]<!--- Actual page is ftp://ftp.lowell.edu/pub/elgb/astorb.html ---></ref> | adjectives = Eridian | aphelion = 97,56&nbsp;[[ékan astronomi|SA]]{{br}}14.60{{e|9}}km | perihelion = 37,77&nbsp;SA {{br}}5.65{{e|9}} km | semimajor = 67,6681&nbsp;SA {{br}}10.12{{e|9}} km | eccentricity = 0,44177 | period = 203.600&nbsp;days{{br}}557&nbsp;[[julian year (astronomy)|taun]] | avg_speed = 3,436&nbsp;km/s | mean_anomaly = 197,63427° | inclination = 44,187° | asc_node = 35,8696° | arg_peri = 151,4305° | satellites = 1 | physical_characteristics= yes | mean_radius = 1.300 +200-100&nbsp;km<ref name=spitzer>{{cite web|title=Physical Properties of Kuiper Belt and Centaur Objects: Constraints from Spitzer Space Telescope|author=John Stansberry, Will Grundy, Mike Brown, John Spencer, David Trilling, Dale Cruikshank, Jean-Luc Margot | work= University of Arizona, Lowell Observatory, California Institute of Technology, NASA Ames Research Center, Southwest Research Institute, Cornell University|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0702538v1|year=2007|accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref> | mass = (1,67 ± 0,02){{e|22}}&nbsp;kg<ref name=mass>{{cite journal |title=The Mass of Dwarf Planit Eris |author=[[Michael E. Brown]] and Emily L. Schaller |journal=Science |year=2007 |volume=316 |issue=5831 |doi=10.1126/science.1139415 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/316/5831/1585| pages=1585 |pmid=17569855 |format=abstract page }}</ref> | surface_grav = ~0,8 [[Acceleration|m/s²]] | sidereal_day = >&nbsp;8&nbsp;h? | albedo = 0,86&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,07 | temperatures = yes | temp_name1 = (sakiwa-tengené) | min_temp_1 = 30&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] | mean_temp_1 = 42,5&nbsp;K | max_temp_1 = 55&nbsp;K | magnitude = 18,7 | abs_magnitude = −1,12&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,01 | angular_size = 40 [[milliarcsecond|milli-arcsec]]<ref name="nature"> {{Cite journal | title = The trans-Neptunian object {{mp|UB|313}} is larger than Pluto | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-02-02_439_7076/page/563 | author =Bertoldi F., Altenhoff W., Weiss A., Menten K. M., Thum C. | journal = Nature | year = 2006 | volume =439 | issue = 7076 | pages = 563–564 | doi = 10.1038/nature04494 | pmid = 16452973 }}</ref> }} [[Gambar:Ub313-0.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Eris kados ingkang kapirsani para astronom kanthi bantuan teropong lintang.]] '''Eris''' (nama resmi: '''136199 Eris'''; sadèrèngipun kakenal mawi '''2003 UB<sub>313</sub>''' lan ugi '''Xena'''; simbol: [[File:Eris symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|⯰]])<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/infographics/what-is-a-dwarf-planet |author= JPL/NASA |date= 2015-04-22 |website= Jet Propulsion Laboratory |title= What is a Dwarf Planet? |access-date= 2022-01-19}}</ref> punika setunggiling [[planit katai]] ingkang katemoaken ing dinten [[Jumat]], [[29 Juli]] [[2005]] déning tiga astronom saking [[Amérikah Sarékat]], Profesor Mike Brown lan koleganipun saking Institut Teknologi California (Caltech), ingkang ugi nemoaken sapérangan obyék-obyék mèmper planit ing aréa [[Sabuk Kuiper]]. Awalipun kaklaim déning panemunipun dados setunggiling [[planit]] (nanging status "planit katai" salajengipun katampi), Eris asrep sanget, kathah watunipun lan langkung ageng tinimbang [[Pluto]]. Eris dipunmangertos gadhah setunggil [[bulan]], Dysnomia, ingkang katemoaken 10 September 2005. == Langkung ageng tinimbang Pluto == Eris gadhah dhiameter kirang langkung 3.000 kilomèter, saéngga wujud obyék paling ageng ingkang katemoaken ing tata surya sasampunipun [[Neptunus]] kadhetéksi taun [[1846]]. Eris ugi langkung ageng tinimbang [[Pluto]], tilas [[planit]] paling alit ingkang katemoken taun [[1930]]. Eris letipun méh 15 miliar kilomèter (sangang miliar mil) utawi kirang langkung kaping tiganipun let Pluto saking srengéngé. Kabandhingaken [[Bumi]], letipun 97 ping let Bumi-Srengéngé. [[Gambar:Ub313-1.jpg|thumb|200px|Péta papanipun Eris ing Péta astronomi]] Eris punika bandha paling tebih ingkang naté dipunmangertos kanggé ngiteri ing sadaya [[Srengéngé]]. Ukuranipun mungkin satunggal setengah langkung ageng saking Pluto. Obyék akasa punika katon sepisanan taun [[2003]]. Eris katon mawi teleskop Samuel Oschin ing [[Observatorium Palomar]] lan teleskop 8m [[Gemini]] ing [[Mauna Kea]], [[Hawaii]]. Sepisanan katon tanggal [[21 Oktober]] [[2003]], nanging para astronom boten mirsani malih ngantos 15 wulan salajengipun. Saweg tanggal [[8 Januari]] [[2005]] Eris katon malih. Sasanèsipun Brown, panemu sanèsé inggih punika Chad Trujillo saking Observatorium Gemini ing Hawaii, lan David Rabinowitz saking Univérsitas Yale. Eris katon langkung redup tinimbang Pluto amargi letipun kaping tiga langkung tebih. Manawi Eris wonten ing panggénanipun Pluto, Eris badhé katon langkung terang. Wiwit katemoaken, sebatan obyék punika sebagai [[planit]] menjadi perdebatan. == Planit katai == Ing tanggal [[24 Agustus]] [[2006]], para ilmuwan [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional]] pungkasanipun mutusaken statusipun dados "[[planit katai]]" (''dwarf planit''). Sadèrèngipun golongan astronom sanès ugi sampun ngumumaken panemon obyék [[2003 EL61]], ingkang ukuranipun kirang langkung agengipun sami kaliyan Pluto. Planit énnggal punika muteri bumi sepindhah saben 560 taun lan sapunika wujud obyék paling tebih saking Bumi.{{fact}} [[Gambar:Ub313-2.jpg|thumb|200px|Satunggiling seniman nggambaraken Eris lan katon [[Srengéngé]] ingkang tebih sanget dados latar wingkingipun]] Ing wekdal 280 taun, letipun tumuju Bumi badhé sacelak Neptunus. Kados Pluto, lumah Eris kakinten dipundhominasi déning [[metana]]. Eris ugi kapitados wujud péranganing [[Sabuk Kuiper]] (''Kuiper Belt''), kawasan ing sistem solar njulur saking orbit Neptunus. Dipunkinten wonten kirang langkung 100.000 obyék ingkang kakenal mawi obyék Sabuk Kuiper, salah setunggilipun inggih punika Pluto, saéngga sapérangan ilmuwan ugi langkung nganggep status Eris dados obyék Sabuk Kuiper katimbang satunggiling planit. Nanging amargi ukuranipun ingkang ageng, dhiamateripun dugi 3.000 kilomèter, wekdal katemoaken Brown wantun ngualifikasi obyék akasa punika planit. "Kula ngajeng-ngajeng punika boten kontroversial sanget, kados tiyang mitadosi Pluto punika planit," ngendikanipun. (<small>sumber: National Geographic News, Detikcom, Kompas</small>) == Ugi pirsani == * [[Astronomi]] * [[Galaksi]] * [[Planit]] == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} {{tata surya}} [[Kategori:Objek trans-Neptunus]] [[Kategori:Artikel mawa basa krama]] [[Kategori:Planit cilik]] qro6bbb7fahbhi1pg8dgewalz8rr49e Marche 0 20207 1752818 1742292 2026-08-19T12:03:21Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_RegionIT | name = Marche | fullname = Regione Marche | isocode = &nbsp; | capital = [[Ancona]] | governor = Gian Mario Spacca<br />(''[[The Union]]'') | zone = [[Central Italy]] | province = [[Provinsi Ancona|Ancona]]<br />[[Provinsi Ascoli Piceno|Ascoli Piceno]]<br />[[Provinsi Fermo|Fermo]]<br />[[Provinsi Macerata|Macerata]]<br />[[Provinsi Pesaro e Urbino|Pesaro e Urbino]] | municipality = 246 | arearank = ke-15 | area = 9.694 | areapercent = 3,2 | population_as_of = 2001 | populationrank = ke-13 | population = 1.470.581 | populationpercent = 2,6 | populationdensity = 152 | coatofarms = | <!-- Replace with region Coat of Arms --> map = [[Gambar:Italy Regions Marche Map.png|border|220px]] | }} '''Marche''' iku region ing [[Italia]] tengah, wewatesan karo [[Emilia-Romagna]] ing lor, [[Tuscany]] lan Républik [[San Marino]] ing kulon-lor, [[Umbria]] ing kidul-kulon, [[Abruzzo]] lan [[Latium]] ing kidul-wétan, lan [[Sagara Adriatik]] ing sisih wétan. <!-- The regional capital is [[Ancona]]. The region is divided into five provinces: [[Province of Ancona|Ancona]], [[Province of Ascoli Piceno|Ascoli Piceno]], [[Province of Fermo|Fermo]], [[Province of Macerata|Macerata]] all part of the ancient territory of [[Picenum]], and [[Province of Pesaro e Urbino|Pesaro e Urbino]] which is composed of the traditionally separate provinces of [[Pesaro]] and [[Urbino]], that were part of ancient [[Roman Umbria|Umbria]]. In 2004, a fifth province, the province of Fermo, was voted to come into being in 2009. The provinces of the Marche have distinct histories, largely owing to the geography of the region: except for the river valleys and the often very narrow coastal strip, the land is hilly. In the 19th century a railroad from Bologna to Brindisi linked the Marche along the coast-line of the entire territory: inland, the mountainous nature of the region even today allows little communication north and south, except by rough roads over the passes. In a traditional ''mezzadria'' system, under which products are equally divided between the owners and the cultivators of the land, the rather unproductive soil and difficult terrain was fairly highly cultivated. The port of Ancona was the only really good harbor, the other small harbors were used by fishing fleets: the Marche furnished a large contingent of sailors to the Italian navy. --> == Provinsi == Region Marche kapérang dadi lima provinsi yaiku: * [[Provinsi Ancona|Ancona]] * [[Provinsi Ascoli Piceno|Ascoli Piceno]] * [[Provinsi Fermo|Fermo]] * [[Provinsi Macerata|Macerata]] * [[Provinsi Pesaro e Urbino|Pesaro e Urbino]] == Kutha-kutha ing Marche == Kutha kang sing ndunungi 50,000 utawa luwih: {| class="wikitable" |- ! City ! Population (2006 est.) |- | [[Ancona]] | 101,862 |- | [[Pesaro]] | 91,955 |- | [[Fano]] | 62,455 |- | [[Ascoli Piceno]] | 51,732 |} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.regione.marche.it/ Official Site of the Marche Region] * [http://www.le-marche.com/Marche/index.htm Marche Voyager] * [http://www.paradisepossible.com/marche2.asp Paradise Possible] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705135309/http://www.paradisepossible.com/marche2.asp |date=2008-07-05 }} * {{it}}[http://www.docushare.it/mediasoft/italy/marche/marche_en.htm MediaSoft] * [http://www.deliciousitaly.com/Marche.htm Delicious Italy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310215526/http://www.deliciousitaly.com/Marche.htm |date=2007-03-10 }} * [http://www.italianvisits.com/marche/ ItalianVisits.com] {{Marche}} {{Italia}} {{DEFAULTSORT:{{PAGENAME}}}} [[Kategori:Marche| ]] [[Kategori:Laladan (regioni) Italia]] [[Kategori:Provinsi Italia]] [[Kategori:Itali]] {{geo-stub}} ef3xmabqf7xey8l8xshj93eex80x2gq Warak jawa 0 21401 1752980 1717343 2026-08-20T07:06:42Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752980 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Warak jawa | status = CR | status_system = iucn3.1 | status_ref =<ref name="IUCN2008"> {{IUCN2008 | assessors = van Strien, N.J., Steinmetz, R., Manullang, B., Sectionov, Han, K.H., Isnan, W., Rookmaaker, K., Sumardja, E., Khan, M.K.M. & Ellis, S. | year = 2008 | id = 19495 | title = Rhinoceros sondaicus | downloaded = 28 November 2008 }} </ref> | image = Dead_Javan_Rhino.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Pemburu Éropah lan warak jawa kang mati taun [[1895]] | regnum = [[Sato kéwan|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia|Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Kéwan kuku ganjil|Perissodactyla]] | familia = [[Warak|Rhinocerotidae]] | genus = ''[[Rhinoceros (gènus)|Rhinoceros]]'' | species = '''''R. sondaicus''''' | binomial = ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' | binomial_authority = [[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest|Desmarest]], 1822<ref name=Zeitschrift/> | range_map = Javan Rhino Range.svg | range_map_width = 250px | range_map_caption = Wewengkon panggonané warak jawa<ref name=Range>Péta kang asalé saka péta ing Foose lan Van Strien (1997). Péta iki ora ngamot populasi kemungkinan ing Kalimantan kang didheskripsiaké déning Cranbook lan Piper (2007).</ref> | subdivision_ranks = [[Subspesies]] | subdivision = ''Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus''<br /> ''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis (cures)''<br /> ''Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus'' }} '''Warak jawa''' ([[basa Indonésia]]: ''badak bercula-satu kecil'', [[basa Latin]]: ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'') iku anggota famili [[Warak|Rhinocerotidae]] kang duwé sungu cilik siji lan siji saka limang jinis [[warak]] kang isih ana. Warak iki lumebu gènus kang padha karo [[warak Indhi]] lan duwé kulit mosaik kang mémper klambi waja. Warak iki dawané 3,1–3,2 m lan dhuwuré 1,4–1,7 m. Warak iki luwih cilik tinimbang [[warak Indhi]] lan luwih cerak gedhéné awaké karo [[warak Ireng]]/warak Hitam. Ukuran sunguné lumrahé kurang saka 20&nbsp;cm, luwih cilik tinimbang sungu spésies warak liyané. Warak iki tau dadi salah siji warak ing [[Asia]] kang paling akèh panyebarané. Sanajan ingaran "Warak jawa", kéwan iki ora mung urip ing Pulo [[Jawa]] waé, nanging ing saindhenging [[Nuswantara]], [[Asia Kidul-Wétan]] lan [[Indhi]] sarta [[Tiongkok]]. Spesies iki saiki statusé kritis, mung sithik populasi kang tinemu ing alam bébas, lan ora ana ing kebon ratu. Warak iki minangka mamalia paling langka ing bumi.<ref name=Dinerstein/> Populasi 40-50 warak urip ing [[Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon]] ing [[Pulo Jawa]], [[Indonésia]]. Populasi warak jawa ing alam bébas liyané ana ing [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]], [[Vietnam]] kanthi prakiran populasi ora punjul wolu ing taun [[2007]]. Kurangé populasi warak jawa amarga paburon kanggo mélik sunguné, sing migunani banget kanggo pangobatan tradhisional [[Tiongkok]], kanthi rega $30.000 per kilogram ing ''[[pasar gelap]]''.<ref name=Dinerstein/> Kurangé populasi warak iki uga amarga kélangan habitat, kang mligi amarga perang, kaya [[perang Vietnam]] ing Asia Kidul-Wétan kang uga njalari kurangé populasi warak jawa lan ngalangi pamulihan.<ref name=Santiapillai>{{Cite journal | author = Santiapillai, C. | year = 1992 | title = Javan rhinoceros in Vietnam | journal = Pachyderm | volume = 15 | pages = 25–27}}</ref> Papané mung kéri ana ing rong laladan kang direksa. Warak jawa uga isih ana résiko diburu, gampang kena lelara lan saya ciuté karagaman genetik kang njalari gangguan nalika tangkar-tumangkar. Warak jawa bisa urip 30 tekan 45 taun ing alam bébas. Warak iki urip ing alas ratan ngisor (''hutan hujan dataran cendhèk''), ara-ara kanthi suket teles lan laladan dharatan banjir gedhé. Warak jawa akèhé anteng, kajaba ing mangsa pangenalan lan nggedhèkaké anak, sanajan sawijining golongan sok bisa ngumpul nalika nggegupak lan golèk mineral. Warak diwasa ora duwé kéwan [[pamangsa]] kang dadi mungsuh. Warak jawa lumrahé nyingkir saka manungsa, nanging bakal nyerang manungsa manawa keganggu. Panliti lan pangreksa alam arang nliti kéwan iki kanthi langsung amarga langkané kéwan iki lan anané bebaya ngganggu sawijining spésies kang mèh cures. Panliti migunaake kodhak lan conto buwangan kanggo ngukur kaséhatan lan tindak-tanduké kéwan-kéwan iki. Warak jawa luwih sithik disinaoni tinimbang spésies warak liyané. == Taksonomi lan pawènèhan jeneng == Warak jawa sepisanan ditliti déning panliti alam saka njaba laladan mau ing taun [[1787]], nalika ana k'ewan loro ditembak ing Jawa. Balung warak jawa dikirim menyang panliti alam [[Walanda]] [[Petrus Camper]], kang séda taun [[1789]] sadurungé nerbitaké panemoné manawa warak jawa iku spésies istimewa. Warak jawa liyané ditembak ing pulo [[Sumatra]] déning [[Alfred Duvaucel]] kang ngirim spesimené menyang rama tiriné, [[Georges Cuvier]], èlmuwan [[Prancis]] kang misuwur. Cuvier ngrumangsani kéwan iki spésies istimewa taun [[1822]], lan ing taun kang padha diidhentifikasi déning [[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest]] kanthi jeneng ''Rhinoceros sondaicus''. Spesies iki spésies warak pungkasan kang diidhentifikasi.<ref name="Rookmaaker">{{Cite book | author = Rookmaaker, Kees | year = 2005 | chapter = First sightings of Asian rhinos | pages = 52 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref> Desmarest ing awalé ngidhentifikasi warak iki asalé saka Jawa, nanging samengkoné ngowahi lan nelaaké spesimené asalé saka pulo Jawa.<ref name=Zeitschrift>{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 1982 | title = The type locality of the Javan Rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' Desmarest, 1822) | journal = Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 381–382}}</ref> Jeneng genusé ''Rhinoceros'', ing njeroné uga ngamot [[warak Indhi]], asalé saka [[basa Yunani]]: ''rhino'' tegesé ''irung'', lan ''ceros'' tegesé ''sungu''; ''sondaicus'' asalé saka tembung [[Sundha]], laladan kang njangkep pulo Sumatra, Jawa, [[Kalimantan]] lan kapuloan cilik ing sekitaré. Warak jawa uga ingaran warak sungu-siji cilik (kanggo mbedaaké karo warak sungu-siji gedhé, jeneng liya saka [[warak Indhi]]). Ana telung subspesies, nanging kari loro amarga sing siji wis cures: * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus''''', jinis subspesies kang dingertèni yaiku ''warak jawa Indonésia''' kang tau urip ing [[Pulo Jawa]] lan [[Sumatra]]. Saiki populasiné mung sawetara 40-50 ing [[Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon]], papané ing pojok kidul [[Pulo Jawa]]. Sawijining panliti ngusulaké manawa warak jawa ing [[Sumatra]] lumebu subspesies kang béda, ''R.s. Floweri'', nanging prakara iki ora ditampa kanthi wiyar.<ref>{{IUCN|author=Asian Rhino Specialist Group|year=1996|ID=19497|title=Rhinoceros sondaicus ssp. sondaicus|downloaded=16 Oktober 2007 | IUCN_Year = 2007}} Diakses padha [[16 Oktober]] [[2007]].</ref><ref name=CG/> * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus''''', yaiku '''Warak jawa Vietnam''' utawa '''Warak Vietnam''', kang tau urip ing [[Vietnam]], [[Kamboja]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]] lan [[Malaysia]]. ''Annamiticus'' asalé saka [[dhèrètan Annam|dhèrètan pagunungan Annam]] ing [[Asia Kidul-Wétan]], péranganing papan uripé spésies iki. Saiki populasiné kira-kira kurang saka 12, uripé ing alas ''dhataran cendhèk'' ing [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]], [[Vietnam]]. Analisa génétika mènèhi tabet manawa loro subspesies kang isih ana duwé leluhur kang padha antara 300.000 lan 2 yuta taun kapungkur.<ref name=CG>{{Cite journal | title = Genetic diversity, phylogeny and conservation of the Javan hinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) | journal = Conservation Genetics | volume = 7 | issue = 3 |date=Juni 2006 | pages = 439–448 | author = Fernando, Prithiviraj | coauthors = Gert Polet, Nazir Foead, Linda S. Ng, Jennifer Pastorini, and Don J. Melnick }}</ref><ref>{{IUCN|author=Asian Rhino Specialist Group|year=1996|ID=19498|title=Rhinoceros sondaicus ssp. annamiticus|downloaded=[[16 Oktober]] [[2007]] | IUCN_Year = 2007}} Diakses padha [[16 Oktober]] [[2007]].</ref> * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis''''', yaiku '''Warak jawa Indhi''', tau urip ing [[Benggala]] nganti Burma ([[Myanmar]]), nanging dianggep cures ing dasawarsa awal taun [[1900-an]]. ''Inermis'' duwé teges ''tanpa sungu'', amarga karakteristik warak iki yaiku sungu cilik ing warak lanang (lanang), lan ora ana sungu ing warak wadon (wadon). Spesimen spésies iki yaiku wadon kang ora duwé sungu. Situasi pulitik ing [[Myanmar|Burma]] nyegah taksiran spésies iki ing nagara iku, nanging kaslametané dianggep ora bisa dipercaya.<ref name=Foose>{{Citation | last = Foose | first = Thomas J. | coauthors = Nico van Strien | year = 1997 | title = Asian Rhinos – Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. | publisher = IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK | isbn = 2-8317-0336-0}}</ref><ref name=Pachy>{{Cite journal | journal = Pachyderm | title = Records of the Sundarbans Rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis'') in Indhi and Banggaladésa | author = Rookmaaker, Kees | volume = 24 | year = 1997 | pages = 37–45}}</ref><ref name="NE Indhi"/> === Évolusi === [[Gambar:Panzernashorn2004.jpg|thumb|[[Warak Indhi]] cerak gandhengané karo warak jawa; Kekaroné iku loro anggota jinis gènus warak.]] Leluhur warak sepisanan kapérang saka ''[[Kéwan kuku ganjil|Perissodactyl]]'' liyané ing mangsa [[Eosen|Eosen awal]]. ''Perbandingan'' [[DNA]] [[mitokondria]] mènèhi tabet manawa leluhur warak modhérn kapérang saka leluhur ''[[Equidae]]'' watara 50 yuta taun kapungkur.<ref name=DNA/> Famili kang isih ana, [[warak|Rhinocerotidae]], sepisanan muncul ing mangsa Eosen akir ing [[Eurasia]], lan leluhur spésies warak modhérn kapérang saka Asia ing awal [[Miosen]].<ref name=Lacombat>{{Cite book | author = Lacombat, Frédéric | year = 2005 | chapter = The evolution of the rhinoceros | pages = 46–49 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref> Warak jawa lan [[warak Indhi|Indhi]] iku siji-sijiné anggota gènus ''[[Rhinoceros (gènus)|Rhinoceros]]'' kang sepisanan muncul ing rekaman fosil ing [[Asia]] sakiwa-tengené 1,6 yuta-3,3 yuta taun kapungkur. Prakiraan molekul mènèhi tabet manawa spésies wis kapérang luwih awal, sakiwa-tengené 11,7 yuta taun kapungkur.<ref name=DNA>{{Cite journal | title = The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequence of the Greater Indhin Rhinoceros, ''Rhinoceros unicornis'', and the Phylogenetic Relationship Among Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla (+ Cetacea) | author = Xu, Xiufeng | coauthors = Axel Janke, and Ulfur Arnason | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 13 | issue = 9 | pages = 1167–1173 | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/13/9/1167 | accessdate = 2007-11-04}}</ref><ref name = Tougard>{{Cite journal | author = Tougard, C. | coauthors = T. Delefosse, C. Hoenni, and C. Montgelard | year = 2001 | title = Phylogenetic relationships of the five extant rhinoceros species (Rhinocerotidae, Perissodactyla) based on mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12s rRNA genes | url = https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2001-04_19_1/page/34 | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–44}}</ref> Sanajan lumebu ing jinis gènus, warak jawa lan [[Indhi]] dipercaya ora cerak gandhengané karo spésies warak liyané. Panlitén kang béda wis ngetokaké hipotèsis manawa warak iku mungkin cerak gandhengané karo ''Gaindetherium'' utawa ''Punjabitherium'' kang wis cures. Analisis [[klad]] Rhinocerotidae mapanaké ''Rhinoceros'' lan ''Punjabitherium'' kang wis cures ing klad karo ''[[Warak Sumatra|Dicerorhinus]]'', warak Sumatra. Panlitén liya ngusulaké manawa [[warak Sumatra]] luwih cerak gandhengané karo loro spésies warak ing [[Afrika]].<ref name=Cerdeno>{{Cite journal | last = Cerdeño | first = Esperanza | url = http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/3566/1/N3143.pdf | journal = Novitates | publisher = [[American Musiyum of Natural History]] | year = 1995 | title = Cladistic Analysis of the Family Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla) | issn = 0003-0082 | number = 3143 | accessdate = 2007-11-04}}</ref> Warak Sumatra bisa kapérang saka warak Asia liyané 15 yuta taun kapungkur.<ref name=Dinerstein/><ref name=Lacombat/> == Dhéskripsi == Warak jawa awaké luwih cilik tinimbang warak Indhi, lan mèh padha [[warak Ireng]]. Dawané bisa punjul 3,1–3,2 m lan dhuwuré 1,4–1,7 m. Warak diwasa duwé bobot antarané 900 nganti 2.300 kilogram. Ora tau dianaaké panlitén kanggo nglumpukké pangukuran akurat warak iki lan dudu prioritas.<ref name=Dinerstein/> Ukuran badan warak iki ora ana bédané antarané sing lanang lan wadon, malah ana warak wadon kang luwih gedhé. Warak ing Vietnam luwih cilik tinimbang kang ning Jawa kanthi dhasar panlitén bukti saka foto lan pangukuran tlipak sikilé..<ref name="van Strien">{{Cite book | author = van Strien, Nico | year = 2005 | chapter = Javan Rhinoceros | pages = 75–79 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref> Kaya seduluré ing Indhi, warak jawa duwé sungu siji (spésies liya duwé sungu loro). Sunguné iku sungu paling cilik saka kabèh warak, lumrahé luwih cendhak saka 20&nbsp;cm lan sing paling dawa 27&nbsp;cm. Warak jawa arang migunakaké sunguné kanggo gelut, nanging migunakaké sunguné kanggo mindhah lendhut ing ''kubangan'', kanggo narik [[tetuwuhan]] supaya bisa dipangan, lan mbukak dalan ngliwati végetasi kang kandel. Warak jawa duwé lambé ndhuwur kang dawa kang kena kanggo mbantu njupuk pangan. [[Untu seri]]né dawa lan landhep; untuné iki dipigunaaké nalika warak jawa gelut. Ing samburiné untu seri ana enem [[untu graham]] dawa kang dipigunaaké kanggo mamah tetuwuhan kasar. Kaya kabèh warak, warak jawa duwé pangambon lan pangrungu kang apik nanging duwé pasawangan mata kang ala. Warak-warak iki kira-kira urip 30 nganti 45 taun.<ref name="van Strien"/> Kulité ana wuluné/rambuté sethithik, wernané klawu utawa klawu-coklat mbungkus pundhak, geger lan bokong. Kulité kandel lan duwé pola mosaik alami lan dadi tameng. Pambungkus gulu warak jawa luwih cilik tinimbang warak Indhi, nanging tetep maujud wangun pelana ing pundak. Amarga anané résiko ngganggu spésies ''terancam'', warak jawa disinaoni/ditliti liwat conto/sampel buwangan lan kodhak. Warak-warak iki arang ditemoni, diamati utawa diukur kanthi langsung.<ref name=NatPost>{{Cite news | title = Their trail is warm: Scientists are studying elusive rhinos by analyzing their feces | work = [[National Post]] | author = Munro, Margaret | date = 10 Mèi 2002}}</ref> == Panyebaran lan habitat == [[Gambar:Ujungkulon.jpg|thumb|[[Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon]] ing Jawa iku papan kanggo sisa warak jawa kang isih urip.]] Kira-kira kurang saka 100 warak jawa isih ana ing alam bébas. Warak-warak dianggep mamalia paling kaancam; sanajan ish ana warak Sumatra kang papan kauripané ora direksa kaya warak jawa, lan sapérangan pangreksa alam nganggep warak mau duwé résiko kang luwih gedhé. Warak jawa dimangerténi isih urip ing rong panggonan, [[Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon]] ing pojok kulon pulo Jawa lan [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]] kang papané kurang luwih 150&nbsp;km sisih lor [[Kutha Ho Chi Minh]].<ref name=CG/><ref name=NYT/> Kéwan iki tau nyebar saka [[Assam]] lan [[Benggala]] (warak Sumatra lan Indhi urip bebarengan ing papan mau<ref name="NE Indhi"/>) mangétan tekan [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Kamboja]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], lan ngidul ing [[ujung Malaka]], sarta pulo [[Sumatra]], [[Jawa]] lan [[Kalimantan]].<ref name=Raffles/> Warak jawa uripé ing alas udan dhataran cendhèk, suket dhuwur lan papan turoné alang-alang kang akèh kaliné, dhataran banjir gedhé utawa laladan teles kang akèh blethokané. Sanajan ing sajarah warak jawa seneng laladan cendhèk, subspesies ing Vietnam kasurung nuju lemah kang luwih dhuwur (punjul 2.000 m), amarga gangguan lan perburuan déning manungsa.<ref name=Foose/> Papan uripé warak jawa wis nyusut sawisé 3.000 taun, wiwit sakiwa-tengené taun 1000 SM, papan uripé ing sisih lor warak iki ngrambah tekan Tiongkok, nanging wiwit mangidul kanthi kasar ing 0.5&nbsp;km pendhak taun amarga padunungané manungsa tambah ing laladan iku.<ref name=Biotropica/> Warak iki wiwit cures ing Indhi ing dekade awal abad kaping 20.<ref name="NE Indhi">{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 2002 | title = Historical records of the Javan rhinoceros in North-East Indhi | journal = Newsletter of the Rhino Foundation of Nature in North-East Indhi | issue = 4 | pages = 11–12 | month = Juni}}</ref> Warak jawa diburu nganti cures ing ujung Malaysia taun 1932.<ref name=Straits>{{ Cite news | work = [[New Straits Times]] | title = On the horns of a dilemma | author = Ismail, Faezah | date = 9 Juni 1998 }}</ref> Ing pungkasaning [[perang Vietnam]], warak Vietnam dipercaya cures ing sakdawané lemah utama Asia. Pamburu lokal lan panegor alas ing [[Kamboja]] ngeklaim méruhi warak jawa ing [[Pagunungan Cardamom]], nanging survey ing laladan mau gagal nemu bukti.<ref name=FFI>{{Cite book | title = Cardamom Mountains biodiversity survey | year = 2000 | author = Daltry, J.C. | coauthors = F. Momberg | publisher = Fauna and Flora International | location = [[Cambridge]]}}</ref> Populasi warak jawa uga mungkin ana ing pulo [[Kalimantan]], sanajan spésimèn mau mungkin wujud warak Sumatra, populasi cilik kang isih urip ing kana.<ref name=Raffles>{{Cite journal | journal = The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology | year = 2007 | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | publisher = [[University of Singapore]] | pages = 217–220 | url = http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/55/55rbz217-220.pdf | author = Cranbook, Earl of | coauthors = Philip J. Piper | title = The Javan Rhinoceros ''Rhinoceros Sondaicus'' in Borneo | accessdate = 2007-11-04 | archive-date = 2013-04-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130415063846/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/55/55rbz217-220.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> == Sifat == Warak jawa iku kéwan anteng kajaba nalika tangkar-tumangkar lan nalika ngemong anaké. Warak-warak sok ngumpul ing klumpukan cilik ing papan nggolèk mineral lan ing blethokan lendhut. Njerum ing lendhutan iku sipat umum kabèh warak kanggo njaga suhu badan lan mbantu nyegah lelara lan parasit. Warak jawa ora ngedhuk blethokan lendhuté dhéwé lan luwih seneng migunakaké blethokan lendhut kéwan liyané utawa blethokan kang ana kanthi alami kang banjur diambaké kanthi migunakaké sunguné. Papan kanggo nggolèki mineral uga wigati banget amarga nutrisiné saka uyah. Wewengkon warak lanang luwih amba ketimbang sing wadon. Ambané wewengkon warak lanang 12–20&nbsp;km² lan wewengkon warak wadon kira-kira 3–14&nbsp;km². Ora dingertèni ana apa orané gelut rebutan teritorial.<ref name=IZY/> Warak lanang nandhani wewengkoné kanthi tumpukan lethong lan cipratan uyuh. Garétan sikil ing lemah lan gulungan wit enom uga kanggo komunikasi. Anggota spésies warak liyané duwé padatan kas bebuwang ing tumpukan lethongé warak gedhé banjur nggaretaké sikil mburiné ing tlethong. Warak Sumatra lan Jawa nalika bebuwang ing tumpukan, ora nggaret. Adaptasi sipat iki dingertèni kanthi ékologi; ing alas udan Jawa lan Sumatera, métodhe iki manawa ora migunani kanggo nyebar ganda.<ref name=IZY>{{Cite journal | journal = International Zoo Yearbook | year = 2006 | volume = 40 | pages = 150–173 | title = Rhinoceros behaviour: implications for captive management and conservation | author = Hutchins, M. | coauthors = M.D. Kreger | publisher = [[Zoological Society of London]] }}</ref> Warak jawa duwé luwih sithik swara tinimbang warak Sumatra; sithik banget swarané warak jawa kang dingertèni. Warak jawa diwasa ora duwé mungsuh alami saliyané manungsa. Spesies iki, mligi ing Vietnam, iku spésies kang lumayu lumebu alas nalika manungsa nyerak saéngga angèl kanggo nliti warak.<ref name=Santiapillai/> Nalika manungsa creak banget karo warak jawa, warak iku dadi agresif lan banjur nyerang, nusuk nganggo untu seriné ing rahang ngisor lan nyruduk munggah nganggo ndhasé.<ref name=IZY/> Sifat anti-sosialé manawa wujud adhaptasi tekanan populasi; bukti sajarah ngusulaké manawa spésies iki tau nglumpuk akèh.<ref name=CG/> === Pangané === Warak jawa iku kéwan hèrbivor lan mangan manéka warna spésies tetuwuhan, mligi thukulan/pupus, pang-pang wit sing cilik, godhong-godhongan enom lan woh kang tiba. Akèh-akèhé tetuwuhan kang disenengi spésies iki tuwuh ing laladan kang kena sinar srengéngé: ing pambuka alas, ''semak-semak'' lan jinis végetasi liyané tanpa wit gedhé. Warak ngebrukké wit sing isih enom kanggo nyerakké pangané lan njupuk nganggo lambé dhuwur kang bisa nyekel pangan mau. Warak jawa iku ''pemakan'' kang paling gampang adhaptasi saka kabèh spésies warak. Warak kira-kira mangan 50&nbsp;kg pangan sadina. Kaya warak Sumatra, warak iki merloaké uyah kanggo pangané. Papan kanggo nggolèki mineral umum ora ana ing Ujung Kulon, nanging warak jawa katon ngombé banyu saka sagara kanggo nutrisi padha karo sing dibutuhaké.<ref name="van Strien"/> === Réproduksi === Sifat sèksual warak jawa angél disinaoni amarga spésies iki arang diamati kanthi langsung lan ora ana ''kebun binatang'' kang duwé spesimené. Warak wadon mateng kanthi sèksual ing umur 3-4 taun lan sing lanang ing umur 6. Kamungkinan kanggo meteng kira-kira muncul ing période 16-19 wulan. Interval kalairan spésies iki 4–5 taun lan anaké marakaké mandheg kurang luwih rong taun. Papat spésies warak liyané duwé sipat pasangan kang mémper.<ref name=IZY/> == Konservasi == [[Gambar:Javan Rhino Zimmerman.jpg|thumb|right|Lukisan taun [[1861]] nggambaraké paburon warak jawa.]] Faktor utama kang ngurangi populasi warak jawa yaiku perburuan ngalap sunguné, masalah kang uga nyerang kabèh spésies warak. Sungu warak dadi komoditas dagang ing Tiongkok sasuwéné 2.000 taun kang dipigunaaké dadi obat kanggo pangobatan tradhisional Tiongkok. Sacara historis kulité kanggo gawé klambi waja wadya Tiongkok lan suku lokal ing Vietnam percaya manawa kulité bisa digunakaké dadi panangkal racun wisa ula.<ref name=AP2/> Amarga papan uripé warak nyakup akèh laladan mlarat, angèl kanggo pendunung ora matèni kéwan iki kang bisa didol kanthi rega kang larang.<ref name=Biotropica>{{Cite journal | journal = Biotropica | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 202–303 | year = 2007 | title = The Impact of Hunting on the Mammalian Fauna of Tropical Asian Forests | author = Corlett, Richard T. }}</ref> Nalika [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] sepisanan diwedharaké taun 1975, warak jawa dilebokaké ing pangreksan Appendix 1: kabèh dagang internasional produk warak jawa dianggép ilegal.<ref name=African>{{Citation | last = Emslie | first = R. | coauthors = M. Brooks | year = 1999 | title = African Rhino. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. | publisher = IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK | isbn = 2831705029}}</ref> Survey pasar gelap sungu warak wis ngukuhaké manawa warak Asia duwé rega $30.000 pendhak kilogram, kaping teluné rega sungu warak Afrika.<ref name=Dinerstein/> Ilangé habitat amarga tetanèn uga njalari kurangé populasi warak jawa, sanajan prakara iki dudu faktor signifikan manèh amarga warak mung urip ing rong taman nasional kang direksa. Rusaké habitat wis ngalangi pamulihan populasi warak kang dadi kurbané pamburon sungu. Sanajan wis nganggo samudaya konservasi, prospek keslametan warak jawa angèl. Amarga populasiné katutup ing rong papan cilik, warak-warak iki gampang kena lelara lan masalah panangkaran. Ahli génétika konservasi ngira manawa populasi 100 warak perlu pangreksan pambagéyan génétika spésies.<ref name=NYT>{{Cite news | title = Racing to Know the Rarest of Rhinos, Before It’s Too Late | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/11/science/11rhin.html | work = [[The New York Times]] | accessdate = 2007-10-14 | date = [[July 11]], [[2006]] | author = [[Mark Derr|Derr, Mark]] }}</ref> === Ujung Kulon === {{Deleng uga|Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon}} Ujung Ujung Kulon lebur amarga [[gunung Krakatau]] njebug taun [[1883]]. Sawisé iku warak jawa banjur ngolonisasi manèh ing ujung, nanging manungsa ora akèh kang manggon manèh ing ujung iku kaya sadurungé, saéngga dadi papan reksané warak.<ref name=NYT/> Ing taun 1931, amarga warak jawa ing Sumatra ana ing pinggir kapunahan, pamaréntah Indhiya Nèderlan nelaaké manawa warak dadi spésies kang direksa, lan isih tetep direksa tekan sapréné.<ref name=Foose/> Ing taun 1967 nalika dianaaké sensus warak ing Ujung Kulon, mung 25 warak kang ana. Ing taun 1980, populasi warak nambah, lan tetep ana ing populasi 50 nganti saiki. Sanajan warak ing Ujung Kulon ora duwé mungsuh alami, nanging warak-warak iki kudu saingan golèk pangan sing arang karo banteng alasan kang bisa njalari cacahing warak tetep ana ing sangisoré kapasitas ujung.<ref name=IPS>{{ Cite news | work = [[Inter Press Service]] | title = Environment-Indonésia: Javan Rhinoceros Remains At High Risk | date = 16 Januari 2001 | author = Dursin, Richel }}</ref> Ujung Kulon diurus déning mantri Kehutanan Républik Indonésia.<ref name=Foose/> Ditemoaké paling sithik papat bayi warak jawa ing taun 2006.<ref name=BBCpop>{{Cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5305906.stm | date = [[1 September]], [[2006]] | title = Baby boom for near-extinct rhino | author = Williamson, Lucy | work = [[BBC News]] | accessdate = 2007-10-16 }}</ref> <div align="center" style="float:clear;"> {| class="wikitable" cellpadding=5 |+ <big>Tuwuhing populasi warak jawa ing Ujung Kulon</big> |- ! Taun !! Minimum !! Maksimum !! Rata-rata |- | [[1967]] || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | 28 || align="center" | 24.5 |- | [[1968]] || align="center" | 20 || align="center" | 29 || align="center" | 24.5 |- | [[1971]] || align="center" | 33 || align="center" | 42 || align="center" | 37.5 |- | [[1982]] || align="center" | 53 || align="center" | 59 || align="center" | 56 |- | [[1993]] || align="center" | 35 || align="center" | 58 || align="center" | 47 |- | colspan=6 | <span style="font-size:smaller;">Sumber: Strategi Konservasi Warak Indonésia-Dirjen PHPA Dephut RI.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pertumbuhan Populasi Warak jawa di Ujung Ujung Kulon dari Data Hasil Sensus (1967 - 1993)|publisher=[[Departemen Kehutanan Republik Indonesia]]|url=http://www.dephut.go.id/INFORMASI/PHPA/PHKA/warak_67-93.htm}}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref></span> |} </div> === Cat Tien === Sithik anggota ''R.s. annamiticus'' kang kasisa urip ing [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]], Vietnam. Warak iki tau nyebar ing Asia Kidul-Wétan, sawisé [[perang Vietnam]], warak jawa dianggép cures. Cara kang dipigunaaké ing pertempuran njalari rusaké ékosistem laladan: panggunaan [[Napalm]], herbisida lan defolian saka [[Agen Oranye]], pangeboman saka awang-awang lan panggunaan ranjau dharat. Perang uga mbanjiri laladan nganggo senjata. Sawisé perang, akèh sing ndunungi désa miskin, sing sadurungé migunakaké métodhe kaya jugangan jebakan, saiki duwé senjata mematikan kang njalari padha dadi pamburu warak kang éfisièn. Panyangka kapunahan subspesies éntuk tantangan nalika taun [[1988]], sawijining pamburu nembak warak wadon diwasa kang nunjukaké manawa spésies iki bisa slamet saka perang. Taun [[1989]], ilmuwan nliti alas Vietnam kidul kanggo nggolèki bukti warak liya kang slamet. Tlipak sikil warak anyar duwèané paling sithik 15 warak ditemoaké ing sakdawané [[kali Dong Nai]].<ref name=AP1>{{Cite news | title = World's Rarest Rhinos Found In War-Ravaged Region of Vietnam | author = Raeburn, Paul | date = [[24 April]], [[1989]] | work = [[Associated Press]] }}</ref> Karena warak, laladan papan mereka tinggal menjadi pérangan Taman Nasional Cat Tien taun 1992.<ref name=AP2>{{Cite news | title = Scientists Find Surviving Members of Rhino Species | author = Stanley, Bruce | date = 22 Juni 1993 | work = [[Associated Press]]}}</ref> Populasi warak-warak iki dikawatirké susut ing Vietnam, pangreksa alam ngira paling sithik 308 warak mungkin tanpa warak lanang sing slamet.<ref name=NYT/><ref name=BBCpop/> Pangreksa alam ndhiskusèkaké apa warak Vietnam duwé kamungkinan slamet, sapérangan nelaaké manawa populasi warak saka Indonésia kudu diwanuhaké kanggo nylamétaké populasi, lan liyané nelaaké manawa populasi bisa pulih manèh.<ref name=Santiapillai/><ref name=WWF>{{Cite web | url = http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/about_species/species_factsheets/rhinoceros/asian_rhinos/javan_rhinoceros/index.cfm | title = Javan Rhinoceros; Rare, mysterious, and highly threatened | date = [[March 28]], [[2007]] | accessdate = 2007-11-04 | work = [[World Wildlife Fund]]}}</ref> === Ing panangkaran === Ora ana siji sijiya warak jawa ing kebon ratu (kebon kéwan). Taun 1800-an, paling sithik papat warak dipameraké ing [[Adelaide]], [[Kalkuta]] lan [[London]]. Paling sithik 22 warak jawa wis didhokumentasiaké lan disimpen ing panangkaran, lan manawa cacahé luwih akèh amarga spésies iki kadhang salah ditafsiraké karo warak Indhi.<ref name = Garten>{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 2005 | title = A Javan rhinoceros, ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'', in Bali in 1839 | journal = Zoologische Garten | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–131}}</ref> Warak jawa ora tau ditangani kanthi becik ing panangkaran: warak tuwa dhéwé kang urip mung tekan umur 20 taun, sakiwa-tengené setengah saka umur mau, warak ana ing alam bébas. Warak jawa paling kéri kang ana ing panangkaran mati ing [[Kebon ratu Adelaide]], [[Australia]] taun 1907, papan spésies mau sithik kang dingertèni amarga wis ditunjuk warak Indhi.<ref name="van Strien"/> Amarga saka program kang dawa lan larang ing taun 1980-an lan 1990-an kanggo nangkaraké warak Sumatra ing kebun ratu iku gagal, upaya kanggo ngreksa warak jawa ing kebon ratu ora bisa dipercaya manèh.<ref name=Dinerstein>{{Cite book | title = The Return of the Unicorns; The Natural History and Conservation of the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros | last = Dinerstein | first = Eric | publisher = [[Columbia University Press]] | location = [[New York]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-231-08450-1 }}</ref> == Cathetan sikil == {{Reflist|2}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=imgs&CODE=tax_images&taxon=7 Gambar Warak jawa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144442/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=imgs&CODE=tax_images&taxon=7 |date=2007-12-09 }} ing [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com Rhino Resource Center] * [[International Rhino Foundation]] diyasa kanggo konservasi warak: [http://www.rhinos-irf.org/rhinoinformation/javanrhino/index.htm Warak jawa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113064537/http://www.rhinos-irf.org/rhinoinformation/javanrhino/index.htm |date=2007-11-13 }} * [[ARKive]]-[http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Rhinoceros_sondaicus/ gambar lan film warak jawa ''(Rhinoceros sondaicus)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029165304/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Rhinoceros_sondaicus/ |date=2007-10-29 }} * Lembar spésies Warak jawa ing [http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/javarhin.htm UNEP & WCMC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720025625/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/javarhin.htm |date=2008-07-20 }} {{Rhinos}} [[Kategori:Warak]] [[Kategori:Mamalia Asia]] [[Kategori:Mamalia Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Fauna Vietnam]] [[Kategori:Fauna Asia]] [[Kategori:Fauna Asia Kidul Wétan]] [[Kategori:Megafauna Eurasia]] tin56vfv9fthgm14h64pvnn0u7zxyk2 Chanakya 0 22256 1752907 1730384 2026-08-20T04:46:21Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752907 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | image = Chanakya.jpg | image_size = | alt = | caption = Imajinasi panjenengané seniman, Chanakya | birth_date = c. 370 BCE<ref name="VKSubramanian1980"/> | birth_place = Salah satunggaling: [[Pataliputra]], [[Taxila]] or [[South India]] | death_date = c. 283 BCE<ref name="VKSubramanian1980"/> | death_place = Pataliputra | other_names = Kauṭilya, Vishnugupta | alma_mater = [[Takshashila]] | occupation = Teacher and royal advisor | known_for = Foundation of the [[Maurya Empire]] | notable_works = [[Arthashastra]], Chanakya Neeti | influences = | influenced = | footnotes = }} '''Chanakya''' ([[Basa Sangskreta]]: चाणक्य ''Cāṇakya'') (c. 350-283 SM) iku penasihat lan [[mahamantri]]<ref>{{cite journal | first = Roger | last = Boesche |date=January 2003 | title = Kautilya's ''Arthaśāstra'' on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-military-history_2003-01_67_1/page/9 | journal = The Journal of Military History | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–37 | id = ISSN 0899-3718 }} "Kautilya [is] sometimes called a chancellor or prime minister to Chandragupta, something like a Bismarck…"</ref> sajeroning Kakaisaran [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] kang sapisanan [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] (c. 340-293 SM), lan arsitèk kanggo nggayuh kakuwasan. <!-- '''Kautilya''' lan '''Vishnugupta''', the names by which the political treatise ''[[Arthashastra|Arthaśhāstra]]'' identifies its author, are traditionally identified with Chanakya.<ref name=Mabbett>{{cite journal | first = I. W. | last = Mabbett |date=April 1964 | title = The Date of the Arthaśhāstra | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_april-june-1964_84_2/page/162 | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 162–169 | id = ISSN 0003-0279 }}</ref> Some scholars consider Chanakya to be "the pioneer [[economist]] of the world"<ref>L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). "Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world", ''International Journal of Social Economics'' '''25''' (2-4), p. 267-282.</ref> and the "the [[History of India|Indian]] [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]]".<ref>Herbert H. Gowen (1929). "The Indian Machiavelli" or Political Theory in India Two Thousand Years Ago, ''Political Science Quarterly'' '''44''' (2), p. 173-192.</ref> Chankya was a [[professor]] at [[Taxila|Taxila University]] and is widely believed to be responsible for the first Indian empire. ==Identity== He is generally called Chanakya<ref>{{cite book | last = Trautmann | first = Thomas R. | authorlink = Thomas Trautmann | title = Kautilya and the Arthaśhāstra: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text | year = 1971 | publisher = E.J. Brill | location = Leiden | pages = 10}}</ref> but, in his capacity as author of the ''Arthaśhāstra'', is generally referred to as Kautilya.<ref>Trautmann 1971:10 "while in his character as author of an ''arthaśhāstra'' he is generally referred to by his ''[[gotra]]'' name, Kautilya."</ref> The ''Arthaśhāstra'' identifies its author by the name Kautilya,<ref name=Mabbett/> except for one verse which refers to him by the name Vishnugupta.<ref>Mabbett 1964<br>Trautmann 1971:5 "the very last verse of the work...is the unique instance of the personal name Vishnugupta rather than the ''[[gotra]]'' name Kautilya in the ''Arthaśhāstra''.</ref> One of the earliest [[Sanskrit literature]] to explicitly identify Chanakya with Vishnugupta was [[Vishnu Sarma]]'s ''[[Panchatantra]]'' in the 3rd century BC.<ref>Mabbett 1964: "References to the work in other Sanskrit literature attribute it variously to Vishnugupta, Chanakya and Kautilya. The same individual is meant in each case. The ''[[Panchatantra|Pańcatantra]]'' explicitly identifies Chanakya with Vishnugupta."</ref> K.C. Ojha puts forward the view that the traditional identification of Vishnugupta with Kautilya was caused by a confusion of editor and originator and suggests that Vishnugupta was a redactor of the original work of Kautilya.<ref name=Mabbett/> Thomas Burrow goes even further and suggests that Chanakya and Kautilya may have been two different people.<ref>Trautmann 1971:67 'T. Burrow ("Cāṇakya and Kauṭalya", ''Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 48–49'' 1968, p. 17 ff.) has now shown that Cāṇakya is also a ''[[gotra]]'' name, which in conjunction with other evidence makes it clear that we are dealing with two distinct persons, the minister Cāṇakya of legend and Kauṭilya the compiler of the ''Arthaśāstra''. Furthermore, this throws the balance of evidence in favor of the view that the second name was originally spelt ''Kauṭalya'' and that after the compiler of the ''Arth''. came to be identified with the Mauryan minister it was altered to Kautilya (as it appears in Āryaśūra, Viśākhadatta and Bāna) for the sake of the pun. We must then assume that the later spelling subsequently replaced the earlier in the ''[[gotra]]'' lists and elsewhere.'</ref> ==Legend== [[Image:MauryanCoin.JPG|thumb|259px|Silver punch mark coin of the [[Mauryan empire]], with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.]] [[Thomas R. Trautmann]] lists the following elements as common to different forms of the Chanakya legend<ref name="trautmann_1971">Trautmann 1971:"The Chāṇakya-Chandragupta-Kathā"</ref>: *Chanakya was born with a complete set of teeth, a sign that he would become king, which is inappropriate for a [[Brahmin]] like Chanakya. Chāṇakya's teeth were therefore broken and it was prophesied that he will rule through another. *The Nanda King throws Chānakya out of his court, prompting Chānakya to swear revenge. *Chānakya searches for one worthy for him to rule through. Chānakya encounters a young Chandragupta Maurya who is a born leader even as a child. *Chānakya's initial attempt to overthrow Nanda fails, whereupon he comes across a mother scolding her child for burning himself by eating from the middle of a bun or bowl of porridge rather than the cooler edge. Chāṇakya realizes his initial strategic error and, instead of attacking the heart of Nanda territory, slowly chips away at its edges. *Chānakya betrays his ally the mountain king Parvata. *Chānakya enlists the services of a fanatical weaver to rid the kingdom of rebels. *Chānakya adds poison to the food eaten by Chandragupta, now king, in order to make him immune. Unaware, Chandragupta feeds some of his food to his queen, who is in her ninth month of pregnancy. In order to save the heir to the throne, Chānakya cuts the queen open and extracts the fetus, who is named Bindusāra because he was touched by a drop (''bindu'') of blood or of poison. *Chānakya's political rivalry with Subandhu leads to his death. ===Jain version=== According to [[Jainism|Jaina]] accounts<ref> the ''Pariśiṣṭa Parvan'' by [[Hemacandra]]</ref> Chānakya was born in the village of Caṇaka in the Golla district to Caṇin and Caṇeśvarī, a [[Maga Brahmin]] couple<ref name="trautmann_1971"/>. ====Death of Chanakya==== Chanakya lived to ripe old age and died around 283 BC and was cremated by his grandson/disciple Radhagupta who succeeded Rakshasa Katyayan (great-grand son of Prabuddha Katyayan, who attained Nirvana during the same period as Gautam Budhha ) as Prime Minister of the Maurya Empire and was instrumental in backing Ashoka to the throne. There were three non-traditional belief paths in society those days, Jaina, Buddhist and [[ajivika|Ajivaka]]. [[ajivika|Ajivaka]] practising Chanakya brought about the downfall of the Jaina Nandas and their coterie of Jaina ministers. (Chanakya 's uncle was Jain, too, and a group of Jains backed Chanakya in his political machinations). Later on, Chandragupta Maurya took Jainism on abdicating his throne which passed to his Son Bindusara who was an [[ajivika|Ajivaka]]. Even Ashoka was practising [[ajivika|Ajivaka]] who before accession to throne became Buddhist. Bindusara was born before his father ever became Emperor so the below legend is definitely not true. Ashoka's daughter was married in 265 BC and his son Kunala was 18 years of age in 269 BC which means that even the princes married early, Ashoka was born 310 BC and Bindusara around 330 BC. Bindusara means one who encompasses all that is need to be known.{{Verify source|date=June 2007}} Later on, [[ajivika|Ajivikism]] which was the official religion of the empire since the [[Kalinga War]] (261 BC) and for 14 years afterwards, declined and merged into traditional Hinduism. What has been left are a mish mash of contradictory Buddhist and Jaina legends which are even rejected by Sinhalese chronicles. According to a legend which is a later [[jaina]] invention, while Chanakya served as the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, he started adding small amounts of [[poison]] in Chandragupta's food so that he would get used to it. The aim of this was to prevent the Emperor from being poisoned by enemies. One day the queen, Durdha, shared the food with the Emperor while she was pregnant. Since she was not used to eating poisoned food, she died. Chanakya decided that the baby should not die; hence he cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby. A drop (''bindu'' in [[Sanskrit]]) of poison had passed to the baby's head, and hence Chanakya named him [[Bindusara]]. Bindusara would go on to become a great king and to father the greatest Mauryan Emperor since Chandragupta - [[Asoka]]. When Bindusara became a youth, Chandragupta gave up the throne and followed the [[Jain]] saint [[Bhadrabahu]] to present day [[Karnataka]] and settled in a place known as Sravana Belagola. He lived as an ascetic for some years and died of voluntary starvation according to Jain tradition. Chanakya meanwhile stayed as the Prime Minister of Bindusara. Bindusara also had a minister named Subandhu who did not like Chanakya. One day he told Bindusara that Chanakya was responsible for the murder of his mother. Bindusara asked the nurses who confirmed this story and he became very angry with Chanakya. It is said that Chanakya, on hearing that the Emperor was angry with him, thought that anyway he was at the end of his life. He donated all his wealth to the poor, widows and orphans and sat on a dung heap, prepared to die by total abstinence from food and drink. Bindusara meanwhile heard the full story of his birth from the nurses and rushed to beg forgiveness of Chanakya. But Chanakya would not relent. Bindusara went back and vent his fury on Subandhu, who asked for time to beg for forgiveness from Chanakya. Subandhu, who still hated Chanakya, wanted to make sure that Chanakya did not return to the city. So he arranged for a ceremony of respect, but unnoticed by anyone, slipped a smoldering [[charcoal]] ember inside the dung heap. Aided by the wind, the dung heap swiftly caught fire, and the man behind the Mauryan Empire and the author of Arthashastra was burned to death. His main philosophy was "A debt should be paid off till the last penny; An enemy should be destroyed without a trace". Ironically, Subandhu followed his main philosophy and destroyed him without a trace. ===Pali version=== Cāṇakka is a [[Brahmin]] from [[Taxila]]<ref name="trautmann_1971"/>. ===Other versions=== The 9th{{Verify source|date=June 2007}} century AD Sanskrit play by Vishakhadatta, Mudra Rakshasa, is one popular source of Chankaya lore. A [[South India]]n group of Brahmins in [[Tamil Nadu]] called [[Sholiyar]] or [[Chozhiyar]], claim that Chanakya was one of them. Though all these may sound very improbable considering the vast distance between present day [[Tamilnadu]] in the south and Magadha in [[Bihar]], it finds curious echos in Parishista-parvan, where Hemachandra claims that Chankya was a Dramila{{Verify source|date=June 2007}} ("Dramila" is believed to be the [[Proto-Dravidian#Origins_of_the_word_Dravidian|root]] of the word "Dravida" by some scholars). There is also a claim that Chanakya belonged to the Brahmin group from the present day [[Kerala]] who are considered to have been brought there by [[Parashurama]]. Considering the fact that [[Adi Sankara]] who revived [[Hinduism]] by setting up four monasteries in the four corners of [[India]] also belonged to that group, now known as [[Nambudiri]] Brahmins, this claim too merits attention. This further goes to contradict the story of his death also. In true [[Hindu]] tradition he is said to have persuaded King [[Chandragupta Maurya]] to forsake his throne and to join him in moving to the last phase of one's life viz. [[Sanyasa]]. Accordingly, he took the King along with him to South [[India]] where both of them carried prolonged meditation and finally achieved [[Moksha]]. All the versions apart, he was the Son of [[India]] who was peerless at all times. Kautilya was educated at [[Taxila]] or Takshashila,<ref>[http://www.hinduism.co.za/chanakya.htm Chanakya-Niti--> <!-- Bot generated title --> <!--]</ref> in present day [[Pakistan]]. The new states (in present-day [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]]) by [[uttarapatha|the northern high road of commerce]] along the base of the [[Himalayas]] maintained contact with Takshasilâ and at the eastern end of the [[uttarapatha|northern high road (uttarapatha)]] was the kingdom of Magadha with its capital city, [[Pataliputra]], now known as Patna. Chanakya's life was connected to these two cities, [[Pataliputra]] and [[Taxila]]. In his early years he was tutored extensively in the [[Vedas]] - Chanakya memorized them completely at a very early age.{{Verify source|date=June 2007}} He was also taught mathematics, geography and science along with religion.{{Verify source|date=June 2007}} Later he travelled to Taxila, where he became a teacher of politics.{{Verify source|date=June 2007}} Chanakya taught subjects using the best of practical knowledge acquired by the teachers. The age of entering the University was sixteen. The branches of study most sought after around India at that time ranged from law, medicine, warfare and other disciplines. Two of his more famous students were Bhadrabhatt and Purushdutt.{{Verify source|date=June 2007}} Political turmoil in Western India at that time caused by Greek invasion forced Chanakya to leave the University environment for the city of [[Pataliputra]] (presently known as [[Patna]], in the state of [[Bihar]], [[India]]), which was ruled by the Nanda king Dhanananda. Although Chanakya initially prospered in his relations with the ruler, being a blunt person he was soon disliked by Dhanananda. This ended with Chanakya being removed from an official position he enjoyed. According to the Kashmiri version of his legend, Chāṇakya uproots some grass because it had pricked its foot.<ref>Trautmann 1971:31</ref> --> == Karya == Ana loro buku kang diripta déning Chanakya, ya iku: ''[[Arthaśāstra]]'' lan ''Nītiśāstra'' kang uga dikenal minangka Chanakya Niti. ''Arthashastra'' nyinaoni bab kawicaksanan [[Kawicaksanan monetèr|monetèr]] lan [[Kawicaksanan fiskal|fiskal]], [[kasejahtran]], [[gayutan internasional]], lan [[Strategi militèr|strategi perang]] kanthi rinci. ''Nītiśāstra'' iku sawijining risalah (''treatise'') bab cara urip idéal, lan nuduhaké kawruh Chanakya kang jero bab [[Budaya India|cara urip bangsa India]]. <!-- ==Media== ''Chanakya'', a television series directed by [[Chandra Prakash Dwivedi]], was screened in India in 1990 to wide critical acclaim. [[Image:Chanakyadvd.jpg|thumb|259px|DVD cover of the popular eight-part series based on the life of Chanakya.]] == In modern India == The diplomatic enclave in New Delhi is named Chanakyapuri in honour of Chanakya. --> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Uga delengen == * [[Kakaisaran Magadhan]] * [[Dinasti Mauryan]] * [[Chandragupta Maurya]] * [[Ashoka|Asoka Maurya]] * [[Bindusara|Bindusara Maurya]] * [[Dasaratha Maurya]] * [[Arthashastra]] == Pranala njaba == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.philosophy.ru/library/asiatica/indica/authors/kautilya/canakya_niti_sastra.html Philosophy of Chanakya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112093217/http://philosophy.ru/library/asiatica/indica/authors/kautilya/canakya_niti_sastra.html |date=2015-01-12 }} * [http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Arthashastra/index.htm Kautilya's Arthashastra (full 1915 Shamasastry text, divided into 15 books)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706200542/http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Arthashastra/index.htm |date=2007-07-06 }} * [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/arthashastra.html Kautilya: the Arthshastra - Chanakya's revered work] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514081016/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/arthashastra.html |date=2011-05-14 }} * [http://www.worldofbiography.com/9046%2DChanakya/ Philosophy and Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411110659/http://www.worldofbiography.com/9046%2DChanakya/ |date=2009-04-11 }} [[Kategori:India kuna]] [[Kategori:Jainism]] [[Kategori:Vaishnavism]] [[Kategori:Filsuf Hindhu]] [[Kategori:Filsafat]] [[Kategori:Èlmuwan pulitik]] [[Kategori:Ékonomi]] {{pulitik-stub}} qmdnp1hzbggjmw6z1ubhtrda0jctv54 Tetanduran ngembang 0 22456 1753033 1692792 2026-08-20T08:36:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753033 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | taxon = Angiosperms | color = lightgreen | name = Tetuwuhan wiji katutup (Magnoliophyta) | fossil_range = [[Jaman Jurasik]]-Saiki | image = Sweetbay1082.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = [[kembang]] ''Magnolia virginiana'' | regnum = [[Tetuwuhan|Plantae]] | divisio = '''Magnoliophyta''' | subdivision_ranks = [[Kelas]] | subdivision = Sistem klasifikasi Cronquist: * [[Magnoliopsida]] * [[Liliopsida]] }} '''Tetuwuhan wiji katutup''' ('''Magnoliophyta''' utawa '''Angiospermae''', diwaca ''angiosperme'' kanthi "e" pungkasan diwaca dawa) utawa '''tetuwuhan ngembang''' iku golongan paling akèh jinisé saka [[tetuwuhan]] kang urip ing dharatan. Jenengé dijupuk saka ciriné kang paling khas, ya iku ngasilaké piranti [[réproduksi]] wewangun [[kembang]] utawa amarga bakal [[wiji]]né kabungkus déning karpela utawa godhong woh. Ciri kang paling keri iki mbédaaké saka golongan [[tetuwuhan wewiji]] liyané: Gymnospermae utawa [[tetuwuhan wiji kabukak]]. Jeneng '''Angiospermae''' dijupuk saka panggandhéngan rong tembung [[basa Yunani]] kuna: αγγειον (''aggeion'', "panyangga" utawa "pangreksa") lan σπερμα (''spérma'', "wiji") kang kawanuhaké déning Paul Hermann taun [[1690]]. Ing sabagéan gedhé sistem taksonomi modhérn, golongan iki saiki manggon ing [[takson]] minangka [[divisio|divisi]] lan migunakaké jeneng golongan (ya iku magnolia) kang nunjukaké kabèh ciri-ciri khasé: '''Magnoliophyta''', nanging klasifikasi paling anyar dhedhasar [[APG]] mapanaké ing sawijining [[klade]] kang ora duwé takson resmi. == Ciri-ciri khas == Tetuwuhan ngembang dibedaaké saka golongan liya dhedhasar [[kladistika|apomorfi]] (ciri-ciri kawarisaké) kang khas dikembangaké déning golongan iki. Kabèh ciri-ciri iki ana ing pérangan reproduktif. Ciri-ciriné ya iku: * Kembang Kembang dadi penciri kang paling nyata lan mbédaaké saka golongan tetuwuhan wewiji liyané. Kembang mbantu golongan tetuwuhan iki miyaraké kemampuan [[évolusi]] lan lungkang (ruang urip utawa ''niche'') [[ékologi]]sé saéngga marakaké cocog banget kanggo urip ing dharatan. * Benang sari [[Stamen]] utawa benang sari adoh luwih énthéng tinimbang [[organ]] kanthi fungsi sarupa ing tetuwuhan wiji kabukak (ya iku [[strobilus]]). Benang sari wus ngalami évolusi supaya bisa adhaptasi karo [[panyerbukan|penyerbuk]] lan kanggo nyegah [[pembuahan]] dhéwé. Adaptasi nuju arah iki uga miyaraké jangkauan ruang uripé. * Ukuran gametofit lanang karéduksi sanget [[Gametofit]] lanang kang karéduksi sanget (ana ing [[serbuk]] sari lan mung kapérang saka telung [[sel (biologi)|sèl]]) mbiyantu sanget ngurangi wektu antarané [[panyerbukan]], nalika serbuk sari tekan ing organ wadon, lan [[pambuahan]]. Wektu normal antarané rong tahap mau racaké 12-24 jam. Ing Gymnospermae wektu kang diperloaké kanggo prakara mau bisa nganti setaun. * Karpela nutup rapet bakal wiji [[Karpela]] utawa godhong woh rapet mbungkus [[bakal wiji]] utawa ovulum, saéngga nyegah pambuahan kang ora dikarepaké. Sel spérma bakal dikontrol déning [[putik]] kanggo mbuahi [[sèl endhog]] (''ovum''). Sawisé pambuahan, karpela lan sapérangan jaringan ing sekitaré uga bakal tumuwuh dadi [[woh]]. Woh duwé fungsi adaptif kanthi ngreksa wiji saka [[perkecambahan]] kang ora dikarepaké lan mbantu prosès panyebaran nuju wewengkon kang luwih wiyar. * Ukuran gametofit wadon karéduksi sanget Kaya ing gametofit lanang, ukuran gametofit wadon uga sangat berkurang dadi mung pitung sel lan kareksa ing njero [[bakal wiji]]. Ukuran kang saya cilik iki mbantu nyepetaké perkembangan urip tetuwuhan. Mung golongan Angiospermae kang duwé prilaku [[tetuwuhan sausum|sausum]] ing prosès kauripané. Prilaku iki marakaké gampang banget njlajah lungkang kang adoh luwih wiyar. * Endosperma Pawangunan [[endosperma]] ing wiji iku ciri khas Angiospermae kang njurung banget tumrap adhaptasi amarga nglengkapi [[embrio (tetuwuhan)|embrio]] utawa [[thukulan]] kanthi cadhangan panganan ing perkembangané. Endosperma kanthi [[fisiologi tetuwuhan|fisiologis]] uga nambah kuwat daya serep wiji tumrap hara kang diperloaké tetuwuhan enom ing perkembangané. == Klasifikasi == [[Gambar:Monocot vs dicot crop Pengo.jpg|150px|thumb|Thukulan [[monokotil]] (kiwa) lan [[dikotil]].]] Ing awalé, jeneng Angiospermae dimaksudaké déning Paul Hermann (1690) kanggo kabèh tetuwuhan kang ngembang kanthi wiji kang kabungkus ing kapsula, lan ditentangaké karo Gymnospermae minangka tetuwuhan kang ngembang kanthi woh ''achene'' utawa duwé karpela kawilah. Ing pangertèné, kabèh woh utawa bagéané dianggep wiji lan "kabukak". Rong istilah iki dipigunaaké déning [[Carolus Linnaeus]] kanthi pangertèn kang padha nanging digunaaké minangka jeneng-jeneng saka kelas Didynamia. Nalika [[Robert Brown]] ing taun [[1827]] nemoaké bakal wiji kang bener-bener kabukak ing [[sikas]] lan [[tetuwuhan runjung]], panjenengané mènèhi jeneng Gymnospermae kanggo rong golongan tetuwuhan iki. Taun [[1851]] [[Wilhelm Hofmeister]] nemoaké owah-owahan kang dumadi ing [[kanthong embrio]] saka tetuwuhan ngembang ([[penyerbukan]] dhobel). Asil panemon iki ndadèaké Gymnospermae minangka kelas kang bener-bener béda saka dikotil, lan istilah Angiospermae wiwit diterapaké kanggo kabèh tetuwuhan wewiji kang dudu rong golongan kang disebutaké Robert Brown. Pangertèn pungkasan iki kang isih bertahan nganti saiki. Ing sistem taksonomi modhérn, golongan tetuwuhan ngembang dipapanaké ing manéka warna takson. Saliyané Angiospermae, golongan iki karan uga '''Anthophyta''' ("tetuwuhan kembang"). [[Sistem Wettstein]] lan [[Sistem Engler]] mapanaké Angiospermae ing tingkat sub[[divisio]]. [[Sistem Reveal]] nglebokaké kabèh tetuwuhan ngembang ing subdivisio [[Magnoliophytina]], nanging ing èdhisi terusané misahaké dadi [[Magnoliopsida]], [[Liliopsida]], lan [[Rosopsida]]. [[Sistem Takhtajan]] lan [[sistem Cronquist]] nglebokaké golongan iki ing njeron tingkat divisio kanthi jeneng Magnoliophyta. [[Sistem Dahlgren]] lan [[sistem Thorne (1992)]] migunakaké jeneng Magnoliopsida lan mapanaké ing tingkat kelas. Saiki, sistem klasifikasi kang paling pungkasan, kaya [[sistem APG]] (1998) lan [[sistem APG II]] (2003), ora ndadèaké manèh minangka sawijining golongan takson dhéwé nanging minangka sawijining [[klade]] tanpa [[jeneng botani]] resmi kanthi jeneng ''angiosperms'' (sistem iki migunakaké jeneng-jeneng basa Inggris utawa diinggrisaké kanggo jeneng-jeneng ora resmi). === Pambagéan internal (taksonomi) === Klasifikasi internal golongan iki ngalami akèh owah-owahan. Sistem [[Klasifikasi Cronquist]] (1981) isih akèh dipigunaaké nanging wiwit dipitakonaké keakuratané saka sisih [[filogèni]] mligi amarga matentangan karo asil-asil panylidikan [[biologi molekular|molekular]]. Kesepakatan umum bab kepriyé tetuwuhan ngembang diklumpukaké wiwit tercapai wiwit asil "[[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]" (APG) diwetokaké taun [[1998]] lan dianyaraké (''update'') ing taun [[2003]] minangka Sistem [[Klasifikasi APG II]].<ref name=APG2>{{cite journal|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=141|pages=399–436|author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|year=2003|title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II|url=http://www.doi.org/10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x|doi=10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x}}</ref> Sistem Cronquist mbagi tetuwuhan ngembang dadi rong golongan: [[Magnoliopsida]] lan [[Liliopsida]]. Jeneng pemeri liya kang diidinaké ing Pasal 16 [[ICBN]] iku [[Dicotyledoneae]] (dikotil) lan [[Monocotyledoneae]] (monokotil) adhedasar sajarah lan nunjukaké sawijining ciri kang cukup gampang kanggo diamati sanajan ora mesthi mangkono: tetuwuhan dikotil duwé loro [[kotiledon|godhong lembaga]] éwadéné tetuwuhan monokotil duwé siji godhong lembaga. Sistem APG, kang migunakaké konsèp [[kladistika]] lan akèh migunakaké [[metode panglompokan (statistika)|metode panglompokan]] statistika (''clustering'') sarta nglebokaké data-data molekular, ngéntuki manawa monokotil wujud golongan [[filogèni|monofiletik]] utawa holofiletik, lan dijenengi ''[[Monocotyledoneae|monocots]]'' (wangun jamak saka ''monocot''), nanging dikotil pranyata ora (sinebut golongan asifat [[parafiletik]]). Sanajan mangkono ana golongan gedhé dikotil kang monofiletik kang dijenengi ''[[eudicots]]'' utawa ''tricolpates''. Jeneng ''eudicot'' ateges "dikotil sajati" amarga nunjukaké ciri-ciri kang biyasa dinyataaké minangka ciri khas dikotil, kaya ta kembang kanthi papat utawa lima [[petal|makutha kembang]] lan papat utawa lima [[sepal|kelopak kembang]]. Sisa saka pamisahan iki, kang tetep parafiletik, biyasa dijenengi ''[[paleodicots]]'' (''paleo-'' ateges "purba" utawa "kuna") kanggo nggampangaké panyebutan. Panylidikan migunakaké filosofi filogèni nganti saiki wus nemoaké wolung golongan utama ing tetuwuhan ngembang, ya iku ''monocots'', ''eudicots'', [[Amborellales]], [[Nymphaeales]], [[Austrobileyales]], [[Chloranthales]], [[Ceratophyllales]], lan [[magnoliids]]. Gegandhengan ing antarané siji lan sijiné nganti saiki isih terus dislidiki. == Karagaman jinis lan manfaat == [[Gambar:Flores.gif|200px|thumb|right|Manéka warna kembang ing ''slide'']] [[Spesies|Jinis]] tetuwuhan ngembang diprakiraaké watara 250.000 tekan 400.000 <ref>{{cite journal|author=Thorne, R. F.|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content//iapt/tax/2002/00000051/00000003/art00009|title=How many species of seed plants are there?|journal=Taxon|volume=51|pages=511–522|year=2002|doi=10.2307/1554864}}></ref> <ref>{{cite journal|author=Scotland, R. W. & Wortley, A. H.|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/00000001/art00011|title=How many species of seed plants are there?|journal=Taxon|volume=52|pages=101–104|year=2003|doi=10.2307/3647306}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|author=Govaerts, R.url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/00000003/art00016|title=How many species of seed plants are there?-a response|url=https://archive.org/details/taxon_2003-08_52_3/page/583|journal=Taxon|volume=52|issue=3|pages=583–584|year=2003|doi=10.2307/3647457}}</ref> kang bisa diklumpokaké nganti paling sithik 402 [[familia|suku]] (dhedhasar taksiran ing Sistem APG II). Sistem APG 1998 nelaaké ana 462 suku. Monokotil nyakup sakiwa-tengené 23% saka kabèh spésies lan "dikotil sajati" (''eudicots'') nyakup 75% saka kabèh spésies. Sepuluh gedhé suku tetuwuhan miturut akèhé jinis ya iku: # [[Asteraceae]] utawa Compositae (suku keningkir-keningkiran): 23.600 jinis<ref name=APWeb>{{cite url|author=Stevens, P.F.|year=2001 onwards|url=http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html|title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden)}}</ref> # [[Orchidaceae]] (suku anggrèk-anggrèkan): 21.950<ref name=APWeb/> # [[Fabaceae]] utawa Leguminosae (suku polong-polongan): 19.400<ref name=APWeb/> # [[Rubiaceae]] (suku kopi-kopian): 13.183<ref>{{cite url|title=Kew Scientist 30 (October2006)|url=http://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf}}</ref> # [[Poaceae]], Glumiflorae, utawa Gramineae (suku suket-suketan): 10.035<ref name=APWeb/> # [[Lamiaceae]] utawa Labiatae (suku nilam-nilaman): 7.173<ref name=APWeb/> # [[Euphorbiaceae]] (suku kastuba-kastubaan): 5.735<ref name=APWeb/> # [[Cyperaceae]] (suku teki-tekian): 4.350<ref name=APWeb/> # [[Malvaceae]] (suku kapas-kapasan): 4.225 # [[Araceae]] (suku tales-talesan): 4.025 Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae lan Araceae iku monokotil. Kasepuluh suku ing ndhuwur nyakup manéka warna jinis tetuwuhan wigati ing kauripan manungsa, ing babagan [[tetanèn]], [[kahutanan]] lan [[indhustri]]. Suku suket-suketan cetha wujud suku paling wigati amarga ngasilaké manéka warna sumber ènergi [[pangan]] kanggo manungsa lan [[kéwan]] saka [[pantun|pari]], [[gandum]], [[jagung]], [[jawawut|jelai]], [[haver]], [[jawawut]], [[tebu]], sarta [[sorgum]]. Suku polong-polongan manggon ing papan paling wigati nomer loro, minangka sumber [[protéin]] nabati lan [[sayuran]] utama lan manéka warna peran budaya liya (kayu, pewarna, lan racun). Suku nilam-nilaman anggotané akèh tetuwuhan kang ngasilaké lenga atsiri lan bahan [[bumbon crakèn|usada]]. Sapérangan suku wigati liyané ing kauripan manungsa ya iku * [[Solanaceae]] (suku terong]-terongan), minangka sumber pangan wigati mligi sayuran * [[Cucurbitaceae]] (suku labu-labuan), minangka sumber sayuran wigati * [[Brassicaceae]] utawa Cruciferae (suku sawi-sawian), minangka sumber sayuran lan lenga pangan wigati * [[Alliaceae]] (suku bawang-bawangan), minangka sumber sayuran bumbu wigati * [[Piperaceae]] (suku sirih-sirihan), minangka sumber bumbon crakèn wigati. * [[Arecaceae]] utawa Palmae (suku pinang-pinangan), minangka pandhukung kauripan wigati masarakat agraris tlatah tropika * [[Rutaceae]] (suku jeruk-jerukan), [[Rosaceae]] (suku mawar-mawaran), lan [[Myrtaceae]] (suku jambu-jambuan) akèh ngasilaké woh-wohan wigati. Tetuwuhan ngembang uga dadi pamasok sumberdaya alam ing wangun [[kayu]], [[kertas]], serat (umpamané [[kapas]], [[kapuk]], lan henep, sisal, serat manila), usada ([[digitalis]], kamfer), tetuwuhan hias (ruangan utawa tarbuka), lan manéka warna pratélan dawa kagunaan liya. == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == {{Commons|Magnoliophyta}} {{Wikispecies|Magnoliophyta}} {{Wikibooks|Dichotomous Key|Magnoliophyta}} * [http://academicearth.org/lectures/angiosperms-1a Angiosperms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105072211/http://academicearth.org/lectures/angiosperms-1a |date=2010-01-05 }}-UC Berkeley video lecture * Cronquist, Arthur. (1981) ''An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants''. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. * Dilcher, D. 2000. Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record. ''PNAS [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]'' 97: 7030-7036 (available online [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/13/7030?ck=nck here]) * {{cite book|author = Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. |title = Flowering Plant Families of the World|edition = | publisher = Firefly Books| year = 2007| location = Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada|isbn = 1-55407-206-9}} * [http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/12.16/angiosperms.html Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes], William J. Cromie, Harvard Gazette, [[16 Dhésèmber]], 1999. * L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). [http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/delta/angio/ The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607053426/http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/delta/angio/ |date=2007-06-07 }} * Simpson, M.G. ''Plant Systematics''. Elsevier Academic Press. 2006. * Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. ''Biology of Plants'', 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman. 2004. [[Kategori:Tetuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Taksonomi tetuwuhan]] ml3zwh2p0hmerwb81odholueia0ax01 Prijedor 0 23763 1752836 1653753 2026-08-19T19:31:22Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752836 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Settlement <!--more fields are available for this Infobox--See Template:Infobox Settlement--> |settlement_type = |subdivision_type = [[Pratélan nagara|Nagara]] |subdivision_name =[[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] |subdivision_type1 = |subdivision_name1 = |subdivision_type2 = |subdivision_name2 = |timezone=[[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset=+1 |timezone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +2 |unit_pref= |map_caption =Lokasi {{PAGENAME}} ing Bosnia-Herzegovina |latNS=N |longEW=E |population_as_of= [[1991]] |native_name = Prijedor<br />Приједор |official_name = &nbsp; |other_name = |image_shield = Coat of arms Prijedor.PNG |image_map = BH municipality location Prijedor.png |area_total_km2 = 833|population_blank1 = 119000|population_blank1_title=Municipality| |population_total = 112,470 ||parts_type=Settlements| parts = |latd =44|latm=58 |longd=16|longm=43 |area_code = 52 |website = [http://www.opstinaprijedor.org/ www.opstinaprijedor.org] |footnotes = ||leader_title=[[Walikutha]]| leader_name = Marko Pavić (DNS) [http://www.izbori.ba/documents/Rezultati%20izbora%202004/Utvrdjeni/2004NacelniciRS.pdf] |leader_party = | |}} '''Prijedor''' ([[Abjad Sirilik Serbia|Sirilik]]: Приједор) iku sawijining [[kutha]] lan munisipalitas ing lor-kulon [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], dumunung ing pérangan [[Republika Srpska]]. Prijedor minangka kutha gedhé dhéwé kaloro ing[[Republika Srpska]] sawisé [[Banja Luka]]. == Géografi == Prijedor dumunung ing sisih lor-kulon [[Republika Srpska]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], ing gisiking [[Kali Sana]] lan Gomjenica land ing pèrèng gunung [[Kozara]]. Jembar wewengkon {{convert|833|sqkm|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}. Kutha iki dumunung ing koordinat 44°N lan 16°W saka Greenwhich, ing elevasi 135 m. {{convert|2|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} sajabaning kutha, arah ka lor-wétan, dhataran tansaya munggah tumuju pagunungan [[Kozara]]. <!-- famous from the peoples' mutinies in the previous centuries and battle against fascism in the [[World War II]]. --> Dhataran kang warata ing Prijedor dumadi saka dhataran [[alluvial]] kang kawangun déning [[Kali Sana]] lan anak-anak kaliné ing pinggira pabukitan Gunung Kozara sisih kidul-kulon. <!-- The structure of this level country depends upon the geologic composition of the ground through which run brooks and tributaries of the Sana river. The town was developed on Svinjarica island separated from the Sana river and Berek. There are remains of the Roman and Illyrian civilizations in these regions. --> ==== Lokasi ==== {| width="60%" |----- | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Bosanska Kostajnica]] (60&nbsp;km),<br /> [[Zagreb]] (173&nbsp;km), <br /> [[Wina]] (547&nbsp;km) | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Dubica (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Bos./Koz. Dubica]] (33&nbsp;km) | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Gradiška]] (90&nbsp;km), <br />[[Budapest]] (474&nbsp;km) |----- | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Novi Grad]] (32&nbsp;km) | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Gambar:Brosen windrose.svg|135px]] | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Kozarac]] (13&nbsp;km), <br />[[Omarska]] (20&nbsp;km), <br />[[Beograd]] (336&nbsp;km) |----- | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Ljubija]] (8&nbsp;km), <br />[[Trieste]] (412&nbsp;km) | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Sanski Most]] (33&nbsp;km) | width ="33%" align="center" | [[Banja Luka]] (48&nbsp;km), <br />[[Sarajevo]] (250&nbsp;km) |} <!-- == History == [[Image:OnebuildinginPrijedor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|One building in Prijedor, facing [[bazaar]], Pećani]] Prijedor has been first mentioned in historical documents as a ground fortress, in letters of Count Adam Batschani during the so-called [[Viennese war]] from [[1683]] till [[1699]]. However, many things refer to the town's existence since ancient times and the [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] presence in this region. In Ljubija were found many monuments from the Roman age as evidence of the iron production. In Zecovi there is [[Illyria]]n [[necropolis]] from the [[Iron Age]]. A legend says that the river Sana had been named by the Romans. In the iron mine, used for production of weapons for the Roman legions, from Prijedor iron mine placers was melted in large smeltings—works of Salonica, Siscia and Sirmium. Soon Prijedor has become a significant trade handcraft centre, thanks to the [[Roman road]]s, navigability of the [[Sana river]] and the first railway in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] which was built in [[1873]] during the time of Baron Hirsch. A century after, the town had burnt in a great fire which is why the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire|Austro-Hungarian]] authorities had made the first [[urban plan]] in [[1901]]. Among important monuments there is a great monument on Mrakovica, the work of academic artist [[Dušan Džamonja]], another evidence of traditional freedom-loving of the people in this region. During the [[Bosnian war]], the area near Prijedor housed the infamous [[Omarska camp]], [[Keraterm camp]], and [[Trnopolje camp]] established by Serb authorities for Bosniak and Croat population. Prijedor was also a place of mass{{Fact|date=March 2008}} [[rape]]s and [[Bosnian Genocide|execution]]s of [[Muslim]] [[Bosniaks]], [[Bosnian Croat]]s and non-cooperative [[Serb]]s by the [[Army of Republika Srpska|Bosnian Serb army]]. Bosnian Serb high-rank politician from Prijedor, [[Milomir Stakić]], was found guilty by ICTY and got 40 years for war crimes conducted by Serb authorities in Prijedor.<ref>[http://www.un.org/icty/stakic/appeal/judgement/index.htm Milomir Stakić judgement file] at [[United Nations]]’ [[ICTY]] website</ref> --> == Dhémografi == === 1910 === Miturut data sènsus taun[[1910]], sing ndunungi Prijedor [[distrik]] mayoritas (59.08%) dumadi saka suku Serbia kang agamané Kristen Ortodhoks. === 1971-1981-1991 === Miturut data sènsus sing ndunungi Prijedor dumadi saka: {| class=wikitable |-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Taun !! total !! [[Serbs]] !! [[Muslim]] !! [[Kroat]] !! [[Yugoslav]] !! Liya |- |~[[1971]]~ || 97.921 || 46.487 (47,47%) || 39.190 (40,02%) || 8.845 (9,03%) || 1.458 (1,48%) || 1.941 (2,00%) |- |~[[1981]]~ || 108.868 || 45.279 (41,59%) || 42.129 (38,69%) || 7.297 (6,70%) || 10.556 (9,69%) || 3.607 (3,33%) |- |~[[1991]]~ || 112.543 || 47.581 (42,27%) || 49.351 (43,85%) || 6.316 (5,61%) || 6.459 (5,73%) || 2.836 (2,54%) |} Kutha Prijedor dhéwé ing taun 1991 sing ndunungi 34,635, kalebu: *13,927 (40,21%) [[Serb]] *13,388 (38,65%) [[Muslim]] *4,282 (12,36%) [[Yugoslav]] *1,757 (5,07%) [[Kroat]] *1,281 (3,69%) liya <!-- ===Current population=== In 2006, the majority of inhabitants of municipality [[:Image:DemoBIH2006.PNG|were Orthodox Serbs]]. According to the latest data, there are over 94,096 inhabitants of which 48% belong to the urban population while 52% to the rural population. The population of non-Serbs has declined significantly since [[1991]], while the number of Serbs increased dramatically. This was caused by the [[ethnic cleansing]] of mostly Bosniaks and Croats by Bosnian Serb authorities, and by a huge influx of Serb refugees from other [[ethnic cleansing|cleansed]] areas under Muslim and Croat control.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} ==Education== The first forms of organized education can be tracked back in the first half of the [[19th century]]. In [[1834]] Prijedor had the "Serbian elementary school" that later with so-called "Communal school" was transformed into "State school" in [[1919]]. <ref>[http://www.opstinaprijedor.org/content.php?content_category=45 Oficijalna internet prezentacija Opštine Prijedor--><!-- Bot generated title --> <!--]</ref> Nowadays, there are 11 [[elementary school]]s with circa 8,000 students and 6 [[high school]]s attended by 4,000 students. A music school and a special school for mentally retarded persons are also part of the municipal educational system. Over the last several years, important steps were taken, aimed at establishing colleges. As a result, Prijedor now has a medical college, a business college, and a Mining Geology branch department of the [[University of Banja Luka]]. == Sport == The local [[Football team|football club]], [[FK Rudar Prijedor]], plays in the [[First League of the Republika Srpska]]. --> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Pranala njaba == *[http://www.opstinaprijedor.org Official Municipality of Prijedor website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711084608/http://www.opstinaprijedor.org/ |date=2012-07-11 }} *[http://www.visitprijedor.com/ Prijedor travel agency] *[http://www.visitprijedor.com/mapa-prijedora.html Map of the city] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222163221/http://www.visitprijedor.com/mapa-prijedora.html |date=2007-12-22 }} *[http://www.poslovnivodic.biz Map of city center and business register] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111212408/http://www.poslovnivodic.biz/ |date=2012-01-11 }} *[http://www.caffekim.com/ Caffe Kim Prijedor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204043627/http://www.caffekim.com/ |date=2008-12-04 }} [[Kategori:Kutha ing Republika Srpska]] [[Kategori:Kutha ing Bosnia-Herzegovina]] {{geo-stub}} k3tdnmov12887vvfpn3x7kfajmx0ok2 Franz Kafka 0 26121 1752933 1748799 2026-08-20T05:16:13Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 5 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752933 wikitext text/x-wiki {{multiscript|Franz Kafka|ꦥ꦳꧀ꦫꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦏꦥ꦳꧀ꦏ}} {{Infobox Writer | name = Franz Kafka | image = Kafka1906.jpg | caption = Foto Franz Kafka ing taun 1906 | birth_date = [[3 Juli]] [[1883]] | birth_place = {{flagicon image|Ensign of Austro-Hungarian civil fleet (1869-1918).svg}} [[Praha]], [[Ostenrik-Honggari]] (saiki [[Céko]]) | death_date = [[3 Juni]] [[1924]] | death_place = {{flagicon|Ostenrik}} [[Wina]], [[Ostenrik]] | occupation = [[Novèlis]], [[carita cekak|cerpènis]], pagawé asuransi, manajer pabrik, | nationality = [[Yahudi]]-[[Bohémia]] [[Yahudi Ashkenazi|(Ashkenazi)]] ([[Ostenrik-Hungaria]]) | genre = | movement = [[modèrenisme]], [[èksistènsialisme]], [[suréalisme]], palopor dhasar saka [[réalisme magis]] | magnum_opus = [[Der Prozess]], [[Der Schloss]], [[Die Verwandlung]] | influences = [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], [[Charles Dickens]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] | influenced = [[Albert Camus]], [[Federico Fellini]], [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]], [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez]], [[Carlos Fuentes]], [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Haruki Murakami]] | signature = Kafka.gif }} '''Franz Kafka''' ([[3 Juli]] [[1883]]-[[3 Juni]] [[1924]]) yaiku salah siji panitra [[basa Jerman]] kang wigati. Kafka lair saka kulawarga [[Yahudi]] kelas manengah ing [[Praha]], Ostenrik-Honggari (saiki ing [[Céko]]). Karya-karya wigatiné kalebu ''[[Die Verwandlung]]'' ("Owah-owahan" 1915), ''[[Der Process]]'' ("Prosès Pangadilan" 1925) lan ''[[Das Schloss]]'' ("Kastil" 1926). Nalika dhèwèké urip, kang ndunungi Praha akèhé nuturaké basa Céko, nanging uga ana kang ndunungi kang nuturaké basa Jerman. Pamilahan antarané kang ndunungi kang nuturaké basa Céko saka kang ndunungi kang nuturaké basa Jerman iku kadadèn, jalaran rong golongan iki padha-padha ndhedhesaké jatidhiri nasionalé dhéwé-dhéwé. Komunitas Yahudi kerepé posisiné ana antarané komunitas Céko lan komunitas panutur basa Jerman. Prakara iki temtuné ngakibataké Wong Yahudi lan mligi Kafka dadi kerep mikiraké posisi awaké dhéwé. Kafka dhéwé bisa baud nuturaké basa Jerman lan basa Céko, nanging basa Jerman dianggep basa ibuné. Kafka kuliah minangka siji pangacara. Sawisé lulus studi ukum, dhèwèké olèh pagawéan ing siji perusahaan asuransi. Banjur dhèwèké nulis cerkak manawa préi. Salawasé urip, dhèwèké ngomèl genéya wektuné kanggo nglakoni klangenané kurang nyukupi. Dhèwèké getun pagawéyané kanggo golèk pangan utawa apa kang diarani ''Brotberuf'' (pagawéan golèk roti) iku nguras akèh wektuné. Kafka senengé nggegayut karo sanak saduluré saha kanca-kancané mawa nulis layang. Dhèwèké nulis atusan layang marang saduluré lan kanca-kanca wadoné kang raket. Sing tau nampa layangé ya iku bapakné, tunangané [[Felice Bauer]] lan adhiné wadon kang bontot, [[Ottla Kafka|Ottla]]. Gegayutané marang bapakné rada njlimet lan prakara iki bisa dititèni ing karya tulisé. Dhèwèké uga ngalami kasangsaran batin déné idhèntitas Yahudiné. Dhèwèké rumangsa manawa prakara iki ora ana gandhèng-cènèngé karo awaké, sanadyan para kritikus padha débat apa latar wuriné minangka [[Yahudi|Wong Yahudi]] mangaribawani karya tulisé. == Babad slira == === Sangkaning kulawarga Kafka === [[Gambar:Dohle (Corvus monedula) d1.jpg|thumb|left|Manuk ''kavka'']] [[Gambar:Kafka-sisters.jpg|thumb|left|Saduluré wadon Franz Kafka saka kiwa: Valli, Elli, Ottla]] [[Gambar:Kafka5jahre.jpg|thumb|left|Franz Kafka, nalika limang taun umuré]] Kafka lair ing siji kulawarga kelas manengah Yahudi kang mituturaké basa Jerman ing Praha, kutha krajan [[Bohémia]]. Bapakné, Hermann Kafka (1852–1931), diarani siji "wong dagang utawa bisnis kang gedhé awaké, égois lan dominan"<ref>Corngold 1973</ref>. Jeneng Kafka iku dijupuk saka basa Céko ''kavka'' utawa basa Polski (basa Polen) ''kawka'' lan tegesé siji manuk kang mèmper [[gagak]]..<ref>Reiner Stach: ''Kafka. Die frühen Jahre.'' Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2014, S. 31</ref> Wong tuwané Franz Kafka, [[Hermann Kafka]] (1852–1931) lan Julie Kafka-Löwy (1856–1934) asalé saka siji kulawarga dagang Yahudi kelas manengah.<ref>[http://www.lehrer.uni-karlsruhe.de/~za874/homepage/kafka.htm Franz Kafka, Lebensdaten, Werk], Regionaler Arbeitskreis Internet am Oberschulamt Karlsruhe</ref> Bapakné asalé saka Désa [[Osek u Radomyšle|Wosek]] ing [[Céko|Bohémia Kidul]], ing endi dhèwèké tumuwuh ing swasana prasaja. Minangka siji bocah, dhèwèké kudu ngeteraké dagangané bapakné (Jakob Kafka (1814-1889)) ing tlatah pradésan sakiwa-tengené. Jakob Kafka iku siji [[Syekhita|tukang jagal Yahudi]]. Ing dina tembé Hermann Kafka banjur nggolèk dhuwit minangka dagang keliling, sawisé iku dhèwèké dadi grosir wiraswastawan kang ngedol barang-barang pahésan ing [[Praha]]. Julie Löwy asalé saka kulawarga kang nduwé saka [[Poděbrady]], lan pawiyatané luwih dhuwur tinimbang bojoné. Ing tokoné bojoné dhèwèké uga ndarbèni hak bisa mèlu ngatur, lan saben dina Julie nyambut gawé nganti rolas jam. Kajaba sadulué lanang Georg lan Heinrich kang wis tilar donya minangka bocah, Franz Kafka uga ndarbèni adhi wadon telu. Telu-teluné nanging ing tembé bakal dideportasi manyang mbokmanawa kamp konsèntrasi utawa ghetto. Sawisé iku dunungé ora kinawruhan manèh. Seduluré ya iku [[Elli Kafka|Gabriele]], apeparab Elli (1889–1941?), [[Valli Kafka|Valerie]], apeparab Valli (1890–1942?), lan [[Ottla Kafka|Ottilie „Ottla“ Kafka]] (1892–1943?). Amerga wong tuwané loro-loroné sadina-dinané kudu nyambut gawé, mula bocah-bocah diurusi para réwang wadon. Kafka iku anggota kaum minoritas warga Praha kang mituturaké basa Jerman. Sanajan mangkono, Franz uga bisa nuturaké basa Céko, kaya déné wong tuwané. Sauntara Kafka ing layang-layangé, buku padinan, lan tèks-tèks prosa dijlèntrèhaké gegayutané marang bapakné, ibuné mèh ora diomongaké. Sanajan mangkono, sanak saduluré saka ibuné uga ana kang dadi paraga ing carita-caritané Kafka,<ref>[[Peter-André Alt]]: ''Franz Kafka: Der ewige Sohn. Eine Biographie''. Beck, München 2005, S. 28.</ref> kaya ta si nimpuna [[Talmud]] kang nyèntrik lan njomblo.<ref>Carita ' Das Unglück des Junggesellen ' saka ''Betrachtungen''</ref> Contoné ya iku pak ciliké, Siegfried Löwy kang dadi tuladhané dhokter désa ing carita ''[[Ein Landarzt]]'' ('Sawijining Dhokter Désa). === Mangsa cilik lan pawiyatané === [[Gambar:Geburtshaus Kafkas.JPG|thumb|Ing ''Dům U Minuty'' Kafka manggon karo kulawargané antara taun 1889 lan 1896. Adhiné telu lair ing kéné kabèh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prague.cz/minute-house/ |title=Minute House in Prague |author= |website=prague.cz |date= |access-date=2015-05-12}}</ref>]] Saka taun 1889 nganti 1893, Kafka sekolah ing ''die Deutsche Knabenschule'' ing Fleischmarkt ing Praha. Sawisé lulus, Franz nurut dhawuhé bapakné lan banjur sekolah ing Gymnasium Negeri Humanistis ing punjer kutha Praha ing [[Puri Goltz-Kinsky]]. Toko wong tuwané uga ana ing gedhong iki.<ref>Peter-André Alt: ''Franz Kafka: Der ewige Sohn. Eine Biographie''. Beck, München 2005, S. 74.</ref> Kanca-kancané nalika jamané sekolah manengah ya iku [[Rudolf Illowý]], [[Samuel Hugo Bergman|Hugo Bergmann]], [[Ewald Felix Příbram]], lan [[Paul Kisch]] saha [[Oskar Pollak]], kang uga dadi kancané kuliah ing universitas. Ing tembé Kafka bakal nyambut gawé ing kantor asuransiné bapakné Ewald Felix Příbram. Sanadyan Kafka iku siji siswa kang baud, dhèwèké ngalami masalah ''[[atychiphobia]]'' nalika isih sekolah lan mangaribawani wijiné.<ref>Reiner Stach: ''Kafka. Die frühen Jahre''. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2014, S. 97.</ref> [[Gambar:Kafka-as-pupil.jpg|thumb|left|Kafka minangka siswa (sadurungé 1900)]] Nalika dadi siswa sekolah, Kafka wis seneng marang kasusastran. Nanging corètan karyané kang mbiyèn wis ora ana manèh, mbokmanawa wis disirnakaké, kaya ta uga buku-buku dinané kang awal. In taun 1899, Kafka kang umuré 16 taun dadi katarik marang [[sosialisme]]. Sanajan kancané lan guru pulitiké Rudolf Illowy metu saka sekolah déné aktivitas konspirasi sosialisme, Kafka panggah setya marang kapercayané lan nganggo [[anyelir|kembang anyelir]] ing bolongan beniké.<ref>[[Klaus Wagenbach]]: ''Kafka'' Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1964, S. 35f.</ref> Sawisé lulus ujian ing taun 1901 mawa wiji kang maremaké, bocah umur 18 taun, kanggo kapisan ing uripé ninggal Bohémia lan lelungan karo pakliké, om [[Siegfried Löwy]] menyang [[Norderney]] lan [[Helgoland]]. Kafka miwiti kuliah wiwit taun 1901 nganti 1906 ing [[Universitas Karl Ferdinand]] ing Praha. Kapisan dhèwèké nyoba kuliah kimia, nanging ora suwé manèh dhèwèké ganti dadi kuliah kukum. Sawisé iku dhèwèké ora seneng lan nyoba kuliah [[basa Jerman|basa lan sastra Jerman]] lan sajarah seni sasemèster suwéné. Banjur nalika semèster taun 1902, Kafka ngrungokaké ceramahé [[Anton Marty]] ngenani "dhasar psikologi dèskriptif".<ref>Klaus Wagenbach: ''Franz Kafka.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2008, S. 50f.</ref> Nalika iku Kafka nimbang-nimbang arep nerusaké kuliahé ing [[München]]. Pungkasané dhèwèké panggah nerusaké studi kukum. Banjur sawisé limang taun, dhèwèké bisa ngrampungaké studiné ing sajeroning wektu kang ditemtokaké mawa promosi karo [[Alfred Weber]]. Sawisé iku dhèwèké kudu magang tanpa dibayar, sataun suwéné ing pangadilan nagari lan pangadilan tindak pidana.<ref>[[Bodo Pieroth]]: ''Das juristische Studium im literarischen Zeugnis – Franz Kafka'', in: JURA – Juristische Ausbildung 1993, S. 415f (mit weiteren Angaben zu Studium und Prüfung)</ref> === Pagawéyané === Sawisé nyambut gawé ora nganti sataun ing maskapé asuransi swasta [[Assicurazioni Generali]] (Oktober 1907 nganti Juli 1908) Kafka banjur saka taun 1908 nganti 1922 nyambut gawé ing siji badan usaha kang saparo darbéné pamaréntah ''Arbeiter-Unfallversicherungs-Anstalt für das Königreich Böhmen'' ('Maskapé Asuransi Kacilakan Buruh kanggo Karajan Bohémia') ing Praha. Dhèwèké ngarani pagawéyané minangka "gawéan kanggo golèk roti" (''Brotberuf''). Aktivitas Kafka merlokaké kawruh kang mumpuni ngenani produksi lan tèhnik indhustri. Kafka kang umuré 25 taun iki ngusulaké aturan kanggo menggak kacilakan pas prosès produksi. Banjur manawa dhèwèké ora nyambut gawé, Kafka solidèr kanthi pulitik marang para buruh. Manawa ana démonstrasi, dhèwèké mèlu lumaku lan bolongan beniké ditancepi kembang anyelir abang. Pisan-pisanané dhèwèké nyambut gawé ing pérangan kacilakan, nanging sawisé iku dhèwèké dipindhah lan ditugasi ing pérangan asuransi tèhnik. Wiwit taun 1910 Kafka dadi calon punggawa sajeroning babagan ing perusahaané, sawisé Kafka nyinaoni pagawéan iki déné olèhé mèlu kuliah prakara tèknologi mékanis ing Pawiyatan Luhur Tèknik ing Praha. Dhèwèké banjur kang nulis lan ngirim dokumèn sarta ngasuransèkaké perusahaan-perusahaan kang dipérang dadi sawatara kelas rawan kacilakan. Saka taun 1908 nganti 1916, dhèwèké kerep dikirim tugas menyang Bohémia Lor, kerepé menyang Reichenberg (saiki [[Liberec]]). Ing kana dhèwèké nuwèni lan ninjo perusahaan, mriksa sèrtifikasi perusahaan lan nekani sidhang pangadilan. Minangka panulis asuransi, dhèwèké nulis lapuran taunan pertanggung-jawaban sawatara perusahaan. Minangka pangaji prestasiné, Kafka dipromosèkaké nganti ping papat, ing taun 1910 dadi calon punggawa, ing taun 1913 dadi wakil sekretaris, ing taun 1920 dadi sekretaris lan in taun 1922 dadi sekretaris jendral. Perkara pagawéyané, Kafka nulis ing siji layang: "Aku ora patiya sesambat prakara gawéyanku, kaya prakara kakesètaning wektu kang ora lumaku". Tekanan jam makarya, menthelengi jam kang andayani kabèh lan menit-menit pungkasan dina makarya minangka "watu pancolotan lelucon", ya mangkono iku gagasané Kafka prakara pagawéyané. Dhèwèké tau nulis marang [[Milena Jasenská]]: "Tugasku iku anèh banget lan ènthèng banget [...] aku nganti ora mudheng genéya aku olèh dhuwit". Kafka ngrasakaké manawa sumbangsihé ing perusahaan wong tuwané kang dikarepaké kulawargané iku nggawé sesek. Wiwit taun 1911, dhèwèké kudu nyambut gawé ing pabrik [[asbès]] darbéné ipéné. Ing pabrik iki dhèwèké ora bisa tumuwuh, kamangka kafka iku digawé dadi salah siji peséro. Saliyané iku lakuné Kafka kang grapyak marang para buruh, béda banget karo tumindhaké bapakné kang mrebawani. Perang Donya I banjur nggawa pangalaman anyar, manawa èwonan pangungsi Yahudi kepéngin menyang Praha. Minangka tetulungan marang para wadya, Kafka ngurusi réhabilitasi lan pawiyatané wong-wong kang tatu abot.<ref>Reiner Stach: ''Kafka. Die Jahre der Erkenntnis.'' Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-10-075119-5, S. 78 ff.</ref> Dhèwèké diwajibaké déning perusahané. Sadurungé perusahaané ngandharaké manawa Kafka iku siji "tenaga kang ora bisa diganti", dadi Kafka kareksa lan ora perlu mèlu perang, sawisé Kafka ing taun 1915 dianggep layak kanthi militèr lan bisa dikerahaké. Ing sisih liyané, Kafka dadi lara [[TBC]] rong taun engkas. Kafka banjur njaluk dipènsiyun. Nanging perusahaan ora mènèhi pènsiyun, pas ing tanggal 1 Juli 1922 dhèwèké pungkasané bisa bébas. === Gegayutan karo bapakné === [[Gambar:De_Kafka_Brief_an_den_Vater_001.jpg|thumb|Kaca kapisan saka ''[[Brief an den Vater]]'' ('Layang marang kang Rama') kang ora dikirim saka taun 1919, mawa tilas tulisan tangané]] Gegayutan Franz Kafka marang bapakné, Hermann Kafka, kang kebak karo konflik iku dadi punjering motif ing karyané lan motif utama. Franz Kafka dhéwé olèhé nggambaraké bapakné iku minangka priyayi kang sènsitif, ngati-ati, lan malahan isin saha sok ngengen-engen. Bapakné iku bisa nyambut gawé akèh saha tlatèn lan dadi wong nduwé kamangka asalé saka kalangan kulawarga mlarat. Nanging bapakné iku bisa dadi wong déné wateké kang kasar, kerep mbengok nèk ngomong, golèk menang dhéwé lan ndarbèni watek dagang kang [[dèspotisme|dèspotik]]. Bapakné ajeg sesambat lan muni-muni kasar ngenani mangsa ciliké kang rekasa lan anak-anak sarta pegawéné kang luwih kepènak, kang namung bisa dijamin déning awaké karo ngangsa banget. Ibuné kang asalé saka kalangan kulawarga alus, sajatiné bisaa dadi kosok baliné bapakné kang kasar, nanging ibuné nuruti paugeran, wanti-wanti, norma lan kaputusané sang Patriark iki kanthi loyal. Ing ''Layang marang kang Rama'' Franz Kafka nglèhaké bapakné kang nrapaké kakuwasan otoritèr: "Bapak mung bisa ngrengkuh anak, kaya déné wateké bapak dhéwé, nganggo kakuwatan gedhé, mbengok lan duka, lan ing prakara iki, Bapak pancèn cocog, amarga Bapak kersa ngwujudaké dalem dadi bocah lanang kang kuwat lan kendel." Ing carita-caritané Kafka, paraga sang bapak ora arang digambaraké kuwasa, nanging uga ora adil, kaya ta ing novèl ''Die Verwandlung''. Sajeroning novèl iki, sang paraga baku, Gregor, kang wis owah dadi kéwan gegremetan, dibalangi apel déning bapakné nganti tatu lan banjur lampus. Ing cerkak ''Das Urteil'', siji bapak kang dominan lan nggegirisi nibani vonis marang anaké, Georg Bendemann, paukuman "pati déné keblebekan banyu". Si anak ing carita iki banjur ya nuruti bapakné lan mencolot saka kreteg lumebu ing banyu. === Kanca-kancané === Ing Praha Kafka nduwé golongan kanca-kanca kang klangenané padha, klompoké iki kawujudaké ing taun-taun kapisan nalika dhèwèké kuliah ing universitas (uga diaranai ''[[Prager Kreis]]'' ing basa Jerman). Saliyané [[Max Brod]], kanca-kancané ya iku [[Felix Weltsch]], kang ing tembé dadi filsuf, sarta padha-padha panulis [[Oskar Baum]] lan [[Franz Werfel]]. Brod iku kang kapisan lan wis awal bisa nitèni kawasisané Kafka. Dhèwèké uga kang ngakon kancané mbabaraké bukuné ing panerbit anyar, [[Rowohlt Verlag]] kang dumunung ing Kutha Leipzig.<ref>Reiner Stach: ''Kafka. Die Jahre der Entscheidungen''. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2004, S. 66ff.</ref> Minangka wakilé Kafka sawisé Kafka tilar donya, Max Brod menggak supaya karya-karyané kang awujud fragmèn-fragmèn roman kang durung rampung diobong. Antara kanca-kancané uga ana siji tokoh kang jenengé [[Jizchak Löwy]]. Dhèwèké iku juru main sandhiwara lan asalé saka siji kulawarga [[Yudaisme Hasidut|Yahudi Hasidut]], ing Warsawa. Dhèwèké iku bisa nges banget marang Kafka déné sipaté kang ora nduwé kompromi. Löwy iku ora diwèhi pangèstu wong tuwané kang ndarbèni kapitayan Yahudi Ortodoks, yèn dhèwèké kapéngin dadi seniman. Löwy iku muncul dadi siji paraga ing sawijing fragmèn caritané Kafka ''[[Vom jüdischen Theater]]''. Kafka olèhé gegayutan karo kulawargané raket dhéwé karo adhiné [[Ottla Kafka|Ottla]]. Dhèwèké iku kang tansah nulung kangmasé manawa lara parah lan perlu pitulung sarta panglipur. === Pribadi === [[File:Felice Bauer and Franz Kafka.jpg|thumb|[[Felice Bauer]]]] Kafka nalika urip ora tau omah-omah. Miturut Max Brod, Kafka iku "disiksa" déning kadrengan asmarané lan panulis biografi Kafka, [[Reiner Stach]] ngandharaké manawa sadawané uripé iku, Kafka "tansah ngoyak wong wadon" lan dhèwèké wedi manawa "gagal kanthi sèksual".{{sfn|Stach|2005|pp = 44, 207}} Nalika wis diwasa, Kafka kerep nekani [[bordhil]]{{sfn|Hawes|2008|pp = 186, 191}}{{sfn|European Graduate School|2012}}{{sfn|Stach|2005|p = 43}} lan dhèwèké uga nduwé klangenan marang pornografi.{{sfn|Hawes|2008|p = 186}} Saliyané iku dhèwèké uga ndarbèni rélasi karo sawatara wong wadon. Ing tanggal 13 Agustus 1912, Kafka ketemu karo [[Felice Bauer]], saduluré Brod, kang nyambut gawé ing Berlin minangka wakil siji perusahaan diktafpn. Sawisé ketemu Felice ing omahé Brod, Kafka nulis ing buku padinané: {{quote|Mbak FB. Nalika aku teka ing ngomahé Brod tanggal 13 Agustus, wong wadon iku lungguh cedhak méja. Aku ora kepéngin ngerti wektu iku, sapa dhèwèké, nanging ora perduli waé. Ceking mawa rai kosong kang cetha nuduhaké kakosongan kapribadèné. Guluné ora ditutupi. Nganggo blus. Rupané lugu banget nganggo gauné, nanging tibakné ora babar belas. (Aku nggawé jarak sesithik srana olèhku nitèni awaké). Irungé kaya tugel. Rambuté pirang warnané, rada lurus, ora menarik, daguné kuwat. Nalika aku lungguh, aku nuwèni dhèwèké kanggo kapisan. Lan nalika aku wis lungguh kepénak, aku wis nduwé panemuku kang ora bakal gigrig.{{sfn|Banville|2011}}{{sfn|Köhler|2012}}}} Sawisé prastawa iki, Kafka nulis carita ''[[Das Urteil]]'' ing namung sawengi waé sarta bakal mroduksi roman ''[[Der Verschollene]]'' lan ''[[Die Verwandlung]]''. Olèhé Kafka lan Felice Bauer komunikasi, kerepé nganggo srana layang ing wanci limang taun sawisé iki. Wong loro iki uga sok-sokan tetemon lan malahan tau tunangan ping loro.{{sfn|Stach|2005|p = 1}} Layang-layangé Kafka marang Felice dibabar minangka ''[[Briefe an Felice]]'' (''Layang-layang marang Felice''); nanging layang-layangé Felice ora ana kang lestari.{{sfn|Banville|2011}}{{sfn|Seubert|2012}}{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp = 196–197}} Miturut panulis biografi Kafka, Stach lan James Hawes, ing sakiwa-tengené taun 1920, Kafka tunangan manèh kaping telu, saiki karo Julie Wohryzek, siji réwang kamar hotèl kang mlarat lan ora sekolahan.{{sfn|Stach|2005|p = 1}}{{sfn|Hawes|2008|pp = 129, 198–199}} Sanajan wong loro iki banjur nyéwa kamar bebarengan lan ngrencanakaké tanggal mantènan, mantènané ora tau kalaksanan. Bapakné Franz Kafka ora sarujuk yèn dhèwèké rabi karo Julie, amarga Julie iku nganut faham [[Zionisme]]. Sadurungé tanggal mantènané kang wis direncanakaké, dhèwèké pacaran karo wong wadon liya manèh.{{sfn|Murray|2004|pp = 276–279}} Sanajan Kafka merlokaké wong wadon lan sèks sajeroning uripé, dhèwèké iku nduwé rasa ''minder'' saha nduwé panemu yèn sèks iku nistha. Saliyané iku, dhèwèké sok isin, mligi isin marang awaké dhéwé.{{sfn|Steinhauer|1983|pp = 390–408}} Stach and Brod ngandharaké manawa salawaé Kafka tepungan karo Felice Bauer, dhèwèké uga pacangan karo kancané Felice, kang jenengé Margarethe "Grete" Bloch,{{sfn|Stach|2005|pp = 379–389}} siji wanita Yahudi saka Berlin. Brod banjur kandha manawa Bloch nglairaké anak lanang katurunané Kafka, sanadyan Kafka ora tau ngertèni lan tepung karo anak iki. Anak iki, kang jenengé ora ana kang ngerti, lair ing taun 1914 utawa 1915 lan banjur tilar inga taun 1921 ing [[München]].{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp = 240–242}}{{sfn|S. Fischer|2012}} Nanging, panulis biografi Kafka liyané, Peter-André Alt ngandharaké manawa sanadyan Bloch nduwé anak lanang, Kafka iku dudu bapakné lan Bloch saha Kafka iku ora tau raket nganti intim.{{sfn|Alt|2005|p = 303}}{{sfn|Hawes|2008|pp = 180–181}} Stach uga ngandharaké manawa sanadyan Bloch nduwé anak lanang, ora ana bukti kuwat yèn Kafka iku bapakné, malahan ana bukti yèn Kafka iku dudu bapakné bocah iki.{{sfn|Stach|2005|pp = 1, 379–389, 434–436}} Kafka olèh diagnosis manawa dhèwèké iku lara [[TBC]] ing sasi Agustus 1917. Banjur dhèwèké pindhah menyang Désa Zürau (Siřem ing [[basa Céko]]) ing [[Bohémia]]. Ing kana, adhiné, Ottla nyambut gawé ing pertaniané ipéné, Hermann. Kafka seneng ana ing kana lan rumangsa kepénak. Ing tembé dhèwèké bakal nulis manawa wayah iki, mobokmanawa wayah sajeroning uripé kang kepéna dhéwé, amarga Kafka ora nduwé beban tanggung jawab babar belas. Dhèwèké nulis buku padinan lan ''[[Oktavheft]]''. Saka cathetan ing buku-buku iki, Kafka njupuk 109 lembar dluwang tèks kang dinomeri lan banjur kanthi acak dibabar ''[[Die Zürauer Aphorismen]] oder Betrachtungen über Sünde, Hoffnung, Leid und den wahren Weg'' (Aforisme Zürau utawa Réflèksi marang Dosa, Pangarepan, Kasangsaran lan Dalan kang Bener).{{sfn|Apel|2012|p = 28}} Ing taun 1920 Kafka miwiti gayutan kang raket karo [[Milena Jesenská]], siji wartawati lan panulis Céko. Layang-layangé marang Milena ing tembé dibabar minangka ''[[Briefe an Milena]]''.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p=389}} Nalika liburan ing sasi Juli 1923 ing [[Graal-Müritz]], cedhak Sagara Baltik, Kafka ketemu karo [[Dora Diamant]], sawijing guru TK umur 25 taun saka kulawarga Yahudi Ortodoks. Kafka kang nduwé pangarep lumayu saka pangaribawané kulawargané dhéwé supaya bisa konsèntrasi nulis, banjur pindhah menyang Berlin lan manggon karo Diamant. Diamant dadi pacaré lan dhèwèké dadi sebabé Kafka katarik marang [[Talmud]].{{sfn|Hempel|2002}} Kafka banjur nulis patang carita kang bakal dibabar minangka ''[[Ein Hungerkünstler]]'' (''Sawijining Seniman Pasa'').{{sfn|Brod|1966|p=389}} === Kapribadèn === [[File:Franz-Kafka,-etching(author-Jan-Hladík-1978).jpg|thumb|200px|Franz Kafka, gorèsan ètsa déning Jan Hladík, 1978]] Kafka wedi manawa dhèwèké medèni wong liya kanthi mèntal lan fisik. Nanging, wong-wong kang wis tau nemoni dhèwèké nduwé panemon manawa Kafka iku wongé kalem lan adem, pinter, lan nduwé rasa humor kang 'garing', lumrahé Kafka uga dianggep bagus kaya bocah enom, sanadyan panampilané prasaja.{{sfn|Janouch|1971|pp = 14, 17}}{{sfn|Fichter|1987|pp = 367–377}}{{sfn|Repertory|2005}} Brod madakaké Kafka karo [[Heinrich von Kleist]], loro-loroné bisa nggambaraké siji kaanan kanthi réalistis lan persis.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 41}} Brod nganggep manawa Kafka iku salah siji wong kang nyenengaké kang tau ditemoni; Kafka uga seneng guyonan karo kanca-kancané, nanging uga nulungi lan ngandhan-ngandhani kanca-kancané manawa lagi susah.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 42}} Miturut Brod, dhèwèké iku siji tukang carita kang pinter, wasis wicara kaya déné musik. Brod ngrasa manawa loro saka sipat-sipaté Kafka kang nonjol iku kajujurané sarta setiti banget.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 49}}{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 47}} Kafka iku bisa njajaki détail kang ora digatèkaké wong kanthi jero mawa rasa asih lan persis nganti prakara-prakara kang sadurungé ora katon lan semu anèh nanging bener bisa muncul.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 52}} Sanajan Kafka ora patiya katarik latihan ulah raga nalika isih cilik, dhèwèké sawisé seneng marang dolanan lan aktivitas fisik,{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 14}} sarana nunggangi jaran, nglangi, lan melah utawa ndhayung.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 49}} Ing pungkasaning minggu, dhèwèké lan para kancané lumaku-lumaku adoh, kang direncanakaké déning Kafka dhéwé.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 90}} Klangenan liyané ya iku pangobatan alternatif, sistim pawiyatan modèn kaya ta [[pamulangan Montessori education|Montessori]],{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 49}} lan panemon-panemon tèhnik anyar kaya ta montor mabur lan filem.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 92}} Nulis iku wigati kanggo Kafka, dianggep "sajinising cara dedonga".{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 214}} Dhèwèké sènsitif banget marang swara ribut lan luwih seneng manawa swasané sepi lan suwung manawa lagi nulis.{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 156}} Pérez-Álvarez naté kandha manawa Kafka katoné nandhang gangguan [[gangguan kapribadèn skizoid|kapribadèn skizoid]].{{sfn|Pérez-Álvarez|2003|pp = 181–194}} Gaya panulisané, mituruté, ora mung ing "[[Die Verwandlung]]" ("Métamorfosis"), nanging uga ing sawatara tulisan liyané, katoné nudhuhaké ciri-ciri wong kang nandhang gangguan skizoid ing tahap asor nganti tengah. Ciri-ciri iki bisa nrangaké akèh karya panulisané.{{sfn|Miller|1984|pp = 242–306}} Rasa kawedèné bisa dideleng ing èntri buku padinané saka tanggal 21 Juni 1913:{{sfn|McElroy|1985|pp = 217–232}} {{quote|''Die ungeheure Welt, die ich im Kopfe habe. Aber wie mich befreien und sie befreien, ohne zu zerreißen. Und tausendmal lieber zerreißen, als in mir sie zurückhalten oder begraben. Dazu bin ich ja hier, das ist mir ganz klar.''-Donya dahsyat kang ana sajeroning sirahku. Nanging kepriyé carané mbébasaké awakku tanpa mbedhah. Lan luwih becik kaping sèwu mbedhahaké tinimbang nahan utawa mendhem kabèh iku. Mulané aku ana ing kéné, prekara iku cetha kanggoku.{{sfn|Project Gutenberg|2012}}}} lan ing ''Die Zürauer Aphorismen'' nomer 50: {{quote|''Der Mensch kann nicht leben ohne ein dauerndes Vertrauen zu etwas Unzerstörbarem in sich, wobei sowohl das Unzerstörbare als auch das Vertrauen ihm dauernd verborgen bleiben können. Eine der Ausdrucksmöglichkeiten dieses Verborgenbleibens ist der Glaube an einen persönlichen Gott.''-Wong ora bisa urip tanpa kapitayan tetep kanggo saterusé ing sajeroning awaké dhéwé, kamangka apa kang ora bisa dirusak lan kapercayané dhéwé panggah kasingidaké. Salah siji cara ngungkapaké prekara kang kasingidaké iki carané percaya marang Allah kang Pribadi.{{sfn|Gray|1973|p = 196}}}} Sanajan Kafka ora tau omah-omah, dhèwèké ngajèni palakraman. Pacaré akèh.{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp = 139–140}} Mbokmanawa Kafka iku nduwé lelara angèl mangan. Dhoktor Manfred M. Fichter saka klinik psikiatris, [[Universitas München]], mbabar "bukti kanggo hipotésa manawa panulis Franz Kafka nandhang ''gangguan'' [[anorèksia nèrvosa]] kang ora lumrah",{{sfn|Fichter|1988|pp = 231–238}} lan uga manawa Kafka iku ora mung kasepèn lan dèprèsif nanging uga "sakala-kala kepara arep [[nglalu]]".{{sfn|Fichter|1987|pp = 367–377}} Ing buku ''Franz Kafka, the Jewish Patient'' (''Franz Kafka, si Pasièn Yahudi'' 1995), [[Sander Gilman]] nglakoni invèstigasi "genéya siji wong Yahudi bisa dikira '[[hipokondria|hipokondris]]' utawa '[[homosèksual]]' lan kepriyé Kafka nrapakaké aspèk-aspèk cara mangertèni Wong Yahudi lanang sajeroning tulisan lan citra awaké dhéwé".{{sfn|Gilman|1995|loc = back cover}} Kafka lau nggagas arep nglalu paling ora pisan, ing pungkasan taun 1912.{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 128}} === Pulitik === Sadurungé Perang Donya I,{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 86}} Kafka tau nekani sawatara pasemon Klub Mladých, siji organisasi [[Anarkisme|anarkis]], anti-militèr lan anti-agama Céko.{{sfn|Lib.com|2008}} Hugo Bergmann kang padha sasekolah SD lan SMP/SMA karo Kafka, dadi padu karo Kafka nalika taun kuliah pungkasan(1900–1901) amarga "Paham sosialismené [Kafka] lan paham Zionismeku bédané kakèhan".{{sfn|Bergman|1969|p = 8}}{{sfn|Bruce|2007|p = 17}} "Franz dadi wong sosialis, aku dadi wong Zionis ing taun 1898.{{sfn|Bruce|2007|p = 17}} Sintèsis antara Zionisme lan sosialisme durung ana".{{sfn|Bruce|2007|p = 17}} Bergmann ndhedhes manawa Kafka nganggo kembang anyelir abang menyang sekolah kanggo nuduhaké simpatiné marang sosialisme. Ing siji kaca buku padinané, Kafka ngrujuk sang filsuf anarkis kang mangaribawani awaké, Pangéran Peter Kropotkin: "Aja lali Kropotkin!"{{sfn|Preece|2001|p = 131}} Nalika ing jaman kuminis, warisan karya sastrané Kafka kanggo Blok Wétan sengit didebataké. Panemuné béda-béda, ana kang kandha manawa dhèwèké nggawé satire saka birokrasi Kakaisaran Ostenrik-Honggari kang lagi ambruk, utawa ana kang percaya manawa Kafka iku éjawantahing sosialisme kang lagi ngembang.{{sfn|Hughes|1986|pp = 248–249}} Titik sabanjuré iku téyori aliénasi Karl Marx. Sementara panemuné kang lumrah iku manawa gambarané Kafka kang magepokan karo aliénasi wis ora rélévan manèh kanggo siji masarakat kang wis mbusak aliénasi, siji konferènsi 1963 ing Liblice, Cékoslowakia kanggo mbalèni nuwèni kawigatèné gambarané Kafka ngenani birokrasi.{{sfn|Bathrick|1995|pp = 67–70}} Apa Kafka iku siji panulis pulitik utawa dudu, nganti sapréné isih dadi bahan débat.{{sfn|Socialist Worker|2007}} === Agama Yahudi lan Zionisme === Déné klompk kekancané lan déning kiprahé Max Brod marang Zionisme, Kafka kerep diadhepaké marang panemuné lan sikapé marang Yudaisme saha kontrovèrsi ngenani asimilasi Wong Yahudi Wétan. Simpatiné marang Budaya Yahudi wétan iku wis akèh didokumentasi. Minangka siji panulis, dhèwèké mikiraké kabèh aspèk Yahudi... karo siji tabu, tembung iki ora muncul ing kabèh karya sastrané.<ref>Reiner Stach: ''Kafka. Die Jahre der Erkenntnis''. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2011, S. 524.</ref> Ing wektu kang padha, Reiner Stach, panulis biografiné nafsiraké Asu-asu Udara ing caritané Kafka ''Forschungen eines Hundes'' ('Panlitèn siji Asu') minangka Bangsa Yahudi ing [[diaspora]].<ref>Reiner Stach: ''Kafka. Die Jahre der Erkenntnis''. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2011, S. 528.</ref> Kafka wis nau mutusaké arep pindhah menyang Palèstina lan wis sinau basa Ibrani kanthi intènsif. Nanging kaséhatan awaké kang sangsaya ala, ngalangi rencanané pindhah ing taun 1923. Reiner Stach ngringkes: "Palèstina mung panggah impèn waé, kang awaké nggawé impèn iki dadi sirna."<ref>Reiner Stach: ''Kafka. Die Jahre der Erkenntnis''. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2011, S. 536.</ref> === Tilar donya === [[File:Grave of Kafka.JPG|thumb|upright|Sawijining watu kijing kang mratélakaké jenengé wong telu: Franz, Hermann, lan Julie Kafka. Saben jeneng ana fragmèn tèks sangisoré ing basa Ibrani, ing Pakuburan Yahudi ing Praha-Žižkov.]] [[TBC]] [[laring|tenggorokan]] Kafka dadi saya parah lan ing sasi Maret 1924, dhèwèké mulih menyang Praha saka [[Berlin]],{{sfn|Stach|2005|p = 1}} ing kana dhèwèké banjur diurusi anggota kulawargané, mligi Ottla adhiné. Banjur dhèwèké lunga menyang [[sanatorium]]é Dr. Hoffmann ing [[Klosterneuburg|Kierling]] cedhak [[Wina]] supaya dirawat, ing tanggal 10 April,{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 389}} lan tilar donya ing kana tanggal 3 Juni 1924. Panyebabé katoné déné kaliren, amarga kondisi tenggorokané Kafka dadi nggawé lara kanggo ngulu panganan, lan ing wektu iku durung ana [[infus]], dadi dhèwèké ora bisa diwèhi nutrisi.{{sfn|Believer|2006}}{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp = 209–211}} Kafka nalika tilar donya lagi nyunting "Sawijining Seniman Luwét", olèhé nganggit wis wiwit sadurungé nandhang lara TBC tenggorokan iki lan ora bisa ngulu panganan.{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 211}} Kunarpané banjur digawa bali menyang Praha, ing kana banjur dikubur ing tanggal 11 Juni 1924, ing [[Nový židovský hřbitov na Olšanech|Kuburan Yahudi Anyar]] ing [[Žižkov|Praha-Žižkov]].{{sfn|European Graduate School|2012}} Kafka nalika isih urip iku ora kawentar, nanging dhèwèké dhéwé ora nganggep iku wigati. Sawisé tilar donya, dhèwèké bakal kondhang.{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 214}} == Karya sastra== Kabèh karyané Kafka kang wis dibabar kabèh ditulis ing [[basa Jerman]], kajaba sawatara layang marang Milena Jesenská kang ditulis mawa [[basa Céko]]. Apa kang dibabar nalika urip namung sithik gunggungé. Kafka ora ngrampungaké novèl lan romané kang dawa sarta ngobong 90% tulisané,{{sfn|''New York Times''|2010}}{{sfn|Stach|2005|p = 2}} akèhé nalika dhèwèké manggon ing Berlin karo Diamant, kang mèlu ngréwangi ngobong tulisané.{{sfn|Murray|2004|pp = 367}} Ing taun-taun awal, Kafka dipangaribawani déning Von Kleist, ing siji layang menyang Bauer, karyané dianggep nggegirisi lan Kafka rumangsa luwih raket karo Von Kleist tinimbang karo kulawargané.{{sfn|Furst|1992|p = 84}} === Carita === Karya Kafka kang paling awal dibabar, ya iku wolung carita cekak kang terbit ing taun 1908 ing édisi perdana jurnal ''[[Hyperion (jurnal)|Hyperion]]'' mawa irah-irahan ''[[Betrachtung]]'' (''Kontèmplasi'' utawa ''Renungan''). Dhèwèké uga nulis carita "[[Beschreibung eines Kampfes]]" ("Paparan siji pangudi") ing taun 1904; dhèwèké nuduhaké carita iki marang Brod ing taun 1905. Brod banjur ngandhani Kafka supaya panggah nulis lan bisa ngyakinaké awaké ngirimaké naskahé menyang ''Hyperion''. Kafka mbabar siji fragmèn ing taun 1908{{sfn|Pawel|1985|pp = 160–163}} lan rong pérangan ing mangsa semi taun 1909, kabèh ing München.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 388}} Ing taun 1912 Kafka nulis carita "Das Urteil" ("Kaputusan"), lan carita iki diaturaké marang Felice Bauer. Carita iki dibabar ing Leipzig taun 1912. Isih ing taun 1912, Kafka uga nulis "Die Verwandlung" ("Métamorfosis", utawa "Transformasi"),{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 113}} lan dibabar ing taun 1915 ing Leipzig. Die Verwandlung nyaritakaké siji tukang dagang anduk kang nuju siji dina rumangsa manawa awaké tangi turu lan owah dadi siji ''ungeheuren Ungeziefer'', hama utawa kéwan gegremetan kang nggegirisi. Tembung ''Ungeziefer'' ing basa Jerman iku, sajatiné istilah umum kanggo kéwan reged lan kéwan kang disingkiri. Para kritikus nganggep karya iki minangka salah siji karya inovatif ing abad kaping 20.{{sfn|Sokel|1956|pp = 203–214}}{{sfn|Luke|1951|pp = 232–245}}{{sfn|Dodd|1994|pp = 165–168}} Carita "[[In der Strafkolonie]]" ("Ing Tanah Padendhan"), iku ngandharaké siji piranti panyiksan lan èksékusi kang canggih lan ditulis ing sasi Oktober 1914,{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 389}} banjur dirévisi ing taun 1918, lan dibabar ing Leipzig ing sasi Oktober 1919. Carita "[[Ein Hungerkünstler]]" ("Sawijining Seniman Pasa"), dibabar ing kalawarti ''[[Neue Rundschau|Die neue Rundschau]]'' ing taun 1924, carita iki ngandharaké siji paraga kang dadi kurban lan rumangsa manawa kasenengané sangsaya kurang marang katrampilan: pasa kanthi wektu suwé.{{sfn|Gray|2005|p = 131}} Caritané kang pungkasan, "[[Josefine, die Sängerin oder Das Volk der Mäuse]]" ("Josephine sang Penyanyi, utawa Rakyat Tikus"), uga ngandharaké gegayutan antara siji seniman lan para pamirsané.{{sfn|Horstkotte|2009}} ==== ''Das Urteil'' ==== Ing wayah wengi antara tanggal 22 nganti 23 September 1912, Kafka bisa olèh gawé nulis carita ''Das Urteil'' ing wayah wolung jam, olèhé nulis ora mandheg-mandheg. Ngèlmu kasusastran ing tembé bakal ngwiji upaya Kafka iki manawa dhèwèké nalika iku bisa nemu gaya pribadiné. Kafka lir kesetrum listrik awit sadurungé durung tau dhèwèké bisa nulis nganti intènsif kaya mengkéné iki. Uga dayaning carita marang awaké dhéwé, sawisé bola-bali diwaca, sangsaya mrebawani Kafka lan nggawé awaké sadhar manawa dhèwèké iku panulis sajati. ''Das Urteil'' miwiti siji mangsa kréatif kapisan, mangsa kréatif kapindhoné kira-kira lumaksanan rong taun sawisé. Ing antarané wayah iki, Kafka ora akèh nulis sajeroning karo tengah taun. Ing tembé Kafka ya ora akèh nulis manèh. Carita ''Das Urteil'' dikaturaké marang Felice Bauer. Brod nitèni manawa jeneng paraga baku lan tunangané ana èmperé: Georg Bendemann and Frieda Brandenfeld, to Franz Kafka and Felice Bauer.{{sfn|Brod|1966|ps = 114f}} Carita iki kerep dianggep manawa karya trobosan Kafka. Isiné ngandharaké gegayutan seret antara siji anak lanang marang bapakné kang dominan. Banjur ana kaanan anyar manawa anaké lanang arep tunangan.{{sfn|Ernst|2010}}{{sfn|Hawes|2008|pp = 159, 192}} Kafka ing tembé nulis, yèn dhèwèké nulis iku minangka "jiwa lan raga kang dibukak babar pisan" (''Nur so kann geschrieben werden, nur in einem solchen Zusammenhang, mit solcher vollständigen Öffnung des Leibes und der Seele.''-Aku namung bisa nulis, mawa gegandhèngan mengkéné, mawa jiwa lan raga kang dibukak babar pisan),{{sfn|Stach|2005|p = 113}}. Carita iki "ngrembaka kaya déné kalairan sajati, blépotan ayid saha rereged".{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 129}} Carita iki pisanan dibabar ing Leipzig taun 1912 lan diaturaké marang "Nona Felice Bauer", lan ing édisi sabanjuré marang "F."{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 389}} === Roman (novèl) === Roman kapisan Kafka ditulis ing taun 1912;{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 113}} irah-irahané bab kapisané ya iku "Der Heizer" ("Juru Pamanas"). Bukuné kang durung rampung diarani Kafka ''[[Der Verschollene]]'' (''Wong Lanang kang Ilang''), nanging Brod kang mbabar buku iki sawisé Kafka séda, ngarani buku iki ''Amérika''.{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp = 128, 135, 218}} Kafka diilhami pangalamané antarané para pamirsa pagelaran téater Yiddish ing taun sadurungé. Dhèwèké wiwit sadhar ngenani warisan budaya leluhuré lan banjur bisa aprésiasi jinis budaya kaya ngéné. Dhèwèké uga wiwit mikir manawa aprésiasi kanggo warisan budaya iku ana sajeroning kalbuné kabèh wong.{{sfn|Koelb|2010|p = 34}} Buku iki luwih lucu lan réalistis tinimbang akèh-akèhé karya Kafka liyané. Roman iki More explicitly humorous and slightly more realistic than most of Kafka's works, roman iki nyritakaké [[motif (sastra)|motif]] siji sistim kang oprèsif lan ora bisa dipahami sarta kerep nggiring sang paraga tumeka menyang ing kaanan kang anèh-anèh.{{sfn|Sussman|1979|pp = 72–94}} Bukuné nganggo akèh détail pangalaman para seduluré kang pindhah menyang Amérikah Sarékat{{sfn|Stach|2005|p = 79}} lan karya iki siji-sijiné karya Kafka kang ndarbèni pungkasan nyenengaké.{{sfn|Brod|1960|p = 137}} Ing taun 1914, Kafka nulis roman ''Der Process'' (''Prosès Pangadilan''),{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 388}} caritané prakara siji wong lanang kang dicekel péhak wewenang lan banjur dituntut ing pangadilan. Péhak wewenang iki ora bisa dihubungi lan sang paraga baku utawa para pawaca buku ya ora dikandhani apa salahé utawa luputé. Romané iki ora dirampungaké déning Kafka, nanging bab pungkasané ditulis. Miturut pamenang Pangaji Nobel lan ahli Kafka, [[Elias Canetti]], kang dadi fokus utama roman ''Der Process'' iku Felice. Kafka dhéwé tau ngandharaké manawa iku "caritané Felice".{{sfn|Stach|2005|pp = 108–115, 147, 139, 232}}{{sfn|Kakutani|1988}} Mula irah-irahan bukuné Canetti iku ''Kafka's Other Trial'' ('Prosès Kafka Liyané') kanggo mangertèni gegayutané layang-layangé marang Felice lan roman iki.{{sfn|Kakutani|1988}} Ing sajeroning resènsi kanggo koran ''[[The New York Times]]'', Michiko Kakutani nulis manawa layang-layangé Kafka iku ndarbèni "ciri-ciri karya fiksiné: kawigatènan kang grayasen kanggo nyathet détail-détail kang anèh, kasadaran paranoid kang padha marang traju kakuwasan, swasana émosional kang nekak — lan kang cukup nggumunaké, iku kabèh dicampur karo wanci-wanci semangat taruna saha kabagyan."{{sfn|Kakutani|1988}} Miturut buku padinané, Kafka wis ngrencanakaké nulis roman ''Das Schloss'' (kastil), ing tanggal 11 Juni 1914; nanging bukuné iki ora ditulis nganti tanggal 27 Januari 1922.{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 388}} Paraga mligi iku siji ''Landvermesser'' (pangukur tanah) ajeneng K., kang ngudi tanpa dingertèni alesané kanggo golèk aksès marang péhak kang nyekel siji kastil utawa puri kang mréntah désané. Kekarepané Kafka iku manawa kang nyekel kastil bakal ngandhani K. nalika dhèwèké sekarat yèn "klaim kukumé kanggo manggon ing désa iku ora absah, nanging dhedhasar alesan liyané, dhèwèké diidinaké manggon lan nyambut gawé ing kana".{{sfn|Boyd|2004|p = 139}} Roman iki swasanané surem lan kadhangkala suréalistis, fokusé iku marang aliénasi sosial, birokrasi, frustasi pangudèn wong iki nglawan sistim pamaréntahan kang katoné ora entèk-entèk, lan kekarepan nggayuh siji don kang muspra. Hartmut M. Rastalsky nulis sajeroning tèsisé: ''Like dreams, his texts combine precise "realistic" detail with absurdity, careful observation and reasoning on the part of the protagonists with inexplicable obliviousness and carelessness.'' ("Kayadéné impènan, tèks-tèksé iku nggabung détail "réalistis" persis karo absurditas, obsèrvasi kanthi ngati-ngati lan rasionalisasi para paragané mawa kalalèn lan kasembranan kang ora bisa ditrangaké."){{sfn|Rastalsky|1997|p = 1}} === Sajarah pambabaran === [[File:Kafka Betrachtung 1912.jpg|thumb|upright|Édisi kapisan ''[[Betrachtung]]'' ('Kontèmplasi' utawa 'Méditasi'), 1912]] Carita-carita Kafka awalé dibabar ing kalawarti kasusastran. Wolung caritan kapisané dicithak ing cithakan perdana kalawarti dwi-sasi ''Hyperion'' ing taun 1908.{{sfn|Itk|2008}} [[Franz Blei]] mbabar rong dialog ing taun 1909 kang ing tembé dadi pérangan "Beschreibung eines Kampfes" ("Dèskripsi siji pangudi").{{sfn|Itk|2008}} Cuplikan saka carita "[[Die Aeroplane in Brescia]]" ("Montor mabur ing Brescia"), iku ditulis nalika lagi ngumbara menyang Italia karo Brod, lan dibabar ing koran ''[[Bohemia (koran)|Bohemia]]'' ing tanggal 28 September 1909.{{sfn|Itk|2008}}{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 94}} Ing tanggal 27 Maret 1910, sawatara carita kang ing tembé dadi péranganing buku ''[[Betrachtung]]'' ('Kontemplasi') dibabar ing édisi Paskah ''Bohemia''.{{sfn|Itk|2008}}{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 61}} Ing [[Leipzig]] nalika taun 1913, Brod lan sang panerbit [[Kurt Wolff (panerbit)|Kurt Wolff]] mèlu nglebokaké carita "[[Das Urteil|Das Urteil. Eine Geschichte von Franz Kafka.]]" ("Putusan. Sawijining carita déning Franz Kafka.") ing buku taunan kanggo seni geguritan ''Arkadia''. Carita "[[Vor dem Gesetz]]}}" ("Ing ngarepé Kukum") dibabar ing édisi Taun Anyar 1915 saka kalawarti minggon Yahudi ''Selbstwehr''; carita iki dicithak bali ing taun 1919 minagka péranganing kompilasi ''[[Ein Landarzt]]'' (''Sawijining Dhokter Désa'') lan dadi pérangan roman ''[[Der Process]]''. Carita-carita liya kang dibabar ing sawatara publikasi kalebu koran ''[[Der Jude (kalawarti)|Der Jude]]'', darbèné Max Brod, koran ''[[Prager Tagblatt]]'', lan kalawarti ''[[Die neue Rundschau]]'', ''[[Genius (kalawarti)|Genius]]'', saha ''[[Prager Presse]]''.{{sfn|Itk|2008}} Buku Kafka kapisan kang dibabar, ''Betrachtung'' (''Kontemplasi'', utawa ''Méditasi''), iku siji kompilasi saka 18 [[cerkak]] kang ditulis antara taun 1904 lan 1912. Nalika mèlu pariwisata mangsa panas menyang [[Weimar]], Brod miwiti patemon antara Kafka lan Kurt Wolff;{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 110}} Wolff banjur mbabar ''Betrachtung'' ing panerbit [[Rowohlt Verlag]] ing pungkasaning taun 1912 (nanging dicithak taun 1913).{{sfn|European Graduate School, Articles|2012}} Kafka ngaturaké buku iki marang Brod, "{{lang|de|Für M.B.}}", lan nambahaké ing siji èksèmplar pribadi kang dicaosaké kancané "So wie es hier schon gedruckt ist, für meinen liebsten Max&nbsp;— Franz K." ("Amerga wis dicithak kaya ing kéné iki, Max kang budiman").{{sfn|Brod|1966|p = 115}} Carita Kafka "Die Verwandlung" ("Métamorfosis") iku kapisan dicithak ing sasi Oktober 1915 ing kalawarti ''[[Die Weißen Blätter]]'', siji kalawarti wulanan lan isiné sastra èksprèsionistis lan panyuntingé [[René Schickele]].{{sfn|European Graduate School, Articles|2012}} Sawijning kompilasi carita liyané, ''Ein Landarzt'' (''Sawijining Dhokter Désa''), iku dibabar déning Kurt Wolff ing taun 1919,{{sfn|European Graduate School, Articles|2012}} lan diaturaké marang Bapakné Kafka.{{sfn|Leiter|1958|pp = 337–347}} Kafka banjur nyiapaké kompilasi pungkasan kanggo dicithak, ''Ein Hungerkünstler'' ''(Sawijining Seniman Pasa)'', kang dibabar ing taun 1924 kanthi anumerta, ing panerbit ''[[Verlag Die Schmiede]]''. Ing tanggal 20 April 1924, panerbit ''[[Berliner Börsen-Courier]]'' mbabar ései Kafka's ngenani [[Adalbert Stifter]].{{sfn|Krolop|1994|p = 103}} ==== Max Brod ==== Kafka ngwarisaké karyané, kang wis dibabar lan durung dibabar, marang kancané Max Brod mawa instruksi cetha, manawa kabèh kudu dibesmi sawisé patiné Kafka. Kafka nulis: "Max kang budiman, panyuwun pungkasanku: kabèh kang taktinggalaké... awujud buku padinan, naskah, layang-layang (duwèkku dhéwé lan saka wong liya), skètsa, lan sapanjuré kudu diobonga tanpa diwaca.{{sfn|Kafka|1988|loc = publisher's notes}}{{sfn|McCarthy|2009}} Brod mutusaké ora nindakaké panjaluké Kafka lan mbabar roman sarta sawatara kompilasi antara taun 1925 lan 1935. Dhèwèké nggawa akèh dokumèn kang panggah durung dibabar ing koperé menyang Palèstina, nalika dhèwèké ngungsi rana taun 1939.{{sfn|Butler|2011|pp = 3–8}} Yang-yangané Kafka kang pungkasan, Dora Diamant (ing tembé Diamant-Lask), uga nglirwakaké panjaluké, dhèwèké ndhelikaké 20 buku sekrip lan 35 layang. Kabèh iku banjur dibeslah déning Gestapo ing taun 1933, nanging para nimpuna isih nggolèki barang-barang iku.{{sfn|Kafka Project SDSU|2012}} Sauntara Brod mbabar akèh-akèhé karyané Kafka kang saiki didarbèni,{{sfn|Contijoch|2000}} karyané Kafka wiwit diwigatèkaké kalangan kang luwih amba lan olèh aprésiasi. Brod rumangsa kangèlan ngatur buku cathetan Kafka srana kronologis. Salah siji masalah iku, Kafka kerep nulis ing pérangan séjé-séjé bukuné, sok-sokan ing tengah, sok-sokan saka mburi menyang ngarep.{{sfn|Kafka|2009|p = xxvii}}{{sfn|Diamant|2003|p = 144}} Brod akèh kang ngrampungaké naskah Kafka sadurungé dibabar. Contoné, Kafka ninggal naskah ''Der Process'' kang ora dinomeri lan sawatara bab ya durung pepak lan naskah ''Das Schloss'' malah sawatara ukara-ukara ora rampung lan isiné isih ambigu;{{sfn|Diamant|2003|p = 144}} Brod banjur nata bali bab-bab, nyunting tèks lan ngowahi titik. ''Der Process'' dibabar ing taun 1925 déning panerbit ''Verlag Die Schmiede''. Kurt Wolff banjur mbabar rong roman liyané, ''Das Schloss'' ing taun 1926 lan ''Amérika'' in taun 1927. Ing taun 1931, Brod nyunting kompilasi prosa lan cerkak minangka ''Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer'' ('Nalika Mbangun Témbok Tiongkok'), kalebu cerkak mawa irah-irahan kang padha. Buku iki dibabar déning panerbit ''Gustav Kiepenheuer Verlag''. Kolèksi buku Brod lumrahé diarani Édisi Définitif.{{sfn|Classe|2000|p = 749}} ==== Édisi modhèren ==== Ing taun 1961, [[Malcolm Pasley]] bisa olèh akèh-akèhé naskah asli Kafka kanggo [[Kapustakan Bodleian]], [[Universitas Oxford]].{{sfn|Jewish Heritage|2012}}{{sfn|Kafka|1998|loc = publisher's notes}} Tèks ''Der Process'' ing tembé dituku déning das Deutsche Literaturarchiv (Arsip Sastra Jerman) nalika dilélang lan saiki disinggahaké ing gedhungé ing Kutha [[Marbach am Neckar]], Jerman.{{sfn|Kafka|1998|loc = publisher's notes}}{{sfn|O'Neill|2004|p = 681}} Sawisé iku Pasley dadi kepala siji tim (kalebu [[Gerhard Neumann]], Jost Schillemeit lan Jürgen Born) kang ngrékonstruksi roman-roman ing basa Jerman; {{lang|de|[[S. Fischer Verlag]]}} lan mbabar bali.{{sfn|Adler|1995}} Pasley iku panyuntingé ''Das Schloss'', kang dibabar ing taun 1982, lan ''Der Process'', kang dibabar ing taun 1990. Jost Schillemeit iku panyuntingé ''Der Verschollene'' (''Amérika'') kang dibabar ing taun 1983. Kabèh babaran anyar iki diarani "Suntingan kritis" (''Critical Editions'') utawa "Suntingan Fischer".{{sfn|Oxford Kafka Research Centre|2012}} ==== Naskah-naskah kang durung dibabar ==== [[Gambar:The National Library of Israèl building - Amitay Katz.jpg|thumb|left|Kapustakan Nasional Israèl|pra=Special:FilePath/The_National_Library_of_Israèl_building_-_Amitay_Katz.jpg]] Nalika Brod séda ing taun 1968, dhèwèké ninggal naskah-naskah Kafka kang durung dibabar marang sèkrétarisé [[Esther Hoffe]], kang ditaksir cacahé ana èwon.{{sfn|''Guardian''|2010}} Dhèwèké banjur nglepasaké utawa ngedol sawatara naskah, nanging akèh-akèhé ditinggalaké marang anaké wadon, Eva lan Ruth, kang ora gelem nglepasaké naskah-naskah iki. Prosès pangadilan diwiwiti ing taun 2008 antara anak-anaké iki lan Kapustakan Nasional Israèl, kang nduwé panemu manawa naskah-naskah iki darbèné bangsa Israèl nalika Brod ijrah marang Palèstina Karajan Manunggal ing taun 1939. Esther Hoffe ngedol naskah asli ''Der Process'' marang Arsip Sastra Jerman utawa Musiyum Sastra Modèrn ing Marbach am Neckar.{{sfn|''New York Times''|2010}}{{sfn|Buehrer|2011}} Ing taun 2012 namung Eva kang isih urip.{{sfn|NPR|2012}} Kaputusan pangadilan kulawarga ing Tel Aviv ing taun 2010 manawa naskah-naskah iki kudu dilepas, kalebu sawatara naskah kang durung ditepungi sadurungé. Nanging prang tandhing kukum ing pangadilan panggah lumaksana.{{sfn|Lerman|2010}} Kulawarga Hoffe ngeklaim manawa naskah-naskah iku darbèn kulawargané kamangka Kapustakan Nasional kandha manawa naskah iku "asèt budaya darbèné Bangsa Yahudi".{{sfn|Lerman|2010}} Kapustakan Nasional uga ngusulaké manawa Brod ngwarisaké naskah-naskah iki marang Kapustakan Nasional ing testamèné utawa layang wasiyaté. Pangadilan Kulawarga Tel Aviv mutusaké ing Oktober 2012 manawa naskah-naskah iki darbèné Kapustakan Nasional.{{sfn|Rudoren|Noveck|2012}} Sawisé munggah bandhing, Pangadilan Kulawarga Tel Aviv mutusaké ing 2015 manawa Eva Hoffe kudu nyerahaké kabèh naskahé marang Kapustakan Nasional Israèl, kang arep ndokok kabèh iku sajeroning jaringen ing internèt.<ref>http://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jul/01/rare-kafka-manuscripts-israels-national-library-court-rules ''[[The Guardian]]'' 1-7-2015, diaksès tanggal 28-10-2015</ref> === Surasa kritis === [[File:Franz Kafka 1917.jpg|thumb|upright|Kafka ing taun 1917]] Sang pujangga [[W. H. Auden]] ngarani Kafka minangka "[[Dante]] saka abad kaping 20";{{sfn|Bloom|2002|p = 206}} sang panulis roman [[Vladimir Nabokov]] ndokok Kafka antara para panulis wigati ing abad kaping 20.{{sfn|Durantaye|2007|pp = 315–317}} [[Gabriel García Márquez]] nyathet nalika maca romané Kafka "Die Verwandlung" manawa Kafka nudhudi "yèn wong bisa nulis mawa cara liya".{{sfn|Kafka-Franz|2012}}{{sfn|Paris Review|2012}} Sawijining téma utama sajeroning karya-karyané Kafka lan kapisan tinemu sajeroning cerkak "Das Urteil",{{sfn|Gale Research Inc.|1979|pp = 288–311}}, ya iku konflik antara bapak lan anak: rasa salah kang dilebokaké marang si anak, pungkasané bisa diilangaké mawa kasangsaran lan tobat.{{sfn|Brod|1960|pp = 15–16}}{{sfn|Gale Research Inc.|1979|pp = 288–311}} Téma-téma utama lan arketipe liyané uga kalebu aliénasi, kakerasan fisik lan psikologis, paraga sajeroning pangumbaran nggegirisi lan transformasi mistik.{{sfn|Bossy|2001|p = 100}} Gaya Kafka wis kerep dipadhakaké marang gayané Kleist, saawal-awalé ing taun 1916, sajeroning resènsi "Die Verwandlung" lan "Der Heizer" déinng Oscar Walzel ing ''Berliner Beiträge''.{{sfn|Furst|1992|p = 83}} Sipaté karyané Kafka bisa marahi surasa kang béda-béda lan para kritikus mérang karyané ing sawatara gaya sekolah kasusastran kang béda-béda.{{sfn|Socialist Worker|2007}} Kaum [[Marxisme|Marxis]], contoné nduwé panemu kang séjé-séjé manawa nyurasani karya Kafka{{sfn|Lib.com|2008}}{{sfn|Socialist Worker|2007}} Ana kang nyalahaké Kafka manawa dhèwèké muter balik réalita, kamangka uga ana kang nduwé panemu yèn Kafka iku ngritik kapitalisme.{{sfn|Socialist Worker|2007}} Absurditas lan ora anané pangarepan kang kas ana ing karya Kafka iku dideleng minangka simbuling [[èksistènsialisme]].{{sfn|Sokel|2001|pp = 102–109}} Sawetara buku-bukuné dipangaribawani obahan [[èksprèsionisme|èksprèsionis]], kamangka akèh-akèhé kasil karya sastrané digabungaké marang ''genre'' [[modernisme|modernis]] èkspèrimèntal. Kafka uga sithik ndemok téma konflik manungsa nglawan birokrasi. William Burrows ngeklaim manawa karya sastra kaya ngono iku ndarbèni fokus marang pangudi, rasa lara, rasa ijèn lan kabutuhan marang gegayutan karo wong.{{sfn|Burrows|2011}} Wong liya, kaya [[Thomas Mann]], nganggep karya Kafka minangka siji carita pasemon utawa alégor: siji pangumbaran métafisik kanggo nggolèki Allah.{{sfn|Panichas|2004|pp = 83–107}}{{sfn|Gray|1973|p = 3}} Miturut [[Gilles Deleuze]] lan [[Félix Guattari]], téma aliènasi lan panguyan-uyan, sanadyan pancèn ana sajeroning karya Kafka, iku kabèh digedhèk-gedhèkaké déning para kritikus. Wong loro iki nduwé panemu manawa karya Kafka iku luwih ngati-ati lan subvèrsif — lan luwih mbungahaké — tinimbang ing tabet pisan. Wong loro iku uga nandhesaké manawa wong nggatèkaké pangudi para paragané kang muspra, nuduhaké carané Kafka mainaké humor, mbokmanawa dhèwèké ora mutlak ngandharaké masalahé dhéwé, nanging luwih mungkin nggambaraké kepriyé wong iku kepara nggawé masalah dhéwé. Sajeroning karyané, Kafka kerep nggawé donya kang ala lan absurd.{{sfn|Kavanagh|1972|pp = 242–253}}{{sfn|Rahn|2011}} Kafka macakaké draf-draf karyané marang kanca-kancané lan mligi nandhesaké karya gancarané kang humoristis. Sang panulis [[Milan Kundera]] nduwé panemu manawa [[humor suréalis]] Kafka iku mbokmanawa invèrsi saka para paraga ing karyané Dostoyevsky kang padha dikukum amarga salah. Ing karya Kafka, siji paraga kerep dikukum sanadyan dhèwèké ora salah. Kundera percaya manawa ilham Kafka kanggo nulis kaanan kaya mengkéné iki asalé saka kaanan Kafka dhéwé kang lair sajeroning kulawarga patriarkal lan urip sajeroning nagara totalitèr.{{sfn|Kundera|1988|pp = 82–99}} Para nimpuna wis nyoba ngayahi ngidèntifikasi pangaribawa latar wuri kukum Kafka lan peran kukum sajeroning karya fiksiné.{{sfn|Glen|2007}}{{sfn|Banakar|2010}} Akèh surasa kang ngidèntifikasi aspèk-aspèk kukum lan légalitas iku motif wigati,{{sfn|Glen|2011|pp = 47–94}} Kakfka nggambaraké manawa sistim kukum iku nindhes lan wong iku dikuya-kuya.{{sfn|Hawes|2008|pp = 216–218}} Lumrahé kukum sajeroning karya Kafka iku disurasani minangka dudu wakiling sistim kukum tartamtu nanging siji kolèksi kakuwatan anonim lan ora bisa dingertèni. Daya-daya kakuwatan iki ora katon déning wong-wong biyasa nanging ngatur kauripané manungsa, kang dadi kurban ora salah sistim iki lan ora bisa mangaribawani olèhé sistim iki tumindak.{{sfn|Glen|2011|pp = 47–94}} Para kritikus kang nyengkuyung surasa absurdis iki, mènèhi sitat saka papan Kafka njlèntrèhaké awaké dhéwé ana ing sajeroning konflik karo siji jagad kang absurd, kaya ta saka siji kaca ing buku padinané: {{quote|Kakurung ing antarané patang témbokku dhéwé, aku nemu awakku dhéwé minangka siji wong neneka kang dikunjara ing nagara ngamanca;... I ndeleng kulawargaku dhéwé tembung wong asing, kang padatné, tradisi lan basané ora takngertèni babar belas;... sanadyan aku ora gelem, kabèh padha meksa aku supaya mèlu ritus-ritus kang anèh;... aku ora bisa nglawan.{{sfn|Preece|2001|pp = 15–31}}}} Nanging James Hawes nduwé panemu yèn akèh gambaran Kafka ngenani prosès kukum ing carita iku ''{{lang|de|Der Process}}''—kaya ngapaa katoné métafisik, absurd, nggumunaké lan nggegirisi, sajatiné dhedhasar dèskripsi informasi akurat ngenani prosès pidana Jerman lan Ostenrik ing jaman iku, kang luwih ''[[sistim inquisitoir|inquisitoir]]'' tinimbang ''[[sistim accusatoir|accusatoir]]''.{{sfn|Hawes|2008|pp = 212–214}} Sanajan Kafka nyambut gawé ing sèktor asuransi, minangka siji pangacara, Kafka "sadhar banget lan ngetutaké débat-débat kukum ing jamané".{{sfn|Banakar|2010}}{{sfn|Ziolkowski|2003|p = 224}} Ing siji publikasi awal abad kaping 21 kang nganggo tulisan-tulisan kantor Kafka minangka titik awalé, {{sfn|Corngold et al.|2009|pp = xi, 169, 188, 388}} Pothik Ghosh ngandharaké manawa kanthi Kafka, kukum "ora nduwé jarwa liya saliyané daya kakuwatan kanggo nguwasani lan nentokaké wong liya".{{sfn|Ghosh|2009}} === Pertalan === Karya Franz Kafka durung ana kang dipertal ing Basa Jawa, nanging sawatara wis ana kang dipertal ing [[Basa Indonésia]]. Buku ''Die Verwandlung'' wis dipertal bola-bali. Contoné déning Isao Arief mawa irah-irahan ''The Metamorphosis'' (2010)<ref>''The Metamorphosis'', Isao Arief, Jakarta: Elex Media Komputindo, 2010.</ref> lan Herawati Desi mawa irah-irahan ''Metamorfosa'' (2000).<ref>''Metamorfosa'',Herawati Desi, Yogyakarta: Yeyasan Aksara Indonésia, 2000</ref> Banjur Janoary M. Wibowo mertalaké ''Penghakiman'' ing internèt.<ref>http://membacakafka.blogspot.com/</ref> Pertalan paling awal ing basa Inggris diayahi déning [[Edwin Muir|Edwin and Willa Muir]], kang nerjemahaké édisi kapisan Jerman ''Das Schloss'' ing taun 1930. Pertalan iki dibabar mawa irah-irahan ''The Castle'' déning panerbit [[Secker & Warburg]] ing Karajan Manunggal lan [[Alfred A. Knopf]] ing Amérikah Sarékat{{sfn|''Guardian''|1930}} Sawijining édisi taun 1941, mawa pakurmatan déning Thomas Mann, nambahi popularitas Kafka ing AS ing pungkasan dasawarsa 1940-an.{{sfn|Koelb|2010|p = 69}} Ing [[Basa Walanda]], ''Der Prozess'' dibabar minangka ''Het proces'' lan pertalané diayahi déning Alice van Nahuys (1953). Karya jangkep Kafka dipertal kanggo kapisan déning [[Claude Tchou]] ing [[basa Prancis]] (1962). === Masalah manawa mertalaké === Kafka kerep nrapaké siji ciri kas basa Jerman, kang ngidinaké basa iki nganggo ukara-ukara dawa kang kadhangkala dawané bisa sakaca. Ukara-ukara Kafka iki banjur bisa ngirim pesen kang ora dinuga sadurungé titik, iki kang bakal dadi fokus lan intisarining ukara. Perkara iki déné struktur anak ukara ing basa Jerman kang ngwajibaké dunungé tembung kriya siji ukara kudu didokok mburi dhéwé. Konstruksi kaya mengkéné iki angèl bisa digawé ing basa liyané, upamané basa Inggris, basa Indonésia utawa basa Jawa. Dadi sang pangalihbasa kang kudu nyaosi para pamaos èfèk kang padha utawa paling ora èfèk kang mèmper karo tèks asliné.{{sfn|Kafka|1996|p = xi}}<ref>http://membacakafka.blogspot.com/search?updated-min=2007-01-01T00:00:00-08:00&updated-max=2008-01-01T00:00:00-08:00&max-results=6, diaksès tanggal 31-10-2015</ref> Urutan tetembungan ing basa Jerman kang luwih flèksibel lan prabédan ing tingkat sintaksis, nggawé ukara ing basa Jerman bisa dipertal ing punjul siji ukara padhanan ing basa Inggris utawa basa liyané.{{sfn|Bloom|2003|pp = 23–26}} {{quote|''Als/ Gregor/ Samsa/ eines/ Morgens/ aus/ unruhigen/ Träumen/ erwachte/, fand/ er/ sich/ in /seinem/ Bett/ zu /einem/ ungeheuren/ Ungeziefer/ verwandelt''. (asliné) As /Gregor/ Samsa /one /morning/ from /restless /dreams /awoke/, found/ he /himself /in /his /bed /into /an /enormous/ vermin /transformed. (pertalan tembung siji-siji ing basa Inggris)<ref>Prinsky (2002), pamérangan ditambah dhéwé</ref> Manawa / Gregor / Samsa /siji /ésuk /saka /glébagan/ impèn /tangi/, nemu /dhèwèké/ awaké dhéwé/ ing /darbèné/ ambèn/ tekan/ siji /nggegirisi/ sremet /owah }} Masalah liyané kang mèh ora bisa dipecahaké ya iku kepriyé kudu mertal sawatara tetembungan kang pancèn dipilih Kafka lan ndarbèni teges punjul siji. Dadi pertalan angèl digawé.{{sfn|Lawson|1960|pp = 216–219}}{{sfn|Rhine|1989|pp = 447–458}} Salah siji conto iku ana ing ukara kapisan ''Die Verwandlung''. Tembung Jerman ''Ungeziefer'' kerep dipertal minangka [[kéwan gegremetan]] ing basa Inggris (''insect''), kamangka ing basa Jerman Tengahan, ''Ungeziefer'' tegesé "kéwan kang ora resik dikurbanaké";{{sfn|Corngold|1973|p = 10}} ing basa Jerman modhèren, tegesé ya sremet. Kafka ora nduwé kekarep apa-apa ngecap Gregor, paraga baku carita dadi kéwan apa, nanging Kafka namung kepéngin nggambaraké olèhé Gregor gila marang transformasi awaké dhéwé.{{sfn|Sokel|1956|pp = 203–214}}{{sfn|Luke|1951|pp = 232–245}} == Warisan == === "kafkaesk" === Tulisan Kafka ngilhami tembung ''[[:de:wikt:kafkaesk|kafkaesk]]'' (ing basa Jerman) utawa "Kafkaesque" (ing basa Inggris), kang tegesé absurd lan medèni. Tembung iki ditrapaké kanggo nggambaraké kaanan kang ora bisa digagas mawa nalar, njlimet lan ora logis.{{sfn|Steinhauer|1983|pp = 390–408}}{{sfn|Adams|2002|pp = 140–157}}{{sfn|Aizenberg|1986|pp = 11–19}}{{sfn|Strelka|1984|pp = 434–444}} Akèh filem ing bioskup utawa télévisi kang dicap minangka kafkaesk, lan kerepe filem iki filem fiksi ngèlmiah distopis. Contoné kalebu filem [[Patrick Bokanowski]] ''[[The Angel (filem 1982)|The Angel]]'' (1982), filemé [[Terry Gilliam]] ''[[Brazil (filem 1985)|Brazil]]'' (1985), lan filem fiksi ngèlmiah taun 1998 kang ndarbèni gaya ''filem noir'' ''[[Dark City (filem 1998)|Dark City]]''. Film liya kang uga dianggep kafkaesk ya iku ''[[The Tenant]]'' (1976) lan ''[[Barton Fink]]'' (1991).{{sfn|Palmer|2004|pp = 159–192}} Sérial télévisi ''[[The Prisoner]]'' uga kerep dianggep kafkaesk.{{sfn|O'Connor|1987}}{{sfn|''Los Angeles Times''|2009}} == Kapustakan == === Karya-karyané kang dibabar nalika isih sugeng === * ''Ein Damenbrevier'', [[1909]]. * ''Gespräch mit dem Beter'', [[1909]]. * ''Gespräch mit dem Betrunkenen'', [[1909]]. * ''Die Aeroplane in Brescia'', [[1909]]. * ''Großer Lärm'', [[1912]]. * ''Betrachtung'', [[1913]]. * ''Das Urteil'', [[1913]]. * ''Der Heizer'', [[1913]]. * ''[[Die Verwandlung]]'', [[1915]]. * ''Der Mord'', [[1918]], [[1919]]. * ''In der Strafkolonie'', [[1919]]. * ''Ein Landarzt'', [[1918]]. * ''Der Kübelreiter'', [[1921]]. * ''Ein Hungerkünstler'', [[1922]]. == Gladri == <gallery> Gambar:Kafka-Denkmal.jpg|Patung Franz Kafka saka prunggu gawéyané [[Jaroslav Róna]] ing Praha </gallery> == Rujukan == === Cathetan sikil === {{reflist|2}} === Bibliografi === * {{cite book | last = Alt | first = Peter-André | year = 2005 | language = German | title = Franz Kafka: Der ewige Sohn. Eine Biographie | publisher = Verlag C.H. Beck | location = München | isbn = 978-3-406-53441-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Bathrick |first=David |title=The Powers of Speech: The Politics of Culture in the GDR |year=1995 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |location=Lincoln }} * {{cite book | last = Bergman | first = Hugo | title = Memories of Franz Kafka in Franz Kafka Exhibition (Catalogue) | year = 1969 | publisher = The Jewish National and University Library | location = Library | url = http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/michael-lowy-franz-kafka-and-libertarian-socialism.a4.pdf | format = PDF }} * {{cite book | last = Bloom | first = Harold | authorlink = Harold Bloom | title = Franz Kafka | work = Bloom's Major Short Story Writers | year = 2003 | publisher = Chelsea House Publishers | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-7910-6822-9 }} * {{cite journal | last = Bloom | first = Harold | title = Franz Kafka's Zionism |date=Spring 2011 | journal = Midstream | location = 57 | issue = 2 }} * {{cite book | last = Bloom | first = Harold | title = Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds | year = 2002 | publisher = Warner Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-446-52717-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Bloom | first = Harold | title = The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages | year = 1994 | publisher = Riverhead Books, Penguin Group | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-57322-514-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Bossy | first = Michel-André | title = Artists, Writers, and Musicians: An Encyclopedia of People Who Changed the World | year = 2001 | publisher = Oryx Press | location = Westport, Connecticut | isbn = 978-1-57356-154-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Boyd | first = Ian R. | title = Dogmatics Among the Ruins: German Expressionism and the Enlightenment | year = 2004 | publisher = Peter Lang AG | location = Bern | isbn = 978-3-03910-147-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Brod | first = Max | authorlink = Max Brod | title = Franz Kafka: A Biography | year = 1960 | publisher = Schocken Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8052-0047-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Brod | first = Max | title = Über Franz Kafka | year = 1966 | publisher = S. Fischer Verlag | location = Hamburg | language = German }} * {{cite book | last = Bruce | first = Iris | title = Kafka and Cultural Zionism&nbsp;— Dates in Palestine | year = 2007 | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | location = Madison, Wisconsin | isbn = 978-0-299-22190-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Classe | first = Olive | title = Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English, Vol. 1 | year = 2000 | publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers | location = Chicago | isbn = 978-1-884964-36-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Contijoch | first = Francesc Miralles | language = Spanish | title = Franz Kafka | year = 2000 | publisher = Oceano Grupo Editorial, S.A. | location = Barcelona | isbn = 978-84-494-1811-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Corngold | first = Stanley | title = Introduction to The Metamorphosis | year = 1972 | publisher = Bantam Classics | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-553-21369-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Corngold | first = Stanley | title = The Commentator's Despair | year = 1973 | publisher = Kennikat Press | location = Port Washington, New York | isbn = 978-0-8046-9017-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Corngold | first = Stanley | title = Lambent Traces: Franz Kafka | year = 2004 | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0-691-11816-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Corngold | first = Stanley | title = Franz Kafka: The Office Writings | year = 2009 | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0-691-12680-7 | ref = {{sfnRef|Corngold et al.|2009}} }} * {{cite book | last = Diamant | first = Kathi | title = Kafka's Last Love: The Mystery of Dora Diamant | year = 2003 | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-465-01551-1 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Drucker | first1 = Peter | title = Managing in the Next Society | year = 2002 | edition = 2007 | publisher = Elsevier | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-7506-8505-4 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Engel | first1 = Manfred | last2 = Auerochs | first2 = Bernd | language = German | title = Kafka-Handbuch. Leben – Werk – Wirkung | year = 2010 | publisher = Stuttgart, Weimar | location = Metzler | isbn = 978-3-476-02167-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Elsaesser | first = Thomas | title = The Last Great American Picture Show | year = 2004 | publisher = Amsterdam University Press | location = Amsterdam | isbn = 978-90-5356-493-6 }} * {{cite book | last = Furst | first = Lillian R. | year = 1992 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=0HmgYaAEHHYC&pg=PA83&lpg=#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = Through the Lens of the Reader: Explorations of European Narrative | publisher = SUNY Press | isbn = 978-0-7914-0808-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Gale Research Inc. | authorlink = Gale (publisher) | title = Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism: Excerpts from Criticism of the Works of Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Short Story Writers, & Other Creative Writers Who Died Between 1900 & 1999 | year = 1979 <!-- see http://www.enotes.com/franz-kafka-judgment-criticism/judgment-franz-kafka --> | publisher = Gale Cengage Learning | location = Farmington Hills, Michigan | isbn = 978-0-8103-0176-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Gilman | first = Sander | authorlink = Sander Gilman | title = Franz Kafka, the Jewish Patient | year = 1995 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-415-91391-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Gilman | first = Sander | title = Franz Kafka | year = 2005 | publisher = Reaktion Books | location = London | isbn = 978-1-881872-64-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Gray | first = Richard T. | title = A Franz Kafka Encyclopedia | year = 2005 | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-313-30375-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Gray | first = Ronald | title = Franz Kafka | year = 1973 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-521-20007-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Hamalian | first = Leo | title = Franz Kafka: A Collection of Criticism | year = 1974 | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-025702-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Hawes | first = James | authorlink = James Hawes (author) | title = Why You Should Read Kafka Before You Waste Your Life | year = 2008 | publisher = St. Martin's Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-312-37651-2 }}<!-- * {{cite book | last = Janouch | first = Gustav | language = French | title = Conversations avec Kafka | year = 1998 | publisher = Maurice Nadeau | location = Paris | isbn = 978-2-86231-111-1 }} --> * {{cite book | last = Janouch | first = Gustav | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=45d6JsdVFaIC&pg=PA17&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = Conversations with Kafka | year = 1971 | edition = 2 | publisher = New Directions Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8112-0071-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Kafka | first = Franz | title = The Penal Colony: Stories and Short Pieces | year = 1948 | edition = 1987 | publisher = Schocken Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8052-3198-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Kafka | first = Franz | title = Dearest Father. Stories and Other Writings | year = 1954 | publisher = Schocken Books | location = New York }} * {{cite book | last = Kafka | first = Franz | title = The Castle | year = 1988 | publisher = Schocken Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8052-0872-6 }} * {{cite book | last = Kafka | first = Franz | title = The Metamorphosis and Other Stories | year = 1996 | publisher = Barnes & Noble | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-56619-969-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Kafka | first = Franz | title = The Trial | year = 1998 | publisher = Schocken Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8052-0999-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Kafka | first = Franz | title = The Trial | year = 2009 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-923829-3 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Kahn | first1 = Lothar | last2 = Hook | first2 = Donald D. | title = Between Two Worlds: a cultural history of German-Jewish writers | year = 1993 | publisher = Iowa State University Press | location = Ames, Iowa | isbn = 978-0-8138-1233-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Karl | first = Frederick R. | title = Franz Kafka: Representative Man | year = 1991 | location = Boston | publisher = Ticknor & Fields | isbn = 978-0-395-56143-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Koelb | first = Clayton | title = Kafka: A Guide for the Perplexed | year = 2010 | location = Chippenham, Wiltshire | publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group | isbn = 978-0-8264-9579-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Krolop | first = Kurt | language = German | title = Kafka und Prag | publisher = Goethe-Institut | year = 1994 | location = Prague | isbn = 978-3-11-014062-0 }} <!-- * {{cite book | last1 = Mann | first1 = Thomas | last2 = Heller | first2 = E. | title = Thomas Mann: The ironic German | year = 1981 | publisher = Cambridge University Press Archive | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-521-23546-4 }} uncomment when page ref found --> * {{cite book | last = Miller | first = Alice | title = Thou Shalt Not Be Aware:Society's Betrayal of the Child | year = 1984 | publisher = Farrar, Straus, Giroux | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-9567982-1-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Murray | first = Nicholas | authorlink = Nicholas Murray (historian) | title = Kafka | year = 2004 | publisher = Yale University Press | location = New Haven, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-300-10631-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Newmark | first = Peter | title = About Translation | year = 1991 | publisher = Cromwell Press | location = Wiltshire, England | isbn = 978-1-85359-117-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Northey | first = Anthony | title = Mišpoche Franze Kafky | language = Czech | year = 1997 | publisher = Nakladatelství Primus | location = Prague | isbn = 978-80-85625-45-5 }} * {{cite book | last = O'Neill | first = Patrick M. | title = Great World Writers: Twentieth Century | year = 2004 | publisher = Marshal Cavendish | location = Tarrytown, New York | isbn = 978-0-7614-7477-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Pawel | first = Ernst | title = The Nightmare of Reason: A Life of Franz Kafka | year = 1985 | publisher = Vintage Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-374-52335-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Preece | first = Julian | title = The Cambridge Companion to Kafka | year = 2001 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-521-66391-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Rothkirchen | first = Livia | title = The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia: facing the Holocaust | year = 2005 | publisher = University of Nebraska Press | location = Lincoln, Nebraska | isbn = 978-0-8032-3952-4 }} * {{cite book | editor-last = Silverman | editor-first = Al | title = The Book of the Month: Sixty Years of Books in American Life | publisher = Little, Brown | year=1986 | location = Boston | isbn = 0-316-10119-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Singer | first = Isaac Bashevis | authorlink = Isaac Bashevis Singer | title = A Friend of Kafka, and Other Stories | publisher = Farrar, Straus and Giroux | year=1970 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-374-15880-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Sokel | first = Walter H. | title = The Myth of Power and the Self: Essays on Franz Kafka | publisher = Wayne State University Press | year=2001 | location = Detroit | isbn = 978-0-8143-2608-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Spector | first = Scott | title = Prague Territories: National Conflict and Cultural Innovation in Franz Kafka's Fin de Siècle | publisher = University of California Press | year=2000 | location = Berkeley | isbn = 978-0-520-23692-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Stach | first = Reiner | authorlink = Reiner Stach | title = Kafka: The Decisive Years | publisher = Harcourt | year=2005 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-15-100752-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Sussman | first = Henry | title = Franz Kafka: Geometrician of Metaphor | year = 1979 | publisher = Coda Press | location = Madison, Wisconsin | isbn = 978-0-930956-02-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Ziolkowski | first = Theodore | authorlink = Theodore Ziolkowski | title = The Mirror of Justice: Literary Reflections of Legal Crisis | year = 2003 | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0-691-11470-5 }} ''Jurnal'' * {{cite journal | last = Adams | first = Jeffrey | title = Orson Welles's "The Trial:" Film Noir and the Kafkaesque | jstor = 25112662 |date=Summer 2002 | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | journal = College Literature, Literature and the Visual Arts | location = West Chester, Pennsylvania }} * {{cite journal | last = Aizenberg | first = Edna | title = Kafkaesque Strategy and Anti-Peronist Ideology Martinez Estrada's Stories as Socially Symbolic Acts | jstor = 20119426 |date=July–December 1986 | volume = 14 | issue = 28 | journal = Latin American Literary Review | location = Chicago }} * {{cite journal | last = Banakar | first = Reza | authorlink = Reza Banakar | title = In Search of Heimat: A Note on Franz Kafka's Concept of Law | ssrn = 1574870 |date=Fall 2010 | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | journal = Law and Literature | location = Berkeley, California | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.1574870 }} * {{cite journal | last = Butler | first = Judith | title = Who Owns Kafka | url = http://www.lrb.co.uk/v33/n05/judith-butler/who-owns-kafka | date = 3 Maret 2011 | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | location = London | journal = London Review of Books | access-date = 1 Agustus 2012 }} * {{cite journal | last = Corngold | first = Stanley | title = Kafkas Spätstil/Kafka's Late Style: Introduction | location = Madison, Wisconsin | journal = Monatshefte | volume = 103 | issue = 3 |date=Fall 2011 | doi = 10.1353/mon.2011.0069 }} * {{cite journal | last = Dembo | first = Arinn | title = Twilight of the Cockroaches: Bad Mojo Evokes Kafka So Well It'll Turn Your Stomach |date=June 1996 | issue = 143 | location = New York | journal = Computer Gaming World }} * {{cite journal | last = Dodd | first = W. J. | title = Kafka and Dostoyevsky: The Shaping of Influence | year = 1994 | jstor = 40246931 | journal = Comparative Literature Studies | location = State College, Pennsylvania | volume = 31 | issue = 2 }} * {{cite journal | last = Durantaye | first = Leland de la | authorlink = Leland de la Durantaye | title = Kafka's Reality and Nabokov's Fantasy: On Dwarves, Saints, Beetles, Symbolism and Genius | journal = Comparative Literature | year = 2007 | volume = 59 | issue = 4 | url = http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~deladur/kafka.pdf | format = PDF | doi = 10.1215/-59-4-315 | pages = 315 | access-date = 2015-11-11 | archive-date = 2010-05-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100525025619/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~deladur/kafka.pdf | url-status = dead }} * {{cite journal | last = Fichter | first = Manfred M. | title = The Anorexia Nervosa of Franz Kafka | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-eating-disorders_1987-05_6_3/page/367 |date=May 1987 | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | location = Washington, D.C. | publisher = American Psychological Association | journal = International Journal of Eating Disorders | doi = 10.1002/1098-108X(198705)6:3<367::AID-EAT2260060306>3.0.CO;2-W | pages = 367 }} * {{cite journal | last = Fichter | first = Manfred M. | language = German | title = Franz Kafka's anorexia nervosa |date=July 1988 | volume = 56 | issue = 7 | doi = 10.1055/s-2007-1001787 | pmid = 3061914 | location = Munich | publisher = Psychiatrische Klinik der Universität München | journal = Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie | pages = 231–8 }} * {{cite journal | last = Fort | first = Jeff | url = http://www.believermag.com/issues/200603/?read=article_fort | title = The Man Who Could Not Disappear | date = March 2006 | journal = The Believer | access-date = 7 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Believer|2006}} | archive-date = 2018-02-12 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180212084711/https://www.believermag.com/issues/200603/?read=article_fort | url-status = dead }} <!--* {{cite journal | last = Gerhardt | first = Christina | title = The Ethics of Animals in Adorno and Kafka | url = http://ngc.dukejournals.org/content/33/1_97.toc | year = 2006 | volume = 97 | pages = 159–178 | location = Durham | publisher = Duke | journal = New German Critique | access-date = 7 Agustus 2014 | doi=10.1215/0094033x-2005-009 }} we have here only books and journals that are used for referencing --> * {{cite journal | last = Glen | first = Patrick J. | title = The Deconstruction and Reification of Law in Franz Kafka's ''Before the Law'' and ''The Trial'' | url = http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~idjlaw/PDF/17-1/17-1%20Glen.pdf | format = PDF | year = 2007 | volume = 17 | issue = 23 | location = Los Angeles | publisher = University of Southern California | journal = Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal | access-date = 3 Agustus 2012 | archive-date = 2012-09-16 | archive-url = https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120916114919/http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~idjlaw/PDF/17-1/17-1%20Glen.pdf | url-status = dead }} * {{cite journal | last = Glen | first = Patrick J. | title = Franz Kafka, Lawrence Joseph, and the Possibilities of Jurisprudential Literature | url = http://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/967/ | format = PDF | year = 2011 | volume = 21 | issue = 47 | location = Los Angeles | publisher = University of Southern California | journal = Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal | access-date = 21 Sèptèmber 2012 }} * {{cite journal | last = Horton | first = Scott | url = http://harpers.org/archive/2008/08/hbc-90003426 | title = In Pursuit of Kafka's Porn Cache: Six questions for James Hawes | date = 19 Agustus 2008 | journal = Harper's Magazine | access-date = 3 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Harper's|2008}} | archive-date = 2012-10-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121019170227/http://harpers.org/archive/2008/08/hbc-90003426 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite journal | last = Hughes | first = Kenneth | title = Franz Kafka: An Anthology of Marxist Criticism | location = Madison, Wisconsin | journal = Monatshefte | volume = 78 | issue = 2 |date=Summer 1986 | jstor = 30159253 }} * {{cite journal | last = Kavanagh | first = Thomas M. | title = Kafka's "The Trial": The Semiotics of the Absurd | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham, North Carolina | journal = Novèl: A Forum on Fiction |date=Spring 1972 | jstor = 1345282 | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | doi = 10.2307/1345282 }} * {{cite journal | last = Kempf | first = Franz R. | title = Franz Kafkas Sprachen: "...&nbsp;in einem Stockwerk des innern babylonischen Turmes..." | journal = Shofar: an Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies |date=Summer 2005 | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | publisher = Purdue University Press | location = West Lafayette, Indiana | doi = 10.1353/sho.2005.0155 | pages = 159 }} * {{cite journal | last = Keren | first = Michael | title = The 'Prague Circle' and the Challenge of Nationalism | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-european-ideas_1993-01_16_1-3/page/3 | publisher = Pergamon Press | location = Oxford | journal = History of European Ideas | year = 1993 | doi = 10.1016/S0191-6599(05)80096-8 | volume = 16 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 3 }} * {{cite journal | last = Kundera | first = Milan | title = Kafka's World | publisher = The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars | location = Washington, D.C. | journal = The Wilson Quarterly |date=Winter 1988 | jstor = 40257735 | volume = 12 | issue = 5 }} * {{cite journal | last = Lawson | first = Richard H. | title = Ungeheueres Ungeziefer in Kafka's "Die Verwandlung" | publisher = American Association of Teachers of German | location = Cherry Hill, New Jersey | journal = The German Quarterly |date=May 1960 | jstor= 402242 | volume = 33 | issue = 3 }} * {{cite journal | last = Leiter | first = Louis H. | title = A Problem in Analysis: Franz Kafka's 'A Country Doctor' | publisher = American Society for Aesthetics | location = Philadelphia | journal = The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism | year = 1958 | doi = 10.2307/427381 | volume = 16 | issue = 3 }} * {{cite journal | last = Luke | first = F. D. | title = Kafka's "Die Verwandlung" |date=April 1951 | jstor = 3718565 | journal = The Modern Language Review | location = Cambridge | volume = 46 | issue = 2 | doi = 10.2307/3718565 }} * {{cite journal | last = McElroy | first = Bernard | title = The Art of Projective Thinking: Franz Kafka and the Paranoid Vision | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_modern-fiction-studies_summer-1985_31_2/page/217 |date=Summer 1985 | doi = 10.1353/mfs.0.0042 | journal = Modern Fiction Studies | location = Cambridge | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 217 }} * {{cite journal | last = Panichas | first = George A. | title = Kafka's Afflicted Vision: A Literary-Theological Critique |date=Spring–Fall 2004 | publisher = National Humanities Institute | journal = Humanitas | location = Bowie, Maryland | volume = 17 | issue = 1–2 }} * {{cite journal | last = Pérez-Álvarez | first = Marino | title = The Schizoid Personality of Our Time | year = 2003 | journal = International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy | location = Almería, Spain | volume = 3 | issue = 2 }} * {{cite journal | last = Rhine | first = Marjorie E. | title = Untangling Kafka's Knotty Texts: The Translator's Prerogative? | location = Madison, Wisconsin | journal = Monatshefte | volume = 81 | issue = 4 |date=Winter 1989 | jstor= 30166262 }} * {{cite journal | last = Sayer | first = Derek | title = The Language of Nationality and the Nationality of Language: Prague 1780–1920&nbsp;– Czech Republic History | year = 1996 | journal = Past and Present | location = Oxford | doi = 10.1093/past/153.1.164 | oclc = 394557 | volume = 153 | issue = 1 | pages = 164 }} * {{cite journal | last = Sandbank | first = Shimon | title = After Kafka: The Influence of Kafka's Fiction | year = 1992 | jstor = 40246852 | journal = Penn State University Press | location = Oxford | volume = 29 | issue = 4 }} * {{cite journal | last = Sokel | first = Walter H. | title = Kafka's "Metamorphosis": Rebellion and Punishment |date=April–May 1956 | jstor = 30166165 | journal = Monatshefte | location = Madison, Wisconsin | volume = 48 | issue = 4 }} * {{cite journal | last = Steinhauer | first = Harry | title = Franz Kafka: A World Built on a Lie | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_antioch-review_fall-1983_41_4/page/390 |date=Autumn 1983 | jstor = 4611280 | journal = The Antioch Review | location = Yellow Springs, Ohio | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | doi = 10.2307/4611280 | pages = 390 }} * {{cite journal | last = Strelka | first = Joseph P. | title = Kafkaesque Elements in Kafka's Novels and in Contemporary Narrative Prose |date=Winter 1984 | jstor = 40246504 | journal = Comparative Literature Studies | location = State College, Pennsylvania | volume = 21 | issue = 4 }} * {{cite journal | last = Updike | first = John | authorlink = John Updike | url = http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/01/24/050124crbo_books1 | title = Subconscious Tunnels: Haruki Murakami's dreamlike new novèl | newspaper = The New Yorker | date = 24 Januari 2005 | access-date = 22 Sèptèmber 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Updike|2005}} }} ''Koran'' * {{cite news | last = Adler | first = Jeremy | url = http://www.textkritik.de/rezensionen/kafka/einl_04.htm | date = 13 Oktober 1995 | work = New York Times Literary Supplement | title = Stepping into Kafka's Head | access-date = 4 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Adler|1995}} }} {{subscription required}} * {{cite news | last = Apel | first = Friedman | date = 28 Agustus 2012 | language = German | title = Der Weg in die Ewigkeit führt abwärts / Roland Reuß kramt in Kafkas Zürauer Zetteln | newspaper = Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung | ref = {{sfnRef|Apel|2012}} }} * {{cite news | last = Banville | first = John | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2011/jan/15/john-banville-kafka-trial-rereading | title = Franz Kafka's other trial / An allegory of the fallen man's predicament, or an expression of guilt at a tormented love affair? | date = 14 Januari 2011 | newspaper = The Guardian | access-date = 1 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Banville|2011}} | location=London }} * {{cite news | last = Batuman | first = Elif | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/26/magazine/26kafka-t.html | date = 22 Sèptèmber 2010 | newspaper = The New York Times | title = Kafka's Last Trial | access-date = 3 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|''New York Times''|2010}} }} * {{cite news | last = Buehrer | first = Jack | url = http://www.praguepost.com/news/7768-battle-for-kafka-legacy-drags-on.html | title = Battle for Kafka legacy drags on | date = 9 Maret 2011 | newspaper = The Prague Post | access-date = 29 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Buehrer|2011}} }} * {{cite news | last = Burrows | first = William | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2011/dec/22/franz-kafka-winter-reads | title = Winter read: The Castle by Franz Kafka | date = 22 Dhésèmber 2011 | newspaper = The Guardian | access-date = 27 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Burrows|2011}} | location=London }} * {{cite news | last = Connolly | first = Kate | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/aug/15/franzkafka.germany | title = Porn claims outrage German Kafka scholars | date = 14 Agustus 2008 | newspaper = The Guardian | access-date = 3 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Connolly|2008}} | location=London }} * {{cite news | last = Glass | first = Philip | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/10/arts/theater-adapting-the-horrors-of-a-kafka-story-to-suit-glass-s-music.html?pagewanted=print&src=pm | title = Adapting the Horrors of a Kafka Story To Suit Glass's Music | date = 10 Juni 2001 | newspaper = Los Angeles Times | access-date = 17 Juni 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|Glass|2001}} }} * {{cite news | last = Jeal | first = Erica | url = http://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/mar/18/the-commission-cafe-kafka-royal-opera-and-opera-north | title = The Commission/Café Kafka, Royal Opera/Opera North/Aldeburgh Music – review | date = 18 Maret 2014 | newspaper = The Guardian | accessdate = 20 April 2015 | ref = {{sfnRef|Jeal|2014}} | location=London }} * {{cite news | last = Kakutani | first = Michiko | url = http://www.nytimes.com/1988/04/02/books/books-of-the-times-kafka-s-kafkaesque-love-letters.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm | title = Books of the Times; Kafka's Kafkaesque Love Letters | date = 2 April 1988 | newspaper = The New York Times | access-date = 8 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kakutani|1988}} }} * {{cite news | last = Kenley-Letts | first = Ruth | url = http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/239041/Franz-Kafka-s-It-s-a-Wonderful-Life-/details | year = 1993 | newspaper = The New York Times | title = Franz Kafka's "It's a Wonderful Life" (1993) | access-date = 4 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|''New York Times''|1993}} }} * {{cite news | last = Kirsch | first = Adam | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/04/books/review/Kirsch-t.html?pagewanted=all&_moc.semityn.www | date = 2 Januari 2009 | newspaper = The New York Times | title = America, 'Amérika' | access-date = 25 Sèptèmber 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kirsch|2009}} }} * {{cite news | last = Lerman | first = Antony | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jul/22/kafka-legacy-israel | date = 22 Juli 2010 | newspaper = The Guardian | title = The Kafka legacy: who owns Jewish heritage? | access-date = 29 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Lerman|2010}} | location=London }} * {{cite news | last = McCarthy | first = Rory | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/oct/25/israel-library-franz-kafka-trial | title = Israèl's National Library adds a final twist to Franz Kafka's Trial | date = 24 Oktober 2009 | newspaper = The Guardian | access-date = 3 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|McCarthy|2009}} | location=London }} * {{cite news | last = McLellan | first = Dennis | url = http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-patrick-mcgoohan15-2009jan15,0,3951859.story | title = Patrick McGoohan dies at 80; TV's 'Secret Agent' and 'Prisoner' | date = 15 Januari 2009 | newspaper = Los Angeles Times | access-date = 17 Juni 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|''Los Angeles Times''|2009}} }} * {{cite news | last = Metcalfe | first = Anna | url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/bfaf51ba-e05a-11de-8494-00144feab49a.html#axzz1L3wH1OFW | date = 5 Dhésèmber 2009 | newspaper = Financial Times | title = Small Talk: José Saramago | access-date = 1 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|''Financial Times''|2009}} }} {{Subscription required}} * {{cite news | last = O'Connor | first = John J. | url = http://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/04/arts/mcgoohan-a-spy-on-31.html | date = 4 Juni 1987 | newspaper = The New York Times | title = McGoohan a Spy on 31 | access-date = 16 Juni 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|O'Connor|1987}} }} * {{cite book | last = Palmer | first = R. Barton | title = Joel and Ethan Coen | year = 2004 | publisher = University of Illinois Press | location = Urbana, Illinois | isbn = 0-252-07185-9 }} * {{cite news | last = Rizzulo | first1 = Rachel | url = http://bachtrack.com/review-nyc-joyce-theater-royal-ballet-metamorphosis | date = 23 Sèptèmber 2013 | newspaper = bachtrack | title = The Royal Ballet's production of The Metamorphosis with Edward Watson in New York | access-date = 23 Januari 2014 }} * {{cite news | last1 = Rudoren | first1 = Jodi | last2 = Noveck | first2 = Myra | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/15/world/middleeast/woman-must-relinquish-kafka-papers-judge-says.html | date = 14 Oktober 2012 | newspaper = The New York Times | title = Woman Must Relinquish Kafka Papers, Judge Says | access-date = 15 Oktober 2012 }} * {{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2010/jul/19/lawyers-open-unpublished-kafka-manuscripts | date = 19 Juli 2010 | newspaper = The Guardian | title = Lawyers Open Cache of Unpublished Kafka Manuscripts | access-date = 28 Sèptèmber 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|''Guardian''|2010}} | location=London | first=Mark | last=Tran }} ''Sumber jroring (online)'' * {{cite news | last = Bury | first = Liz | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2013/jul/03/franz-kafka-metamorphosis-google-doodle | date = 3 Juli 2013 | work = The Guardian | title = Franz Kafka's Metamorphosis becomes Google doodle | access-date = 4 Juli 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|Bury|2013}} | location=London }} * {{cite web | last = Coker | first = Rachel | url = http://www.binghamton.edu/inside/index.php/inside/story/kafka-expert-links-teaching-research | date = 4 Januari 2012 | publisher = State University of New York&nbsp;— Binghamton | title = Kafka expert links teaching, research | access-date = 30 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Coker|2012}} }} * {{cite web | last = Ernst | first = Nathan | url = http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/The_Judgment | year = 2010 | publisher = Yale University | work = The Modernismm Lab | title = The Judgement | access-date = 9 Oktober 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Ernst|2010}} | archive-date = 2013-05-21 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130521162011/http://modernism.research.yale.edu/wiki/index.php/The_Judgment | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | last = Frenkel | first = Sheera | url = http://www.npr.org/2012/05/30/153985994/kafkas-final-absurdist-tale-plays-out-in-tel-aviv | date = 30 Mèi 2012 | publisher = NPR | title = Kafka's Final Absurdist Tale Plays Out in Tel Aviv | access-date = 28 Sèptèmber 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|NPR|2012}} }} * {{cite web | last = Ghosh | first = Pothik | title = A Note on Kafka and the Question of Revolutionary Subjectivity | publisher = Hindu College&nbsp;– Delhi University via Radical Notes | date = 13 Maret 2009 | url = http://radicalnotes.com/content/view/92/39/ | access-date = 6 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Ghosh|2009}} }} * {{cite web | last = Horstkotte | first = Silke | title = Kunst und Künstlerverständnis in Kafkas "Josefine, die Sängering oder Das Volk der Mäuse" | publisher = University of Leipzig | year = 2009 | language = German | url = http://dokumente-online.com/kunst-und-kuenstlerverstaendnis-in-kafkas.html | access-date = 31 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Horstkotte|2009}} }} * {{cite web | last = Kafka | first = Franz | url = http://www.kafka-franz.com/KAFKA-letter.htm | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110713133359/http://www.kafka-franz.com/KAFKA-letter.htm | archive-date = 2011-07-13 | year = 2012 | publisher = Kafka-Franz | title = Franz Kafka Letter to his Father | access-date = 3 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kafka-Franz, Father|2012}} | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | last = Keynes | first = Laura | url = http://www.onlinereviewlondon.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=215:kafkas-dick&catid=161:kafkas-dick&Itemid=243 | date = August 2005 | work = Times Literary Supplement | title = Kafka's Dick | access-date = 4 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Times Literary Supplement|2005}} | archive-date = 2012-02-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120219091140/http://www.onlinereviewlondon.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=215%3Akafkas-dick&catid=161%3Akafkas-dick&Itemid=243 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | last = Köhler | first = Manfred | language = German | url = http://www.protemion.de/zettel/kafkafelice.htm | year = 2012 | publisher = Protemion | title = Franz Kafka und Felice Bauer | access-date = 6 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Köhler|2012}} }} * {{cite web | last = Kreis | first = Steven | url = http://www.historyguide.org/europe/kafka.html | date = 28 Fèbruari 2006 | work = History Guide | title = Franz Kafka, 1883–1924 | access-date = 5 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|History Guide|2006}} }} * {{cite news | last = Milner | first = Cahterine | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/3321254/If-Kafka-made-the-dinner....html | date = 27 Agustus 2005 | newspaper = The Telegraph | title = If Kafka made the dinner... | access-date = 25 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Milner|2005}} }} * {{cite web | last = Miron | first = Dan | url = http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1040561.html | date = 24 Novèmber 2008 | work = Haaretz | title = Sadness in Palestine | access-date = 1 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Haaretz|2008}} | archive-date = 2008-12-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081220232543/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1040561.html | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | last = Ozorio | first = Anne | url = http://www.operatoday.com/content/2010/11/gyorgy_kurtag_-.php | date = 18 Novèmber 2010 | work = Opera Today | title = György Kurtág&nbsp;— Kafka Fragments, London | access-date = 4 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Opera Today|2010}} }} * {{cite web | last = Prinsky | first = Norman | url = http://www.aug.edu/~nprinsky/Humn2002/KafkaMetamorphNQ.htm | year = 2002 | publisher = Augusta State University | title = Humn. 2002: World Humanities II. Notes and Questions on Franz Kafka's "The Metamorphosis" / "The Transformation" | access-date = 2 Sèptèmber 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Prinsky|2002}} | archive-date = 2012-10-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121011030606/http://www.aug.edu/~nprinsky/Humn2002/KafkaMetamorphNQ.htm | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | last = Rahn | first = Josh | url = http://www.online-literature.com/periods/existentialism.php | year=2011 | publisher = Online Literature | title = Existentialism | access-date = 5 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Rahn|2011}} }} * {{cite web | last = Rastalsky | first = Hartmut M. | url = http://www.lsa.umich.edu/german/hmr/dissertation/10kafka.doc | publisher = University of Michigan | title = The Referential Kafka | year = 1997 | access-date = 22 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Rastalsky|1997}} | archive-date = 2012-06-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120622022057/http://www.lsa.umich.edu/german/hmr/dissertation/10kafka.doc | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | last = Samuelson | first = Arthur | url = http://www.jhom.com/bookshelf/kafka/intro.html | publisher = Jewish Heritage | title = A Kafka for the 21st Century | access-date = 2 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Jewish Heritage|2012}} }} * {{cite web | last = Seubert | first = Harald | url = http://kulturportal-west-ost.eu/biographies/bauer-felice-2/ | title = Bauer, Felice | publisher = Kulturportal-west-ost.eu | language = German | quote = Knochiges leeres Gesicht, das seine Leere offen trug. Freier Hals. Überworfene Bluse&nbsp;... Fast zerbrochene Nase. Blondes, etwas steifes, reizloses Haar, starkes Kinn. | access-date = 2 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Seubert|2012}} }} * {{cite web | last = Stone | first = Peter H. | url = http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/3196/the-art-of-fiction-no-69-gabriel-garcia-marquez | title = Gabriel Garcia Marquez, The Art of Fiction No. 69 | work = The Paris Review | access-date = 4 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Paris Review|2012}} }} * {{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/1930/apr/04/classics.culture | work = The Guardian | title = Allegory | access-date = 22 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|''Guardian''|1930}} | location=London | date=4 April 1930 }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.amrep.org/articles/3_3c/disappearing.html | year = 2005 | publisher = American Repertory Theatre | title = Disappearing Act | access-date = 3 Agustus 2012 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080501080645/http://www.amrep.org/articles/3_3c/disappearing.html | archive-date = 2008-05-01 | ref = {{sfnRef|Repertory|2005}} | url-status = live }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b010glpd | year = 2012 | publisher = BBC | title = Drama on BBC Radio 3, ''Kafka the Musical'' | access-date = 1 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|BBC|2012}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.kohoutikriz.org/priloha/kafka.php | year = 2011 | language = Czech | publisher = The Research Library of South Bohemia in České Budějovice | title = Franz Kafka | access-date = 3 Oktober 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kohoutikriz|2011}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.egs.edu/library/franz-kafka/articles/ | year = 2012 | publisher = European Graduate School | title = Franz Kafka&nbsp;– Articles | access-date = 22 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|European Graduate School, Articles|2012}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.egs.edu/library/franz-kafka/biography/ | year = 2012 | publisher = European Graduate School | title = Franz Kafka&nbsp;– Biography | access-date = 7 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|European Graduate School|2012}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://libcom.org/library/franz-kafka-libertarian-socialism | date = 14 Dhésèmber 2008 | publisher = Libertarian-Socialism | title = Franz Kafka and libertarian socialism | access-date = 3 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Lib.com|2008}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.kafkamuseum.cz/ShowPage.aspx?tabindex=0&tabid=1 | year = 2005 | publisher = Franz Kafka Museum | title = Franz Kafka Museum | access-date = 7 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kafka Museum|2005}} | archive-date = 2017-08-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170823022745/http://www.kafkamuseum.cz/ShowPage.aspx?tabindex=0&tabid=1 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.franzkafka-soc.cz/cena-franze-kafky/ | year = 2011 | publisher = Franz Kafka Society | title = The Franz Kafka Prize | access-date = 1 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kafka Society|2011}} | archive-date = 2017-01-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170113073540/http://www.franzkafka-soc.cz/cena-franze-kafky | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/buch/162/5 | publisher = Project Gutenberg&nbsp;— Spiegel Online | title = Franz Kafka: Tagebücher 1910–1923&nbsp;– Kapitel 5 | work = Der Spiegel | date= 21 Juni 1913 | language = German | access-date = 29 Agustus 2012 | quote = Die ungeheure Welt, die ich im Kopfe habe. Aber wie mich befreien und sie befreien, ohne zu zerreißen. Und tausendmal lieber zerreißen, als in mir sie zurückhalten oder begraben. Dazu bin ich ja hier, das ist mir ganz klar. | ref = {{sfnRef|Project Gutenberg|2012}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.kafka-franz.com/franz-kafka-writing.htm | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101220032453/http://kafka-franz.com/franz-kafka-writing.htm | archive-date = 2010-12-20 | year = 2011 | publisher = Kafka-Franz | title = Franz Kafka Writing | access-date = 1 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kafka-Franz|2012}} | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=10923 | date = 17 Maret 2007 | publisher = Socialist Worker Online | title = Franz Kafka: writing of the system's despair and alienation | access-date = 6 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Socialist Worker|2007}} | archive-date = 2015-10-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151003174917/http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=10923 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.textkritik.de/kafkazs/kafkadrucke.htm | year = 2008 | publisher = ITK Institute für Textkritik | title = Faksimiles der Kafka-Drucke zu Lebzeiten (Zeitschriften und Zeitungen) | language = German | access-date = 28 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Itk|2008}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.franzkafka.de/franzkafka/die_frauen/grete_bloch/457277 | publisher = S. Fischer Verlag | title = Grete Bloch | language = German | access-date = 24 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|S. Fischer|2012}} | archive-date = 2017-09-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170909185617/http://www.franzkafka.de/franzkafka/die_frauen/grete_bloch/457277 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.albany.edu/writers-inst/webpages4/filmnotes/fnf01n6.html | publisher = State University of New York | work = New York State Writer's Institute | title = Kafka | access-date = 4 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Writer's Institute|1992}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.atlegerhardsen.com/pages/lothar_hempel/presse_eng_0802.htm | year = 2002 | publisher = Atlegerhardsen | title = Lothar Hempel | access-date = 2 Agustus 2012 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20050924095502/http://www.atlegerhardsen.com/pages/lothar_hempel/presse_eng_0802.htm | archive-date = 2005-09-24 | ref = {{sfnRef|Hempel|2002}} | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.literaturhaus.at/headlines/1999/01/142/ | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20010607003313/http://www.literaturhaus.at/headlines/1999/01/142/ | year = 1999 | publisher = LiteraturHaus | language = German | title = Musils 'Mann ohne Eigenschaften' ist "wichtigster Roman des Jahrhunderts" | access-date = 22 Agustus 2012 | archive-date = 2001-06-07 | ref = {{sfnRef|LiteraturHaus|1999}} | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.wellesnet.com/trial%20bbc%20interview.htm | year = 1962 | publisher = Welles Net | title = Orson Welles on ''The Trial'' (BBC interview) | access-date = 22 Sèptèmber 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Welles Net|1962}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.kafka-research.ox.ac.uk/ | year = 2012 | publisher = University of Oxford | title = Oxford Kafka Research Centre | access-date = 8 Oktober 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Oxford Kafka Research Centre|2012}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.poulruders.net/biography.htm | date = June 2005 | publisher = Poul Ruders | title = Poul Ruders Biography&nbsp;– 06/2005 | access-date = 4 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Ruders|2005}} | archive-date = 2012-02-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120204163258/http://www.poulruders.net/biography.htm | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.kafkaproject.com/ | year = 2012 | publisher = Kafka Project, San Diego State University | title = Solving a Literary Mystery | access-date = 25 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kafka Project SDSU|2012}} }} * {{cite web | url = http://h-a-z-e.org/archives/1059 | year = 2012 | publisher = HAZE Netlabel | title = Sound Interpretations&nbsp;— Dedication To Franz Kafka | access-date = 4 Oktober 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|HAZE|2012}} | archive-date = 2012-10-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121009233821/http://h-a-z-e.org/archives/1059 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.mzv.cz/telaviv/en/visa_and_consular_services/citizenship/who_is_citizen_guide_to_czech.html | date = 25 Oktober 2012 | publisher = Embassy of the Czech Republic in Tel Aviv | title = Who is citizen? Guide to Czech citizenship in 1918 – 1949 | access-date = 17 Juni 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|Czech Embassy|2012}} }} === Wewacan sabanjuré === * {{cite book | last = Begley | first = Louis | authorlink = Louis Begley | title = The Tremendous World I Have Inside My Head, Franz Kafka: A Biographical Essay | year = 2008 | publisher = Atlas & Co. | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-934633-06-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Calasso | first = Roberto | authorlink = Roberto Calasso | title = K. | year = 2005 | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-4000-4189-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Citati | first = Pietro | authorlink = Pietro Citati | title = Kafka | year = 1987 | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-394-56840-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Coots | first = Steve | title = Franz Kafka (Beginner's Guide) | year = 2002 | publisher = Hodder & Stoughton | location = London | isbn = 978-0-340-84648-3 }} * {{cite book | author = Corngold, Stanley – Wagner, Benno | title = Franz Kafka: The Ghosts in the Machine | location = Evanston, Illinois | publisher = Northwestern University Press | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-8101-2769-2 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Corngold | first1 = Stanley | last2 = Gross | first2 = Ruth V. | title = Kafka for the Twenty-First Century | year = 2011 | publisher = Camden House | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-57113-482-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Czech | first = Danuta | title = Kalendarz wydarzeń w KL Auschwitz | language = Polish | year = 1992 | publisher = Wydawn | location = Oświęcim }} * {{cite book | last1 = Deleuze | first1 = Gilles | authorlink1 = Gilles Deleuze | last2 = Guattari | first2 = Félix | authorlink2 = Félix Guattari | title = Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature (Theory and History of Literature, Vol 30) | year = 1986 | publisher = University of Minnesota Press | location = Minneapolis | isbn = 978-0-8166-1515-5 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Engel | first1 = Manfred | last2 = Robertson | first2 = Ritchie | authorlink2 = Ritchie Robertson | language = German, English | title = Kafka und die kleine Prosa der Moderne / Kafka and Short Modernist Prose | work = Oxford Kafka Studies I | year = 2010 | publisher = Würzburg | location = Königshausen & Neumann | isbn = 978-3-8260-4029-0 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Engel | first1 = Manfred | last2 = Robertson | first2 = Ritchie | authorlink2 = Ritchie Robertson | language = German, English | title = Kafka, Prag und der Erste Weltkrieg / Kafka, Prague and the First World War | work = Oxford Kafka Studies II | year = 2012 | publisher = Würzburg | location = Königshausen & Neumann | isbn = 978-3-8260-4849-4 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Engel | first1 = Manfred | last2 = Robertson | first2 = Ritchie | authorlink2 = Ritchie Robertson | language = German, English | title = Kafka und die Religion in der Moderne / Kafka, Religion, and Modernity | work = Oxford Kafka Studies III | year = 2014 | publisher = Würzburg | location = Königshausen & Neumann | isbn = 978-3-8260-5451-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Glatzer | first = Nahum Norbert | authorlink = Nahum Norbert Glatzer | title = The Loves of Franz Kafka | year = 1986 | publisher = Schocken Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8052-4001-6 }} * {{cite book | last = Gray | first = Ronald | title = Kafka: A Collection of Critical Essays | year = 1962 | publisher = Prentice-Hall | location = Englewood Cliffs, NJ | isbn = 1-199-77830-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Greenberg | first = Martin | authorlink = Martin Greenberg (poet) | title = The Terror of Art: Kafka and Modern Literature | year = 1968 | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-465-08415-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Hayman | first = Ronald | authorlink = Ronald Hayman | title = K, a Biography of Kafka | year = 2001 | publisher = Phoenix Press | location = London | isbn = 978-1-84212-415-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Heller | first = Paul | title = Franz Kafka: Wissenschaft und Wissenschaftskritik | year = 1989 | language = German | publisher = Stauffenburg | location = Tübingen | isbn = 978-3-923721-40-5 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Kafka | first1 = Franz | last2 = Brod | first2 = Max | title = The Diaries, 1910–1923 | year = 1988 | publisher = Schocken Books | location = New York | isbn = 0-8052-0906-9 }} * {{cite journal | last = Kopić | first = Mario | authorlink = Mario Kopić | title = Franz Kafka and Nationalism | publisher = EX-YU PEN Amsterdam | location = Amsterdam | journal = Erewhon. An International Quarterly | year = 1995 | jstor = 13813064 | volume = 2 | issue = 2 }} * {{cite book | last = Lundberg | first = Phillip | title = Essential Kafka, Rendezvous with Otherness / 9 Stories & 3 novèl excerpts | year = 2011 | publisher = Authorhouse | location = | isbn = 978-1-4389-9021-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Major | first = Michael | title = Kafka&nbsp;... for our time | year = 2011 | publisher = Harcourt Publishing | location = San Diego, CA | isbn = 978-0-9567982-1-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Suchoff | first = David | title = Kafka's Jewish Languages: the Hidden Openness of Tradition | year = 2012 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | location = Philadelphia | isbn = 978-0-8122-4371-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Thiher | first = Allen | title = Franz Kafka: A Study of the Short Fiction | work = Twayne's Studies in Short Fiction, No. 12 | year = 2012 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | location = Philadelphia | isbn = 978-0-8057-8323-0 }} ''Jurnal'' * {{cite journal | last = Danta | first = Chris | title = Sarah's Laughter: Kafka's Abraham | url = http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/modernism-modernity/toc/mod15.2.html |date=April 2008 | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | location = Baltimore, MD | journal = [[Modernism/modernity]] | pages = 343–359 | doi = 10.1353/mod.2008.0048 }} {{subscription required}} *{{cite news | last = Guvenc | first = Sibel | url = http://www.docstoc.com/docs/84172079/Hindustan_Times_Article | date = 14 Novèmber 2006 | work = Hindustan Times Article | title = About Guilt and Punishment by Satarupa Basu | accessdate = September 7, 2011 }} * {{cite web | last = Kopić | first = Mario | url = http://www.odjek.ba/eng/index.php?broj=02&id=06 | year = 2004 | publisher = Odjek | title = Kafka and nationalism | access-date = 10 Sèptèmber 2013 | archive-date = 2013-10-12 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131012015421/http://www.odjek.ba/eng/index.php?broj=02&id=06 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | last = McGee | first = Kyle | title = Fear and Trembling in the Penal Colony | work = Kafka Project | url = http://www.kafka.org/index.php?id=185,290,0,0,1,0 | access-date = 2015-11-11 | archive-date = 2010-06-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100628232215/http://www.kafka.org/index.php?id=185,290,0,0,1,0 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite journal | last = Ryan | first = Michael P. | title = Samsa and Samsara: Suffering, Death and Rebirth in ''The Metamorphosis'' | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_german-quarterly_spring-1999_72_2/page/133 | year = 1999 | journal = German Quarterly | location = Durham, NC | volume = 72 | issue = 2 | pages = 133–152 | doi = 10.2307/408369 }} {{featured article}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kafka, Franz}} [[Kategori:Franz Kafka|*]] [[Kategori:Lair 1883]] [[Kategori:Pati 1924]] [[Kategori:Anarkis Céko]] [[Kategori:Panulis Ostenrik]] [[Kategori:Panulis Céko]] [[Kategori:Yahudi-Ostenrik]] [[Kategori:Yahudi-Céko]] auxg2j9u4992uzuyou681vm88267e70 Universitas Gadjah Mada 0 32937 1752956 1752801 2026-08-20T05:53:41Z ~2026-45504-09 74154 /* Prestasi Internasional */ 1752956 wikitext text/x-wiki {{coord|-7.7713847|110.3774998|display=title}} {{Infobox University |name = Universitas Gadjah Mada |image_name = Logo Universitas Gadjah Mada.gif |image_size = 150px |motto = ''Mengakar Kuat, Menjulang Tinggi'' |established = 19 Dhésèmber 1949 |type = [[Pratélaning paguron dhuwur nagara ing Indonésia|Perguruan tinggi nagari - Badan Hukum]] |rector = Ova Emilia |city = [[Kabupatèn Sléman|Sléman]] |state = [[Ngayogyakarta]] |country = [[Indonésia]] |faculty = |students = 47.081 (2018) |undergrad = |postgrad = |doctoral = |profess = |specialist = |extension = |int'l class = |campus = [[area urban|Urban]] |colors = Khaki muda {{color box|#F0E68C}} |nickname = UGM, GAMA, Kampus Pancasila, Universitas Nasional, Universitas Pusat Kebudayaan, Balai Pendidikan Nasional, Kampus Perjuangan, Kampus Kerakyatan, Kampus Biru, |affiliations = ASAIHL, U 21, AUN, ASEA-UNINET |website = {{url|https://www.ugm.ac.id/}} |footnotes = |address = |telephone = +62 274 6492599 }} [[Gambar:Balairung Universitas Gadjah Mada (3).jpg|thumb|250px|Gedhong utama]] '''Universitas Gadjah Mada''' ([[Jawa]]: ꦈꦤꦶꦮ꦳ꦼꦂꦱꦶꦠꦱ꧀​ꦓꦗꦃ​ꦩꦢ utawa ꦥꦮꦶꦪꦠꦤ꧀ꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂꦓꦗꦃꦩꦢ) asring kacekak '''UGM''' iku [[universitas]] negri ing [[Indonésia|Indhonésia]], dumunung ing [[Kutha Ngayogyakarta]]. Diadegaké tanggal 19 Dhésèmber 1949, Universitas Gadjah Mada minangka [[universitas]] negri pisanan sing madeg sawisé Indhonésia mardika. Universitas Gadjah Mada dumunung ing Kampus [[Bulaksumur]], [[Caturtunggal, Dhépok, Sléman|Caturtunggal]], [[Dhépok, Sléman|Dhépok]], [[Ngayogyakarta]] lan ing Kampus Jakarta, uga ana ing Kutha Magelang nanging wis ora aktif.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tempo.co/sains/tak-hanya-di-yogyakarta-ugm-punya-cabang-kampus-di-2-kota-ini-367230|title=Tak Hanya di Yogyakarta, UGM Punya Cabang Kampus di 2 Kota ini|date=2022-04-20|website=Tempo|language=id|access-date=2025-05-28}}</ref> [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] punika salah satunggaling pawiyuatahn luhur paling tuwa lan gedhé ing Indhonésia,<ref name=Introduce>{{cite web|url=https://ugm.ac.id/en/about-us/1372-introducing.ugm |title=Introducing UGM|website=Universitas Gadjah Mada|date=26 March 2017|access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/where-to-study/asia/indonesia/guide |title=Top Universities in Indonesia|publisher=Top Universities|date=5 April 2016|access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref> lan wis kadhap[uk prèdhikat minangka salah sawijiné universitas paling apik ing Indhonésia. Ing Peringkat Universitas Donya QS taun 2023, UGM kaunggulake minangka nomer 1 ing Indhonésia lan nomer 231 ing donya.<ref>{{cite book|last=Richter|first=Max|title=Musical Worlds in Yogyakarta|date=2012|publisher=KITLV Press (Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde – Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies)|location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-6718-390-1|page=160 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXZhAAAAQBAJ&q=gadjah+mada+university&pg=PA160|access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=ITB, UGM, UI minangka tiga universitas paling unggul ing Indonesia|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/08/17/itb-ugm-ui-named-top-three-universities-in-indonesia.html |work=The Jakarta Post|agency=News Desk|date=17 August 2016|access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="SEARCA">{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=UGM Kaunggulaken minangka Nomor 1 ing Indonesia lan Nomor 53 ing Asia|url=http://searca.org/ucweb/news/2013-news/14-ugm-ranks-first-in-indonesia-and-53rd-in-asia|work=Southeast Asian University Consortium for Graduate Education in Agriculture and Natural Resources|date=17 April 2013|access-date=26 March 2017|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019170904/http://searca.org/ucweb/news/2013-news/14-ugm-ranks-first-in-indonesia-and-53rd-in-asia|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nalika universitas punika dipunadegaken wonten ing warsa 1940-an ing ngandhap [[pamaréntahan Walandi|pamaréntahan Walanda]], menika dados fakultas kedokteran ingkang kapisan ingkang mbukak kanthi bébas kanggé [[pribumi Indonesia]],<ref name=Oxford>{{cite book|last1=Lock|first1=Stephen|last2=Last|first2=John M.|last3=Dunea|first3=George|title=The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-262950-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00step/page/765 765]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00step/page/765}}</ref><ref name=Springer>{{cite book|last1=Forest|first1=James J. F.|last2=Altbach|first2=Philip G.|title=Volume 18 of Springer International Handbooks of Education: International Handbook of Higher Education, Volume 1|date=2006|publisher=Springer|isbn=1-4020-4011-3|page=772}}</ref> ing wekdal punika, nalika pendhidhikan pribumi asring dipunwatesi.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Suratno|first1=Tatang|title=The education system in Indonesia at a time of significant changes|journal=Revue internationale d'éducation de Sèvres|date=12 June 2014|doi=10.4000/ries.3814 |s2cid=142805391 |url=https://ries.revues.org/3814#text|access-date=26 March 2017|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Sajarah == Sedasa tanggal [[4 Januari]] [[1946]], [[Soekarno]] lan [[Hatta]] sampun ngéwahakaken [[kutha krajan]] Républik Indonésia dhateng Ngayogyakarta. Amargi wontenipun pepénginan antawisipun pejuang kamardikan lan pasukan Sakuthu sarta [[NICA]] ing Jakarta lan Bandung, mila Sekolah Tinggi Teknik (STT) Bandung ugi kapundhut pindhah dhateng Ngayogyakarta. Ing dinten [[17 Fèbruari]] [[1946]], Sekolah Tinggi Teknik (STT) Bandung sampun dipun-uripaké malih wonten ing Ngayogyakarta kaliyan para dhéwékawan ingkang asma Prof. Ir. [[Rooseno]] lan Prof. Ir. Wreksodiningrat. Manawi dipun-tingali saking sajarahipun, Universitas Gadjah Mada punika gabunganipun sawetawis balé pawiyatan, pamulangan inggil, paguron inggil ingkang wonten ing [[Yogyakarta]], [[Klathèn]] lan [[Kutha Surakarta|Surakarta]]. Asma Gadjah Mada dipun-jupuk saking Balai Perguruan Tinggi Gadjah Mada ingkang kagungan fakultas hukum lan fakultas sastra. Panyiapanipun Balai Perguruan Tinggi punika dipun-umumaké ing Gedung KNI Malioboro wonten ing tanggal [[3 Maret]] [[1946]] déning Mr. Boediarto, Ir. Marsito, Prof. Dr. [[Prijono]], Mr. Soenarjo, Dr. Soleiman, Dr. [[Buntaran]] lan Dr. Soeharto. Lembaga pendhidhikan ingkang sanes ingkang dipunadegaken ing wektu ingkang meh sami inggih punika Perguruan Tinggi Kedhokteran (dipunadegaken tanggal 5 Maret 1946), Sekolah Tinggi Kedhokteran Hewan (dipunadegaken tanggal 20 September 1946), Sekolah Tinggi Farmasi (dipunadegaken tanggal 27 September 1946), lan Perguruan Tinggi Pertanian (dipunadegaken tanggal 27 September 1946) ingkang sami wonten ing [[Klaten]], kinten-kinten 20 kilometer saking Ngayogyakarta. Institut Pasteur ing Bandung wiwitanipun tanggal 1 September 1945, ugi dipunpindhahaken dhateng Klaten kaliyan laboratorium ing Rumah Sakit [[Tegalyoso, Klaten Selatan, Klaten|Tegalyoso]]. Salah satunggaling tiyang ingkang gadhah peran ing pemindahan menika inggih punika Prof. Dr. M. [[Sardjito]] ingkang sakmenika dados Rektor Universitas Gadjah Mada ingkang kapisan. Pagesangan kampus ing Klaten dados langkung rame kanthi dipunadegakenipun Fakultas Kedhokteran Gigi ing wiwitan [[1948]]. Ing wiwitan Mei 1948, Kementerian Pendidikan, Pengajaran lan Kebudayaan nindakaken pendirian Akademi Ilmu Pulitik ing Ngayogyakarta kanthi prakawis saking Kementerian Dalam Negeri supados ndhidhik calon-calon pegawai Departemen Dalam Negeri, Departemen Luar Negeri, lan Departemen Penerangan. Akademi punika wiwitanipun dipunpimpin déning Prof. Djokosoetono, S.H. Nanging, akademi punika boten dangu umuripun, amargi sawisé kajadian [[Peristiwa Madiun|PKI Madiun]] ing wulan September 1948, akademi punika dipunbiyantu déning para mahasiswa ingkang sami tumut ngungsi pemberontakan saéngga akademi punika lajeng dipuntutup. Salajenge ing [[1 November]] [[1948]] dipundamel Balai Pendidikan Ahli Hukum wonten ing [[Kota Surakarta|Surakarta]], minangka woh saking kerjasama antawisipun Kementerian Pendidikan, Pengajaran lan Kebudayaan kaliyan Kementerian Kehakiman. Ingkang sarujuk kaliyan punika, Panitia Pendirian Perguruan Tinggi Swasta wonten ing Surakarta, ingkang dipunpimpin déning Drs. Notonagoro, S.H., Koesoemadi, S.H. lan Hardjono, S.H. wonten ing Surakarta ngrencanakaken ngadegaken Sekolah Tinggi Hukum Negeri. Kangge efisiensi, Panitia ngusulaken penggabungan Balai Pendidikan Ahli Hukum kaliyan Sekolah Tinggi Hukum Negeri ingkang pungkasipun dipunsarujuki lan dipunresmikaken déning Peraturan Pemerintah No. 73 taun 1948. Serangan Walanda dhumateng kitha krajan Républik Indonésia wonten ing Ngayogyakarta ing [[Agresi Militer Walanda II]] nglumpuhaken sakathahing kagiyatan sinau ing Ngayogyakarta, Klaten lan Surakarta saha sakathahing perguruan tinggi kasebat terpaksa katutup lan para mahasiswa kagungan semangat badhé berjuang. Sawise serangan Walandi, wilayah Républik Indonésia dados langkung semplik. Ing dinten kaping 20 Mei 1949, kadhawuhaken rapat Panitia Perguruan Tinggi, wonten ing Pendopo Kepatihan Yogyakarta ingkang dipunpimpin déning Prof. Dr. Soetopo, kaliyan anggota rapat antawisipun, [[Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX]], Prof. Dr. M. [[Sardjito]], Prof. Dr. [[Prijono]], Prof. Ir. Wreksodhiningrat, Prof. Ir. Harjono, Prof. Sugardo lan Slamet Soetikno, S.H. Salah satunggaling asil saking rapat punika inggih menika ngadegaken perguruan malih wonten ing wilayah républik ingkang dereng dipunrebut, yaiku Ngayogyakarta. Dipunsarujuki déning Prof. Ir. Wreksodhiningrat, Prof. Dr. [[Prijono]], Prof. Ir. Harjono lan Prof. Dr. M. [[Sardjito]] badhé ngupados sarana kangge ngwujudaken rencana wau. Alangan utama wekdal menika inggih menika boten wontenipun ruangan kangge kuliah. Nanging, Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX sarujuk nyilihaken ruangan dalem kraton lan sawetah gedhong ing sekitare. ==Fakultas== * Fakultas Biologi * Fakultas Ékonomika lan Bisnis * Fakultas Farmasi * Fakultas Filsafat * Fakultas Géografi * Fakultas Hukum * Fakultas Ilmu Budaya * Fakultas Ilmu Sosial lan Ilmu Pulitik * Fakultas Kedhokteran, Keséhatan Masyarakat lan Keperawatan (FKKMK) * Fakultas Kedhokteran Gigi * Fakultas Kedhokteran Kewan * Fakultas Kehutanan * Fakultas MIPA (Matematika lan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam) * Fakultas Pertanian * Fakultas Peternakan * Fakultas Psikologi * Fakultas Téknik * Fakultas Téknologi Pertanian ====== Prestasi Internasional ====== * Bimasakti UGM, The 1st Place Business Plan Presentation, Top 8 Overall, Top 5 Endurance, Top 6 Acceleration, Top 5 Skidpad & Top 5 Autocross, SAE International & Associazione Nazionale Filiera Industria Automobilistica, Circuit Riccardo Paletti, Parma, Italia, 2023 * Bimasakti UGM, The best of Formula Student Spain, Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya, Spain, 2024 * Bimasakti UGM, The 3rd winner of Formula Student SAE Australasia, 2020 * Bimasakti UGM, The winner (8 categories) of Internasional Student Formula SAE, Ecopa Arena, Shizuoka, Japan, 2019 * Semar UGM, The 1st & 3rd winner World Champion of Shell Eco-marathon Autonomous Programming Competition 2023 * Semar UGM, The Double winners Prototype Battery Electric (New Asia Record) & Urban Concept Hydrogen Fuel Cell (New Record & the first in Indonesia), Shell Eco-marathon Asia and The Middle East, 2023. * Semar UGM, 2nd winner of Shell Eco Marathon Asia Pacific and Middle East 2025 di Doha, Qatar ,2025 * Semar UGM, 1st (Urban Hydrogen) & 3rd (Electric Prototype), Shell Eco-Marathon Asia Pacific and Middle East, Lusail International Circuit, Doha, Qatar, 2026 * Arjuna UGM, The winner (7 categories) of ''Formula Society of Automotive Engineers'' (FSAE), Aichi Sky Expo, Tokoname, Nagoya, Japan, 2025 * Arjuna UGM, The 1st winner Software and Intelligence Integration, the 3rd Place Procurement Strategy & 4th Place overall Event Formula Bharat 6th Annual FSEV Concept Challenge, Pi-EV 2022, India * Arjuna UGM, The 2nd winner of Annual Formula Student Electric Vehicle (FSEV) Concept Challenge 2020. Formula Bharat, India, 2020 * Arjuna UGM, The Top 10 of The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Japan 2026. * 3rd winner (bronze medal) & Honorable Mention of The International Mathematics Competition, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria, 2026 * 3rd winner (bronze medal) of Consensual Dispute Resolution Competition (CDRC) held by International Bar Association (IBA) & Vienna International Arbitral Centre (VIAC), Vienna Austria, 2026, * 2nd winner of the international student competition (food & chemistry), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,2026 * 3rd winner of the international student competition (physics), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,2026 * 2nd winner of Social Logistics Challenge, competition by Global Business School Network/GBSN, Washington, District of Columbia, USA, 2025 * The winner of Singapore Amazing Flying Machine Competition (SAFMC), 2025 * 7th winner Chem-E-Car (Chemical Engineering Car) American Institute of Chemical Engineerings (AIChE), San Diego Convention Center, California, USA, 2024 * ''2nd winner VDI Chem-E-Car Competition,'' VDI Germany, City Cube, Berlin, 2023 * The Gold Medal, The Special Award: Inclusivity Award & Top 5 Best Diagnostic Project of the Grand Jamboree-International Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM) Competition, Paris, French, 2023 * The ''Gold Medal'', ''Best Computational Project" & ''Best Human Centered Design of The'' Global Open Genetic Engineering Competition'' (GOGEC''), Biotechnology Research, Houston, Texas, USA, 2023.'' * The 1st winner of Global Health Case Competition, Melbourne, Australia, 2023 * 2nd winner/silver medal and 2 categories honorable mention on International Mathematics Competition (IMC), Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria, 2023 * The Silver Prize of the International Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM) Competition 2021, Paris, France * The Gold Prize of the International Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM) Competition 2025, Paris, France * 3rd winner of Venezuela Energy Solutions Case Study Competition, Venezuelan American Petroleum Association (VAPA) sponsored by CITGO Petroleum Corporation, 2022 * 1st winner of Schlumberger Digital Forum, Luzern, Switzerland, 2022 * 1st winner of Business Plan Presentation & Golden Fighter Award, Formula Student Netherlands (FSN), Circuit TT Assen, The Netherlands, 2022. * 1st winner of World Bank Group Youth Summit 2022, Washington DC, USA * 5th winner of the International Commercial Mediation Competition (ICMC) 18th International Chamber of Commerce 2023, Paris, France * The Most Innovative Presentation of Krannert Human Resource Case Competition and Executive Conference, Purdue University, USA, 2013 * The Best Reviewer Award of International Accounting Section, American Accounting Association, San Antonio, Texas, USA. 2014 * 1st winner of World Bank Group Youth Summit, Case Challenge Competition, Washington, DC, USA, 2021 * The Most Outstanding Delegate & Honorable Mention Nottingham University Model United Nation (NUMUN) Competition, 2016 * Gold Prize of International Case Competition, Hong Kong, 2021 * 3rd winner of 5th Foreign Direct Investment Moot Competition at Suffolk University Law School, Boston, USA, 2012 * Runner-Up of International Humanitarian Law Moot Court Competition (IHL MCC) Asia Pacific, 2022 * Overall Highest Team Ranking of Foreign Direct Investment International Arbitration Meet, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2016 * 4th winner of International Criminal Court Moot Court Competition (ICCMCC), Den Haag, The Netherlands, 2014 * Honorable Mentions of Eric E. Bergsten Award of International Commercial Arbitration Moot (Vis Moot), 29th Willem C. Vis (West) Moot, 2022 * 1st winner of The Nuremberg Moot Court Competition, The Netherlands, 2022, * The winner of 16th International Veterinary Medicine Student Scientific Research Congress, Istanbul, Republic Turkey, 2014 * The winner of Agricultural Engineering – Annual Regional Convention (AE-ARC), Philippine, 2022 * The winner of Agricultural Engineering - Annual Regional Convention (AE-ARC), Malaysia, 2019 * 2nd winner & 4 special awards of International Microbiology, Parasitology, and Immunology Competition (SIMPIC), Thailand, 2017 * Best Overall Presentation of International Forestry Student Association, Hokkaido, Japan, 2021 * Silver Medal on Giant Jamboree, International Genetically Engineered Machine (iGEM) Competition, France, 2021 * The winner of The International Pharmaceutical Students’ Federation / IPSF Pharma Olympics, 2020 * Gold Medal & Best Award of The International Invention and Innovation Exhibition (i-ENVEX) Competition, Malaysia, 2011 * The winner of International Challenge of Emergency Medicine (KKU ICEM) Competition, Thailand, 2020 * The winner of The Asian-Oceania Medical Students' Conferences (AMSC) Competition, Seoul, Korea, 2022. * 3rd winner of The Model Satellite Competition, Turkey, 2022 * The winner of DAAD-Fraunhofer Technopreneur Award, Germany, 2007 * The winner of Mondialogo Engineering Award, Stuttgart, Germany, 2009. * 2nd winner (2 silver medals), 3rd winner (bronze medal) & honorable mention of The International Mathematics Competition (IMC), Bulgaria, 2021 * 3rd winner & honorable mention of the International Mathematics Competition (IMC), Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria, 2018 * 1st, 2nd & honorable mention of the International Mathematics Competition (lMC) Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria, 2015 * 1st & 2nd winner of the International Mathematics Competition (lMC), Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria, 2010 * 3rd winner of International Mathematics Competition for University Students (IMC), Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria, 2008. * 3rd winner of International Scientific Olympiad on Mathematics (ISOM), Teheran, Iran, 2008. * The winner of Formula Student Netherlands (FSN) Competition, The Netherlands, 2022 * The winner of International Innovation Invention Competition Canada, Toronto, 2016 * The Best Public Safety App on “Public Safety App Challenge” at California, USA, 2014. * Best Chapter of The World Champions of Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Denver, Colorado, USA, 2014 * 6th winner of The International CanSat Competition, American Astronautical Society (AAS), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA, 2022 * 1st-place Winner of Battery-Electric Prototype category, Shell Eco-Marathon, 2022.[42] * 1st-place Winner of Green Wave Environmental Care Competition, organized by Sembcorp Marine Ltd, Singapore, 2021.[43] * 1st-place Winner of Indonesia Flying Robot Contest at 2021.[44] * 1st-place Winner of NewQuest Young Geothermal Explorationist Competition, 2021.[45] * Best Paper-International Conference on Sustainable Civil Engineering Structures and Construction Materials (SCESCM) in University of Technology Mara, Malaysia, 2020. * 1st-place Winner of Electric Car Design - PLN Innovation & Competition in Electricity (ICE), 2021. * Best Student Prize - The Gawler Challenge by Unearthed dan Department for Energy and Mining, Government of South Australia, 2020. * 1st-place Winner - CulturIS-3D on International Invention and Innovation Competition (InIIC) Malaysia, 2020. * 2nd-place Winner of United States Annual Student CanSat Competition organized by American Astronautical Society & sponsored by NASA, 2020. * 1st-place Winner of BRI x Google Hackaton Competition, 2020. * Gold Award - Architecture and Alumni Choice Award - Asian Young Designer Award, 2017. * Gold Winner of Robot Contest in Connecticut USA, 2018. * 1st-place Winner of Slum Housing Improvement Design of Public Work and Public Housing Ministry competition, 2015. * 1st-place winner of Fire-Fighting category, 1st-place winner of Stand Balancing, and 2nd-place winner of Walker Challenge, Robogames competition, USA 2012 * 3rd Best Memorial Award Asia Cup 2012. International Law Moot Court Competition Asia Cup 2012, Japan * 1st Best Mooter (Mr. Dylan Jesse Andrian), Hong Kong Red Cross International Humanitarian Law Moot 2022 * The Best Technical Innovation Award for eSemar Xperimental, Shell Eco-Marathon (SEM) 2011, Malaysia * Winner of Outstanding Achievement in 62nd Intel International Science and Engineering Fair – China Association for Science and Technology 2011 in Los Angeles * 1st winner of Creative Robot, The 13th International Robot Olympiad 2011, Indonesia * The Standard Commercial Movie Category Award, 7th GATSBY Student CM Award ==Sitiran== {{reflist}} {{PTN ing Indonésia}} [[Kategori:Pawiyatan luhur ing Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Pawiyatan luhur nagara ing Ngayogyakarta]] mvej94z0fip5ku14qml866jxhyrg9f2 Inti sel 0 35156 1752925 1616159 2026-08-20T05:07:35Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752925 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Biological cell.svg|thumb|250px|Skema tipikal sèl kéwan. Nomor 2 iku inti sèl.]] '''Inti sèl''' utawa '''nukleus sèl''' iku [[organel]] kang tinemu ing [[sèl]] [[eukariotik]]. Organel iki ngandhut sapérangan gedhé [[materi genetik]] sèl kanthi wujud molekul [[DNA]] linear dawa kang mbentuk [[kromosom]] bebarengan karo manéka jinis [[protéin]] kaya [[histon]]. [[Gen]] ing njeron kromosom-kromosom iki kang mbentuk [[genom]] inti sèl. Fungsi utama nukleus yaiku kanggo njaga integritas gen-gen mau lan ngontrol aktivitas sèl kanthi ngemunah [[èksprèsi gen]]. Saliyané iku, nukleus uga duwé fungsi kanggo ngorganisasi gen nalika dumadi panyigaran sèl, mrodhuksi mRNA kanggo ngode protéin, minangka papan sintesis ribosom, papan dumadiné replikasi lan transkripsi saka DNA, sarta ngatur kapan lan ing ngendi èksprèsi gen kudu diwiwiti, dilakokaké, lan dirampungi. Nukleus wujud organel pisanan kang tinemu, kang pisanan didheskripsikaké déning [[Franz Bauer]] taun [[1802]] lan dijabaraké luwih dhetil déning ahli botani Sekotlan, [[Robert Brown]] ing taun [[1831]]. Elemen struktural utama nukleus yaiku ''[[membran inti]]'', sawijining [[membran]] lapis dhobel kang mbungkus sakabèhaning organel lan misahaké pérangan inti karo [[sitoplasma]] sèl, sarta ''[[lamina inti]]'', sawijining struktur sajeroning nukleus kang mènèhi panjurung mekanis kaya [[sitoskeleton]] kang nyokong sèl kanthi kasluruhan. Sacara garis gedhé, membran inti kapérang saka telung pérangan, yaiku membran njaba, ruwang perinuklear, lan membran njero. Membran njaba nukleus sinambung karo retikulum endoplasma (RE) kasar lan sumebar karo ribosom. Sifat membran inti kang ora permeabel marang sapérangan gedhé molekul marakaké nukleus merlokaké [[pori inti]] supaya molekul bisa obah ngliwati membran. Pori nukleus kaya trowongan kang ana ing membran nukleus kang fungsiné ngubungaké nukleoplasma karo sitosol. Fungsi utama saka pori nukleus yaiku kanggo srana pangijolan molekul antarané nukleus karo sitoplasma. Molekul kang metu, akèh-akèhé mRNA, dipigunakaké kanggo sintesis protéin. Pori nukleus kasusun saka 4 subunit, yaiku subunit kolom, subunit anular, subunit lumenal, lan subunit ring. Subunit kolom duwé fungsi ing pambentukan dinding pori nukleus, subunit anular gunané kanggo mbentuk spoke kang ngarah nuju tengah saka pori nukleus, subunit lumenal ngandhut protéin transmembran kang nempelaké komplèks pori nukleus marang membran nukleus, éwadéné subunit ring duwé fungsi kanggo mbentuk lumah sitosolik (adhep-adhepan karo sitoplasma) lan nuklear (adhep-adhepan karo nukleoplasma) saka komplèks pori nukleus. Sanajan pérangan njero nukleus ora ngandhut badan kang diwatesi déning membran, isi nukleus ora sragam lan duwé sapérangan badan subnukleus kang kadhapur saka protéin-protéin unik, molekul RNA, sarta gugus DNA. Conto utama saka badan subnukleus yaiku nukleolus, kang mligi kalibat sajeroning pambentukan ribosom. Sawisé diprodhuksi déning [[nukleolus]], [[ribosom]] dièkspor nuju sitoplasma kanggo nindakaké fungsi translasi mRNA. == Wacan terusan == {{Commons category|Cell nucleus}} * {{cite journal | last = Goldman | first = Robert D. | author2 = Yosef Gruenbaum, Robert D. Moir, Dale K. Shumaker and Timothy P. Spann | title = Nuclear lamins: building blocks of nuclear architecture | journal = Genes & Dev. | issue = 16 | pages = 533–547 | date = 2002 | doi = 10.1101/gad.960502 }} * {{cite journal | last = Görlich | first = Dirk | author2 = Ulrike Kutay | title = Transport between the cell nucleus and the cytoplasm | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-cell-and-developmental-biology_1999_15/page/607 | journal = Ann. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. | volume = | issue = 15 | pages = 607–660 | date = 1999 | id =PMID 10611974 }} * {{cite journal | last = Lamond | first = Angus I. | author2 = William C. Earnshaw | title = Structure and Function in the Nucleus | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1998-04-24_280_5363/page/547 | journal = Science | volume = 280 | pages = 547–553 | date = 24 April 1998 | id =PMID 9554838}} * {{cite journal | author = Pennisi E.| title = Evolutionary biology. The birth of the nucleus | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-08-06_305_5685/page/766| journal = Science | volume = 305 | issue =5685 | pages = 766–768 | year =2004 | id = PMID 15297641}} * {{cite book | last = Pollard | first = Thomas D. | author2 = William C. Earnshaw | title = Cell Biology | publisher = Saunders | date = 2004 | location = Philadelphia | id = ISBN 0-7216-3360-9}} [[Kategori:Organel]] {{biologi-stub}} dfz91l12ab4nl45v1mkqs4q0jl7ohdd Teresa saking Avila 0 42260 1752850 1751956 2026-08-20T02:00:50Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752850 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Saint |name=Santa Teresa Ávila |birth_date=[[28 Maret]] [[1515]] |death_date={{death date and age|1582|10|4|1515|03|28|mf=y}}<ref>Ing wengi antawis [[4 Oktober]] lan [[5 Oktober]] 1582, ing wengi nalika Spanyol nglampahi pengalihan saking [[Kalèndher Julius]] dhumateng [[Kalèndher Grégorius|Grégorius]]</ref> |feast_day=[[15 Oktober]] |venerated_in=[[Gréja Katulik Roma]]{{br}}[[Gréja Lutheran]]<ref>[http://www.resurrectionpeople.org/saints.html Notable Lutheran Saints]</ref>[[Komunion Anglikan]] |image=François Gérard - St Theresa (detail).jpg |imagesize=220px |caption=Teresa of Ávila déning [[François Gérard]] |birth_place=[[Gotarrendura]] ([[Ávila]]), [[Old Castile]], [[Karajan Spanyol]] |death_place=[[Alba de Tormes]], [[Salamanca (provinsi)|Salamanca]], [[Karajan Spanyol]] |titles=Kenya lan Dhoktor Gréja |beatified_date=[[24 April]] [[1614]] |beatified_place=[[Roma]] |beatified_by=[[Paus Paulus V]] |canonized_date=[[12 Maret]] [[1622]] |canonized_place=[[Roma]] |canonized_by=[[Paus Gregorius XV]] |attributes=habit of the [[Discalced Carmelites]], Book and Quill, arrow-pierced heart |patronage=bodily ills; [[headaches]]; lacemakers; laceworkers; loss of parents; people in need of grace; people in religious orders; people ridiculed for their piety; [[Pozega]], [[Croatia]]; sick people; sickness; [[Spanyol]] |major_shrine=Convent of the Annunciation, [[Alba de Tormes]], [[Spanyol]] |suppressed_date= |issues= }} '''Santa Teresa Ávila''', ugi dipuntepangi minangka '''Santa Teresa Yesus''', dipunbaptis kanthi asma '''Teresa Sanchez de Cepeda y Ahumada''' ({{lahirmati|[[Gotarrendura]] ([[Ávila]]), [[Old Castile]], [[Spanyol]]|28|3|1515|[[Alba de Tormes]], [[Salamanca]], Spanyol|4|10|1582}}) punika satunggiling [[mistik]], biarawati [[Karmelit]] lan panulis [[Anti Reformasi]]. Panjenenganipun satunggiling pambaharu Ordo Karmelit lan sesarengan [[Yohanes Salib]] wujud pangadeg [[Karmelit Ciaka]]. Ing taun [[1970]] panjenenganipun dipunparingi gelar [[Dhoktor Gréja]] déning [[Paus Paulus VI]]. == Babad slira == [[Gambar:Ecstasy of St. Teresa HDR.jpg|250px|left|thumb|''[[Ecstasy of St Theresa|The Ecstasy of St Teresa]] in the basilica [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]] in Rome. By an [[Italy|Italian]] [[baroque]] artist, [[Gianlorenzo Bernini]]''.]] Teresa de Cepeda y Ahumada dipunwiyosaken taun [[1515]] ing [[Gotarrendura]], Spanyol. Eyang kakung saking bapanipun, Juan de Toledo, punika satunggiling [[marrano|tiyang Yahudi ingkang pindhah Kristen]] lan dipuntutuh déning [[Inkuisisi Spanyol]] amargi wangsul malih dhumateng kapitadosan Yahudi. Bapanipun, Alonso Sánchez de Cepeda, mundhut gelar ksatria lan kasil nglampahi asimilasi dhumateng lingkungan Kristen. Ibunipun Teresa, Beatriz, ndhidhik ajaran Kristeninipun. Teresa rumaos éran dhumateng kagesangan para santo, lan mlajar saking nggriya ing yuswa pitung taun sesarengan kaliyan sedhèrèkipun Rodrigo kanggé ngupados [[martirdom]] ing antawisipun [[Moors]]. Paklikipun nyegah kekalihipun nalika panjenenganipun kundur dhumateng kitha lan pirsa kekalihipun ing sanjawining témbok kitha. Ing yuswa 20 taun, Teresa nilar dalemipun ingkang bapa, lan mlebet biara Inkarnasi Karmelit ing sanjawining Avila. Ing salebeting biara, panjenenganipun nandhang lelara. Ing wekdal awal gerah, panjenenganipun nglampahi periode [[ekstasi keagamaan]] liwat waosan ''"Tercer abecedario espiritual,"'' (Alfabet Spiritual Kaping 3) ingkang dipunpublikasiaken taun [[1527]] lan dipunserat déning Francisco de Osuna. Panjenenganipun ugi maos buku ''Tractatus de oratione et meditatione'' karyanipun [[Peter Alcantara]]. Ing taun [[1556]], kathah réncang nélakaken bilih kawruhipun asalipun saking [[Sétan]]. Panjenenganipun wiwit nglampahi panyiksan dhiri lan [[mortifikasi badan]]. Banging réncangipun, [[Santo Francis Borgia]] satunggiling [[Yesuit]], mesthèkaken panjenenganipun bilih inspirasinipun asalipun saking [[Hyang|Allah]]. Ing dinten [[St. Peter]] taun [[1559]], Teresa pitados bilih [[Yesus Kristus]] marak dhumateng lebet badanipun. Visi Yesus Kristus puniki marak laminipun 2 taun. Ing visi sanèsipun, Teresa nyerat [[seraph]] nusukakenn tombak emas dhumateng jantungipun, njalari gerah jasmani-rohani. Èngetan dhumateng kadadosan puniki njalari piyambakipun gadhah motivasi kanggé tumut dhumateng sengsaranipun Yesus, kacathet minangka motonipun: "''Bapa, biarkan aku menderita atau biarkan aku mati.''" Visi puniki dados asil karya [[Bernini]] paling misuwur [[Ekstasi St. Theresa]] ing [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]] ing [[Roma]]. == Ugi pirsani == * [[Visi Yesus lan Maria]] * [[Aturan Karmelit déning St. Albert]] * [[Ordo Sekuler Karmelit Ciaka]] == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} == Pranala njawi == {{wikiquote|Teresa of Avila}} {{commons|Teresa of Avila}} * [http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Statues/Founders/TheresaofJesus/Theresa%20of%20Jesus.htm Statue of St Teresa in St Peter's Basilica] * [http://www.biographyonline.net/spiritual/st_teresa_avila.html Biography Online: St Teresa of Avila] * [http://saints.sqpn.com/saintt01.htm Patron Saints: Saint Teresa of Avila] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006012749/http://saints.sqpn.com/saintt01.htm |date=2008-10-06 }} * [http://carmelites.info Index of Carmelite Websites] * [http://www.karmel.at/ics/edith/stein_9.html Carmelite Vocation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217214442/http://www.karmel.at/ics/edith/stein_9.html |date=2007-12-17 }} * [http://www.carmelite-seremban.org/Spirituality/books.html Books written by St Teresa of Avila, including St John of the Cross] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813122449/http://www.carmelite-seremban.org/Spirituality/books.html |date=2010-08-13 }} * {{gutenberg author|id=Teresa_of_Avila|name=Teresa of Avila}} * [http://www.labasilicateresiana.com Basilica of Saint Teresa in Alba de Tormes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128160702/http://www.labasilicateresiana.com/ |date=2007-11-28 }} (in Spanish) * [http://es.youtube.com/watch?v=fdE9uL7VU0s Alba de Tormes: la Basílica Teresiana, piedras vivas- Living Stones] (in Spanish, YouTube) * [http://es.youtube.com/watch?v=SLERVDyWTPA Alba de Tormes, sepulcro de Santa Teresa - Tomb of Saint Teresa] (in Spanish, YouTube) * [http://www.sacred-destinations.com/spain/avila-convent-of-st-teresa.htm Convent of St Teresa in Avila] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051018071718/http://www.sacred-destinations.com/spain/avila-convent-of-st-teresa.htm |date=2005-10-18 }} * [http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/teresa.html St Teresa of Avila] at Other Women's Voices * [http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/christian/teresa_of_avila/prayers_and_works/ Poems of St Teresa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321015938/http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/christian/teresa_of_avila/prayers_and_works/ |date=2007-03-21 }} * [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/SaintOfDay/default.asp?id=1169 Saint of the Day: St Teresa of Avila] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19185 Santa Teresa: an Appreciation], 1900, by Alexander Whyte, from Project Gutenberg * {{CathEncy|id=14515b|title= ''St. Teresa of Avila''|short=yes}} [[Kategori:Dhoktor Gréja]] [[Kategori:Pangadeg komunitas keagamaan Katulik Roma]] [[Kategori:Santo lan Santa Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Anti-Reformasi]] [[Kategori:Artikel mawa basa krama]] hmuyvrnwh10sj5cjypkm1lbjrsubd81 Nymphaeales 0 42522 1753036 1493101 2026-08-20T08:41:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753036 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Nymphaeales | image = 2007 nymphaea lotus.jpg | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = '''Nymphaeales''' | ordo_authority = | subdivision_ranks = [[familia|Suku]] | subdivision = lihat teks. }} '''Nymphaeales''' iku salah siji [[Ordo (biologi)|bangsa]] anggota [[tetuwuhan ngembang]]. Sawetara sistem klasifikasi, kaya [[sistem Cronquist]], [[sistem Dahlgren]], lan [[sistem Thorne]] mapanaké minangka [[takson]]. [[Sistem klasifikasi APG II]] (2003) ora migunakaké bangsa iki, nanging saiki sawatara penganuté migunakaké lan nyakup suku [[Nymphaeaceae]] lan [[Cabombaceae]], ing sangisoré [[klad]] angiosperms, kaya [[Austrobaileyales]]. Panelitèn pungkasan nglebokaké [[Hydatellaceae]], mauné saka bangsa [[Poales]], klad [[monocots]], sajeroning bangsa iki.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Saarela et al | title = Hydatellaceae identified as a new branch near the base of the angiosperm phylogenetic tree | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2007-03-15_446_7133/page/312 | journal = Nature | volume = 446 | issue = 7133 | pages = 312–5 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17361182 | doi = 10.1038/nature05612}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Nymphaeales| ]] {{botani-stub}} 7es8uzz44yfki18z2pjslql4gy1ao3g Proklamasi kamardikan Indonésia 0 43643 1752916 1737717 2026-08-20T04:55:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752916 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Indonesia declaration of independence 17 August 1945.jpg|thumb|Soekarno maca naskah Proklamasi sing wis diketik Sajuti Melik lan wis ditandatangani Soekarno-Hatta]] '''Proklamasi Kamardikan Indonésia''' Jumat, 17 Agustus 1945 Taun Masehi, utawa 17 Agustus 2605 miturut [[taun Jepang]], utawa 17 Ramelan 1365 Taun Hijriyah diwacakaké déning Ir. [[Soekarno]] sing didhampingi déning Drs. [[Mohammad Hatta]] ing Dalan Pegangsaan Wétan 56, Jakarta Pusat. Prosès kanggo nggayuh proklamasi iki ora gampang. Sadurungé wis diwangun sawijining panitia panyelidik, banjur ganti jeneng dadi panitia persiapan, sing diadani déning pamaréntah [[Jepang]]. Ing pungkasan [[Perang Donya II]] ya iku tanggal [[12 Agustus]] [[1945]], Marsekal Terauchi wis ngandaraké marang Soekarno, Hatta lan Radjiman yèn pamaréntah Jepang bakal énggal mènèhi kamardikan marang Indonésia lan proklamasi kamardikan bisa ditindakaké sajeroning sawatara dina, gumantung cara makarya [[PPKI]]. Nanging para nom-noman Indonésia wis ora sranta, saéngga kadadéan Prastawa Rengasdengklok ya iku 'penculikan' Soekarno saperlu didhesek supaya énggal mbiwara kamardikan. == Latar wuri == Ing tanggal [[6 Agustus]] [[1945]] sawijining [[bom atom]] ditibakaké ing sadhuwuring kutha [[Hiroshima, Hiroshima|Hiroshima]] Jepang déning [[Amérikah Sarékat]] sing wiwit mudhunaké moral semangat wadya Jepang ing saindhenging jagad. Sedina sawisé iku Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kamardikan Indonésia [[BPUPKI]], utawa "Dokuritsu Junbi Cosakai", ganti jeneng dadi PPKI ([[Panitia Persiapan Kamardikan Indonésia]]) utawa ingaran uga ''Dokuritu Junbi Inkai'' sajeroning basa Jepang, kanggo luwih negasaké kepinginan lan angkah nggayuh kamardikan Indonésia. Ing tanggal [[9 Agustus]] [[1945]], bom atom kaloro ditibakaké ing sadhuwuring [[Nagasaki]] saéngga njalari Jepang nyerah marang Amérikah Sarékat lan sekuthuné. Momèn ini pun dimanfaataké déning Indonésia kanggo mroklamasèkaké kamardikané. [[Gambar:Indonésian flag raised 17 August 1945.jpg|thumb]] Soekarno, Hatta minangka pimpinan [[PPKI]] lan [[Radjiman Wedyodiningrat]] minangka mantan ketua [[BPUPKI]] dimaburaké menyang Dalat, 250&nbsp;km ing sisih wétan sagara [[Saigon]], [[Vietnam]] kanggo ketemu [[Terauchi|Marsekal Terauchi]]. Ana kabar yèn prajurit Jepang pinuju ana ing jurang kakalahan lan bakal mènèhaké kamardikan marang Indonésia. Sauntara iku ing [[Indonésia]], ing tanggal [[14 Agustus]] [[1945]], [[Sutan Syahrir]] wis krungu warta liwat radhio yèn Jepang wis nyerah marang Sakuthu. Para pejuang gerilya siyap-siyap mroklamasèkaké kamardikan RI, lan nulak wujud kamardikan minangka bebungah Jepang. Ing tanggal [[12 Agustus]] [[1945]], [[Jepang]] liwat Marsekal Terauchi ing Dalat, Vietnam, ngandaraké marang Soekarno, Hatta lan Radjiman yèn pamaréntah Jepang bakal énggal mènèhi kamardikan marang Indonésia lan proklamasi kamardikan bisa ditindakaké sajeroning sawatara dina, gumantung cara makarya PPKI.<ref>[http://sejarahkita.blogspot.com/2006/07/sekitar-proklamasi-1.html Sekitar Proklamasi 1 oleh Rushdy Hoesein]</ref> Sanajan mangkono Jepang ménginaké kamardikan Indonésia ing tanggal 24 Agustus. Rong dina sabanjuré, wektu Soekarno, Hatta lan Radjiman bali menyang tanah air saka Dalat, [[Sutan Syahrir]] ndhesek supaya Soekarno énggal mroklamasèkaké kamardikan amarga nganggep asil patemon ing Dalat minangka tipu muslihat Jepang, amarga Jepang nalika-wektu wis kudu nyerah marang Sakuthu lan kanggo nyelaki anané perpecahan sajeroning kubu nasionalis, antara sing anti lan pro Jepang. Hatta nyritakaké marang Syahrir bab asil partémon ing Dalat. Soekarno durung yakin yèn Jepang pancèn wis nyerah, lan proklamasi kamardikan RI wektu iku bisa ndadèkaké wutahing getih sing akèh, lan bisa duwé akibat fatal yèn para pejuang Indonésia durung siyap. Soekarno ngélingaké Hatta yèn Syahrir ora duwé hak mroklamasèkaké kamardikan amarga iku haké [[Panitia Persiapan Kamardikan Indonésia]] (PPKI). Sauntara iku Syahrir nganggep PPKI wujud badan gawéan Jepang lan proklamasi kamardikan déning PPKI mung ateges 'bebungah' saka Jepang (sic). [[Gambar:Indonésia flag raising witnesses 17 August 1945.jpg|thumb]] Ing tanggal [[14 Agustus]] [[1945]] Jepang nyerah marang [[Sakuthu]]. Wadya lan [[Angkatan Laut Jepang]] isih kuwasa ing Indonésia amarga Jepang wis janji bakal mbalèkaké kakuwasan ing Indonésia marang Sakuthu. Sutan Sjahrir, Wikana, Darwis, lan Chaerul Saleh krungu kabar iki liwat radhio [[BBC]]. Sawisé krungu désas-desus Jepang bakal bertekuk lutut, golongan mudha ndhesak golongan tuwa supaya énggal mroklamasèkaké kamardikan Indonésia. Nanging golongan tuwa ora péngin kesusu lan ora gelem ana wutah getih nalika proklamasi. Konsultasi diayahi sajeroning wangun rapat PPKI. Golongan mudha ora nyetujoni rapat iku, ngèlingi PPKI iku badan sing diwangun déning Jepang. Golongan mudha péngin kamardikan saka usaha bangsa kita dhéwé, dudu pawèwèh Jepang. Soekarno lan Hatta nekani panguwasa militèr Jepang (''Gunsei'') kanggo konfirmasi ing kantoré ing ''Koningsplein'' (Medan Merdeka). Nanging kantor mau kothong. Soekarno lan Hatta bebarengan Soebardjo sabanjuré lunga menyang kantor ''Bukanfu'', [[Maeda Tadashi|Laksamana Muda Maeda]], ing Dalan Medan Merdeka Utara (Rumah Maeda ing Jl Imam Bonjol 1). Maeda nyambut kerawuhan rombongan iki kanthi ucapan slamet wis kasil ing Dalat. Sinambi njawab yèn dhèwèké durung nampa konfirmasi sarta isih nunggu instruksi saka Tokyo. Samulihé saka Maeda, Soekarno lan Hatta énggal nyiapaké patemon Panitia Persiapan Kamardikan Indonésia (PPKI) ing jam 10 pagi 16 Agustus ésuké ing kantor Jalan Pejambon No 2 kanggo ngrembug sing magepokan karo persiapan Proklamasi Kamardikan. Sedina sawisé iku, gejolak tekanan sing ménginaké ''pengambilalihan'' kakuwasan déning Indonésia tansaya ndadra, dilancaraké déning para nom-noman saka manéka golongan. Rapat PPKI ing 16 Agustus jam 10 ésuk ora ditindakaké amarga Soekarno lan Hatta ora teka. Peserta rapat ora ngerti yèn wis kadadéan [[prastawa Rengasdengklok]]. ==== Prastawa Rengasdengklok ==== Para nom-noman pejuang, kalebu [[Chaerul Saleh]], [[Sukarni]], lan [[Wikana]] sing kobong semangat heroismené sawisé dhiskusi karo [[Tan Malaka|Ibrahim gelar Datuk Tan Malaka]] sing kagabung sajeroning obahan pendhem kélangan kasabaran, lan ésuk umun=umun tanggal [[16 Agustus]] [[1945]] bebarengan Shodanco Singgih, salah siji anggota PETA, lan nom-noman liya, nggawa Soekarno (karo [[Fatmawati]] lan [[Guntur]] sing isih umur 9 bulan) lan Hatta, menyang Rengasdengklok, sing sabanuré misuwur minangka [[prastawa Rengasdengklok]]. Tujuané ya iku supaya Ir. Soekarno lan Drs. Moh. Hatta ora kaprabawaan déning Jepang. Sajeroning patemon iku para nom-noman ngupaya ngyakinaké Soekarno yèn Jepang wis takluk lan para pejuang wis siyap kanggo nglawan Jepang, kanthi résiko apa waé. <!-- Di Jakarta, golongan muda, Wikana, dan golongan tua, yaitu [[Ahmad Subardjo|Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo]] melakukan perundingan. Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo nyetujoni kanggo memproklamasikan kamardikan Indonésia di Jakarta. maka diutuslah Yusuf Kunto kanggo mengantar Ahmad Soebardjo ke [[Rengasdengklok]]. Mereka menjemput Ir. Soekarno dan Drs. Moh. Hatta kembali ke Jakarta. Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo berhasil meyakinkan para pemuda kanggo ora terburu - buru memproklamasikan kamardikan. Sewis tiba di Jakarta, mereka pulang kerumah masing-masing. Mengingat bahwa hotèl Des Indes (sekarang kompleks pertokoan di Harmoni) ora dapat digunbakal kanggo patemon sewis pukul 10 malam, maka tawaran Laksamana Muda Maeda kanggo menggunbakal rumahnya (sekarang gedung muséum perumusan teks proklamasi) minangka tempat rapat PPKI diterima déning para tokoh Indonésia. ==== Patemon Soekarno/Hatta dengan Jenderal Mayor Nishimura dan Laksamana Muda Maeda ==== Malam dinanya, Soekarno dan Hatta kembali ke Jakarta. Mayor Jenderal [[Moichiro Yamamoto]], Kepala Staf Tentara ke XVI (Angkatan Darat) sing dadi Kepala pamaréntahan militer Jepang (''Gunseikan'') di [[Hindia Walanda]] ora mau menerima Sukarno-Hatta sing diantar déning [[Maeda Tadashi]] dan memerintahkan agar Mayor Jenderal [[Otoshi Nishimura]], Kepala Departemen Urusan Umum pamaréntahan militer Jepang, kanggo menerima kedatangan rombongan tersebut. Nishimura mengemukbakal bahwa sejak siang dina tanggal [[16 Agustus]] [[1945]] wis diterima perintah dari Tokio bahwa Jepang harus menjaga ''status quo'', ora dapat memberi ijin kanggo mempersiapkan proklamasi Kamardikan Indonésia minangkamana wis dijanjikan déning Marsekal Terauchi di Dalat, Vietnam. Soekarno dan Hatta menyesali keputusan itu dan menyindir Nishimura apakah itu sikap seorang perwira sing bersemangat Bushido, ingkar janji agar dikasihani déning Sekutu. Akhirnya Sukarno-Hatta meminta agar Nishimura jangan menghalangi kerja PPKI, mungkin dengan cara pura-pura ora tau. Melihat perdebatan sing panas itu Maeda dengan diam-diam meninggalkan ruangan karena diperingatkan déning Nishimura agar Maeda mematuhi perintah Tokio dan dia mengetahui minangka perwira penghubung Angkatan Laut (Kaigun) di laladan Angkatan Darat (Rikugun) dia ora punya wewenang memutuskan. Sewis dari rumah Nishimura, Sukarno-Hatta menuju rumah [[Maeda Tadashi|Laksamana Maeda]] (kini Jalan Imam Bonjol No.1) diiringi déning Myoshi guna melakukan rapat kanggo menyiapkan teks [[Proklamasi]]. Sewis menyapa Sukarno-Hatta sing ditinggalkan berdebat dengan Nishimura, Maeda mengundurkan diri menuju kamar tidurnya. Penyusunan teks Proklamasi dilakukan déning Soekarno, M. Hatta, Achmad Soebardjo dan disaksikan déning [[Soekarni]], [[B.M. Diah]], Sudiro (Mbah) dan Sayuti Melik. Myoshi sing setengah mabuk duduk di kursi belbakalg mendengarkan penyusunan teks tersebut tetapi kemudian ada kalimat dari Shigetada Nishijima seolah-olah dia ikut mencampuri penyusunan teks proklamasi dan menyarankan agar pemindahan kakuwasan itu hanya berarti kakuwasan administratif. Tentang hal ini Bung Karno menegaskan bahwa pemindahan kakuwasan itu berarti "transfer of power". Bung Hatta, Subardjo, B.M Diah, Sukarni, Sudiro dan Sajuti Malik ora ada sing membenarkan klaim Nishijima tetapi di beberapa kalangan klaim Nishijima isih didengungkan. Sewis konsep selesai disepakati, Sajuti menyalin dan mengetik naskah tersebut menggunbakal mesin ketik sing diambil dari kantor perwakilan AL Jerman, milik Mayor (Laut) Dr. Hermann Kandeler.<ref>Zahorka, H. [http://www.bogor.indo.net.id/indonesia.tugupèngetanjerman/#akhir Sajarah dari Tugu Pèngetan Pahlawan Jerman di Arca Domas, Indonésia].</ref> Ing awalnya pembacaan proklamasi bakal dilakukan di [[Lapangan Ikada]], namun berhubung alasan keamanan dipindahkan ke kediaman Soekarno, [[Jalan Pegangsaan Wétan 56]]<ref>[http://sajarahkita.blogspot.com/2006/08/sekitar-proklamasi-5.html Sekitar Proklamasi 5 déning Rushdy Hoesein]</ref> (sekarang Jl. Proklamasi no. 1). == Detik-detik Pembacaan Naskah Proklamasi == [[Gambar:Proklamasi.png|thumb|right|350px|Naskah asli proklamasi sing ditempatkan di [[Monumen Nasional]]]] Perundingan antara golongan muda dan golongan tua jroning penyusunan teks Proklamasi Kamardikan Indonésia berlangsung pukul 02.00 - 04.00 dini dina. Teks proklamasi ditulis di ruang mbakal di kediaman Soekarno, Jl. Pegangsaan Wétan 56 Jakarta. Para penyusun teks proklamasi itu adalah Ir. Soekarno, Drs. Moh. Hatta, dan Mr. Ahmad Soebarjo. Konsep teks proklamasi ditulis déning Ir. Soekarno sendiri. Di ruang depan, hadir B.M Diah Sayuti Melik, Sukarni dan Soediro. Sukarni mengusulkan agar sing menandatangani teks proklamasi itu adalah Ir. Soekarno dan Drs. Moh. Hatta atas jeneng bangsa Indonésia. Teks Proklamasi Indonésia itu diketik déning Sayuti melik. Pagi dinanya, 17 Agustus 1945, di kediaman Soekarno, [[Jalan Pegangsaan Wétan 56]] wis hadir antara lain [[Soewirjo]], [[Wilopo]], [[Gafar Pringgodigdo]], [[Tabrani]] dan [[SK Trimurti|Trimurti]]. Acara diwiwit ing pukul 10:00 dengan pembacaan proklamasi déning Soekarno dan disambung pidato singkat tanpa teks. Kemudian bendera Merah Putih, sing wis dijahit déning bu Fatmawati, dikibarkan, disusul dengan sambutan déning [[Soewirjo]], wakil walikutha Jakarta saat itu dan [[dr. Moewardi|Moewardi]], pimpinan [[Barisan Pelopor]]. Ing awalnya [[SK Trimurti|Trimurti]] diminta kanggo menaikkan bendera namun ia menolak dengan alasan pengerekan bendera sebaiknya dilakukan déning seorang prajurit. Déning sebab itu ditunjuklah [[Latief Hendraningrat]], seorang prajurit [[PETA]], dibantu déning [[Soehoed]] kanggo tugas tersebut. Seorang pemudi muncul dari belbakalg membawa nampan berisi bendera Merah Putih ([[Sang Saka Merah Putih]]), sing dijahit déning [[Fatmawati]] beberapa dina sebelumnya. Sewis bendera berkibar, hadirin menyanyikan lagu [[Indonesia Raya]].<ref>''ibid''</ref>. Sampai saat ini, bendera pusaka tersebut isih disimpan di Museum Tugu Monumen Nasional. Sewis upacara selesai berlangsung, kurang luwih 100 orang anggota [[Barisan Pelopor]] sing dipimpin S.Brata datang terburu-buru karena mereka ora mengetahui perubahan tempat mendadak dari Ikada ke Pegangsaan. Mereka menuntut Soekarno mengulang pembacaan Proklamasi, namun ditolak. Akhirnya Hatta memberikan amanat singkat marangmereka.<ref>''ibid''</ref> [[Gambar:Proklamasi.png|thumb|right|350px|Naskah asli proklamasi]] Ing tanggal 18 Agustus 1945, Panitia Persiapan Kamardikan Indonésia (PPKI) mengambil keputusan, mengesahkan dan menetapkan Undang-Undang Dasar (UUD) minangka dasar nagara Républik Indonésia, sing selanjutnya dikenal minangka [[UUD 45]]. Dengan demikian terbentuklah Pamaréntahan Nagara Kesatuan Indonésia sing berbentuk Républik (NKRI) dengan kedaulatan di tangan rakyat sing dilakukan sepenuhnya déning Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR) sing bakal dibentuk kemudian. Sewis itu Soekarno dan M.Hatta terpilih atas usul dari Oto Iskandardinata dan persetujuan dari PPKI minangka presiden dan wakil presiden Républik Indonésia sing pertama. Presiden dan wakil presiden bakal dibantu déning sawijining Komite Nasional. --> == Isi Teks Proklamasi == [[Gambar:Indonésian_Rupiah_proclamation_of_independence_1945.png|thumb|right|200px|Proklamasi Kemerdekaan padha Indonésia Rupiah uang kertas (Rp100000).]] Isi tèks [[proklamasi]] kamardikan sing cekak iki ya iku: ::::::::'''''<u>Proklamasi</u>''''' {{br}} :''Kami bangsa Indonésia dengan ini menjatbakal kamardikan Indonésia.{{br}} :''Hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d.l.l., diselenggarbakal''{{br}} :''dengan tjara seksama dan sajeroning tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja.'' {{br}} :::''Djakarta, dina 17 boelan 8 tahoen 05''{{br}} :::''Atas jeneng bangsa Indonésia.''{{br}} :::''Soekarno/Hatta''{{br}} Tinulis ing kéné taun 05 amarga iki miturut [[Kalender Jepang|taun Jepang]] sing wektu iku taun 2605. === Naskah Otentik === {{sound sample box align right|}} {{Audio|Indonesia declaration of independence 1945.ogg|Swara Bung Karno macakake naskah proklamasi ing studio RRI taun 1951, pamacan saka usul salah siji pendhiri RRI Jusuf Ronodipuro}} [[Gambar:Indonesia declaration of independence 1945.ogg|noicon]] {{Multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} Tèks ing ndhuwur minangka kasil ketikan saka '''Sayuti Melik''' (utawa ''Sajoeti Melik''), salah siji tokoh nom-noman sing mèlu andil sajeroning persiapan [[proklamasi]]. ::::::::'''''<u>Proklamasi</u>''''' :''Kami bangsa Indonésia dengan ini menyatbakal kamardikan Indonésia. :''Hal-hal sing mengenai pemindahan kakuwasan d.l.l., diselenggarbakal'' :''dengan cara saksama dan sajeroning tempo sing sesingkat-singkatnya.'' :::''Jakarta, dina 17, bulan 8, taun 45'' :::''Wakil2 bangsa Indonésia.'' == Pèngetan 17 Agustus == Saben taun ing tanggal 17 Agustus, rakyat Indonésia mèngeti Dina Proklamasi Kamardikan iki kanthi meriah. Wiwit saka [[Panjat pinang|lomba panjat pinang]], [[mbakal kerupuk|lomba mbakal kerupuk]], nganti upacara militèr ing [[Istana Merdeka]], kabèh péranganing masarakat mèlu partisipasi nganggo carané dhéwé-dhéwé. === Lomba-lomba tradhisional === Perlombaan sing kerep ana sajeroning pèngetan Dina Proklamasi Kamardikan RI ing kampung-kampung/ padésan déning warga saenggon lan dikoordinir déning pengurus kampung/ nom-noman désa * [[Panjat pinang|Jambéan]] * [[Balap bakiak]] * [[Tarik tambang]] * Sepeda lambat * [[Mbakal kerupuk]] * [[Balap karung]] * [[Perang bantal]] * [[Pemecahan balon]] * [[Pengambilan koin sajeroning terigu]] * [[Lari Kelereng]] === Pèngetan Dhetik-dhetik Proklamasi === Pèngetan detik-detik Proklamasi ing Istana Merdeka dipanggedhèni déning [[Présidhèn RI]] minangka [[Inspektur Upacara]]. Pèngetan iki lumrahé digiyaraké kanthi langsung déning kabèh stasiun télévisi. Acara-acara ing ésuk kalebu: pambedhil mriem lan sirene, pangibaran gendéra [[Sang Saka Merah Putih]] (Gendéra Pusaka), maca naskah Proklamasi, lll. Ing wayah soré ana acara penurunan bendera Sang Saka Merah Putih. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Uga delengen == * [[Badan Panyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kamardikan Indonésia]] * [[Panitia Persiapan Kamardikan Indonésia]] * [[Prastawa Rengasdengklok]] == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0508/18/opi02.html Mitos dan Realitas Menjelang Proklamasi] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcPL0uUV02Y Proklamasi @ YouTube.com] ==Bibliografi== *{{Cite book|title=Some Aspects of Indonesian Politics under the Japanese occupation, 1944–1945|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|series=Cornell University. Dept. of Far Eastern Studies. Modern Indonesia Project. Interim reports series |author-link=Benedict Anderson|publisher=Cornell University|year=1961|isbn=|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924006545622&view=1up&seq=3|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|pages=}} * {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|author-link=Benedict Anderson|title=Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946|url=https://archive.org/details/javaintimeofrevo0000ande|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=0-8014-0687-0}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Elson | first1 = R. E. | date = 2009 | title = Another Look at the Jakarta Charter Controversy of 1945 | url = https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54483/INDO_88_0_1255982649_105_130.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y | journal = Indonesia | volume = 88 | issue = 88 | pages = 105–130}} * {{Cite book|title=The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_VAH0W9uxoqoC |last=Feith|first=Herbert|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|orig-year=1962|isbn=978-9793780450 |location=Singapore|author-link=Herbert Feith}} * {{Cite book|title=The blue-eyed enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942–1945|last=Friend|first=Theodore|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=|location=New Jersey}} * {{Cite book|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949|last=Gouda|first=Frances|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2002|isbn=|location=Amsterdam}} * {{cite news | last = Poulgrain | first = Greg | title = Intriguing days ahead of independence | work = [[The Jakarta Post]] | date = 20 August 2015 | url = https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/08/20/intriguing-days-ahead-independence.html | access-date = 24 September 2020 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Homan|first=Gerlof D|date=1990|title=The Netherlands, the United States and the Indonesian Question, 1948|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_1990-01_25_1/page/124|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=25|issue=1|page=124|doi=10.1177/002200949002500106|s2cid=159928062}} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal|last=Kahin|first=George McT.|author-link=George McTurnan Kahin|date=2000|title=Sukarno's Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|journal=Indonesia|volume=69|issue=69|pages=1–3|doi=10.2307/3351273|issn=0019-7289|jstor=3351273|hdl=1813/54189|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/54189/1/INDO_69_0_1106943303_1_4.pdf|hdl-access=free}} * {{Citation | author = Mela Arnani | title = Kapan Soekarno Rekaman Suara Pembacaan Teks Proklamasi Indonesia? |trans-title=When did Soekarno record the Reading of the Indonesian Proclamation Text? |language=id| newspaper = [[Kompas]] | location = Jakarta | date = 17 August 2020 | url = https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/08/17/170500765/kapan-soekarno-rekaman-suara-pembacaan-teks-proklamasi-indonesia?page=all|access-date=27 September 2020}} * {{Cite book |editor-last1= Post|editor-first1= Peter |editor-last2= Frederick|editor-first2= William H. |editor-last3= Heidebrink|editor-first3= Iris |editor-last4= Sato|editor-first4= Shigeru | title=The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War |publisher=Brill |date=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-16866 4}} *{{Cite web |last=Prastiwi |first=Devira |year=2019 |title=Nani Wartabone dan Proklamasi Kemerdekaan 23 Januari 1942 |url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/3877256/nani-wartanobe-dan-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-23-januari-1942 |website=Liputan6.com |access-date=16 March 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Raliby| first=Osman| year= 1953| title=Documenta Historica: Sedjarah Dokumenter Dari Pertumbuhan dan Perdjuangan Negara Republik Indonesia| publisher=Bulain-Bintag|language=id|location =Jakarta|volume=}} * {{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Reid (academic)|title=The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950 |publisher=Longman |year=1974 |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-582-71046-4}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 | publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book|title=A history of modern Indonesia|last=Vickers|first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1139447614|location=New York|page=84}} {{Dina gedhé Indonésia}} {{Topik Indonésia|state=collapsed}} [[Kategori:Sajarah Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Indonésia ing taun 1945]] t8w5r4yeos14t774akdi8run59hm1pd The Fox and the Hound 0 45830 1752923 1628504 2026-08-20T05:05:09Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752923 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox filem | name = The Fox and the Hound | image = fox_and_hound_Poster.JPG | caption = Poster layar jembar | director = [[Ted Berman]]<br />[[Richard Rich (sutradara)|Richard Rich]]<br />[[Art Stevens]] | producer = [[Ron W. Miller|Ron Miller]]<br />Art Stevens<br />[[Wolfgang Reitherman]] | writer = '''Scenario:'''<br />Ted Berman<br />Larry Clemmons<br />'''Carita:'''<br />[[David Michener]]<br />[[Peter Young]]<br />[[Burny Mattinson]]<br />'''Novèl:'''<br />[[Daniel P. Mannix]] | starring = [[Mickey Rooney]]<br />[[Kurt Russell]]<br />[[Pearl Bailey]]<br />[[Pat Buttram]]<br />[[Sandy Duncan]]<br />[[Richard Bakalyan]]<br />[[Paul Winchell]]<br />[[Jack Albertson]]<br />[[Jeanette Nolan]]<br />[[John Fiedler]]<br />[[John McIntire]]<br />[[Keith Mitchell]]<br />[[Corey Feldman]] | music = '''Musik latar:'''<br />[[Buddy Baker (penyusun)|Buddy Baker]]<br />'''Lagu:'''<br />[[Richard Johnson]]<br />Richard Rich<br />[[Jim Stafford]]<br />[[Jeffrey Patch]] | editing = [[James Koford]]<br />[[James Melton]] | studio = [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Productions]] | distributor = [[Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures|Buena Vista Distribution]] | released = {{Start date|1981|7|10|df=yes}} | runtime = 83 menit | country = {{flagicon|USA}} | language = Inggris | budget = 12 miliar [[dolar AS]]<ref name=budget>{{cite journal |title=Forest Friendship |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_newsweek-us_newsweek_1981-07-13_98_2/page/81 |first=David |last=Ansen |journal=[[Newsweek]] |date=13 Juli 1981 |page=81}}</ref> | gross = 39.9 miliar dolar AS<ref name=BO>{{cite web | title=The Fox and the Hound (1981) | publisher=[[Box Office Mojo]] |url=http://boxofficemojo.com/yearly/chart/?yr=1981&p=.htm | accessdate=2008-09-20}}</ref> | followed by = ''[[The Fox and the Hound 2]]'' (2006) }} '''''The Fox and the Hound''''' ("Si Rubah lan Si Asu Parburon") iku sawijining [[filem animasi]] prodhuksi [[Walt Disney Productions]] lan dirilis ing biyoskup déning [[Buena Vista Pictures]] tanggal [[10 Juli]] [[1981]]. Film iki ya iku dadi filem kaping 24 ing sérial [[Pratélan filem Disney|filem animasi klasik Walt Disney]]. Film iki digawé dhedhasar buku mawa judhul kang padha lan ditulis déning [[Daniel P. Mannix]]. Plot filem iki munjer marang sawijining [[asu|asu parburon]] lan sawijining [[rubah|rubah abang]] kang usaha manggahaké tali kekancan sanadyan loro-loroné iku sajatiné kudu satron. Skenarioné ditulis déning [[Ted Berman]] lan [[Larry Clemmons]] sarta disutradarani [[Ted Berman]] lan [[Richard Rich]]. [[Kurt Russell]], [[Mickey Rooney]], [[Pearl Bailey]], [[Pat Buttram]], [[Sandy Duncan]], [[Richard Bakalyan]], [[Paul Winchell]], [[Jack Albertson]], [[Jeanette Nolan]], [[Keith Coogan]], lan [[Corey Feldman]] mèlu ngisi swara filem iki. Film iki macarita prakara sawijining rubah abang Tod kang wiwit cilik kélangan kulawargané lan diingu déning Janda Tweed kamangka tetanggané Amos Slade olèh sawijining anak asu paburon. Tod lan Copper wiwit cilik wis kekancan, nganti diwasa. Banjur Copper dilatih dadi asu paburon lan sasarané ya iku Tod, kancané dhéwé. Nalika dirilis, filem iki ya iku filem animasi kang larang dhéwé kang naté digawé lan merlokaké béya gedhéné 12 yuta dolar AS.<ref name="budget" /> Film iki filem pungkasan "Animasi Klasik Walt Disney" lan uga kang pungkasan Don Bluth mèlu terlibat ing prodhuksiné. Sekuel filem iki, ''[[The Fox and the Hound 2]]'', dirilis ing taun 2006. Film iki nduwé slogan ''Two Friends Who Didn't Know They Were Supposed To Be Enemies''. == Plot == {{spoiler}} Nalika anak [[rubah abang]] dadi yatim piatu, manuk beluk "Big Mama" ([[Pearl Bailey]]), manuk [[platuk]] "Boomer" ([[Paul Winchell]]), manuk ''[[finch]]'' "Dinky" ([[Richard Bakalyan]]) ngatur supaya anak rubah mau diadopsi déning manungsa ya iku Janda Tweed ([[Jeanette Nolan]]). Tweed njenengaké Tod (diswarakaké déning [[Keith Coogan]]) amarga ngèlikaké marang bocah cilik kang lagi ajar malku ([[basa Inggris]]: ''toddler''). Sauntara iku, tanggané Tweed aran Amos Slade ([[Jack Albertson]]) nggawa mulih siji kirik pemburu kang jenengé Copper ([[Corey Feldman]]), lan ngenalaké marang asu ajagé kang jenengé Chief ([[Pat Buttram]]). Tod lan Copper dadi kanca raket, lan angkat sumpah arep dadi "kanca salawasé". <!-- Slade kesal dengan Copper yang selalu pergi bermain ke tempat yang jauh, dan akhirnya Copper diikat. Sewaktu bermain dengan Copper di rumahnya, Tod tidak sengaja membangunkan Chief. Slade dan Chief mengejar Tod hingga Tweed meminta keduanya untuk berhenti mengejar. Setelah terjadi adu pendapat antara Slade dan Tweed, Slade berkata bahwa Tod akan dibunuhnya bila sekali lagi memasuki tanah pertanian miliknya. Musim berburu dimulai, dan Slade mengajak anjing-anjingnya ke hutan untuk berburu. Sementara itu, Big Mama menjelaskan kepada Tod bahwa persahabatannya dengan Copper tidak dapat berlanjut, karena anjing dan rubah adalah musuh alami, namun Tod tidak percaya. Bulan demi bulan berlalu, Tod dan Copper menjadi dewasa. Tod ([[Mickey Rooney]]) menyelinap untuk bertemu Copper yang baru kembali dari dari berburu. Copper ([[Kurt Russell]]) menjelaskan bahwa walaupun Tod masih dihargainya sebagai seorang kawan, keadaan sudah berubah. Dirinya sekarang telah berubah menjadi seekor anjing pemburu. Chief terbangun dan memberi tahu Slade. Terjadi kejar-mengejar, dan Tod ditangkap oleh Copper. Namun Copper melepaskan Tod, dan lalu mengalihkan perhatian Chief dan Slade ke arah lain. Chief terus mengejar hingga ke sebuah jalan kereta api hingga tertabrak kereta api yang lewat dan terluka. Copper dan Slade menyalahkan Tod sebagai penyebab kecelakaan, dan bersumpah akan membalas dendam. Tweed menyadari bahwa Tod sudah tidak aman lagi bila tetap dipeliharanya. Tod akhirnya ditinggalkan di sebuah [[cagar alam]]. Big Mama memperkenalkannya dengan seekor rubah betina bernama Vixey ([[Sandy Duncan]]). Sementara itu, Slade dan Copper yang sedang mengejar dua ekor rubah, melanggar perbatasan dan masuk ke daerah cagar alam. Pengejaran berpuncak ketika Slade dan Copper secara tidak sengaja menyebabkan keduanya diserang seekor [[beruang]]. Slade jatuh terpeleset dan masuk ke dalam perangkap yang dibuatnya sendiri. Senapan miliknya juga terjatuh di luar jangkauannya. Copper sendirian berkelahi melawan beruang, namun dia bukanlah tandingan seekor beruang. Tod datang membantu melawan beruang hingga keduanya jatuh ke [[air terjun]]. Ketika Copper sedang menghampiri Tod yang terbaring di danau, Slade muncul, dan siap menembak Tod. Copper memasang badannya di depan Tod dan menolak untuk menyingkir. Slade menurunkan senapannya, dan akhirnya pergi berlalu bersama Copper. Di rumah, Tweed mengobati Slade hingga sembuh sementara para anjing beristirahat. Sebelum tertidur, Copper tersenyum, karena teringat hari-hari ketika dirinya berteman dengan Tod. Dari atas sebuah bukit, Vixey dan Tod melihat ke bawah, ke rumah Copper dan Tweed. --> == Distribusi == ''The Fox and the Hound'' ngalami peluncuran perdhana ing biyoskup tanggal 10 Juli 1981. Sabanjuré filem iki diluncuraké ulang tanggal 25 Maret 1988. Peluncuran perdhana sajeroning video format VHS tanggal 4 Maret 1994. Ing tanggal 2 Mèi 2000 versi DVD diluncuraké kanggo sapisanan. == Jenengé para paraga == * [[Mickey Rooney]] lan [[Keith Coogan]] minangka Tod: anom [[rubah abang]] ibu kang wis diprejaya déning [[Perburuan|pemburu]]. * [[Kurt Russell]] lan [[Corey Feldman]] minangka Copper: asu ajag anom. * [[Pat Buttram]] minangka Chief: Sawijining asu Afghan hound kang ngancani Copper Tua * [[Jeanette Nolan]] minangka Widow Tweed: Randha kang apik atiné * [[Jack Albertson]] minangka Amos Slade: si penjahat. * [[Pearl Bailey]] minangka Big Mama. * [[Sandy Duncan]] minangka Vixey * [[Richard Bakalyan]] lan [[Paul Winchell]] minangka Dinky lan Boomer * [[John McIntire]] minangka Badger * [[John Fiedler]] minangka Porcupine == Tanggal rilis == * [[Brasil]]: 16 Juli 1981 * [[Argentina]]: 23 Juli 1981 * [[Jerman Kulon]]: 13 November 1981 * [[Britania Raya]]: 17 November 1981 * [[Italia]]: 17 November 1981 * [[Manitoba]]: 23 November 1981 * [[Meksiko]]: 24 November 1981 * [[Perancis]]: 25 November 1981 * [[Spanyol]]: 27 November 1981 * [[Sweden]]: 5 Dhésèmber 1981 * [[Finlan]]: 11 Dhésèmber 1981 * [[Belanda]]: 24 Dhésèmber 1981 * [[Australia]]: 26 Dhésèmber 1981 * [[Hong Kong]]: 14 Januari 1982 * [[Portugal]]: 18 Fèbruari 1982 * [[Norway]]: 22 April 1982 * [[Jepang]]: 12 Maret 1983 * [[China]]: 31 Oktober 1989 == Pratélan musik filem == * ''The Best of Friends'' * ''Lack of Education'' * ''A Huntin' Man'' * ''Goodbye May Seem Forever'' * ''Appericate the Lady'' == Direksi Sequence == * [[Cliff Nordberg]] * [[Ollie Johnston]] * [[Ron Clements]] * [[Frank Thomas]] * [[Randy Cartwright]] * [[Glen Keane]] (Beruang) == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == {{Wikiquote}} * [http://disneydvd.disney.go.com/the-fox-and-the-hound-25th-anniversary-edition.html Situs resmi] * {{imdb title|0082406}} [[Kategori:Filem 1981]] [[Kategori:Film Amérikah Sarékat]] [[Kategori:Filem abasa Inggris]] e7h06nahxsos7wn3jlgdqony5yl6k4e Synapsida 0 54056 1752917 1691654 2026-08-20T04:56:35Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752917 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Klad tetrapoda}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Synapsida | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|312|0|[[Pennsylvanian (géologi)|Pennsylvanian]]–[[Holosen]], 312–0&nbsp;Ma| | earliest=312}} | image = | image_caption = Conto synapsida: ''[[Cotylorhynchus]]'', ''[[Oedaleops]]'' (two [[caseasaur]]s), ''[[Edaphosaurus]]'', ''[[Dimetrodon]]'', ''[[Inostrancevia]]'', ''[[Placerias]]'', [[platypus]] lan [[Homo sapiens|manungsa]] (sekawan [[therapsid]] kalebu kalih [[mammalia]]). | taxon = Synapsida | display_parents = 3 | authority = [[Henry Fairfield Osborn|Osborn]], 1903 | subdivision_ranks = Subkelompok | subdivision = *†[[Diadectomorpha]]?<ref name=Berman>{{Cite journal|author=David S. Berman|year=2013|title=Diadectomorphs, amniotes or not?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5f4oCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|journal=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin|volume=60|pages=22–35}}</ref><ref name=Klembara>{{Cite journal|author1=Jozef Klembara |author2=Miroslav Hain |author3=Marcello Ruta |author4=David S. Berman |author5=Stephanie E. Pierce |author6=Amy C. Henrici |year=2019 |title=Inner ear morphology of diadectomorphs and seymouriamorphs (Tetrapoda) uncovered by high‐resolution x‐ray microcomputed tomography, and the origin of the amniote crown group |journal=Palaeontology |volume=63 |pages= 131–154|doi=10.1111/pala.12448 |doi-access=free }}</ref> *''{{extinct}}[[Echinerpeton]]'' *''{{extinct}}[[Protoclepsydrops]]''? *{{extinct}}[[Caseasauria]] **{{extinct}}[[Caseidae]] **{{extinct}}[[Eothyrididae]] **{{extinct}}''[[Phreatophasma]]''? *[[Eupelycosauria]] ** †[[Ophiacodontidae]] ** †[[Varanopidae]]? ** Haptodontiformes *** †[[Edaphosauridae]] *** [[Sphenacodontia]] |synonyms = [[Theropsida]] <small>[[Harry Seeley|Seeley]], 1895</small><ref>{{cite journal|last = Seeley|first = Harry Govier|year = 1895|title = Researches on the Structure, Organisation, and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia. Part X. On the Complete Skeleton of an Anomodont Reptile (''Aristodesmus rutimeyeri'', Wiedersheim), from the Bunter Sandstone of Reihen, near Basel, Giving New Evidence of the Relation of the Anomodontia to the Monotremata|journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London|volume = 59|pages = 167–169|doi = 10.1098/rspl.1895.0070|url = https://zenodo.org/record/1432087|doi-access = free}}</ref> }} '''Synapsida''' ('fused arch'), utawa '''theropsida''' ('rai kéwan'), kelas [[sato kéwan]] sing kalebu [[mamalia]] lan saliyané [[amniota]] urip liyané.<ref>Laurin and Reisz 2007.</ref> Anggota non-mamalia karan '''reptil mèmper mamalia''' sajeroning sistematika klasik,<ref name=Carroll397>Carroll 1988: 397.</ref><ref name=Benton122>Benton 2005: 122.</ref> nanging karan "'''mamalia batang'''" utawa "'''proto-mammalia'''" sajeroning terminologi [[cladistic]]. == Taksonomi == === Classification === * '''Series [[Amniota]]''' ** '''CLASS SYNAPSIDA''' [[paraphyletic|*]] *** '''Order [[Pelycosaur]]ia''' [[paraphyletic|*]] **** '''Suborder [[Caseasauria]]''' **** '''Suborder [[Eupelycosauria]]''' [[paraphyletic|*]] ***** Family [[Varanopseidae]] ***** Family [[Ophiacodontidae]] ***** Family [[Edaphosauridae]] ***** Family [[Sphenacodontidae]] [[paraphyletic|*]] *** '''Order [[Therapsida]]''' [[paraphyletic|*]] **** '''Suborder [[Biarmosuchia]]''' [[paraphyletic|*]] **** '''Suborder [[Dinocephalia]]''' **** '''Suborder [[Anomodontia]]''' **** '''Suborder [[Gorgonopsia]]''' **** '''Suborder [[Therocephalia]]''' **** '''Suborder [[Cynodontia]]''' [[paraphyletic|*]] ***** Family [[Probainognathidae]] ***** '''Superfamily [[Chiniquodontoidea]]''' [[paraphyletic|*]] ** '''CLASS [[Mammal|MAMMALIA]]''' === Filogeni === {{clade| style=font-size:70%;line-height:100% |label1=Synapsida |1={{clade |1=[[Caseasauria]] |label2=[[Eupelycosauria]] |2={{clade |1=[[Varanopseidae]] |2={{clade |1=[[Ophiacodontidae]] |2={{clade |1=[[Edaphosauridae]] |label2=[[Sphenacodontia]] |2={{clade |1=[[Sphenacodontidae]] |label2=[[Therapsida]] |2={{clade |label1=[[Biarmosuchia]] |1={{clade |1=''[[Eotitanosuchus]]''}} |label2=Eutherapsida |2={{clade |1=[[Dinocephalia]] |label2=Neotherapsida |2={{clade |1=[[Anomodontia]] |label2=[[Theriodontia]] |2={{clade |1=[[Gorgonopsia]] |label2=Eutheriodontia |2={{clade |1=[[Therocephalia]] |label2=[[Cynodontia]] |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''[[Dvinia]]'' |2=[[Procynosuchidae]]}} |label2=[[Epicynodontia]] |2={{clade |1=''[[Thrinaxodon]]'' |label2=[[Eucynodontia]] |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''[[Cynognathus]]'' |2={{clade |1=[[Tritylodontidae]] |2=[[Traversodontidae]]}} |label2=[[Probainognathia]] |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Trithelodontidae]] |2=[[Chiniquodontidae]]}} |2={{clade |1=''[[Prozostrodon]]'' |label2=[[Mammaliaformes]] |2={{clade |1=[[Mammalia]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} == Cathetan == {{reflist}} == Réferènsi == * [[Michael J. Benton|Benton, Michael J.]] (2005). [[Vertebrate Paleontology (Benton)|Vertebrate Paleontology]], 3rd ed. Oxford: [[Blackwell's|Blackwell Science Ltd]]. ISBN 0-632-05637-1. * {{cite journal |last=Bramble |first=D. M. |authorlink= |author2=Jenkins, F. A. |year=1993 |title=Mammalian locomotor-respiratory integration: Implications for diaphragmatic and pulmonary design |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=262 |issue=5131 |pages=235–240 |doi=10.1126/science.8211141 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1993-10-08_262_5131/page/235|accessdate= |quote= }} * [[Robert L. Carroll|Carroll, Robert L.]] (1988). [[Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution]]. New York: W.H. Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-1822-7. * {{cite journal |last=Hopson |first=James A. |authorlink= |year=1987 |title=The Mammal-Like Reptiles: A Study of Transitional Fossils |journal=The American Biology Teacher |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=16–26 |id= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-biology-teacher_1987-01_49_1/page/16|accessdate= |quote= }} * Hoyt, Donald F. (1997). [http://www.csupomona.edu/~dfhoyt/classes/zoo138/SYNAPSID.HTML Synapsid Reptiles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520072737/http://www.csupomona.edu/~dfhoyt/classes/zoo138/SYNAPSID.HTML |date=2009-05-20 }}. ''Zoo 138 Vertebrate Zoology Home Page''. * Lambert, David (2001). ''Dinosaur Encyclopedia''. ISBN 0-7894-7935-4. * Laurin, Michel, and Robert R. Reisz (2007). [http://tolweb.org/Synapsida/14845/2007.04.06 Synapsida: Mammals and their extinct relatives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211120724/http://tolweb.org/Synapsida/14845/2007.04.06 |date=2008-12-11 }}. Version 6 April 2007. ''The [[Tree of Life Web Project]]''. == Wacan == * {{cite book|last=Colbert|first=E. H.|authorlink=Edwin H. Colbert|title=[[Evolution of the Vertebrates]]|edition=2|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons|John Wiley & Sons Inc]]|location=New York|year=1969|isbn=0471164666|series=}} == Uga delengen == * [[Anapsid]]a * [[Diapsid]]a * [[Euryapsida]] * [[Pratélan synapsida]] * [[Klasifikasi mamalia]] * [[Mamalia prasajarah]] * [[Paleontology Vertebrata]] * [[Garis waktu evolusi]] {{Wikispecies|Synapsida}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/Unit390/000.html Synapsida - Pelycosauria]-at Palaeos * [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-transitional/part1b.html Transitional Vertebrate Fossils]-includes description of important [[transitional fossils|transitional]] genera in the evolutionary sequence linking primitive synapsids to mammals [[Kategori:Pelycosauria]] [[Kategori:Synapsida]] [[Kategori:Therapsida]] aoit3s633kzsosziqiv7ujr3qhc4127 Bunglon 0 72162 1752863 1624092 2026-08-20T03:31:16Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752863 wikitext text/x-wiki {{speciesbox | name = | image = Bunglon Surai (Bronchocela jubata).jpg | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{Cite iucn | vauthors = Ineich I, Hallermann J | name-list-style = amp | title = ''Bronchocela jubata'' | volume = 2010 | page = e.T170378A6772283 | date = 2010 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T170378A6772283.en }}</ref> | genus = Bronchocela | species = jubata | authority = [[André Marie Constant Duméril|A.M.C. Duméril]] & [[Gabriel Bibron|Bibron]], 1837 | range_map = Bronchocela jubata distribution.png | synonyms = *''Bronchocela jubata'' <br>{{small|A.M.C. Duméril & Bibron, 1837}} *''Calotes jubatus'' <br>{{small|— [[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1885}} *''Bronchocela jubata'' <br>{{small|— [[Scott Michael Moody|Moody]], 1980}} <ref name="RDB"/> }} '''Bunglon''' ya iku aran khusus kanggo manèka warna jinis [[Kadhal|kadal]]/[[Kadhal|bengkarung]] sing nduwèni kèmampuan kanggo ngganti werna kulit. Umumé, istilah "bunglon" digunakaké kanggo nyebut kadal saka suku [[Chamaeleonidae]] lan sawatara spèsiès saka suku liya, kaya ta saka [[Agamidae]] .<ref name="Glaw 2015">{{Cite journal|last=Glaw, F.|year=2015|title=Taxonomic checklist of chameleons (Squamata: Chamaeleonidae)|journal=Vertebrate Zoology|volume=65|issue=2|pages=167–246}}</ref> Istilah ing basa Inggris ya iku '''Chameleon''' utawa '''Chamaeleon'''.<ref>{{L&S|chamaeleon|ref}}</ref><ref>{{LSJ|xamaile/wn|χαμαιλέων|ref}}.</ref><ref>{{LSJ|xamai/|χαμαί|shortref}}.</ref> Nanging, istilah ing basa Inggris luwih kerep digunakaké kanggo nyèbut suku Chamaeleonidae. Chameleons nyebar ing sakiwa-tengené [[Afrika]], Semenanjung [[Arab]], [[Asia]] Kidul, menyang [[Nusantara]]. Ing [[Indonésia|Indonesia]] waé, istilah bunglon digunakaké kanggo nyèbut sawatara spèsiès ''gèn Bronchocela Sp.'', kaya ta mane chameleons.<ref>https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunglon_surai</ref> == Pambuka == Hampir kabèh jinis bunglon duwé kèmiripan lan sifat fisik ing ngisor iki:<ref name="Klaver and Böhme 1986">{{Cite journal|last=Klaver, C.|last2=Böhme, W.|year=1986|title=Phylogeny and classification of the Chamaeleonidae (Sauria) with special reference to hemipenis morphology|journal=Bonner Zoologische Monographien|volume=22|pages=1–64}}</ref> * Ndas kanthi wangun sudut * Kulit kasar * Kelopak mata gedhé * Bisa ngganti werna === Ganti Wèrna lan Mèkanisme === Istimèwané bunglon iki bisa ngganti wèrna (uga bisa kombinasi warna) kulit njabané. Saben jinis bunglon duwé sethithik sawatara werna dhasar saka ijo peteng, ijo enom, kuning, abang, oranye, coklat, abu-abu, jambon, sian, lan wungu. Sawetara spèsiès uga duwé kombinasi werna kasebut. Iki nggawé chameleons salah siji klompok kadal kang paling warna-warni ing donya.<ref name="autogenerated1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080820084937/http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngexplorer/0210/articles/mainarticle.html Chameleons]. National Geographic Explorer</ref> Mekanismé owahé warna disebabaké dèning zat nanocrystal ing permukaan kulit kang bisa ngèmot sinar. Werna sinar kang mantul ditemtokaké dèning ruang dinamis antarané nanocrystal. Uga ngetutaké werna pigmèn asli saka kulit Chameleons kang katon dideleng mripat manungsa utawa kèwan liyané kang ndeleng bunglon. Dadi, kombinasi werna lan werna kulit bunglon sing bisa katon ing sawayah-wayah bisa ganti.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> === Fungsi werna === Chameleons ngganti warna kulit kanggo nyamaraké awaké karo lingkungané, yaiku kanthi ngganti werna kulit kasebut menyang warna ing ngendi dhèwèké ngadeg utawa obyek ing sacedhaké. Nanging, bunglon uga ngganti werna kulit kanggo nuduhaké rèaksi marang owahé suhu utawa intènsitas sinar ing sakubengé utawa kanggo nampilaké swasana ati. Biasané saben spèsiès nduwèni tujuan kanggo ngganti werna kulit kang beda. Owahan saka werna ireng uga digunakaké bunglon lanang nalika ana bunglon liyané ing wilayahé utawa kanggo nyedhaki bunglon wadon nalika musim kawin. Ing kasus loro bunglon lanang, kombinasi werna sing padhang minangka tandha yèn bunglon wis nduwèni kakuasan ing panggonan kasèbut, nalika kombinasi werna sing kurang alus minangka tandha yèn dhèwèké nyèrah.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stuart-Fox|first=D.|last2=Moussalli|first2=A.|year=2008|title=Selection for Social Signalling Drives the Evolution of Chameleon Colour Change|journal=PLoS Biology|volume=6|issue=1|pages=e25|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060025|pmc=2214820|pmid=18232740}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/animal-camouflage2.htm|title=How Animal Camouflage Works|last=Harris|first=Tom|publisher=How Stuff Works|access-date=2006-11-13}}</ref> === Liyane === Ing jinis Chamaeleonidae, nduwèni kaistimèwaan liyané ya iku bola mata kang bisa muter kanthi ngadhep ngarep, sisih, munggah, mudhun, bali, kanthi rotasi 360 °. Chameleons uga duwé panyawangan sing cètha. Kajaba iku, sapérangan spèsiès duwé ilat kang dawa banget. Ilat iki digunakaké kanggo nyekel serangga kang lumaku utawa ana ing ngarepé. Panganan utama saka bunglon ya iku [[Kéwan gegremetan|serangga]]. Bunglon nyèkèl serangga kanthi mbukak cangkèmé lan némpelaké ilat kang dawa kanthi lèngket menyang targèt, banjur serangga kasebut menyang ilat bunglon kang banjur ditarik bali menyang cangkèmé. Jarak saka ilat bunglon ya iku loro pertelu dawané awaké. Sawetara jinis malah duwe ilat kang luwih dawa tinimbang total dawané awak.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ott|first=M.|last2=Schaeffel|first2=F.|last3=Kirmse|first3=W.|year=1998|title=Binocular vision and accommodation in prey-catching chamaeleons|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-comparative-physiology_1998-03_182_3/page/319|journal=Comparative Physiology A|volume=182|issue=3|pages=319–330|doi=10.1007/s003590050182}}</ref><ref name="Higham and Anderson 2014">{{Citation|last=Higham|first=T. E.|title=The Biology of Chameleons|pages=63–83|year=2014|editor-last=Tolley|editor-first=K. A.|contribution=Function and adaptation of chameleons|place=Berkeley, CA|publisher=University of California Press|last2=Anderson|first2=C. V.}}</ref> == Galeri == <gallery mode="packed" heights="135px"> Gambar:Oustalet's chameleon (Furcifer oustaleti) female.jpg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Bunglon besar Malagasi|Malagasy bigam]] ( ''Furcifer oustaleti'' ) Gambar:Indian Chameleon (Chamaeleo zeylanicus) Photograph By Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Bunglon India|Indian Chameleon]] ( ''Chamaeleo zeylanicus'' ) Gambar:Jackson's Chameleon 2 edit1.jpg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Bunglon Jackson|Chameleon Jackson]] ( ''Trioceros jacksonii'' ) Gambar:Mellers.chameleon.bristol.zoo.arp.jpg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Bunglon Meller|Meller Chameleon]] ( ''Trioceros melleri'' ) Gambar:Chameleon02.jpg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Bunglon Panther|Chameleon Panther]] ( ''Furcifer pardalis'' ) Gambar:Bunglon_Surai_(Bronchocela_jubata).jpg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Bunglon surai|Mane Chameleon]] ( ''Bronchocela jubata'' ) Gambar:Green Crested Lizard.jpg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Bunglon jambul hijau|Green crested chameleon]] ( ''Bronchocela cristatella'' ) </gallery> == Klasifikasi == === Suku Chamaeleonidae === * ''Archaius'' Gray, 1865 * ''Bradypodion'' Fitzinger, 1843 * ''Brookesia'' Grey, 1865 * ''Calumma'' Gray, 1865 * ''Chamaeleo'' Laurenti, 1768 * ''Furcifer'' Fitzinger, 1843 * ''Kinyongia'' Tilbury, Tolley & Branch, 2006 * ''Nadzikambia'' Tilbury, Tolley & Branch, 2006 * ''Palleon'' Glaw, Hawlitschek & Ruthensteiner, 2013 * ''Rhampholeon'' Günther, 1874 * ''Rieppeleon'' Matthee, Tilbury & Townsend, 2004 * ''Trioceros'' Swainson, 1839 === Suku Agamidae === * ''Bronchocela'' Kaup, 1827 * ''Gonocephalus chamaeleontinus'' (Laurenti, 1825) - Bunglon alas == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} * {{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=C. V.|last2=Deban|first2=S. M.|year=2010|title=Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2010-03-23_107_12/page/5495|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=107|issue=12|pages=5495–5499|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.5495A|doi=10.1073/pnas.0910778107|pmc=2851764|pmid=20212130}} {{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=C. V.|last2=Deban|first2=S. M.|year=2010|title=Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2010-03-23_107_12/page/5495|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=107|issue=12|pages=5495–5499|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.5495A|doi=10.1073/pnas.0910778107|pmc=2851764|pmid=20212130}} {{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=C. V.|last2=Deban|first2=S. M.|year=2010|title=Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=107|issue=12|pages=5495–5499|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.5495A|doi=10.1073/pnas.0910778107|pmc=2851764|pmid=20212130}} {{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=C. V.|last2=Deban|first2=S. M.|year=2010|title=Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=107|issue=12|pages=5495–5499|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.5495A|doi=10.1073/pnas.0910778107|pmc=2851764|pmid=20212130}} {{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=C. V.|last2=Deban|first2=S. M.|year=2010|title=Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=107|issue=12|pages=5495–5499|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.5495A|doi=10.1073/pnas.0910778107|pmc=2851764|pmid=20212130}} {{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=C. V.|last2=Deban|first2=S. M.|year=2010|title=Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=107|issue=12|pages=5495–5499|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.5495A|doi=10.1073/pnas.0910778107|pmc=2851764|pmid=20212130}} {{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=C. V.|last2=Deban|first2=S. M.|year=2010|title=Ballistic tongue projection in chameleons maintains high performance at low temperature|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=107|issue=12|pages=5495–5499|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.5495A|doi=10.1073/pnas.0910778107|pmc=2851764|pmid=20212130}} * {{Cite journal|last=Herrel|first=A.|last2=Meyers|first2=J. J.|last3=Nishikawa|first3=K. C.|last4=De Vree|first4=F.|year=2001|title=Morphology and histochemistry of the hyolingual apparatus in chameleons|url=|journal=Journal of Morphology|volume=249|issue=|pages=154–170|doi=10.1002/jmor.1047|pmid=11466743}} {{Cite journal|last=Herrel|first=A.|last2=Meyers|first2=J. J.|last3=Nishikawa|first3=K. C.|last4=De Vree|first4=F.|year=2001|title=Morphology and histochemistry of the hyolingual apparatus in chameleons|url=|journal=Journal of Morphology|volume=249|issue=|pages=154–170|doi=10.1002/jmor.1047|pmid=11466743}} {{Cite journal|last=Herrel|first=A.|last2=Meyers|first2=J. J.|last3=Nishikawa|first3=K. C.|last4=De Vree|first4=F.|year=2001|title=Morphology and histochemistry of the hyolingual apparatus in chameleons|url=|journal=Journal of Morphology|volume=249|issue=|pages=154–170|doi=10.1002/jmor.1047|pmid=11466743}} {{Cite journal|last=Herrel|first=A.|last2=Meyers|first2=J. J.|last3=Nishikawa|first3=K. C.|last4=De Vree|first4=F.|year=2001|title=Morphology and histochemistry of the hyolingual apparatus in chameleons|url=|journal=Journal of Morphology|volume=249|issue=|pages=154–170|doi=10.1002/jmor.1047|pmid=11466743}} * [http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/advanced_search?submit=Search&exact%5B0%5D=taxon&taxon=Agamidae Database Reptil : Familia Agamidae] [[Kategori:Artikel mawa mikroformat 'species']] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] f5iaerjulq09rtbxp8dzmmgyl64x1qm Equus 0 72217 1752981 1661251 2026-08-20T07:07:20Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752981 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Equus | image = Plains_Zebra_Equus_quagga.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[Zebra dhataran asor]] | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|1.8|0}} Awal [[Pleistocene]] nganti Saiki | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia]] | ordo = [[Perissodactyla]] | familia = [[Equidae]] | familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821 | genus = '''''Equus''''' | genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Spesies | subdivision = ''E. africanus'' - [[African Wild Ass]]<br /> ''E. ferus'' - [[Wild Horse]]<br /> ''E. grevyi'' - [[Grevy's Zebra]]<br /> ''E. hemionus'' - [[Onager]]<br /> ''E. kiang'' - [[Kiang]]<br /> ''E. quagga'' - [[Zebra dhataran asor]]<br /> ''E. zebra'' - [[Zebra gunung]]<br /> ''E. caballus'' - [[Jaran domestik]]<br /> }} {{wiktionarypar|Equus|equus|equine}} '''''Equus''''' iku [[génus]] kéwan saka [[familia]] [[Equidae]] sing kapérang saka [[jaran]], [[kuldi]], lan [[zebra]]. Sajeroning Equidae, ''Equus'' mung wujud [[extan]] génus. == Sumber == * Burke, et al. 2003. The systematic position of ''Equus hydruntinus'', an extinct species of Pleistocene equid. Quaternary Research 59(3):459-469. * Duncan, P. (ed.). 1992. Zebras, Asses, and Horses: an Action Plan for the Conservation of Wild Equids. IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. * Equid Specialist Group 1996. ''Equus ferus''. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 January 2006. * Equid Specialist Group 1996. ''Equus ferus ssp. przewalskii''. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 January 2006. * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1078/1616-5047-00133 | last1 = Groves | first1 = C.P. | last2 = Bell | first2 = H.B. | year = 2004 | title = New investigations on the taxonomy of the zebras génus ''Equus'', subgenus ''Hippotigris'' | url = | journal = Mammalian Biology | volume = 69 | issue = | pages = 182–196 }} * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02603111 | last1 = Higuchi | first1 = RG| author-separator =, | last2 = Wrischnik | author-name-separator= | year = 1987 | first2 = LA | last3 = Oakes | first3 = E | last4 = George | first4 = M | last5 = Tong | first5 = B | last6 = Wilson | first6 = AC | title = Mitochondrial DNA of the Extinct Quagga: Relatedness and Extent of Postmortem Change | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_1987_25_4/page/283| journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | volume = 25 | issue = 4| pages = 283–287 | pmid = 2822938 }} * International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84. * Moehlman, P.D. 2002. Equids. Zebras, Assess and Horses. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. (http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/publications/actionplans.htm#Equids2002 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215093850/http://www.iucn.org/THEMES/SSC/publications/actionplans.htm#Equids2002 |date=2007-12-15 }}) * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02922.x | last1 = Orlando | first1 = L| year = 2006 | last2 = Mashkour | first2 = M | last3 = Burke | first3 = A | last4 = Douady | first4 = CJ | last5 = Eisenmann | first5 = V | last6 = H�nni | first6 = C | title = Geographic distribution of an extinct equid (''Equus hydruntinus'' : Mammalia, Equidae) revealed by morphological and genetical analyses of fossils | url = | journal = Molecular Ecology | volume = 15 | issue = 8| pages = 2083–2093 | pmid = 16780426 }} [[Kategori:Genus]] {{kéwan-stub}} fee5cyz2rums79lw0powoxi0qavp3yg Foton 0 74140 1752991 1549964 2026-08-20T07:24:33Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752991 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Lasers.jpeg|275px|thumb|right|Foton kang dipancarake ing berkas koheren [[laser]]]] '''Foton''' yaiku [[partikel elementer]] ana ing fenomena [[elektromagnetik]].<ref name="Lewis1926">{{cite journal | last=Lewis | first = GN | authorlink = Gilbert N. Lewis | title = The conservation of photons| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1926-12-18_118_2981/page/874 |journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 1926 | volume = 118 | pages = 874–875}}</ref> Biasane foton dianggep sing ngawa [[radiasi]] elektromagnetik, kaya cahya, gelombang radio, lan [[Sinar-X]].<ref name="Lewis1926"/> Foton béda karo partikel [[elementer]] liyané kaya [[elektron]] lan [[quark]], amarga foton ora duwé bobot lan ana ing ruang vakum foton bisa obah karo kecepatan cahya, ''c''.<ref name="Lewis1926"/> Foton duwé sipat gelombang lan partikel ("[[dualisme gelombang-partikel]]").<ref name="Lewis1926"/> Ana ing [[fisika|ngèlmu fisika]], Foton (saka [[basa Yunani]] φως, ykang tegesé ''cahya'') yaiku [[kuantum]] saka [[medan elektromagnetik]] lan salah siji [[partikel dhasar]] kang disinauni ing [[elektrodinamika kuantum]] (QED, Inggris: ''Quantum Electrodynamics'') pérangan tuwa dhéwé saka [[Model Standar]] [[fisika partikel]].<ref name="Lewis1926"/> Awujud gelombang, siji foton tunggal nyebar ana ing kabèh ruang lan nuduhake fenomena gelombang kaya [[pembiasan]] lensa lan [[interferensi]] destruktif nalika gelombang dipantulake lan musnahake siji karo sijiné<ref name="Lewis1926"/> Dadi partikel, foton mung bisa interaksi karo materi mindahke ènergi sakjumlah: :<math>E = \frac{hc}{\lambda}</math>, tegesé yaiku <math>h</math> yaiku konstanta Planck, <math>c</math> yaiku laju cahya, lan <math>\lambda</math> yaiku dawa gelombange.<ref name="foton=">{{cite book | title = The Neutrino, Ghost Particle of the Atom | author = Isaac Asimov | publisher = Doubleday | year = 1966 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = The Universe From Flat Earth To Quasar | author = Isaac Asimov | publisher = Avon Books | year = 1968 | isbn = | url = }}</ref> Saliyané ènergi partikel foton uga nggawa [[momentum]] lan duwé [[polarisasi]].<ref name="foton="/> Foton matuhi hukum [[mekanika kuantum]], kang tegesé yaiku besaran-besaran saka foton sok ora bisa diukur kanthi pas.<ref name="foton="/> Biasane besaran-besaran sak foton dijabarake dadi [[probabilitas]] ngukur [[polarisasi]], [[posisi]], utawa [[momentum]].<ref name="foton="/> Tuladhané yaiku foton kang bisa ngeksitasi salah siji [[molekul]], sok ora bisa ngramalake sadurungé, molekul endi kang arep kena reksitasi.<ref name="foton="/> == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Fisika]] {{fisika-stub}} 9t20w5ayp12spylptsvowr1vg71r0q6 Ruth Sahanaya 0 74295 1752843 1733557 2026-08-19T21:27:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox person | name = Ruth Sahanaya | image = Ruth Sahanaya on Senggigi Sunset Jazz 2019.jpg | image_size = | caption = | Background = solo_singer | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1966|9|1}} | birth_place = [[Bandung]], [[Jawa Barat]], [[Indonésia]] | birth_name = Ruth Sahanaya | other_name = Uthe | death_date = | death_place = | genre = [[Pop]] | occupation = [[Penyanyi]] | instrument = | yearsactive = 1987 - saiki | label = PT Aquarius Musikindo (1987 - 2002)<br /> Sony Music Entertainment Indonésia (sekarang Sony BMG Music Entertainment Indonésia)(2002-sekarang) | associatedacts = | influences = | influenced = | spouse = [[Jeffrey Waworuntu]] | partner = | children = Nadine <br /> Mabel | parents = Matheda David dan Alfares Edward Sahanaya | website = http://www.ruthsahanaya.com/ | currentmembers = [[3 Diva]] | pastmembers = }} '''Ruth Sahanaya''', Sawijining nama kang kerep ngisi pirang-pirang acara konser musik ing [[tanah air]] lan [[mancanagara]]<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 1"/>. ora gumunaké yèn dhèwèké duwé barisan penggemar fanatik kang ngidolakaké.<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 1"/> Kekuatan vokalé lang kas bisa mbius kupingé para pangrungu karo cara kang ora bisa dilukisaké.<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 2"/> pirang-pirang prestasi internasional wis diintukaké.<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 1">[http://www.rahsiaperkahwinan.com/2009/05/biodata-ruth-sahanaya-situs-berita.html Biografi Ruth Sahanaya] dipununduh tanggal 12 Juni 2011</ref> Ruth Sahanaya ({{lahirmati|[[Bandung]], [[Jawa Barat]]|1|9|1966}}) <ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 2">[http://selebriti.kapanlagi.com/indonesia/r/ruth_sahanaya Selebriti Kapanlagi.com] dipununduh tanggal 12 Juni 2011</ref>. Ruth Sahanaya [[penyanyi]] [[Indonésia]] ''Ruth'' kang biyasa diceluk ''Uthe''. ngawiti karir musike awit [[1987]], wektu iku album pertamané nembé dirilis.bojone, aktor filem ''[[Jeffrey Waworuntu]]'' iku sak dawane karirw wes tau ngerilis welasan album, hingga ngeteraké dhèwèké intuk jejuluk dadi ''diva pop Indonésia'' karo [[Krisdayanti]] lan [[Titi Dwijayati]]<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 2"/>. === karier Musik === ''uthe'' wiwit ngasilaké album awit taun 1987 sawisé teken kontrak karo perusahaan rekaman ''PT Aquarius Musikindo'''. ing kurun wektu 15 taun hingga taun 2002, ''Ruth'' kang akrab diceluk ''Uthe'' iki, ngasilaké pitung album kalebu album ''Greatest Hits'' (2002) karo tambahan lagu anyar jejudul ''Mengertilah Kasih''.<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 1"/> Saliyané mau, uthe iyo kalebu penyanyi Diva Pop karo [[Krisdayanti]] lan [[Titi Dwijayati]], Unthe wis pernah nggelar sejumlah konser monumental, Penampilané karo ''Titi DJ'' lan ''Krisdayanti'' formasi ''3 Diva'' ndadeaké salah suwijiné konser agung, malah Uthe duet karo musisi internasional ''[[Keith Martin]]''.<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 2"/> Meski kaloka, Uthe aktif ing pirang-pirang kagiyatan sosial. kanggo nunjukaké yèn nada panguripan antarumat beragama ing Ambon selama iki sedurungé konflik, Uthe gabung karo kurang luweh 70 artis penyanyi lan pamusik Maluku ing sawijinging acara televisi-iklan layanan masarakat-karo [[Yopie Latul]], [[Utha Likumahuwa]], [[Jeffrey Waworuntu]], [[Diana Nasution]], [[Minggoes Tahitu]], [[Eva Arnaz]], [[Andre Hehanusa]], [[John Tanamal]], [[Hamdan Att]], lan laiya-liyané.<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 1"/> == Diskografi == === Album<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 3">[http://ruthsahanaya.com/?page_id=16 Ruth Sahanaya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710024859/http://ruthsahanaya.com/?page_id=16 |date=2011-07-10 }} dipununduh tanggal 12 Juni 2011</ref> === * 1987 ALBUM I “''[[SEPUTIH KASIH]]''” * 1989 ALBUM II “''[[TAK KUDUGA]]''” * 1992 ALBUM III “''[[KAULAH SEGALANYA]]'' * 1994 ALBUM IV “''[[YANG TERBAIK]]''” (the best album) * 1996 ALBUM V “''[[… UTHE]]''” * 1997 ALBUM VI “''[[BERSERAH KEPADA YESUS]]''” (Gospel) * 1999 ALBUM VII “''[[KASIH]]''” * 2000 ALBUM VIII ” ''[[YANG KURINDUKAN]]'' ” (Gospel) * 2002 ALBUM IX ”''[[GREATEST]]'' HITS RUTH SAHANAYA” * 2003 ALBUM X ” ''[[BICARA CINTA]]'' ” * 2006 ALBUM XI ” ''[[JIWAKU]]'' “ * 2007 ALBUM XII “''[[JOYFUL CHRISTMAS]]'' ” * 2007 ALBUM XIV ” ''[[LOTTA OF LOVE]]'' ” (a 3 DIVA album) * 2009 ALBUM XV “''[[GIVING MY BEST]]''” * 2010 ALBUM XVI “''[[THANKFUL]]''” === Singles<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 3"/> === * Album ''[[KARIMATA]]'' “LIMA” Track “MASA KECIL” in 1988. * Album “''[[BEST SLOW]]'' HITS 1992? track “SAY YOU’LL ALWAYS BE MINE”. * Album ''[[Christmast]]'' Songs in 1991 and 1992. * Album single produksi AMA, Track”''[[HARUS KUMILIKI]]''”. * Album single ''[[ASIAN AIDS]]'' Foundation in Japan, Produced by Aquarius, track “USAH KAU LARA SENDIRI”, duet with Katon Bhagaskara. * Singles “''[[EKSPRESI]]''” taken for Album TITI DJ ” menyanyikan kembali 2002 * Singles ” ''[[NATURALEZA MUERTA]]'' ” duet with MARIO FRANGOULIS, taken from his album “SOMETIMES I DREAM ” and * Album “BICARA CINTA” Ruth Sahanaya * Singles ” ''[[ANDAIKAN KAU DATANG]]'' ” Salute to Koes Plus By ERWIN GUTAWA * Singles ” ''[[SEMUA JADI SATU]]'' ” Colaborations of three diva’s (www.di3va.com) * Singles ” ''[[RAHASIA PENGAGUM]]''” duet with CHANDRA * Singles ” ''[[MY HEART]]'' ” a GLOBAL ONE project featuring many artist all over the world === Prestasi<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 3"/> === * 1st Winner, 1983 ''Pop Singer Bandung Raya'' (West Java). * 1st Winner, 1983 ''Bintang Radio and Televisi'' Jawa Barat (West Java). * Runner up, 1983 ''Pop Singer Jawa Barat'' (West Java Province) * Runner up, 1983 ''Bintang Radio and Televisi'' se-Bandung (West Java Province) * Runner up, 1983 ''Bintang Radio dan Televisi Nasional'' (National Contest) * The Best Vocalist ''“LIGHT MUSIC CONTEST”'' 1985. * The Best Artist/Performance Mitsubishi AV Special at ''“JAKARTA MUSIC FESTIVAL”'' 1991. * Grand Prix Winner padha ''“MIDNITE SUN SONG FESTIVAL”'' di Lahti, Finlan taun 1992. * The First Winner dari ''“CITY OF THE HAGUE AWARD”'' and The Second Winner ''“THE HOLLAND CASINO SCHEVENINGEN”'' on 199 * The Best Recording Artist ''“BASF AWARD”'' 1989. * The Best Selling Album Category Pop Kreatif Music “BASF AWARD” 1989 album TAK KUDUGA. * The Best Recording Artist “BASF AWARD” 1992. * The Best Selling Album Category Top Pop “BASF AWARD” 1992 album KAULAH SEGALANYA. * Triple Platinum Record For album “KAULAH SEGALANYA” * The best selling album dalam Anugrah Musik Indonesia 1999 album “ KASIH “ * The best Selling Indonesian Album di “ANUGRAH INDUSTRI MUZIK “, Malaysia album “ KASIH “ 1999 * Nominee for Best Indonesian Album “ANUGRAH INDUSTRI MUZIK “ Malaysia Album “ KASIH “ 1999Double platinum Records For album “ KASIH ” * Nominee MTV Music Award for Best Female Vocal 1997 * Monthly Winner Video Music Indonesia “ Bawa Daku Pergi” * Monthly Winner Video Music Award “ Ingin Kumiliki” * Nominee For Best Indonesian Album “ ANUGRAH INDUSTRI MUZIK” Malaysia, album “BICARA CINTA” 2004 * Anugerah Musik Indonesia Award “The Best Collaboration Album”, Album Erwin Gutawa Salute to Koes Plus/bersaudara 2005 * Award winner “ THE BEST DUO or GROUP” with 3 DIVA song SEMUA JADI SATU at Anugerah Musik Indonesia. * Nominee for Best Indonesian Album “ANUGRAH INDUSTRI MUZIK “ Malaysia Album “JIWAKU“ 2006 === Penghargaan<ref name="Ruth Sahanaya 3"/> === * The Best Recording Artist "BASF Award" 1989 * The Best Selling Album Category Pop Kreatif Music "BASF Award" 1989 album "Tak Kuduga" * The Best Recording Artist "BASF Award" 1992 * The Best Selling Album Category Top Pop "BASF Award" 1992 album "Kaulah Segalanya" * Triple Platinum Record For album "Kaulah Segalanya" * The best selling album dalam Anugrah Musik Indonesia 1999 album "Kasih" * The best Selling Indonesian Album di "Anugrah Industri Muzik", Malaysia album "Kasih" 1999 * Nominee for Best Indonesian Album "Anugrah Industri Muzik" Malaysia Album "Kasih" 1999 * Double platinum Records For album "Kasih" * Nominee MTV Music Award for Best Female Vocal 1997 * Monthly Winner Video Music Indonesia "Bawa Daku Pergi" * Monthly Winner Video Music Award "Ingin Kumiliki" * Nominee For Best Indonesian Album "Anugrah Industri Muzik" Malaysia, album "Bicara Cinta" 2004 == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Penyanyi Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Lair 1966]] dfdegvqbmtr9jboucbfbqw0hesh4g5m Juwi 0 74498 1752967 1595256 2026-08-20T06:48:31Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752967 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | taxon = Teuthida | fossil_range = (at least) {{fossil range|Late Cretaceous|Recent|ref=<ref name=Tanabe2006>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tanabe | first1 = K. | last2 = Hikida | first2 = Y. | last3 = Iba | first3 = Y. | year = 2006 | title = Two Coleoid Jaws from the Upper Cretaceous of Hokkaido, Japan | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-paleontology_2006-01_80_1/page/138 | journal = Journal of Paleontology | volume = 80 | issue = 1 | pages = 138–145 | doi = 10.1666/0022-3360(2006)080[0138:TCJFTU]2.0.CO;2 | postscript = <!--None--> }}</ref>}} | image =Loligo vulgaris.jpg | image_caption = Juwi éropah (''Loligo vulgaris'') | image_alt= Photo of squid with 8 short arms and two longer tentacles | authority = [[Adolf Naef|A. Naef]], 1916 | subdivision_ranks = Subordho | subdivision = †[[Plesioteuthididae]] <small>(''[[incertae sedis]]'')</small><br> [[Myopsina]]<br> [[Oegopsina]] }} '''Juwi''', '''nus''', utawa '''cumi-cumi''' iku kéwan séfalopada saka ordho '''Teuthida''', kang anggotané cacahé watara 304 spésies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=browser&id=325342&expand=true#ct|title=Superorder Decapodiformes|website=World Register of Marine Species}}</ref> Kaya déné kéwan séfalopada liyané, juwi duwé endhas kang méla-méla, simètri bilateral, mantèl siji, lan lengen akèh. Juwi, kaya déné sotong, duwé lengen cacah wolu kang tatanané nyarimbit sarta tèntakel cacah loro kang lumrahé ukurané luwih dawa. Juwi iku kéwan kang kuwat nglangi, déné sawenèh spésies bisa "mabur" metu banyu sanadyan ora adoh.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jabr|first=F.|date=2 August 2010|title=Fact or Fiction: Can a Squid Fly Out of the Water?|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=can-squid-fly&sc=WR_20100804|journal=Scientific American}}</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} {{stub}} deb1xskk03twf58fy0asv4owpw3zhs4 Prakambriyum 0 75307 1753031 1648142 2026-08-20T08:33:07Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753031 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Prakambriyum''' (Pra-Kambriyum) iku jeneng informal tumrap rentang wektu sadurungé jaman ''[[Phanerozoic]]'' Eon, lan minangka siji Supereon kapérang dadi sawatara [[eon (geologi)|eons]] sajeroning [[skala wektu géologi]]. Rentang wektu Pra-Kambriyum wiwit jaman dumadiné bumi watara 4600 [[annum|Ma]] (yuta taun kapungkur) nganti wiwitan jaman périodhe [[Cambrian|Kambriyum]] , watara 542 Ma, nalika wiwit akèh tinemu kéwan mawa thothok atos. ==Wacan== * Valley, John W., William H. Peck, Elizabeth M. King (1999) ''Zircons Are Forever'', The Outcrop for 1999, University of Wisconsin-Madison [http://www.geology.wisc.edu/~valley/zircons/zircon_home.html Wgeology.wisc.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316170539/http://www.geology.wisc.edu/~valley/zircons/zircon_home.html |date=2012-03-16 }} &ndash; ''Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago'' Accessed Jan. 10, 2006 *{{cite journal |last=Wilde |first=S. A. |authorlink= |coauthors=Valley, J. W.; Peck, W. H.; Graham, C. M. |year=2001 |title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6817 |pages=175–178 |doi=10.1038/35051550 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-01-11_409_6817/page/175|accessdate= |quote= |pmid=11196637 }} *{{cite journal |last=Wyche |first=S. |authorlink= |coauthors=Nelson, D. R.; Riganti, A. |year=2004 |title=4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=31–45 |doi=10.1046/j.1400-0952.2003.01042.x |url= |accessdate= |quote= }} == Pranala njaba == *[http://www.scotese.com/precambr.htm Late Precambrian Supercontinent and Ice House World] from the Paleomap Project {{Commons category|Precambrian}} [[Kategori:Prakambriyum]] [[Kategori:Sajarah géologi bumi]] {{geo-stub}} c2ob2n70t6eg5dxafvql8nu1m8av5cf Atom 0 76886 1753058 1751997 2026-08-20T09:21:43Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 4 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753058 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpadding="2" style="margin-left:1em" width=300 |- ! bgcolor=gray | '''''Atom hèliyum''''' |- | align="center" | [[Gambar:Helium atom QM DE.svg|300px|right|Helium atom ground state.]] |- | style="font-size: smaller; text-align: justify;" |Ilustrasi atom [[hèliyum]] kang nuduhaké [[inti atom]] (abang nom) lan distribusi [[awan èlèktron]] (ireng). Inti atom (tengen ndhuwur) awangun simètris bunder, kanggo inti atom kang luwih rumit ora tansah kaya mangkono. |- ! bgcolor=gray | Klasifikasi |- | {| align="center" |- | Ékan paling cilik [[unsur kimia]] |} |- ! bgcolor=gray | Sipat-sipat |- | {| align="center" |- | [[Massa atom|Kisaran massa]]: || 1,67{{Esp|−27}} nganti tekan 4,52{{Esp|−25}}&nbsp;[[kg]] |- | [[Muatan listrik]]: || nol (nétral) utawa momotan [[ion]] |- | Kisaran [[diameter]]: || 62&nbsp;[[Pikometer|pm]] ([[Hèliyum|He]]) nganti tekan 520&nbsp;pm ([[Sésium|Cs]]) |- | [[Partikel subatom|Komponèn]]: || [[Èlèktron]] lan [[inti atom]] kang dumadi saka [[proton]] lan [[neutron]] |} |} '''Atom''' ya iku ékan dhasar [[matèri]], kang kasusun saka [[inti atom]] lan uga [[èlèktron]] minangka momotan négatif kang ngubengi.<ref name="buku1">{{cite book | last=Gangopadhyaya | first=Mrinalkanti | title=Indian Atomism: History and Sources | publisher=Humanities Press | year=1981 | location=Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey | isbn=0-391-02177-X | oclc=10916778 }}</ref> Inti atom kasusun saka [[proton]] kang muatané [[positif]], lan [[neutron]] kang muatané nétral.<ref name="buku1"/> Èlèktron-èlèktron kang ana ing siji atom kajiret ana ing inti atom déning [[gaya èlèktromagnètik]].<ref name="buku1"/> Sakumpulan atom iku bisa gegandhéngan siji klawan liyané lan minangka siji [[molekul]].<ref name="buku1"/> Atom kang ana kandhutané [[proton]] lan [[èlèktron]] kang padha sipaté nétral, déné kang duwé kandhutan [[proton]] lan [[èlèktron]] kang béda sipat positif utawa négatif lan dijenengi [[ion]].<ref name="buku1"/> Atom diklompokaké miturut gunggung proton lan neutron kang ana ing inti atom iku.<ref name="buku1"/> Gunggung proton ana ing atom nentokaké [[unsur kimia]] atom iku, lan jumlah [[neutron]] nentukaké [[isotop]] unsur iku. <ref name="buku1"/> Istilah atom asalé saka [[Basa Yunani]] (ἄτομος/átomos, α-τεμνω), kang tegesé ora bisa ditugel utawa ora bisa dibagi-bagi.<ref name="unesa hhmamsotu3"/> Konsèp atom dadi komponèn kang ora bisa dibagi-bagi manèh pisanan diajokaké déning filsuf [[India]] lan [[Yunani]].<ref name="unesa hhmamsotu3"/> Ana ing [[abad kaping 17]] lan [[abad kaping 18|kaping 18]], para [[kimiawan]] nentokaké dhasar-dhasar pamikiran iki kanthi nuduhaké siji dat-dat kang ora bisa dibagi-bagi manèh nganggo métodhe-métodhe kimia.<ref name="unesa hhmamsotu3"/> Nganti tekan pungkasaning [[abad kaping 19]] lan wiwitan [[abad kaping 20]], para [[fisikawan]] bisa nemu struktur lan komponèn-komponèn subatom ana ing sajeroné atom, iki mbuktèkaké yèn atom dudu ora bisa dibagi manèh.<ref name="unesa hhmamsotu3"/> Prinsip-prinsip [[mékanika kuantum]] kang digunakaké para fisikawan banjur bisa gawé modhèl atom.<ref name="unesa hhmamsotu3">{{cite web | first=Hans | last=Haubold | author2=Mathai, A. M. | year=1998 | url=http://www.columbia.edu/~ah297/unesa/universe/universe-chapter3.html | title=Microcosmos: From Leucippus to Yukawa | work=Structure of the Universe | publisher=Common Sense Science | accessdate=2008-01-17 | archive-date=2008-10-01 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001172401/http://www.columbia.edu/~ah297/unesa/universe/universe-chapter3.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> == Sajarah == {{main|Téyori atom|Atomisme}} Konsèp yèn matèri kapérang saka ékan-ékan kapisah kang ora bisa dibagi manèh dadi ékan kang luwih cilik wis ana suwéné sak[[milenium]]. Nanging, pamikiran mau isih asifat abstrak lan filosofis, tinimbang dhedhasar pangamatan [[èmpiris]] lan [[èkspèrimèn]]. Sacara filosofis, dhèskripsi sipat-sipat atom manéka variasi gumantung ing budaya lan ilènan filosofi mau, lan asring uga ngandhung unsur-unsur spiritual ing njeroné. Sanajan mangkono, pamikiran dhasar ngenani atom bisa ditampa déning para èlmuwan èwonan taun sabanjuré, amarga dhèwèké kanthi èlegan bisa njelasaké panemon-panemon anyar ing babagan kimia.<ref name=Ponomarev>Ponomarev (1993:14-15).</ref> Rujukan paling awal ngenani konsèp atom bisa ditilik manèh ing jaman [[Sajarah India|India kuna]] nalika taun 800 sadurungé masèhi,<ref name="isbn0415179955">{{cite book | title = Dictionary of World Philosophy | author = A. Pablo Iannone | isbn = 0-415-17995-5 | edition = | year = | page = 62 | publisher = | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=7wBmBO3vpE4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dictionary+of+world+philosophy&hl=id&cd=1#v=onepage&q=The%20earliest%20version%20of%20atomism%20can%20be%20found%20in%20Jainism&f=false | accessdate = 2010-06-09 }}</ref> kang dijelasaké sajeroning naskah filsafat [[Jainisme]] minangka ''anu'' lan ''paramanu''.<ref name="isbn0415179955" /><ref>{{cite book | title = A comparative history of ideas | author = Hajime Nakamura | isbn = 9788120810044 | edition = | year = 1992 | page = 145 | publisher = Shri Jainendra Press | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Gpulmza7BBYC&pg=PA145&dq=atomism+Indian&as_brr=3&hl=id&cd=4#v=onepage&q=atomism%20Indian&f=false | accessdate = 2010-06-09 }}</ref> Ilènan madahab [[Nyaya]] lan [[Vaisesika]] ngembangaké téyori kang njelasaké kepriyé atom-atom nggabung dadi bandha-bandha kang luwih komplèks.<ref>{{cite book | title = A comparative history of world philosophy: from the Upanishads to Kant | author = Ben-Ami Scharfstein | isbn = 0-7914-3683-7 | edition = | year = 1998 | page = 189 | publisher = State University of New York Press | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=iZQy2lu70bwC&lpg=PA189&dq=Vaisheshika%20atom%20anu%20paramanu&hl=id&pg=PA189#v=onepage&q=Vaisheshika%20atom%20anu%20paramanu&f=false | accessdate = 2010-06-09 }}</ref> Saabad sabanjuré mijil rujukan ngenani atom ing donya Kulon déning [[Leukippos]], kang sabanjuré déning muridé [[Demokritos]] pandhangan mau disistematisaké. Kira-kira nalika taun 450&nbsp;SM, Demokritos nyiptakaké istilah ''átomos'' ({{lang-el|ἄτομος}}), kang ateges "ora bisa ditugel" utawa uga "ora bisa dibagi-bagi manèh". Téyori Demokritos ngenani atom dudu usaha kanggo njlèntrèhaké siji fénoména fisis kanthi rinci, nanging siji filosofi kang nyoba kanggo mènèhi jawaban marang owah-owahan kang dumadi ing alam.<ref name="unesa hhmamsotu3" /> Filosofi sarupa uga dumadi ing India, sanajan mangkono ngèlmu pangetauan modhèren mutusaké kanggo migunakaké istilah "atom" kang dicetusaké déning Demokritos.<ref name=Ponomarev/> Kamajuan luwih adoh ing pamahaman babagan atom diwiwiti kanthi ngrembakané ngèlmu [[kimia]]. Nalika taun 1661, [[Robert Boyle]] mublikasikaké buku ''[[The Sceptical Chymist]]'' kang duwé argumèn yèn matèri-matèri ing donya iki kapérang saka manéka kombinasi ''"corpuscules"'', ya iku atom-atom kang béda. Iki béda karo pandelengan klasik kang duwé pendhapat yèn matèri kapérang saka unsur-unsur udara, lemah, geni, lan banyu.<ref>Siegfried (2002:42–55).</ref> Nalika taun 1789, istilah ''element'' (''unsur'') didhéfinisikaké déning siji bangsawan lan panliti Prancis, [[Antoine Lavoisier]], minangka bahan dhasar kang ora bisa dibagi-bagi luwih adoh manèh kanthi migunakaké métodhe-métodhe kimia.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/LAVPREFann.HTML | title=Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry | work=Elements and Atoms | publisher=Le Moyne College, Department of Chemistry | accessdate=2007-12-18 }}</ref> [[Gambar:A New System of Chemical Philosophy fp.jpg|right|thumb|Manéka atom lan molekul kang digambaraké ing buku [[John Dalton]], ''A New System of Chemical Philosophy'' (1808).]] Nalika taun 1803, [[John Dalton]] migunakaké konsèp atom kanggo njlèntrèhaké ngapa unsur-unsur mesthi silih réaksi sajeroning pabandhingan kang bulat lan tetep, sarta ngapa gas-gas tinentu luwih larut sajeroning banyu dibandhingaké karo gas-gas liyané. Dhèwèké ngajokaké pendhapat yèn saben unsur ngandhut atom-atom tunggal unik, lan atom-atom mau sabanjuré bisa rumaket kanggo minangka senyawa-senyawa kimia.<ref>Wurtz (1881:1–2).</ref><ref>Dalton (1808).</ref> Téyori partikel iki banjur dikonfirmasikaké luwih adoh manèh nalika taun 1827, ya iku nalika [[botani]]wan [[Robert Brown]] migunakaké [[mikroskop]] kanggo ngamati lebu-lebu kang ngambang ing sandhuwuré banyu lan nemu yèn lebu-lebu mau obah kanthi acak. Fénoména iki banjur ditepungi minangka "[[Gerak Brown]]". Nalika taun 1877, J. Désaulx ngajokaké pendhapat yèn fénoména iki disebabaké déning obahan tèrmal molekul banyu, lan nalika taun 1905 [[Albert Einstein]] gawé analisis matématika tumrap obah iki.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Einstein | first=Albert | title=Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen | journal=Annalen der Physik | year=1905 | volume=322 | issue=8 | pages=549–560 | language=German | url=http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/papers/1905_17_549-560.pdf | format=PDF | doi=10.1002/andp.19053220806 | accessdate=2007-02-04 | archive-date=2006-03-18 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318060724/http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/papers/1905_17_549-560.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Mazo (2002:1–7).</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Lee | first=Y. K. | author2=Hoon, Kelvin | year=1995 | url=http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_95/journal/vol4/ykl/report.html | title=Brownian Motion | publisher=Imperial College, London | accessdate=2007-12-18 | archive-date=2007-12-18 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218061408/http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_95/journal/vol4/ykl/report.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Fisikawan Prancis [[Jean Perrin]] banjur migunakaké asil makarya Einstein kanggo nemtokaké massa lan dhimènsi atom kanthi èkspèrimèn, kang banjur kanthi pesthi dadi vèrifikasi tumrap téyori atom Dalton.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Patterson | first=Gary | title=Jean Perrin and the triumph of the atomic doctrine | journal=Endeavour | year=2007 | volume=31 | issue=2 | pages=50–53 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17602746 | accessdate=2008-11-07 | doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2007.05.003 }}</ref> Adhedhasar asil panalitèné marang [[sinar katode]], nalika taun 1897 [[J. J. Thomson]] nemu èlèktron lan sipat-sipat subatomiké. Iki ngruntuhaké konsèp atom minangka ékan kang ora bisa dibagi-bagi manèh.<ref name="nobel1096">{{cite web | author=The Nobel Foundation | year=1906 | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html | title=J.J. Thomson | publisher=Nobelprize.org | accessdate=2007-12-20 }}</ref> Thomson percaya yèn èlèktron-èlèktron kadhistribusi kanthi rata ing saindhenging atom, lan momotan-muatané diseimbangaké déning anané lautan momotan positif ([[modhèl pudhing prem]]). Nanging nalika taun 1909, para panliti ing sangisoré arahan [[Ernest Rutherford]] némbakaké ion hélium menyang lembaran tipis emas, lan nemu yèn sapérangan cilik ion mau dipantulaké kanthi pojok pantulan kang luwih lancip saka apa kang diprédhiksikaké déning téyori Thomson. Rutherford banjur ngajokaké pendhapat yèn momotan positif siji atom lan akèh-akèhé massané kakonsèntrasi ing inti atom, kanthi èlèktron kang ngupengi inti atom kaya déné planit ngupengi srengéngé. Muatan positif ion hélium kang ngliwati inti padhet iki kudu dipantulaké kanthi pojok pantulan kang luwih lancip. Nalika taun 1913, nalika lagi èkspèrimèn kanthi asil prosès [[paluruhan radhioaktif]], [[Frederick Soddy]] nemu yèn ana punjul sakjinis atom ing saben posisi tabèl périodhik.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy-bio.html | title=Frederick Soddy, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921 | publisher=Nobel Foundation | accessdate=2008-01-18 }}</ref> Istilah [[isotop]] banjur diciptakaké déning [[Margaret Todd]] minangka jeneng kang trep kanggo atom-atom kang béda nanging wujud siji unsur kang padha. J.J. Thomson sabanjuré nemu tèhnik kanggo misahaké jinis-jinis atom mau lumantar asil kerjané ing gas kang kaionisasi.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Thomson | first=Joseph John | title=Rays of positive electricity | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society | year=1913 | volume=A 89 | pages=1–20 | url=http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/canal.html | accessdate=2007-01-18 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Bohr Model.svg|right|thumb|200px|[[Modhèl atom Bohr|Modhèl atom hidrogen Bohr]] kang nudhaké lumpatan èlèktron antarané orbit-orbit tetep lan mancaraké ènèrgi [[foton]] kanthi frékuènsi tinentu.]] Sauntara iku, nalika taun 1913 fisikawan [[Niels Bohr]] nglakokaké kajian ulang modhèl atom Rutherford lan ngajokaké pendhapat yèn èlèktron-èlèktron ana ing orbit-orbit kang kakuantisasi sarta bisa mlumpat saka siji orbit menyang orbit liyané, sanajan mangkono ora bisa kanthi bébas muter spiral lumebu utawa metu sajeroning kaanan transisi.<ref>{{cite web | last=Stern | first=David P. | date=May 16, 2005 | url=http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Q5.htm | title=The Atomic Nucleus and Bohr's Early Modhèl of the Atom | publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center | accessdate=2007-12-20 | archive-date=2007-08-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820084047/http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Q5.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> Sawijining èlèktron kudu nyerep utawa uga mancaraké sapérangan ènèrgi tinentu kanggo bisa nglakokaké transisi antarané orbit-orbit kang tetep iki. Yèn [[cahya]] saka matèri kang dipanasaké mancar lumantar prisma, dhèèwèké ngasilaké siji [[spèktrum]] multiwerna. Paningalan garis-garis spèktrum tinentu iki kasil dijlèntrèhaké déning téyori transisi orbital iki.<ref>{{cite web | last=Bohr | first=Niels | date=December 11, 1922 | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1922/bohr-lecture.html | title=Niels Bohr, The Nobel Prize in Physics 1922, Nobel Lecture | publisher=The Nobel Foundation | accessdate=2008-02-16 }}</ref> Banjur ing taun 1916, [[roncèn kimia]] antar atom dijlèntrèhaké déning [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] minangka interaksi antarané èlèktron-èlèktron atom mau.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lewis | first=Gilbert N. | title=The Atom and the Molecule | journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society | year=1916 | volume=38 | issue=4 | pages=762–786 | doi=10.1021/ja02261a002 }}</ref> Amarga ana tematané sipat-sipat kimiawi sajeroning tabèl périodhe kimia,<ref>{{cite book | first=Eric R. | last=Scerri | year=2007 | title=The Periodic Table | pages=205–226 | publisher=Oxford University Press US | isbn=0195305736 }}</ref> kimiawan Amérika [[Irving Langmuir]] taun 1919 duwé pendhapat yèn iki bisa dijlèntrèhaké yèn èlèktron-èlèktron ing siji atom silih gegandhèngan utawa kumpul sajeroning wangun-wangun tinentu. Saklompok èlèktron diprakirakaké nglungguhi saksèt [[kelopak èlèktron]] ing saubengé inti atom. [[Panjanjalan Stern-Gerlach]] nalika taun 1922 mènèhaké bukti luwih adoh babagan sipat-sipat kuantum atom. Nalika sakberkas atom pérak ditembakaké lumantar médhan magnèt, berkas mau kapisah-pisah selaras karo arah momèntum pojok atom (''spin''). Amarga arah spin iku acak, berkas iki diarepaké nyebar dadi sakgaris. Nanging ing kasunyatané berkas iki kapérang dadi rong pérangan, gumantung saka apa spin atom mau duwé orièntasi munggah utawa uga mudhun.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Scully | first=Marlan O. | author2=Lamb Jr., Willis E.; Barut, Asim | title=On the theory of the Stern-Gerlach apparatus | journal=Foundations of Physics | year=1987 | volume=17 | issue=6 | pages=575–583 | doi=10.1007/BF01882788 }}</ref> Nalika taun 1926, kanthi migunakaké pamikiran [[Louis de Broglie]] yèn partikel kanthi prilaku kaya déné gelombang, Erwin Schrödinger ngrembakakaké siji modhèl atom matématis kang nggambaraké èlèktron minangka [[gelombang]] telung dhimènsi tinimbang minangka titik-titik partikel. Konsekuènsi panggunakan wangun gelombang kanggo njlèntrèhaké èlèktron iki ya iku yèn ora mungkin kanggo kanthi matématis ngétung [[posisi]] lan [[momèntum]] partikel kanthi bebarengan. Iki banjur ditepungi minangka [[prinsip kaoramesthinan]], kang dirumusaké déning [[Werner Heisenberg]] nalika taun 1926. Miturut konsèp iki, kanggo saben pangukuran siji posisi, siji wong mung bisa éntuk kisaran pangaji-pangaji probabilitas momèntum, mangkono uga suwaliké. Sanajan modhèl iki angèl kanggo divisualisasikaké, dhèwèké bisa kanthi becik njlèntrèhaké sipat-sipat atom kang kadeleng kang sadurungé ora bisa dijlèntrèhaké déning téyori ngendi waé. Mula, modhèl atom kang nggambaraké èlèktron ngupengi inti atom kaya déné planit ngupengi srengéngé diguguraké lan digantèkaké déning modhèl [[orbital atom]] ing saubengé inti ing ngendi èlèktron paling mungkin ana.<ref>{{cite web | last=Brown | first=Kevin | year=2007 | url=http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath538/kmath538.htm | title=The Hydrogen Atom | publisher=MathPages | accessdate=2007-12-21 | archive-date=2022-11-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120050221/https://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath538/kmath538.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Harrison | first=David M. | year=2000 | url=http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/DevelQM/DevelQM.html | title=The Development of Quantum Mechanics | publisher=University of Toronto | accessdate=2007-12-21 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Mass Spectrometer Schematic.svg|right|thumb|280px|Dhiagram skéma spètromèter massa prasaja.]] Perkembangan ing [[spèktromètri massa]] ngidinaké dilakokaké pangukuran massa atom kanthi pas. Piranti spèktromèter iki migunakaké magnèt kanggo mbélokaké trayèktori berkas ion, lan akèhé deflèksi ditemtokaké kanthi rasio massa atom tumrap muatané. Kimiawan [[Francis William Aston]] migunakaké piranti iki kanggo nuduhaké yèn isotop duwé massa kang béda. Prabédan massa antar isotop iki wujud wilangan bulat, lan dhèwèké ingaran minangka [[kaidah wilangan bulat]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=The constitution of atmospheric neon | journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]] | year=1920 | first=Francis W. | last=Aston | volume=39 | issue=6 | pages=449–55 }}</ref> Panjlèntrèhan ing prabédan massa isotop iki kasil dipecahaké sawisé tinemu [[neutron]], siji partikel mawa momotan nétral kanthi massa kang mèh padha karo [[proton]], ya iku déning [[James Chadwick]] nalika taun 1932. Isotop banjur dijlèntrèhaké minangka unsur kanthi gunggung proton kang padha, nanging duwé gunggung neutron kang béda sajeroning inti atom.<ref>{{cite web | last=Chadwick | first=James | date=December 12, 1935 | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1935/chadwick-lecture.html | title=Nobel Lecture: The Neutron and Its Properties | publisher=Nobel Foundation | accessdate=2007-12-21 }}</ref> Nalika taun 1950-an, ngrembakané [[panyepet partikel]] lan [[dhetèktor partikel]] ngidinaké para èlmuwan nyinaoni dhampak-dhampak saka atom kang obah kanthi ènèrgi kang dhuwur.<ref>{{cite web | last=Kullander | first=Sven | date=August 28, 2001 | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/kullander/ | title=Accelerators and Nobel Laureates | publisher=The Nobel Foundation | accessdate=2008-01-31 }}</ref> Neutron lan proton banjur dikawruhi minangka [[hadron]], ya iku komposit partikel-partikel cilik kang ingaran minangka [[kuark]]. Modhèl-modhèl standhar fisika nuklir banjur dikembangaké kanggo njelasaké sipat-sipat inti atom sajeroning babagan interaksi partikel subatom iki.<ref>{{cite web | author=Staff | date=October 17, 1990 | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1990/press.html | title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1990 | publisher=The Nobel Foundation | accessdate=2008-01-31 }}</ref> Watara taun 1985, [[Steven Chu]] sarèncang ing [[Bell Labs]] ngrembakakaké siji tèhnik kanggo ngedhunaké tèmperatur atom migunakaké [[laser]]. Ing taun kang padha, saklompok èlmuwan kang diketuwai déning [[William Daniel Phillips|William D. Phillips]] kasil nyekel atom natrium sajeroning [[prangkap magnèt]]. [[Claude Cohen-Tannoudji]] banjur nggabungaké kaloro tèhnik mau kanggo ngedhemaké sapérangan cilik atom nganti sapérangan [[Kelvin|mikrokelvin]]. Iki ngidinaké èlmuwan nyinaoni atom kanthi présisi kang dhuwur banget, kang ing tembé wuri nggawa para èlmuwan nemu [[kondhènsasi Bose-Einstein]].<ref>{{cite web | author=Staff | date=October 15, 1997 | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1997/ | title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1997 | publisher=Nobel Foundation | accessdate=2008-02-10 }}</ref> Ing sajarahé, siji atom tunggal cilik banget kanggo dipigunakaké sajeroning aplikasi èlmiah. Nanging saiki, manéka piranti kang migunakaké siji atom tunggal logam kang digandhèngaké karo [[ligan]]-ligan organik ([[transistor èlèktron tunggal]]) wis digawé.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Park, Jiwoong | display-authors = etal | journal = Nature | year = 2002 | volume = 417 | issue = 6890 | pages=722–25 | title = Coulomb blockade and the Kondo effect in single-atom transistors | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.417..722P | doi=10.1038/nature00791 | accessdate=2008-01-03 }}</ref> Manéka panlitèn wis dilakokaké kanggo mrangkap lan ngalonaké laju atom migunakaké [[pangadheman laser]] kanggo ngéntukaké pamahaman kang luwih becik ngenani sipat-sipat atom.<ref>{{cite journal | first=P. | last=Domokos | author2=Janszky, J.; Adam, P. | title=Single-atom interference method for generating Fock states | journal=Physical Review a | volume=50 | pages=3340–44 | year=1994 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevA.50.3340 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PhRvA..50.3340D | accessdate=2008-01-03 }}</ref> == Komponèn-komponèn atom == === Partikel subatom === {{Main|Partikel subatom}} Sanajan wiwitané tembung ''atom'' tegesé siji partikel kang ora bisa ditugel-tugel manèh dadi partikel kang luwih cilik, sajeroning tèrminologi ngèlmu kawruh modhèren, atom kasusun saka manéka [[partikel subatom]]. Partikel-partikel panyusun atom iki ya iku [[èlèktron]], [[proton]], lan [[neutron]]. Nanging [[hidrogen|hidrogen-1]] ora duwé neutron. Mangkono uga ing [[ion hidrogen]] positif H<sup>+</sup>. Saka kabèh partikel subatom iki, èlèktron iku kang paling ènthèng, kanthi massa èlèktron 9,11{{Esp|−31}}&nbsp;kg lan duwé momotan négatif. Ukuran èlèktron cilik banget mula durung ana tèhnik pangukuran kang bisa dipigunakaké kanggo ngukur ukurané.<ref>Demtröder (2002:39–42).</ref> Proton duwé momotan positif lan massa kaping 1.836 luwih abot tinambang èlèktron (1,6726{{Esp|−27}}&nbsp;kg). Neutron ora duwé momotan listrik lan massa bébasé kaping 1.839 massa èlèktron<ref>Woan (2000:8).</ref> atau (1,6929{{Esp|−27}}&nbsp;kg). Sajeroning modhèl standhar fisika, proton lan neutron kapérang saka [[partikel èlemèntèr]] kang ingaran [[kuark]]. Kuark kalebu sajeroning golongan partikel [[fermion]] lan wujud salah siji saka rong bahan panyusun matèri dhasar (kang liyané ya iku [[lepton]]). Ana enem jinis kuark lan saben kuark mau duwé momotan listrik fraksional +2/3 utawa uga −1/3. Proton kapérang saka rong [[kuark|kuark munggah]] lan siji [[kuark|kuark mudhun]], nalika neutron kapérang saka siji kuark munggah lan loro kuark mudhun. Prabédan komposisi kuark iki mangaruhi prabédan massa lan momotan antarané kaloro partikel mau. Kuark rinoncé bebarengan déning [[gaya nuklir kuwat]] kang diprantarani déning [[gluon]]. Gluon iku anggota saka [[boson tolok]] kang wujud prantara gaya-gaya fisika.<ref>{{cite web | author=Particle Data Group | year=2002 | url=http://www.particleadventure.org/ | title=The Particle Adventure | publisher=Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory | accessdate=2007-01-03 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first=James | last=Schombert | date=April 18, 2006 | url=http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html | title=Elementary Particles | publisher=University of Oregon | accessdate=2007-01-03 | archive-date=2011-08-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830212645/http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Inti atom === {{Main|Inti atom}} [[Gambar:Binding energy curve - common isotopes.svg|thumb|350px|[[Ènèrgi pangiketan]] kang dibutuhaké déning nukleon kanggo lolos saka inti ing manéka isotop.]]<!-- A brief explanation is provided here because 'binding energy' is not explained until the end of the setion. --> Inti atom kapérang saka proton lan neutron kang karoncé bebarengan ing punjer atom. Sacara kolèktif, proton lan neutron mau diarani [[nukleon]] (partikel panyusun inti). Dhiamèter inti atom watara 10<sup>−15</sup> tekan 10<sup>−14</sup>m.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |authorlink= |title= Basic Knowledge of Radiation and Radioisotopes (Scientific Basis, Safe Handling of Radioisotopes and Radiation Protection) |year= 2005 |publisher= Japan Radioisotope Association |location= |id= ISBN 4-89073-170-9 C2040 }}</ref> Driji-driji inti diprakirakaké padha karo <math>\begin{smallmatrix}1,07 \sqrt[3]{A}\end{smallmatrix}</math>&nbsp;&nbsp;[[femtometer|fm]], kanthi ''A'' iku gunggung nukleon.<ref>Jevremovic (2005:63).</ref> Iki cilik banget dibandhingaké karo driji-driji atom. Nukleon-nukleon mau karoncé bebarengan déning gaya silih tarik potènsial kang ingaran [[gaya kuwat résidual]]. Ing let luwih cilik saka 2,5 fm, gaya iki luwih kuwat saka [[gaya èlèktrostatik]] kang njalari proton silih tolak.<ref name=pfeffer>Pfeffer (2000:330–336).</ref> Atom saka [[unsur kimia]] kang padha duwé gunggung proton kang padha, ingaran [[nomer atom]]. Sawijining unsur bisa duwé gunggung neutron kang manéka variasiné. Variasi iki ingaran minangka [[isotop]]. Gunggung proton lan neutron siji atom bakal nemtokaké [[nuklida]] atom mau, éwadéné gunggung neutron rélatif marang gunggung proton bakal nemtokaké stabilitas inti atom, kanthi isotop unsur tinentu bakal nglakokaké [[paluruhan radhioaktif]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Wenner | first=Jennifer M. | date=October 10, 2007 | url=http://serc.carleton.edu/quantskills/methods/quantlit/RadDecay.html | title=How Does Radioactive Decay Work? | publisher=Carleton College | accessdate=2008-01-09 }}</ref> Neutron lan proton iku rong jinis [[fermion]] kang béda. [[Asas pangecualian Pauli]] nglarang anané fermion kang ''idhèntik'' (kaya déné umpamané proton gandha) nglungguhi siji kaanan fisik kuantum kang padha ing wektu kang padha. Mula saka iku, saben proton sajeroning inti atom kuduné nglungguhi kaanan kuantum kang béda karo aras ènèrginé dhéwé-dhéwé. Asas Pauli iki uga lumaku kanggo neutron. Palarangan iki ora lumaku kanggo proton lan neutron kang nglungguhi kaanan kuantum kang padha.<ref name="raymond"/> Kanggo atom kanthi nomer atom kang cendhèk, inti atom kang duwé gunggung proton luwih akèh saka neutron duwé potènsi tiba menyang kaanan ènèrgi kang luwih cendhèk lumantar paluruhan radhioaktif kang njalari gunggung proton lan neutron imbang. Mula saka iku, atom kanthi gunggung proton lan neutron kang imbang luwih stabil lan ora bakal ngluruh. Nanging, kanthi ningkaté nomer atom, gaya silih tulak antar proton agawé inti atom mbutuhaké proporsi neutron kang luwih dhuwur manèh kanggo njaga stabilitasé. Ing inti kang paling abot, rasio neutron per proton kang diperlokaké kanggo njaga stabilitasé bakal mundhak dadi 1,5.<ref name="raymond"/> [[Gambar:Wpdms physics proton proton chain 1.svg|right|thumb|200px|Gambaran prosès fusi nuklir kang ngasilaké inti deuterium (kapérang saka siji proton lan siji neutron). Sawijining [[positron]] (e<sup>+</sup>) dipancaraké bebarengan karo [[neutrino]] èlèktron.]] Gunggung proton lan neutron ing inti atom bisa diowahi, sanajan iki merlokaké ènèrgi kang dhuwur banget amarga gaya atraksiné kang kuwat. [[Fusi nuklir]] dumadi nalika akèh partikel atom padha nggabung minangka inti kang luwih abot. Minangka conto, ing inti Srengéngé, proton merlokaké ènèrgi watara 3–10 keV kanggo ngatasi gaya silih tulak antar pepadhané lan nggabung dadi sakinti.<ref>{{cite web | last=Mihos | first=Chris | date=July 23, 2002 | url=http://burro.cwru.edu/Academics/Astr221/StarPhys/coulomb.html | title=Overcoming the Coulomb Barrier | publisher=Case Western Reserve University | accessdate=2008-02-13 | archive-date=2006-09-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060912013620/http://burro.cwru.edu/Academics/Astr221/StarPhys/coulomb.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Fisi nuklir]] wujud walikan saka prosès fusi. Ing fisi nuklir, inti dipecah dadi rong inti kang luwih cilik. Iki lumrahé dumadi lumantar paluruhan radhioaktif. Inti atom uga bisa diowahi lumantar panémbakan partikel subatom kanthi ènèrgi dhuwur. Yèn iki ngowahi gunggung proton sajeroning inti, atom mau bakal malih unsuré.<ref>{{cite web | author=Staff | date=March 30, 2007 | url=http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Basic.html | title=ABC's of Nuclear Science | publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory | accessdate=2007-01-03 | archive-date=2006-12-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061205215708/http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Basic.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first=Arjun | last=Makhijani | author2=Saleska, Scott | date=March 2, 2001 | url=http://www.ieer.org/reports/n-basics.html | title=Basics of Nuclear Physics and Fission | publisher=Institute for Energy and Environmental Research | accessdate=2007-01-03 }}</ref> Yèn massa inti sawisé dumadiné réaksi fusi luwih cilik tinimbang gunggung massa partikel awal panyusuné, mula prabédan iki disebabaké déning pangeculan pancaran ènèrgi (umpamané [[sinar gamma]]), kaya déné kang tinemu ing rumus [[E=mc²|kasetaran massa-ènèrgi]] [[Einstein]], ''E''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''mc''<sup>2</sup>, kanthi ''m'' iku massa kang ilang lan ''c'' iku [[karikatan cahya]]. Dhéfisit iki wujud péranganing [[ènèrgi pangiketan]] inti kang anyar.<ref>Shultis ''et al.'' (2002:72–6).</ref> Fusi rong inti kang ngasilaké inti kang luwih gedhé kanthi nomer atom luwih cendhèk tinimbang [[wesi]] lan [[nikel]] (gunggung total nukleon padha karo 60) lumrahé asifat [[èksotèrmik]], kang tegesé yèn prosès iki ngeculaké ènèrgi.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Fewell | first = M. P. | title=The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy | journal=[[American Journal of Physics]] | year=1995 | volume=63 | issue=7 | pages=653–58 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AmJPh..63..653F | accessdate = 2007-02-01 | doi=10.1119/1.17828 }}</ref> Prosès pangeculan ènèrgi iki kang agawé fusi nuklir ing [[lintang]] bisa dipertahanaké. Kanggo inti kang luwih abot, ènèrgi pangiketan per [[nukleon]] sajeroning inti wiwit tansaya medhun. Iki ateges yèn prosès fusi bakal asifat [[èndotèrmik]].<ref name="raymond">{{cite web | last=Raymond | first=David | date=April 7, 2006 | url=http://physics.nmt.edu/~raymond/classes/ph13xbook/node216.html | title=Nuclear Binding Energies | publisher=New Mexico Tech | accessdate=2007-01-03 | archive-date=2002-12-01 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021201030437/http://physics.nmt.edu/~raymond/classes/ph13xbook/node216.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Méga èlèktron === {{Main|Orbital atom|Konfigurasi èlèktron}} [[Gambar:Potential energy well.svg|200px|right|thumb|Sumur potènsial kang nuduhaké ènèrgi minimum ''V''(''x'') kang diperlokaké kanggo nggayuh saben posisi ''x''. Sawijining partikel kanthi ènèrgi ''E'' diwatesi ing kisaran posisi antara ''x''<sub>1</sub> lan ''x''<sub>2</sub>.]] Èlèktron sajeroning siji atom ditarik déning proton sajeroning inti atom lumantar [[gaya èlèktromagnètik]]. Gaya iki ngiket èlèktron sajeroning sumur potènsi èlèktrostatik ing saubengé inti. Iki duwé teges yèn ènèrgi njaba diperlokaké supaya èlèktron bisa lolos saka atom. Saya cerak siji èlèktron menyang njero inti, saya gedhé gaya atraksiné, saéngga èlèktron kang ana cerak karo punjer sumur potènsi mbutuhaké ènèrgi kang luwih gedhé kanggo lolos. Èlèktron, padha karo partikel liyané, duwé sipat kaya déné partikel uga kaya déné gelombang (dualisme gelombang-partikel). Méga èlèktron iku siji tlatah sajeroning sumur potènsi ing ngendi saben èlèktron ngasilaké sajinis gelombang meneng (ya iku gelombang kang ora obah rélatif marang inti) telung dhimènsi. Prilaku iki ditemtokaké déning [[orbital atom]], ya iku siji fungsi matématika kang ngétung probabilitas siji èlèktron bakal mijil ing siji lokasi tinentu nalika posisiné diukur.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Mulliken | first=Robert S. | title=Spectroscopy, Molecular Orbitals, and Chemical Bonding | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1967-07-07_157_3784/page/13 |journal=[[Science]] | year=1967 | volume=157 | issue=3784 | pages=13–24 | doi=10.1126/science.157.3784.13 | pmid=5338306 }}</ref> Mung bakal ana siji hmpunan orbital tinentu kang ana ing saubengé inti, amarga pola-pola gelombang liyané bakal kanthi rikat ngluruh dadi wangun kang luwih stabil.<ref name=Brucat>{{cite web | last=Brucat | first=Philip J. | year=2008 | url=http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/2045/lectures/lec_10.html | title=The Quantum Atom | publisher=University of Florida | accessdate=2007-01-04 | archive-date=2006-12-07 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207032136/http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/2045/lectures/lec_10.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Gambar:S-p-Orbitals.svg|right|250px|thumb|Fungsi gelombang saka limang orbital atom pisanan. Telu orbital 2p ngatonaké siji babagan simpul.]] Saben orbital atom siluh korèspondhèn marang [[aras ènèrgi]] èlèktron tinentu. Èlèktron bisa malih kahanané menyang aras ènèrgi kang luwih dhuwur kanthi nyerep siji [[foton]]. Saliyané bisa munggah nuju aras ènèrgi kang luwih dhuwur, siji èlèktron bisa uga medhun menyang kaanan ènèrgi kang luwih cendhèk kanthi mancaraké ènèrgi kang turah minangka foton.<ref name=Brucat/> Ènèrgi kang diperlokaké kanggo ngeculaké utawa uga nambah siji èlèktron (ènèrgi pangiketan èlèktron) iku luwih cilik tinimbang ènèrgi pangiketan nukleon. Minangka contoné, mung diperlokaké 13,6&nbsp;eV kanggo ngeculaké èlèktron saka atom hidrogen.<ref>{{cite web | last=Herter | first=Terry | year=2006 | url=http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro101/herter/lectures/lec08.htm | title=Lecture 8: The Hydrogen Atom | publisher=Cornell University | accessdate=2008-02-14 }}</ref> Bandhingna karo ènèrgi kang gedhéné 2,3&nbsp;MeV kang diperlokaké kanggo mecah inti [[deuterium]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bell | first=R. E. | author2=Elliott, L. G. | title=Gamma-Rays from the Reaction H<sup>1</sup>(n,γ)D<sup>2</sup> and the Binding Energy of the Deuteron | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physical-review_1950-07-15_79_2/page/282 |journal=[[Physical Review]] | year=1950 | volume=79 | issue=2 | pages=282–285 | doi=10.1103/PhysRev.79.282 }}</ref> Atom kanthi momotan listrik nétral amarga gunggung proton lan èlèktroné kang padha. Atom kang kakurangan utawa uga kaluwihan èlèktron ingaran minangka [[ion]]. Èlèktron kang ana ing paling njaba saka inti bisa ditransfer utawa uga dibagi menyang atom paling cerak liyané. Kanthi cara iki, atom bisa silih [[roncèn kimia|karoncé]] minangka [[molekul]].<ref>Smirnov (2003:249–72).</ref> == Sifat-sipat == === Sifat-sipat nuklir === {{Main|Isotop|Isotop stabil}} Adhedhasar dhéfinisi, rong atom kanthi gunggung ''proton'' kang idhentik ing intiné kalebu sajeroning [[unsur kimia]] kang padha. Atom kanthi gunggung proton padha nanging kanthi gunggung ''neutron'' béda iku loro isotop béda saka siji unsur kang padha. Minangka contoné, kabèh hidrogen duwé proton siji, nanging ana siji isotop hidrogen kang ora duwé neutron ([[hidrogen|hidrogen-1]]), siji isotop kang duwé siji neutron ([[deuterium]]), loro neutron ([[tritium]]), lsp. Hidrogen-1 iku wangun isotop hidrogen kang paling umum. Sok-sok dhèwèké diarani protium.<ref>{{cite web | last=Matis | first=Howard S. | date=August 9, 2000 | url=http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/02/3.html | title=The Isotopes of Hydrogen | work=Guide to the Nuclear Wall Chart | publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Lab | accessdate=2007-12-21 | archive-date=2007-12-18 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218153548/http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/02/3.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Kabèh isotop unsur kang duwé nomer atom luwih gedhé saka 82 asifat radhioaktif.<ref name=sills>Sills (2003:131–134).</ref><ref name=dume>{{cite news | last=Dumé | first=Belle | date=April 23, 2003 | title=Bismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decay | publisher=Physics World | url=http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/17319 | accessdate=2007-12-21 }}</ref> Saka watara 339 nuklida kang kawangun kanthi alami ing [[Bumi]], 269 ing antarané durung tau kadeleng ngluruh.<ref>{{cite web | last=Lindsay | first=Don | date=July 30, 2000 | url=http://www.don-lindsay-archive.org/creation/isotope_list.html | title=Radioactives Missing From The Earth | publisher=Don Lindsay Archive | accessdate=2007-05-23 }}{{Pranala mati|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ing unsur kimia, 80 saka unsur kang dikawruhi duwé siji utawa luwih [[isotop stabil]]. Unsur [[teknesium|43]], [[prometium|63]], lan kabèh unsur luwih dhuwur saka [[bismut|83]] ora duwé isotop stabil. Pitulikur unsur mung duwé siji isotop stabil, nalika gunggung isotop stabil kang paling akèh kadeleng ing unsur [[timah]] kanthi 10 jinis isotop stabil.<ref name=CRC>CRC Handbook (2002).</ref> === Massa === {{Main|Massa atom|Bobot atom}} Amarga mayoritas massa atom asalé saka proton dan neutron, gunggung sakabèhé partikel iki sajeroning atom diarani [[nomer massa]]. Massa atom ing kaanan meneng asring dièksprèsikaké migunakaké [[ékan massa atom]] (u) kang uga diarani dalton (Da). Ékan iki didhéfinisikaké minangka saprarolas massa atom [[karbon-12]] nétral, kang kira-kira gedhéné 1,66{{Esp|−27}}&nbsp;kg.<ref name=iupac/> [[Hidrogen|Hidrogen-1]] kang wujud isotop paling ènthèng hidrogen duwé bobot atom 1,007825&nbsp;u.<ref>{{cite web | last=Chieh | first=Chung | date=January 22, 2001 | url=http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/nuclideunstable.html | title=Nuclide Stability | publisher=University of Waterloo | accessdate=2007-01-04 | archive-date=2007-08-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830110015/http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/nuclideunstable.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Atom duwé massa kang kira-kira padha karo nomer massané dipingké ékan massa atom.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some | title=Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements | publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology | accessdate=2007-01-04 }}</ref> Atom stabil kang paling abot ya iku timbal-208,<ref name=sills/> kanthi massa 207,9766521&nbsp;u.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Audi | first=G. | author2=Wapstra, A. H.; Thibault C. | title=The Ame2003 atomic mass evaluation (II) | journal=[[Nuclear Physics A]] | year=2003 | volume=729 | pages=337–676 | url=http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/web/masseval.html | accessdate=2008-02-07 | doi=10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.003 | archive-date=2008-09-16 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916155656/http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/web/masseval.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Para kimiawan lumrahé migunakaké ékan [[mol]] kanggo nyatakaké gunggung atom. Sak mol didhéfinisikaké minangka gunggung atom kang ana ing 12 gram persis karbon-12. Gunggung iki ya iku watara 6,022{{Esp|23}}, kang ditepungi uga kanthi jeneng [[tetapan Avogadro]]. Kanthi mangkono siji unsur kanthi massa atom 1 u bakal duwé sak mol atom kang massané 0,001&nbsp;kg. Minangka conto, [[Karbon]] duwé massa atom 12 u, saéngga sak mol karbon atom duwé massa 0,012&nbsp;kg.<ref name=iupac>Mills ''et al.'' (1993).</ref> === Ukuran === {{Main|Driji-driji atom}} Atom ora duwé watesan njaba kang cetha, saéngga dhimènsi atom lumrahé didhèskripsikaké minangka let antarané loro inti atom nalika loro atom silih gabung bebarengan sajeroning [[Roncèn kimia]]. Driji-driji iki manéka variasi gumantung marang jinis atom, jinis roncèn kang kalibat, gunggung atom ing saubengé, lan spin atom.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Shannon | first = R. D. | title=Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides | journal=[[Acta Crystallographica]], Section a | year=1976 | volume=32 | pages=751 | url=http://journals.iucr.org/a/issues/1976/05/00/issconts.html | accessdate=2007-01-03 | doi=10.1107/S0567739476001551 }}</ref> Ing [[tabèl périodhik]] unsur-unsur, driji-driji atom bakal ''cenderung'' mundhak sairing karo ningkaté périodhe (ndhuwur medhun). Suwaliké driji-driji atom bakal ''cenderung'' mundhak sairing karo medhuné nomer golongan (tengen mangiwa).<ref>{{cite web | last=Dong | first=Judy | year=1998 | url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/MichaelPhillip.shtml | title=Diameter of an Atom | publisher=The Physics Factbook | accessdate=2007-11-19 | archive-date=2007-11-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104160920/http://hypertextbook.com/facts/MichaelPhillip.shtml | url-status=dead }}</ref> Mula, atom kang paling cilik iku hélium kanthi driji-driji 32&nbsp;[[Pikometer|pm]], nalika kang gedhé dhéwé iku [[sésium]] kanthi driji-driji 225&nbsp;pm.<ref>Zumdahl (2002).</ref> Dhimènsi iki maèwu-èwu luwih cilik saka gelombang [[cahya]] (400–700&nbsp;[[nanometer|nm]]), saéngga atom ora bisa dideleng migunakaké mikroskop optik biyasa. Nanging, atom bisa dideleng migunakaké [[mikroskop gaya atom]]. Ukuran atom cilik banget, semono ciliké amba sak lèr rambut bisa nampung watara 1 yuta atom karbon.<ref>{{cite web | author=Staff | year=2007 | url=http://oregonstate.edu/terra/2007winter/features/nanotech.php | title=Small Miracles: Harnessing nanotechnology | publisher=Oregon State University | accessdate=2007-01-07 }}—describes the width of a human hair as 10<sup>5</sup>&nbsp;nm and 10 carbon atoms as spanning 1&nbsp;nm.</ref> Saktètès banyu uga ngandhut watara 2{{Esp|21}} atom oksigèn.<ref>Padilla ''et al.'' (2002:32)—"There are 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (that's 2&nbsp;sextillion) atoms of oxygen in one drop of water—and twice as many atoms of hydrogen."</ref> [[Intan]] sak karat kanthi massa 2{{Esp|-4}}&nbsp;kg ngandhut watara 10<sup>22</sup> atom karbon.<ref group="catatan">Sak karat padha karo 200 miligram. Adhedhasar dhéfinisi, karbon-12 duwé 0,012 kg per mol. [[Tetapan Avogadro]] watara 6{{Esp|23}}&nbsp;atom per mol.</ref> Yèn siji apel digedhèkaké nganti saukuran gedhéné Bumi, mula atom sajeroning apel mau bakal katon gedhéné padha ukuran apel awal mau.<ref>Feynman (1995).</ref> === Paluruhan radhioaktif === {{Main|Paluruhan radhioaktif}} [[Gambar:Isotopes and half-life 1.PNG|right|300px|thumb|Dhiagram iki nuduhaké wektu paro (T<sub>½</sub>) sapérangan isotop kanthi gunggung proton Z lan gunggung proton N (sajeroning ékan dhetik).]] Saben unsur duwé siji utawa luwih isotop kanthi inti ora stabil kang bakal ngalami paluruhan radhioaktif, njalari inti ngeculaké partikel utawa uga radhiasi èlèktromagnètik. Radhioaktivitas bisa dumadi nalika driji-driji inti gedhé banget dibandhingaké karo driji-driji gaya kuwat (mung dumadi ing let watara 1 fm).<ref name=splung>{{cite web | url=http://www.splung.com/content/sid/5/page/radioactivity | title=Radioactivity | publisher=Splung.com | accessdate=2007-12-19 }}</ref> Wangun-wangun paluruhan radhioaktif kang paling umum ya iku:<ref>L'Annunziata (2003:3–56).</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Firestone | first=Richard B. | date=May 22, 2000 | url=http://isotopes.lbl.gov/education/decmode.html | title=Radioactive Decay Modes | publisher=Berkeley Laboratory | accessdate=2007-01-07 | archive-date=2006-09-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929111801/http://isotopes.lbl.gov/education/decmode.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Paluruhan alfa]], dumadi nalika siji inti mancaraké partikel alfa (inti hélium kang kapérang saka rong proton lan rong neutron). Asil peluruhan iki wujud unsur anyar kanthi [[nomer atom]] kang luwih cilik. * [[Paluruhan beta]], diatur déning [[gaya lemah]], lan diasilaké déning transformasi neutron dadi proton, uawa uga proton dadi neutron. Transformasi neutron dadi proton bakal ditutaké déning èmisi siji èlèktron lan siji [[antineutrino]], nalika transformasi proton dadi neutron ditutaké déning èmisi siji [[positron]] lan siji [[neutrino]]. Èmisi èlèktron utawa uga èmisi positron ingaran minangka partikel beta. Paluruhan beta bisa ngundhakaké uga ngedhunaké nomer atom inti gunggungé siji. * [[Paluruhan gama]], diasilaké déning owah-owahan ing aras ènèrgi inti menyang kaanan kang luwih cendhak, njalari èmisi radhiasi èlèktromagnètik. Iki bisa dumadi sawisé èmisi partikel alfa utawa uga beta saka paluruhan radhioaktif. Jinis-jinis [[paluruhan radhioaktif]] liyané kang luwih arang ngambah pangeculan neutron lan proton saka inti, èmisi punjul siji [[partikel beta]], utawa uga paluruhan kang ngakibataké prodhuksi èlèktron kanthi karikatan dhuwur kang dudu sinar beta, lan prodhuksi foton kanthi ènèrgi dhuwur kang dudu sinar gama Saben isotop radhioaktif duwé karakteristik périodhe wektu paluruhan ([[wektu paro]]) kang wujud suwéné wektu kang diperlokaké déning setengah gunggung sampel kanggo ngluruh entèk. Prosès paluruhan asifat èksponènsial, saéngga sawisé loro wektu paro, mung bakal kasisa 25% isotop.<ref name=splung/> === Momèn magnètik === {{Main|Momèn dipol magnètik èlèktron|Momèn magnètik nuklir}} Saben partikel èlemèntèr duwé sipat mékanika kuantum intrinsik kang ditepungi kanthi jeneng [[spin]]. Spin duwé analogi karo [[momèntum pojok]] siji objèk kang mubeng ing [[punjer massa]]né, sanajan kanthi kaku partikel ora duwé prilaku kaya mangkéné iki. Spin diukur sajeroning ékan [[tetapan Planck]] karédhuksi (ħ), kanthi èlèktron, proton, lan neutron sakabèhé duwé spin ½&nbsp;ħ, utawa "spin-½". Sajeroning atom, èlèktron kang obah ing saubengé [[inti atom]] saliyané duwé [[spin]] uga duwé [[momèntum pojok orbital]], nalika inti atom duwé momèntum pojok uga amarga spin nukliré dhéwé.<ref>{{cite web | last=Hornak | first=J. P. | year=2006 | url=http://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/nmr/chap-3/chap-3.htm | title=Chapter 3: Spin Physics | work=The Basics of NMR | publisher=Rochester Institute of Technology | accessdate=2007-01-07 }}</ref> [[Médhan magnèt]] kang diasilaké déning siji atom (ingaran [[momèn magnètik]]) ditemtokaké déning kombinasi manéka jinis momèntum pojok iki. Nanging, kontribusi kang gedhé dhéwé tetep asalé saka spin. Amarga èlèktron manut [[asas pengecualian Pauli]], yiku ora ana loro èlèktron kang bisa tinemu ing [[kaanan kuantum]] kang padha, pasangan èlèktron kang karoncé siji lan sijiné duwé spin kang lelawanan, kanthi siji mawa spin munggah, lan kang sijiné manèh mawa spin mudhun. Kaloro spin kang lelawanan iki bakal silih nétralaké, saéngga momèn dipol magnètik totalé dadi nol ing sapérangan atom kanthi gunggung èlèktron genep.<ref name=schroeder>{{cite web | last=Schroeder | first=Paul A. | date=February 25, 2000 | url=http://www.gly.uga.edu/schroeder/geol3010/magnetics.html | title=Magnetic Properties | publisher=University of Georgia | accessdate=2007-01-07 | archive-date=2007-04-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429150216/http://www.gly.uga.edu/schroeder/geol3010/magnetics.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Ing atom kanthi èlèktron ganjil kaya déné [[wesi]], anané èlèktron kang ora duwé pasangan njalari atom mau asifat [[féromagnètik]]. Orbital-orbital atom ing saubengé atom mau silih tumpang tindhih lan pamudhunan kaanan ènèrgi digayuh nalika spin èlèktron kang ora duwé pasangan kasusun silih sajajar. Prosès iki ingaran minangka [[interaksi ijolan]]. Nalika momèn magnètik atom féromagnètik kasusun silih sajajar, bahan kang kasusun déning atom iki bisa ngasilaké médhan makroskopis kang bisa didhetèksi. Bahan-bahan kang asifat [[paramagnètisme|paramagnètik]] duwé atom kanthi momèn magnètik kang kasusun acak, saéngga ora ana médhan magnèt kang diasilaké. Nanging, momèn magnètik saben atom indhividu mau bakal kasusun silih sajajar nalika diwènèhi médhan magnèt.<ref name=schroeder/><ref>{{cite web | last=Goebel | first=Greg | date=September 1, 2007 | url=http://www.vectorsite.net/tpqm_04.html | title=<nowiki>[4.3]</nowiki> Magnetic Properties of the Atom | work=Elementary Quantum Physics | publisher=In The Public Domain website | accessdate=2007-01-07 | archive-date=2011-09-07 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907083207/http://www.vectorsite.net/tpqm_04.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Inti atom uga bisa duwé spin. Lumrahé spin inti kasusun kanthi acak amarga [[kasetimbangan tèrmal]]. Nanging, kanggo unsur-unsur tinentu (kaya déné [[xenon|xenon-129]]), iku mungkin kanggo molarisasi kaanan spin nuklir kanthi signifikan saéngga spin-spin mau kasusun silih sajajar kanthi arah kang padha. Kondhisi iki ingaran minangka hiperpolarisasi. Fénoména iki duwé aplikasi kang wigati sajeroning [[pancitraan résonansi magnètik]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Yarris | first=Lynn | title=Talking Pictures | journal=Berkeley Lab Research Review | date=Spring 1997 | url=http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1997/story1.html | accessdate=2008-01-09 | archive-date=2008-01-13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113104939/http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1997/story1.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Liang and Haacke (1999:412–26).</ref> === Aras-aras ènèrgi === {{Main|Aras ènèrgi|Garis spèktrum atom}} Nalika siji èlèktron karoncé ing siji atom, dhèwèké duwé [[ènèrgi potènsial]] kang bebandhing kuwalik marang let èlèktron marang inti. Iki diukur déning gedhéné ènèrgi kang diperlokaké kanggo ngeculaké èlèktron saka atom lan lumrahé dièksprèsikaké kanthi satuwan [[èlèktronvolt]] (eV). Sajeroning modhèl mékanika kuantum, èlèktron-èlèktron kang karoncé mung bisa nglungguhi sak sèt kaanan kang punjeré ing inti, lan saben kaanan silih korèspondhènsi marang aras ènèrgi tinentu. Kaanan ènèrgi paling asor siji èlèktron kang karoncé ingaran minangka kaanan dhasar, nalika kaanan ènèrgi kang luwih dhuwur ingaran minangka kaanan kaèksitasi.<ref>{{cite web | last=Zeghbroeck | first=Bart J. Van | year=1998 | url=http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/308/semicon_book/eband2.htm | title=Energy levels | publisher=Shippensburg University | accessdate=2007-12-23 | archive-date=2005-01-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050115030639/http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/308/semicon_book/eband2.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> Supaya siji èlèktron bisa mlumpat saka siji kaanan menyang kaanan liyané, dhèwèké kudu nyerep utawa mancaraké [[foton]] ing ènèrgi kang selaras karo prabédan ènèrgi potènsial antar rong aras mau. Ènèrgi foton kang dipancaraké iku sebandhing karo [[frékuènsi]]né.<ref>Fowles (1989:227–233).</ref> Saben unsur duwé spèktrum karakteristiké dhéwé-dhéwé. Iki gumantung marang momotan inti, subklopak kang kaisi karo èlèktron, interaksi èlèktromagnètik antar èlèktron, lan faktor-faktor liyané.<ref>{{cite web | last=Martin | first=W. C. | author2=Wiese, W. L. | year=2007 | url=http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/AtSpec/ | title=Atomic Spectroscopy: A Compendium of Basic Ideas, Notation, Data, and Formulas | publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology | accessdate=2007-01-08 }}</ref> [[Gambar:Fraunhofer lines.svg|right|thumb|300px|Conto garis absorpsi spèktrum.]] Nalika siji spèktrum ènèrgi kang sambung terus dipancaraké liwat siji gas utawa uga plasma, sapérangan foton diserep déning atom, njalari èlèktron pindhah aras ènèrgi. Èlèktron kang kaèksitasi bakal kanthi spontan mancaraké ènèrgi iki minangka foton lan tiba manèh menyang aras ènèrgi kang luwih cendhèk. Mula saka iku, atom duwé prilaku kaya déné bahan panyaring kang bakal minangka sadhèrètan [[pita absorpsi]]. Pangukuran [[spèktroskopi]] marang kekuwatan lan amba [[pita spèktrum]] ngidinaké panemton komposisi lan sipat-sipat fisika siji dat.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.avogadro.co.uk/light/bohr/spectra.htm | title=Atomic Emission Spectra — Origin of Spectral Lines | publisher=Avogadro Web Site | accessdate=2006-08-10 | archive-date=2006-02-28 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060228231025/http://www.avogadro.co.uk/light/bohr/spectra.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> Pangamatan cermat ing garis-garis spèktrum nuduhaké yèn sapérangan ngétokaké anané pamisahan alus. Iki dumadi amarga [[kopling spin-orbit]] kang wujud interaksi antarané spin karo obahing èlèktron paling njaba.<ref>{{cite web | last=Fitzpatrick | first=Richard | date=February 16, 2007 | url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node55.html | title=Fine structure | publisher=University of Texas at Austin | accessdate=2008-02-14 }}</ref> Nalika siji atom ana sajeroning médhan magnèt èksternal, garis-garis spèktrum kapisah dadi telu komponèn utawa luwih. Iki ingaran minangka [[èfèk Zeeman]]. Èfèk Zeeman disebabaké déning interaksi médhan magnèt karo momèn magnètik atom lan èlèktroné. Sapérangan atom bisa duwé akèh [[konfigurasi èlèktron]] kanthi aras ènèrgi kang padha, saéngga bakal katon minangka siji garis spèktrum. Interaksi médhan magnèt karo atom bakal nggèsèr konfigurasi-konfigurasi èlèktron nuju aras ènèrgi kang béda sithik, njalari garis spèktrum dhobel.<ref>{{cite web | last=Weiss | first=Michael | year=2001 | url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin/node8.html | title=The Zeeman Effect | publisher=University of California-Riverside | accessdate=2008-02-06 }}</ref> Anané [[médhan listrik]] èksternal bisa njalari pamisahan lan panggèsèran garis spèktrum kanthi ngowahi aras ènèrgi èlèktron. Fénoména iki ingaran minangka [[èfèk Stark]].<ref>Beyer (2003:232–236).</ref> === Valènsi lan prilaku roncèn === {{Main|Valensi (kimia)|Roncèn kimia}} Klopak utawa kulit èlèktron paling njaba siji atom sajeroning kaanan kang ora kakombinasi diarani klopak valènsi lan èlèktron sajeroning klopak mau diarani [[èlèktron valènsi]]. Gunggung èlèktron valènsi nemtokaké prilaku [[roncèn kimia|roncèn]] atom mau karo atom liyané. Atom ''cenderung'' réaksi karo siji lan sijiné lumantar pangisian (utawa uga pangosongan) èlèktron valènsi paling njaba atom.<ref>{{cite web | last=Reusch | first=William | date=July 16, 2007 | url=http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm | title=Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry | publisher=Michigan State University | accessdate=2008-01-11 }}</ref> Roncèn kimia bisa dideleng minangka transfer èlèktron saka siji atom menyang atom liyané, kaya déné kang kadeleng ing [[natriyum klorida]] lan garam-garam ionik liyané. Nanging, akèh uga unsur kang nuduhaké prilaku valènsi gandha, utawa kacendrungan mbagi èlèktron kanthi gunggung kang béda ing senyawa kang béda. Saéngga, [[roncèn kimia]] antarané unsur-unsur iki ''cenderung'' wujud pambagéyan èlèktron tinimbang transfer èlèktron. Contoné ngambah unsur karbon sajeroning [[senyawa organik]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/covalent.html |title=Covalent bonding-Single bonds |publisher=chemguide |year=2000}}</ref> [[Unsur kimia|Unsur-unsur kimia]] asring ditampilaké sajeroning [[tabèl pèriodhik]] kang nampilaké sipat-sipat kimia siji unsur kang duwé pola. Unsur-unsur kanthi gunggung èlèktron valènsi kang padha diklompokaké kanthi vèrtikel (ingaran golongan). Unsur-unsur ing pérangan paling tengen tabèl duwé klopak paling nabané kaisi kebak, njalari unsur-unsur mau ''cenderung'' asifat inert ([[gas mulia]]).<ref>{{cite web | author=Husted, Robert | display-authors = etal | date=December 11, 2003 | url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm | title=Periodic Table of the Elements | publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory | accessdate=2008-01-11 }} </ref><ref>{{cite web | first=Rudy | last=Baum | year=2003 | url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/elements.html | title=It's Elemental: The Periodic Table | publisher=Chemical & Engineering News | accessdate=2008-01-11 }}</ref> === Kaanan === {{Main|Kaanan matèri|Fase bandha}} [[Gambar:Bose Einstein condensate.png|right|200px|thumb|Gambaran pambentukan [[kondhènsat Bose-Einstein]].]] Sapérangan atom tinemu sajeroning kaanan matèri kang béda-béda gumantung ing kondhisi fisik bandha, ya iku [[suhu]] lan [[tekanan]]. Kanthi ngowahi kondhisi mau, matèri bisa molah-malih dadi wangun [[padhet]], [[cuwèr]], [[gas]], lan [[plasma]].<ref>Goodstein (2002:436–438).</ref> Sajeroning saben kaanan mau uga matèri bisa duwé manéka fase. Minangka contoné ing karbon padhet, dhèwèké bisa wujud [[grafit]] uga [[inten]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Brazhkin | first=Vadim V. | title=Metastable phases, phase transformations, and phase diagrams in physics and chemistry | journal=Physics-Uspekhi | year=2006 | volume=49 | pages=719–24 | doi=10.1070/PU2006v049n07ABEH006013 }}</ref> Ing suhu nyeraki [[nol mutlak]], atom bisa minangka [[kondhènsat Bose-Einstein]], ing endi èfèk-èfèk mékanika kuantum kang lumrahé mung kadeleng ing skala atom kadeleng kanthi makroskopis.<ref>Myers (2003:85).</ref><ref>{{cite news | author=Staff | date=October 9, 2001 | title=Bose-Einstein Condensate: A New Form of Matter | publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology | url=http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/BEC_background.htm | accessdate=2008-01-16 | archive-date=2008-01-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103192918/http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/BEC_background.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> Kumpulan atom-atom kang di''liwat''-adhemké iki duwé prilaku kaya déné siji [[atom super]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Colton | first=Imogen | author2=Fyffe, Jeanette | date=February 3, 1999 | url=http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html | title=Super Atoms from Bose-Einstein Condensation | publisher=The University of Melbourne | accessdate=2008-02-06 | archive-date=2007-08-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829200820/http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> {{clear}} == Idhèntifikasi == [[Gambar:Atomic resolution Au100.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Citra [[mikroskop panrowongan payaran]] kang nuduhaké atom-atom indhividhu ing lumahing [[emas]] ([[Indhèks Miller|100]]).]] [[Mikroskop panrowongan payaran]] (''scanning tunneling microscope'') iku siji mikroskop kang dipigunakaké kanggo ndeleng lumahing siji bandha ing tingkat atom. Piranti iki migunakaké fénoména [[panrowongan kuantum]] kang ngidinaké partikel-partikel nembus sawar kang lumrahé ora bisa diliwati. Sawijining atom bisa di[[ion]]isasi kanthi nguwalaké siji èlèktroné. [[Muatan listrik|Muatan kang ana]] njalari trayèktori atom mlengkung nalika dhèwèké ngliwati siji [[médhan magnèt]]. Driji-driji trayèktori ion mau ditemtokaké déning massa atom. [[Spèktromèter massa]] migunakaké prinsip iki kanggo ngétung rasio massa marang momotan ion. Yèn sampel mau ngandhut sapérangan isotop, spèktromèter massa bisa nemtokaké proporsi saben isotop kanthi ngukur intènsitas berkas ion kang béda. Tèknik kanggo nguwapaké atom ngambah [[spèktroskopi émisi atomik plasma gandhèng indhuktif]] (''inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy'') lan [[spèktromètri massa plasma gandhèng indhuktif]] (''inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry''), kaloroné migunakaké plasma kanggo nguwapaké sampel analisis.<ref>{{cite journal | first=N. | last=Jakubowski | author2 = Moens, L.; Vanhaecke, F | title = Sector field mass spectrometers in ICP-MS | journal = Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy | volume = 53 | issue = 13 | year = 1998 | doi=10.1016/S0584-8547(98)00222-5 | pages = 1739–63}}</ref> Métodhe liyané kang luwih selèktif ya iku [[spèktroskopi panguwalan ènèrgi èlèktron]] (''electron energy loss spectroscopy''), kang ngukur panguwalan ènèrgi [[berkas èlèktron]] sajeroning siji [[mikroskop èlèktron transmisi]] nalika dhèwèké interaksi karo sampel. Tomografi kuar atom duwé résolusi sub-nanomèter sajeroning 3-D lan bisa kanthi kimiawi ngidhèntifikasi atom-atom indhividhu migunakaké [[spèktromètri massa wektu lintas]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Müller | first1=Erwin W. | authorlink1=Erwin Wilhelm Müller | last2=Panitz | first2=John A. | authorlink2=J. A. Panitz | last3=McLane | first3=S. Brooks | authorlink3=S. Brooks McLane | year=1968 | title=The Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_review-scientific-instruments_1968-01_39_1/page/83 | journal=[[Review of Scientific Instruments]] | volume=39 | issue=1 | pages=83–86 | issn=0034-6748 | doi=10.1063/1.1683116 }}</ref> Spèktrum [[kaanan kaèksitasi]] bisa dipigunakaké kanggo nganalisa komposisi atom [[lintang]] kang adoh. Dawa gelombang cahya tinentu kang dipancaraké déning lintang bisa dipisahaké lan dicocokaké karo transisi kakuantisasi atom gas bébas. Werna lintang sabanjuré bisa diréplikasi migunakaké [[lampu lucutan gas]] kang ngandhung unsur kang padha.<ref>{{cite web | last=Lochner | first=Jim | author2=Gibb, Meredith; Newman, Phil | date=April 30, 2007 | url=http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/how_l1/spectral_what.html | title=What Do Spectra Tell Us? | publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center | accessdate=2008-01-03 }}</ref> [[Hèliyum]] ing Srengéngé tinemu kanthi migunakaké cara iki 23 taun sadurungé dhèwèké tinemu ing Bumi.<ref>{{cite web | last=Winter | first=Mark | year=2007 | url=http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/He/hist.html | title=Helium | publisher=WebElements | accessdate=2008-01-03 | archive-date=2007-12-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230182148/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/He/hist.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> == Asal usul lan kaanan saiki == Atom nglungguhi watara 4% dhènsitas ènèrgi total kang ana sajeroning [[alam semesta]] kadeleng, kanthi dhènsitas rata-rata watara 0,25&nbsp;atom/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>{{cite web | last=Hinshaw | first=Gary | date=February 10, 2006 | url=http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101matter.html | title=What is the Universe Made Of? | publisher=NASA/WMAP | accessdate=2008-01-07 }}</ref> Sajeroning galaksi [[Bimasekti]], atom nduwé konsèntrasi kang luwih dhuwur, kanthi dhènsitas matèri sajeroning [[médhium antarlintang]] kisarané watara 10<sup>5</sup> nganti tekan 10<sup>9</sup> atom/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>Choppin ''et al.'' (2001).</ref> Srengéngé dhéwé dipercaya ana sajeroning [[Gelembung Lokal]], ya iku siji tlatah kang ngandhut akèh gas ion, saéngga dhènsitas ing saubengé iku watara 10<sup>3</sup> atom/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Davidsen | first=Arthur F. | title=Far-Ultraviolet Astronomy on the Astro-1 Space Shuttle Mission |journal=[[Science]] | year=1993 | volume=259 | issue=5093 | pages=327–34 | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/259/5093/327 | accessdate=2008-01-07 | doi=10.1126/science.259.5093.327 | pmid=17832344 }}</ref> Lintang minangka méga-méga padhet sajeroning médhium antarlintang, lan prosès èvolusionèr lintang bakal njalari paningkatan kandhungan unsur kang luwih abot tinimbang hidrogen lan hélium sajeroning médhium antarlintang. Nganti tekan 95% atom Bimasekti kakonsèntrasi sajeroning lintang-lintang, lan massa total atom iki minangka watara 10% massa galaksi.<ref>Lequeux (2005:4).</ref> Massa sisané iku [[matèri peteng]] kang ora dikawruhi kanthi cetha.<ref>{{cite web | first=Nigel | last=Smith | date=January 6, 2000 | url=http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/809 | title=The search for dark matter | publisher=Physics World | accessdate=2008-02-14 | archive-date=2008-02-16 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216185952/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/809 | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Nukleosintesis === {{Main|Nukleosintesis}} Proton lan èlèktron kang stabil mijik sadhetik sawisé kadadéan [[Dhentuman Gedhé]]. Sajeroning mangsa wektu telung menit sawisé, [[nukleosintesis Dhentuman Gedhé]] akèh-akèhé ngasilaké [[hèliyum]], [[litiyum]], lan [[deuterium]], lan mungkin uga sapérangan [[bèriliyum]] lan [[boron]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Croswell | first=Ken | title=Boron, bumps and the Big Bang: Was matter spread evenly when the Universe began? Perhaps not; the clues lie in the creation of the lighter elements such as boron and beryllium | journal=New Scientist | year=1991 | issue=1794 | pages=42 | url=http://space.newscientist.com/article/mg13217944.700-boron-bumps-and-the-big-bang-was-matter-spread-evenly-whenthe-universe-began-perhaps-not-the-clues-lie-in-the-creation-of-thelighter-elements-such-as-boron-and-beryllium.html | accessdate=2008-01-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Copi | first=Craig J. | author2=Schramm, David N.; Turner, Michael S. | title=Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis and the Baryon Density of the Universe |journal=[[Science]] | year=1995 | volume=267 | pages=192–99 | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/267/5195/192.pdf | doi = 10.1126/science.7809624 | format=PDF | accessdate=2008-01-13 |pmid=7809624 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Hinshaw | first=Gary | date=December 15, 2005 | url=http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101bbtest2.html | title=Tests of the Big Bang: The Light Elements | publisher=NASA/WMAP | accessdate=2008-01-13 }}</ref> Atom pisanan (kanthi èlèktron kang katalènan karo dhèwèké) kanthi téoritis karipta 380.000 taun sawisé Dhentuman Gedhé, ya iku nalika alam semesta kang nrembaka cukup adhem kanggo ngidinaké èlèktron-èlèktron katalènan ing inti atom.<ref>{{cite web | last=Abbott | first=Brian | date=May 30, 2007 | url=http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/universe/duguide/exgg_wmap.php | title=Microwave (WMAP) All-Sky Survey | publisher=Hayden Planetarium | accessdate=2008-01-13 }}</ref> Wiwit wektu iku, inti atom wiwit nggabung sajeroning [[lintang]]-lintang lumantar prosès [[fusi nuklir]] lan ngasilaké unsur-unsur kang luwih abot nganti tekan wesi.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The synthesis of the elements from hydrogen | author = F. Hoyle | journal = [[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] | volume = 106 | pages = 343–83 | year=1946 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946MNRAS.106..343H | accessdate=2008-01-13 }}</ref> Isotop kaya déné litium-6 diasilaké ing ruwang akasa lumantar [[spalasi sinar kosmis]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Knauth | first=D. C. | author2=Federman, S. R.; Lambert, David L.; Crane, P. | title=Newly synthesized lithium in the interstellar medium | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2000-06-08_405_6787/page/656 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year=2000 | volume=405 | pages=656–58 | doi=10.1038/35015028 }}</ref> Iki dumadi nalika siji proton kanthi ènèrgi dhuwur numbuk inti atom, njalari sapérangan gedhé nukleon sumebar. Unsur kang luwih abot tinimbang wesi diasilaké ing [[supernova]] lumantar [[prosès r]] lan ing [[cabang raseksa asimtotik|lintang-lintang AGB]] lumantar [[prosès s]]. Kaloroné nglibataké panyekelan neutron déning inti atom.<ref>{{cite web | last=Mashnik | first=Stepan G. | title=On Solar System and Cosmic Rays Nucleosynthesis and Spallation Processes | url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0008382 | year=2000 | publisher=Cornell University | accessdate=2008-01-14 }}</ref> Unsur-unsur kaya déné [[timbal]] akèh-akèhé diwangun lumantar paluruhan radhioaktif unsur-unsur liya kang luwih abot.<ref>{{cite web | author=Kansas Geological Survey | date=May 4, 2005 | url=http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/geotopics/earth_age.html | title=Age of the Earth | publisher=University of Kansas | accessdate=2008-01-14 | archive-date=2008-07-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705052359/http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/geotopics/earth_age.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Bumi === Akèh-akèhé atom kang nyusun [[Bumi]] lan kalebu uga kabèh makluk uripé tau ana sajeroning wangun kang saiki ing [[nébula]] kang runtuh saka [[awan molekul]] lan minangka [[Tata Surya]]. Sisané wujud akibat saka paluruhan radhioaktif lan proporsiné bisa kanggo nemtokaké [[umur Bumi]] lumantar [[pananggalan radhiomètrik]].<ref name = "Manuel_2001">Manuel (2001:407–430,511–519).</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Dalrymple | first=G. Brent | title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved | journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications | year=2001 | volume=190 | pages=205–21 | doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 | url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 | accessdate=2008-01-14 }}</ref> Akèh-akèhé [[hélium]] sajeroning kerak Bumi wujud prodhuk [[paluruhan alfa]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Anderson | first=Don L. | authorlink=Don L. Anderson | author2=Foulger, G. R.; Meibom, Anders | date=September 2, 2006 | url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html | title=Helium: Fundamental models | publisher=MantlePlumes.org | accessdate=2007-01-14 }}</ref> Ana saklumit atom ing Bumi kang ing awal pambentukané ora ana lan uga dudu wujud akibat saka paluruhan radhioaktif. [[Karbon-14]] kanthi kasinambungan diasilaké déning sinar kosmik ing atmosfèr.<ref>{{cite news | last=Pennicott | first=Katie | date=May 10, 2001 | title=Carbon clock could show the wrong time | publisher=PhysicsWeb | url=http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2676 | accessdate=2008-01-14 | archive-date=2007-12-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215103132/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2676 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Sapérangan atom ing Bumi kanthi gawéan diasilaké déning réaktor utawa uga gegaman nuklir.<ref>{{cite news | last=Yarris | first=Lynn | date=July 27, 2001 | title=New Superheavy Elements 118 and 116 Discovered at Berkeley Lab | publisher=Berkeley Lab | url=http://enews.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/elements-116-118.html | accessdate=2008-01-14 | archive-date=2008-01-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109103538/http://enews.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/elements-116-118.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author = Diamond, H. |display-authors = etal |title = Heavy Isotope Abundances in Mike Thermonuclear Device |journal = [[Physical Review]] |year = 1960 |volume = 119 |pages = 2000–04 |url = http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v119/i6/p2000_1 |accessdate = 2008-01-14 |doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.119.2000 |format = subscription required |archive-date = 2011-11-12 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111112043731/http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v119/i6/p2000_1 |url-status = dead }}</ref> Saka kabèh [[Unsur transuranium|Unsur-unsur transuranium]] kang nomer atomé luwih gedhé saka 92, mung [[plutonium]] lan [[neptunium]] waé kang ana ing Bumi kanthi alami.<ref>{{cite web | author=Poston Sr., John W. | date=March 23, 1998 | title=Do transuranic elements such as plutonium ever occur naturally? | publisher=Scientific American | url=http://www.sciam.com/chemistry/article/id/do-transuranic-elements-s/topicID/4/catID/3 | accessdate=2008-01-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Keller | first=C. | title=Natural occurrence of lanthanides, actinides, and superheavy elements | journal=Chemiker Zeitung | year=1973 | volume=97 | issue=10 | pages=522–30 | url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4353086 | accessdate=2008-01-15 }}</ref> Unsur-unsur transuranium duwé wektu paro radhioaktif kang luwih cendhak tinimbang umur Bumi<ref>Marco (2001:17).</ref>, saéngga unsur-unsur iki wis suwé luruh. Kejaba ana ing [[plutonium-244]] kang kamungkinan kasimpen sajeroning lebu kosmik.<ref name = "Manuel_2001"/> Kandhungan alami plutonium lan neptunium diasilaké saka panyekelan neutron sajeroning bijih uranium.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.oklo.curtin.edu.au/index.cfm | title=Oklo Fossil Reactors | publisher=Curtin University of Technology | accessdate=2008-01-15 | archive-date=2007-12-18 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218194159/http://www.oklo.curtin.edu.au/index.cfm | url-status=dead }}</ref> Bumi ngandhut watara 1,33{{Esp|50}} atom.<ref>{{cite web | last=Weisenberger | first=Drew | url=http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_05.html | title=How many atoms are there in the world? | publisher=Jefferson Lab | accessdate=2008-01-16 | archive-date=2007-10-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022185850/http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_05.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Ing atmosfèr planit, ana sagunggung cilik atom [[gas mulia]] kaya déné [[argon]] lan [[neon]]. Sisa 99% atom ing atmosfèr bumi katalènan sajeroning wangun molekul, upamané [[karbon dioksida]], [[oksigèn]] [[molekul diatomik|diatomik]], lan [[nitrogen]] diatomik. Ing lumahing Bumi, atom-atom tetalènan minangka manéka jinis senyawa, ngambah [[banyu]], [[garam]], [[silikat]], lan [[oksida]]. Atom uga bisa nggabung minangka bahan-bahan kang ora kapérang saka molekul, contohné [[kristal]] lan [[logam]] padhet utawa uga cuwèr.<ref>{{cite web | last=Pidwirny | first=Michael | url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html | title=Fundamentals of Physical Geography | publisher=University of British Columbia Okanagan | accessdate=2008-01-16 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Anderson | first=Don L. | title=The inner inner core of Earth | journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | year=2002 | volume=99 | issue=22 | pages=13966–68 | url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=137819 | accessdate=2008-01-16 | doi=10.1073/pnas.232565899 | pmid=12391308 | archive-date=2013-08-01 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130801115243/http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=137819 | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Wangun téoritis lan wangun langka === [[Gambar:Island-of-Stability.png|thumb|right|400px|Panyitraan 3-Dhimènsi anané "[[Pulo stabilitas]]" ing pérangan paling tengen]] Nalika isotop kanthi nomer atom kang luwih dhuwur tinimbang [[timbal]] (62) asifat radhioaktif, ana siji "[[pulo stabilitas]]" kang diajokaké kanggo sapérangan unsur kanthi nomer atom ing sandhuwuré 103. Unsur-unsur super abot iki kamungkinan duwé inti kang kanthi rélatif stabil marang paluruhan radhioaktif.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Second postcard from the island of stability | author=Anonymous | journal=CERN Courier | date=October 2, 2001 | url=http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28509 | accessdate=2008-01-14 | archive-date=2008-02-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203031237/http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28509 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Atom super abot kang stabil iki kamungkinan gedhé iku [[unbiheksium]], kanthi 126 proton 184 neutron.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Jacoby | first=Mitch | title=As-yet-unsynthesized superheavy atom should form a stable diatomic molecule with fluorine | journal=[[Chemical & Engineering News]] | year=2006 | volume=84 | issue=10 | pages=19 | url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/84/i10/8410notw9.html | accessdate=2008-01-14 }}</ref> Saben partikel matèri duwé partikel [[antimatèri]]né dhéwé-dhéwé kanthi momotan listrik kang lelawanan. Saéngga, [[positron]] iku antièlèktron kang muatané positif, lan antiproton iku proton kang muatané négatif. Nalika matèri lan antimatèri ketemu, kaloroné bakal silih musnahaké. Ana kaoraseimbangan antarané gunggung partikel matèri lan antimatèri. Kaoraseimbangan iki isih durung dipahami kanthi nyluruh, sanajan ana téyori [[bariogenesis]] kang mènèhaké wedharan kang mungkinaké. Antimatèri ora tau tinemu kanthi alami.<ref>{{cite news | last=Koppes | first=Steve | date=March 1, 1999 | title=Fermilab Physicists Find New Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry | publisher=University of Chicago | url=http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/99/990301.ktev.shtml | accessdate=2008-01-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last=Cromie | first=William J. | date=August 16, 2001 | title=A lifetime of trillionths of a second: Scientists explore antimatter | publisher=Harvard University Gazette | url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/08.16/antimatter.html | accessdate=2008-01-14 | archive-date=2006-09-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903172020/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/08.16/antimatter.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Nanging, nalika taun 1996, [[antihidrogen]] kasil disintèsis ing laboratorium [[CERN]] ing [[Jenewa]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Hijmans | first=Tom W. | title=Particle physics: Cold antihydrogen |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year=2002 | volume=419 | pages=439–40 | doi=10.1038/419439a }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author=Staff | date=October 30, 2002 | title=Researchers 'look inside' antimatter | publisher=BBC News | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2375717.stm | accessdate=2008-01-14 }}</ref> Ana uga atom-atom langka liyané kang digawé kanthi nggantèkaké siji proton, neutron, utawa uga èlèktron karo partikel liya kang muatané padha. Minangka conto, èlèktron bisa digantèkaké karo [[muon]] kang luwih abot, minangka [[muon|atom muon]]. Jinis atom iki bisa kanggo nguji prédhiksi fisika.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Barrett | first=Roger | author2=Jackson, Daphne; Mweene, Habatwa | title=The Strange World of the Exotic Atom | journal=New Scientist | year=1990 | issue=1728 | pages=77–115 | url=http://media.newscientist.com/article/mg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html | accessdate=2008-01-04 | archive-date=2007-12-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221164440/http://media.newscientist.com/article/mg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Indelicato | first=Paul | title=Exotic Atoms | journal=[[Physica Scripta]] | year=2004 | volume=T112 | pages=20–26 | doi=10.1238/Physica.Topical.112a00020 }} </ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Ripin | first=Barrett H. | year=1998 | url=http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm.html | title=Recent Experiments on Exotic Atoms | publisher=American Physical Society | accessdate=2008-02-15 }}</ref> == Delengan uga == * [[Massa atom#Massa atom rélatif|Massa atom rélatif]] * [[Molekul]] * [[Unsur]] * [[Èlèktron]] * [[Proton]] * [[Neutron]] * [[Inti atom]] == Cathetan == <references group=catatan/> == Réferènsi == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} === Réferènsi buku === {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book | last=L'Annunziata<!-- Note: the single quote mark before the name is correct. --> | first=Michael F. | year=2003 | title=Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis | publisher=Academic Press | isbn=0124366031 | oclc=162129551 }} * {{cite book | last=Beyer | first=H. F. | author2=Shevelko, V. P. | year=2003 | title=Introduction to the Physics of Highly Charged Ions | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=0750304812 | oclc=47150433 }} * {{cite book | last=Choppin | first=Gregory R. | author2=Liljenzin, Jan-Olov; Rydberg, Jan | year=2001 | title=Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry | publisher=Elsevier | isbn=0750674636 | oclc=162592180 }} * {{cite book | first=J. | last=Dalton | authorlink=John Dalton | year=1808 | title=A New System of Chemical Philosophy, Part 1 | publisher=S. Russell | location=London and Manchester }} * {{cite book | last=Demtröder | first=Wolfgang | year=2002 | title=Atoms, Molecules and Photons: An Introduction to Atomic-Molecular-and Quantum Physics | publisher=Springer | edition=1st | isbn=3540206310 | oclc=181435713 }} * {{cite book | last=Feynman | first=Richard | year=1995 | authorlink=Richard Feynman | title=Six Easy Pieces | publisher=The Penguin Group | isbn=978-0-140-27666-4 | oclc=40499574}} * {{cite book | last=Fowles | first=Grant R. | year=1989 | title=Introduction to Modern Optics | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | isbn=0486659577 | oclc=18834711 }} * {{cite book | last=Gangopadhyaya | first=Mrinalkanti | title=Indian Atomism: History and Sources | publisher=Humanities Press | year=1981 | location=Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey | isbn=0-391-02177-X | oclc=10916778 }} * {{cite book | last=Goodstein | first=David L. | year=2002 | title=States of Matter | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | id=ISBN 0-486-49506-X }} * {{cite book | last=Harrison | first=Edward Robert | year=2003 | title=Masks of the Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0521773512 | oclc=50441595 }} * {{cite book | last= Iannone | first= A. Pablo | year=2001 | title= Dictionary of World Philosophy | publisher= Routledge | isbn=0415179955 | oclc= 44541769 }} * {{cite book | last=Jevremovic | first=Tatjana | year=2005 | title=Nuclear Principles in Engineering | publisher=Springer | isbn=0387232842 | oclc=228384008 }} * {{cite book | last=Lequeux | first=James | year=2005 | title=The Interstellar Medium | publisher=Springer | isbn=3540213260 | oclc=133157789 }} * {{cite book | last = Levere | first = Trevor, H. | year=2001 | title= Transforming Matter – A History of Chemistry for Alchemy to the Buckyball | publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press | isbn=0-8018-6610-3 }} * {{cite book | last=Liang | first=Z.-P. | author2=Haacke, E. M. | editor=Webster, J. G. | year=1999 | volume=2 | pages=412–26 | title=Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering: Magnetic Resonance Imaging | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/8734/27658/01233976.pdf?arnumber=1233976 | format=PDF | accessdate=2008-01-09 | isbn=0471139467 }} * {{cite book | last=MacGregor | first=Malcolm H. | year=1992 | title=The Enigmatic Electron | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0195218337 | oclc=223372888 }} * {{cite book | last=Manuel | first=Oliver | year=2001 | title=Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations | publisher=Springer | isbn=0306465620 | oclc=228374906 }} * {{cite book | last=Mazo | first=Robert M. | year=2002 | title=Brownian Motion: Fluctuations, Dynamics, and Applications | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0198515677 | oclc=48753074 }} * {{cite book | last=Mills | first=Ian | author2=Cvitaš, Tomislav; Homann, Klaus; Kallay, Nikola; Kuchitsu, Kozo | title=Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry | publisher=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]], Commission on Physiochemical Symbols Terminology and Units, Blackwell Scientific Publications | location=Oxford | edition=2nd | year=1993 | isbn=0-632-03583-8 | oclc=27011505 }} * {{cite book | first=Bruce T. | last=Moran | year=2005 | title=Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the Scientific Revolution | publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] | isbn=0674014952 }} * {{cite book | last=Myers | first=Richard | year=2003 | title=The Basics of Chemistry | publisher=Greenwood Press | isbn=0313316643 | oclc=50164580 }} * {{cite book | last=Padilla | first=Michael J. | author2=Miaoulis, Ioannis; Cyr, Martha | year = 2002 | title = Prentice Hall Science Explorer: Chemical Building Blocks | publisher = Prentice-Hall, Inc. | location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey USA | isbn = 0-13-054091-9 | oclc=47925884}} * {{cite book | last=Pauling | first=Linus | year=1960 | title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond | publisher=Cornell University Press | isbn=0801403332 | oclc=17518275 }} * {{cite book | last=Pfeffer | first=Jeremy I. | author2=Nir, Shlomo | year=2000 | title=Modern Physics: An Introductory Text | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=1860942504 | oclc=45900880 }} * {{cite book | last=Ponomarev | first=Leonid Ivanovich | year=1993 | title=The Quantum Dice | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=0750302518 | oclc=26853108 }} * {{cite book | last=Scerri | first=Eric R. | year=2007 | title=The Periodic Table | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0195305736 }} * {{cite book | last=Shultis | first=J. Kenneth | author2=Faw, Richard E. | title=Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering | year=2002 | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=0824708342 | oclc=123346507 }} * {{cite book | last=Siegfried | first=Robert | year=2002 | title=From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition | publisher=DIANE | isbn=0871699249 | oclc=186607849 }} * {{cite book | last=Sills | first=Alan D. | year=2003 | title=Earth Science the Easy Way | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | isbn=0764121464 | oclc=51543743 }} * {{cite book | last=Smirnov | first=Boris M. | year=2003 | title=Physics of Atoms and Ions | publisher=Springer | id=ISBN 0-387-95550-X }} * {{cite book | last=Teresi | first=Dick | publisher=Simon & Schuster | title=Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science | year=2003 | isbn=074324379X | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pheL_ubbXD0C&dq | pages=213–214 }} * {{cite book | last=Various | editor=Lide, David R. | year=2002 | title=Handbook of Chemistry & Physics | edition=88th | publisher=CRC | url=http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/ | accessdate=2008-05-23 | isbn=0849304865 | oclc=179976746 | archive-date=2017-07-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724011402/http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/ | url-status=dead }} * {{cite book | last=Woan | first=Graham | year=2000 | title=The Cambridge Handbook of Physics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0521575079 | oclc=224032426 }} * {{cite book | first=Charles Adolphe | last=Wurtz | year=1881 | title=The Atomic Theory | publisher=D. Appleton and company | location=New York }} * {{cite book | last=Zaider | first=Marco | author2=Rossi, Harald H. | year=2001 | title=Radiation Science for Physicians and Public Health Workers | publisher=Springer | isbn=0306464039 | oclc=44110319 }} * {{cite book | last=Zumdahl | first=Steven S. | year=2002 | title=Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation | edition=5th | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | url=http://college.hmco.com/chemistry/intro/zumdahl/intro_chemistry/5e/students/protected/periodictables/pt/pt/pt_ar5.html | accessdate=2008-02-05 | isbn=0-618-34342-3 | oclc=173081482 }} {{refend}} == Pranala njaba == {{Commons|Atom}} * {{cite web | last=Francis | first=Eden | year=2002 | url=http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-07/atomic_size.htm | title=Atomic Size | publisher=Clackamas Community College | accessdate=2007-01-09 | archive-date=2007-02-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204073653/http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-07/atomic_size.htm | url-status=dead }} * {{cite web | last=Freudenrich | first=Craig C. | url=http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm | title=How Atoms Work | publisher=How Stuff Works | accessdate=2007-01-09 }} * {{cite web | url=http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics_Atom:The_Atom | work=Free High School Science Texts: Physics | title=Atom:The Atom | publisher=Wikibooks | accessdate=2007-01-09 | archive-date=2006-06-13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613210720/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics_Atom:The_Atom | url-status=dead }} * {{cite web | author=Anonymous | year=2007 | url=http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/basics/theatom.html | title=The atom | publisher=Science aid+ | accessdate=2007-01-09 | archive-date=2011-07-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722164749/http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/basics/theatom.html | url-status=dead }} * {{cite web | author=Anonymous | date=2006-01-03 | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6672963 | title=Atoms and Atomic Structure | publisher=BBC | accessdate=2007-01-11 }} * {{cite web | author=Various | date=2006-01-03 | url=http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl?Type=TOC | title=Physics 2000, Table of Contents | publisher=University of Colorado | accessdate=2008-01-11 }} * {{cite web | author=Various | date=2006-02-03 | url=http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html | title=What does an atom look like? | publisher=University of Karlsruhe | accessdate=2008-05-12 | archive-date=2010-04-17 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417023635/http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html | url-status=dead }} {{artikel pilihan}} [[Kategori:Kimiya]] [[Kategori:Atom| ]] n4nmoca7evudc6sensn7gxqsvrnqp23 Miyeokguk 0 78417 1752826 1615535 2026-08-19T13:32:33Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752826 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Korean soup-Miyeokguk-01.jpg|thumb|right|Miyeokguk, sup rumput laut.]] '''Miyeokguk''' utawa '''sup miyeok''' (미역국) ya iku [[sup]] kas [[Koréa]] kang digawé saka [[miyeok]] ([[rumput laut]] coklat;[[Undaria pinnatifida]]).<ref name="miyokguk">{{cite book | last= | first= | year=2002 | title=An Illustrated Guide to Korean Culture - 233 traditional key words| publisher=Hakgojae Publishing Co| location=Seoul | isbn= 89-8546-98-1 | pages=25}}</ref> Sup miyeok digawé saka godhokan [[kaldu]] [[balung]] [[sapi]] lan diwènèhi [[kecap]].<ref name="miyokguk"/> [[Miyeok]] Koréa kang diasilake saka laut duwé kuwalitas apik lan biyaane dipangan nalika garing.<ref name="miyokguk"/> Tradisine wong Koréa mènèhi sup rumput laut marang [[ibu]] kang lagi [[nglairaké]] amarga dipercaya miyeok ngandhut bahan kang bisa nambah kandhutan [[asi]].<ref name="miyokguk"/> Saliyané iku tradisi mangan sup miyeok uga ditindakake nalika [[ulang taun]].<ref name="miyokguk"/><ref>[http://www.lifeinkorea.com/food/Food.cfm?Subject=guk#Miyeok-guk Korean Food: Soups] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509023450/http://www.lifeinkorea.com/Food/Food.cfm?Subject=guk#Miyeok-guk |date=2013-05-09 }}, ''lifeinkorea''. Diundhuh tanggal 3 Juni 2010.</ref> Biyèn bapak [[mertua]] kang ngenteni putune lair bakal tuku miyeok kang paling apik ing pasar.<ref name="miyokguk"/> Wujud miyeok kang dawa lan amba ya iku kang paling digoleki.<ref name="miyokguk"/> Sawisé tuku dhèwèké bakal gawa bali miyeok mau kanthi dipikul ing [[geger]] nganggo tali [[dami]] supaya ora remuk.<ref name="miyokguk"/> Tali dami dipercaya bisa nangkal gangguan arwah jahat.<ref name="miyokguk"/> Saliyané iku, yèn miyeok mau tugel calon ibu bakal kesusahan nglairaké anaké.<ref name="miyokguk"/> == Uga delengen == * [[Sup rumput laut]] * [[Miyeok]] * [[Nori]] == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Olah-olahan Koréa]] [[Kategori:Sup]] {{makanan-stub}} c29xqdrecbxoc1nsjm5lae10417dytw Theloderma corticale 0 79060 1752924 1660560 2026-08-20T05:05:33Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752924 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{Taxobox | name = ''Theloderma corticale'' | image = Theloderma corticale (2).jpg | image_caption = ''Theloderma corticale'' | status = DD | status_system = IUCN3.1 | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Amphibia]] | ordo = [[Anura]] | familia = [[Rhacophoridae]] | genus = ''[[Theloderma]]'' | species = '''''T. corticale''''' | binomial = ''Theloderma corticale'' | binomial_authority = ([[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1903) | synonyms = ''Rhacophorus corticalis'' Boulenger, 1903</div><div>''Rhacophorus fruhstorferi'' Ahl, 1927}} '''''Theloderma corticale''''' kodhok [[lumut]] [[Vietnam]], ya iku [[spésies]] [[kodhok]] ing [[kulawarga]] [[Rhacophoridae]]. [[Kodhog]] iki tinemu [[Vietnam]] lan [[Cina]].<ref name="polly">[http://www.pollywog.co.uk/care-sheets-and-gallery/theloderma-corticale.html, Tillson-Willis 2008.]{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Diundhuh tanggal 12 Juni 2010</ref> [[Habitat]] [[alam]]e [[subtropis]] utawa [[alas]] [[dataran]] [[cendhèk]] [[tropis]] kang [[lembab]], urip ing [[banyu]] [[tawar]], lan [[laladan]] wewatu.<ref name="polly"/> Jeneng umum saka [[kodhok]] [[lumut]] kawiwitan saka kasunyatan yèn [[kulit]]e duwé bintik-bintik [[ijo]] lan [[ireng]] kaya le[[lumut]]an kang urip ing watu, lan wujudé kang efektif kamuflase utawa panyamaran.<ref name="polly"/> == Deskripsi == Jeneng [[kodhok]] [[lumut]] iki kawiwitan saka anané kasunyatan yèn [[kulit]] saka kodhok duwé warna [[ijo]] [[lurik]]-lurik lan [[coklat]] kang kaya [[lumut]] [[urip]] ing dhuwur [[watu]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Caldwell, J.P. |title= The evolution of myrmecophagy and its correlates in poison frogs (Family Dendrobatidae). |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-zoology_1996-09_240_1/page/75 |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=240 |year=1996 |pages=75–101}}</ref> Kodhok-kodhok mau duwé bantalan pliket kang gedhé padha [[sikil]]e lan [[weteng]]e kang alus.<ref name="polly"/> Kaya [[kodhok]]-kodhok [[wit]] liyané, padha karo [[kodhok]] [[wadon]] [[jinis]] iki ngrembakane luwih gedhé tinimbang [[kodhok]] lanang.<ref name="polly"/> Nalika kodhok iki ngrembaka, gedhene awak bisa ngancik 7–8&nbsp;cm.<ref name="polly"/> Kodhok [[lumut]] iki ya iku panganane [[gegremet]] kaya ta [[jangkrik]], [[walang]], [[coro]], [[cacing]], lan [[laler]].<ref name=EoR>{{cite book |editor=Cogger, H.G. & Zweifel, R.G.|author= Zweifel, Robert G.|year=1998|title=Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians|publisher= Academic Press|location=San Diego|pages= 95–97|isbn= 0-12-178560-2}}</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Spesies sing bakal cures]] {{stub}} q0yjvxbreko7edlkx2e2ktgrod54ybh Unadon 0 79232 1752861 1591037 2026-08-20T03:28:06Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752861 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Tokyo Chikuyotei Unadon01s2100.jpg|thumb|Unadon うな丼]] {{nihongo|'''Unadon''' atau '''unagidonburi'''|鰻丼}} ya iku [[masakan Jepang]] awujud [[sega]] kang diwènèhi ''unagi'' (sidat Jepang) kang dimasak kanthi cara ''[[kabayaki]]''. Ing ndhuwure sega digebyur saus (''tare'') kang rasané legi supaya sedhep. Sadurungé dipangan, ing ndhuwure unadon diwènèhi bubuk [[andaliman]] sithik. Saos digawé saka campuran [[gula pasir]] lan [[kecap asin]], sanajan padatan uga ditambah campuran liya. Andaliman (jeneng Jepang:''sanshō'') diwurake ing sandhuwure unadon kanggo ngilangi ambu [[amonia]] kang kadhang-kadhang metu saka [[daging]] sidat Jepang kang akèh [[gajih]]e. Bubuk andaliman uga bisa ngelongi ambu gajih. Ing set menu ing restoran, unagi kabayaki utawa unadon padatan disuguhake bebarengan karo sup bening (''kimosui'') kang isiné [[ati]] sidat Jepang. Ana uga cara nyuguhake unagi kang dijenengi dhedhasar karo wadhahe. Sega lan unagi kang disuguhake ing sajeroning kothak ''[[jibako]]'' diarani ''unajū''.<ref>{{cite web |title=うな重とうな丼、違いは名前と器だけ？ |url=http://www.excite.co.jp/News/bit/00091184601035.html |publisher=Excite Bit |access-date=2011-08-24 |archive-date=2023-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521234050/http://www.excite.co.jp/News/bit/00091184601035.html |url-status=dead }} Diakses tanggal 26 Juli 2010</ref> Dibandingake ''unadon'', ''unajū'' nduwé citra minangka panganan larang. Ing [[Nagoya]] lan sakupenge ana masakan jenenge [[hitsumabushi]]. [[File:小川菊鰻魚飯 (49287165332).jpg|thumb|Unaju]] Unagi kabayaki diprecaya minangka panganan kang nduwé gizi kanggo nambah stamina sadawaning [[mangsa panas]] ing Jepang. Unagi kabayaki akèh dipangan ing dina ''[[Doyō no Ushi]]'' mangsa panas (watara minggu kaping telu sasi [[Juli]]). == Uga delengen == * [[Donburi]] ==Cathetan suku== {{reflist}} {{Commons category|Unadon}} [[Kategori:Olah-olahan Jepang]] {{panganan-stub}} 5s6q6289w7z7eur92zlwzkajc3wnn1e Kodhok awisa 0 79336 1752997 1742830 2026-08-20T07:35:41Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752997 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Katak beracun | image = Blue-poison.dart.frog.and.Yellow-banded.dart.frog.arp.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Dendrobates azureus]]'' (top) and ''[[Dendrobates leucomelas]]'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Amphibia]] | ordo = [[Anura]] | subordo = [[Neobatrachia]] | superfamilia = [[Dendrobatoidea]] | familia = '''Dendrobatidae''' | familia_authority = [[Edward Drinker Cope|Cope]], 1865 | range_map = Dendrobatidae range.PNG| range_map_caption = Distribution of Dendrobatidae (in black) | subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies and genera | subdivision = *Colostethinae ** ''[[Ameerega]]'' ** ''[[Colostethus]]'' ** ''[[Epipedobates]]'' ** ''[[Silverstoneia]]'' * Dendrobatinae ** ''[[Adelphobates]]'' ** ''[[Dendrobates]]'' ** ''[[Minyobates]]'' ** ''[[Oophaga]]'' ** ''[[Phyllobates]]'' ** ''[[Ranitomeya]]''<!-- Zootaxa1823:1,1857:66. --> * Hyloxalinae ** ''[[Hyloxalus]]'' }} '''Kodhok awisa''' ya iku jeneng umum saka seklompok [[kodhok]] ing [[kulawarga]] [[Dendrobatidae]] kang minangka [[kodhok]] asli [[Amérika Tengah]] lan [[Amérika Kidul|Kidul]].<ref name="myers">{{cite journal|author=Myers, C. W., J. W. Daly, and B. Malkin|pages=307–366}}</ref> == Karakteristik == Ora kaya [[kodhok]] umum liyané, [[spésies]] kang aktif ing wayah awan, lan kerep nuduhake [[awake]]e kanthi warna kang cerah.<ref name="amphibiaweb1">{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Dendrobatidae.shtml |title=AmphibiaWeb-Dendrobatidae |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |date= |accessdate=2008-10-10}}</ref> Sanajan kabèh [[dendrobatids]] rada be[[racun]] ing [[alam]] alasan, tingkat [[toksisitas]] warna-warna saka siji [[spésies]] lan liyané, lan saka siji [[populasi]]liyané. Akèh [[spésies]] kang kritis lan terancam [[cures]].<ref>{{cite book|pages=92|isbn=0131008498|author=F. Harvey Pough...|year=2004|publisher=Pearson/Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|title=Herpetology|title=}}</ref>[[Amfibi]] iki kerep diarani [[kodhok panah]] déning [[pribumi]] [[indian]] akibat panggunaan [[sekresi]] beracun kanggo ngracuni pucuk [[panah]]e.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Caldwell, J.P. |title= The evolution of myrmecophagy and its correlates in poison frogs (Family Dendrobatidae). |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-zoology_1996-09_240_1/page/75 |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=240 |year=1996 |pages=75–101}}</ref> Akèh-akèhé [[kodhok]] jinis iki duwé ukuran [[awak]] kang gedhéné 1,2 [[cm]] kanggo [[kodhok]] diwasa, sanajan ana [[kodhok]] kang ukurané nganti 6&nbsp;cm.<ref name=EoR>{{cite book |editor=Cogger, H.G. & Zweifel, R.G.|author= Zweifel, Robert G.|year=1998|title=Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians|publisher= Academic Press|location=San Diego|pages= 95–97|isbn= 0-12-178560-2}}</ref> Bobot awake rata-rata 2 [[gram]]. [[Kodhok]] iki saliyané wernane padhang uga nuduhake [[pola]] [[aposematik]] kanggo nuduhake [[pemangsa]] potensial. Werna padhange gegayutan karo kodhok iki lan tingkat [[toksisitas]] [[alkaloid]].<ref>{{cite journal |quote= |author=Kristiina Hurme, Kittzie Gonzalez, Mark Halvorsen, Bruce Foster, and Don Moore |date= |year=2003 |title=Environmental Enrichment for Dendrobatid Frogs |journal=Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=285–299 |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. |location= |pmc= |doi=10.1207/s15327604jaws0604_3 |pmid=14965783}}</ref> [[Kodhok]] spésies [[Dendrobates]] duwé tingkat alkaloid, déné [[spésies]] [[Colostethus]] wernane samar-samar lan ora beracun.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/names.php?taxon=&family=Dendrobatidae&subfamily=&genus=&commname=&authority=&year=&geo=0&dist=&comment= |title=Amphibian Species of the World |publisher=The American Museum of Natural History |date= |accessdate=2008-10-10}}</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == {{wikispecies|Dendrobatidae}} * [http://www.dartden.com The Dart Den] * [http://www.dendrobates.org Dendrobates.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417225737/https://www.dendrobates.org/ |date=2019-04-17 }}-ecology, evolution and conservation of poison frogs * [http://www.dartfrog.tk Dartfrog.tk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715211405/http://www.dartfrog.tk/ |date=2021-07-15 }} * [http://www.dendroworld.co.uk Dendroworld Forum] * [http://www.topicjax.com/poison-arrow-frog-facts Poison Arrow Frog Facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106164528/http://www.topicjax.com/poison-arrow-frog-facts |date=2010-01-06 }} * [http://frognet.org Frognet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801132422/http://frognet.org/ |date=2015-08-01 }}-mailing list for Dendrobatid hobbyists] [[Kategori:Spesies sing bakal cures]] {{kéwan-stub}} diof4zzps8wqrq9i3ie0cu1zep4v0nq Spesies jroning bebaya cures 0 79508 1752845 1732405 2026-08-20T00:23:01Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Status konsèrvasi}} [[Gambar:Panthera_tigris_sumatran_subspecies.jpg|thumb|right|310px|[[Macan Sumatra]], status konsèrvasi: kritis]] '''Spesies sajeroning bebaya''' ([[basa Indonésia]]: '''Spesies terancam''' iku populasi makluk urip ([[spésies]] utawa [[subspesies kapisah déning évolusi]]) sing ana sajeroning risiko [[spésies cures|kapunahan]] amarga cacahé mung sethithik, utawa bisa cures akibat owah-owahan kondhisi alam utawa kéwan pamangsa. Spesies sing kalebu sajeroning pratélan spésies sajeroning bebaya malah kerep digolèki kolèktor gelap. <ref>{{cite web | last = Courchamp | first = Franck | authorlink = | coauthors = Elena Angulo, Philippe Rivalan, Richard J. Hall, Laetitia Signoret, Leigh Bull, Yves Meinard | title = Rarity Value and Species Extinction: The Anthropogenic Allee Effect | work = | publisher = PLoS Biology | date = | url = http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040415 | format = | doi = | access-date = 19 Dhésèmber 2006 }}</ref> Dampak seperti ini bisa dikurangi dengan melakukan penangkaran spésies terancam. Seperti di [[Républik Rakyat Cina]], penangkaran penyu berhasil mengurangi [[perburuan gelap]] terhadap spésies terancam. <ref>{{cite web | last = Dharmananda | first = Subhuti | authorlink = | title = Endangered Species issues affecting turtles and tortoises used in chinese medicine. | work = | publisher = Institute for Traditional Medicine, Portland, Oregon | date = | url = http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040415 | format = | doi = | access-date = 19 Dhésèmber 2006 }}</ref> == Rujukan kaki == <div class="references-small"> {{reflist}} </div> == Pranala njaba == * Organisasi ** [http://www.wwf.or.id/ WWF-Indonésia] ** [http://www.conservation.or.id/ Conservation International Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070201235336/http://www.conservation.or.id/ |date=2007-02-01 }} ** [http://www.terangi.or.id/ Yayasan Terumbu Karang Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903153722/http://www.terangi.or.id/ |date=2011-09-03 }} ** [http://www.profauna.or.id/ ProFauna Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060417152617/http://profauna.or.id/ |date=2006-04-17 }} ** [http://www.jurnalcelebes.com/ Jaringan Jurnalis Advokasi Lingkungan] ** [http://www.iucn.org/ The World Conservation Union (IUCN)] ** [http://www.biodiv.org/default.shtml Konvensi tentang Keanekaragaman Hayati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829232148/http://www.biodiv.org/default.shtml |date=2006-08-29 }} ** [http://www.cbsg.org/index.php Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, IUCN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219014509/http://www.cbsg.org/index.php |date=2008-02-19 }} ** [http://www.panda.org/ The World Wide Fund for Nature] * Lapuran ** [http://www.cbsg.org/reports/mammals.php Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, IUCN: CBSG “PHVA” Reports (Laporan Penilaian Kelayakan Habitat dan Populasi)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219014514/http://www.cbsg.org/reports/mammals.php |date=2008-02-19 }} ** [http://www.eswr.com Endangered Species & Wetlands Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713215604/http://www.eswr.com/ |date=2019-07-13 }} Buletin tentang ''Endangered Species Act'' dan lahan basah ** [http://www.esasuccess.org/reports/ Kisah sukses ''Endangered Species Act''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210193041/http://www.esasuccess.org/reports/ |date=2010-02-10 }} ** [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=endangered+species&search_crit=subject&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Laporan Congressional Research Service (CRS) tentang spesies terancam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422032550/http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=endangered+species&search_crit=subject&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form |date=2008-04-22 }} * Basis data ** U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. [http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSWebpage Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS)] ** [http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html Basis data CITES] ** [http://www.earthsendangered.com Spesies terancam menurut bawana, wewengkon, dan nagara] * Konsèrvasi spésies terancam ** [http://www.awdconservancy.org/ Konsèrvasi Anjing Liar Afrika] ** [http://www.sundarbanstigerproject.info Proyek Harimau Sundarbans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618073345/http://www.sundarbanstigerproject.info/ |date=2009-06-18 }} ** [http://www.sinapu.org/ Karnivora asli di selatan Pegunungan Rocky] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928154153/http://www.sinapu.org/ |date=2006-09-28 }} ** [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1391/science_technology/endangered_species/ CBC Digital Archives] Spesies terancam di Kanada * Artikel dan buku ** [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/endangered-species Everything you wanted to know about endangered species] Situs majalah ''[[New Scientist]]''. ** [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4013719.stm "Science counts species on brink"]. (Nov 17, 2004). ''BBC News''. ** [http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/Titlpage.htm ''Biodiversity and Conservation''] Buku online olèh Peter J. Bryant ** [http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/T0559E/T0559E00.htm#TOC ''In situ conservation of livestock and poultry''] Buku online FAO [[Kategori:Konsèrvasi]] [[Kategori:Spesies sajeroning bebaya| ]] tl2t3n1jeuiicvjaf2dqiu6y145xo9g Supermassive Black Hole 0 79876 1753028 1614790 2026-08-20T08:28:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753028 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:supermassiveblackhole.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Supermassive Black Hole'']] "'''Supermassive Black Hole'''" ya iku lagu saka band [[rock alternatif]] saka [[Inggris]], [[Muse (grup musik)|Muse]] ana ing album kaping papat saka muse [[Black Holes & Revelations]].<ref name="muse"> {{cite journal |last=Schödel |first=R. |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2002 |title=A star in a 15.2-year orbit around the supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-10-17_419_6908/page/694 |journal=Nature |volume=419 |issue=6908 |pages=694–696 |doi=10.1038/nature01121 |pmid=12384690 |arxiv = astro-ph/0210426 |bibcode = 2002Natur.419..694S }}</ref><ref> {{Cite journal | last = Antonucci| first = R. | year = 1993 | title = Unified Models for Active Galactic Nuclei and Quasars | journal = Annual Reviews in Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 473–521 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002353 |bibcode = 1993ARA&A..31..473A }}</ref><ref name="black"> {{Cite journal | last = Urry| first = C. | last2= Padovani |first2=P. | year = 1995 | title = Unified Schemes for Radio-Loud Active Galactic Nuclei | journal = Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific | volume = 107 | pages = 803–845 | doi = 10.1086/133630 |arxiv = astro-ph/9506063 |bibcode = 1995PASP..107..803U }}</ref> Nalika dirilis dadi single ana ing sasi Juni 2006 karo B-side Crying Shame, lagu iki bisa mapan ing posisi 4 ing [[UK Singles Chart]].<ref name="muse"/> Lagu iki uga digunakaké ana ing filem [[Twilight (filem 2008)|Twilight]] ing lapangan [[bisbol]] nalika adegan main bisbol lan mmlebu ana ing soundtracke.<ref name="muse"/> Nalika tanggal 8 Mèi 2008, lagu iki dirilis dadi konten download kanggo [[Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock]] bareng karo [[Stockholm Syndrome]] lan Exo-Politics.<ref name="muse"/> Lagu iki uga metu ana ing [[FIFA 07]] nganggo versi gitar lewih terdistrosi.<ref name="nole">{{cite web |publisher=[[MuseWiki]] |title=Supermassive Black Hole (song) |year=2010 |url=http://www.musewiki.org/Supermassive_Black_Hole_(song) |accessdate=2010-02-26 }}</ref> Nalika taun 2006 lagu iki uga digunakaké ana ing sapérangan episode ing serial TV [[Supernatural (serial televisi)|Supernatural]].<ref name="black"/> Lagu iki dicover déning band progressive metal saka Inggris, Threshold nalika taun 2007 ana ing albume Dead Reckoning, kang didadèkaké bonus lagu.<ref name="black"/> [[Matthew Bellamy|Matthew]] (vokalis, gitaris lan kang ngréka lagu Muse) ngomong yèn lagu iku paling berbeda karo lagu-lagu kang sadurungé.<ref name="black"/> Prabawa lagu iku saka [[The Beatles]], [[Millionaire]], [[dEUS]], [[Evil Superstars]] lan [[Soulwax]].<ref name="black"/> Dhèwèké uga nambahake bit saka [[Prince]] lan [[Kanye West]].<ref name="black"/> == Rilis == Supermassive Black Hole dirilis dadi ''lead single'' saka album Black Hole & Revelations ing nagara [[Inggris]] nalika tanggal 19 Juni 2006 ana ing wujud vinyl, CD, DVD lan uga download.<ref name="nole"/> Lagu iki mapan ana ing posisi nomer 4 ing UK singles Chart, kang ndadèkaké single iki populer ana ing Inggris.<ref name="nole"/> Ana ing nagara Amérikah Sarékat single iki mapan ana ing posisi nomer 6 ing Billboard Alternative Songs, kang ndadèkaké single iki dadi paling dhuwur nomer lima ing AS sawisé "[[Starlight]]", "[[Uprising]]", "[[Resistance]]" lan "[[Undisclosed Desires]]".<ref name="nole"/> == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Singel Muse]] [[Kategori:Lagu]] {{Stub}} bbxu9ko1qrkvcmvv0blx99z8riqeo60 Proxima Centauri 0 81979 1752900 1744463 2026-08-20T04:37:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 4 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Starbox begin | name=Proxima Centauri }} {{Starbox image | image = [[Gambar:Position from Proxima Centauri.png|250px]] | caption = Posisi Proxima Centauri }} {{Starbox observe | epoch=[[J2000.0]] | equinox=[[J2000.0]] ([[International Celestial Reference System|ICRS]]) | constell = [[Centaurus]] | ra = {{RA|14|29|42.9487}}<ref name="SIMBAD">{{cite web | url =http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=proxima%20centauri | title =SIMBAD query result: V* V645 Cen -- Flare Star | publisher =Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | accessdate = 2008-08-11 }}—some of the data is located under "Measurements".</ref> | dec = {{DEC|−62|40|46.141}}<ref name="SIMBAD" /> | appmag_v = 11,05<ref name="SIMBAD" /> }} {{Starbox character | class=M5.5&nbsp;Ve<ref name="SIMBAD" /> | b-v=1,90<ref name="SIMBAD" /> | u-b=1,43<ref name="SIMBAD" /> | variable=[[Lintang suar]] }} {{Starbox astrometry | radial_v=−21,7&nbsp;±&nbsp;1,8<ref name=aaa379>{{cite journal | last=García-Sánchez | first=J. | author2=Weissman, P. R.; Preston, R. A.; Jones, D. L.; Lestrade, J.-F.; Latham, D. W.; Stefanik, R. P.; Paredes, J. M. | title=Stellar encounters with the solar system | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | year=2001 | volume=379 | pages=634–659 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001A&A...379..634G | accessdate=2008-06-12 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20011330 }}</ref> | prop_mo_ra=−3775,40<ref name="SIMBAD" /> | prop_mo_dec=769,33<ref name="SIMBAD" /> | parallax=768.7 | p_error=0.3 | parallax_footnote=<ref name="apj118" /> | absmag_v=15,49<ref name="abs_mag">{{cite journal | last=Kamper | first=K. W. | author2=Wesselink, A. J. | title=Alpha and Proxima Centauri | journal=Astronomical Journal | year=1978 | volume=83 | pages=1653–1659 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978AJ.....83.1653K | accessdate=2008-08-03 | doi=10.1086/112378 }}</ref> }} {{Starbox detail | age=4,85{{Esp|9}}<ref name="ESO2003">{{cite news | author=Kervella, Pierre; Thevenin, Frederic | title=A Family Portrait of the Alpha Centauri System: VLT Interferometer Studies the Nearest Stars | publisher=ESO | date=2003-03-15 | url=http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/press-rel/pr-2003/pr-05-03.html | accessdate=2007-07-09 | archive-date=2008-06-16 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616125016/http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/press-rel/pr-2003/pr-05-03.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> | metal=<!-- assumed to be the same as Alpha Cen A/B --> | mass=0,123&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,006<ref name=aaa397>{{cite journal | last=Ségransan | first=D. | author2=Kervella, P.; Forveille, T.; Queloz, D. | title=First radius measurements of very low mass stars with the VLTI | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | year=2003 | volume=397 | pages=L5–L8 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003A&A...397L...5S | accessdate=2008-08-07 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20021714 }}</ref> | radius=0,145&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,011<ref name=aaa397/> | rotation=83,5&nbsp;hari<ref>{{cite journal | author=Benedict, G. Fritz | display-authors = etal | title=Photometry of Proxima Centauri and Barnard's Star Using Hubble Space Telescope Fine Guidance Sensor 3: A Search for Periodic Variations | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=1998 | volume=116 | issue=1 | pages=429–439 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AJ....116..429B | accessdate=2007-07-09 | doi=10.1086/300420 }}</ref> | luminosity_bolometric=0,0017<ref name=lbol>See Table 1, {{cite journal | last=Doyle | first=J. G. | author2=Butler, C. J. | title=Optical and infrared photometry of dwarf M and K stars | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomy-and-astrophysics_1990-08_235_1-2/page/335 | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | year=1990 | volume=235 | pages=335–339 | bibcode=1990A&A...235..335D}} and p. 57, {{cite book | title=Principles of Physical Cosmology | last=Peebles | first=P. J. E. | year=1993 | location=Princeton, New Jersey | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=0691019339 }}</ref> | temperature=3,042&nbsp;±&nbsp;117<ref name=aaa397/> | gravity=5,20&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,23<ref name=aaa397/> }} {{Starbox catalog | names = [[Bayer designation|Alpha Centauri C]], [[Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars|CCDM]]&nbsp;J14396-6050C, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]]&nbsp;3278.00, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]]&nbsp;551, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]]&nbsp;70890, [[Luyten Five-Tenths catalogue|LFT]]&nbsp;1110, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue|LHS]]&nbsp;49, [[Luyten Proper-Motion catalogue|LPM]]&nbsp;526, [[Luyten Two-Tenths catalogue|LTT]]&nbsp;5721, [[New Luyten Two-Tenths catalogue|NLTT]]&nbsp;37460, [[Variable star designation|V645 Centauri]]<ref name="SIMBAD" /> }} {{Starbox reference | Simbad = V645+Cen | ARICNS = <!--Code--> }} {{Starbox end}} '''Proxima Centauri'''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.jact.org/subjects/vocablist.htm | title=Latin Resources | publisher=Joint Association of Classical Teachers | accessdate=2007-07-15 | archive-date=2007-07-08 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708174244/http://www.jact.org/subjects/vocablist.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> iku [[lintang]] kate abang kang manggon adohé 4,2 taun cahya (3,97{{e|13}} km). Lintang iki ana ing rasi lintang [[Centaurus]]. Proxima Centauri tinemu nalika taun 1915 déning Robert Innes, Dirèktur Observatorium Union ing [[Afrika Kidul|Aprikah Kidul]]. Lintang iki wujud lintang paling cerak saka [[srengéngé]],<ref name="ESO2003">{{cite news | author=Kervella, Pierre; Thevenin, Frederic | title=A Family Portrait of the Alpha Centauri System: VLT Interferometer Studies the Nearest Stars | publisher=ESO | date=2003-03-15 | url=http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/press-rel/pr-2003/pr-05-03.html | accessdate=2007-07-09 | archive-date=2008-06-16 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616125016/http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/press-rel/pr-2003/pr-05-03.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> sanajan mbleret banget kanggo dideleng nganggo mata langsung. Leté menyang lintang paling cerak kaloro lan katelu (kang tatalaku [[lintang gandha]] [[Alpha Centauri]]) yaiku 0,237&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,011&nbsp;taun cahya (15.000&nbsp;±&nbsp;700 ékan astronomi).<ref name="apj132">{{cite journal | author=Wertheimer, Jeremy G.; Laughlin, Gregory | title=Are Proxima and α Centauri Gravitationally Bound? | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=2006 | volume=132 | issue=5 | pages=1995–1997 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006astro.ph..7401W | accessdate=2007-07-09 | doi = 10.1086/507771 }}</ref> Proxima Centauri kamungkinan wujud péranganing tatalaku lintang telu bebarengan karo Alpha Centauri A lan B. Amarga kacerakané, dhiameter pojok lintang iki bisa diukur kanthi langsung, yaiku watara 1/7 saka srengéngé.<ref name="ESO2003"/> Bobot isen Proxima Centauri diprakirakaké watara 1/8 saka srengéngé, sauntara rata-rata bobot jinisé watara kaping 40é srengéngé.<ref group="nb" name="density" /> Sanajan duwé drajat luminositas kang asor, Proxima iku lintang suar kang ngalami paningkatan kacerahan minangka akibat saka kamobahan mahnitjati.<ref name=apj612>{{cite journal | last=Christian | first=D. J. | author2=Mathioudakis, M.; Bloomfield, D. S.; Dupuis, J.; Keenan, F. P. | title=A Detailed Study of Opacity in the Upper Atmosphere of Proxima Centauri | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | year=2004 | volume=612 | issue=2 | pages=1140–1146 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ApJ...612.1140C | accessdate=2008-06-13 | doi=10.1086/422803 }}</ref> Médhan mahnit lintang iki kawangun liwat [[konvèksi]] ing badan lintang, lan marakake kamobahan semburan kang ngetokaké piwetu sinar X.<ref name=apj547/> Pacampuran "bahan obong" ing inti Proxima Centauri liwat konvèksi lan drajat prodhuksi ènèrgi lintang kang rélatif asor nuduhaké yèn lintang iki kamungkinan bakal tetep dadi lintang [[dhèrèt utama]] suwéné patang trilyun taun sabanjuré.<ref name=adams/><ref name="NASA">{{cite web | author=Dunkley, J. | display-authors = etal | title = Five-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Data Processing, Sky Maps, and Basic Results | url =http://arxiv.org/abs/0803.0586 | publisher=NASA | accessdate=2008-03-06 }}</ref> Panggolèkan bandha langit pangiring Proxima Centauri ora olèh kasil. Kamungkinan anané [[katé coklat]] lan [[raksasa gas|raseksa gas]] wis dibusak.<ref name="aaal344">{{cite journal | author=Kürster, M. | display-authors = etal | title=Precise radial velocities of Proxima Centauri. Strong constraints on a substellar companion | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics Letters | year=1999 | volume=344 | pages=L5–L8 | url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9903010v1 | bibcode=1999A&A...344L...5K | accessdate=2008-12-19 }}</ref> Drajat kamobahan lintang nambah riricuh marang pangukuran karikatan radhial, saéngga matesi prospèk panemon objèk pangorbit.<ref name="Saar 1997 319–326">{{cite journal | last=Saar | first=Steven H. | author2=Donahue, Robert A. | title=Activity-related Radial Velocity Variation in Cool Stars | journal=Astrophysical Journal | year=1997 | volume=485 | pages=319–326 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997ApJ...485..319S | accessdate=2008-07-11 | doi=10.1086/304392 }}</ref><ref name=apj119/> Paninjoan [[karikatan radhial]] uga nyingkiraké kamungkinan anané [[bumi super]] ing [[zona layak huni|laladan pantes panggon]] Proxima Centauri.<ref name=tarter>{{cite journal | author=Tarter, Jill C. | display-authors = etal | title=A Reappraisal of The Habitability of Planets around M Dwarf Stars | journal=Astrobiology | year=2007 | volume=7 | issue=1 | pages=30–65 | doi=10.1089/ast.2006.0124 | pmid=17407403 }}</ref><ref name=Khodachenko>{{cite journal | author=Khodachenko, Maxim L. | display-authors = etal | title=Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) Activity of Low Mass M Stars as An Important Factor for The Habitability of Terrestrial Exoplanets. I. CME Impact on Expected Magnetospheres of Earth-Like Exoplanets in Close-In Habitable Zones | journal=Astrobiology | year=2007 | volume=7 | issue=1 | pages=167–184 | doi=10.1089/ast.2006.0127 | pmid=17407406 }}</ref><ref name="aaa488">{{cite journal|title=Toward detection of terrestrial planets in the habitable zone of our closest neighbor: Proxima Centauri|author=Endl, M. and Kürster, M.|year=2008|journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]|volume=488|issue=3|pages=1149–1153|doi=10.1051/0004-6361:200810058|bibcode=2008A&A...488.1149E}}</ref><ref group="nb" name="m_sin_i">Sabeneré ana watesan marang pangaji ''m'' sin ''i'', karo i yaiku pojok antarané garis normal orbit karo garis deleng. Yèn orbit planit cerak karo ''face-on'' kaya déné dideleng saka Bumi, planit-planit kang luwih masif bisa lolos saka pandhètèksian kang migunakaké métodhe karikatan radhial.</ref> Panggolèkan bandha-bandha langit kang luwih cilik merlokaké piranti-piranti anyar, kaya ta [[teleskop luar akasa James Webb|teleskop antariksa James Webb]].<ref name="numbers"/> Amarga kacerakané karo Bumi, lintang iki wis diusulaké minangka pituju saka [[panjlajahan antarlintang]].<ref name=gilster>{{cite book | first=Paul | last=Gilster | year=2004 | title=Centauri Dreams: Imagining and Planning | publisher=Springer | isbn=038700436X }}</ref> == Pangamatan == Nalika taun 1915, [[Robert Innes]], Dhirèktur [[Observatorium Union]] ing [[Johannesburg]], [[Afrika Kidul]], nemu lintang kang duwé [[obah dhiri]] kang padha karo [[Alpha Centauri]].<ref name=afrsky11_39>{{cite journal | last=Glass | first=I. S. |date=July 2007 | title=The Discovery of the Nearest Star | journal=African Sky | volume=11 | page=39 | bibcode=2007AfrSk..11...39G }}</ref><ref name="ESO2002">{{cite web | first=Didier | last=Queloz | date=2002-11-29 | url=http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr-2002/pr-22-02.html | title=How Small are Small Stars Really? VLT Interferometer Measures the Size of Proxima Centauri and Other Nearby Stars | publisher=European Southern Observatory | accessdate=2007-07-09 | archive-date=2007-01-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103234953/http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr-2002/pr-22-02.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Dhèwèké mènèhi jeneng lintang iku ''Proxima Centauri''.<ref name=aj39_913_20>{{cite journal | last=Alden | first=Harold L. | title=Alpha and Proxima Centauri | journal=Astronomical Journal | year=1928 | volume=39 | issue=913 | pages=20–23 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928AJ.....39...20A | accessdate=2008-06-28 | doi=10.1086/104871 }}</ref> Nalika taun 1917, ing [[Royal Observatory, Tanjung Harapan|Royal Observatory]], [[Tanjung Harapan]], astronom Walanda [[Joan Voûte]] ngukur [[paralaks]] trigonometrik lintang iki, lan ngonfirmasi yèn Proxima Centauri duwé let saka srengéngé kang padha karo Alpha Centauri. Lintang iki uga ditepungi minangka lintang kanthi [[luminositas]] paling asor ing wektu iku.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Voûte | first = J. | title=A 13th magnitude star in Centaurus with the same parallax as α Centauri | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | year=1917 | volume=77 | pages=650–651 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1917MNRAS..77..650V&amp;db_key=AST&amp;data_type=HTML&amp;format=&amp;high=444c5eb29022736 | accessdate=2007-07-09 }}</ref> Panemton paralaks Proxima Centauri kang akurat digawé déning astronom Amérikah Sarékat [[Harold Lee Alden|Harold L. Alden]] nalika taun 1928. Dhèwèké ngonfirmasi asil awal mawa paralaks {{nowrap|0,783 ± 0,005}}″.<ref name=afrsky11_39/><ref name=aj39_913_20/> Astronom Amérikah Sarékat [[Harlow Shapley]] mbiwara Proxima Centauri minangka [[lintang suar]] nalika taun 1951. Pamriksan marang cathetan-cathetan fotografik sadurungé nuduhaké yèn lintang iki ngalami paningkatan sajeroning magnitudo watara 8%, ndadèkaké minangka lintang suar paling aktif ing wektu iku.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Shapley | first = Harlow | title=Proxima Centauri as a Flare Star | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | year=1951 | volume=37 | issue=1 | pages=15–18 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1951PNAS...37...15S | accessdate=2007-07-11 | doi=10.1073/pnas.37.1.15 | pmid = 16588985 | pmc = 1063292 }}</ref> Kacerakan lintang iki mungkinaké pangamatan marang aktivitas semburanné. Nalika taun 1980, [[Observatorium Einstein]] gawé kurva ènèrgi sinar X ing semburan Proxima Centauri. Pangamatan luwih jero dilakokaké liwat satelit [[EXOSAT]] lan [[ROSAT]]. Emisi sinar X kanthi semburan kang luwih cilik lan mèmper karo srengéngé diamati déning satelit [[Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics|ASCA]] Jepang taun 1995.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Haisch | first=Bernhard | author2=Antunes, A.; Schmitt, J. H. M. M. | title=Solar-Like M-Class X-ray Flares on Proxima Centauri Observed by the ASCA Satellite | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-06-02_268_5215/page/1327 | journal=Science | year=1995 | volume=268 | issue=5215 | pages=1327–1329 | doi=10.1126/science.268.5215.1327 | pmid=17778978 }}</ref> Proxima Centauri kawit wektu iku dadi subjèk panlitèn déning manéka observatorium sinar X, kaya ta [[XMM-Newton]] lan [[Observatorium sinar-X Chandra|Chandra]].<ref name=aaa416/> Amarga [[dhéklinasi]] kidul Proxima Centauri, lintang iki mung bisa dideleng ing sisih kidul lintang 27°&nbsp;U.<ref group="nb">Kanggo lintang ing sisih kidul zènit, pojokan marang zènit padha karo garis lintang dikurang dhéklinasi. Lintang kadhelikaké saka papan kanthi pojok zènit gedhéné 90° utawa luwih, utawa sajeroning tembung liya sangisoré cakrawala. Mula, kanggo Proxima Centauri: :Lintang paling dhuwur = 90° + −62,68° = 27,32°. Delengen: {{cite book | first=William Wallace | last=Campbell | year=1899 | title=The Elements of Practical Astronomy | publisher=Macmillan | location=London | url=http://books.google.com/?id=v2tEAAAAIAAJ | accessdate=2008-08-12 }}</ref> Katé abang kaya Proxima Centauri mbleret banget kanggo dideleng kanthi mata langsung.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://sdc.cab.inta-csic.es/ines/Ines_PCentre/Demos/Fluxdist/pcentauri.html | title =Proxima Centauri UV Flux Distribution | publisher =ESA/Laboratory for Space Astrophysics and Theoretical Physics | accessdate = 2007-07-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first=Jim | last=Kaler | title=Rigil Kentaurus | url=http://www.astro.uiuc.edu/~kaler/sow/rigil-kent.html | publisher=University of Illinois | accessdate=2008-08-03 }}</ref> Lintang iki duwé [[magnitudo semu]] gedhéné 11, saéngga diperlokaké teleskop mawa [[tingkap]] minimal 8&nbsp;cm (3,1&nbsp;[[inch|in.]]) kanggo ngamati lintang iki.<ref>{{cite book | first=P. Clay | last=Sherrod | author2=Koed, Thomas L.; Aleichem, Thomas L. Sholem | year=2003 | title=A Complete Manual of Amateur Astronomy: Tools and Techniques for Astronomical Observations | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | isbn=0486428206 }}</ref> == Karakteristik == Proxima Centauri diklasifikasikakè minangka lintang katé abang amarga lumebu sanjeroné [[dhèrèt utama]] ing [[diagram Hertzsprung–Russell]] lan kagolong sajeroning [[klasifikasi lintang|kelas M5.5]]. Lintang iki duwé [[magnitudo mutlak]] gedhéné 15,5.<ref name="abs_mag">{{cite journal | last=Kamper | first=K. W. | author2=Wesselink, A. J. | title=Alpha and Proxima Centauri | journal=Astronomical Journal | year=1978 | volume=83 | pages=1653–1659 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978AJ.....83.1653K | accessdate=2008-08-03 | doi=10.1086/112378 }}</ref> Gunggung luminositas tumrap kabèh [[dawa gelombang]]é yaiku 0,17% saka srengéngé,<ref name=lbol>See Table 1, {{cite journal | last=Doyle | first=J. G. | author2=Butler, C. J. | title=Optical and infrared photometry of dwarf M and K stars | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomy-and-astrophysics_1990-08_235_1-2/page/335 | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | year=1990 | volume=235 | pages=335–339 | bibcode=1990A&A...235..335D}} and p. 57, {{cite book | title=Principles of Physical Cosmology | last=Peebles | first=P. J. E. | year=1993 | location=Princeton, New Jersey | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=0691019339 }}</ref> sanajan nalika diamati sajeroning dawa gelombang [[spèktrum optik]] mung 0.0056% saka srengéngé.<ref>p. 8, {{cite book | last=Binney | first=James | author2=Scott Tremaine | title=Galactic Dynamics | publisher=Princeton University Press | location=Princeton, New Jersey | year=1987 | isbn=0691084459}}</ref> Luwih saka 85% saka daya kang kapancaraké yaiku dawa gelombang [[infraabang]].<ref>kaca. 357, {{cite journal | last=Leggett | first=S. K. | title=Infrared colors of low-mass stars | journal=Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series | year=1992 | volume=82 | issue=1 | pages=351–394 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992ApJS...82..351L | accessdate=2008-08-13 | doi=10.1086/191720 }}</ref> [[File:Alpha centauri size.svg|right|thumb|280px|Perbandhingan ukuran antarané srengéngé, [[Alpha centauri|α Centauri A, α Centauri B]], lan Proxima Centauri]] Nalika taun 2002, [[interferometri optik]] ing [[Very Large Telescope]] (VLTI) nemu yèn Proxima Centauri duwé [[dhiameter pojok]] watara 1,02&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,08 [[menit busur|mili dhetik busur]]. Amarga leté wis dikawruhi, dhiameter sebeneré bisa diprakirakaké, yaiku watara 1/7 srengéngé, utawa kaping 1,5 [[Yupiter]].<ref name="ESO2002"/> Massa lintang iki diprakirakaké watara 12,3% saka [[massa srengéngé]], utawa kaping 129 [[massa Yupiter]].<ref name="ESO2003"/> Rata-rata massa jinis lintang dhèrèt utama mundhak sairing karo kurangé massa,<ref>{{cite book | first=Martin V. | last=Zombeck | year=2007 | title=Handbook of Space Astronomy and Astrophysics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | edition=Third | pages=109 | location=Cambridge, UK | isbn=0521782422 }}</ref> lan Proxima Centauri dudu pangecualian: lintang iki duwé rata-rata massa jinis watara 56.800&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup> (56,8&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>), sauntara srengéngé watara 1.409&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup> (1,409&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>).<ref group="nb" name="density">Massa jinis (''ρ'') wujud massa dibagi volume. Gegandhèngan karo srengéngé, massa jinis Proxima Centauri yaiku: :{| |<math>\rho</math> |= <math>\begin{smallmatrix}\frac{M}{M_{\odot}} \cdot \left( \frac{R}{R_{\odot}} \right)^{-3} \cdot \rho_{\odot}\end{smallmatrix}</math> |- | ||= 0,123 · 0,145<sup>−3</sup> · 1,41{{Esp|3}}&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup> |- | ||= 40,3 · 1,41{{Esp|3}}&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup> |- | ||= 5,68{{Esp|4}}&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup> |} kanthi <math>\begin{smallmatrix}\rho_{\odot}\end{smallmatrix}</math> iku rata-rata massa jinis srengéngé. Delengen: *{{cite web | authors=Munsell, Kirk; Smith, Harman; Davis, Phil; Harvey, Samantha | date=2008-06-11 | url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric | title=Sun: Facts & Figures | work=Solar System Exploration | publisher=NASA | accessdate=2008-07-12 | archive-date=2008-01-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080102034758/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric | url-status=dead }} *{{cite book | author=Bergman, Marcel W.; Clark, T. Alan; Wilson, William J. F. | year=2007 | pages=220–221 | title=Observing Projects Using Starry Night Enthusiast | edition=8 | publisher=Macmillan | isbn=142920074X }}</ref> Amarga massané kang asor, pérangan njero lintang iki sepenuhé [[zona konvèksi|konvèktif]], saéngga ènèrgi ditransfer menyang pérangan njaba liwat pagerakan fisis plasma, lan dudu liwat [[zona radhiasi|prosès radhiatif]]. Konvèksi iki ateges yèn awu hélium kang ditinggalaké saka [[fusi termonuklir]] hidrogen ora kaakumulasi ing inti, nanging diédharaké menyang kabèh lintang. Ora kaya srengéngé, kang mung bakal ngobong watara 10% saka kabèh hidrogené sadurungé ninggal dhèrèt utama, Proxima Centauri bakal ngentèkaké kabèh "bahan bakar"é sadurungé fusi hidrogen rampung.<ref name=adams/> Konvèksi gegandhèngan karo pangasilan [[médhan magnèt lintang|médhan magnèt]]. Ènèrgi magnètik saka médhan iki diculaké menyang lumah liwat [[semburan lintang]] kang ngundhakaké luminositas lintang ing sajeroning wektu kang cendhak. Semburan-semburan mau bisa tuwuh nganti padha gehdéné karo lintang lan bisa nggayuh suhu dhuwuré 27&nbsp;yuta [[Kelvin|K]]<ref name=aaa416>{{cite journal | last=Guedel | first=M. | author2=Audard, M.; Reale, F.; Skinner, S. L.; Linsky, J. L. | title=Flares from small to large: X-ray spectroscopy of Proxima Centauri with XMM-Newton | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | year=2004 | volume=416 | pages=713–732 | url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0312297 | accessdate=2008-07-11 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20031471 }}</ref>—cukup panas kanggo ngradhiasi [[sinar X]].<ref>{{cite web | author=Staff | date =2006-08-30 | url =http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2004/proxima/ | title =Proxima Centauri: The Nearest Star to the Sun | publisher =Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics | accessdate = 2007-07-09 }}</ref> Luminositas sinar X lintang iki kang meneng (kira-kira watara (4–16){{Esp|26}}&nbsp;[[erg]]/s ((4–16){{Esp|19}}&nbsp;[[watt|W]])) kanthi kasar sithik luwih cilik saka srengéngé. Luminositas sinar X pucuk ing semburan gedhé dhéwé bisa nggayuh 10<sup>28</sup>&nbsp;erg/s (10<sup>21</sup> W.)<ref name=aaa416/> [[Kromosfer]] lintang iki aktif, lan [[spektrum]]é nuduhaké [[garis spèktral|garis émisi]] [[magnesium]] karionisasi kang kuwat ing dawa gelombang 280&nbsp;[[Nanometer|nm]].<ref>{{cite journal | first=Guinan | last=E. F. | author2=Morgan, N. D. | title=Proxima Centauri: Rotation, Chromosperic Activity, and Flares | journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society | year=1996 | volume=28 | pages=942 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996BAAS...28S.942G | accessdate=2008-06-14 }}</ref> Watara 88% lumah Proxima Centauri mungkin aktif. Persentase iki luwih dhuwur tinimbang srengéngé, malah nalika ana sajeroning pucuk [[siklus srengéngé|siklusé]]. Ing periodhe meneng kanthi sithik utawa ora ana semburan, aktivitasé ngundhakaké suhu [[korona]] Proxima Centauri dadi 3,5&nbsp;yuta K (sauntara srengéngé mung 2&nbsp;juta K).<ref>{{cite journal | last=Wargelin | first=Bradford J. | author2=Drake, Jeremy J. | title=Stringent X-Ray Constraints on Mass Loss from Proxima Centauri | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2002-10-10_578_1/page/503 | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | year=2002 | volume=578 | pages=503–514 | doi=10.1086/342270 }}</ref> Nanging, tingkat aktivitas lintang iki dianggep asor yèn dibandhingaké karo katé kelas M liyané,<ref name=apj547>{{cite journal | author=Wood, B. E.; Linsky, J. L.; Müller, H.-R.; Zank, G. P. | title=Observational Estimates for the Mass-Loss Rates of α Centauri and Proxima Centauri Using Hubble Space Telescope Lyα Spectra | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | year=2001 | volume=547 | issue=1 | pages=L49–L52 | url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/547/1/L49/pdf/1538-4357_547_1_L49.pdf | accessdate=2007-07-09 | doi=10.1086/318888 }}</ref> kang selaras karo prakiran umur lintang iki, yaiku 4,85{{Esp|9}}&nbsp;taun.<ref name="ESO2003"/> (tingkat aktivitas katé abang diprakirakaké alon-alon saya pudhar suwéné miliyaran taun kanthi saya kurangé tingkat [[rotasi lintang]]).<ref>{{cite journal | last=Stauffer | first=J. R. | author2=Hartmann, L. W. | title=Chromospheric activity, kinematics, and metallicities of nearby M dwarfs | journal=Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series | year=1986 | volume=61 | issue=2 | pages=531–568 | url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986ApJS...61..531S | accessdate=2008-06-29 | doi=10.1086/191123 }}</ref> Tingkat kaaktifan uga duwé variasi ing periodhe (kasar) 442 dina, kang luwih cendhèk saka [[siklus srengéngé]] (11 taun).<ref>{{cite journal | author=Cincunegui, C.; Díaz, R. F.; Mauas, P. J. D. | title=A possible activity cycle in Proxima Centauri | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | year=2007 | volume=461 | issue=3 | pages=1107–1113 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007A&A...461.1107C | accessdate=2007-07-11 | doi = 10.1051/0004-6361:20066027 }}</ref> Proxima Centauri duwé [[angin lintang]] kang rélatif lemah, saéngga laju pamedhunan massané ora punjul 20% laju pamedhunan massa srengéngé (kang disebabaké amarga [[angin srengéngé]]). Ing sisih liya, amarga lintang iki luwih cilik saka srengéngé, laju pamedhunan massa per ékan wiyar lumah saka Proxima Centauri mungkin kaping wolu luwih gedhé saka lumah srengéngé.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Wood | first=B. E. | author2=Linsky, J. L.; Muller, H.-R.; Zank, G. P. | title=Observational Estimates for the Mass-Loss Rates of Alpha Centauri and Proxima Centauri Using Hubble Space Telescope Lyman-alpha Spectra | journal=Astrophysical Journal | year=2000 | volume=537 | issue=2 | pages=L49–L52 | url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0011153 | accessdate=2008-07-11 | doi=10.1086/309026 }}</ref> Katé abang kanthi massa kaya Proxima Centauri bakal tetep dadi lintang dhèrèt utama suwéné patang triliun taun. Sauntara proporsi hélium mundhak amarga fusi hidrogen, lintang iki bakal dadi luwih cilik lan panas, saya suwé malih saka abang dadi biru. Nyeraki akir periodhe iki, Proxima Centauri bakal dadi luwih mengkileng (nggayuh 2,5% luminositas srengéngé), lan uga ngangetaké bandha-bandha langit kang ngupengi suwéné miliaran taun. Nalika bahan bakar hidrogen entèk, Proxima Centauri bakal malih dadi [[katé putih]] (tanpa liwat tahap [[raksasa abang]]) lan alon-alon kélangan sisa ènèrgi panasé.<ref name=adams>{{cite conference | last=Adams | first=Fred C. | author2=Laughlin, Gregory; Graves, Genevieve J. M | title=Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence | book-title=Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets | pages=46–49 | publisher=Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica | url=http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAC..22/PDF/RMxAC..22_adams.pdf | accessdate=2008-06-24 | archive-date=2019-07-11 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711072446/http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAC..22/PDF/RMxAC..22_adams.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Let lan pagerakan === <!-- Astrometri --> Adhedasar [[paralaks]] {{nowrap|768,7 ± 0,3}} [[menit busur|mili dhetik busur]], kang diukur kanthi migunakaké [[Fine Guidance Sensors]] ing [[teleskop njaba akasa Hubble]],<ref name="apj118">{{cite journal | author=Benedict, G. Fritz | display-authors = etal | title=Interferometric Astrometry of Proxima Centauri and Barnard's Star Using HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE Fine Guidance Sensor 3: Detection Limits for Substellar Companions | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=1999 | volume=118 | issue=2 | pages=1086–1100 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999astro.ph..5318B | accessdate=2007-07-21 | doi=10.1086/300975 }}</ref> Proxima Centauri mapan adohé 4,2&nbsp;taun cahya. Saka titik deleng apik (''vantage point'') bumi, Proxima kapisah 2,18°<ref name=apj121>{{cite journal | author=Kirkpatrick, J. Davy | display-authors = etal | title=Brown Dwarf Companions to G-type Stars. I: Gliese 417B and Gliese 584C | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=1999 | volume=121 | pages=3235–3253 | url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0103218 | accessdate=2008-06-23 | doi=10.1086/321085 }}</ref> saka Alpha Centauri, utawa kaping papat [[dhiameter pojok]] [[rembulan]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Williams | first=D. R. | date=2006-02-10 | url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html | title=Moon Fact Sheet | publisher=NASA | accessdate=2007-10-12 | archive-date=2008-12-16 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216140757/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Proxima uga duwé [[obah dhiri]] kang gedhé - obah 3,85 [[arcsecond]] per taun ing langit.<ref>{{cite conference | author=Benedict, G. F. | display-authors = etal | title =Astrometric Stability and Precision of Fine Guidance Sensor #3: The Parallax and Proper Motion of Proxima Centauri | book-title =Proceedings of the HST Calibration Workshop | pages =380–384 | url =http://clyde.as.utexas.edu/SpAstNEW/Papers_in_pdf/%7BBen93%7DEarlyProx.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 2007-07-11 }}</ref> Lintang iki duwé [[karikatan radhial]] gedhéné 21,7&nbsp;km/s marang srengéngé.<ref name="SIMBAD">{{cite web | url =http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=proxima%20centauri | work=SIMBAD | title =SIMBAD query result: V* V645 Cen – [[Flare Star]] | publisher =Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | accessdate = 2008-08-11 }}—some of the data is located under "Measurements".</ref> <!-- Pagerakan liwat angkasa --> Ing antarané lintang-lintang kang wis ditepungi, Proxima Centauri wis dadi lintang paling cerak saka srengéngé suwéné 32.000&nbsp;taun, lan bakal tetep dadi kang paling cerak suwéné 33.000&nbsp;taun sabanjuré. Sawisé iku, posisi lintang paling cerak bakal digantèkaké déning [[Ross 248]].<ref name="qjras35">{{cite journal | last=Matthews | first=R. A. J. | title=The Close Approach of Stars in the Solar Neighborhood | journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society | year=1994 | volume=35 | pages=1–9 | bibcode=1994QJRAS..35....1M }}</ref> Proxima bakal ana ing posisi paling cerak karo srengéngé watara 3,11&nbsp;taun cahya manèh, utawa watara 26.700&nbsp;taun.<ref name=aaa379>{{cite journal | last=García-Sánchez | first=J. | author2=Weissman, P. R.; Preston, R. A.; Jones, D. L.; Lestrade, J.-F.; Latham, D. W.; Stefanik, R. P.; Paredes, J. M. | title=Stellar encounters with the solar system | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | year=2001 | volume=379 | pages=634–659 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001A&A...379..634G | accessdate=2008-06-12 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20011330 }}</ref> Lintang iki ngorbit liwat [[Bimasekti]] sajeroning kisaran let antara 8,3 nganti 9,5&nbsp;[[Parsec|kpc]] saka [[punjer galaksi]], lan mawa [[eksentrisitas orbit]] gedhéné 0,07.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Allen | first=C. | author2=Herrera, M. A. | title=The galactic orbits of nearby UV Ceti stars | journal=Revista Mexicana de Astronomia y Astrofisica | year=1998 | volume=34 | pages=37–46 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RMxAA..34...37A | accessdate=2008-06-13 }}</ref> <!-- Kamungkinan orbit --> Kawit panemonané, lintang iki dinuga minangka pangiring sebeneré saka sistem [[lintang gandha]] Alpha Centauri. Kanthi let adohé 0,21&nbsp;[[taun cahya]] (15.000&nbsp;±&nbsp;700 [[ékan astronomi|SA]]) saka Alpha Centauri,<ref name="apj132" /> Proxima Centauri mungkin ngorbit Alpha Centauri, kanthi [[periodhe orbit]] 500.000&nbsp;taun utawa luwih. Mula, Proxima sok-sok dijuluki minangka Alpha Centauri C. Prakiran modhèren nduga yèn kamungkinan kaselarasan kang diamati minangka sawijining kebeneran wujud siji bandhing sayuta.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Matthews, Robert; Gilmore, Gerard | title = Is Proxima really in orbit about Alpha CEN A/B? | journal = MNRAS | volume = 261 | pages = L5 | year = 1993 | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993MNRAS.261L...5M}}</ref> Dhata saka satelit [[Hipparcos]], ditambah karo pangamatan, konsistèn kanthi hipotèsis yèn telu lintang iki wujud sawijining sistem kang kaiket. Yèn bener, Proxima bakal ana cerak [[apsis|apastron]], titik paling adoh saka orbité ing sistem Alpha Centauri. Pangukuran karikatan radhial kang luwih akurat dibutuhaké kanggo mesthèkaké hipotèsis iki.<ref name="apj132" /> Yèn Proxima kaiket karo sistem Alpha Centauri suwéné pambentukané, lintang iki kamungkinan duwé komposisi kimia kang padha. Prabawa gravitasi Proxima manawa uga wis nggolakaké ''[[protoplanetary disk]]'' Alpha Centauri, saéngga ngundhakaké pangenteran ''[[volatile]]'' kaya déné banyu menyang wewengkon njero kang garing. [[Planit kabumian]] ngendi waé ing sistem iki bakal ngandhut bahan-bahan mau.<ref name="apj132" /> Enem lintang tunggal, loro sistem lintang gandhèa, lan lintang telu rerangkèn duwé pagerakan kang mèmper karo Proxima Centauri lan sistem Alpha Centauri. [[Kinematika lintang|Kacepetan]] lintang-lintang mau diprakirakaké ana sajeroning kisaran 10&nbsp;km/s saka [[obah peculiar]] Alpha Centauri, saéngga lintang-lintang mau mungkin minangka golongan pagerakan lintang, kang nuduhaké titik asal kang padha.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Johnston | first=Kathryn V. | title=Fossil Signatures of Ancient Accretion Events in the Halo | journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society | year=1995 | volume=27 | pages=1370 | url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph?papernum=9602060 | accessdate=2008-08-10 }}</ref> Yèn Proxima Centauri ora kaiket kanthi gravitasi marang Alpha Centauri, golongan pagerakan kaya mangkéné bakal mbantu njelasaké kacerakané lintang-lintang mau.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Anosova | first=J. | author2=Orlov, V. V.; Pavlova, N. A. | title=Dynamics of nearby multiple stars. The Alpha Centauri system | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | year=1994 | volume=292 | issue=1 | pages=115–118 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994A%26A...292..115A | accessdate=2008-08-10 }}</ref> Sanajan Proxima Centauri iku lintang paling cerak kanthi ''bona fide'', manawa waé isih ana lintang [[katé coklat]] kang panggonané luwih cerak.<ref>{{cite web | title=WISE Satellite Set to Map the Infrared Universe | publisher=Scientific American | date=December 9, 2009 | url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=wise-infrared-satellite | accessdate=2009-12-10 }}</ref> === Kamungkinan pangiring === Yèn sawijining planit masif révolusiné ngupengi Proxima Centauri, pagèsèran lintang bisa dumadi per orbit planit mau. Yèn babagan orbit planit ora jejeg lurus karo garis deleng saka Bumi, mula pagèsèran iki bisa njalari owaèh-owahan periodhik ing karikatan radhial Proxima Centauri. Pangukuran kaping bola-bali ing karikatan radhial Proxima Centauri kang ora nuduhaké pagèsèran mau ngedhunaké massa maksimum kang bisa diduwèni pangiring Proxima Centauri.<ref name="apj118" /><ref name="aaal344"/> Tingkat aktivitas Proxima Centauri njalari ''penderauan'' ing pangukuran karikatan radhial lintang, saéngga mbatesi kamungkinan pandhétèksian pangiring migunakaké métodhe iki.<ref name="Saar 1997 319–326"/> Nalika taun 1998, pamriksan marang Proxima Centauri kanthi migunakaké ''[[Faint Object Spectrograph]]'' ing [[teleskop njaba akasa Hubble]] nuduhaké bukti anané pangiring Proxima ing let 0.5&nbsp;SA.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Schultz | first=A. B. | author2=Hart, H. M.; Hershey, J. L.; Hamilton, F. C.; Kochte, M.; Bruhweiler, F. C.; Benedict, G. F.; Caldwell, John; Cunningham, C.; Wu, Nailong; Franz, O. G.; Keyes, C. D.; Brandt, J. C. | title=A possible companion to Proxima Centauri | journal=Astronomical Journal | year=1998 | volume=115 | pages=345–350 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AJ....115..345S | accessdate=2008-06-25 | doi=10.1086/300176 }}</ref> Nanging, panggolèkan sabanjuré kanthi migunakaké ''[[Wide Field Planetary Camera 2]]'' ora bisa nemu.<ref name=apj119>{{cite journal | last=Schroeder | first=Daniel J. | author2=Golimowski, David A.; Brukardt, Ryan A.; Burrows, Christopher J.; Caldwell, John J.; Fastie, William G.; Ford, Holland C.; Hesman, Brigette; Kletskin, Ilona; Krist, John E.; Royle, Patricia; Zubrowski, Richard. A. | title=A Search for Faint Companions to Nearby Stars Using the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=2000 | volume=119 | issue=2 | pages=906–922 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000AJ....119..906S | accessdate=2008-06-25 | doi=10.1086/301227 }}</ref> Proxima Centauri, bebarengan karo Alpha Centauri A lan B, dadi lintang "Tier 1" ing program ''[[Space Interferometry Mission]]'' (SIM) NASA, kang bakal mungkinaké pandhétèksian planit mawa ukuran minimal kaping telu massa Bumi ing let loro SA saka lintang "Tier 1".<ref name="numbers">{{cite web | last=Watanabe | first=Susan | date=2006-10-18 | url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/features.cfm?feature=1209 | title=Planit-Finding by Numbers | publisher=NASA JPL | accessdate=2007-07-09 | archive-date=2010-08-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100804160702/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/features.cfm?feature=1209 | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Zona layak huni === Film dhokumèntèr ''[[Aurelia and Blue Moon#Aurelia|Alien Worlds]]'' nyetusaké hipotèsis yèn planit kang bisa nunjang kauripan mbok mewana ngorbit Proxima Centauri utawa lintang katé abang liyané. Kanggo ana ing [[zona layak huni]] Proxima Centauri, sawijining planit kudu ana adohé 0.023–0.054&nbsp;SA saka lintang mau, lan duwé periodhe orbital suwéné 3,6–14&nbsp;dina.<ref>{{cite conference | last=Endl | first=M. | author2=Kuerster, M.; Rouesnel, F.; Els, S.; Hatzes, A. P.; Cochran, W. D. | editor=Drake Deming | title=Extrasolar Terrestrial Planets: Can We Detect Them Already? | book-title=Conference Proceedings, Scientific Frontiers in Research on Extrasolar Planets | pages=75–79 | date=June 18–21, 2002 | location=Washington, DC | url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0208462 | accessdate=2008-06-23 }}</ref> Planit kang ngorbit ing zona mau bakal [[tidal locking|kakunci kanthi pasang surut]], saéngga ing langit planit mau Proxima Centauri ora akèh ngalami pagerakan. Mula awan bakal terus lumaku ing salah siji sisih lumah, lan suwaliké wengi ora bakal rampung ing sisih lumah kang liyané. Nanging, anané atmosfèr bisa nyaluraké ènèrgi saka lumah kang disinari déning lintang menyang lumah planit liyané.<ref name=tarter/> Semburan ing Proxima Centauri bisa ngikis atmosfèr planit ing [[zona layak huni]]-né, nanging èlmuwan ing filem dhokumèntèr mau yakin yèn alangan iki bisa ditanggulangi. Gibor Basri saka [[Universitas California]], Berkeley, nyebut yèn "ora ana kang [wis] nemu candhetan marang kalayakan huni." Contoné, dikawatiraké yèn arus kebak momotan saka semburan lintang bisa ngosongaké atmosfèr planit ing saubengé. Nanging, yèn planit mau duwé médhan magnèt kang kuwat, médhan mau bakal nangkis partikel saka atmosfèr.<ref>{{cite web | last=Alpert | first=Mark |date=November 2005 | url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=red-star-rising | title=Red Star Rising | publisher=Scientific American | accessdate=2008-05-19 }}</ref> Èlmuwan liya, mligi panyengkuyung [[hipotèsis Bumi Langka]],<ref>{{cite book | first=Peter D. | last=Ward | author2=Brownlee, Donald | year=2000 | title=Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe | publisher=Springer | isbn=0387987010 }}</ref> ora nyarujuki yèn lintang katé abang bisa njurung kauripan. Rotasi kang kakunci kanthi pasang surut bisa ngakibataké saya lemahé [[momen magnètik]] planit, saéngga [[lontaran massa korona]] saka Proxima Centauri bakal ngikis atmosfèr planit.<ref name=Khodachenko/> == Panjlajahan antarlintang == [[Gambar:Sol View from AlpCenA1.png|right|thumb|Srengéngé katon saka sistem Alpha Centauri. Citra digawé kanthi migunakaké program [[Celestia]].]] Proxima Centauri wis diusulaké minangka tujuwan pisanan sajeroning [[panjlajahan antarlintang]].<ref name=gilster/> Sanajan [[program Voyager|montor mabur akasa Voyager]] diprakirakaké bakal dadi montor mabur akasa pisanan kang lumebu ruwang antarlintang, montor mabur-montor mabur Voyager obah kanthi karikatan alon, yaiku watara 17&nbsp;km/s. Kanthi karikatan iku, Voyager merlokaké wektu 10.000 taun kanggo nempuh setaun cahya.<ref>{{cite book | author=Mallove, Eugene F.; Gregory L. Matloff | title=The starflight handbook: a pioneer's guide to interstellar travel | page=6 | publisher=Wiley | year=1989 | isbn=0471619124 }}. Voyager 1 duwé karikatan asimtotik kang gedhéné {{Nowrap|3,5 SA/taun}}, sauntara Voyager 2 duwé karikatan asimtotik kang gedhéné {{Nowrap|3,4 SA/taun}}.</ref> Yèn tenaga panggerak non-nuklir saiki digunakaké, lelaku montor mabur akasa menyang planit kang ngorbit Proxima Centauri mbutuhaké wektu éwonan taun.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Crawford | first=I. A. | title=Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers | journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=31 | pages=377–400 |date=September 1990 | bibcode=1990QJRAS..31..377C }}</ref> ''[[Nuclear pulse propulsion]]'' ngambah tèknologi kang mungkinaké lelaku antarlintang ing sajeroning wektu saabad. Tèknologi kaya mangkéné iki wis mènèhi ilham kanggo sapérangan panlitian kaya ta [[Project Orion (propulsi nuklir)|Project Orion]], [[Project Daedalus]], lan [[Project Longshot]].<ref name=longshot>{{cite web | last=Beals | first=K. A. | author2=Beaulieu, M.; Dembia, F. J.; Kerstiens, J.; Kramer, D. L.; West, J. R.; Zito, J. A. | year=1988 | url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19890007533_1989007533.pdf |format=PDF| title=Project Longshot, an Unmanned Probe to Alpha Centauri | work=NASA-CR-184718 | publisher=U. S. Naval Academy | accessdate=2008-06-13 }}</ref> Saka Proxima Centauri, srengéngé bakal katon minangka lintang kanthi magnitudo 0,4&nbsp; kang padhang ing rasi lintang [[Cassiopeia (rasi lintang)|Cassiopeia]].<ref>Koordhinat srengéngé bakal silih lawan karo Proxima kanthi dhiamètris, ing α={{RA|02|29|42.9487}}, δ={{DEC|+62|40|46.141}}. Magnitudo mutlak (''M<sub>v</sub>'') srengéngé yaiku 4,83, saéngga ing paralaks (''π'') 0,77199, magnitudo katon (''m'') yaiku 4,83 − 5(log<sub>10</sub>(0,77199) + 1) = 0,40. Lihat: {{cite book | first=Roger John | last=Tayler | year=1994 | title=The Stars: Their Structure and Evolution | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page=16 | isbn=0521458854 }}</ref> == Deleng uga == * [[Alpha Centauri]] * [[Pratélan lintang paling cerak]] == Cathetan panjelas == {{Reflist|group=nb}} == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist|3}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://cassfos02.ucsd.edu/public/nearest.html Keterangan lintang sing paling cerak karo Bumi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803004732/http://cassfos02.ucsd.edu/public/nearest.html |date=2010-08-03 }} * [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020715.html Gladri foto Proxima Centauri] * [http://www.solstation.com/stars/alp-cent3.htm Sistem Alpha Centauri] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328011849/http://www.solstation.com/stars/alp-cent3.htm |date=2016-03-28 }} {{artikel pilihan}} [[Kategori:Rasi lintang Centaurus]] [[Kategori:Dhèrèt utama abang]] 79lfgm6qbp7ai32tufbsnam1oit4gy6 Romantisisme 0 82313 1752842 1748467 2026-08-19T21:10:10Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752842 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Caspar David Friedrich - Wanderer above the sea of fog.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Pangelana ing ndhuwuru pedut'' olèh [[Caspar David Friedrich]] ]] '''Romantisisme''' punika wangun pangowahan [[seni]], [[sastra]] lan intelektual ingkang gadhah asal usul saking [[Éropah Kulon]] [[abad angka 18]] minangka jaman [[Revolusi Industri]]. Pangowahan punika dadi salah siji révolusi musuhi norma-norma kabangsaan, sosial lan pulitik déning babagan , sosial lan pulitik minangka [[Jaman Pancerahan|periode Pancerahan]] lan prabawa déning rasionalisasi ing alam, sajeroning seni lan sastra. == Uga delengen == * [[Pahlawan romantik]] * [[Puisi romantik]] * [[Nasionalisme romantik]] * [[Realisme romantik]] * [[Periode romantik dalam musik]] * [[Romantisisme dalam sains]] * [[Neo-romantisisme]] * [[Pasca-romantisisme]] * [[Tokoh romantik]] * [[Folklore]] == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.rc.umd.edu ''Romantic Circles''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228024220/http://www.rc.umd.edu/ |date=2011-02-28 }} Edisi elektronik, sajarah, dan artikel ilmiah terkait dengan jaman Romantik * [http://www.poetseers.org/the_romantics/ Penyair Romantik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050412013028/http://www.poetseers.org/the_romantics |date=2005-04-12 }} * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-26 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914233216/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-26 |date=2009-09-14 }}, Romantisisme * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-27 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001234406/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-27 |date=2008-10-01 }}, Romantisisme dalam pamikir pulitik * [http://www.all-art.org/photography/HH-%20Talbot%20William.htm Romantisisme dalam "Sejarah Seni"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927212514/http://www.all-art.org/photography/HH-%20Talbot%20William.htm |date=2007-09-27 }} * [http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/romanticism/arthistory_romanticism.html Romantisisme dalam Arsip Sejarah Seni] == Réferènsi == {{Commons category|Romanticism}} * Meyer H. Abrams, 1971. ''The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition'' (Oxford University press) * Walter Friedlaender, 1952. ''David to Delacroix'', (aslinya dalam basa Jerman; cetak ulang 1980) * Fritz Novotny, 1971. ''Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780-1880,'' (edisi ke-2; cetak ulang 1980) * Marcel Brion, 1966. ''Art of the Romantic Era: Romanticism, Classicism, Realism'' (aslinya dalam basa Perancis) * Cwisfa Lim, 2002. ' 'Romanticism - The dawn of a new era' ' (cetak ulang 2006) {{Westernart}} [[Kategori:Romantisisme| ]] dye56kon1o7tp4ji8hc6r90jke4q9sh Uji t-Student 0 82931 1753067 1717311 2026-08-20T09:35:25Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753067 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Uji t-student''' iku [[uji hipotètis statistik]] sajeroning [[uji statistika]] sing duwé [[dhistribusi t-student]] yèn [[null hypothesis]] kadhukung. Uji iki umum dianggo yèn uji statistik duwé [[dhistribusi normal]] lan aji panjangka (''scaling term'') diweruhi. Nalika ''scaling term'' ora diweruhi lan diganti nganggo aji kira-kira saka [[data]], uji statistik (ing kondhisi tinamtu) ngiloni sawijining [[dhistribusi t-student|dhistribusi Student's ''t'']]. ==Wacan== *{{Cite journal |year=1960 |author=Boneau, C. Alan |title=The effects of violations of assumptions underlying the ''t'' test |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1960-01_57_1/page/49 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=49–64 |doi=10.1037/h0041412 |postscript=<!--None--> }} *{{Cite journal |year=1984 |author=Edgell, Stephen E., & Noon, Sheila M |title=Effect of violation of normality on the ''t'' test of the correlation coefficient |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1984-05_95_3/page/576 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=576–583 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.576}} ==Cathetan== <references/> == Rujukan == * {{cite book | last = O'Mahony | first = Michael | title = Sensory Evaluation of Food: Statistical Methods and Procedures | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | year = 1986 | pages = 487 | isbn = 0-824-77337-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Press | first = William H. | coauthors = Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling, Brian P. Flannery | title = Numerical Recipes in C: The Art of Scientific Computing | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | year = 1992 | pages = [http://www.nrbook.com/a/bookcpdf/c14–2.pdf p. 616] | isbn = 0-521-43108-5 | url = http://www.nr.com/ }} == Pranala njaba == {{wikiversity|t-test}} * [http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/stat_t.php A conceptual article on the Student's ''t''-test] * [http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/sttable.html#t Student's T-distribution table] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202062357/http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/sttable.html#t |date=2007-12-02 }} ===Kalkulator online=== * [http://studentsttest.com Online T-Test Calculator] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203040433/http://studentsttest.com/ |date=2018-02-03 }} * [http://www.usablestats.com/calcs/2samplet 2 Sample T-Test Calculator] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104151736/http://www.usablestats.com/calcs/2samplet |date=2011-11-04 }} * [http://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1.cfm GraphPad's Paired/Unpaired/Welch T-Test Calculator] {{Statistics}} [[Kategori:Uji statistik]] [[Kategori:Méthode statistik]] [[Kategori:Statistik paramètrik]] 0rtzrxoklfnh5f7juhdgez7vukzs5og William Sealey Gosset 0 83794 1752886 1748569 2026-08-20T04:12:49Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752886 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist |name = William Sealy Gosset |image = William Sealy Gosset.jpg |image_size = 240px |caption = ''Student'' ing taun 1908 |birth_date = {{Birth date|1876|06|13}} |birth_place = [[Canterbury]], [[Kent]], [[Inggris]] |death_date = {{death date and age|1937|10|16|1876|06|13}} |death_place = [[Beaconsfield]], [[Buckinghamshire]], [[Inggris]] |residence = |citizenship = |nationality = |ethnicity = |field = |work_institutions = |alma_mater = |doctoral_advisor = |academic_advisors = |doctoral_students = |known_for = |author_abbrev_bot = |author_abbrev_zoo = |influences = |influenced = |prizes = |religion = |footnotes = |signature = }} '''William Sealy Gosset''' (13 Juni, 1876–16 Oktober, 1937) iku [[stastitikawan]] misuwur, sing kondhang kanthi jeneng sesinglon '''''Student''''' lan asil karyané ya iku [[Dhistribusi t Student]] (‘’Student's t-distribution’’. Lair ing [[Canterbury]], [[Inggris]] saka pasangan Agnes Sealy Vidal lan Kolonèl Frederic Gosset, Gosset lumebu [[Winchester College]] sadurungé sinau [[kimia]] lan [[matématika]] ing [[New College, Oxford]]. Nalika lulus taun 1899, William gabung ing parusahan bir [[Dublin]] ya iku [[Arthur Guinness]] & Son. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == * ''The application of the law of error to the work of the Brewery'' (1904, nota interna presso ''Guinness'') * {{cite journal | title = On the error of counting with hæmacytometer | journal = [[Biometrika]] | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | month = February | pages = 351&ndash;360 | year = 1907 }} * {{cite journal | url = http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/student.pdf | title = The probable error of a mean | journal = [[Biometrika]] | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | month = March | pages = 1&ndash;25 | year = 1908 | doi = 10.1093/biomet/6.1.1 }} * {{cite journal | title = Probable error of a correlation coefficient | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biometrika_1908-09_6_2-3/page/302 | journal = [[Biometrika]] | volume = 6 | issue = 2/3 | month = September | pages = 302&ndash;310 | year = 1908 | doi = 10.1093/biomet/6.2-3.302 }} * {{cite journal | title = The distribution of the means of samples which are not drawn at random | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biometrika_july-and-october-1909_7_1-2/page/210 | journal = [[Biometrika]] | volume = 7 | issue = 1/2 | month = July&ndash;October | pages = 210&ndash;214 | year = 1909 | doi = 10.1093/biomet/7.1-2.210 }} * {{cite journal | title = An experimental determination of the probable error of Dr Spearman's correlation coefficients | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biometrika_1921-07_13_2-3/page/n130 | journal = [[Biometrika]] | volume = 13 | issue = 2/3 | month = July | pages = 263&ndash;282 | year = 1921 | doi = 10.1093/biomet/13.2-3.263 }} * {{cite journal | url = http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/fisherguide/student.htm | title = Review of Statistical Methods for Research Workers (R. A. Fisher) | year = 1926 | journal = [[Eugenics Review]] | volume = 18 | pages = 148&ndash;150 }} * {{cite journal | url = http://cda.mrs.umn.edu/~jongmink/Stat2611/s1.pdf | title = On Student's 1908 Article "The Probable Error of a Mean"(S.L.Zabell) | year = March 2008 | journal = [[Journal of the American Statistical Association]] | volume = 103 | issue = 481 | pages = 1&ndash;7 | doi = 10.1198/016214508000000030 | last1 = Zabell | first1 = S. L | access-date = 2012-01-16 | archive-date = 2009-09-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090920120342/http://cda.mrs.umn.edu/~jongmink/Stat2611/s1.pdf | url-status = dead }} * ''‘Student’s’ Collected Papers'' (edited by E.S. Pearson and John Wishart, with a foreword by Launce McMullen), London: Biometrika Office. (1942) == Biografi == * [[E. S. Pearson]] (1990) ''‘Student’, A Statistical Biography of William Sealy Gosset,'' Edited and Augmented by [[R. L. Plackett]] with the Assistance of [[G. A. Barnard]], Oxford: University Press. * E. S. Pearson, "'Student' as Statistician, ''Biometrika'' Vol. 30, No. 3/4 (Jan., 1939), pp. 210-250. == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.swlearning.com/quant/kohler/stat/biographical_sketches/bio12.1.html Biography by Heinz Kohler] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204051222/http://www.swlearning.com/quant/kohler/stat/biographical_sketches/bio12.1.html |date=2012-02-04 }} * [http://www.umass.edu/wsp/statistics/tales/gosset.html Tales of Statisticians by E. Bruce Brooks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204035034/http://www.umass.edu/wsp/statistics/tales/gosset.html |date=2012-02-04 }} * [http://www-stat.stanford.edu/~naras/jsm/TDensity/TDensity.html Student's T Distribution] * [http://jeff560.tripod.com/s.html Earliest known uses of some of the words of mathematics: S] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103143310/http://jeff560.tripod.com/s.html |date=2017-11-03 }} under the heading of "Student's ''t''-distribution", describes briefly how Student's ''z'' became ''t''. * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Gosset}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Gosset, William Sealey}} [[Kategori:Lair 1876]] [[Kategori:Pati 1937]] [[Kategori:Alumni New College, Oxford]] [[Kategori:Statistikawan Inggris]] hd6vvdgd6a7l7r6hrccnf1sdp1bl098 Influenza 0 84313 1752962 1752622 2026-08-20T06:37:15Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 46 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752962 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Disease |Name=Influenza |Image=EM of influenza virus.jpg |Caption=[[transmisi èlèktron mikroskopik|TEM]] saka [[virus]] influenza, digedhèkaké kurang luwih tikel kaping 100.000. |Width=226 |DiseasesDB=6791 |ICD10={{ICD10|J|10||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|11||j|09}} |ICD9={{ICD9|487}} |MedlinePlus=000080 |eMedicineSubj=med |eMedicineTopic=1170 |eMedicine_mult={{eMedicine2|ped|3006}} |MeshID=D007251 }} '''Influenza''', kang asring ditepungi kanthi sebutan flu, wujud [[lelara nular]] kang disebabaké déning [[Virus#Virus RNA|virus RNA]] saka [[famili]] [[Orthomyxoviridae]] (virus influenza), kang nyerang [[unggas]] lan [[mamalia]]. Tandha-tandha sing paling lumrah saka lelara iki yaiku ndredheg, mriyang, perih tenggorokane, perih otot, sirah abot, [[watuk]], lemes, lan [[malaise]].<ref name=Merck>{{cite web |url=http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch198/ch198d.html |title=Influenza: Viral Infections: Merck Manual Home Edition |publisher=www.merck.com |accessdate=2008-03-15 |last= |first= }} </ref> Sanajan asring kijolan karo lelara mèmper influenza liyané, mligi [[selesma]], influenza wujud lelara kang luwih abot tinimbang selesma lan disababaké déning jinis virus kang béda<ref name=Eccles>{{cite journal |last=Eccles |first=R |title=Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza |journal=Lancet Infect Dis |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=718–25 |year=2005 |pmid=16253889 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70270-X}}</ref> Influenza bisa njalari eneg, lan muntah, mligi ing bocah-bocah,<ref name=Merck/> nanging tandha-tandha mau luwih asring ana ing lelara [[gastroenteritis]], kang babar pisan ora ana gegandhèngané, kang uga sok-sok kanthi ora trep diarani "flu weteng".<ref>[http://coldflu.about.com/od/flumisconceptions/f/stomachflu.htm Seasonal Flu vs. Stomach Flu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707074827/http://coldflu.about.com/od/flumisconceptions/f/stomachflu.htm |date=2011-07-07 }} by Kristina Duda, R.N.; Diakses 12 Maret 2007 (Website: "About, Inc., A part of The New York Times Company"). So-called "stomach flu" is sometimes also called "24-hour flu." Neither one is actually flu and are instead unrelated [[gastroenteritis]].</ref> Flu sok-sok bisa nimbulaké pneumonia kanthi langsung uga njalari pneumonia bakterial sékundhèr.<ref name="Ballinger-2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Ballinger | first1 = MN. | last2 = Standiford | first2 = TJ. | title = Postinfluenza bacterial pneumonia: host defenses gone awry. | journal = J Interferon Cytokine Res | volume = 30 | issue = 9 | pages = 643-52 |date=Sep 2010 | doi = 10.1089/jir.2010.0049 | PMID = 20726789 }}</ref> Lumrahé, influenza nular saka udara utawa wahin, sing bakal njalari ''[[aerosol]]'' sing ngandhut virus. Influenza uga bisa ditularraké merga tepungan karo ndemok tai manuk utawa [[umbel]], uga bisa liwat lumahan kang wis kena kontaminasi. Aerosol kang kagawa déning udara (airborne aerosols) dinuga nimbulaké sapérangan gedhé infèksi, sanajan jalur panularan endi kang paling duwé peran sajeroning lelara iki durung cetha temenan.<ref name=Brankston/> Virus influenza bisa diinaktivasi déning sinar [[srengéngé]], [[disinfektan]], lan [[deterjen]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Suarez |first=D |author2=Spackman E, Senne D, Bulaga L, Welsch A, Froberg K |title=The effect of various disinfectants on detection of avian influenza virus by real time RT-PCR |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_avian-diseases_july-september-2003_47_3/page/1091 |journal=Avian Dis |volume=47 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=1091–5 |year=2003 |pmid=14575118 |doi=10.1637/0005-2086-47.s3.1091}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/content/influenza/avianflu/biofacts/avflu_human.html Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)]: Implications for [[Disease|Human Disease]]. Physical characteristics of influenza A viruses. UMN CIDRAP.</ref> Asring ngumbah tangan bakal ngurangi risiko infèksi amarga virus bisa diinaktivasi karo sabun.<ref name="Jefferson-2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Jefferson | first1 = T. | last2 = Del Mar | first2 = C. | last3 = Dooley | first3 = L. | last4 = Ferroni | first4 = E. | last5 = Al-Ansary | first5 = LA. | last6 = Bawazeer | first6 = GA. | last7 = van Driel | first7 = ML. | last8 = Nair | first8 = S. | last9 = Foxlee | first9 = R. | title = Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses. | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = | issue = 1 | pages = CD006207 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD006207.pub3 | PMID = 20091588 }}</ref> Influenza nyebar menyang saindhenging donya sajeroning [[epidemi]] mangsan, kang nimbulaké pepati 250.000 lan 500.000 wong saben tauné,<ref>[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs211/en/ Influenza (Seasonal)], [[World Health Organization]], April 2009. Diaksès 13-02-2010.</ref> malah nganti mayuta-yuta wong ing sapérangan taun pandemik. Rata-rata 41.400 wong mati saben tauné ing [[Amérikah Sarékat]] sajeroning kurun wektu antara taun 1979 tekan 2001 amarga influenza.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/163/2/181 |title=Mortality due to Influenza in the United States — An Annualized Regression Approach Using Multiple-Cause Mortality Data | author=[[Jonathan Dushoff]] | journal =[[American Journal of Epidemiology]] | volume = 163| issue = 2| pages = 181–7|accessdate=2009-10-29 |quote=The regression modhèl attributes an annual average of 41,400 (95% confidence interval: 27,100, 55,700) deaths to influenza over the period 1979–2001. |work= |pmid=16319291 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwj024 |year=2006 |first2=JB |first3=C |first4=DJ |first5=L |last2=Plotkin |last3=Viboud |last4=Earn |last5=Simonsen }}</ref> Nalika taun 2010 [[Pusat Pangendhalian lan Panyegahan Lelara]] ing Amérikah Sarékat ngowahi carané nglapuraké prakiran pepati amarga influenza sajeroning 30 taun. Saiki Pusat Pangendhalian lan Panyegahan Lelara nglapuraké yèn ana kisaran angka pepati wiwit saka 3.300 nganti 49.000 pepati per tauné.<ref>{{cite news |author=[[Julie Steenhuysen]] |title=CDC backs away from decades-old flu death estimate |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE67P3NA20100826 |quote=Instead of the estimated 36,000 annual flu deaths in the United States... the actual number in the past 30 years has ranged from a low of about 3,300 deaths to a high of nearly 49,000, the CDC said on Thursday. |work=[[Reuters]] |date=August 26, 2010 |accessdate=2010-09-13 }}</ref> Telu pandemi influenza dumadi nalika abad karongpuluh lan wis niwasaké puluhan yuta wong. Saben pandemi mau disababaké déning munculé galur anyar [[virus]] iki ing manungsa. Asring uga, [[galur]] anyar iki muncul nalika virus flu kang wis ana nyebar ing manungsa saka [[spésies]] kéwan kang liya, utawa nalika galur virus influenza manungsa kang wis ana njupuk [[gen]] anyar saka virus kang lumrahé nginfèksi unggas utawa babi. Galur unggas kang diarani [[H5N1]] wis nimbulaké kakuwatiran munculé pandemi influenza anyar, sawisé kamunculané ing [[Asia]] nalika taun 1990-an, nanging virus mau durung [[évolusi]] dadi wangun kang nyebar kanthi gampang saka manungsa-menyang-manungsa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Avian influenza ("bird flu") fact sheet |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/avian_influenza/en/ |date=February 2006 |publisher=WHO |accessdate=2006-10-20}}</ref> Nalika sasi April 2009 sawijining galur virus flu anyar ngalami évolusi kang ngandhut campuran gen saka flu [[manungsa]], [[babi]], lan [[unggas]], kang ing awalé diarani "[[flu babi]]" lan uga ditepungi minangka [[Virus H1N1|influenza A/H1N1]], kang muncul ing [[Mèksiko]], [[Amérikah Sarékat]], lan sapérangan nagara liya. [[Organisasi Kaséhatan Donya]] (WHO) kanthi resmi ndhéklarasikaké wabah iki minangka pandemi nalika tanggal 11 Juni 2009 (delengen [[Wabah flu babi 2009|pandemi flu 2009]]). Dhéklarasi WHO ngenani pandemi tingkat 6 wujud indhikasi panyebaran virus, dudu abot-ènthèngé lelara, galur iki sajatiné duwé tingkat mortalitas kang luwih asor tinimbang wabah virus flu biyasa.<ref>World Health Organization. World now at the start of 2009 influenza pandemic. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2009/h1n1_pandemic_phase6_20090611/en/index.html</ref> [[Vaksin influenza|Vaksinasi marang influenza]] lumrahé sumadiya kanggo wong-wong ing [[nagara ngrembaka]].<ref name=WHOvaccines>[http://www.who.int/wer/2005/wer8033.pdf WHO position paper: influenza vaccines] ''WHO weekly Epidemiological Record'' 19 August 2005, vol. 80, 33, hal. 277–288.</ref> Kéwan ingon unggas asring divaksinasi kanggo nyegah tumpes tapisé kabèh kéwan ingon.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Villegas |first=P |title=Viral diseases of the respiratory system |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_poultry-science_1998-08_77_8/page/1143 |journal=Poult Sci |volume=77 |issue=8 |pages=1143–5 |year=1998 |pmid=9706079}}</ref> Vaksin kanggo manungsa kang paling asring dipigunakaké yaiku vaksin influenza trivalen (''trivalent influenza vaccine'' [TIV]) kang ngandhut [[antigen]] kang wis dimurnèkaké lan diinaktivasi marang telung galur virus. Lumrahé, vaksin jinis iki ngandhut matérial saka rong galur [[virus influenza A|virus influenza subtipe A]] lan [[virus influenza B|siji galur influenza subtipe B]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Horwood F, Macfarlane J |title=Pneumococcal and influenza vaccination: current situation and future prospects |journal=Thorax |volume=57 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=II24–II30 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12364707 |pmc=1766003 |url=http://thorax.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12364707}}</ref> TIV ora duwé risiko nularaké lelara, lan duwé réaktivitas kang asor banget. Vaksin kang diformulasikaké kanggo setaun mungkin dadi ora èfèktif kanggo taun sabanjuré, amarga virus influenza ngalami évolusi kanthi rikat, lan galur anyar bakal rikat nggantèkaké galur kang sadurungé. Obat-obatan antivirus bisa dipigunakaké kanggo nambani influenza, ''[[neuraminidase inhibitor]]'' (kaya ta Tamiflu utawa Relenza).<ref name=WHOmedrecDec2009>World Health Organization, Global Alert and Response (GAR), [http://www.who.int/csr/disease/swineflu/frequently_asked_questions/antivirals/definitions_use/en/index.html Antiviral drugs for pandemic (H1N1) 2009: definitions and use], 22 Dhésèmber 2009.</ref> <!--yang terutama efektif-->. == Klasifikasi == {{Flu}} === Jinis-jinis virus === Sajeroning [[Virus#Klasifikasi virus|klasifikasi virus]], virus influenza kalebu [[Virus#Virus RNA|virus RNA]] kang wujud telu saka lima [[genera]] sajeroning famili Oethomyxoviridae:<ref name=Kawaoka>{{cite book |author=Kawaoka Y (juru besut). |title=Influenza Virology: Current Topics |publisher=Caister Academic Press |year=2006 |url=http://www.horizonpress.com/flu |isbn=978-1-904455-06-6 |access-date=2012-03-18 |archive-date=2008-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509195454/http://www.horizonpress.com/flu |url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Virus influenza A]] * [[Virus influenza B]] * [[Virus influenza C]] Virus-virus mau duwé kakerabatan kang adoh karo [[virus parainfluenza manungsa]], kang wujud virus RNA kang wujud péranganing famili [[Paramyxoviridae#Paramyxovirus|paramyxovirus]] kang wujud jalaran umum saka infèksi [[sistem ambegan|ambegan]] ing bocah, kaya ta [[croup]] (laryngotracheobronchitis),<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vainionpää R, Hyypiä T |title=Biology of parainfluenza viruses |journal=Clin. Microbiol. Rev. |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=265–75 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8055470 |pmc=358320 |url=http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8055470}}</ref> nanging bisa uga nimbulaké lelara kang sarupa karo influenza ing wong diwasa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hall CB |title=Respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=344 |issue=25 |pages=1917–28 |date=June 2001 |pmid=11419430 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=11419430&promo=ONFLNS19 |doi=10.1056/NEJM200106213442507}}</ref> ==== Virus influenza A ==== Genus iki duwé siji spésies, virus influenza A. Unggas akuatik alasan wujud inang alamiah kanggo pérangan gedhé variétas influenza A. Sok-sok, virus bisa ditularaké marang spésies liya lan bisa nimbulaké wabah kang duwé dhampak gedhé ing paternakan unggas dhomèstik utawa nimbulaké sawijining [[pandemi]] influenza manungsa.<ref name=sobrino6>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.horizonpress.com/avir|author=Klenk|display-authors=etal|year=2008|chapter=Avian Influenza: Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis and Host Range|title=Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology|publisher=Caister Academic Press|isbn=978-1-904455-22-6|access-date=2012-03-18|archive-date=2016-08-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820202716/http://www.horizonpress.com/avir|url-status=dead}}</ref> Virus jinis A wujud patogèn manungsa paling virulen ing antarané katelu jinis influenza lan nimbulaké lelara kang paling abot. Virus influenza A bisa dipérang manèh dadi subdhivisi wujud [[serovar|serotipe-serotipe]] kang béda dhedhasar tanggepan [[antibodi]] marang virus iki.<ref name=hay/> Serotipe kang wis dikonfirmasi ing manungsa, diurutaké dhedhasar guènggung pepati pandemi ing manungsa, yaiku: * [[H1N1]], kang nimbulaké [[Flu Spanyol]] nalika taun 1918, lan [[Flu Babi]] nalika taun 2009 * [[H2N2]], kang nimbulaké [[Flu Asia]] nalika taun 1957 * [[H3N2]], kang nimbulaké [[Flu Hongkong]] nalika taun 1968 * [[H5N1]], kang nimbulaké [[Flu Manuk]] nalika taun 2004 * [[H7N7]], kang duwé potènsi [[zoanatik]] kang ora biyasa<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fouchier |first=R |author2=Schneeberger P, Rozendaal F, Broekman J, Kemink S, Munster V, Kuiken T, Rimmelzwaan G, Schutten M, Van Doornum G, Koch G, Bosman A, Koopmans M, Osterhaus A |title=Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) associated with human conjunctivitis and a fatal case of acute respiratory distress syndrome |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/5/1356 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA |volume=101 |issue=5 |pages=1356–61 |year=2004 |pmid=14745020 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0308352100 |last12=Bosman |first12=A |last13=Koopmans |first13=M |last14=Osterhaus |first14=AD |pmc=337057}}</ref> * [[H1N2]], endemik ing manungsa, babi, lan unggas * [[H9N2]] * [[H7N2]] * [[H7N3]] * [[H10N7]] ==== Virus influenza B ==== Genus iki duwé siji spésies, yaiku virus influenza B. Influenza B mèh kanthi èksklusif mung nyerang manungsa<ref name=hay>{{cite journal |last=Hay |first=A |author2=Gregory V, Douglas A, Lin Y |title=The evolution of human influenza viruses |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=356 |issue=1416 |pages=1861–70 |date=29 Dhésèmber 2001 |pmid=11779385 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0999 |pmc=1088562}}</ref> lan luwih arang dibandhingaké karo influenza A. Kéwan liya kang dikawruhi bisa kena infèksi déning influenza B yaiku [[asu laut]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Osterhaus |first=A |author2=Rimmelzwaan G, Martina B, Bestebroer T, Fouchier R |title=Influenza B virus in seals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2000-05-12_288_5468/page/1051 |journal=Science |volume=288 |issue=5468 |pages=1051–3 |year=2000 |pmid=10807575 |doi=10.1126/science.288.5468.1051}}</ref> lan [[garangan]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jakeman KJ, Tisdale M, Russell S, Leone A, Sweet C |title=Efficacy of 2'-deoxy-2'-fluororibosides against influenza A and B viruses in ferrets |journal=Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. |volume=38 |issue=8 |pages=1864–7 |date=August 1994 |pmid=7986023 |pmc=284652 |doi=|url=http://aac.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7986023}}</ref> Jinis influenza iki ngalami mutasi kaping 2-3 luwih alon dibandhingaké jinis A<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nobusawa |first=E |author2=Sato K |title=Comparison of the mutation rates of human influenza A and B viruses |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-virology_2006-04_80_7/page/3675 |journal=J Virol |volume=80 |issue=7 |pages=3675–8 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16537638 |doi=10.1128/JVI.80.7.3675-3678.2006 |pmc=1440390}}</ref> lan mula saka iku karagaman génétiké luwih sithik, mung ana siji serotipe influenza B.<ref name=hay/> Amarga ora ana karagaman [[antigen]]ik, sapérangan tingkat [[imunitas|kakebalan]] marang influenza B lumrahé dièntuki ing umur enom. Nanging, mutasi kang dumadi ing virus influenza B cukup kanggo gawé kakebalan permanèn dadi ora mungkin.<ref name=webster>{{cite journal |first=Webster |last=R |author2=Bean W, Gorman O, Chambers T, Kawaoka Y |title=Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses |pmc=372859 |journal=Microbiol Rev |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=152–79 |year=1992 |pmid=1579108}}</ref> Owah-owahan antigèn kang alon, dikombinasikaké karo gunggung inang kang winates (ora mungkinaké [[pepindhahan antigèn]] antarspesies), agawé pandemi influenza B ora dumadi.<ref name=Zambon>{{cite journal |last=Zambon |first=M |title=Epidemiology and pathogenesis of influenza |journal=J Antimicrob Chemother |volume=44 Suppl B |issue=|pages=3–9 |date=November 1999 |pmid=10877456 |url=http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/44/suppl_2/3 |doi=10.1093/jac/44.suppl_2.3}}</ref> ==== Virus influenza C ==== Genus iki duwé siji spésies, virus influenza C, kang nginfèksi manungsa, asu, lan babi, sok-sok nimbulaké lelara kang abot lan èpidemi lokal.<ref name="Matsuzaki">{{cite journal |last=Matsuzaki |first=Y |author2=Sugawara K, Mizuta K, Tsuchiya E, Muraki Y, Hongo S, Suzuki H, Nakamura K |title=Antigenic and genetic characterization of influenza C viruses which caused two outbreaks in Yamagata City, Japan, in 1996 and 1998 |pmc=153379 |journal=J Clin Microbiol |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=422–9 |year=2002 |pmid=11825952 |doi=10.1128/JCM.40.2.422-429.2002}}</ref><ref name=Taubenberger2008/> Nanging, influenza C luwih arang dumadi dibandhingaké karo jinis liya lan lumrahé mung nimbulaké lelara ènthèng ing bocah-bocah.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Matsuzaki |first=Y |author2=Katsushima N, Nagai Y, Shoji M, Itagaki T, Sakamoto M, Kitaoka S, Mizuta K, Nishimura H |title=Clinical features of influenza C virus infection in children |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_2006-05-01_193_9/page/1229 |journal=J Infect Dis |volume=193 |issue=9 |pages=1229–35 |date=1 Mèi 2006|pmid=16586359 |doi=10.1086/502973}}</ref><ref name="Katagiri">{{cite journal |last=Katagiri |first=S |author2=Ohizumi A, Homma M |title=An outbreak of type C influenza in a children's home |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_1983-07_148_1/page/51 |journal=J Infect Dis |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=51–6 |date=July 1983 |pmid=6309999}}</ref> === Struktur, sipat, lan tata jeneng subtipe === Virus influenza A, B, lan C sarupa banget ing struktur sakabèhé.<ref>International Committee on Taxanamy of Viruses descriptions of: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/46000000.htm Orthomyxoviridae] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002234624/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/46000000.htm |date=2006-10-02 }}, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/46040000.htm Influenzavirus B] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006034903/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/46040000.htm |date=2007-10-06 }} and [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/00.046.0.02.htm Influenzavirus C] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231084902/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/00.046.0.02.htm |date=2009-12-31 }}</ref> Partikel virus iki dhiameteré 80-120 [[nanometer]] lan lumrahé kurang-luwih wanguné kaya bal, sanadyan wangun filamèntosa mungkin waé ana.<ref>{{cite web |author=International Committee on Taxanamy of Viruses |title=The Universal Virus Database, version 4: Influenza A |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/00.046.0.01.htm |access-date=2012-03-18 |archive-date=2010-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113220345/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/00.046.0.01.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Lamb>{{cite journal |author=Lamb RA, Choppin PW |title=The gene structure and replication of influenza virus |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-biochemistry_1983_52_annual/page/467 |journal=Annu. Rev. Biochem. |volume=52 |issue=|pages=467–506 |year=1983 |pmid=6351727 |doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.52.070183.002343}}</ref> Wangun filamèntosa iki luwih asring dumadi ing influenza C, kang bisa minangka struktur kaya bolah kanthi dawa tekan 500 [[mikrometer]] ing lumahan saka sèl kang kena infèksi.<ref name=Bouvier/> Nanging, sanadyan manéka wanguné, partikel saka kabèh virus influenza duwé komposisi kang padha.<ref name=Bouvier/> Komposisi mau wujud [[envelope virus]] kang ngandhut loro jinis [[glikoprotein]], kang mbungkus sawijining inti punjer. Inti punjer mau ngandhut [[genom]] [[RNA]] lan protèin viral liya kang mbungkus lan ngreksa RNA. RNA ''cenderung'' kapérang saka sauntaian nanging ing kasus-kasus mirunggan bisa wujud rong untaian.<ref name=Lamb/> Ing virus, génom virus ora kapérang saka rerangkèn [[asem nukleat]]; nanging lumrahé kapérang saka pitu utawa wolung pérangan RNA ''[[negative-sense]]'' kang kasègmèntasi, saben pérangan RNA ngandhut siji utawa loro gèn.<ref name=Bouvier/> Contoné, génom influenza A ngandhut 11 gèn sajeroning wolung pérangan RNA, kang ngodhe 11 [[protèin]]: [[hemagglutinin]] (HA), [[neuraminidase]] (NA), [[nukleoprotein]] (NP), [[protèin M1|M1]], [[protèin M2|M2]], [[protèin NS1 influenza|NS1]], NS2 (NEP: ''nuclear export protéin''), PA, PB1 (''polymerase basic'' 1), PB1-F2 lan PB2.<ref name=Ghedin>{{cite journal |last=Ghedin |first=E | last2 = Sengamalay | first2 = NA | last3 = Shumway | first3 = M | last4 = Zaborsky | first4 = J | last5 = Feldblyum | first5 = T | last6 = Subbu | first6 = V | last7 = Spiro | first7 = DJ | last8 = Sitz | first8 = J | last9 = Koo | first9 = H |title=Large-scale sequencing of human influenza reveals the dynamic nature of viral genome evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-10-20_437_7062/page/1162 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=437 |issue=7062 |pages=1162–6 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16208317 |doi=10.1038/nature04239 }}</ref> Hemagglutinin (HA) lan neuraminidase (NA) wujud loro flikoprotèin gedhé kang ana ing sanjabaning partikel virus. HA wujud [[lektin]] kang dadi mèdhiasi ikatan (binding) virus marang sèl targèt lan lumebuné génom virus ing sèl targèt, sauntara NA kalibat sajeroning uculé anak virus saka sèl kang kainfèksi, kanthi nyigar gula kang silih iket ing partikel virus diwasa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Suzuki |first=Y |title=Sialobiology of influenza: molecular mechanism of host range variation of influenza viruses |url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/bpb/28/3/399/_pdf |journal=Biol Pharm Bull |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=399–408 |year=2005 |pmid=15744059 |doi=10.1248/bpb.28.399 |access-date=2012-03-18 |archive-date=2009-01-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112023059/http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/bpb/28/3/399/_pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Oleh karena itu, protéin ini merupakan target bagi obat-obat antivirus.<ref name=Itzstein>{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=J |author2=von Itzstein M |title=Recent strategies in the search for new anti-influenza therapies |journal=Curr Drug Targets |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=389–408 |date=July 2003 |pmid=12816348 |doi=10.2174/1389450033491019}}</ref> Lan manèh, kaloroné wujud antigèn, ing endi antibodi marang antigèn mau bisa diriptakaké. Virus influenza A diklasifikasikaké dadi subtipe dhedhasar rèspons antibodi marang HA lan NA. Jinis-jinis HA lan NA mau wujud pambédan H lan N sajeroning pamènèhan jeneng virus, umpamané H5N1.<ref name=Hilleman/> Ana 16 subtipe H lan 9 subtipe N kang wis dikawruhi, nanging mung H 1, 2, lan 3, sarta N 1 lan 2 kang lumrahé tinemu ing manungsa.<ref name=Lynch>{{cite journal |author=Lynch JP, Walsh EE |title=Influenza: evolving strategies in treatment and prevention |journal=Semin Respir Crit Care Med |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=144–58 |date=April 2007 |pmid=17458769 |doi=10.1055/s-2007-976487}}</ref> === Réplikasi === Virus bisa nglakoni réplikasi mung ing sèl urip.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Smith AE, Helenius A |title=How viruses enter animal cells |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-04-09_304_5668/page/237 |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5668 |pages=237–42 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15073366 |doi=10.1126/science.1094823}}</ref> Infèksi lan réplikasi influenza wujud prosès mawa tahap: pisanan, virus kudu gawé ikatan karo sèl lan ngleboni sèl, banjur mindhahaké genomé ing sawijining papan ing endi virus mau bisa mrodhuksi dhuplikat saka protèin virus lan RNA, banjur nyusun komponèn-komponèn mau dadi partikel virus anyar, lan pungkasan, metu saka sèl inang.<ref name=Bouvier>{{cite journal |author=Bouvier NM, [[Peter Palese|Palese P]] |title=The biology of influenza viruses |journal=Vaccine |volume=26 Suppl 4 |pages=D49–53 |date=September 2008 |pmid=19230160 |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.07.039}}</ref> Virus influenza gawé ikatan liwat [[hemagglutinin]] karo gula [[asem sialat]] ing lumahing [[epitelium|sèl èpitèl]], lumrahé ing irung, tenggorok, lan [[paru-paru]] mamalia, lan usus unggas (tahap 1 ing gambar infèksi).<ref name=Wagner>{{cite journal |last=Wagner |first=R |author2=Matrosovich M, Klenk H |title=Functional balance between haemagglutinin and neuraminidase in influenza virus infections |journal=Rev Med Virol |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=159–66 |date=May 2002|pmid=11987141 |doi=10.1002/rmv.352}}</ref> Sawisé hemagglutinin [[proteolisis|dipecah]] déning [[protease]], sèl bakal nglebokaké virus liwat prosès [[endositosis]].<ref name=Steinhauer>{{cite journal |author=Steinhauer DA |title=Role of hemagglutinin cleavage for the pathogenicity of influenza virus |url=https://archive.org/details/virology_1999-05-25_258_1/page/1 |journal=Virology |volume=258 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |date=May 1999 |pmid=10329563 |doi=10.1006/viro.1999.9716}}</ref> Sawisé ana ing njero sèl, kaanan asem sajeroning [[éndosom]] bakal njalari loro kedadèn dumadi: pisanan, péranganing protèin hemagglutinin bakal nyawijikaké envelope virus karo mèmbran vakuola, banjur [[kanal ion]] M2 bakal mungkinaké [[proton]] kanggo pindhah ngliwati envelope virus lan ngasamaké inti virus, kang bakal nyababaké inti dadi kaurai lan ngeculaké RNA virus lan protèin inti.<ref name=Bouvier/> Molekul RNA virus (vRNA), protèin aksesoris, lan RNA polymerase kang gumantung ing RNA (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase) bakal dieculaké ing sitoplasma (Tahap 2).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lakadamyali |first=M |author2=Rust M, Babcock H, Zhuang X |title=Visualizing infection of individual influenza viruses |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2003-08-05_100_16/page/9280 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA |volume=100 |issue=16 |pages=9280–5 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12883000 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0832269100 |pmc=170909}}</ref> Kanal ion M2 bakal disekat (diblok) déning obat amantadine, kang bakal nyegah infèksi.<ref name=Pinto>{{cite journal |author=Pinto LH, Lamb RA |title=The M2 proton channels of influenza A and B viruses |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=281 |issue=14 |pages=8997–9000 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16407184 |doi=10.1074/jbc.R500020200 |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16407184 }}{{Pranala mati|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Protèin inti iki bebarengan karo vRNA bakal minangka komplèks kang bakal ditranspor menyang [[inti sèl]], ing endi polimerase RNA kang gumantung RNA bakal miwiti transkripsi vRNA komplemèntèr sense positif (langkah 3a lan b).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cros |first=J |author2=Palese P |title=Trafficking of viral genomic RNA into and out of the nucleus: influenza, Thogoto and Borna disease viruses |journal=Virus Res |volume=95 |issue=1–2 |pages=3–12 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12921991 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1702(03)00159-X}}</ref> vRNA bisa metu nuju sitoplasma lan ngalami translasi (langkah 4) utawa tetep ''bertahan'' ing nukléus. Protèin virus kang anyar disintèsis bisa disèkrèsi liwat [[apparatus Golgi]] nuju lumahing sèl (ing neuraminidase lan hemagglutinin, langkah 5b) utawa ditranspor manèh nuju inti sèl kanggo gawé ikatan karo vRNA lan minangka partikel génom virus kang anyar (langkah 5a). Protèin virus liyané duwé makarya kang manéka ing sèl inang, kalebu ngurai [[mRNA]] sèlulèr lan migunakaké [[nukléotida]] bébas kanggo sintèsis vRNA lan uga nyandhet translasi mRNA lan uga nyandhet [[translasi (biologi)|translasi]] mRNA sèl inang.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kash |first=J |author2=Goodman A, Korth M, Katze M |title=Hijacking of the host-cell response and translational control during influenza virus infection |journal=Virus Res |volume=119 |issue=1 |pages=111–20 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16630668 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2005.10.013}}</ref> vRNA ''negative-sense'' kang [[génom]] saka calon virus, RNA polimerase kang gumantung RNA (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase), lan protèin virus liya bakal disusun dadi virion. Molekul hemagglutinin lan neuraminidase bakal gawé golongan minangka sawijining tonjolan ing lumahing sèl. vRNA lan protèin [[capsid|inti virus]] bakal ninggal inti sèl lan ngeboni panonjolan mèmbran iki (langkah 6). Virus diwasa bakal nglakokaké budding off saka sèl sajeroning sawijining wangun bal kang kapérang saka mèmbran fosfolipid inang, éntuk hemagglutinin lan neuraminidase kang kakandhut sajeroning lapisan mèmbran iki (langkah 7).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nayak |first=D |author2=Hui E, Barman S |title=Assembly and budding of influenza virus |journal=Virus Res |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=147–65 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15567494 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2004.08.012}}</ref> Kaya sadurungé, virus bakal gawé ikatan liwat hemagglutinin; virus diwasa bakal ngeculaké dhiri yèn [[neuraminidase]]é wis mecah résidhu asem sialat saka sèl inang.<ref name=Wagner/> Obat kang nyandhet neuraminidase, kaya déné [[oseltamivir]], bakal nyegah uculé virus infèksius anyar lan nyegah réplikasi virus.<ref name=Itzstein/> Sawisé uculé virus influenza anyar, sèl inang bakal mati. Amarga ora anané ènzim [[proofreading (biologi)|proofreading]] RNA, polimerase RNA kang gumantung RNA kang ngopi génom virus bakal nglakokaké kasalahan kurang luwih saben 10 éwu nukléotida, kang selaras karo rata-rata saka vRNA influenza. Mula saka iku, sapérangan gedhé saka virus influenza kang rampung dironcé iku mutan; iki bakal nimbulaké [[hanyutan antigèn]], kang wujud owah-owahan alon ing antigèn ing lumahing virus sairing karo lumakuné wektu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Drake |first=J |title=Rates of spontaneous mutation among RNA viruses |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA |volume=90 |issue=9 |pages=4171–5 |date=1 Mèi 1993|pmid=8387212 |doi=10.1073/pnas.90.9.4171 |pmc=46468}}</ref> Pamisahan génom dadi wolu sègmèn vRNA kang kapisah mungkinaké panyampuran utawa [[reassortment]] saka vRNA yèn punjul sajinis virus influenza nginfèksi sawijining sèl tunggal. Iki bakal nimbulaké owah-owahan rikat saka génétika virus kang bakal nimbulaké [[papindhahan antigèn]], kang wujud owah-owahan dumadakan saka sawijining antigèn menyang antigèn liyané. Owah-owahan gedhé kang dadakan mungkinaké virus kanggo nginfèksi spésies inang anyar lan bisa kanthi rikat ngatasi kakebalan protèktif kang wis ana.<ref name=Hilleman/> Iki wigati sajeroning mékanisme munculé pandemi, kang didhiskusikaké ing ngisor iki sajeroning pérangan [[#Epidemiologi|Epidemiologi]]. == Tandha lan tandha-tandha == {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center; width:40%;" |+ Tandha-tandha kang paling sènsitif kanggo ndhiagnosis influenza <ref name="pmid15728170"/> ! Tandha-tandha: !! [[Sènsitivitas (pacoban)|Sènsitivitas]] !! [[Spésifisitas (pacoban)|Spésivisitas]] |- ! Mriyang |68–86% ||25–73% |- ! Watuk |84–98% || 7–29% |- ! Irung mampet |68–91% ||19–41% |- | colspan="3" style="text-align:left;"| <small> * Katelu temuan mau, mligi mriyang, kurang sènsitif marang pasièn kanthi umur punjul 60 taun.</small> |} Tandha-tandha influenza bisa diwiwiti kanthi rikat, sadina nganti rong dina sawisé infèksi. Lumrahé tandha-tandha pisanan yaiku ndrodhog utawa rumangsa adhem, nanging mriyang uga asring dumadi ing awal infèksi, kanthi suhu awak watara 38-39&nbsp;°C (kurang luwih 100-103&nbsp;°F).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Suzuki E, Ichihara K, Johnson AM |title=Natural course of fever during influenza virus infection in children |journal=Clin Pediatr (Phila) |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=76–9 |date=January 2007 |pmid=17164515 |doi=10.1177/0009922806289588}}</ref> Akèh wong krasa lara banget saéngga ora bisa tangi saka papan anggoné turu suwéné pirang-pirang dina, kanthi rasa lara lan nyeri saawak, kang krasa luwih abot ing tlatah geger lan sikil.<ref name=Merck /> Tandha-tandha influenza bisa ngambah: * Mriyang lan krasa adhem kang èkstrem (ndrodhog, gumeter) * Watuk * Irung mampet * Nyeri awak, mligi sendhi lan tenggorok * Kekeselen * Nyeri sirah * Iritasi mata, mata mbanyu * Mata abang, kulit abang (mligi rai), sarta semu abang ing tutuk, tenggorok, lan irung * [[Ruam petechiae]] <ref name="pmid10476766">{{cite journal |author=Silva ME, Cherry JD, Wilton RJ, Ghafouri NM, Bruckner DA, Miller MJ |title=Acute fever and petechial rash associated with influenza A virus infection |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_1999-08_29_2/page/453 |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases: an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=453–4 |date=August 1999 |pmid=10476766 |doi=10.1086/520240}}</ref> * Ing bocah, tandha-tandha gastrointestinal kaya déné [[diare]] lan nyeri [[abdomen]],<ref name=Richards/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Heikkinen T |title=Influenza in children |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_acta-paediatrica_2006-07_95_7/page/778 |journal=Acta Paediatr. |volume=95 |issue=7 |pages=778–84 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16801171 |doi=10.1080/08035250600612272}}</ref> (bisa dumadi parah ing bocah kanthi influenza B) <ref>{{cite journal |author=Kerr AA, McQuillin J, Downham MA, Gardner PS |title=Gastric 'flu influenza B causing abdominal symptoms in children |journal=Lancet |volume=1 |issue=7902 |pages=291–5 |year=1975 |pmid=46444 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(75)91205-2}}</ref> Sok-sok angèl mbédakaké antarané [[selesma]] lan influenza ing tahap awal saka infèksi iki,<ref name=Eccles/> nanging flu bisa diidhèntifikasi yèn ana mriyang dhuwur ndadak kanthi rasa kesel kang èkstrém. Diare lumrahé dudu tandha-tandha saka influenza bocah,<ref name="pmid15728170"/> nanging iki bisa ditemoni ing sapérangan kasus "flu manuk" H5N1 ing manungsa<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hui DS |title=Review of clinical symptoms and spectrum in humans with influenza A/H5N1 infection |journal=Respirology |volume=13 Suppl 1 |issue=|pages=S10–3 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18366521 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-1843.2008.01247.x}}</ref> lan bisa dadi tandha-tandha ing bocah-bocah.<ref name=Richards>{{cite journal |author=Richards S |title=Flu blues |journal=Nurs Stand |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=26–7 |year=2005 |pmid=16295596}}</ref> Tandha-tandha kang paling asring ana ing influenza dituduhaké ing tabèl ing sisih tengen.<ref name="pmid15728170">{{cite journal |author=Call S, Vollenweider M, Hornung C, Simel D, McKinney W |title=Does this patient have influenza? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2005-02-23_293_8/page/987 |journal=JAMA |volume=293 |issue=8 |pages=987–97 |year=2005 |doi=10.1001/jama.293.8.987 |pmid=15728170}}</ref> Amarga obat-obat antivirus èfèktif sajeroning nambani influenza yèn diwènèhaké kawit awal (deleng pérangan [[#Terapi|terapi]] ing ngisor), wigati kanggo ngidhèntifikasi kasus kanthi gasik. Saka tandha-tandha-tandha-tandha kang disebutaké ing ndhuwur, kombinasi mriyang karo watuk, nyeri tenggorok lan/utawa irung mampet bisa ngundhakaké akurasi diagnositik.<ref name="pmid11088084">{{cite journal |author=Monto A, Gravenstein S, Elliott M, Colopy M, Schweinle J |title=Clinical signs and symptoms predicting influenza infection |journal=Arch Intern Med |volume=160 |issue=21 |pages=3243–7 |year=2000 |pmid=11088084 | doi=10.1001/archinte.160.21.3243 |url=http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/160/21/3243}}</ref> Loro panalitèn analisis kaputusan<ref name="pmif12361816">{{cite journal |author=Smith K, Roberts M |title=Cost-effectiveness of newer treatment strategies for influenza |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-medicine_2002-09_113_4/page/300 |journal=Am J Med |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=300–7 |year=2002 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9343(02)01222-6 |pmid=12361816}}</ref><ref name="pimd12965940">{{cite journal |author=Rothberg M, Bellantonio S, Rose D |title=Management of influenza in adults older than 65 years of age: cost-effectiveness of rapid testing and antiviral therapy |journal=Ann Intern Med |volume=139 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=321–9 |date=2 Sèptèmber 2003|url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/abstract/139/5_Part_1/321 |pmid=12965940 }}</ref> nuduhaké yèn nalika ana wabah influenza lokal, [[prevalensi]]né punjul 70%,<ref name="pimd12965940"/> Mula pasièn kanthi salah siji kombinasi saka tandha-tandha mau bisa ditambani kanthi [[inhibitor neuraminidase]] tanpa pamriksan. Malah nalika ora anané wabah lokal, pangobatan bisa dibeneraké ing pasièn tuwa nalika mangsa influenza suwéné prévalènsiné punjul 15%.<ref name="pimd12965940"/> Kasumadyan pamriksan laboratorium kanggo influenza terus ngalami paningkatan. [[Punjer Pangendhalian lan Panyegahan Lelara]] (CDC) Amérikah Sarékat, ngrangkum pamriksan laboratorium paling anyar kang cumawis.<ref>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [http://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/diagnosis/ Lab Diagnosis of Influenza.] Diaksès 1 Mèi 2009</ref> Miturut CDC, pamriksan diagnostik rikat (rapid diagnostic test) duwé sènsitivitas 70-75% lan spésifisitas 90-95% dibandhingaké karo kultur virus. Pamriksan iki mligi migunani ing mangsa influenza (prévalènsi = 25%) tanpa anané wabah langsung, utawa mangsa periinfluenza (prévalènsi = 10%<ref name="pimd12965940"/>). == Mekanisme == === Panularan === ''Shedding'' virus influenza (wektu ing ngendi sawijining wong bisa nularaké virus marang wong liya) diwiwiti sadina sadurungé tandha-tandha muncul lan virus bakal diuculaké suwéné antara 5 tekan 7 dina, sanajan sapérangan wong mungkin ngeculaké virus suwéné périodhe kang luwih suwé. Wong kang katular influenza paling infèktif ing dina kaloro lan katelu sawisé infèksi.<ref name=Carrat>{{cite journal |author=Carrat F, Luong J, Lao H, Sallé A, Lajaunie C, Wackernagel H |title=A 'small-world-like' modhèl for comparing interventions aimed at preventing and controlling influenza pandemics |pmc=1626479 |journal=BMC Med |volume=4 |issue=|page=26 |year=2006|pmid=17059593 |doi=10.1186/1741-7015-4-26}}</ref> Gunggung virus kang diculaké katoné gegandhèngan karo mriyang, gunggung virus kang diculaké luwih gedhé nalika suhuné luwih dhuwur.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|title = CDC H1N1 Flu : Updated Interim Recommendations for the Use of Antiviral Medications in the Treatment and Prevention of Influenza for the 2009-2010 Season|url=http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/recommendations.htm}}</ref> Bocah-bocah luwih infèksius tinimbang wong diwasa lan bocah mau ngeculaké virus sadurungé ngalami tandha-tandha nganti rong minggu sawisé infèksi.<ref name=Carrat/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Mitamura K, Sugaya N |title=[Diagnosis and Treatment of influenza—clinical investigation on [[viral shedding]] in children with influenza] |journal=Uirusu |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=109–16 |year=2006 |pmid=17038819 |doi=10.2222/jsv.56.109}}</ref> Panularan influenza bisa [[modhèl matématis lelara nular|dimodhèlaké kanthi matématis]], kang bakal mbantu sajeroning prédhiksi kepriyé virus nyebar sajeroning populasi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grassly NC, Fraser C |title=Mathematical models of infectious disease transmission |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=477–87 |date=June 2008 |pmid=18533288 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1845}}</ref> Influenza bisa disebaraké sajeroning telu cara utama:<ref name=Weber>{{cite journal |author=Weber TP, Stilianakis NI |title=Inactivation of influenza A viruses in the environment and modes of transmission: a critical review |journal=J. Infect. |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=361–73 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18848358 |doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2008.08.013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hall CB |title=The spread of influenza and other respiratory viruses: complexities and conjectures |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=353–9 |date=August 2007 |pmid=17599315 |doi=10.1086/519433 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/519433}}</ref> lumantar panularan langsung (nalika wong kang kainfèksi wahing, ana ilu irung kang lumebu kanthi langsung menyang mata, irung, lan tutuk saka wong liya); lumantar udara (nalika sawijining wong nyedhot aerosol (butiran cuwèran cilik sajeroning udara) kang diasilaké nalika wong kang kainfèksi watuk, wahing, utawa idu), lan lumantar panularan tangan-menyang-mata, tangan-menyang-irung, utawa tangan-menyang-tutuk, saka lumahan kang kakontaminasi utawa saka kontak personal langsung kaya déné salaman. Modhèl panularan endi kang paling wigati isih durung cetha, nanging kabèh duwé kontribusi sajeroning panyebaran virus.<ref name=Brankston>{{cite journal |author=Brankston G, Gitterman L, Hirji Z, Lemieux C, Gardam M |title=Transmission of influenza A in human beings |journal=Lancet Infect Dis |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=257–65 |date=April 2007 |pmid=17376383 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70029-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Tellier R |title=Review of aerosol transmission of influenza A virus |journal=Emerging Infect. Dis. |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=1657–62 |date=November 2006 |pmid=17283614 |doi=|url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no11/06-0426.htm}}</ref> Ing rute panularan udara, ukuran droplèt kang cukup cilik kanggo disedhot duwé dhiameter 0,5 nganti 5 [[Mikrometer|μm]] lan inhalasi sadroplèt mungkin cukup kanggo nimbulaké infèksi.<ref name=Weber/> Sanajan sapisan wahing bisa ngeculaké nganti 40.000 droplèt,<ref name=Cole_1998>{{cite journal |author=Cole E, Cook C |title=Characterization of infectious aerosols in health care facilities: an aid to effective engineering controls and preventive strategies |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-infection-control_1998-08_26_4/page/453 |journal=Am J Infect Control |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=453–64 |year=1998 |pmid=9721404 | doi=10.1016/S0196-6553(98)70046-X}}</ref> sapérangan gedhé saka droplèt mau cukup gedhé lan bakal ilang saka udara kanthi rikat.<ref name=Weber/> Pira suwéné virus influenza bisa tahan sajeroning droplèt udara katoné diprabawai déning kadhar kalembaban lan [[Ultraungu|radhiasi ultraviolèt]]: kalembaban asor lan kurangé [[cahya]] [[srengéngé]] ing [[mangsa adhem]] mbantu tahané virus iki.<ref name=Weber/> Amarga virus influenza bisa tahan ing njaba awak, virus iki uga bisa ditularaké liwat lumahan kang kakontaminasi kaya déné lembaran [[dhuwit]],<ref name=Thomas>{{cite journal |author=Thomas Y, Vogel G, Wunderli W|display-authors=etal|title=Survival of influenza virus on banknotes |journal=Appl. Environ. Microbiol. |volume=74 |issue=10 |pages=3002–7 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18359825 |pmc=2394922 |doi=10.1128/AEM.00076-08}}</ref> gagang lawang, saklar lampu, lan bandha-bandha rumah tangga liyané.<ref name=Merck/> Suwéné wektu virus bisa tahan marang sawijining lumahan manéka wektuné, virus bisa tahan suwéné sadina utawa rong dina ing lumahan kang atos lan ora duwé pori kaya déné [[plastik]] utawa métal, suwéné kurang luwih limalas menit ing [[kertas]] tissue garing, lan mung limang menit ing [[kulit]].<ref name=Moore>{{cite journal |author=Bean B, Moore BM, Sterner B, Peterson LR, Gerding DN, Balfour HH |title=Survival of influenza viruses on environmental surfaces |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_1982-07_146_1/page/47 |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=146 |issue=1 |pages=47–51 |date=July 1982 |pmid=6282993}}</ref> Nanging, yèn virus ana sajeroning mukus/lendhir, lendhir mau bisa ngreksa virus saéngga tahan ing sajeroning wektu kang suwé (nganti 17 dina ing dhuwit kertas).<ref name=Weber/><ref name=Thomas/> Virus flu manuk bisa tahan ing sajeroning wektu kang durung dikawruhi nalika ana sajeroning kaanan beku.<ref name=cfsph>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/influenza.pdf |title=Influenza Factsheet|publisher=Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University}} hal. 7</ref> Virus ngalami inaktivasi déning pamanasan nganti 56&nbsp;°C (133&nbsp;°F) suwéné minimun 60 menit, lan uga déning asem (ing pH <2).<ref name=cfsph/> === Patofisiologi === Mékanisme kepriyé infèksi influenza bisa nimbulaké tandha-tandha ing manungsa wis disinaoni kanthi intènsif. Salah saji mékanisme kang dipercaya yaiku kanthi inhibisi hormon adrenokortikotropik (ACTH/Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) kang nimbulaké pamudhunan kadhar hormon kortisol.<ref name=jefferies1998>{{cite journal |author=Jefferies WM, Turner JC, Lobo M, Gwaltney JM Jr. |title=Low plasma levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone in patients with acute influenza. |journal=Clin Infect Dis. |volume=26 |issue=26 |pages=708–10 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/514594 |year=1998 |pmid=9524849 |pmc= |doi=10.1086/514594 }}{{Pranala mati|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ngawruhi gèn endi kang sok sajeroning galur virus tinentu bisa mbiyantu mrédhiksi kepriyé virus mau bisa nular lan sepira aboté infèksi kang bakal dumadi (mrédhiksi [[patofisiologi]] saka sawijining galur virus).<ref name=Taubenberger2008>{{cite journal | last1 = Taubenberger | first1 = JK | last2 = Morens | first2 = DM |title=The pathology of influenza virus infections |journal=Annu Rev Pathol |volume=3 |issue=|pages=499–522 |year=2008 |pmid=18039138 |pmc=2504709 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pathmechdis.3.121806.154316}}</ref><ref name=Korteweg>{{cite journal |author=Korteweg C, Gu J |title=Pathology, molecular biology, and pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans |journal=Am. J. Pathol. |volume=172 |issue=5 |pages=1155–70 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18403604 |pmc=2329826 |doi=10.2353/ajpath.2008.070791}}</ref> Contoné, péranganing prosès kang mungkinaké virus influenza nginvasi sawijining sèl yaiku panguraian saka protèin hemagglutinin virus déning salah saji ènzim [[protease]] manungsa.<ref name=Steinhauer/> Ing virus kang infèksiné asifat ringan lan avirulèn, struktur hémagglutinin kang ana mung bisa diurai déning protease kang tinemu sajeroning tenggorok lan paru, saéngga virus iki ora bisa nginfèksi jaringan liya. Nanging, ing galur kang virulèn banget, kaya ta H5N1, hémagglutinin kang kakandhut sajeroning virus bisa diurai déning variétas protease kang manéka, saéngga mungkinaké virus nyebar menyang sakabèhing awak.<ref name=Korteweg/> Protèin hémagglutinin virus duwé tanggung jawab sajeroning nemtokaké spésiès endi kang bisa diinfèksi déning sawijining galur virus uga papan [[saluran ambegan]] endi kang bisa duwé ikatan karo sawijining galur virus influenza.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nicholls JM, Chan RW, Russell RJ, Air GM, Peiris JS |title=Evolving complexities of influenza virus and its receptors |journal=Trends Microbiol. |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=149–57 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18375125 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2008.01.008}}</ref> Galur kang bisa ditularaké kanthi gampang saka manungsa-marang-manungsa duwé protèin hémagglutinin kang duwé ikatan karo résèptor ing saluran ambegan pérangan ndhuwur, kaya ta ing irung, tenggorok, lan tutuk. Suwaliké, strain H5N1 kang mbebayani banget duwé ikatan karo résèptor kang paling akèh tinemu ing njero paru.<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Riel D, Munster VJ, de Wit E|display-authors=etal|title=H5N1 Virus Attachment to Lower Respiratory Tract |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-04-21_312_5772/page/n88|journal=Science |volume=312 |issue=5772 |page=399 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16556800 |doi=10.1126/science.1125548}}</ref> Prabédan ing papan infèksi iki mungkin wujud péranganing alesan ngapa galur H5N1 nimbulaké pnéumonia virus kang abot ing paru, nanging ora ditularaké kanthi gampang liwat watuk lan wahing.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shinya K, Ebina M, Yamada S, Ono M, Kasai N, Kawaoka Y |title=Avian flu: influenza virus receptors in the human airway |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-03-23_440_7083/page/435 |journal=Nature |volume=440 |issue=7083 |pages=435–6 |date=March 2006 |pmid=16554799 |doi=10.1038/440435a}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=van Riel D, Munster VJ, de Wit E|display-authors=etal|title=Human and avian influenza viruses target different cells in the lower respiratory tract of humans and other mammals |journal=Am. J. Pathol. |volume=171 |issue=4 |pages=1215–23 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17717141 |pmc=1988871 |doi=10.2353/ajpath.2007.070248}}</ref> Tandha-tandha kang asring ana ing flu kaya ta mriyang, sirak cekot-cekot, lan kekeselen wujud asil saka sapérangan gedhé [[sitokin]] lan [[chemokin]] proinflamasi (kaya ta [[interferon]] utawa ''[[tumor necrosis factor]]'' (TNF)) kang diprodhuksi déning sèl kang kainfèksi influenza.<ref name=Eccles/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Schmitz N, Kurrer M, Bachmann M, Kopf M |title=Interleukin-1 is responsible for acute lung immunopathology but increases survival of respiratory influenza virus infection |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-virology_2005-05_79_10/page/6441 |journal=J Virol |volume=79 |issue=10 |pages=6441–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15858027 | doi=10.1128/JVI.79.10.6441-6448.2005 |pmc=1091664}}</ref> Ora kaya rhinovirus kang nimbulaké selesma (common cold/masuk angin), influenza nimbulaké karusakan jaringan, saéngga tandha-tandha kang dumadi ora kabèh disebabaké déning rèspons inflamasi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Winther B, Gwaltney J, Mygind N, Hendley J |title=Viral-induced rhinitis |journal=Am J Rhinol |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=17–20 |year=1998|pmid=9513654 |doi=10.2500/105065898782102954}}</ref> Rèspons imun kang gedhé iki bisa nimbulaké “badai sitokin” kang bisa ngancam nyawa. Kadadéan iki dinuga wujud jalaran saka pati kang ora biyasa ing flu manuk H5N1,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cheung CY, Poon LL, Lau AS|display-authors=etal|title=Induction of proinflammatory cytokines in human macrophages by influenza A (H5N1) viruses: a mechanism for the unusual severity of human disease? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2002-12-07_360_9348/page/1831|journal=Lancet |volume=360 |issue=9348 |pages=1831–7 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12480361 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11772-7}}</ref> lan galur pandemik 1918.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kobasa D, Jones SM, Shinya K|display-authors=etal |title=Aberrant innate immune response in lethal infection of macaques with the 1918 influenza virus |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2007-01-18_445_7125/page/319|journal=Nature |volume=445 |issue=7125 |pages=319–23 |date=January 2007 |pmid=17230189 |doi=10.1038/nature05495 |last12=Alimonti |first12=JB |last13=Fernando |first13=L |last14=Li |first14=Y |last15=Katze |first15=MG |last16=Feldmann |first16=H |last17=Kawaoka |first17=Y}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kash JC, Tumpey TM, Proll SC|display-authors=etal|title=Genomic analysis of increased host immune and cell death responses induced by 1918 influenza virus |journal=Nature |volume=443 |issue=7111 |pages=578–81 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17006449 |pmc=2615558 |doi=10.1038/nature05181 |last12=Katze |first12=MG}}</ref> Nanging, kamungkinan liyané yaiku sapérangan gedhé sitokin kang diasilaké mung wujud asil saka réplikasi virus kang gedhé banget kang ditimbulaké déning galur mau, lan rèspons imun ora mènèhi kontribusi marang lelara.<ref name=Beigel/> == Panyegahan == === Vaksinasi === Vaksinasi marang influenza kanthi vaksin influenza asring dirékomendhasikaké marang golongan risiko dhuwur, kaya ta bocah-bocah lan lansia, utawa marang panandhang [[asma]], [[diabetes]], [[lelara jantung]], utawa wong-wong kang ngalami gangguan imun. Vaksin influenza bisa diprodhuksi liwat sapérangan cara; cara kang paling umum yaiku kanthi nuwuhaké virus ing endhog pitik kang wis diwohi. Sawisé dimurnèkaké, virus banjur bakal diaktivasi (upamané, mawa détergen) kanggo ngasilaké vaksin virus kang ora aktif. Minangka alternatif, virus bisa dituwuhaké ing endhog nganti kélangan virulensiné banjur virus kang avirulen diwènèhaké minangka vaksin urip.<ref name=Hilleman/> Èfèktivitas saka vaksin influenza iku manéka rupa. Amarga tingkat mutasi virus kang dhuwur banget, vaksin influenza tinentu lumrahé mènèhaké pangreksan suwéné ora punjul sapérangan dina. Saben tauné, WHO mrédhiksikaké galur virus endi kang paling mungkin sirkulasi ing taun sabanjuré, saéngga mungkinaké perusahaan farmasi kanggo ngembangaké vaksin kang bakal nyumadyakaké kakebalan kang paling apik marang galur mau.<ref name=WHOrecommendation/> Vaksin uga wis dikembangaké kanggo ngreksa sato iwèn unggas saka flu manuk. Vaksin iki bisa èfèktif marang sapérangan galur lan minangka strategi preventif, utawa dikombinasikaké karo culling (pamuliaan) minangka usaha kanggo nyuresaké wabah.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Capua |first=I |author2=Alexander D |title=The challenge of avian influenza to the veterinary community |url=http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/section?content=a747651074&fulltext=713240928 |journal=Avian Pathol |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=189–205 |year=2006 |pmid=16753610 |doi=10.1080/03079450600717174}}</ref> Ana kamungkinan kena influenza sanajan wis divaksin. Vaksin bakal diformulasi ulang saben mangsa kanggo galur flu spésifik nanging ora bisa nyakup kabèh galur kang kanthi aktif nginfèksi kabèh manungsa ing mangsa mau. Merlokaké wektu suwéné enem sasi manèh manufaktur kanggo mformulasikaké lan mrodhuksi mayuta-yuta dosis kang diperlokaké kanggo ngadhepi epidemi mangsan; sok-sok, galur anyar utawa galur kang ora dinuga pinunjul ing wektu tinentu lan nginfèksi wong-wong sanajan wong-wong mau wis divaksinasi (kaya déné kang dumadi ing [[flu Fujian|Flu Fujian H3N2]] ing mungsa flu 2003-2004).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Holmes |first=E |author2=Ghedin E, Miller N, Taylor J, Bao Y, St George K, Grenfell B, Salzberg S, Fraser C, Lipman D, Taubenberger J |title=Whole-genome analysis of human influenza A virus reveals multiple persistent lineages and reassortment among recent H3N2 viruses |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=e300 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16026181 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030300 |pmc=1180517}}</ref> Uga ana kamungkinan éntuk infèksi sadurungé vaksinasi lan dadi lara déning galur kang kuduné dicegah déning vaksinasi, amarga vaksin merlokaké wektu rong minggu sadurungé dadi èfèktif.<ref name=CDCkeyfacts/> Ing muangsa 2006-2007, CDC kaping pisanané ngrékomendasikaké bocah kang umuré kurang saka 59 sasi kanggo nampa vaksin influenza taunan.<ref name=cdcreport>{{cite journal | author = Smith NM, Bresee JS, Shay DK, Uyeki TM, Cox NJ, Strikas RA | title = Prevention and Control of Influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) | journal = [[MMWR Recomm Rep]] | volume = 55 | issue = RR-10 | pages = 1–42 |date=July 2006 | pmid = 16874296 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/rr/rr5510.pdf }}</ref> Vaksin bisa nimbulaké sistem imun kanggo réaksi nalika awak nampa infèksi kang sabeneré, lan tandha-tandha infèksi umum (akèh tandha-tandha selesma lan flu mung wujud tandha-tandha infèksi umum) bisa mijil, sanajan tandha-tandha mau lumrahé ora padha aboté utawa tahan suwéné influenza. Èfèk samping kang paling mbebayani yaiku réaksi alèrgi abot ing matérial virus uga résidu saka endhog pitik kang dipigunakaké kanggo nuwuhaké virus influenza; nanging réaksi mau arang banget.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/qa/flushot.htm Questions & Answers: Flu Shot] Publikasi CDC dianyaraké 24 Juli 2006. Diaksès 19 Oktober 2006.</ref> Minangka tambahan saliyané vaksinasi marang influenza mangsan, paneliti ngupaya kanggo ngembangaké vaksin marang kamungkinan pandemi influenza. Perkembangan, prodhuksi, lan distribusi vaksin inluenza pandemik kang rikat bisa nylametaké nyawa mayuta-yuta wong nalika dumadi pandemi influenza. Amarga mung ana wektu kang cendhak antarané idhèntifikasi galur pandemik lan kabutuhan vaksinasi, para paneliti lagi nggolèk pilihan moda prodhuksi vaksin saliyané liwat endhog. Tèknologi vaksin urip kang diinaktivasi (kanthi basis endhog utawa kanthi basis sèl), lan tèknologi rékombinan (protèin lan partikel mèmper virus), bakal mènèhaké aksès wektu nyata (''real time'') kang luwih apik lan bisa diprodhuksi kanthi luwih kejangkau, saéngga ngundhakaké aksès kanggo wong-wong kang urip ing nagara-nagara kanthi pangasilan sedheng lan asor, ing endi dadi asal kamungkinan pandemi. Tekan Juli 2009, punjul 70 uji klinis kang dikawruhi wis ditindakaké utawa lagi ditindakaké ngenani vaksin influenza pandemi.<ref>World Health Organization. Tables on the Clinical trials of pandemic influenza prototype vaccines. Juli 2009. http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/immunogenicity/immunogenicity_table.xls</ref> Ing sasi September 2009, Badan POM Amérikah Sarékat nyarujuki papat vaksin marang virus influenza H1N1 2009 (galur pandemik nalika wektu iku), lan njaluk stok vaksin mau sumadiya sajeroning sasi sabanjuré.<ref>US Food & Drug Administration. FDA Approves Vaccines for 2009 H1N1 Influenza Virus Approval Provides Important Tool to Fight Pandemic. 15 September 2009. http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm182399.htm</ref> === Pangendhalian infèksi === Cara kang cukup èfèktif kanggo ngedhunaké panularan influenza salah sajiné yaiku njaga kaséhatan pribadi lan kabiyasan higiénis kang becik: kaya ta ora ndumuk mata, irung lan tutuk;<ref name="CDCQA">[http://www.cdc.gov/H1N1flu/qa.htm Center for Disease Control and Prevention: "QUESTIONS & ANSWERS: Novel H1N1 Flu (Swine Flu) and You"]. Diaksès 15 Dhésèmber 2009.</ref> asring ngumbah tangan (mawa banyu lan sabun, utawa mawa cuwèran pangumbah kanthi basis alkohol);<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grayson ML, Melvani S, Druce J|display-authors=etal|title=Efficacy of soap and water and alcohol-based hand-rub preparations against live H1N1 influenza virus on the hands of human volunteers |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2009-02-01_48_3/page/285|journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=285–91 |date=February 2009 |pmid=19115974 |doi=10.1086/595845}}</ref> nutup tutuk lan irung nalika watuk lan wahing, ngéndhani kontak cerak karo wong kang lara; lan tetep ana ing ngomahé dhéwé nalika lagi lara. Ora idu uga disaranaké.<ref name=Aledort>{{cite journal |author=Aledort JE, Lurie N, Wasserman J, Bozzette SA |title=Non-pharmaceutical public health interventions for pandemic influenza: an evaluation of the evidence base |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=7 |issue=|page=208 |year=2007 |pmid=17697389 |pmc=2040158 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-7-208 }}</ref> Sanajan masker rai bisa mbiyantu nyegah panularan nalika ngrawat wong kang lara<ref>{{cite journal |author=MacIntyre CR, Cauchemez S, Dwyer DE|display-authors=etal|title=Face mask use and control of respiratory virus transmission in households |journal=Emerging Infect. Dis. |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=233–41 |date=February 2009 |pmid=19193267 |pmc=2662657 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/15/2/pdfs/233.pdf |doi=10.3201/eid1502.081167}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bridges CB, Kuehnert MJ, Hall CB |title=Transmission of influenza: implications for control in health care settings |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2003-10-15_37_8/page/1094 |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1094–101 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523774 |doi=10.1086/378292}}</ref> ana bukti-bukti kang matentangan ngenani mupangan babagan mau ing masarakat.<ref name=Aledort/><ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/infectioncontrol/maskguidance.htm Interim Guidance for the Use of Masks to Control Influenza Transmission] ''Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases (CCID)'' 8 Agustus 2005</ref> Ngrokok ngundhakaké risiko panularan influenza, lan uga nimbulaké tandha-tandha lelara kang luwih abot.<ref>{{Cite journal| pmid = 16231688| volume = 72| issue = 10| pages = 916–920| last = Murin| first = Susan| author2 = Kathryn Smith Bilello| title = Respiratory tract infections: another reason not to smoke| journal = Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine| accessdate = 2009-10-01| year = 2005| url = http://www.ccjm.org/content/72/10/916.full.pdf| doi = 10.3949/ccjm.72.10.916| archive-date = 2011-07-15| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110715112713/http://www.ccjm.org/content/72/10/916.full.pdf| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1056/NEJM198210213071702| issn = 0028-4793| volume = 307| issue = 17| pages = 1042–1046| last = Kark| first = J D| author2 = M Lebiush, L Rannon| title = Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for epidemic a(h1n1) influenza in young men| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1982-10-21_307_17/page/1042| journal = The New England Journal of Medicine| year = 1982 | pmid = 7121513}}</ref> Amarga influenza nyebar liwat aerosol lan kontak karo lumahan kang kakontaminasi, pangresikan lumahan mau bisa mbiyantu nyegah sapérangan saka infèksi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hota B |title=Contamination, disinfection, and cross-colonization: are hospital surfaces reservoirs for nosocomial infection? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2004-10-15_39_8/page/1182 |journal=Clin Infect Dis |volume=39 |issue=8 |pages=1182–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15486843 | doi=10.1086/424667}}</ref> [[Alkohol]] wujud bahan sanitasi kang èfèktif marang virus influenza, sauntara senyawa amonium kuarterner bisa dipigunakaké bebarengan karo alkohol saéngga èfèk sanitasi mau bisa tahan luwih suwé.<ref name=McDonnell>{{cite journal |author=McDonnell G, Russell A |title=Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance |url=http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/reprint/12/1/147.pdf |journal=Clin Microbiol Rev |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=147–79 |date=1 Januari 1999|pmid=9880479 |pmc=88911}}</ref> Ing [[rumah sakit]], senyawa amonium kuarterner lan [[bahan pamutih]] dipigunakaké kanggo ngresiki ruwangan lan piranti kang sadurungé dipigunakaké déning pasièn kanthi tandha-tandha influenza.<ref name=McDonnell/> Ing ngomah, babagan mau bisa dilakokaké kanthi èfèktif kanthi migunakaké bahan pamutih chlorine kang dièncèraké.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waterandhealth.org/newsletter/new/winter_2005/chlorine_bleach.html |title=Chlorine Bleach: Helping to Manage the Flu Risk |publisher=Water Quality & Health Council |date=April 2009 |accessdate=2009-05-12 |archive-date=2009-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090607164343/http://www.waterandhealth.org/newsletter/new/winter_2005/chlorine_bleach.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ing pandemi kapungkur, panutupan sekolah, gréja, lan biyoskup nyandhet panyebaran virus nanging ora duwé dampak kang gedhé marang angka pepati sakabèhé.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hatchett RJ, Mecher CE, Lipsitch M |title=Public health interventions and epidemic intensity during the 1918 influenza pandemic |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/104/18/7582.full.pdf |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. |volume=104 |issue=18 |pages=7582–7587 |year=2007 |pmid=17416679 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0610941104 |pmc=1849867}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bootsma MC, Ferguson NM |title=The effect of public health measures on the 1918 influenza pandemic in U.S. cities |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/104/18/7588.full.pdf |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. |volume=104 |issue=18 |pages=7588–7593 |year=2007 |pmid=17416677 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0611071104 |pmc=1849868}}</ref> Durung bisa dipesthèkaké apa ngedhunaké patemon publik, upamané kanthi nutup sekolah lan papan makarya, bakal ngedhunaké panularan amarga wong kang nandhang influenza bisa waé isih pindhah saka sawijining papan menyang papan liyané; panyerakan kaya iki uga bakal angèl dilakokaké lan mungkin ora disenengi.<ref name=Aledort/> Yèn sapérangan cilik wong ngalami infèksi, ngisolasi wong kang lagi lara bisa ngurangi risiko panularan.<ref name=Aledort/> == Pangobatan == Wong kang nandhang flu disaranaké kanggo akèh istirahat, minum akèh cuwèran, ngéndhani panggunaan [[alkohol]] lan [[rokok]], lan yèn diperlokaké, ngonsumsi obat kaya ta asetaminofen ([[parasetamol]]) kanggo ngredhakaké tandha-tandha mriyang lan perih otot kang gegandhèngan karo flu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000080.htm |title=Flu: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |publisher=U.S. National Library of Medicine |access-date=7 Fèbruari 2010}}</ref> Bocah-bocah lan nom-noman kanthi tandha-tandha flu (mligi mriyang) sabeciké ngéndhani panggunaan [[aspirin]] nalika infèksi influenza (mligi influenza jinis B), amarga bisa nimbulaké [[Sindrom Reye]], sawijining lelara [[ati]] kang langka nanging duwé potènsi nimbulaké pepati.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Glasgow |first=J |author2=Middleton B |title=Reye syndrome — insights on causation and prognosis |url=http://adc.bmj.com/content/85/5/351.full.pdf |journal=Arch Dis Child |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=351–3 |year=2001 |pmid=11668090 |doi=10.1136/adc.85.5.351 |pmc=1718987}}</ref> Amarga influenza disababaké déning virus, antibiotik ora duwé prabawa marang infèksi; kajaba diwènèhaké kanggo [[infèksi sékundhèr]] kaya déné [[pneumonia]] baktérialis. Pangobatan antiviral bisa èfèktif, nanging sapérangan galur influenza bisa nuduhaké résistènsi marang obat-obat antivirus baku.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hurt AC, Ho HT, Barr I |title=Resistance to anti-influenza drugs: adamantanes and neuraminidase inhibitors |journal=Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=795–805 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17140356 |doi=10.1586/14787210.4.5.795}}</ref> Loro kelas obat antivirus kang dipigunakaké marang influenza yaiku inhibitor neuraminidase lan inhibitor [[protéin M2]] (derivat [[adamantane]]). Inhibitor neuraminidase saiki luwih disenengi tumrap infèksi virus amarga kurang toksik lan luwih èfèktif.<ref name=Beigel>{{cite journal |author=Beigel J, Bray M |title=Current and future antiviral therapy of severe seasonal and avian influenza |journal=Antiviral Res. |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=91–102 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18328578 |pmc=2346583 |doi=10.1016/j.antiviral.2008.01.003}}</ref> CDC ngrékomendhasikaké supaya ora migunakaké inhibitor M2 ing mangsa influenza 2005-06 amarga dhuwuré tingkat [[résistènsi obat]].<ref>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [http://www.cdc.gov/flu/han011406.htm CDC Recommends against the Use of Amantadine and Rimantadine for the Treatment or Prophylaxis of Influenza in the United States during the 2005–06 Influenza Season.] 14 Januari 2006. Diaksès 1 Januari 2007</ref> Amarga wanita ngandhut katoné bakal kena dhampak kang luwih gedhé tinimbang populasi umum déning virus influenza H1N1 2009, pangobatan sacepeté kanthi obat-obat anti influenza wis dirékomendhasikaké.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jamieson|first=Denise J|last2=Honein|first2=Margaret A|last3=Rasmussen|first3=Sonja A|last4=Williams|first4=Jennifer L|last5=Swerdlow|first5=David L|last6=Biggerstaff|first6=Matthew S|last7=Lindstrom|first7=Stephen|last8=Louie|first8=Janice K|last9=Christ|first9=Cara M|date=Agustus 2009|title=H1N1 2009 influenza virus infection during pregnancy in the USA|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673609613040|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=374|issue=9688|pages=451–458|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61304-0}}</ref> Ing Konferènsi Pèrs influenza H1N1 November 2009, WHO ngrékomendhasikaké wong ing golongan risiko dhuwur, kalebu wanita ngandhut, bocah umur kurang saka rong taun lan wong kanthi masalah ambegan, supaya wiwit ngonsumsi obat-obat antivirus sacepeté sawisé ngalami tandha-tandha flu.<ref name=WHOpressconf12Nov2009>[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/vpc_transcript_12_november_09_nikki_shindo.pdf Transcript of virtual press conference with Gregory Hartl, Spokesperson for H1N1, and Dr Nikki Shindo, Medical Officer, Global Influenza Programme, World Health Organization], 12 November 2009. "... persistent or rapidly worsening symptoms should also be treated with antivirals. These symptoms include difficulty breathing and a high fever that lasts beyond 3 days... [page 1]" "... The pandemic virus can cause severe pneumonia even in healthy young people... [page 2]"</ref> Obat anti virus kang dipigunakaké kalebu oseltamivir (Tamiflu) lan zanamivir (Relenza). === Inhibitor neuraminidase === Obat-obat antivirus kaya déné [[oseltamivir]] (mèrek dagang Tamiflu) lan [[zanamivir]] (mèrek dagang Relenza) wujud [[inhibitor neuraminidase]] kang didhesain kanggo nyandhet panyebaran virus ing awak.<ref name=Neuraminidase_inhibitors>{{cite journal |last=Moscona |first=A |title=Neuraminidase inhibitors for influenza |url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJMra050740 | format = PDF |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=353 |issue=13 |pages=1363–73 |year=2005 |pmid=16192481 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra050740}}</ref> Obat-obatan iki asring èfèktif marang influenza A lan B.<ref name=Stephenson/> ''[[Cochrane Collaboration]]'' ninjo manèh obat-obat iki lan nyimpulaké yèn obat-obat iki bisa ngurangi tandha-tandha lan komplikasi.<ref name="pmid16855962">{{cite journal |last=Jefferson |first=T |author2=Demicheli V, Di Pietrantonj C, Jones M, Rivetti D |editor1-last=Jefferson |editor1-first=Tom |title=Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in healthy adults |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=3 |issue=|pages=CD001265 |year=2006|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001265.pub2 |pmid=16855962}}</ref> Galur influenza kang béda duwé drajat résistènsi kang béda marang obat antivirus iki, lan ora mungkin kanggo mpédhiksi segedhé apa résistènsi kang diduwèni galur pandemik ing mangsa ngarep.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Webster |first=Robert G. |title=H5N1 Influenza — Continuing Evolution and Spread |url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJMp068205 | format = PDF |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=355 |issue=21 |pages=2174–77 |year=2006 |pmid=17124014 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp068205 |first2=E. A. |last2=Govorkova}}</ref> === Inhibitor M2 (adamantanes) === Obat-obat antivirus [[amantadine]] lan [[rimantadine]] bakal mblokadhe [[kanal ion]] virus (protéin M2) lan nyegah virus kanggo nginfèksi sèl.<ref name=Pinto/> Obat-obatan mau sok-sok èfèktif marang influenza yèn diwènèhaké kawit awal ing infèksi nanging mesthi ora èfèktif marang influenza B amarga virus influenza B ora duwé molekul M2.<ref name=Stephenson>{{cite journal |last=Stephenson |first=I |author2=Nicholson K |title=Chemotherapeutic control of influenza |url=http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/1/6.full.pdf |journal=J Antimicrob Chemother |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=6–10 |year=1999 |pmid=10459804 |doi=10.1093/jac/44.1.6}}</ref> Résistènsi kang kaukur tumrap amantadine lan rimantadine ing isolat Amerka saka H3N2 wis ngalami paningkatan tekan 91% nalika taun 2005.<ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=High levels of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses and interim guidelines for use of antiviral agents — United States, 2005–06 influenza season |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/wk/mm5502.pdf |journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=44–6 |year=2006 |pmid=16424859 |author1=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}</ref> Dhuwuré tingkat résistènsi iki mungkin disababaké déning sumadyané wiyar saka amantadine minangka obat kang didol tanpa [[resèp dhokter]] kanggo pangobatan selesma ing nagara-nagara kaya déné Cina lan Ruslan,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Bright | first1 = Rick A | last2 = Medina | first2 = Marie-jo | last3 = Xu | first3 = Xiyan | last4 = Perez-Oranaz | first4 = Gilda | last5 = Wallis | first5 = Teresa R | last6 = Davis | first6 = Xiaohong M | last7 = Povinelli | first7 = Laura | last8 = Cox | first8 = Nancy J | last9 = Klimov | first9 = Alexander I | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67338-2 | title = Incidence of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses isolated worldwide from 1994 to 2005: a cause for concern | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_october-1-7-2005_366_9492/page/1175 | journal = The Lancet | volume = 366 | issue = 9492 | pages = 1175–81 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16198766 }}</ref> lan panggunaané kanggo nyegah wabah influenza ing kéwan ingon unggas.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ilyushina NA, Govorkova EA, Webster RG |title=Detection of amantadine-resistant variants among avian influenza viruses isolated in North America and Asia |journal=Virology |volume=341 |issue=1 |pages=102–6 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16081121 |doi=10.1016/j.virol.2005.07.003 |url=http://birdflubook.com/resources/0Ilyushinaxxx.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Parry J |title=Use of antiviral drug in poultry is blamed for drug resistant strains of avian flu |journal=BMJ |volume=331 |issue=7507 |page=10 |date=July 2005 |pmid=15994677 |pmc=558527 |doi=10.1136/bmj.331.7507.10}}</ref> == Prognosis == Prabawa influenza adoh luwih abot lan tahan luwih suwé tinimbang selesma. Sapérangan gedhé wong bakal mari dhéwé ing sajeroning wektu seminggu tekan rong minggu, nanging kang liyané bakal ngalami komplikasi kang ngancam nyawa (kaya déné pneumonia). Influenza misa njalari pepati, mligi ing wong kang lemah, enom lan tuwa, utawa ngalami lelara kronis.<ref name=Hilleman/> Wong-wong kanthi sistem imun kang lemah, kaya déné panandhang infèksi [[HIV]] tingkat lanjut utawa pasièn panampa transplan (kang sistem imuné ditekan karo obat kanggo nyegah panulakan organ transplan), nandhang lelara kang luwih abot.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hayden FG |title=Prevention and treatment of influenza in immunocompromised patients |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-medicine_1997-03-17_102_3a/page/55 |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=102 |issue=3A |pages=55–60; discussion 75–6 |date=March 1997 |pmid=10868144 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9343(97)80013-7}}</ref> Golongan risiko dhuwur liyané yaiku wanita ngandhut lan bocah cilik.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Whitley RJ, Monto AS. |title=Prevention and treatment of influenza in high-risk groups: children, pregnant women, immunocompromised hosts, and nursing home residents. |journal=J Infect Dis. |volume=194 S2 |pages=S133–8 |year=2006 |pmid=17163386 |doi=10.1086/507548 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/507548 }}{{Pranala mati|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Flu bisa nambah ala masalah kaséhatan kronis. wong-wong kanthi emfisema, bronkitis kronis utawa asma bisa ngalami [[dispnea|kangèlan ambegan]] nalika ngalami flu, lan influenza bisa nimbulaké saya alané lelara [[jantung koroner]] utawa [[gagal jantung kongestif]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Angelo SJ, Marshall PS, Chrissoheris MP, Chaves AM |title=Clinical characteristics associated with poor outcome in patients acutely infected with Influenza A |journal=Conn Med |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=199–205 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15095826}}</ref> Ngrokok wujud faktor risiko liya kang gegandhèngan karo lelara kang luwih abot lan mortalitas kang luwih dhuwur kang ditimbulaké déning influenza.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Murin S, Bilello K |title=Respiratory tract infections: another reason not to smoke |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cleveland-clinic-journal-of-medicine_2005-10_72_10/page/916 |journal=Cleve Clin J Med |volume=72 |issue=10 |pages=916–20 |year=2005 |pmid=16231688 |doi=10.3949/ccjm.72.10.916}}</ref> Miturut WHO: “Saben mangsa adhem, puluhan yuta wong kena flu. Sapérangan gedhé mung lara lan ora nyambut gawé suwéné seminggu, sauntara para lanjut usia duwé risiko pati kang luwih dhuwur amarga lelara iki. Awaké dhéwé ngawruhi yèn kurban mati ing saindhenging donya ngluwihi atusan èwu wong saben tauné, nanging malah ing nagara maju, gunggung mau ora bisa dipesthèkaké, amarha pihak mèdhis kang duwé kuwajiban lumrahé ora mvèrifikasi wong kang mati amarga influenza lan wong kang mati kanthi lelara-mèmper-flu.”<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sandman | first1 = Peter M. | last2 = Lanard | first2 = Jody | year = 2005 | title = Bird Flu: Communicating the Risk | url = http://www.paho.org/English/DD/PIN/Number22_article1.htm | journal = Perspectives in Health Magazine | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 1–6 }}</ref> Malah wong séhat bisa kena, lan masalah sérius kang ditimbulaké déning influenza bisa dumadi ing umur pira waé. Wong kanthi umur punjul 50 taun, bocah kang enom banget, lan wong saka kabèh umur kanthi kaanan mèdhis kronis luwih mungkin kanggo éntuk komplikasi influenza, kaya déné pneumonia, [[bronkitis]], infèksi sinus lan kuping.<ref name=CDCkeyfacts>[http://www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/keyfacts.htm Key Facts about Influenza (Flu) Vaccine] CDC publication. Published 17 October 2006. Diaksès 18 Oktober 2006.</ref> Ing sapérangan kasus, réspons autoimun marang influenza bisa mènèhaké kontribusi marang [[sindrom Guillain-Barré]] (GBS).<ref name=Sivadon-Tardy>{{cite journal |author=Sivadon-Tardy V, Orlikowski D, Porcher R|display-authors=etal|title=Guillain-Barré syndrome and influenza virus infection |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2009-01-01_48_1/page/n67|journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=48–56 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19025491 |doi=10.1086/594124}}</ref> Nanging, amarga akèh infèksi liya kang bisa ngundhakaké risiko lelara iki, influenza wujud jalaran kang wigati mung nalika dumadi epidemi.<ref name=Sivadon-Tardy/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Jacobs BC, Rothbarth PH, van der Meché FG|display-authors=etal|title=The spectrum of antecedent infections in Guillain-Barré syndrome: a case-control study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_1998-10_51_4/page/1110|journal=Neurology |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=1110–5 |date=October 1998 |pmid=9781538}}</ref> Sindrom iki wis dipercaya uga minangka èfèk samping kang langka saka vaksin influenza. Sanajan sawijining lapuran panalitèn mènèhaké insidensi gedhéné sakasus per sayuta vaksinasi,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Vellozzi C, Burwen DR, Dobardzic A, Ball R, Walton K, Haber P |title=Safety of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccines in adults: Background for pandemic influenza vaccine safety monitoring |journal=Vaccine |volume=27 |issue=15 |pages=2114–2120 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19356614 |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.01.125}}</ref> sawijining panalitèn gedhé ing Cina, kang dilapuraké ing [[NEJM]] kang nyakup mèh 100 yuta dosis vaksin marang flu”babi” H1N1 2009 mung tinemu sewelas kasus sindrom Guillain-Barré, (0,1%) saka total insidensi ing wong kang divaksin, sabeneré luwih asor saka tingkat kedadèyan lelara ing Cina, lan ora ana èfèk samping kang tinemu; "rasio risiko-mupangat, kang biyasa ditrepaké ing vaksin lan kabèh sajeroning pangobatan médhis, banget luwih condong marang panggunaan vaksin."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wunderground.com/DisplayHealthDay.asp?id=649531 |title=2009 H1N1 Flu Vaccine Was Safe |access-date=2012-06-22 |archive-date=2011-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629001728/http://www.wunderground.com/DisplayHealthDay.asp?id=649531 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Éntuk infèksi influenza dhéwé ngundhakaké risiko pepati (tekan 1 saka 10.000) lan ngundhakaké risiko ngalami GBS nganti tingkat kang luwih dhuwur tinimbang kang ditimbulaké déning panggunaan vaksin (kurang luwih kaping 10 ing panggunaan prakiran saiki).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stowe J, Andrews N, Wise L, Miller E |title=Investigation of the temporal association of Guillain-Barre syndrome with influenza vaccine and influenzalike illness using the United Kingdom General Practice Research Database |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=169 |issue=3 |pages=382–8 |date=February 2009 |pmid=19033158 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwn310 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/169/3/382.long}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Sivadon-Tardy V, Orlikowski D, Porcher R |display-authors=etal |title=Guillain-Barré syndrome and influenza virus infection |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=48–56 |date=January 2009 |pmid=19025491 |doi=10.1086/594124 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/594124 }}{{Pranala mati|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Epidemiologi == === Variasi mangsan === Influenza nggayuh prévalènsi pucuk nalika [[mangsa adhem]], lan amarga [[wilahan bumi lor]] lan [[wilahan bumi kidul|kidul]] ngalami mangsa adhem ing wektu kang béda saben tauné, ana loro mangsa flu saben tauné. Mula WHO (dibantu déning National Influenza Centers) gawé rékomèndhasi kanggo loro formulasi vaksin saben tauné; siji kanggo wilahan bumi lor, lan siji kanggo kidul.<ref name=WHOrecommendation>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060528111237/http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/2007northreport.pdf Recommended composition of influenza virus vaccines for use in the 2006–2007 influenza season] WHO report 2006-02-14. Diaksès 19 Oktober 2006.</ref> Wis suwé dadi pitakonan kenapa wabah flu dumadi kanthi mangsan, ora dumadi kanthi mangsan sadawané taun. Siji wedharan kang mungkin yaiku amarga wong ana sajeroning ruwangan luwih asring ing mangsa adhem, wong-wong mau ana sajeroning kontak cerak luwih asring, lan babagan mau ngundhakaké panularan saka wong-menyang-wong. Paningkatan tingkat lelaku amarga prèinan mangsa adhem ing wilahan bumi pérangan lor mungkin uga nyekel peranan.<ref name="NPR2003-12-17">[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1551913 Weather and the Flu Season] NPR Day to Day, 17 December 2003. Diaksès 19 Oktober 2006</ref> Faktor liyané yaiku suhu kang adhem njalari udara luwih adhem, kang bisa nggaringaké mukus/lendhir, nyegah awak kanggo ngusir partikel virus kanthi èfèktif. Virus uga tahan luwih suwé ing lumahan ing suhu kang luwih adhem lan transmisi aerosol saka virus paling dhuwur ing lingkungan kang adhem (kurang saka 5&nbsp;°C) kanthi kalembaban rélatif kang asor.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Influenza virus transmission is dependent on relative humidity and temperature | last1 = Lowen | first1 = AC | last2 = Mubareka | first2 = S | last3 = Steel | first3 = J | last4 = Palese | first4 = P | authorlink4 = Peter Palese | journal = PLoS Pathogens | volume = 3 | issue = 10 | page = e151 | url = http://www.plospathogens.org/article/fetchObjectAttachment.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.0030151&representation=PDF | format = PDF | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030151 | pmc = 2034399 | pmid = 17953482 |date=October 2007 }}</ref> Kalembaban udara kang asor ing mangsa adhem katoné wujud jalaran utama saka transmisi influenza mangsan ing iklim sedheng.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shaman J, Kohn M |title=Absolute humidity modulates influenza survival, transmission, and seasonality |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=106 |issue=9 |pages=3243–8 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19204283 |pmc=2651255 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0806852106}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Shaman J, Pitzer VE, Viboud C, Grenfell BT, Lipsitch M |editor1-last=Ferguson |editor1-first=Neil M. |title=Absolute humidity and the seasonal onset of influenza in the continental United States |journal=PLoS Biol. |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=e1000316 |date=February 2010 |pmid=20186267 |pmc=2826374 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000316}}</ref> Nanging, owah-owahan mangsan ing tingkat infèksi uga dumadi ing wewengkon [[tropis]], lan ing sapérangan nagara pucuk infèksi katon mligi ing mangsa udan.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S1526-0542(03)00024-1 | last1 = Shek | first1 = LP | last2 = Lee | first2 = BW | title = Epidemiology and seasonality of respiratory tract virus infections in the tropics. | journal = Paediatric respiratory reviews | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 105–11 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12758047 }}</ref> Owah-owahan mangsan sajeroning tingkat kontak kang magepokan karo mangsa sekolah (semèster) wujud faktor utama sajeroning lelara anak liyané kaya déné [[campak]] lan [[pertussis]], mungkin uga nyekel peranan sajeroning kombinasi lelara flu. Kombinasi saka èfèk mangsan cilik iki bisa digedhèkaké kanthi résonansi dinamis siklus endogen lelara.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dushoff | first1 = J | last2 = Plotkin | first2 = JB | last3 = Levin | first3 = SA | last4 = Earn | first4 = DJ | title = Dynamical resonance can account for seasonality of influenza epidemics. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2004-11-30_101_48/page/16915 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 101 | issue = 48 | pages = 16915–6 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15557003 | pmc = 534740 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0407293101 }}</ref> H5N1 nuduhaké pola mangsan ing [[manungsa]] lan unggas.<ref name=WHOH5N1data>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040218103733/http://www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/country/en/ WHO Confirmed Human Cases of H5N1] Data published by WHO Epidemic and Pandemic Alert and Response (EPR). Diaksès 24 Oktober 2006</ref> Sawijining hipotèsis alternatif kang njelasaké pola mangsan ing infèksi influenza yaiku èfèk kadhar [[vitamin D]] tumrap kakebalan marang virus.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cannell |first=J |author2=Vieth R, Umhau J, Holick M, Grant W, Madronich S, Garland C, Giovannucci E |title=Epidemic influenza and vitamin D |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_epidemiology-and-infection_2006-12_134_6/page/1129 |journal=Epidemiol Infect |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=1129–40 |year=2006 |pmid=16959053 |doi=10.1017/S0950268806007175 |pmc=2870528 |authorlink=John Cannell}}</ref> Pendhapat iki pisanan diajokaké déning [[Robert Edgar Hope-Simpson]] nalika taun 1965.<ref>{{cite journal |last=HOPE-SIMPSON |first=R |title=The nature of herpes zoster: a long-term study and a new hypothesis |journal=Proc R Soc Med |volume=58 |issue=|pages=9–20 |year=1965|pmid=14267505 |pmc=1898279}}</ref> Dhèwèké ngajokaké yèn jalaran epidemi influenza ing mangsa adhem mungkin gegandhèngan karo fluktuasi mangsan vitamin D, kang timbul ing [[kulit]] ing sangisoré prabawa [[radhiasi UV]] [[srengéngé]] (utawa radhiasi artifisial). Iki bisa njelasaké kenapa influenza dumadi mligi nalika [[mangsa adhem]] lan ing [[mangsa udan]] ing tlatah tropis, nalika wong akèh ana sajeroning ruwangan, adoh saka sinar srengéngé, lan kadhar vitamin D-né ngalami pamudhunan. === Panyebaran epidemi lan pandemi === Amarga influenza disababaké déning manéka spésiès lan galur virus, saben tauné sapérangan galur bisa cures sauntara galur kang liyané nimbulaké epidemi, sauntara galur kang liyané nimbulaké pandemi. Lumrahé, loro mangsa flu taunan (siji sajeroning sawilahan bumi), ana telu nganti limang yuta kasus abot lan nganti 500.000 pepati ing saindhenging donya, kang nyukupi kritéria epidemi influenza taunan.<ref>[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs211/en/ Influenza] WHO Fact sheet No. 211 revised March 2003. Diaksès 22 Oktober 2006.</ref> Sanajan insidènsi influenza bisa banget manéka saka taun-menyang-taun, kurang luwih 36.000 pepati lan punjul 200.000 rawat inep gegandhèngan kanthi langsung karo influenza saben tauné ing Amérikah Sarékat.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thompson |first=W |author2=Shay D, Weintraub E, Brammer L, Cox N, Anderson L, Fukuda K |title=Mortality associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/289/2/179 |journal=JAMA |volume=289 |issue=2 |pages=179–86 |year=2003 |pmid=12517228 |doi=10.1001/jama.289.2.179}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Thompson |first=W |author2=Shay D, Weintraub E, Brammer L, Bridges C, Cox N, Fukuda K |title=Influenza-associated hospitalizations in the United States |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/292/11/1333 |journal=JAMA |volume=292 |issue=11 |pages=1333–40 |year=2004 |pmid=15367555 |doi=10.1001/jama.292.11.1333}}</ref> Kurang luwih kaping telu sajeroning saabad, dumadi pandemi, kang bakal nginfèksi sapérangan gedhé populasi donya lan bisa njalari patiné mayuta-yuta wong (delengen pérangan [[#sajarah|sajarah]]). Sawijining panalitèn mrakirakaké yèn sawijining galur kanthi virulènsi kang padha karo [[pandemi flu 1918|influenza 1918]] muncul saiki, mula virus mau bisa matèni 50 nganti 80 yuta wong.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Murray CJ, Lopez AD, Chin B, Feehan D, Hill KH |title=Estimation of potential global pandemic influenza mortality on the basis of vital registry data from the 1918-20 pandemic: a quantitative analysis |journal=Lancet |volume=368 |issue=9554 |pages=2211–8 |date=December 2006 |pmid=17189032 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69895-4}}</ref> Virus influenza anyar ngalami [[évolusi]] spontan lumantar [[mutasi]] utawa lumantar reassortment.<ref name=hay/> Mutasi bisa nimbulaké owah-owahan cilik ing [[hemagglutinin]] lan antigen [[neuraminidase]] ing lumahan virus. Iki diarani antigenic drift, kang kanthi alon-alon nimbulaké akèh variasi galur nganti salah siji bisa nginfèksi manungsa kang kebal marang galur kang wis ana sadurungé. Varian anyar iki banjur nggantèkaké galur kang luwih tuwa amarga galur mau kanthi rikat nyapu populasi manungsa – asring nimbulaké epidemi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wolf, Yuri I|title=Long intervals of stasis punctuated by bursts of positive selection in the seasonal evolution of influenza A virus |journal=Biol Direct |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=34 |year=2006 |pmid=17067369|doi=10.1186/1745-6150-1-34 |first2=C |first3=EC |first4=EV |first5=DJ |pmc=1647279 |last2=Viboud |last3=Holmes |last4=Koonin |last5=Lipman}}</ref> Nanging, amarga galur kang ditimbulaké déning kèlinan mau bakal cukup sarupa karo galur sadurungé, sapérangan wong bakal isih imun marang virus mau. Suwaliké, yèn virus influenza ngalami reassortment, wong-wong bakal olèh antigen kang anyar – umpamané reassortment antarané galur unggas lan galur manungsa; iki diarani [[pepindhahan antigen]]. Yèn virus influenza manungsa duwé antigen kang anyar, saben wong bisa kena infèksi, lan virus influenza anyar mau bakal nyebar kanthi ora kakontrol lan nimbulaké pandemi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Parrish |first=C |author2=Kawaoka Y |title=The origins of new pandemic viruses: the acquisition of new host ranges by canine parvovirus and influenza A viruses |journal=Annual Rev Microbiol |volume=59 |issue=|pages=553–86 |year=2005|pmid=16153179 |doi=10.1146/annurev.micro.59.030804.121059}}</ref> Béda karo modhèl pandemi kang didhasaraké marang katutan lan pepindhahan antigen, sawijining panyerakan alternatif wis diajokaké ing endi pandemi périodik ditimbulaké déning interaksi saka sawijining rangkéyan galur virus kang tetep karo populasi manungsa kang kanthi konstan ngalami owah-owahan imunitas marang galur virus kang béda.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Recker M, Pybus OG, Nee S, Gupta S |title=The generation of influenza outbreaks by a network of host immune responses against a limited set of antigenic types |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/104/18/7711 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. |volume=104 |issue=18 |pages=7711–7716 |year=2007 |pmid=17460037 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0702154104 |pmc=1855915}}</ref> == Sajarah == === Ètimologi === Tembung influenza asalé saka [[basa Italia]] kang tegesé “prabawa”, iki ngrujuk marang jalaran lelara; awalé lelara iki disebutaké disababaké déning prabawa [[astrologi]]s kang kurang apik.<ref>''Influenza'', [[Oxford English Dictionary|The Oxford English Dictionary]], second edition.</ref> Owah-owahan pendhapat mèdhis njalari modhifikasi jeneng dadi influenza del freddo, kang tegesé “prabawa adhem”. Tembung influenza pisanan dipigunakaké sajeroning basa Inggris kanggo nyebut lelara kang awaké dhéwé kawruhi saiki nalika taun 1703 déning J Hugger saka Univèrsitas Edinburgh sajeroning thesisé kang judhulé "''De Catarrho epidemio, vel influenza, prout in India occidentali sese ostendit''".<ref>Creighton, Charles (1965): A History Of Epidemics In Britain, With Additional Material By D.E.C. Eversley</ref> Istilah biyèn kang dipigunakaké kanggo influenza yaiku ''epidemic catarrh'', ''grippe'' (saka [[basa Prancis]], pisanan dipigunakaké déning Molyneaux nalika taun 1694<ref>{{cite journal | pmid=11576290 | last1=Potter | first1=CW | year=2001 | title=A history of influenza. | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-microbiology_2001-10_91_4/page/572 | journal=Journal of applied microbiology | volume=91 | issue=4 |pages= 572–579 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01492.x}}</ref>), ''sweating sickness'', lan mriyang Spanyol (mligi ing galur flu pandemi 1918).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Smith|first=P|title=Swine Flu|journal=Croatian Medical Journal|doi= 10.3325/cmj.2009.50.412|year=2009|volume=50|page=412|pmid=19673043|issue=4|pmc=2728380}}</ref> === Pandemi === Tandha-tandha influenza manungsa dijlèntrèhaké kanthi cetha déning [[Hippocrates]] kurang luwih 2.400 taun kapungkur.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Martin |first=P |author2=Martin-Granel E |title=2,500-year evolution of the term epidemic |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no06/05-1263.htm#cit |journal=Emerg Infect Dis |date=Juni 2006 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pmid=16707055 |pages=976–80}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Hippocrates |author2=Adams, Francis |title=Of the Epidemics |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/epidemics.html |orig-date=400 BCE |accessdate=2006-10-18}}</ref> Sanajan virus katoné njalari epidemi sadawané sajarah manungsa, data historis ngenani influenza angèl kanggo diinterprétasikaké, amarga gejalané bisa sakrupa karo tandha-tandha lelara ambegan liyané.<ref>{{Cite journal| pmid = 1724803| volume = 13| issue = 2| pages = 223–234| last = Beveridge| first = W I| title = The chronicle of influenza epidemics| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_history-and-philosophy-of-the-life-sciences_1991_13_2/page/223| journal = History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences| year = 1991}}</ref><ref name=Potter/> Lelara iki mungkin wis nyebar saka Éropah menyang Amérika nalika kolonisasi Amérika déning wong-wong Éropah; amarga mèh kabèh warga [[Antilles]] mati déning epidemi kang mèmper karo influenza kang nyebar nalika taun 1493, sawisé tekané [[Christopher Columbus]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/1171451|author=Guerra, Francisco |title=The Earliest American Epidemic: The Influenza of 1493 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-science-history_fall-1988_12_3/page/305|year=1988 |journal=Social Science History |volume= 12 |issue= 3 | pages=305–325|pmid=11618144|jstor=1171451 }} (only the first page can be read for free, but that has enough information about influenza being the main disease brought by Columbus killing 90 % of the indiginous population)</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| pmid = 7529930| volume = 15| issue = 3| pages = 313–327| last = Guerra| first = F| title = The European-American exchange| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_history-and-philosophy-of-the-life-sciences_1993_15_3/page/313| journal = History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences| year = 1993| doi = 10.1016/S1471-0846(02)80108-1}}</ref> Lapuran pisanan kang nyakinaké ngenani pandemi influenza yaiku wabah nalika taun 1580, kang awalé ing Ruslan lan nyebar menyang Éropah liwat Afrika. Ing [[Roma]], punjul 8.000 wong mati, lan sapérangan kutha Spanyol mèh kabèh cures. Pandemi terus lumaku kanthi sporadis tekan abad ka 17 lan 18, kanthi pandemi 1830-1833 kang mligi nyebar kanthi wiyar; pandemi mau nginfèksi kurang luwih saprapat saka warga kang kapapar.<ref name=Potter>{{cite journal |author=Potter CW |title=A History of Influenza |journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology |date=October 2001 |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=572–579 |pmid=11576290 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/120718156/HTMLSTART |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01492.x }}{{Pranala mati|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Wabah kang paling misuwur lan paling matèkaké yaiku pandemi flu 1918 (pandemi flu Spanyol) (influenza jinis A, subtipe H1N1), kang dumadi antarané taun 1918 tekan 1919. Ora dikawruhi kanthi cetha sapira akèhé pati kang ditimbulaké, nanging prakirané watara 20 nganti 100 yuta wong.<ref name=Knobler>{{cite book |editor=Knobler S, Mack A, Mahmoud A, Lemon S |title=The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary (2005) |chapter=1: The Story of Influenza |pages=60–61 |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11150&page=58 |publisher=The National Academies Press |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref><ref name=Patterson1>{{cite journal |last=Patterson |first=KD |author2=Pyle GF |title=The geography and mortality of the 1918 influenza pandemic |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-history-of-medicine_spring-1991_65_1/page/n7 |journal=Bull Hist Med. |date=Spring 1991 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=4–21 |pmid=2021692}}</ref> Pandemi iki diarani “pambantéyan médhis gedhé dhéwé sajeroning sajarah” lan mungkin wis matèni wong padha akèhé karo [[Pepati Ireng]].<ref name=Potter/> Angka pepati kang gedhé banget iki disebabaké déning tingkat infèksi kang dhuwur banget ngancik 50% lan tingkat tandha-tandha kang abot banget, dinuga disababaké déning [[badai sitokin]].<ref name=Patterson1/> Tandha-tandha flu nalika taun 1918 ora biyasa banget nganti influenza ing awalé salah didiagnosis minangka mriyang dengue, [[kolera]], utawa uga [[mriyang tifoid]]. Sawijining pangamat nulisaké, “Salah sawijining komplikasi kang paling abot yaiku panggetihan saka [[selaput lendhir]], mligi saka [[irung]], [[lambung]], lan [[usus]]. Panggetihan saka [[kuping]] lan panggetihan [[petechia]] uga dumadi.”<ref name=Knobler/> Mayoritas pepati disababaké déning [[pneumonia bakterial]], [[infèksi sékundhèr]] kang ditimbulaké déning influenza, nanging virus uga matèni wong kanthi langsung, nimbulaké panggetihan masif lan [[edema]] paru.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal | author = Taubenberger JK, Reid AH, Janczewski TA, Fanning TG | title = Integrating historical, clinical and molecular genetic data in order to explain the origin and virulence of the 1918 Spanish influenza virus | journal = [[Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci.]] | volume = 356 | issue = 1416 | pages = 1829–39 |date=December 2001 | pmid = 11779381 | pmc = 1088558 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2001.1020 }}</ref> Pandemi flu 1918 (pandemi flu Spanyol) bener-bener mandonya, malah nyebar tekan Kutub Lor lan [[Kapuloan Pasifik]] kang adoh. Lelara kang abot banget matèni watara 2 nganti 20% saka panandhang kang kainfèksi, ora kaya tingkat pepati epidemi flu kang lumrahé mung 0,1%.<ref name=Knobler/><ref name="Taubenberger">{{cite journal |last=Taubenberger |first=J |author2=Morens D |title=1918 Influenza: the mother of all pandemics |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no01/05-0979.htm |journal=Emerg Infect Dis |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=15–22 |year=2006 |pmid=16494711}}</ref> Tandha-tandha liya saka pandemi iki yaiku kedadèyan iki sapérangan gedhé matèni wong diwasa enom, kanthi 99% pepati pandemi influenza dumadi ing wong-wong kanthi umur sangisoré 65, lan punjul setengahé umur 20 tekan 40 taun.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Simonsen |first=L |author2=Clarke M, Schonberger L, Arden N, Cox N, Fukuda K |title=Pandemic versus epidemic influenza mortality: a pattern of changing age distribution |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_1998-07_178_1/page/53 |journal=J Infect Dis |volume=178 |issue=1 |pages=53–60 |date=July 1998 |pmid=9652423}}</ref> Iki ora biyasa amarga influenza lumrahé paling matèkaké ing umur enom banget (sangisoré umur 2 taun) lan ing umur tuwa banget (sandhuwuré 70 taun). Mortalitas total saka pandemi 1918-1919 ora dikawruhi, nanging diprakirakaké watara 2,5% nganti 5% saka kabèh populasi donya wis mati amarga flu iki. Akèhé 25 yuta mungkin wis mati sajeroning 25 minggu pisanan; minangka tetimbangan, [[AIDS|HIV/AIDS]] wis matèni 25 yuta panandhangé sajeroning 25 taun pisanan.<ref name=Knobler/> Pandemi flu kang dumadi sabanjuré ora duwé dampak gedhé banget. Pandemi mau yaiku [[Flu Asia]] 1957 (jinis A, galur [[H2N2]]) lan [[Flu Hongkong]] 1968 (Tipe A, galur [[H3N2]]), nanging wabah kang luwih cilik iki malah matèni mayuta-yuta wong. Ing pandemi kang dumadi ing samburiné antibiotik wis sumadiya kanggo ngendhalèkaké infèksi sékundhèr lan iku wis mbiyantu ngurangi mortalitas tinimbang Flu Spanyol 1918.<ref name=Taubenberger/> {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ [[Pandemi flu]] kang wis dikawruhi<ref name=Hilleman>{{cite journal |last=Hilleman |first=M |title=Realities and enigmas of human viral influenza: pathogenesis, epidemiology and control |journal=Vaccine |volume=20 |issue=25–26 |pages=3068–87 |date=19 Agustus 2002 |pmid=12163258 |doi=10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00254-2}}</ref><ref name=Potter/><ref name="TenThings">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/pandemic10things/en/index.html|publisher=World Health Organization|date=2005-10-14|title=Ten things you need to know about pandemic influenza|accessdate=2009-09-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051016015026/http://www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/pandemic10things/en/index.html|archivedate=2005-10-16|url-status=live}}</ref> ! Jeneng pandemi !! Wektu !!Pepati !! Tingkat pepati !! Subtipe kang duwé peran !! [[Tingkat Aboté Pandemi]] |- ! [[Flu Ruslan|Flu (Ruslan) Asia]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Valleron AJ, Cori A, Valtat S, Meurisse S, Carrat F, Boëlle PY |title=Transmissibility and geographic spread of the 1889 influenza pandemic |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2010-05-11_107_19/page/8778 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=107 |issue=19 |pages=8778–81 |date=May 2010 |pmid=20421481 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1000886107 |pmc=2889325}}</ref> |1889–1890 ||1 yuta ||0,15% ||kamungkinan [[H3N8]] ||NA |- ! [[Pandemi flu 1918]]<br />(Flu Spanyol)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mills CE, [[James Robins|Robins JM]], Lipsitch M |title=Transmissibility of 1918 pandemic influenza |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2004-12-16_432_7019/page/904 |journal=Nature |volume=432 |issue=7019 |pages=904–6 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15602562 |doi=10.1038/nature03063 }}</ref> |1918–1920 ||20 nganti 100 yuta ||2%||[[H1N1]] ||5 |- ! [[Flu Asia]] |1957–1958 ||1 nganti 1,5 yuta ||0,13%||[[H2N2]] ||2 |- ! [[Flu Hong Kong]] |1968–1969 ||0,75 nganti 1 yuta ||<0,1%||[[H3N2]] ||2 |- ! [[Pandemi flu 2009]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Donaldson LJ, Rutter PD, Ellis BM|display-authors=etal |title=Mortality from pandemic A/H1N1 2009 influenza in England: public health surveillance study |journal=BMJ |volume=339 |issue= |pages=b5213 |year=2009 |pmid=20007665 |pmc=2791802 |doi=10.1136/bmj.b5213}}</ref> |2009–2010 ||18.000 ||0,03%||[[H1N1]] ||NA |} Virus influenza pisanan kang kasil diisolasi asalé saka unggas, nalika taun 1901 agèn kang nimbulaké lelara kang diarani “''fowl plague''” diliwataké lumantar [[filter Chamberland]], kang duwé pori kang ukurané cilik banget kanggo diliwati déning bakteria.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Heinen PP |url=http://www.vetscite.org/publish/articles/000041/print.html |title=Swine influenza: a zoanasis |journal=Veterinary Sciences Tomorrow |issn=1569-0830 |date=15 Sèptèmber 2003}}</ref> [[Etiologi]] influenza, famili virus Orthomyxoviridae, pisanan tinemu ing babi déning [[Richard Shope]] nalika taun 1931.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shimizu |first=K |title=History of influenza epidemics èand discovery of influenza virus |journal=Nippon Rinsho |date=October 1997 |volume=55 |issue=10|pages=2505–201 |pmid=9360364}}</ref> Panemon iki banjur diumiluni déning isolasi virus saka manungsa déning saklompok panaliti kang dipanggedhèni déning [[Patrick Laidlaw]] saka [[Konsili Panalitèn Brtainia Raya]] nalika taun 1933.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=W |author2=Andrewes CH, Laidlaw PP |title=A virus obtained from influenza patients |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1933-01-14_1_2/page/66 |journal=Lancet |year=1933 |volume=2 |pages=66–68 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)78541-2}}</ref> Nanging, nalika taun 1935, nalika Wendell Stanley pisanan ngristalisasikaké [[tobacco mosaic virus]], sipat non sélulèr saka virus dikawruhi. Laku signifikan pisanan sajeroning nyegah influenza yaiku dikembangaké vaksin virus mati kanggo influenza nalika taun 1944 déning [[Thomas Francis, Jr.]]. Iki wujud perkembangan saka karya [[Frank Macfarlane Burnet]], sawijining wong Australia, kang nuduhaké yèn virus bakal kélangan virulènsiné nalika dhèwèké dikultur sajeroning endhog pitik kang wis dibagi.<ref name="Nobel">[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1960/burnet-bio.html Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet: Biography] The [[Nobel Foundation]]. Diaksès 22 Oktober 2006</ref> Aplikasi saka temon iki déning Francis mungkinaké dhèwèké lan tim panalitiné ing [[Universitas Michigan]] kanggo ngembangaké vaksin influenza pisanan, kanthi panjurung saka [[Angkatan Bersenjata Amérikah Sarékat]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kendall |first=H |title=Vaccine Innovation: Lessons from World War II |url=http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jphp/journal/v27/n1/abs/3200064a.html |journal=Journal of Public Health Policy |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=38–57 |year=2006 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200064 |pmid=16681187 |access-date=2012-06-28 |archive-date=2014-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004142356/http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jphp/journal/v27/n1/abs/3200064a.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dinas Katentaraan duwé katerlibatan ing panalitèn iki amarga pengalaman ing influenza nalika [[Perang Donya I]], nalika èwonan wadya mati déning virus sajeroning étungan sasi.<ref name=Knobler/> Dibandhingaké karo vaksin, perkembangan obat anti-influenza luwih alon, kanthi diwetokaké lisènsi [[amantadine]] nalika taun 1966, lan mèh telung puluh taun sabanjuré, golongan obat sabanjuré ([[inhibitor neruaminidase]]) dikembangaké.<ref name=Lynch/> == Masarakat lan kabudayan == Influenza nimbulaké beban béya langsung amarga ilangé [[prodhuktivitas]] lan béya pangobatan mèdhis kang diakibataké, lan uga béya ora langsung wujud laku-laku prévèntif. Ing Amérikah Sarékat, influenza duwé tanggung jawab kanggo total beban gedhéné punjul 10 yuta dollar per taun, sauntara wis diprakirakaké yèn pandemi ing mangsa ngarèp bisa nimbulaké tuna atusan yuta dolar sajeroning wangun beban langsung lan ora langsung.<ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/pandemic-influenza.html Statement from President George W. Bush on Influenza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109011356/http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/pandemic-influenza.html |date=2009-01-09 }} Diakses 26 Oktober 2006</ref> Nanging, dampak [[ékanami]] saka pandemi kang sadurungé durung disinaoni kanthi intènsif, lan sapérangan panulis wis nduga yèn influenza Spanyol sabeneré duwé èfèk jangka dawa positif ing patuwuhan ''pendapatan per-kapita'', sanajan ana pamudhunan kang gedhé ing populasi punggawa lan èfèk déprèsi jangka cendhak kang abot.<ref>Brainerd, E. and M. Siegler (2003), "The Ecanamic Effects of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic", ''CEPR Discussion Paper'', no. 3791.</ref> Panalitèn liya wis ngupaya kanggo mrédhiksi beban béya saka sawijining pandemi kang padha aboté karo flu Spanyol 1918 ing ékanami Amérikah Sarékat, ing endi 30% saka kabèh punggawa dadi lara, lan 2,5% ngalami pati. Angka lelara watara 30% lan suwéné lelara watara telung minggu bakal ngedhunaké [[prodhuk dhomèstik bruto]] gedhéné 5%. Beban tambahan bisa muncul saka pangobatan mèdhis saka 18 yuta nganti 45 yuta wong, lan beban ékanami kabèh bakal dadi kurang luwih 700 yuta dolar.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Poland G |title=Vaccines against avian influenza—a race against time |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/13/1411 |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=354 |issue=13 |pages=1411–3 |year=2006 |pmid=16571885 |doi=10.1056/NEJMe068047 |access-date=2012-06-29 |archive-date=2007-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230075940/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/13/1411 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Béya pancegahan uga dhuwur. Pamaréntah ing saindhenging donya wis ngentèkaké mayuta-yuta dolar Amérika sajeroning persiapan lan parencanaan sajeroning ngadhepi kamungkinan pandemi flu manuk H5N1, kanthi beban béya kang magepokan karo panukonan obat lan vaksin lan uga ngembangaké latihan bencana lan strategi sajeroning ngundhakaké [[pangawasan wewatesan]].<ref name=Rosenthal/> Pada 1 November 2005, [[Présidhèn Amérikah Sarékat]] [[George W. Bush]] mengeluarkan ''the National Strategy to Safeguard Against the Danger of Pandemic Influenza'' (Strategi Nasional kanggo Ngreksa Bebaya Pandemi influenza)<ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/pandemic-influenza.html National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109011356/http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/pandemic-influenza.html |date=2009-01-09 }} Whitehouse.gov Diaksès 26 Oktober 2006.</ref> kang dijurung déning panjaluk dana marang [[kongrès Amérikah Sarékat|kongrès]] gunggungé 7,1 yuta dollar kanggo miwiti implemèntasi rencana mau.<ref>[http://useu.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=D43D21FD-3D72-4780-BCDB-599EC56B12B3 Bush Outlines $7 Billion Pandemic Flu Preparedness Plan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807204025/http://useu.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=D43D21FD-3D72-4780-BCDB-599EC56B12B3 |date=2007-08-07 }} US Mission to the EU, Diaksès 12 Dhésèmber 2009 {{Wayback|url=http://useu.usmission.gov/Article.asp?ID=D43D21FD-3D72-4780-BCDB-599EC56B12B3|date =2007-08-07|bot=DASHBot}}{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> Ing donya internasional, ing tanggal 18 Januari 2006, nagara-nagara danar wis janji kanggo nyumbang 2 yuta dolar kanggo merangi flu manuk ing Konferènsi Prajanjian Internasional ngenani influenza Unggas lan Manungsa ''(International Pledging Conference on Avian and Human Influenza)'' kang ditindakaké suwéné rong dina ing Cina.<ref>[http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jan2006/2006-01-18-02.asp Danar Nations Pledge $1.85 Billion to Combat Bird Flu] Newswire Diaksès 26 Oktober 2006.</ref> Sajeroning pambijian pandemi H1N1 2009 ing nagara-nagara kapilih ing wilahan bumi pérangan kidul, data nuduhaké yèn kabèh nagara ngalami dampak sosio/ékanami sajeroning wates wektu lan/utawa géografis tartamtu lan pamudhunan sauntara sajeroning kapariwisataan kang mligi disababaké déning kewedèn bakal lelara H1N1 2009. Isih awal banget kanggo nemtokaké apa pandemi H1N1 wis nimbulaké dampak ékanami jangka dawa.<ref>Assessment of the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) Outbreak on Selected Countries in the Southern Hemisphere. 2009. http://flu.gov/professional/global/southhemisphere.html</ref> == Panalitèn == [[Gambar:Influenza virus research.jpg|thumb|left|upright|200px|Dr. Terrence Tumpey mriksa virus [[flu Spanyol]] 1918.]] Panalitèn ing influenza nyakup panalitèn ing [[virologi molekulèr]], kepriyé virus nimbulaké lelara ([[patogenesis]]), [[rèspon imun]] inang, génom virus, lan kepriyé panyebaran virus ([[epidemiologi]]). Panalitèn iki mbiyantu pangembangan laku nangkal influenza; contoné, pamahaman kang luwih becik ngenani rèspons sistem imun awak mbiyantu pangembangan vaksin, lan gambaran kang dhetil ngenani kepriyé influenza nyerang sèl mbiyantu dikembangaké obat-obat antivirus. Salah siji program panalitèn dhasar kang paling wigati yaiku ''Influenza Genome Sequencing Project'' (Proyèk panemton urutan génom influenza), kang nyiptakaké pustaka (pratélan kumpulan) sékuèns (gèn) influenza; pustaka iki bisa mbiyantu nemtokaké faktor endi kang gawé sawijining galur luwih matèkaké tinimbang galur liyané, gèn endi kang paling mangaruhi [[imunogenisitas]], lan kepriyé virus évolusi saka wektu menyang wektu sabanjuré.<ref>[http://msc.tigr.org/infl_a_virus/index.shtml Influenza A Virus Genome Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061108045050/http://msc.tigr.org/infl_a_virus/index.shtml |date=2006-11-08 }} at The Institute of Genomic Research. Diaksès 19 Oktober 2006</ref> Panalitèn vaksin anyar wigati banget, amarga vaksin kang sumadiya saiki alon banget lan larang kanggo diprodhuksi lan kudu diformulasi ulang saben tauné. Panemton urutan (sequencing) saka génom influenza lan tèknologi [[DNA rékombinan]] bisa nyepetaké tinemu galur vaksin anyar kanthi mungkinaké panaliti ngganti antigèn anyar ing galur vaksin kang wis dikembangaké sadurungé.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Subbarao K, Katz J |title=Influenza vaccines generated by reverse genetics |journal=Curr Top Microbiol Immunol |volume=283 |issue=|pages=313–42 |year=2004|pmid=15298174}}</ref> Tèknologi anyar uga nembé dikembangaké kanggo nuwuhaké virus ing kultur sèl, kang njanjèkaké angka prodhuksi kang luwih dhuwur, béya kang luwih asor, kualitas kang luwih apik lan ''surge capacity'' kang luwih apik.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bardiya N, Bae J |title=Influenza vaccines: recent advances in production technologies |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/jdt26gc39v4bwk9q/ |journal=Appl Microbiol Biotechnol |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=299–305 |year=2005 |pmid=15660212 |doi=10.1007/s00253-004-1874-1 |access-date=2012-06-30 |archive-date=2020-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326073534/http://www.springerlink.com/content/jdt26gc39v4bwk9q/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Panalitèn ing vaksin influenza A universal, kang dituduhaké ing domain èksternal saka [[protéin M2]] transmémbran virus (M2e), nembé ditindakaké déning [[University of Ghent]] déning [[Walter Fiers]], [[Xavier Saelens]], lan klompoké<ref>{{cite journal |author=Neirynck S, Deroo T, Saelens X, Vanlandschoot P, Jou WM, Fiers W |title=A universal influenza A vaccine based on the extracellular domain of the M2 protéin |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=1157–63 |date=October 1999 |pmid=10502819 |doi=10.1038/13484 }} </ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Fiers W, Neirynck S, Deroo T, Saelens X, Jou WM |title=Soluble recombinant influenza vaccines |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=356 |issue=1416 |pages=1961–3 |date=December 2001 |pmid=11779398 |pmc=1088575 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0980 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Fiers W, De Filette M, Birkett A, Neirynck S, Min Jou W |title=A "universal" human influenza A vaccine |journal=Virus Res. |volume=103 |issue=1-2 |pages=173–6 |date=July 2004 |pmid=15163506 |doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2004.02.030 }}</ref> lan saiki wis kasil ngliwati uji klinis fase 1. Sapérangan ''[[biologic]]'', vaksin lan ''imunobiologic'' terapeutik uga nembé ditliti kanggo nambani infèksi kang disebabaké déning virus. Biologi terapeutik dirancang kanggo ngaktivasi rèspon imun tumrap virus utawa antigèn. Lumrahé ''biologic'' ora nargètaké [[jalur métabolik]] kaya déné obat-obat antivirus, nanging ngrangsang sèl imun kaya déné [[limfosit]], [[makrofag]], lan/utawa ''[[antigen presenting cells]]'' kanggo mènèhi rèspon imun tumrap èfèk [[sitotoksik]] marang virus. Modhèl influenza, kaya déné influenza mencit (''murine influenza'') wujud modhèl kang apik kanggo dipigunakaké kanggo nguji èfèk ''biologic'' profilaksis lan terapeutik. Contoné ''[[Lymphocyte T-Cell Immune Modulator]]'' nyandhet patuwuhan virus ing modhèl influenza mencit.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2008 |title=Lymphocyte T-Cell Immunomodulator: Review of the ImmunoPharmacology of a new Veterinary Biologic |journal=Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=61–68 | url=http://jarvm.com/articles/Vol6Iss2/Vol6Iss2Gingerich61-68.pdf |format=PDF | access-date=5 Dhésèmber 2010 |author=Gingerich, DA}}</ref> == Infèksi ing kéwan liya == Influenza nginfèksi akèh spésiès [[kéwan]], lan transfer galur virus antar spésiès bisa dumadi. Unggas dinuga wujud inang kéwan utama saka virus influenza.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gorman O, Bean W, Kawaoka Y, Webster R |title=Evolution of the nucleoprotein gene of influenza A virus |pmc=249282 |journal=J Virol |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=1487–97 |year=1990 |pmid=2319644}}</ref> Nembelas wangun [[hémagglutinin]] lan sanga wangun [[néuraminidase]] wis diidhèntifikasi. Kabèh subtipe kang wis dikawruhi (HxNy) tinemu ing unggas, nanging akèh subtipe endemik ing [[manungsa]], [[asu]], [[jaran]], lan [[babi]]; populasi [[onta]], [[garangan]], [[kucing]], [[asu laut]], cerpelai (mink) lan [[iwak lodan]] uga nuduhaké bukti-bukti infèksi utawa paparan tumrap influenza.<ref name=webster/> Varian saka virus flu sok-sok dijenengi miturut spésiès ing endi galur mau endemik utawa adhaptasi. Varian utama saka jeneng-jeneng kang migunakaké konvènsi iki yaiku: flu unggas, flu manungsa, flu babi, [[flu jaran]], lan [[flu asu]]. ([[Flu kucing]] lumrahé ngrujuk marang [[rhinotracheitis virus kucing]] utawa ''[[Feline calicivirus]]'' lan dudu wujud infèksi kang asalé saka virus influenza.). Ing babi, jaran, lan asu, tandha-tandha influenza sarupa karo ing manungsa, mawa watuk, mriyang, lan [[anoreksia|kéhalangan nepsu mangan]].<ref name=webster/> Frékuènsi lelara iki ing kéwan ora disinaoni padha apiké ing infèksi marang manungsa, nanging wabah influenza ing asu laut pelabuhan nimbulaké kurang luwih 500 patiné asu laut ing pasisir [[New England]] nalika taun 1979-1980.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hinshaw V, Bean W, Webster R, Rehg J, Fiorelli P, Early G, Geraci J, St Aubin D |title=Are seals frequently infected with avian influenza viruses? |pmc=255856 |journal=J Virol |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=863–5 |year=1984 |pmid=6471169}}</ref> Ing sisih liya, wabah ing babi asring dumadi lan ora nimbulaké angka pepati kang abot.<ref name=webster/> === Flu unggas === Tandha-tandha flu ing unggas manéka lan mungkin ora spésifik.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Elbers A, Koch G, Bouma A |title=Performance of clinical signs in poultry for the detection of outbreaks during the avian influenza A (H7N7) epidemic in The Netherlands in 2003 |journal=Avian Pathol |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=181–7 |year=2005 |pmid=16191700 | doi=10.1080/03079450500096497}}</ref> Tandha-tandha kang ngetutaké infèksi flu unggas kanthi patogenesitas kang asor bisa wujud wulu kang morak-marik, pamudhunan cilik sajeroning prodhuksi endhog, utawa pamudhunan bobot awak dikombinasikaké karo [[lelara ambegan]] ènthèng.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Capua| first1= I |last2= Mutinelli | first2= F. |chapter=Low pathogenicity (LPAI) and highly pathogenic (HPAI) avian influenza in turkeys and chicken | title=A Colour Atlas and Text on Avian Influenza |publisher= Papi Editore |location= Bologna |year= 2001 |pages=13–20 | isbn=88-88369-00-7 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=S1hEAAAACAAJ }}</ref> Amarga tandha-tandha kang ènthèng iki bisa gawé diagnosis ing lapangan dadi angèl, ngetutaké panyebaran flu unggas merlokaké uji laboratorium saka sampel kang asalé saka unggas kang kainfèksi. Sapérangan galur kaya déné [[H9N2]] Asia virulèn banget marang kéwan ingon unggas lan bisa nimbulaké tandha-tandha kang luwih èkstrém lan mortalitas kang signifikan.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bano S, Naeem K, Malik S |title=Evaluation of pathogenic potential of avian influenza virus serotype H9N2 in chickens |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_avian-diseases_july-september-2003_47_3/page/817 |journal=Avian Dis |volume=47 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=817–22 |year=2003 |pmid=14575070 |doi=10.1637/0005-2086-47.s3.817}}</ref> Ing wangun kang paling patogenik, influenza ing [[pitik]] lan [[kalkun]] nimbulaké munculé tandha-tandha ndadak lan pepati mèh 100% sajeroning rong dina.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Swayne D, Suarez D |title=Highly pathogenic avian influenza |journal=Rev Sci Tech |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=463–82 |year=2000 |pmid=10935274}}</ref> Amarga virus nyebar kanthi rikat ing kaanan kang padhet kaya déné ing paternakan intènsif pitik lan kalkun, wabah iki bisa nimbulaké dampak [[ékanami]] kang gedhé kanggo paternak unggas. Galur H5N1 kang wis adhaptasi marang unggas lan patogèn banget (diarani HPAI A(H5N1), cekakan saka "''highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of type A of subtype H5N1''") nimbulaké flu H5N1, kang lumrahé ditepungi minangka flu unggas, utawa "flu manuk", lan endemik ing akèh populasi manuk, mligi ing [[Asia Kidul-wétan]]. Galur turunan Asia saka HPAI A (H5N1) nyebar kanthi global. Epizootik (epidemi ing makluk urip dudu manungsa) lan panzootik (lelara kang ngenani kéwan saka akèh spésiès, mligi sajeroning wewengkon kang wiyar banget), wis matèni puluhan yuta unggas lan njalari pepati disengaja atusan yuta unggas liya sajeroning upaya kanggo ngendhalèkaké panyebarané. Sapérangan gedhé réferènsi ing médhia marang “flu manuk” lan sapérangan gedhé réferènsi marang H5N1 yaiku ngenani galur spésifik iki.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Li K, Guan Y, Wang J, Smith G, Xu K, Duan L, Rahardjo A, Puthavathana P, Buranathai C, Nguyen T, Estoepangestie A, Chaisingh A, Auewarakul P, Long H, Hanh N, Webby R, Poon L, Chen H, Shortridge K, Yuen K, Webster R, Peiris J |title=Genesis of a highly pathogenic and potentially pandemic H5N1 influenza virus in eastern Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2004-07-08_430_6996/page/209 |journal=Nature |volume=430 |issue=6996 |pages=209–13 |year=2004 |pmid=15241415 | doi=10.1038/nature02746}}</ref><ref>Li KS, Guan Y, Wang J, Smith GJ, Xu KM, Duan L, Rahardjo AP, Puthavathana P, Buranathai C, Nguyen TD, Estoepangestie AT, Chaisingh A, Auewarakul P, Long HT, Hanh NT, Webby RJ, Poon LL, Chen H, Shortridge KF, Yuen KY, Webster RG, Peiris JS. [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309095042/html/116.html "The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready?" Workshop Summary] The National Academies Press (2005) "Today's Pandemic Threat: Genesis of a Highly Pathogenic and Potentially Pandemic H5N1 Influenza Virus in Eastern Asia", pages 116–130</ref> Saiki, HPAI A(H5N1) wujud lelara unggas, lan ora ana bukti kang nuduhaké panularan kang èfisièn manungsa-marang-manungsa saka HPAI A(H5N1). Ing mèh kabèh kasus, wong-wong kang kainfèksi wis ngalami kontak fisik kang èkstènsif karo unggas kang kainfèksi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Liu J |title=Avian influenza—a pandemic waiting to happen? |url=http://jmii.org/content/pdf/v39n1p4.pdf |journal=J Microbiol Immunol Infect |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=4–10 |year=2006 |pmid=16440117 |format=PDF |access-date=2012-07-01 |archive-date=2008-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216094539/http://jmii.org/content/pdf/v39n1p4.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ing mangsa ngarep, H5N1 bisa mutasi utawa ngalami réassortment dadi galur kang mampu ditularaké antar manungsa kanthi èfisièn. Owah-owahan kang diperlokaké nganti iki dumadi durung dikawruhi kanthi becik.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Salomon R, Webster RG |title=The influenza virus enigma |url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2009-02-06_136_3/page/402 |journal=Cell |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=402–10 |date=February 2009 |pmid=19203576 |pmc=2971533 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2009.01.029}}</ref> Nanging, amarga dhuwuré angka pepati lan virulènsi H5N1, kaanan endemiknya, lan inang réservoir biologis kang gunggungé gedhé lan tansaya tambah, virus H5N1 wujud ancaman pandemi donya ing mangsa flu taun 2006-07, lan milyaran dolar wis diklumpukaké lan dientèkaké sajeroning nliti H5N1 lan ngrencanakaké kanggo kamungkinan pandemi influenza.<ref name=Rosenthal>{{cite news | last1=Rosenthal |first1= E. |last2= Bradsher |first2= K. |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/16/business/16bird.html?_r=1&oref=slogin | title= Is Business Ready for a Flu Pandemic? |work= The New York Times |date=16 Maret 2006 |accessdate= 17 April 2006 }}</ref> === Flu babi === Ing [[babi]], influenza babi nimbulaké mriyang, awak lemes, wahing, watuk, kangèlan ambegan, lan pemudhunan nepsu mangan.<ref name=Kothalawala>{{cite journal |author=Kothalawala H, Toussaint MJ, Gruys E |title=An overview of swine influenza |journal=Vet Q |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=46–53 |date=June 2006 |pmid=16841566}}</ref> Ing sapérangan kasus infèksi bisa nimbulaké aborsi. Sanajan mortalitas lumrahé asor, virus bisa nimbulaké pamudhunan bobot awak lan patuwuhan kang ala, nimbulaké dampak karugèn ékanami kanggo para paternak.<ref name=Kothalawala/> Babi kang kainfèksi bisa ngalami kélangan bobot watara 12 pon bobot awak sajeroning jangka wektu 3 nganti 4 minggu.<ref name=Myers>{{cite journal |author=Myers KP, Olsen CW, Gray GC |title=Cases of swine influenza in humans: a review of the literature |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=44 |issue=8 |pages=1084–8 |date=April 2007 |pmid=17366454 |pmc=1973337 |doi=10.1086/512813 }}</ref> Nalika taun 2009, galur virus [[H1N1]] kang asalé saka babi, kang asring diarani “flu babi” njalari pandemi flu 2009, nanging ora ana bukti yèn virus iki èndemik ing babi (temenan wujud flu babi) utawa bisa nular saka babi menyang manungsa, nanging virus iki nyebar saka manungsa-marang-manungsa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oie.int/eng/press/en_090427.htm|title=Press Release: A/H1N1 influenza like human illness in Mexico and the USA: OIE statement|author=Maria Zampaglione|publisher=[[World Organisation for Animal Health]]|date=April 29, 2009|accessdate=April 29, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430105521/http://www.oie.int/eng/press/en_090427.htm|archivedate=April 30, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/01/health/01name.html?scp=5&sq=&st=nyt |title=W.H.O. Gives Swine Flu a Less Loaded, More Scientific Name | work=The New York Times | first=Denise | last=Grady | date=2009-05-01 | accessdate=2010-03-31}}</ref> Galur iki wujud réassortment saka sapérangan galur H1N1 kang lumrahé tinemu kanthi kapisah, ing manungsa, unggas, lan babi.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/01/health/01origin.html?scp=2&sq=&st=nyt |title=Virus's Tangled Genes Straddle Continents, Raising a Mystery About Its Origins |format=| work=The New York Times | first=Donald G. | last=McNeil Jr. | date=2009-05-01 | accessdate=2010-03-31}}</ref> == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist|2}} <!-- {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} --> == Wacan terusan == {{Col-begin}} {{Col-1-of-2}} '''Umum''' {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal |author=Beigel JH, Farrar J, Han AM |display-authors=etal |title=Avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans |journal=N Engl J Med. |volume=353 |issue=13 |pages=1374–85 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16192482 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra052211 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/13/1374 |access-date=2012-02-09 |archive-date=2010-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722104920/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/13/1374 |url-status=dead }} * Bernd Sebastian Kamps, Christian Hoffmann and Wolfgang Preiser (Eds.) 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Dis. |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=34–9 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16494714 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no01/05-1013.htm}} * {{cite journal |author=Horimoto T, Kawaoka Y |title=Pandemic threat posed by avian influenza A viruses |journal=Clin Microbiol Rev. |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=129–49 |date=January 2001 |pmid=11148006 |pmc=88966 |doi=10.1128/CMR.14.1.129-149.2001}} * [http://www.who.int/wer/wer8126.pdf Epidemiology of WHO-confirmed human cases of avian influenza A(H5N1) infection] {{Refend}} '''Pananganan lan panyegahan''' {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal |author=Harper SA, Fukuda K, Uyeki TM, Cox NJ, Bridges CB |title=Prevention and control of influenza. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) |journal=MMWR Recomm Rep |volume=54 |issue=RR-8 |pages=1–40 |date=July 2005 |pmid=16086456}} * {{cite journal |author=Monto AS |title=Vaccines and antiviral drugs in pandemic preparedness |journal=Emerging Infect. Dis. |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=55–60 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16494718 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no01/05-1068.htm}} {{Refend}} '''Panelitèn''' {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal |author=Palese P |title=Making better influenza virus vaccines? |journal=Emerging Infect. Dis. |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=61–5 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16494719 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no01/05-1043.htm }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060824004040/http://www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/guidelines/recommendationvaccine.pdf WHO (PDF) contains latest Evolutionary "Tree of Life" for H5N1] article ''Antigenic and genetic characteristics of H5N1 viruses and candidate H5N1 vaccine viruses developed for potential use as pre-pandemic vaccines'' published 18 August 2006 * [http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/influenza/WHO_CDS_EPR_GIP_2006_3C.pdf WHO's assessment of Flu Research] as of November 2006. {{Refend}} {{Col-end}} == Pranala njaba == {{sisterlinks}} {{Refbegin}} * [http://www.ers-education.org/pages/default.aspx?id=331 ERS Online Course on Influenza] * [http://www.myfamilywellness.org/MainMenuCategories/FamilyHealthCenter/Flu.aspx Swine and Seasonal Flu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727105753/http://www.myfamilywellness.org/MainMenuCategories/FamilyHealthCenter/Flu.aspx |date=2011-07-27 }}, [http://www.goodmedicine.org/ Institute for Good Medicine] at the [http://www.pamedsoc.org/ Pennsylvania Medical Society] * [http://www.cdc.gov/flu/ Info on influenza] at [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] * [http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/the-flu/overview.html Summary of the disease] at the [[NYTimes]]. * [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/health/05virus.html 10 Genes, Furiously Evolving] [[NYTimes]] May 2009 * [http://www.outbreakalerts.com/ Outbreak Alerts] United States based communicable disease notification website * [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/influenza/DS00081 Influenza (Mayo Clinic)] * [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs211/en/index.html Fact Sheet] Overview of influenza at World Health Organization * [http://origem.info/misms/index.php The Multinational Influenza Seasonal Mortality Study (MISMS)] [[Fogarty International Center]] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/FLU/flubiology.html Influenza Virus Resource] from the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information|NCBI]] * [http://www.eiss.org/ European Influenza Surveillance Scheme] * [http://www.google.org/flutrends/ Flu Trends] – flu activity across the U.S. * [https://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/Sat/Topics/ColdsAndFlu.aspx?Host=Nhsd&SyndicationPartnerGuid=d19370ea-a100-407d-9695-b73407f701c7&TopicGuid=8c903315-a302-412a-bfae-9cb576d4b4cd Cold and flu advice] (NHS Direct) * [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/6 Online video discussing influenza outbreaks and spread of other infectious diseases] (Vega Science Trust) * [http://www.pandemicflu.gov/ Flu.gov: Know What To Do About the Flu] * [http://www.path.org/vaccineresources/influenza.php PATH Vaccine Resource Library influenza resources] * [http://www.fludb.org/ Influenza Research Database] – Database of influenza genomic sequences, serotypes, polymorphisms, structures, epitopes, drugs and related tools. * [http://www.recombinomics.com/whats_new.html? Recombinomics - What's New]: Up to date details of circulating strains. {{Refend}} {{artikel pilihan}} [[Kategori:Influenza| ]] [[Kategori:Lelara nular]] [[Kategori:Pulmanalogi]] [[Kategori:Lelara ambegan]] 6aqpa8wpfphom9vzn1wq1qv5kb34htf Pelécéhan sèksual 0 84330 1752909 1548251 2026-08-20T04:48:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752909 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pelécéhan sèksual''' yaiku tindak-tanduk ''pendekatan-pendekatan'' kang ana gegayutane karo [[seks]] kang ora dikarepake, kalebu panjalukan kanggo nindakaké seks, lan tindak tanduk liyané kang kanthi verbal utawa fisik ngrujuk ing seks. Pelecehan sèksual bisa kedadeyan ing ngendi baé, tuladhané ing papan panggonan umum kaya ta [[bis]], [[pasar]], [[sekolah]], [[kantor]], lan ing papan panggonan kang asifat pribadi kaya ta [[omah]]. Ing kedadeyan pelecehan sèksual lumrahé ana 10 persèn tetembungan pelecehan, 10 persèn intonasi kang nuduhake pelecehan, lan 80 persèn non verbal. == Pelaku lan kurban == Sanajan kanthi umum wong wadon kerep éntuk sorotan minangka kurban pelecehan sèksual, nanging pelecehan sèksual bisa dialami sapa baé. Kurban pelecehan sèksual bisa wong lanang utawa wong wadon. Kurban uga bisa lawan jinis saka pelaku pelecehan utawa kanthi jinis kelamin kang padha. * '''Pelaku''' pelecehan sèksual bisa sapa baé, ora deleng jinis kelamin, umur, pendhidhikan, nilei-nile budaya, nile-nile agama, warga nagara, latar belakang, lan status sosial. * '''Kurban''' saka tindak-tanduk pelecehan sèksual dikongkon supaya nyathet saben kedadeyan kalebu identitas pelaku, lokasi, wektu, panggonan, seksi lan prilaku kang ditindakake dianggep ora nyenengake. Sarta nglaporake ing pihak kang duwé wewenang. * '''Saksi''' bisa dadi sawijing wong kang krungu utawa deleng kedadeyan utawa sawining wong kang diinformasekake ngenani kedadeyan nalika kedadeyan mau kelakon. Kurban uga dikongkon supaya nuduhake tindak-tanduke kang ora seneng pelecehan sèksual. == Pelecehan sèksual ing kantor == Pelecehan sèksual ing kantor manawa bisa kedadeyan nalika: # Kaputusan ngenani kepegaweyan individu tertamtu digawé amarga individu mau nindakaké utawa nolak ''pendekatan-pendekatan'' sèksual ing gaweyane. Dudutan-putusan kepegaweyan tuladhané kang ana gegayutane karo promosi, penghargaan, pelatihan, lan keuntungan-keuntungan liyané. # Panolakan ngenani pendekatan sèksual kang kanthi ora masuk akal mrabawani panilenan pekerjaan individu utawa nyipta lingkungan kerja kang ngintimidasi, kasar, utawa kebak tekanan liyané. === Macem-macem tindak-tanduk kang digolongake ing pelecehan sèksual ing kantor === * [[Lelucon seks]], nggoda kanthi terus-terusan ngenani babagan kang ana gegayutane karo seks kanthi kanthi langsung utawa lumantar médhia kaya ta [[surat]], [[SMS]], utawa [[surat-e]]. * Panyiksan kanthi verbal ngenani babagan kang ana gegayutane karo seks. * Nyekel kanthi ancas [[sèksual]]. * Sacara bola-bali ngadek cedhak banget utawa nganti sesenggolan badhan. * Sacara bola-bali ngongkon sawijining wong supaya sosialisasi ing njaba jam kantor sanajan wong kang dkongkon wis kandha yèn ora gelem. * Menehi paweweh utawa ninggal barang-barang kang bisa ngrujuk ing [[seks]]. * Sacara bola-bali nuduhake tindak-tanduk kang ngarah ing hasrat sèksual. * Anggawe utawa ngirimake gambar-gambar, kartun, utawa material liyané kang ana gegayutane karo seks lan yèn dirasakake nglanggar etika/ batas. * Ing njaba jam kerja meksa kanthi ajakan-ajakan kang ana gegayutane karo seks kang ana ing lingkup gaweyan. === Pencegahan === Lumrahé apike pegawe ngindari lelungan ijèn lan ora nyambut gawé lembur dhèwèkan ing wayah bengi. Yèn ana keperluan ing jaba jam kantor. Sanajan ora ana jaminan yèn sesandhangan katutup bakal aman saka tindak-tanduk pelecehan sèksual, nanging kodhe etik sesandhangan kanthi profésional lan tindak-tanduk kang profésional ing kantor dikongkon supaya ngindari kedadeyan kang ora dikarepake. == Wewacan == * Sorenson, Susan B. (1997). ''Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home: Current Issues in Spousal Battering and Child Maltreatment'', New York: Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-681-2. * Leigh Ann Reynolds. [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED416651&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED416651 "People with Mental Retardation & Sexual Abuse. The Arc Q & A"], Arc National Headquarters, 1997 * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF01102020 | last1 = Baladerian | first1 = N. | year = 1991 | title = Sexual abuse of people with developmental disabilities | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_sexuality-and-disability_winter-1991_9_4/page/323| journal = Sexuality and Disability | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 323–335 }} * Sobsey, D.(1994). ''Violence and Abuse in the Lives of People With Disabilities: The End of Silent Acceptance?'' Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-55766-148-7 * Sobsey D. and Varnhagen, C.(1989). "Sexual abuse and exploitation of people with disabilities: Toward Prevention and Treatment". In M. Csapo and L. Gougen (Eds) ''Special Education Across Canada'' (pp.&nbsp;199–218). Vancouver Centre for Human Developmental Research * Valenti-Hien, D. and Schwartz, L.(1995). "The sexual abuse interview for those with developmental disabilities". James Stanfield Company, Santa Barbara: California. * White-Davis, Donna Lovers in the Time of Plague copyright 2009 == Pranala njaba == * {{dmoz|Society/Support_Groups/Sexual_Abuse|Sexual abuse}} * [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/childsexualabuse.html Child Sexual Abuse] di [[National Institutes of Health]] [[Kategori:Kekerasan]] [[Kategori:Kriminalitas]] [[Kategori:Seks]] [[Kategori:Pelecehan sèksual anak]] 9f12fdmehcgvcyn38e787ar2mma87u0 Camomile 0 84663 1752964 1744908 2026-08-20T06:41:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752964 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Matricaria February 2008-1.jpg|thumb|right|Kembang Camomile]] '''Chamomile''' (''KAM-ə-meel or KAM-ə-myl''),<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/chamomile |title=Chamomile | Define Chamomile at Dictionary.com |work=reference.com |access-date=19 Agustus 2010}}</ref> uga diarani '''camomile''', iku [[tetuwuhan]] saka [[genus]] ''Anthemis''.<ref name=brit>{{Cite web |url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/105081/chamomile |title=chamomile (plant) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia |work=britannica.com |access-date=19 Agustus 2010}}</ref> Jeneng camomile iku asal saka tembung [[Yunani]] ''chamaimelon'', sing tegesé " [[apel]] lemah", sebab ambuné.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=camomile |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |work=etymonline.com |access-date=19 Agustus 2010}}</ref> Tuwuhan iki nduwèni kembang awarna kuning, lan luwih saka 100 [[species]].<ref name=brit/> Tuwuhan iki bisa dianggo obat utawa digawé ombènan [[tèh]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://altmedicine.about.com/od/herbsupplementguide/a/Chamomile.htm |title=Chamomile - What You Need to Know About Chamomile |work=about.com |access-date=19 Agustus 2010 |archive-date=2010-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204152643/http://altmedicine.about.com/od/herbsupplementguide/a/Chamomile.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Tuwuhan iki bisa nekakake rasa luwih kalem,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brown E, Hurd NS, McCall S, Ceremuga TE |title=Evaluation of the anxiolytic effects of chrysin, a Passiflora incarnata extract, in the laboratory rat |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_aana-journal_2007-10_75_5/page/n18 |journal=AANA J |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=333–7 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17966676 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Wolfman C, Viola H, Paladini A, Dajas F, Medina JH |title=Possible anxiolytic effects of chrysin, a central benzodiazepine receptor ligand isolated from Passiflora coerulea |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pharmacology-biochemistry-and-behavior_1994-01_47_1/page/n10 |journal=Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |date=January 1994 |pmid=7906886 |doi=10.1016/0091-3057(94)90103-1 }}</ref> lan ngurangi rasa strès.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/natural-medicine/herbal-remedies/chamomile-herbal-remedies.htm |title=Discovery Health "Chamomile: Herbal Remedies" |work=health.howstuffworks.com |access-date=19 Agustus 2010 }}</ref> Kembang iki dadi kembang nasional [[Ruslan]]. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Tetuwuhan obat]] {{biologi-stub}} [[br:Manzanilla]] [[ca:Camamilla]] [[de:Kamille]] [[es:Manzanilla]] [[lt:Ramunė (reikšmės)]] [[nl:Kamille]] [[pl:Rumianek pospolity]] [[ru:Ромашка (значения)]] [[sv:Kamomill]] [[tl:Mansanilya (kamomile)]] [[uk:Ромашка (значення)]] cs97o0nulcqn56vggip1czg6hmgf0nh Fenerbahçe S.K. 0 88768 1752837 1750483 2026-08-19T19:48:05Z Zafer 23982 Photo add 1752837 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fenerbahçe''' iku sawijining klub bal-balan ing [[Turki]]. Kang duwé basis ana ing [[Istanbul]], [[Turki]]. Tim iki madeg taun [[1907]]. {{Football club infobox | clubname = Fenerbahçe | image = | fullname = Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü | nickname = ''Sarı Kanaryalar'' | founded = [[1907]] | ground = [[Fenerbahçe Şükrü Saraçoğlu]],{{br}}[[Kadıköy]] | capacity = 52.500 | chairman = {{flagicon|Turki}} Aziz Yıldırım | manager = {{flagicon|Turki}} İsmail Kartal | league = [[Süper Lig]] | season = 2025-26 | position = peringkat 2 | pattern_la1=_fener2122H| pattern_b1=_fener2122H| pattern_ra1=_fener2122H| leftarm1=000040| body1=000040| rightarm1=000040| shorts1=FFFFFF| socks1=FFFFFF| pattern_la2=_fener2122A| pattern_b2=_fener2122A| pattern_ra2=_fener2122A| leftarm2=000080| body2=DCDDD9| rightarm2=DCDDD9| shorts2=DCDDD9| socks2=DCDDD9| }} [[File:Fenerbahçe SK 20260805 (20) (cropped).JPG|thumb|260px|Fenerbahçe 2026]] [[File:Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium 22012017.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Stadhion Şükrü Saracoğlu Kandhang Fenerbahçe S.K.]] == Gelar Juwara == === Kasil ana kancah Internasional === * '''Piala Balkan:''' ** ''' Pamenang (1):''' 1966-67 === Kasil ana ing kancah Domestik === ==== Kajuwaraan Turki ==== * '''Kajuwaraan Sepak Turki:''' '''(cathetan)''' ** ''' Pamenang (3):''' 1933, 1935, 1944 ** ''' Runners-up (2):''' 1940, 1947 * '''Nasional Liga:''' '''(cathetan)''' ** ''' Pemenang (6):''' 1936-37, 1939-40, 1942-43, 1944-45, 1945-46, 1949-50 ** ''' Runners-up (2):''' 1943-44, 1946-47 * '''Liga Super Turki:''' '''(bersama-record)''' ** ''' Pamenang (17):''' 1959, 1960-61, 1963-64, 1964-65, 1967-68, 1969-70, 1973-74, 1974-75, 1977-78, 1982-83 , 1984-85, 1988-89, 1995-96, 2000-01, 2003-04, 2004-05, 2006-07 ** ''' Runners-up (16):''' 1960, 1961-62, 1966-67, 1970-71, 1972-73, 1975-76, 1976-77, 1979-80, 1983-84, 1989 -90, 1991-92, 1993-94, 1997-98, 2001-02, 2005-06, 2007-08 ==== kompetisi liya-liyané ==== * '''Piala Turki:''' ** ''' Pamenang (4):''' 1967-68, 1973-74, 1978-79, 1982-83 ** ''' Runners-up (7):''' 1962-63, 1964-1965, 1988-89, 1995-96, 2000-01, 2004-05, 2005-06 * '''Piala Super Turki''' /'''Piala Présidhèn:''' ** ''' Pamenang (7):''' 1968, 1973, 1975, 1984, 1985, 1990, 2007 ** ''' Runners-up (7):''' 1970, 1974, 1978, 1979, 1983, 1989, 1996 * '''Piala Nayakotama:''' '''(catatan)''' ** ''' Pamenang (8):''' 1944-45, 1945-46, 1949-50, 1972-73, 1979-80, 1988-89, 1992-93, 1997-98 ** ''' Runners-up (7):''' 1943-44, 1970-71, 1975-76, 1976-77, 1991-92, 1993-94, 1994-95 * '''Piala TSYD:''' '''(shared merekam)''' ** ''' Pamenang (12):''' 1969-70, 1973-74, 1975-76, 1976-77, 1978-79, 1979-80, 1980-81, 1982-83, 1985-86, 1986 -87, 1994-95, 1995-96 * '''Piala Atatürk:''' '''(catatan)''' ** ''' Pamenang (2):''' 1963-1964, 1998 * '''Bal-balan Liga Istanbul:''' '''(cathetan)''' ** ''' Pemenang (16):''' 1911-12, 1913-14, 1914-15, 1920-21, 1922-23, 1929-30, 1932-33, 1934-35, 1935-36, 1936 -37, 1943-44, 1946-47, 1947-48, 1952-53, 1956-57, 1958-59 ** ''' Runners-up (18):''' 1915-16, 1917-18, 1921-22, 1925-26, 1926-27, 1928-29, 1930-31, 1933-34, 1937-38 , 1938-39, 1939-40, 1940-41, 1942-43, 1944-45, 1945-46, 1949-50, 1955-56, 1957-58 * '''Piala Istanbul:''' ** ''' Pamenang (1):''' 1945 * '''Perisai Istanbul:''' '''(cathetan)''' ** ''' Pamenang (4):''' 1930, 1934, 1938, 1939 * '''Piala Spor-Toto:''' ** ''' Pamenang (1):''' 1967 * '''Piala Armada:''' '''(cathetan)''' ** ''' Pamenang (4):''' 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985 == Pamain-juru main misuwur == * {{Flagicon|Argentina}} [[Ariel Ortega]] * {{Flagicon|Nèderlan}} [[Pierre van Hooijdonk]] * {{Flagicon|Bosnia Herzegovina}} [[Elvir Baljic]] * {{Flagicon|Brasil}} [[Alex de Souza]] * {{Flagicon|Brasil}} [[Roberto Carlos]] * {{Flagicon|Brasil}} [[Washington Stecanelo Cerqueira]] * {{Flagicon|Dhènemarken}} [[Brian Steen Nielsen]] * {{Flagicon|Dhènemarken}} [[Jes Høgh]] * {{Flagicon|Ghana}} [[Stephen Appiah]] * {{Flagicon|Inggris}} [[Dalian Atkinson]] * {{Flagicon|Israel}} [[Haim Revivo]] * {{Flagicon|Jerman}} [[Harald 'Toni' Schumacher]] * {{Flagicon|Kroasia}} [[Milan Rapaic]] * {{Flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Jay Jay Okocha]] * {{Flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Uche Okechukwu]] * {{Flagicon|Prancis}} [[Nicolas Anelka]] * {{Flagicon|Rumeni}} [[Viorel Moldovan]] * {{Flagicon|Serbia lan Montenegro}} [[Zoran Mirkovic]] * {{Flagicon|Serbia}} [[Mateja Kežman]] * {{Flagicon|Swèdhen}} [[Kennet Andersson]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Aykut Kocaman]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Can Bartu]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Cemil Turan]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Cihat Arman]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Lefter Küçükandonyadis]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Mehmet Aurélio]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Oguz Cetin]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Rıdvan Dilmen]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Rüstü Reçber]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Selçuk Yula]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Tanju Çolak]] * {{Flagicon|Turki}} [[Tuncay Şanlı]] * {{Flagicon|Ukraina}} [[Serhiy Rebrov]] * {{Flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Diego Lugano]] == Pranala najaba == {{commons|Category:Fenerbahce}} * [http://www.fenerbahce.org/eng Situs resmi] * [http://www.fenerbahce.org/de Situs resmi] [[Kategori:Bal-balan Turki]] [[Kategori:Group Bal-balan]] [[crh:Fenerbahçe sport klubu]] [[en:Fenerbahçe S.K.]] [[eo:Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü]] [[es:Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü]] [[et:Fenerbahçe]] [[fr:Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü]] [[lb:Fenerbahçe]] [[ms:Fenerbahçe]] [[sco:Fenerbahçe S.K.]] [[simple:Fenerbahçe S.K.]] [[sv:Fenerbahçe SK]] [[tr:Fenerbahçe SK]] 10pdwxttmzixee95np6wlv1ibpk9jmm Vikas Swarup 0 88920 1752887 1750447 2026-08-20T04:13:02Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752887 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --> | name = Vikas Swarup | image = VikasSwarup.jpg | imagesize = 200px | caption = | pseudonym = | birth = | birth_place = [[Allahabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]] | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = [[Novèl]]is, [[PNS]] | nationality = India {{flagicon|India}} | period = | genre = [[Realisme (seni)|Realisme]] | subject = | movement = | influences = | influenced = | signature = | website = http://www.vikasswarup.net }} '''Vikas Swarup''' ({{lang-hi|विकास स्वरूप}}; [[basa Urdu|Urdu]]: وکاس سوروپ ) iku sawijining [[novèl]]is lan [[diplomat]] [[India]] sing wis tau njabat ing [[Turki]], [[Amérikah Sarékat]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Inggris]], [[Afrika Kidul]] lan [[Jepang]]. Dhèwèké misuwur amarga novèl-novèlé, ya iku ''[[Q & A (novèl)|Q & A]]'' lan ''[[Six Suspects]]''. ==Kauripan awal== Vikas Swarup lair ing [[Allahabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] ing satengahing kulawarga pengacara. Dhèwèké sekolah ing [[Boys' High School & College, Allahabad]] lan nerusaké stuédiné ing [[Universitas Allahabad]] kanthi subjèk [[Psikologi]], [[Sajarah]] lan [[Filsafat]]. ==Kauripan pribadi== Vikas Swarup palakrama karo Aparna lan duwé anak lanang loro, Aditya lan Varun. <ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2009/jan/16/danny-boyle-india</ref> ==Bibliografi== * [[Q & A (novèl)|Q & A]] * [[Six Suspects (novèl)|Six Suspects]] ===Carita cekak=== * A Great Event - published in [[The Children’s Hours: Stories of Childhood]] ==Uga delengen== *[[Slumdog Millionaire]] ==Réferènsi== {{Reflist}} ==Wawancara lan artikel== * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/nov/27/mumbai-terror-attacks-terrorism Vikas Swarup: Mumbai will recover from this, just as it has many times before] * [http://www.booksattransworld.co.uk/catalog/interview.htm?command=search&db=twmain.txt&eqisbndata=0385608136 Doubleday • Modern fiction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927162111/http://www.booksattransworld.co.uk/catalog/interview.htm?command=search&db=twmain.txt&eqisbndata=0385608136 |date=2011-09-27 }} * [http://www.rediff.com/news/2005/feb/02inter1.htm The Rediff Interview/Vikas Swarup] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121213031944/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/ptm/books/swarup.htm Channel NewsAsia: Author Speak - Vikas Swarup] * [http://www.ukinindia.org/magazines/britaintoday/BTInnerpage.asp?IssueId=84&magzineId=3&SectionId=751&ArticleId=2063 Indian Diplomat’s Novel Maiden Musical Indian diplomat Vikas Swarup’s acclaimed first novel, Q And A, is being made into a West End musical.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914105041/http://www.ukinindia.org/magazines/britaintoday/BTInnerpage.asp?IssueId=84&magzineId=3&SectionId=751&ArticleId=2063 |date=2015-09-14 }} * [http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/south-asia/slumdog-success-it-all-started-in-allahabad_100141686.html How the story of Slumdog Millionaire started.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502015814/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/south-asia/slumdog-success-it-all-started-in-allahabad_100141686.html |date=2009-05-02 }} ==Pranala njaba== * [http://www.vikasswarup.net VikasSwarup.net] * [http://www.theampersandagency.co.uk/blog Ampersand Agency blog including posts on Vikas Swarup's work] * [http://www.booksweb.tv/content/show/ContentId/898 Interview with Vikas Swarup about his novel "Q and A"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113135653/http://www.booksweb.tv/content/show/ContentId/898 |date=2008-11-13 }} * [http://www.slumdogmillionaire.eu/ Slumdog Millionaire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090317083850/http://www.slumdogmillionaire.eu/ |date=2009-03-17 }} * [http://www.sixsuspects.com Six Suspects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430224826/http://sixsuspects.com/ |date=2016-04-30 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Swarup, Vikas}} [[Kategori:Hindhu India]] [[Kategori:Diplomat India]] [[Kategori:Penulis India]] [[Kategori:Isih urip]] 42io6n7arg4be9cs9bezx8du5cro91q Michael Bublé 0 90448 1752824 1532588 2026-08-19T12:51:40Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752824 wikitext text/x-wiki {{artikel ing krama}} {{Infobox musical artist| | Name = Michael Bublé | Img = Michael Buble by Dallas Bittle crop.jpg | size = 230px | Img_capt= Michael Bublé wonten ing acara Junos 2009 ing [[Vancouver]], [[Kanada]], 29 Maret 2009 | Landscape = | Background = solo_singer | Birth_name = Michael Steven Bublé | Alias = | Birth = {{birth date and age|1975|9|9|df=yes}} | Origin = [[Burnaby]], [[British Columbia]], [[Kanada]] | Instrument = [[Vokal]], [[piano]] | Voice type = [[Baritone]] | Genre = [[Vokal]], [[big band]], [[pop tradhisional]], ''[[easy listening]]'', [[soft rock]] | Occupation = [[Penyanyi]], [[Penulis lagu]], [[Ingkang maragani]] | Years_active = 1996–sekarang | Label = [[143 Records|143]]/[[Reprise Records|Reprise]] | Influences = [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Bobby Darin]] | Associated_acts = [[Naturally 7]], [[Jann Arden]], [[Laura Pausini]], [[Boyz II Men]] | URL = [http://www.michaelbuble.com Situs resmi] | Current_members = | Past_members = }} '''Michael Bublé''' ({{lahirmati|[[Burnaby]], [[British Columbia]], [[Kanada]]|9|9|1975}}) ya iku piyantun ingkang gadhah profèsi penyanyi [[jazz]] saking tlatah [[Kanada]]. Michael Bublé mimpangaken penghargaan ing donya nyanyi, ing antawisipun panghargaan Grammy lan Juno Awards. Album ingkang kaping sepindhah kondhang ing pucuk 10 ingkang saé piyambak wonten ing [[Lebanon]], [[Inggris]] ugi [[Kanada]].<!-- Dia melejit karena albumnya, "It's Time" dan "Call Me Irresponsible" yang sukses besar dan mencapai puncak tangga lagu di Kanada, US Billboard 200 chart, dan Australia Album Chart. Michael Bublé telah menjual kurang lebih 20 juta album di seluruh dunia.--> == Album == * Michael Bublé dirilis ing tanggal 11 Fèbruari 2003, jinis [[jazz]] * It's Time dirilis ing tanggal 15 Fèbruari 2005, jinis [[musik klasik]] * Call Me Irresponsible dirilis ing tanggal 1 Mèi 2007 == Pranala njawi == * {{imdb nama|id=0117826|nama=Michael Bublé}} * [http://www.michaelbuble.com Situs resmi Michael Bublé] * [http://www.viagogo.ie/Concert-Tickets/Rock-and-Pop/Michael-Buble-Tickets Michael Bublé Tickets] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029111326/http://www.viagogo.ie/Concert-Tickets/Rock-and-Pop/Michael-Buble-Tickets |date=2012-10-29 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Buble, Michale}} [[Kategori:Artikel mawa basa krama]] [[Kategori:Musik jazz]] [[Kategori:Penyanyi Kanada]] [[Kategori:Lair 1975]] {{musik-stub}} bzd0b0f4kwxdtrvdzyz26hmbagp4uq1 Masterchef Indonesia 0 91447 1752822 1646259 2026-08-19T12:20:19Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox television |show_name = MasterChef Indonesia |image = [[Gambar:Logomci.png|250px]] |caption = |show_name_2 = |genre = [[Acara realitas]]<br />[[Acara memasak]] |format = [[MasterChef]] |creator = [[Franc Roddam]] |developer = |writer = |director = |creative_director = |host = |starring = |judges = [[Vindex Tengker]] (2011)<br />[[Rinrin Marinka]] (2011-sekarang)<br />[[Juna Rorimpandey]] (2011-sekarang)<br />[[Degan Septoadji]] (2012-sekarang) |voices = |narrated = |theme_music_composer = |opentheme = |endtheme = |composer = |country = [[Indonesia]] |language = [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesia]] |num_seasons = 2 |num_episodes = |list_episodes = |executive_producer = |producer = |editor = |location = [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]] |cinematography = |camera = |runtime = 2 jam (120 menit) |company = [[FremantleMedia]]{{br}}[[Shine Limited]] |distributor = PT Dunia Visitama Produksi |channel = [[RCTI]] |picture_format = [[480i]] ([[Televisi Resolusi Standar|SDTV]]) |audio_format = [[Stereo]] |first_run = |first_aired = [[1 Mèi]] [[2011]] |last_aired = sekarang |status = |preceded_by = |followed_by = |related = |website = http://www.masterchefindonesia.com }} '''MasterChef Indonesia''' ya iku wahana pamadosan bakat kang diadopsi saka ''[[MasterChef]]'' ([[Inggris]]) kanthi sponsor saka [[FremantleMedia]] kang kerjasama karo [[RCTI]]. wahana iki kalebu pemadosan bakat masak. Acara iki diwiwiti saka taun [[2011]]. isinipun acara kang duwé gayutan kanthi masak lan ditayangaké kanthi 2 jam (120 menit). Diwiwiti [[1 Mèi]] [[2011]] saka jam 16.30 kanthi 18.30. Eliminasi dianaaké saben dina, [[Sabtu]] lan [[Minggu]]. Acara iki tayang ing dina Sabtu lan Minggu, manawa tayangan balen (re-run) ing dina Kamis lan Jumat, jam 15.15 kanthi 17.15. MasterChef Indonesia menangake [[Panasonic Gobel Awards]] kanggo kategori '''Pencarian Bakat Terbaik''' ing taun [[Panasonic Gobel Awards 2012|2012]]. == Juri == *[[Vindex Tengker]] (2011) *[[Rinrin Marinka]] (2011-saprene) *[[Juna Rorimpandey]] (2011-saprene) *[[Degan Septoadji]] (2012-saprene) == Acara == Masterchef nyuguhake telu sesi ya iku: # Sesi kapisan (babak kapten) :Saben paserta nyuguhake masakan kanthi individu. Banjur, paserta éntuk posisi pisanan bakal dadi kapten. # Sesi kapindho (babak peserta eliminasi) #:Saben paserta nyuguhake masakan kanthi individu utawa kelompok. Kelompok kapérang dadi dibagi 2 tim ya iku merah lan biru. Tumrap 6 peserta (individu) utawa tim (kelompok) bakal lumebu tahap eliminasi # Sesi katelu (babak eliminasi) #:Saben paserta nyuguhake masakan kanthi individu. Siji saka telung paserta kang bijine kang ora muasake bakal dieliminasi. Tantangan Masterchef ya iku: # Mystery Box: kontestan kudu masak saka bahan-bahan kang ana ing jero kotak. # One Core Ingridient: kontestan kudu gawé masakan kanthi bahan dhasar kang wis ditentuake. # Invention Test: kontestan kudu gawé masakan hasil kreasi anyar saka bahan kang ana. # Offsite Challenge: tantangan kang dianaake ing njaba Gladri MasterChef # Pressure Test: babak eliminasi # Duel Black Team: kontestan ing babak eliminasi bakal tanding kaliyan siji paserta saka ''Black Team'' # Duel Captain : kontestan bakal kapérang dadi 2 tim lan saben-saben tim milih 1 kontestan dadi kapten, banjur kapten mau iku kang bakal tanding. === Owah-owahan aturan === # Ing tanggal [[5 Juni]] [[2011]] sesi ketelu digubah dadi sistem pamilihan paserta wonten tim kang kalah banjur milih jeneng kontestan liyané. # Ing tanggal [[11 Juni]] [[2011]] dianakake amnesti (padha ''wildcard'' atau ''black team'') ya iku paserta ing tahap eliminasi wingi bakal tanding kanggé ganti paserta kang kasisih sakderenge. == Mangsa == === Mangsa Kapisan (2011) === {{Utama|MasterChef Indonesia 2011}} Mangsa kapisan MasterChef Indonesia diwiwiti pada tanggal [[1 Mèi]] [[2011]] lan rampung ing tanggal [[21 Agustus]] [[2011]]. Jumlah kontestan mangsa iki ya iku 20 paserta. Pemenang ing mangsa iki ya iku Lucky ska [[Malang]], déné juara kapindho ya iku Agus saka [[Banjarmasin]]. === Mangsa Kedua (2012) === {{Utama|MasterChef Indonesia 2012}} Mangsa kapindho MasterChef Indonesia diwiwiti ing tanggal [[8 Juli]] [[2012]]. Jumlah kontestan mangsa iki ya iku 20 paserta.<ref>http://www.antaranews.com/berita/321683/20-finalis-melaju-ke-galeri-masterchef</ref> ing mangsa iki, posisi [[Vindex Tengker]] kados juri digantiake déning [[Degan Septoadji]], manawa [[Rinrin Marinka]] lan [[Juna Rorimpandey]] tetep dadi juri. == MasterClass Ramadan == ing Ramelan taun 2011, dianakake MasterClass Ramadan, kanti pengisi acara:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://masterchefindonesia.com/recipesramadan-of-masterchef-indonesia |title=MCI Ramadan |access-date=2012-09-22 |archive-date=2011-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926102014/http://masterchefindonesia.com/recipesramadan-of-masterchef-indonesia |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{col-css3-begin|3}} * 1 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Sarwan * 2 Agustus 2011 Chef Juna lan Priscil * 3 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Santiana * 4 Agustus 2011 Chef Marinka lan Albie * 5 Agustus 2011 Chef Juna lan Santiana * 8 Agustus 2011 Chef Juna lan Santiana * 9 Agustus 2011 Chef Marinka lan Sarwan * 10 Agustus 2011 Chef Juna lan Rahmi * 11 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Agus * 12 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Sarwan * 15 Agustus 2011 Chef Juna lan Priscil * 16 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Lucky * 17 Agustus 2011 '''Mboten Wonten''' * 18 Agustus 2011 Chef Marinka lan Sarwan dengan [[Ivan Gunawan]] * 19 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Santiana * 22 Agustus 2011 Chef Juna lan Agus * 23 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Rahmi dengan [[Dude Harlino]] * 24 Agustus 2011 '''Mboten Wonten''' * 25 Agustus 2011 Chef Marinka lan Lucky * 26 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Dudi * 29 Agustus 2011 Chef Vindex lan Sarwan {{col-css3-end|3}} == Penghargaan == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" cellpadding="5" |- ! width="5%"|Tahun ! width="5%"|Award ! width="5%"|Kategori ! width="5%"|Hasil |- | [[2012]] | '''[[Panasonic Gobel Awards 2012]]''' | Program Pencarian Bakat | {{won}} |} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.masterchefindonesia.com Situs resmi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116160437/http://www.masterchefindonesia.com/ |date=2012-11-16 }} * {{imdb judhul|judhul=MasterChef Indonesia|id=2277854}} == Réferènsi == {{Reflist}} {{start box}} {{succession box|title=''[[Panasonic Awards]]'' <br /> Pencarian Bakat|before=[[Indonesia Mencari Bakat]] |years=[[Panasonic Gobel Awards 2012|2012]]|after=belum ada}} {{end box}} {{MasterChef (Indonesia)}} [[Kategori:Acara realitas]] [[Kategori:Acara télévisi Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Pemenang Panasonic (Gobel) Awards kategori acara pencarian bakat favorit dhéwé]] {{tv-stub}} cxkig7plcig4gdseubj3zw4zylmeee1 4 Vesta 0 91451 1752880 1738986 2026-08-20T04:03:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752880 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet |discovery=yes |physical_characteristics = yes |bgcolour=#99cccc |name=4 Vesta |symbol=[[Gambar:Vesta symbol (variable width).svg|24px|⚶]] |image=[[File:Vesta from Dawn, July 17.jpg|250px]] |caption = Kawah Rheasilvia sing nyakup sapérangan gedhé wilahan kidul Vesta. Gambar dijupuk kanthi montor mabur ruwang akasa Dawn |discoverer=[[Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers]] |discovered=[[29 Maret]] [[1807]] |pronounce = {{IPA-en|ˈvɛstə|}}, {{lang-la|Vesta}} |mp_category=[[Sabuk utama]] (kulawarga Vesta) |orbit_ref = <ref name="jpldata">{{cite web |title=JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 4 Vesta |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=4 |accessdate=2008-06-01}}</ref> |epoch=[[14 Mèi]] [[2008]] ([[Dina Julian]] 2454600.5) |aphelion=384,72 Gm (2,572 [[Ékan astronomi|SA]]) |perihelion=321,82 Gm (2,151 SA) |semimajor=353,268 [[Giga-|Gm]] (2,361 SA) |eccentricity=0,089&nbsp;17 |period=3,63 [[taun Julian (astronomi)|a]] (1325,15 [[Dina]]) |inclination=7,135[[drajat (ékan pojok)|°]] menyang [[Ekliptika]]<br />5,56° menyang [[babagan invariabel]]<ref name=meanplane>{{cite web |date=2009-04-03 |title=The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter |url=http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif |accessdate=2009-04-10 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420194536/http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif |archivedate=2009-04-20 |url-status=live }} (produced with [http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ Solex 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524145440/http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ |date=2015-05-24 }} written by Aldo Vitagliano; see also [[Invariable plane]])</ref> |asc_node=103,91° |arg_peri=149,83° |mean_anomaly=90,53° |avg_speed=19,34 km/[[detik|dtk]] | p_orbit_ref = <ref name=Vesta-POE>{{cite web |title=AstDyS-2 Vesta Synthetic Proper Orbital Elements |publisher=Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy |url=http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/astdys/index.php?pc=1.1.6&n=4 |accessdate=2011-10-01}}</ref> | p_semimajor = 2,3615126 | p_eccentricity = 0,0987580 | p_inclination = 6,3923416° | p_mean_motion = 99.188833 | perihelion_rate = 36,872897 | node_rate = −39,597863 |dimensions= 578×560×458 km<ref name="Thomas1997">{{cite journal |author=Thomas, P. C.; ''et al.'' |title=Impact excavation on asteroid 4 Vesta: Hubble Space Telescope results |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1997-09-05_277_5331/page/1492 |journal=Science |volume=277 |pages=1492 |year=1997 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5331.1492}}</ref><br />529 km ([[Rataan géometri|rata-rata]]) |mass=<span style="white-space:nowrap;">(2,67 ± 0,02){{e|20}} [[kilogram|kg]]</span><!-- (1.34±0.01)E-10 solar masses --><ref name="Baer2007">{{cite journal |last=Baer |first=James |author2=Chesley, Steven R. |title=Astrometric masses of 21 asteroids, and an integrated asteroid ephemeris |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=100 |issue=2008 |pages=27–42 |publisher=Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/h747307j43863228/fulltext.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |doi=10.1007/s10569-007-9103-8 |accessdate=2008-11-11 |year=2008 |archive-date=2011-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224014158/http://www.springerlink.com/content/h747307j43863228/fulltext.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> |density=3,42 g/[[sentimèter kubik|cm³]]<ref name="Baer2007" /> |surface_grav=0,22 m/det² |escape_velocity=0,35 km/det |rotation=0,222&nbsp;6 dina (5.342 jam)<ref name="jpldata" /><ref name="lc">{{cite web |last=Harris |first=A. W. |author2=Warner, B. D.; Pravec, P.; (Eds.) |title=Asteroid Lightcurve Derived Data. EAR-A-5-DDR-DERIVED-LIGHTCURVE-V8.0. |publisher=[[Planetary Data System|NASA Planetary Data System]] |date=2006 |url=http://www.psi.edu/pds/resource/lc.html |accessdate=2007-03-15}}</ref> |spectral_type=[[Asteroid tipe V]]<ref name="jpldata" /><ref name="tax">{{cite web |last=Neese |first=C. |author2=Ed. |title=Asteroid Taxonomy EAR-A-5-DDR-TAXONOMY-V5.0 |publisher=[[Planetary Data System|NASA Planetary Data System]] |date=2005 |url=http://www.psi.edu/pds/resource/taxonomy.html |accessdate= 2007-03-15}}</ref> | magnitude = 5,1<ref name="Pasachoff1983">{{cite book |author=Menzel, Donald H.; and Pasachoff, Jay M. |year=1983 |title=A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets |edition=2nd |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |pages=391 |location=Boston, MA |isbn=0395348358 }}</ref> tekan 8,48 | abs_magnitude=3,20<ref name="jpldata" /><ref name="iras">{{cite web |last=Tedesco |first=E. F. |author2=Noah, P. V.; Noah, M.; Price, S. D. |title=Infra-Red Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) Minor Planet Survey. IRAS-A-FPA-3-RDR-IMPS-V6.0. |publisher=[[Planetary Data System|NASA Planetary Data System]] |date=2004 |url= http://www.psi.edu/pds/resource/imps.html |accessdate=2007-03-15 }}</ref> |albedo=0,423&nbsp;([[albedo géomètrik|géomètrik]])<ref name="iras" /> |angular_size = 0,64"<!-- Horizons 2007-Jun-01 --> tekan 0,20" |single_temperature=''min:'' 85 [[Kelvin|K]] (−188 [[Celsius|°C]])<br />''maks:'' 255 K (−18&nbsp;°C)<ref name="Mueller01">{{cite journal |url=http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet108/chapter4_bul108.pdf |author=Mueller, T. G. |author2=Metcalfe, L. |title=ISO and Asteroids |journal=European Space Agency (ESA) bulletin |volume=108 |pages=38 |year=2001}}</ref> }} '''4 Vesta''' iku objèk gedhé dhéwé kaloro ing [[sabuk asteroid]], kanthi dhiamèter 530 [[kilomèter]] (watara 330 [[mil]])<ref name="jpldata" /> lan diprakirakaké duwé massa 9% saka massa kabèh sabuk asteroid.<!-- 1.344±0.001 ÷ 15±2 (E-10 solar masses) --><ref name="Pitjeva05">{{cite journal |last=Pitjeva |first=E. V. |authorlink=Elena V. Pitjeva |title=High-Precision Ephemerides of Planets—EPM and Determination of Some Astronomical Constants |journal=Solar System Research |year=2005 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=176 |url=http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/EPM2004.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |doi=10.1007/s11208-005-0033-2 |access-date=2012-09-22 |archive-date=2012-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907164956/http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/EPM2004.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> 4 Vesta tinemu déning [[astronom]] [[Jerman]] [[Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers]] nalika tanggal [[29 Maret]] [[1807]].<ref name="jpldata" /> Jeneng [[Vesta (mitologi)|Vesta]] dijupuk saka jeneng [[dèwi]] [[kenya]] sajeroning [[mitologi Romawi]], sing wujud dèwi pangreksa kanggo omah lan panggenian. Vesta kèlangan watara 1% saka massané sajeroning siji tabrakan sing dumadi kurang saka samilyar taun kapungkur. Akèh serpihan-serpihan saka kedadèyan iki sing tiba menyang bumi minangka [[meteorit HED]], siji sumber bukti sing akèh ngenani asteroid.<ref name="Kelley2003">{{cite journal |author=Kelley, M. S. |author2=''et al.'' |title=Quantified mineralogical evidence for a common origin of 1929 Kollaa with 4 Vesta and the HED meteorites |journal=Icarus |volume=165 |pages=215 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00149-0}}</ref> Vesta iku [[Pratélan asteroid misuwur#Asteroid-asteroid ingkang padhang piyambak (saka Bumi)|asteroid sing ingkang padhang piyambak]]. Let paling adoh Vesta saka [[Srengéngé]] iku sithik luwih adoh tinimbang let minimum antarané [[1 Ceres|Ceres]] lan Srengéngé,<ref>Nalika [[Apsis|perihelion]] Ceres ing tanggal 10 Fèbruari 2009, Ceres bakal luwih cedhak menyang Srengéngé tinimbang Vesta, amarga Vesta duwé let [[Apsis|aphelion]] sing luwih gedhé tinimbang let perihelion Ceres. (10-02-2009: Vesta 2,56 SA; Ceres 2,54 SA)</ref> éwadéné orbit Vesta sepenuhé ana ing njero orbit Ceres.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ceres, Pallas Vesta and Hygiea |publisher=Gravity Simulator |url=http://www.orbitsimulator.com/gravity/articles/ceres.html |accessdate=2008-05-31}}</ref> == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} {{Minor planets navigator|[[3 Juno]]||[[5 Astraea]]}} {{Portal|astronomi}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Vesta}} [[Kategori:Asteroid sing dijenengi saka mitologi Romawi]] [[Kategori:Asteroid tipe V]] [[Kategori:Asteroid kulawarga Vesta]] {{astronomi-stub}} bz8n1hirqrzbubhyy3mczekp22h9qpg Kakaisaran Bizantin 0 91621 1753038 1752393 2026-08-20T08:43:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753038 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Former Country |native_name = {{Polytonic|Ῥωμανία}}<br />''Rhōmanía''<br />Romania<br />{{aut|Imperium Romanum}} |conventional_long_name = Kamaharajan Romawi Bizantin |common_name = Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan |continent = Afrika, Éropa, Asia |region = Segara Tengah |era = Abad Kuno-Akhir Abad Pertengahan |status = Kamaharajan |government_type = [[Otokrasi]] |year_start = 330 |event_start = Pendirian [[Konstantinopèl]] |date_start = 11 Mèi |year_end = 1453 |event_end = [[Lèngsèré Konstantinopèl]] |date_end = 29 Mèi |event1 = Penjatuhan [[Romulus Augustulus]], Kaisar Romawi Kulon |date_event1 = 476 |event2 = Skisma Wétan-Kulon |date_event2 = 1054 |event3 = Lèngsèré Konstantinopèl menyang [[Wadya Salib]] |date_event3 = 1204 |event4 = Penaklukan manèh Konstantinopèl |date_event4 = 1261 |event_pre = [[Diokletianus]] mecah papréntahan kamaharajan antarané kulon lan étan |date_pre = 285 |event_post = Lèngsèré [[Kamaharajan Trebizond|Trebizond]] |date_post = 1461 |image_flag = Flag of Palaeologus Dynasty.svg |flag = Heraldri Romawi Timur |flag_type = Gendéra Kamaharajan ing mangsa pungkasan (abad kaping 14) |image_coat = Byzantine Palaiologos Eagle.svg |symbol = |symbol_type = Lambang kamaharajan ing ngisoré [[Palaiologos]] | |image_map = Byzantine Empire animated.gif |image_map_caption = Perkembangan wewengkon Kamaharajan |p1 = Kakaisaran Romawi |flag_p1 = Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg |s1 = Kesultanan Utsmaniyah |flag_s1 = Ottoman flag.svg |capital = [[Konstantinopèl]] |common_languages = [[Basa Yunani|Yunani]], [[Basa Latin|Latin]] |religion = [[Agama Romawi Kuno|Paganisme Romawi]] nganti taun 391, [[Gréja Ortodoks Wétan|Ortodoks Wétan]] ditoléransi sawisé [[Edictum Mediolanense]] taun 313, lan dadi agama nagara sawisé taun 380 |currency = [[Solidus (koin)|Solidus]], [[Hiperpiron]] | |leader1 = [[Konstantinus I|Konstantinus ingkang Agung]] |leader2 = Konstantinus XI |year_leader1 = 306–337 |year_leader2 = 1449–1453 |title_leader = [[Kaisar Romawi Wétan|Kaisar]] | |legislature = [[Senat Romawi Wétan|Senat]] | |stat_year1 = Abad kaping 4 |stat_area1 = |stat_pop1 = 34.000.000 |stat_year2 = Abad kaping 8 (780 AD) |stat_area2 = |stat_pop2 = 7.000.000 |stat_year3 = Abad kaping 11 (1025 AD) |stat_area3 = |stat_pop3 = 12.000.000 |stat_year4 = Abad kaping 12 (1143 AD) |stat_area4 = |stat_pop4 = 10.000.000 |stat_year5 = Abad kaping 13 (1281 AD) |stat_area5 = |stat_pop5 = 5.000.000 |today = {{flag|Albania}}<br />{{flag|Aljazair}}<br />{{flag|Armenia}}<br />{{flag|Bosnia dan Herzegovina}}<br />{{flag|Bulgaria}}<br />{{flag|Georgia}}<br />{{flag|Gibraltar}}<br />{{flag|Israèl}}<br />{{flag|Itali}}<br />{{flag|Kroasia}}<br />{{flag|Lebanon}}<br />{{flag|Libya}}<br />{{flag|Malta}}<br />{{flag|Mesir}}<br />{{flag|Montenegro}}<br />{{flag|Prancis}}<br />{{flag|Républik Makedonia}}<br />{{flag|Rumeni}}<br />{{flag|San Marino}}<br />{{flag|Serbia}}<br />{{flag|Siprus}}<br />{{flag|Slowén}}<br />{{flag|Spanyol}}<br />{{flag|Suriah}}<br />{{flag|Tunisia}}<br />{{flag|Turki}}<br />{{flag|Ukraina}}<br />{{flag|Vatikan}}<br />{{flag|Yordania}}<br />{{flag|Yunani}} }} '''Kakaisaran Byzantium'''' utawi '''Kakaisaran Romawi Wétan''' (Éjaan liya: '''Bizantin''', '''Byzantin''', '''Byzantine''', '''Bizantium''') ya iku wewengkon wétané [[Kamaharajan Romawi]] ingkang mligine nganggo [[basa Yunani|berbasa Yunani]]<ref>{{harvnb|Millar|2006|pages=2, 15}}; {{harvnb|James|2010|p=5}}: "But from the start, there were two major differences between the Roman and Byzantine empires: Byzantium was for much of its life a Greek speaking empire oriented towards Greek, not Latin culture; and it was a Christian empire."</ref> ing [[Abad Kuno]] lan [[Abad Pertengahan|Pertengahan]]. Warga lan tangga cedhaké Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan mènèhi jeneng nagara iki kanthi asma Kamaharajan Romawi, utawa Romania ([[Basa Yunani|Yunani]]: {{Polytonic|Ῥωμανία}}, ''Rōmanía''). Kamaharajan iki musaté ing [[Konstantinopèl]], lan dikuasani déning kaisar-kaisar panggantiné kaisar Romawi kuna sawisé lèngsèré [[Kamaharajan Romawi Kulon]]. Boten wonten konsensus ngenani tanggal wiwité kalamangsa [[Romawi Wétan]]. Pérangan wong nyebat manawi mangsa kekuasaan [[Diokletianus]] (284-305) sebab reformasi-reformasi papréntahan ingkang ditepangake marang dhèwèké, mbagi nagara mau dadi ''pars Orientis'' lan ''pars Occidentis''.<ref>{{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=847}}.</ref> Pihak liyané nyebat mangsa kekuasaan [[Theodosius I]] (379-395), utawa sawisé kematiané ing taun [[395]], wektu kamaharajan kepecah dadi pérangan Wétan lan Kulon. Wonten uga ingkang nyebat taun [[476]], ya iku wektu [[Roma]] dijajah kaping telu ing saabad ingkang mertandhakaken lèngsèré Kulon (Latin), lan ngakibatkaké kaisar ing Wétan (Yunani) pikantuk kekuasaan tunggal.<ref>{{harvnb|Benz|1963|p=176}}.</ref> Upama makaten, titik ingkang wigati ing sajarah Romawi Wétan ya iku wektu [[Konstantinus ingkang Agung]] mindhah kutha krajan saka [[Nikomedia]] (ing [[Anatolia]]) menyang [[Byzantium]] (ingang arep dadi Konstantinopèl) ing taun 330. Negera punika madek kirang luwih sampun ewunan taun. Sajeroning anané, Romawi Wétan, dumadi kekiyatan ékonomi, budaya, lan militèr ingkang rosa ing Éropa, sandyan terus ngalami kamunduran, mligi ing mangsa [[Paperangan Romawi Wétan-Sassaniyah|Paperangan Romawi-Pèrsi]] lan [[Paperangan Romawi Wétan-Arab|Romawi Wétan-Arab]]. Kamaharajan iki direstorasi ing mangsa [[Dinasti Makedonia]], bangkit dadi kekiyatan gedhé ing [[Mediterania Wétan]] ing pungkasan abad kaping 10, lan bisa nyaingi [[Kekhalifahan Fatimiyah]]. Sawisé taun 1071, sapérangan gedhé [[Asia Cilik]] direbut déning [[Turki Seljuk]]. [[Restorasi Komnenos]] kasil ngiyataken dominasi ing abad kaping 12, nanging sawisé sedanipun [[Andronikos I Komnenos]] Lan paripurnané [[Dinasti Komnenos]] ing pungkasan abad kaping 12, kamaharajan ngalami kamunduran manèh. Romawi Wétan saya kagoncang ing mangsa [[Perang Salib Kapapat]] taun 1204, wektu kamaharajan iki dibubaraké mawi peksa lan dipisah dadi nagara-nagara Yunani lan Latin ingkang satru. Kamaharajan kasil didekné malih ing taun 1261 ning ngisoré pimpinan kaisar-kaisar [[Palaiologos]], nanging perang sadulur ing abad kaping 14 terus nglemesaké kekiyatan kamaharajan. Turahan wewengkone dicaplok déning [[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]] ing [[Paperangan Romawi Wétan-Utsmaniyah]]. Pungkasané, [[lèngsèré Konstantinopel|Konstantinopel ksil direbut]] déning Utsmaniyah ing tanggal 29 Mèi 1453, pratandha paripurnané Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan. == Tata asma == Kamaharajan punika wiwit diarani '''"Bizantium"''' ing [[Éropa Kulon]] taun 1557, wektu sejarawan Jérman [[Hieronymus Wolf]] nerbitake karyané ingkang gadhah sesirah ''Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ''. Tembung "Bizantium" dumadi saka tembung "[[Byzantium]]", inggih punika namanipun kutha [[Konstantinopèl]] sakdèrèngé dadi kutha krajan [[Konstantinus ingkang Agung]]. Kawiwitan saka iku, jeneng tuwa iki jarang dienggo, kejawi ing konteks sajarah lan geguritan. Sakalajengipun, ''Byzantine du Louvre'' (''Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ'') taun 1648 lan ''Historia Byzantina'' karya [[Du Cange]] taun 1680 saya misuwuraké tetembungan Bizantium ing antarané pangarang-pangarang Prancis, kaya ta [[Montesquieu]].<ref>Fox, [http://www.romanity.org/htm/fox.01.en.what_if_anything_is_a_byzantine.01.htm What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine?]</ref> Istilah punika sabanjuré ngilang nganti abad kaping 19 wektu piyantun Kulon bali nganggo manèh.<ref>{{harvnb|University of Chile: Center of Byzantine and Neohellenic Studies|1971|p=69}}.</ref> Sakdèrèngé, istilah ''Yunani'' iki ingkang diginakaken kanggé kamaharajan punika. Negera punika dipunparingi asma dhumateng rakyaté kanthi asma '''Kamaharajan Romawi''', '''Kamaharajan Orang-orang Romawi''' ([[Basa Latin|Latin]]: ''Imperium Romanum'', ''Imperium Romanorum'', [[Basa Yunani|Yunani]]: {{Polytonic|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}}, ''Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn'', {{Polytonic|Αρχη τῶν Ῥωμαίων}}, ''Arche tôn Rhōmaíōn''), '''Romania'''{{#tag:ref|''Romania'' (utawi ''Rhōmanía'') inggih punika asma kamaharajan ingkang misuwur<ref>{{harvnb|Fossier|Sondheimer|1997|p=104}}.</ref> ingkang diginakaken boten resmi, ya iku "nagari tiyang Romawi". Istilah punika boten sarujuk ing [[Rumeni]] modhèren.|group="n"}} ([[Basa Latin|Latin]]: ''Romania'', [[Basa Yunani|Yunani]]: {{Polytonic|Ῥωμανία}}, ''Rhōmanía''), '''Républik Romawi''' ([[Basa Latin|Latin]]: ''Res Publica Romana'', [[basa Yunani|Yunani]]: {{Polytonic|Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}}, ''Politeίa tôn Rhōmaíōn''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dio.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/31/124/47 |title=Nation and Liberty: the Byzantine Example|doi=10.1177/039219218303112403 |publisher=Dio.sagepub.com|date=|accessdate=2010-08-07}}</ref> '''Graikía''' (Yunani: Γραικία),<ref>[[Theodore the Studite]]. ''Epistulae'', 145, Line 19 ("ή ταπεινή Γραικία") and 458, Line 28 ("έν Αρμενία καί Γραικία").</ref> lan uga '''Rhōmaís''' ({{Polytonic|Ῥωμαΐς}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Cinnamus|1976|p=240}}.</ref> Sanadyan Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan duwé ciri multietnis ing sejarahipun,<ref>{{harvnb|Ahrweiler|Laiou|1998|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Mango|2002|p=13}}.</ref> sarta njaga tradhisi Romawi-Helenistik,<ref>{{harvnb|Gabriel|2002|p=277}}.</ref> nagara punika dipunmangertosi nagara-nagara kulon lan lor ing jamané kanthi asma '''Kamaharajan Piyantun Yunani'''{{#tag:ref|"''Imperium Graecorum''", "''Graecia''", "''Yunastan''", ''dll'', asma kulon sanèsipun ingkang diginakaken inggih punika "kamaharajan Konstantinopel" (''imperium Constantinopolitanum'') lan "kamaharajan Romania" (''imperium Romaniae'').|group="n"}} amargi rosané prabawa Yunani.<ref>{{harvnb|Millar|2006|pages=2, 15}}; {{harvnb|Ahrweiler|Laiou|1998|p=vii}}; {{harvnb|Davies|1996|p=245}}; {{harvnb|Moravcsik|1970|pp=11–12}}; {{harvnb|Ostrogorsky|1969|pp=28, 146}}; {{harvnb|Lapidge|Blair|Keynes|1998|p=79}}; {{harvnb|Winnifrith|Murray|1983|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Gross|1999|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Hidryma Meletōn Chersonēsou tou Haimou|1973|p=331}}.</ref> Pangageman istilah ''Kamaharajan Piyantun Yunani'' (Latin: ''Imperium Graecorum'') ing Kulon dumadi lambang penolakan klaim Bizantium makilaké [[Kamaharajan Romawi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fouracre|Gerberding|1996|p=345}}: "The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims to universality; instead it was now termed the 'Empire of the Greeks'."</ref> Klaim Romawi Wétan dhumateng warisan Romawi ditentang ing Kulon ngepasi jaman Maharani [[Irene dari Athena]] amargi pangangkatan [[Karel ingkang Agung]] dadi [[Kaisar Romawi Suci]] ing taun 800 déning [[Paus Leo III]], ingkang meruhi takhta Romawi kosong (boten wonten panguasa jaler). Paus lan panguasa saking Kulon luwih nyenengi istilah ''Imperator Romaniæ'' tinimbang ''Imperator Romanorum'', gelar ingkang diginakaken namung kanggé Karel ingkang Agung lan panerus-paneruse.<ref name="Helios">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hellas, Byzantium|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia The Helios}}</ref> Sawetara iku, ing peradaban [[Perseia]], [[Islam]], lan [[Slavia]], idhèntitas Romawi negera iki diakoni. Ing donya Islam, Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan dingertèni kanthi asma {{lang|ar| روم }} (''[[Rûm]]'' "Roma").<ref>{{harvnb|Tarasov|2004|p=121}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|El-Cheikh|2004|p=22}}.</ref> Wonten ing atlas-atlas sajarah modhèren, kamaharajan punika lumrahé dipunparingi asma ''Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan'' ing kalamangsa antara 395 nganti 610. Ing peta-peta kang nggambaraké Kamaharajan sawisé taun 610, istilah ''Kamaharajan Bizantium'' lumrahé dienggo amargi ing taun 620 kaisar [[Heraklius]] nggantèni basa resmi kamaharajan saking [[Basa Latin|Latin]] menyang [[basa Yunani|Yunani]].<ref name="Davis p. 260">[[#refDavis1990|Davis 1990]], hal. 260.</ref> == Jati diri == '''Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan''' saged dipundefinisikaken dadi kamaharajan multi-ètnis kang njedhul dadi kamaharajan Kristen, banjur kapérang dadi kamaharajan Wétan kang wis di-Helenisasi lan mungkasi sajarah èwuan taun, ing 1453, dadi Nagara [[Ortodoks Yunani]]: Sawijining kraton kang dadi [[nagara]], ingkang mèh padha tegesé modhèren saka tembung mau".<sup>[[#Réferènsi|1]]</sup> Wonten ing abad-abad sawisé penjajahan [[Bangsa Arab|Arab]] lan [[Langobardi]] ing [[abad kaping 7]], watek multi-etnisné (sanadyan dudu multi-bangsa) tetep ana pramila pérangan-bagiané, [[Balkan]] lan [[Asia Cilik]], duwé populasi Yunani kang gedhé. Etnis minoritas lan komunitas gedhé agama liya (contoné bangsa [[Armenia]]) manggon ing cedhak perbatesan. Rakyat Romawi Wétan nganggep dhèwèké wong Ρωμαίοι (Rhomaioi-[[Romawi]]) kang wus dadi sinonim kanggo wong Έλλην (Hellene-[[Yunani]]), lan sregep ngembangaké kesadaran diri dumadi nagara, dadi penduduk Ρωμανία (Romania, ya iku celukané kanggo Nagara Romawi Wétan lan donyané). Perkawis iki gamblang diweruhi ing karya sastra kalamangsa iku, mligi ing [[wiracarita]] kaya [[Digenes Akrites]]. Paleburan resmi nagara Romawi Wétan ing [[abad kaping 15]] ora langsung ngancuraké masarakat Romawi Wétan. Ing mangsa pandudukan Turki, wong Yunani terus nyeluk pribadining dhèwèké kanthi asma Ρωμαίοι (bangsa Romawi) lan Έλληνες (bangsa Yunani), sawijining ciri-ciri ingkang tetep ana nganti wiwité abad kaping 21 lan isih ana ing [[Yunani]] modhèren saiki, sanadyan “Romawi” wus dadi jenengé “rakyat” saka sinonim bangsa kaya ing jaman mbiyèn. == Sajarah == === Wiwité Sajarah Kamaharajan Romawi === Bala wadya Romawi wayah iku kasil nguwasani panggonan kang amba ingkang nyakup sakabèhing wewengkon [[Mediterania]] lan pérangan gedhé [[Éropa Wétan]]. Wewengkon-wewengkon iki kapérang saka akèh golongan budaya, wiwit kang ijik primitif nganti kang wus nduwé peradaban maju. Kadeleng kanthi umum, provinsi-provinsi ing wewengkon Mediterania wétan luwih makmur lan maju amarga wis ngalami perkembangan kang rikat ing jaman [[Kamaharajan Makedonia]] sarta wis ngalami prosès [[hellenisasi]]. Saliyané iku, provinsi ing wewengkon Kulon akèh-akèhé mung wujud padésan kang ketinggalan jaman. Bédané antara kaloro wewengkon iki anané suwé lan dadi wigati ing taun-taun saterusé.<ref>{{harvnb|Wells|1922}}, Chapter 33.</ref> === Pamisahan Kamaharajan Romawi === Dekret [[Caracalla]] ing [[212]], ''Constitutio Antoniniana'', ngambakake [[kewarganagaraan]] ing njaba Italia kanggo kabèh wong lanang gedhé bébas ing sakabèhing Kamaharajan Romawi, kanthi èfèktif ningkatkaké populasi provinsi kanggo madhakaké status karo kutha [[Roma]] dhéwé. Pentingé dèkret iki luwih bersejarah tinimbang cara pulitik. Dekret iku ya iku dhasar kanggo integrasi. Mekanisme ékonomi lan ukum saka nagara bisa diterapkaké ing sakabèhing [[Mediterania]] kang naté dilakoké sadurungé saka [[Latium]] menyang sakabèhing Italia. Wis mesthi, integrasi ora kadadéan kanthi seragam. Masarakat kang wus nyawiji karo Roma, kaya [[Yunani]] ketulung karo dekret iki, dibandingké karo panggoné kang luwih adoh, mlarat banget utawa asing banget kang kaya [[Karajan Manunggal]], [[Palestina (wewengkon)|Palestina]] utawa [[Mesir]]. Ing taun 293, [[Diokletianus]] nyipta sistem administratif kang anyar ([[tetrarki]])<ref name="B1">{{harvnb|Bury|1923|loc=[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/1*.html#1 hal. 1]}}</ref> dadi institusi kang dimaksudke kanggo ngefisienaké kontrol Kamaharajan Romawi kang amaba. Dhèwèké mbagi Kamaharajan dadi loro pérangan, kanthi loro kaisar mréntah saka Italia lan Yunani, pendhak duwé wakil-kaisar. Sabanjuré jaman kakuasaan Diokletianus lan [[Maximianus]] paripurna, tetrarki runtuh, lan [[Konstantinus I]] nggantèkaké kanthi prinsip panggantiyan turun temurun.<ref name="BG">Gibbon (1906), Part II Chapter 14: [https://web.archive.org/web/20080625235855/http://olldownload.libertyfund.org/Tamanexts/Gibbon0105/DeclineAndFall/Vol02/PDFs/0214-02_Pt06_Chap14.pdf200].</ref> Konstantinus mindhahaké punjer kamaharajan, lan nggawa owah-owahan kang wigati ing konstitusi sipil lan religius.<ref name="G168">{{harvnb|Gibbon|1906|loc=III, {{PDFlink| [http://web.archive.org/web/20080625235904/http://olldownload.libertyfund.org/Texts/Gibbon0105/DeclineAndFall/Vol03/PDFs/0214-03_Pt04_Chap18.pdf 168] |2.35&nbsp;MB}}}}.</ref> Ing taun 330, dhèwèké ngadegaké Konstantinopèl dadi Roma kapindho ing Byzantium. Posisi kutha mau strategis ing adol tinuku antarané Wétan lan Kulon. Sang kaisar ngenalaké koin ([[solidus (koin)|solidus]] emas) kang duwé rega dhuwur lan stabil,<ref name="esler-1081">{{harvnb|Esler|2004|p=1081}}.</ref> sarta ngubah struktur angkatan prasenjata. Ing kontrolé Konstantinus, kekiyatan militèr kamaharajan wus mari. Periode kastabilan lan kasejahteran uga bisa dirasakaké. [[Gambar:Raphael Baptism Constantine.jpg|thumb|left|''Pembaptisan Konstantinus'' yang dilukis olèh murid-murid [[Raphael]]]] (1520–1524). [[Eusebius dari Caesaria]] mencatat bahwa Konstantinus menunda [[pembaptisan]] hingga saat sebelum kematiannya, seperti yang menjadi tradisi padha mangsa itu.<ref>Eusebius, IV, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iv.vi.iv.lxii.html lxii].</ref>]] Ing kakuasan Konstantinus, [[Kekristenan]] ora dadi agama eksklusif nagara, nanging dijurung karo kamaharajan, apamenèh sang kaisar ndukungé kanthi hak-hak kang akèh. Sang kaisar ngenalaké prinsip upama kaisar ora perlu ngebaraké pitakonan dhoktrin, nanging perlu nimbali dewan-dewan kagerejan kanggo tujuwan iku. [[Sinode Arles]] dinyawijikaké karo Konstantinus, lan [[Konsili Nicea Kapisan]] mameraké klaim dhèwèké kanggo dadi kepala gréja.<ref name="B163">{{harvnb|Bury|1923|loc=[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/2*.html#5 hal. 63]}}.</ref> Kaanan kamaharajan taun 395 bisa diarani dadi asil kerjané Konstantinus. Prinsip wangsa kang diterapaké kanthi tegas saéngga kaisar kang séda ing jaman iku, [[Theodosius I]], bisa merisaké kamaharajan tumuju anak-anaké: [[Arcadius]] ing Kulon lan [[Honorius (kaisar)|Honorius]] ing Wétan. Theodosius ya iku kaisar pungkasan kang nguasani sakabèhing Romawi Kulon lan Wétan.<ref name="Br">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Byzantine Empire|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Kamaharajan Wétan kasingkrih saka kangélan-kangélan kang diadhepi karo Kulon ing abad katelu lan kapapat, amarga Wétan duwé budaya urban kang luwih mapan lan sumber daya finansial kang luwih kuwat, saéngga bisa mandhekaké panyerangan nganggo [[upeti]] lan nyéwa wadya-wadya bayaran. [[Theodosius II]] nguatkaké [[témbok Konstantinopel]], saéngga kutha mau aman saka serangan-serangan; témbok iku ora bisa ditembus nganti taun 1204. Kanggo ngusir [[bangsa Hun|wong-wong Hun]] kang ana ing ngisoré kapemimpinan [[Attila]], Theodosius mènèhi dhèwèké subsidi (jaréné 300&nbsp;kg (700&nbsp;lb) emas).<ref name="Nathan">Nathan, [http://www.roman-emperors.org/theo2.htm Theodosius II (408–450&nbsp;AD)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413123203/http://www.roman-emperors.org/theo2.htm |date=2020-04-13 }}.</ref> Dhèwèké uga njurung pedagang Konstantinopel kang dodolan karo wong Hun lan bangsa liyané. [[Berkas:RomanEmpire500AD.jpg|thumb|300px|Kamaharajan Romawi Timur taun 500 M.]] Panerusé, [[Marcianus]], nolak nerusaké mbayar upeti iki. Untungé, Attila wus ngalihaké perhatiané tumuju Kamaharajan Romawi Kulon.<ref>{{harvnb|Treadgold|1995|p=193}}.</ref> Sawisé matiné taun 453, negera Attila ancur lan Konstantinopel mbukak gayutan kang nguntungaké karo wong Hun kang jik ana. Dhèwèké akhiré tempur dadi wadya bayaran ing angkatan bala wadya Romawi Wétan.<ref>{{harvnb|Alemany|2000|p=207}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=184}}.</ref> Sawusé runtuhé Attila, katentreman bisa dirasakaké ing Romawi Wétan, sawatara Romawi Kulon runtuh (karuntuhané kacatet ing taun 476, wayah jenderal Romawi Jermanik [[Odoacer]] nglèngsèraké kaisar [[Romulus Augustulus]]). Kanggo ngrebut manèh Italia, kaisar [[Zeno (kaisar)|Zeno]] mung bisa negosiasi karo [[Ostrogoth]] kang wus manggon ing [[Moesia]]. Dhèwèké ngirim ratu Ostrogoth [[Theodoric kang Agung|Theodoric]] menyang Italia dadi ''magister militum per Italiam'' ("kepala komando kanggo Italia"). Sawusé kasil nglèngsèraké Odoacer ing taun 493, Theodoric nguwasani Italia.<ref name="Br" /> Ing taun 491, [[Anastasius I (kaisar)|Anastasius I]] dadi kaisar. Dhèwèké ya iku wong reformis energetik lan administrator kang cakap. Anastasius nyempurnakaké sistem koin Konstantinus I kanthi ngatur bobot ''[[follis]]'' perunggu, koin kang akèh dienggo ing kauripan sabendina.<ref>{{harvnb|Grierson|1999|p=17}}.</ref> Dhèwèké uga ngubah sistem perpajekan, sarta ngilangaké pajeg [[chrysargyron]] kang ora disenengi. Wayah Anastasius séda ing taun 518, jumlah kas nagara kacathet gedhéné 320.000&nbsp;lbs (145.150&nbsp;kg) emas.<ref>{{harvnb|Postan|Miller|Postan|1987|p=140}}.</ref> === Panaklukan manèh Romawi Kulon === {{main|Yustinianus I}} [[Gambar:Justinian.jpg|thumb|upright|Mosaik Yustinianus I di [[Basilika San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]].]] [[Yustinianus I]], kang munggah singgasana ing taun 527, nglancaraké panaklukan manèh Romawi Kulon.<ref name="BEv">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Byzantine Empire|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}; Evans, [http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm Justinian (AD&nbsp;527–565)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205190521/http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm |date=2020-02-05 }}.</ref> Ing taun 532, putra tani [[Illyria]] iku [[Panentreman Abadi (532)|nandatangani prajanjèn damai]] karo [[Khosrau I|Khosrau I saka Pèrsi]]. Sanadyan kudu mbayar upeti taunan kang akèh, front wétan Bizantium dadi aman. Ing taun kang padha, Yustinianus slamet saka [[karusuhan Nika]] ing Konstantinopel, kang dipungkasi kanthi matiné telung puluh èwu perusuh. Kamenangan iki nguataké posisi Yustinianus.<ref name="Ev">Evans, [http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm Justinian (AD&nbsp;527–565)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205190521/http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm |date=2020-02-05 }}.</ref> [[Paus Agapetus I]] dikirim menyang Konstantinopel karo ratu [[Ostrogoth]] [[Theodahad]], nanging wurung tumuju prajanjèn perdamaian karo Yustinianus. Nanging, ora kasil agawé [[monofisitisme]] dicela. Panaklukan manèh Romawi Kulon diwiwiti ing taun 533. Yustinianus ngirim jendralé [[Belisarius]] lan 15.000 wadya kanggo ngrebut manèh provinsi Afrika saka [[Vandal|suku Vandal]] kang wus kuwasa saka taun 429.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|loc=2E, hal. 145}}.</ref> Karajan Vandal kasil ditundhukaké.<ref name="Ev" /> Sawetara iku, ing [[Italia Ostrogoth]], ratu [[Athalaric]] ninggal ing tanggal 2 Oktober 534. Ibuné, [[Amalasuntha]], dikunjara lan dipatèni [[Theodahad]] ing [[Tlaga Bolsena|pulau Martana]]. Yustinianus ndelok kanthi kesempatan kanggo nglakokaké intervensi. Ing taun 535, wadya Romawi Wétan dikirim menyang [[Sisilia]]. Kamenangan kasil karaih, nanging Ostrogoth nguataké pralawanan dhèwèké. Kamenangan anyar bener-bener kasil ing taun 540, wayah Belisarius ngrebut [[Ravenna]].<ref name="B180-216">{{harvnb|Bury|1923|loc=[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/18C*.html 180–216]}}.</ref> [[Gambar:LocationByzantineEmpire.svg|thumb|left|Wewengkon Romawi Timur padha mangsa Yustinianus.]] Émané, Ostrogoth kasil didakaké manèh ing ngisoré kapemimpinan [[Totila]] lan ngrebut Roma ing tanggal 17 Dhésèmber 546. Belisarius ditarik déning Yustinianus wiwit taun 549.<ref name="B236-258">{{harvnb|Bury|1923|loc=[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/19B*.html 236–258]}}.</ref> Kasim [[Narses]] nggantekaké ing pungkasan taun 551 karo nggawa bala wadya 35.000 akèhé. Totila kasil dikalahaké lan mati ing [[Paperangan Busta Gallorum]]. Panerusé, [[Teia]], kasil ditaklukaké ing [[Paperangan Mons Lactarius]] (Oktober 552). Sakbanjuré iku, suku Goth isih terus nglawan. [[Suku Franka]] lan [[Alamanni]] uga nglancaraké invasiné. Sanadyan mangkono, perang kanggo nguwasani ujung Italia wus rampung kanthi kamenangan Romawi Wétan.<ref name="B259-281">{{harvnb|Bury|1923|loc=[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/19C*.html 259–281]}}.</ref> Ing taun 551, bangsawan [[Visigoth]] ing [[Hispania]], [[Athanagild]], njaluk bantuan Yustinianus ing pamberontakan nglawan ratu. Sang kaisar ngirim wadya ing ngisoré pimpinan Liberius. Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan kasil nguasani sapérangan wewengkon ing pasisir [[Spania]] nganti mangsa kakuasaan [[Heraklius]].<ref name="B86-288">{{harvnb|Bury|1923|loc=[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/19D*.html 286–288]}}.</ref> Sawetara iku, ing wétan, [[Paperangan Romawi-Pèrsi]] kadadéan nganti taun 561, wayah Yustinianus lan Khosrau nyetujoni panentreman 50 taun suwéné. Ing panengahan taun 550, Yustinianus wus éntuk kamenangan ing sakabèhing paperangan, kanthi pengecualian ing [[Balkan]], wektu kamaharajan terus diserang déning [[bangsa Slavia]]. Ing taun 559, kamaharajan diancem déning [[Kutrigur]] lan [[Bangsa Slavia|Sklavinoi]]. Yustinianus ngundang Belisarius, lan mangkono bebaya wus ilang, sang kaisar ngenggoni kakuasaan dhéwékan. Pawarta upama Yustinianus nguataké armada Donaunya agawe Kutrigur bingung, saéngga dhèwèké sarujuk kanthi traktat kang menèhi dhèwèké subsidi lan ngolèhaké dhèwèké mulih kanthi aman ngléwati kali Donau.<ref name="Ev" /> Yustinianus uga misuwur amarga préstasiné ing babagan ukum.<ref name="VJ">Vasiliev, [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_PC.HTM The Legislative Work of Justinian and Tribonian].</ref> Ing taun 529, komisi kang cacahé sepuluh wong kang dikepalani déning [[Iohannis Orientalis]] merevisi undang-undang Romawi kuna. Sakabèhing "undang-undang Yustinianus" jaman saiki kaloka kanthi jeneng ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]''. Sasuwéné abad kaping 6, [[budaya Yunani-Romawi]] isih duwé prabawa kuwat ing Wétan. Filsafat lan budaya Kristen dadi saya wigati lan wiwit ndominasi budaya mbiyen. Himne-himne kang [[Romanus Melodus]] nandai pangembangan [[Liturgi Suci]]. Aristek-arsitèk lan para tukang makarya abot kanggo ngebaraké gréja anyar [[Hagia Sophia]] kang nggantèkaké gréja mbiyèn kang ancur akibat haruhara Nika. Sasuwéné abad kaenam lan kapitu, kamaharajan diguncang déning wabah [[pes]], kang matèni akèh jiwa, sarta ngakibataké kemunduran ékonomi lan lemesé kamaharajan.<ref>{{harvnb|Bray|2004|pp=19–47}}; {{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=110–111}}; {{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|pp=196–197}}.</ref> Sawisé Yustinianus séda ing taun 565, panggantiné, [[Yustinus II]], nolak mbayar upeti kanggo Pèrsi. Sawetara iku, [[suku Langobardi]] nyerbu Italia. Pangganti Yustinus, [[Tiberius II Konstantinus|Tiberius II]], mènèhi subsidi menyang [[Avar Eurasia|suku Avar]], sawatara nglancarake serangan tumuju Pèrsi. Subsidi wurung menangaké suku Avar. Dhèwèké ngrebut bètèng [[Sirmium]] taun 582, sinambiyan bangsa Slavia wiwit nyeberang kali Donau. [[Maurice (kaisar)|Maurice]], kang nggantèkaké Tiberius, mèlu cawé-cawé ing paperangan sadulur Pèrsi, sarta manggonaké [[Khosrau II]] bali tumuju kakuasaané lan nikahaké putriné karo dhèwèké. Traktat Maurice karo iparé kang anyar nggawa ''status quo'' anyar ing wétan, lan ngurangi biaya pertahanan sasuwéné perdamaian iki (yutanan solidi kasil dislametaké kanthi remisi upeti kanggo Pèrsi). Sawisé kamenangané ing front wétan, Maurice bisa ngalihaké perhatiané dateng Balkan, lan [ing taun 602, dhèwèké kasil ngusir suku Avar lan Slavia.<ref name="Br" /> === Nyusuté wates === ==== Dinasti Heraklius ==== Sawisé Maurice dipatèni [[Phocas]], Khosrau nyoba naklukaké provinsi [[Mesopotamia]] Romawi.<ref>{{harvnb|Foss|1975|p=722}}.</ref> Phocas, sawijining pemimpin ora populèr kang dideskripsikaké dumadi "tiran" ing sumber-sumber Romawi Wétan, ya iku target konspirasi-konspirasi senat. Dhèwèké dilèngsèraké ing taun 610 déning [[Heraklius]].<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Speck|1984|p=178}}.</ref> Sawisé Heraklius kuwasa, bala wadya Pèrsi terus ndesek nganti lumebu Asia Cilik. Dhèwèké madeki [[Damaskus]] lan [[Yerusalem]], sarta mindhahaké [[Salib Sejati]] menyang [[Ctesiphon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=42–43}}.</ref> Heraklius nglancaraké serangan walesan kanthi ciri perang suci. Bala wadya Romawi Wétan perang kanthi nggawa citra [[acheiropoietos]] Kristus dumadi panji militèr.<ref>{{harvnb|Grabar|1984|p=37}}; {{harvnb|Cameron|1979|p=23}}.</ref> Bala wadya Pèrsi kasil diancuraké ing [[pertempuran Nineweh (627)|pertempuran di Ninewe]] taun 627. Ing taun 629, Heraklius mbalikaké Salib Sejati menyang Yerusalem ing upacara kang agung.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Baynes|1912}}, ''passim''; {{harvnb|Speck|1984|p=178}}.</ref> Perang iki nyuda kakuwatané Romawi Wétan lan [[Kamaharajan Sassaniyah|Sassaniyah Pèrsi]], sarta nggawé kaloroné ringkih karo serangan [[penaklukan Islam|Muslim Arab]] kang lagi bangkit ing mangsa iku.<ref>{{harvnb|Foss|1975|pp=746–747}}.</ref> Bala Wadya Arab kasil ngancuraké wadya Romawi Wétan ing [[Pertempuran Yarmuk]] taun 636, lan [[Ctesiphon]] tiba ing taun 634.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|p=50}}.</ref> [[Gambar:Byzantiumby650AD.JPG|thumb|left|350px|Kamaharajan Romawi Timur padha taun 650.]] Bala Wadya Arab, kang wus [[panaklukan Islam ing Suriah|naklukaké Suriah lan Levant]], terus nyerang Anatolia, lan antara taun 674 nganti 678 [[Pangepungan Konstantinopel (674)|ngepung Konstantinopel]]. Armada Arab kasil diusir nganggo [[geni Yunani]] lan perang senjata sasuwéné telung puluh taun disetujui antara kamaharajan karo [[Kekhalifahan Umayyah]].<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=61–62}}.</ref> Serangan marang Anatolia terus kalaksanan lan agawé écepet matiné budaya urban klasik. Panduduk-panduduk akèh kang mbèntèngi manèh wewengkon-wewengkon kang luwih cilik ing njero bètèng kutha lawas, utawa pindhah menyang bètèng-bètèng kang paling cedhak.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=102–114}}.</ref> Agungé Konstantinopel uga nyusut, saka 500.000 penduduk dumadi 40.000-70.000 waé, kang disebabaké amarga Konstantinopel kélangan sumber gandum ing taun 618 wayah Mesir direbut déning Pèrsi (provinsi iki bisa direbut manèh taun 629, nanging akhiré dikuasani déning Arab ing taun 642).<ref>{{harvnb|Wickham|2009|p=260}}.</ref> [[Gambar:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|right|thumb|[[Api Yunani]] dienggo kang kapisan karo angkatan bersenjata Romawi Wétan sasuwéné [[Peperangan Romawi Timur-Arab]].]] Panarikan wadya ing Balkan kanggo tempur nglawan Pèrsi lan Arab ing wétan wus mbukak lawang kanggo ngambakaké wewengkon [[bangsa Slavia]]. Akibaté, kaya ing Anatolia, akèh kutha nyusut dadi pamukiman kabèntèng kang cilik.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=43–45, 66, 114–115}}.</ref> Pada taun 670-an, [[bangsa Bulgaria]] dhidhesek menyang kidul kali Donau karo [[bangsa Khazar]]. Wadya Romawi Wétan kang dikirim kanggo mbubaraké pemukiman-pemukiman anyar iki dikalahaké ing taun 680. [[Konstantinus IV]] sabanjuré iku nandatangani prajanjèn karo khan Bulgaria [[Asparukh saka Bulgaria|Asparukh]], lan [[Kamaharajan Bulgaria Kapisan|nagara Bulgaria anyar]] éntuk kedaulatan saka pérangan suku-suku Slavia kang sadurungé ngakoni kekuasaan Romawi Wétan.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=66–67}}.</ref> Ing taun 687–688, kaisar [[Yustinianus II]] mimpin èkspèdhisi nglawan Slavia lan Bulgaria kang cukup kasil.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|p=71}}.</ref> Kaisar Heraklius pungkasan, [[Yustinianus II]], nyoba ngancuraké kakuwatan aristokrasi prakuthon mawi perpajekan lan panunjukkan "wong njaba" ing kalungguhan-kalungguhan administratif. Dhèwèké dilèngserké ing taun 695, lan golèk perlindungan menyang bangsa Khazar, banjur Bulgaria. Ing taun 705, Yustinianus II bali menyang Konstantinopel bebarengan wadya khan Bulgaria, [[Tervel saka Bulgaria|Tervel]]. Dhèwèké ngrebut manèh takhta, lan madekaké rezim teror kanggo musuh-musuhé. Yustinianus II dilèsèraké menéh ing taun 711, saéngga paripurna Dinasti Heraklius.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1990|pp=70–78, 169–171}}; {{harvnb|Haldon|2004|pp=216–217}}; {{harvnb|Kountoura-Galake|1996|pp=62–75}}.</ref> ==== Dinasti Isauria tumeka mangsa Basil I munggah singgasana ==== [[Gambar:ByzantineEmpire717+extrainfo+themes.PNG|thumb|350px|Kamaharajan Romawi Timur saat [[Leo III si orang Isauria|Leo III]] munggah takhta taun 717. Wewengkon bergaris ya iku laladan kang diserang déning bangsa Arab.]] [[Leo III si orang Isauria|Leo III]] kasil ngusir serangan Muslim taun 718, lan pikantuk kamenangan kanthi bantuan saka khan Bulgaria, Tervel, kang kasil matèni 32.000 prajurit Arab karo tentarané. Panerusé, [[Konstantinus V]], éntuk kamenangan ing Suriah elor, lan nglemesaké kakuwatan Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2009|pp=67–68}}.</ref> Ing taun 826, Arab ngrebut [[Kréta]] lan nyerang [[Sisilia]], nanging ing 3 September 863, jendral [[Petronas sang Patrician|Petronas]] kasil pikantuk [[Pertempuran Lalakaon|kamenangan gedhé]] ing pertempuran nglawan [[Umar al-Aqta]], [[emir]] [[Melitene]]. Ing ngisoré kapemimpinan kaisar Bulgaria [[Krum]], anceman Bulgaria njedhul manèh, nanging ing taun 814, putra Krum, [[Omortag]], rerukun karo Kamaharajan Romawi Wétan.<ref name="BH">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Byzantine Empire|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}; {{cite encyclopedia|title=Hellas, Byzantium|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia The Helios}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Treadgold|1997|pp=432–433}}.</ref> [[Gambar:Clasm Chludov detail 9th century.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Ikonoklasme|Ikonoklasme Romawi Timur]] padha abad ke-9.]] Abad kawolu lan kasanga rempeg karo kontroversi lan perpecahan religius akibat [[ikonoklasme]]. Ikon-ikon ora diéntuki karo Leo III lan Konstantinus V, ngakibataké pamberontakan kang dilancarkan déning [[ikonodul]] (pandukung ikon) ing sakabèhing kamaharajan. Saka upaya [[Maharani Irene]], [[Konsili Nicea Kaloro]] dikempulaké taun 787, lan negesaké upama ikon bisa dihormati nanging ora disembah.<!--Irene diomongké wus nyoba negosiasèkaké pernikahan antarané dhèwèké karo [[Karel kang Agung]]. Ananging, miturut [[Theophanes Confessor]], rencana iki diobrak - abrik karo Aetios.<ref name="G89">{{harvnb|Garland|1999|p=89}}.</ref>--> Pada taun 813, [[Leo V si orang Armenia|Leo V]] ngukuhaké manèh kebijakan ikonoklasme, nanging [[Theodora (abad kasanga)|Maharani Theodora]] mulihaké pamujan ikon karo bantuan [[Patriark Methodios]] ing taun 843.<ref name="P11">{{harvnb|Parry|1996|pp=11–15}}.</ref> Ikonoklasme ngambakaké jurang kapecahan antarané Wétan lan Kulon, kang saya èlèk ing mangsa [[skisma Photios]], wektu [[Paus Nikolas I]] nentang pangangkatan [[Patriark Photios I dari Konstantinopel|Photios]] dadi patriark.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2009|p=267}}.</ref> === Dinasti Makedonia lan Kebangkitan === ==== Paperangan nglawan Muslim ==== [[Gambar:ByzantineEmpire867AD4lightpurple.PNG|thumb|350px|Kamaharajan Romawi Timur taun 867.]] Ing taun 867, Romawi Wétan wus agawé stabil posisiné ing wétan lan kulon. Amarga efisiensi ing struktur militèr, kaisar bisa ngrencana perang panaklukan manèh ing wétan. Prosès panaklukan manèh diwiwiti kanthi kasil kang ora tetep. [[Kreta]] kasil ditaklukaké kanggo sawatara (843), nanging sabanjuré wadya Romawi Wétan kalah ing [[Bosporus]], sawatara kaisar ora kuwasa nyegah panaklukan Muslim ing [[Sisilia]] (827–902). Kanthi nggunakaké [[Tunisia]] dumadi watu lumpatan, wadya Muslim naklukaké [[Palermo]] taun 831, [[Messina]] taun 842, [[Enna]] taun 859, [[Siracusa]] taun 878, [[Catania]] taun 900, lan bètèng Romawi Wétan pungkasan, [[Taormina]], taun 902. [[Gambar:Paris psaulter gr139 fol1v.jpg|thumb|left|Keberhasilan militèr padha abad kesepuluh diikuti dengan kebangkitan budaya, yang ingaran [[Renaisans Makedonia]].]] Kekurangan mau ndang diseimbangaké mawi keberhasilan èkspèdhisi tumuju [[Damietta]] ing Mesir (856), [[Pertempuran Lalakaon|dikalahké]] Emir [[Melitene]] (863), pamasthèn kakuasaan kamaharajan ing [[Dalmatia]] (867), lan serangan Basil I menyang [[Efrat]] (870s). Basil I bisa nangani situasi ing Italia kidul kanthi apik,<ref name="Browning-1992-96">{{harvnb|Browning|1992|p=96}}.</ref> pramila provinsi mau tetap ing tangané Romawi Wétan sasuwéné 200 taun salajengipun.<ref>{{harvnb|Karlin-Heyer|1967|p=24}}.</ref> Ing taun 904, masalah tumeka ing kamaharajan wayah kaloro kutha iku, [[Thessalopunika]], dijarah déning armada Arab kang dimandhégani déning pengkhianat Romawi Wétan [[Leo saka Tripoli]]. Wadya Romawi Wétan males kanthi ngancuraké armada Arab taun 908, sarta njarah kutha [[Laodicea]] ing Suriah rong taun sawusé. sandyan piwalesan wus kalaksanan, Romawi Wétan ora bisa nginterfensi Muslim, kang wus ngancuraké wadya kamaharajan ing Kreta taun 911.<ref name="B101">{{harvnb|Browning|1992|p=101}}.</ref> Kaanan ing wates karo Arab tetep cair. [[Varangia]], kang nyerang Konstantinopel [[Perang Rus'-Romawi Wétan (860)|kanggo kapisané ing taun 860]], dadi tantangan anyar. Ing taun 941, [[Perang Rus'-Romawi Wétan (941)|dhèwèké njedhul]] ing pasisir Bosporus pérangan Asia. Wayah iki dhèwèké kasil diancuraké, ndudohaké kuaté kekuwatan militèr Romawi Wétan sawusé taun 907, wektu [[Traktat Rus'-Romawi Wétan (907)|namung diplomasi kang bisa ngusir panyerang-panyerang mau]]. Kaisar [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] (kuasané 963–969) lan [[Yohanes I Tzimiskes]] (969–976) njembaraké wewengkon kamaharajan nganti [[Suriah]], nundukaké emir-emir ing [[Irak]] kulon laut, sarta naklukaké manèh [[Kreta]] lan [[Siprus]]. Ing papréntahan Yohanes, wadya kamaharajan sempet ngancem [[Yerusalem]].<ref name="Browning-1992-113">{{harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=113}}.</ref> Emirat [[Aleppo]] lan tangga-tanggané dadi vassal kamaharajan. Sawusé akèh nglancaraké kampanye militèr, anceman Arab kang pungkasan kanggo Romawi Wétan kasil ditaklukaké wayah Basil II kanthi rikat narik 40.000 wadya jaran kanggo mbébasaké Suriah Romawi. Kanthi surplus sumber daya alam, Basil II ngrencana èkspèdhisi menyang Sisilia kanggo ngrebut saka bangsa Arab. Sawusé matiané taun 1025, èkspèdhisi kalaksanan ing taun 1040-an, lan kasil éntuk sukses ing ngarepé, nanging suksèsé iku sabanjuré seret. ==== Paperangan nglawan Kamaharajan Bulgaria ==== {{details|Peperangan Romawi Timur-Bulgaria}} [[Gambar:Basilios II.jpg|thumb|upright|Kaisar [[Basil II]] sang Pembantai Bulgar (976–1025).]] Pargumulan suwé karo [[Takhta Suci]] kalaksanan; wayah iki diakibataké karo perebutan kakuasaan religius Bulgaria kang lagi dikristenaké. Akibaté, [[Tsar]] [[Simeon I dari Bulgaria|Simeon I]] nglancaraké invasi ing taun 894, nanging kasil dimandekaé mawi diplomasi Romawi Wétan, kang njaluk bantuan saka bangsa Honggari. Romawi Wétan akhiré dikalahké ing [[Pertempuran Bulgarophygon]] (896) lan diwajibké mbayar upeti marang bangsa Bulgaria. Sabanjuré (912), Simeon kasil meksa Romawi Wétan mènèhi anugrah takhta ''basileus'' (kaisar) Bulgaria lan agawé Kaisar [[Konstantinus VII]] nikahi salah siji putri Simeon. Wektu pemberontakan ing Konstantinopel nyeretaké upaya iki, Simeon nyerang Trakia lan naklukaké [[Edirne|Adrianopel]].<ref name=Norwich /> Ekspedisi kamaharajan di ngisoré pimpinan [[Leo Phocas]] lan [[Romanos I|Romanos Lekapenos]] ngalami kekalahan gedhé ing [[Pertempuran Acheloos]] (917), lan ing taun saterusé Bulgaria ngleboni lan ngrampok Yunani elor nganti sadawané [[Korintus]]. Adrianopel kasil direbut manèh ing taun 923, nanging ing taun 924 wadya Bulgaria ngepung Konstantinopel. Kaanan ing Balkan dadi apik sawusé matiné Simeon taun 927. Ing taun 968, Bulgaria diserbu déning [[Rus']] ing ngisoré pimpinan [[Sviatoslav I saka Kiev]]. Telung taun sawisé, Kaisar [[Yohanes I Tzimiskes]] kasil [[Pangepungan Dorostolon|ngalahaké]] bangsa Rus' lan nglebokaké wewengkon Bulgaria wétan menyang kamaharajan. [[Gambar:Map Byzantine Empire 1025-en.svg|thumb|left|300px|Wewengkon kamaharajan di bawah pimpinan Basil II.]] Perlawanan Bulgaria kadadéan ing mangsa [[wangsa Cometopuli]]. Kaisar anyar [[Basil II]] (kuwasa 976–1025) ngupaya nundukaké bangsa Bulgaria. Ekspedisi kapisan Basil ngalami kawurungan ing [[Pertempuran Gerbang Trajanus|Gerbang Trajanus]]. Ing taun-taun sawusé, kaisar sibuk karo pemberontakan internal ing [[Anatolia]], sawatara Bulgaria ngambakaké kakuasaan dhèwèké ing Balkan. Perang kalangsungan suwéné mèh rong puluh taun. Kamenangan Romawi Wétan ing [[Pertempuran Spercheios|Spercheios]] lan [[Pertempuran Skopje|Skopje]] kasil nglemesaké wadya Bulgaria. Ing kampanye militèr tauné, Basil terus ngurangi jumlah bètèng Bulgaria. Akhiré, ing [[Pertempuran Kleidion]] taun 1014, Bulgaria kasil dikalahaké.<ref name="Angold">{{harvnb|Angold|1997}}.</ref> Wadya Bulgaria ditangkap, lan jaréné 99 saka 100 wadya diwutakaké, sauntara liyané diwènèhi siji mripat kanggo mimpin kanca sabangsané mulih. Wayah Tsar [[Samuel saka Bulgaria|Samuil]] ndeleng nasib tentarané, dhèwèké mati akibat syok. Ing taun 1018, bètèng Bulgaria pungkasan wus nyerah, lan nagarané dhèwèké dadi péranganing Romawi Wétan. Kamenangan iki ngréstorasi wates [[Donau]], kang ora dikuasani saka mangsa kaisar Heraklius.<ref name=Norwich /> ==== Hubungan karo Rus' Kiev ==== {{details|Perang Rus'–Romawi Timur}} [[Gambar:Царьград.jpg|thumb|right|165px|[[Rus' Kiev]] di bawah témbok Konstantinopel (860).]] Antarané taun 850 nganti 1100, kamaharajan mbina gayutan karo [[Rus' Kiev]]. Romawi Wétan ya iku kanca budaya lan pradagangan kanggo Kiev, nanging gayutan antarané dhèwèké ora mesthi guyub. Konflik paling serius antara kaloro nagara ya iku perang 968–971 ing Bulgaria. [[Perang Rus'-Romawi Wétan|Serangan-serangan Rus']] tumuju kutha-kutha Romawi Wétan ing pasisir [[Laut Hitam]] lan Konstantinopel uga kacathet ing sajarah. Sanadyan serangan-serangan mau bisa ditampék, serangan iku katutup kanthi [[Traktat Rus'-Romawi Timur|traktat dagang]] kang nguntungaké Rus'. Hubungan Rus'-Romawi Wétan dadi apik sawuse nikahé ''[[porfirogenita]]'' [[Anna Porfirogeneta|Anna]] karo [[Vladimir ingkang Agung]]. Amarga [[Kristenisasi Rus' Kiev|Kristenisasi]] uga, gayutan kaloro nagara saya raket. Pendheta, arsitèk, lan artis Romawi Wétan diundang kanggo mbiyantu pagawéan katedral lan gréja ing Rus', saéngga prabawa budaya Romawi Wétan saya amba. Pirang-pirang wadya Rus' dadi wadya bayaran ing angkatan perang Romawi Wétan, lan kang paling kaloka ya iku [[Penjaga Varangia]]. == Penjelasan == {{Reflist|group="n"}} ==Cathetan suku== {{reflist|30em}} == Réferénsi == === Sumber primèr === {{Refbegin|2}} * {{Cite book|last=Choniates|first=Nicetas|authorlink=Nicetas Choniates|title=Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History by D.C. 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Press|year=1993|isbn=0521439914}} * {{Cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|url=http://books.google.com/?id=5rOePwAACAAJ|publisher=Penguin|year=1998|isbn=9780140259605}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{Cite book|last=Obolensky|first=Dimitri|authorlink=Dimitri Obolensky|title=Byzantium and the Slavs|url=http://books.google.com/?id=jv6jcwjW9WUC|year=1994|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=088141008X|chapter=The Principles and Methods of Byzantine Diplomacy}} * {{Cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=Georg|authorlink=George Alexandrovič Ostrogorsky|title=History of the Byzantine State|url=http://books.google.com/?id=PjMts15kLz0C|publisher=New Brunswick (NJ)|year=1969|isbn=0813511984}} * {{Cite book|last1=Paparrigopoulos|first1=Constantine|authorlink=Constantine Paparrigopoulos|last2=Karolidis|first2=Pavlos|title=History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Db)|publisher=Eleftheroudakis|language=Greek|year=1925}} * {{Cite book|last=Parry|first=Kenneth|title=Depicting the Word: Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries|url=http://books.google.com/?id=BFrjJ7nMQmwC|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=1996|isbn=9004105026|chapter=Historical Introduction}} * {{Cite book|last1=Postan|first1=Michael Moïssey|last2=Miller|first2=Edward|last3=Postan|first3=Cynthia|title=The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (Volume 2)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1987|isbn=0521087090|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nDwp8n62nTwC}} * {{Cite book|last=Read|first=Piers Paul|authorlink=Piers Paul Read|title=The Templars: The Dramatic History of the Knights Templar, The Most Powerful Military Order of the Crusades|url=http://books.google.com/?id=M2CBuWV_8g4C|publisher=Macmillan|year=2000|isbn=0312266588}} * {{Cite book|last=Reinert|first=Stephen W.|editor=Cyril Mango|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Z6-kHUyyUIsC|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=0198140983|chapter=Fragmentation (1204–1453)}} * {{Cite book|last=Robins|first=Robert Henry|title=The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History|url=http://books.google.com/?id=hTZHbNmFfpsC|year=1993|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=3110135744}} * {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|authorlink=Steven Runciman|title=The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy|url=http://books.google.com/?id=d1LGB7u5iD0C|year=1982|isbn=0521289262|publisher=Cambridge University Press|chapter=The Bogomils}} * {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=The Fall of Constantinople, 1453|url=http://books.google.com/?id=BAzntP0lg58C|year=1990|isbn=0521398320|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=The Last Byzantine Renaissance|url=http://books.google.com/?id=I52YPQAACAAJ|publisher=University Press|location=Cambridge, England|year=1970|isbn=0521077877}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{Cite book|last=Ryan|first=Herbert J.|title=The College Student's Introduction to Theology|url=http://books.google.com/?id=o6lCBkY2zs4C|year=1993|isbn=0814658415|publisher=Liturgical Press|chapter=The Church in History|editors=Christopher Key Chapple and Thomas P. Rausch}} * {{Cite web|last=Saramandru|first=Nicolae|title=Torna, Torna Fratre|url=http://www.ear.ro/3brevist/rv8/art14.pdf|publisher=Editura Academiei Române|language=Romanian|accessdate=2007-04-25|format=PDF|archive-date=2007-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927044931/http://www.ear.ro/3brevist/rv8/art14.pdf|url-status=dead}} * {{Cite book|last=Sedlar|first=Jean W.|title=East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1994|isbn=0295972904|chapter=Foreign Affairs}} * {{Cite book|last=Seeck|first=Otto|title=Notitia Dignitatum accedunt Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae Laterculi Prouinciarum|location=Berlin, Germany|publisher=Apud Weidmannos|year=1876}} * {{Cite book|last=Seton-Watson|first=Hugh|title=The Russian Empire, 1801–1917|url=http://books.google.com/?id=40KbWNve4XkC|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1967|isbn=0198221525|chapter=The Church}} * {{Cite journal|last=Shahid|first=Irfan|title=The Iranian factor in Byzantium during the reign of Heraclius|year=1972|journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers|volume=26|pages=293–320|doi=10.2307/1291324|url=http://jstor.org/stable/1291324|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University}} * {{Cite book|last=Shopen|first=Timothy|title=Languages and Their Status|url=http://books.google.com/?id=zIJu4xAFcIwC|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=1987|isbn=0812212495}} * {{Cite book|last=Speck|first=Paul|title=Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4)|year=1984|publisher=Rudolf Halbelt|chapter=Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance|pages=175–210}} * {{Cite web|last=Stone|first=Andrew|title=John II Komnenos (AD 1118–1143)|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/johncomn.htm|publisher=Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors|accessdate=2007-05-18|archive-date=2017-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929180453/http://www.roman-emperors.org/johncomn.htm|url-status=dead}} * {{Cite web|last=Stone|first=Andrew|title=Manuel I Komnenos (AD 1143–1180)|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/mannycom.htm|publisher=Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors|accessdate=2007-02-05|archive-date=2003-10-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031005080832/http://www.roman-emperors.org/mannycom.htm|url-status=dead}} * {{Cite encyclopedia|title=Siege of Zara|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Concise|url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9383275/Siege-of-Zara|accessdate=2007-05-18|archive-date=2007-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706062040/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9383275/Siege-of-Zara|url-status=dead}} * {{Cite book|last1=Tarasov|first1=Oleg|last2=Milner-Gulland|first2=R. R.|title=Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Oy_TVfi47gcC|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2004|isbn=1861891180}} * {{Cite book|last1=Tatakes|first1=Vasileios N.|last2=Moutafakis|first2=Nicholas J.|title=Byzantine Philosophy|url=http://books.google.com/?id=lPzcOwnCgVIC|year=2003|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=0872205630}} * {{Cite encyclopedia|title=The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2002}} * {{Cite book|last=Treadgold|first=Warren|title=Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081|url=http://books.google.com/?id=u-BrQgAACAAJ|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1995|isbn=0804724202|chapter=The Army and the State}} * {{Cite book|last=Treadgold|first=Warren|title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society|url=http://books.google.com/?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1997|isbn=0804726302}} * {{Cite book|last=Treadgold|first=Warren|title=The Byzantine Revival, 780–842|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=KZ6gPwAACAAJ|year=1991|isbn=0804718962}} * {{Cite book|last=Troianos|first=Spyros|last2=Velissaropoulou-Karakosta|first2=Julia|title=History of Law|url=http://books.google.com/?id=8Fo2AAAACAAJ|publisher=Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers|year=1997|isbn=9602325941|chapter=Byzantine Law}} * {{Cite book|last=University of Chile: Center of Byzantine and Neohellenic Studies|title=Bizantion Nea Hellas (Issue 2)|publisher=University Press|year=1971|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=73ViAAAAMAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Vasiliev|first=Alexander Alexandrovich|authorlink=Alexander Vasiliev|title=History of the Byzantine Empire|year=1928–1935|url=http://www.intratext.com/X/ENG0832.HTM|chapter=Byzantium and the Crusades|isbn=0299809250}} * {{Cite book|last=Versteegh|first=Cornelis H. M.|title=Greek Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking|year=1977|url=http://books.google.com/?id=-4MeAAAAIAAJ|isbn=9004048553|chapter=The First Contact with Greek Grammar|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden}} * {{Cite book|last=Watson|first=Bruce|title=Sieges: A Comparative Study|url=http://books.google.com/?id=cVet6ieBFv8C|year=1993|publisher=Praeger/Greenwood|isbn=0275940349|chapter=Jerusalem 1099}} * {{Cite book|last=Wells|first=H. G.|authorlink=H. G. Wells|title=A Short History of the World|publisher=Macmillan|year=1922|location=New York, New York|isbn=0064926745}} * {{Cite book|last=Wickham|first=Chris|title=The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000|publisher=Viking|year=2009|isbn=0670020982|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LKq_PQAACAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Stephen|last2=Friell|first2=Gerard|last3=Friell|first3=John Gerard Paul|title=The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century|url=http://books.google.com/?id=tGLN47tfT4UC|year=1999|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415154030|chapter=Jerusalem 1099}} * {{Cite book|last1=Winnifrith|first1=Tom|last2=Murray|first2=Penelope|title=Greece Old and New|url=http://books.google.com/?id=1JgcAAAAMAAJ|year=1983|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0333278364}} * {{Cite book|last=Wroth|first=Warwick|title=Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum|year=1908|publisher=British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals|url=http://books.google.com/?id=AmoCAAAAYAAJ|isbn=1402189540}} {{Refend}} == Bacaan lanjut == <div class="references-small"> * {{Cite book|last=Ahrweiler|first=Helene|title=Les Europeens|publisher=Herman|location=Paris|year=2000}} * {{Cite book|last=Haldon|first=John|title=The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era|year=2001|isbn=0752417959|publisher=Tempus Publishing|location=Stroud}} * {{Cite book|last=Hussey|first=J. M.|title=The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV&nbsp;— The Byzantine Empire Part I, Byzantium and its Neighbors|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1966}} * {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|authorlink=Steven Runciman|title=Byzantine Civilisation|publisher=Edward Arnold (Publishers)|year=1966|isbn=1566195748}} * {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign|publisher=University Press (Cambridge)|year=1990|isbn=0521061644}} * {{Cite book|last=Toynbee|first=Arnold J.|title=Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1972|id=ISBN 0-19-215253-X|isbn=019215253X}} </div> == Pranala njaba == {{Commons|Byzantine Empire|Kakaisaran Byzantium}} === Studi, sumber, lan bibliografi Byzantium === * Adena, L. "[http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Enduring+Legacy+of+Byzantium The Enduring Legacy of Byzantium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413122722/http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Enduring+Legacy+of+Byzantium |date=2020-04-13 }}", ''Clio History Journal'', 2008. * Ciesniewski, C. "[http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Byzantine+Achievement The Byzantine Achievement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413122728/http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Byzantine+Achievement |date=2020-04-13 }}", ''Clio History Journal'', 2006. * Fox, Clinton R. [http://www.romanity.org/htm/fox.01.en.what_if_anything_is_a_byzantine.01.htm What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine? (Ensiklopedia Kaisar-kaisar Romawi Daring)] * [http://www.third-millennium-library.com/MedievalHistory/Cambridge/IV/Eastern-Door.html The Cambridge Medieval History (IV) The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127205009/http://www.third-millennium-library.com/MedievalHistory/Cambridge/IV/Eastern-Door.html |date=2010-11-27 }}. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080410123427/http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html Halaman studi Bizantium] di [[Dumbarton Oaks]]. Meliputi pranala ke beberapa tèks elektronik. * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ Byzantium: Byzantine Studies on the Internet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008060507/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ |date=2014-10-08 }}. Pranala ke berbagai sumber daring. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20021021181126/http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans.html Translated Excerpts from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700-1204]. Sumber daring. * [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari]. Sumber-sumber untuk sajarah abad pertengahan, meliputi beberapa sumber pertalan mengenai peperangan Bizantium. * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814170022/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html |date=2014-08-14 }}. Beberapa sumber primer mengenai sajarah Romawi Timur. * [http://www.univie.ac.at/byzantine/ Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life]. Di''host'' olèh [[Universitas Wina]]; dalam bahasa Inggris. * [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/greek-resources-constantinople.asp Constantinople Home Page]. Pranala ke tèks, gambar, dan video tentang Bizantium. * [http://graal.org.ua/en/theodoro-principality Bizantium di Krimea: Sejarah Politik, Seni, dan Budaya]. * [http://www.oeaw.ac.at/byzanz/ Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences] === Liyané === * [http://www.romanemperors.org/startup.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Biografi ilmiah kaisar-kaisar Bizantium. * [http://rutube.ru/tracks/639717.html?v=8a96fcfe7400898167971e4d057e86a2 Jatuhnya Kekaisaran. Pelajaran Bizantium (2007). (Russian: Гибель империи. Византийский урок)] Film yang menjelaskan mengapa Romawi Timur tiba dari sudut pandang pulitik dan ékonomi, difilemkan olèh Gréja Ortodoks Ruslan. * [http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Penguasa Bizantium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718092221/http://anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ |date=2016-07-18 }} olèh Lars Brownworth dari [[The Stony Brook School]]; sesorah audio. [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/31/education/31education.html ulasan NYTimes]. * [http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html 18 abad Kekaisaran Romawi oleh Howard Wiseman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090928094312/http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html |date=2009-09-28 }} (Peta-peta Romawi/Bizantium selama keberadaannya) {{Empires}} [[Kategori:Kakaisaran Byzantine|*]] 5f7wxzy5nk00z2oxlkkncdrtms937gd Vitamin b12 0 91716 1753071 1629237 2026-08-20T09:43:27Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753071 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:B12 methylcobalamin.jpg|thumb|240px|Metilkobalamin kang dituduhaké ya iku wujud B<sub>12</sub>. Saka fisik katon bentuk-bentuk liya saka vitamin B<sub>12</sub>, kadadèn minangka kristal abang peteng kang bébas mbentuk ''cherry'' awerna bening ing banyu]] '''Vitamin B12''' utawa uga diarani '''kobalamin''' ya iku sawijiné [[vitamin]] kang bisa larut ing [[banyu]] kang migunani kanggo normalaké [[utek]] lan sistem [[saraf]]. Vitamin B12 uga migunani kanggo kawanguné getih ing jero awak. Padatan, vitamin iki apik kanggo metabolisme saben [[sèl]] ing awak, mligi prabawané kanggo ''sintesis'' lan ''regulasi'' [[DNA]] sarta ''sintesis'' [[asem lemak]] lan prodhuksi [[ènèrgi]].<ref name="internet1">[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/vitamin-B12/NS_patient-vitaminb12 Vitamin B12](diundhuh 6 Fèbruari 2013)</ref> Padatan vitamin B12 tinemu ing panganan, kaya ta [[iwak]], [[kerang]], daging, lan [[endhog]], uga kasil saka olahan [[susu]].<ref name="internet1"/> Vitamin B12 katalèn karo protéin ing jero panganan. Asam klorida kang ana ing [[lambung]] ngeculaké B12 saka protéin sasuwéné prosès pencernaan.<ref name="internet1"/> Sawisé diculaké, B12 nggabung karo zat kang diarani ''faktor instrinsik (IF)'' sadurungé diserep ing jero ili [[getih]].<ref name="internet1"/> == Kagunan == Vitamin B12 minangka nambani wong kang kurang vitamin B12 (''defisiensi vitamin B12''), keracunan [[sianida]], lan [[defisiensi turun-temurun saka transcobalamin II]].<ref name=AHFS>{{cite web|title=Vitamin B12 |url=http://www.drugs.com/monograph/vitamin-b12.html |work=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|accessdate=3 April 2011}}</ref> Vitamin B12 diwènèhake minangka péranganing tes Schiling kanggo mangerteni anané lelara [[anemia]] ''persiniosa''.<ref name=AHFS/> kanggo keracunan sianida, akèh-akèhé diwènèhi [[intravena]] lan trakadhang dicampuri [[natrium tiosulfat]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hall AH, Rumack BH |title=Hydroxycobalamin/sodium thiosulfate as a cyanide antidote|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-emergency-medicine_1987-03_5_2/page/115 |journal=The Journal of Emergency Medicine |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=115–21 |year=1987 |pmid=3295013|doi=10.1016/0736-4679(87)90074-6}}</ref> Kandhutan vitamin B12 ing awak wong tuwa bisa ngayomi [[utek]] pérangan [[artrofi]] kang bisa nyuda rèsiko panyusutan kang bisa njalari njalari [[lelara]] [[Alzheimer]] lan gangguan kagunan ''kognitif'' utek.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Vogiatzoglou A, Refsum H, Johnston C, ''et al.'' |title=Vitamin B12 status and rate of brain volume loss in community-dwelling elderly |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_2008-09-09_71_11/page/826 |journal=Neurology |volume=71 |issue=11 |pages=826–32 |year=2008|pmid=18779510 |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000325581.26991.f2}}</ref> Vitamin B12 uga wigati kanggo mbentuk sèl lan nglancaraké fungsi utek sarta sistem saraf. Kurang vitamin B12 bisa njalari anemia, karusakan saraf, kekeselen, lan pengeling-èling kang èlèk.<ref name="internet2">[http://www.merdeka.com/séhat/5-sumber-vitamin-b12-bagi-vegetarian.html Sumber Vitamin B12 bagi vegetarian](diundhuh 6 Fèbruari 2013)</ref> Njangkepi kabutuhan vitamin B12 wigati sanget kanggo njaga kasarasan.<ref name="internet2"/> [[WHO]] nyaranké supaya asupan padinan vitamin B12 bisa dijangkepi kanggo wong diwasa sadhuwuré umur 19 taun ya iku 2,4 mcg saben dina, wong wadon kang lagi ngandhut 2,6 mcg.<ref name="internet2"/> Sawatara ibu kang lagi nyusoni mbutuhaké 2,8 mcg vitamin B12 saben dina.<ref name="internet2"/> == Sumber == Vitamin B12 tinemu ing akèh panganan kang asalé saka [[kéwan]], kalebu iwak lan kerang, daging mligi ati, unggas, endhog, susu, lan kasil olahan susu. Nanging, kandhutan vitamin B12 ing [[kuning]] endhog lan [[putih]] endhog bisa suda sawisé dipanasi.<ref>{{Cite journal|author = Doscherholmen A ''et al.'' |year=1975|title = Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=149|pages=987–90}}</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Vitamin]] 4qjeggfqrfx11f2wdyn26q43uh1wpql Balung 0 91851 1753061 1677153 2026-08-20T09:25:22Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753061 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox anatomy|Name=Bone|Image=Left femur of extinct elephant, Alaska, Ice Age Wellcome L0057714.jpg|Caption=Balung saking jaman es Pleistosen saking spesies gajah ingkang punah.|Image2=Bertazzo S - SEM deproteined bone - wistar rat - x10k.tif|Caption2=Scan mikrograf elektronik saking blaung ing skala magnifikasi 10.000x}} Balung inggih punika [[organ]] ingkang kaku<ref name="BoneOrgan">{{Cite book|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124708624500027|title=The Bone Organ System: Form and Function|last=Lee|first=Cassandra|date=January 2001|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780124708624|pages=3–20|doi=10.1016/B978-012470862-4/50002-7|access-date=30 January 2022|via=Science Direct}}</ref> lan mujudaken perangan saking kerangka wonten ing [[kewan]] [[vertebrata]]. Balung punika ngreksa organ-organ sanesipun ing [[badan]], ngasilaken [[Sel|sel-sel]] getih [[Sel getih abang|abrit]] lan [[Sel getih putih|pethak]], nyimpen [[mineral]], nyukani struktur lan panyengkuyung dhateng badan, sarta mbiyantu mobilitas. Balung gadhah wujud lan ukuran ingkang maneka warna sarta gadhah struktur internal lan eksternal ingkang kompleks.<ref name="de Buffrénil et al. 2021">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tJcwEAAAQBAJ&dq=Vertebrate+Skeletal+Histology+and+Paleohistology&pg=PT8|title=Vertebrate skeletal histology and paleohistology|last1=de Buffrénil|first1=Vivian|last2=de Ricqlès|first2=Armand J|last3=Zylberberg|first3=Louise|last4=Padian|first4=Kevin|last5=Laurin|first5=Michel|last6=Quilhac|first6=Alexandra|date=2021|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1351189576|edition=Firstiton|location=Boca Raton, FL|pages=xii + 825}}</ref> Balung ringan nanging kiyat lan atos sarta nglampahi mawarni-warni fungsi. Balung nglampahi mawarni-warni fungsi mekanis. Sesarengan, balung ing badan mujudaken kerangka. Balung nyukani rangka kangge nyengkuyung badan, sarta titik cantholan kangge otot kerangka, [[tendon]], [[ligamen]], lan [[sendi]], ingkang fungsinipun sesarengan kangge ngasilaken lan mindahaken kekiyatan supados perangan badan tartamtu utawi sedaya badan saged dipun-manipulasi ing ruang tiga dimensi (interaksi antawisipun balung lan otot dipunsinau ing [[biomekanika]]). Balung ugi ngreksa organ internal, kados [[tengkorak]] ingkang ngreksa [[otak]] utawi [[Balung iga|iga]] ingkang ngreksa [[jantung]] lan [[paru-paru]]. Amargi cara pembentukan balung, balung gadhah [[kekiyatan kompresi]] ingkang inggil kirang langkung 170 MPa (1.700 kgf/cm<sup>2</sup>),<ref name="Schmidt-Nielsen">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/scalingwhyisanim0000schm/page/6|title=Scaling: Why Is Animal Size So Important?|author=Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1984|isbn=978-0-521-31987-4|place=Cambridge|page=[https://archive.org/details/scalingwhyisanim0000schm/page/6 6]|author-link=Knut Schmidt-Nielsen}}</ref> [[kekiyatan tarik]] ingkang kirang sae 104–121 MPa, lan [[kekiyatan tegangan geser]] ingkang alit sanget (51,6 MPa).<ref>{{cite book|title=BENG 112A Biomechanics, Winter Quarter, 2013|author=Vincent, Kevin|publisher=Department of Bioengineering, University of California|chapter=Topic 3: Structure and Mechanical Properties of Bone|access-date=24 March 2015|chapter-url=http://cmrg.ucsd.edu/Courses/be112a/Topics|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180528103922/http://cmrg.ucsd.edu/Courses/be112a/Topics|archive-date=28 May 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=C.H.|last2=Wang|first2=T.|last3=Burr|first3=D.B.|year=2001|title=Shear Strength and Fatigue Properties of Human Cortical Bone Determined from Pure Shear Tests|url=https://archive.org/details/calcified-tissue-international_2001-12_69_6/page/373|journal=Calcified Tissue International|volume=69|issue=6|pages=373–378|doi=10.1007/s00223-001-1006-1|pmid=11800235|s2cid=30348345}}</ref> Punika nedahaken bilih balung kiyat nahan tekanan (kompresi), kirang kiyat nahan tarikan ([[tensi]]), lan namung sekedhik kiyat nahan tegangan geser (kados amargi beban [[torsi]]). Wonten pinten-pinten penyakit ingkang saged merbawani balung, antawisipun [[radang sendi]], [[patah tulang]], [[infeksi]], [[osteoporosis]], lan [[tumor]]. Kondisi ingkang gegayutan kaliyan balung saged ditangani dening maneka dokter, kalebet rheumatolog kangge sendi, lan dokter bedah orthopedi ingkang saged nglampahi operasi kangge ndandosi balung ingkang patah. Dokter sanesipun, kados spesialis rehabilitasi saged mbiyantu pamulihan, radiolog ing nalika nafsiraken asiling pencitraan, lan ahli patologi nalika mriksa sebab penyakit, sarta dokter kulawarga saged mbiyantu nyegah komplikasi penyakit balung kados osteoporosis. Nalika dokter mirsani pasien, sejarah lan pamriksa badhe dipunpendhet. Balung lajeng asring dipun-scan, ingkang dipunsebat radiografi. Punika saged kalebet [[USG]], [[sinar-X]], [[CT scan]], [[MRI scan]] lan pencitraan sanesipun kados Bone scan, ingkang saged dipunginakaken kangge mriksa [[kanker]]. Tes sanesipun kados tes getih kangge marker [[autoimun]] saged dipunpendhet, utawi cairan sendi saged dipunaspirasi. [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Sistem rangka]] == Sitiran == 67b81zijcju6t6xsbu50zv2e39ewfn6 Réaksi kimia 0 92028 1752874 1750081 2026-08-20T03:52:08Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752874 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hydrochloric acid ammonia.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Uap [[hidrogen klorida]] dalam beker dan [[amonia]] dalam tabung percobaan bereaksi membentuk awan [[amonium klorida]]]] [[Gambar:ThermiteFe2O3.JPG|miniatur|[[Thermitreaktion]]]] '''Réaksi kimia''' inggih punika prosés alam ingkang asring ngasilaken éwahan [[Senyawa Kimia]].<ref>[GoldBookRef|title=chemical reaction|file=C01033 Pengertian Reaksi Kimia](dipununduh Tanggal 30 September 2012)</ref> Senyawa utawi senyawa-senyawa wiwit ingkang gegayutan ing réaksi saged dipunsébapaken dados [[réaktan]]. Réaksi kimia dipunkaraktérisasikakén kaliyan [[Pérubahan kimiawi]], lan badhé ngasilaken sétunggal utawi langkung [[produk]] ingkang gadhah titikan ingkang bèntén saking réaktan. Sécara klasik, réaksi kimia ngayutakén kaewahan pérgérakan [[Èlèktron]] ing pémbéntukan lan pémutusan [[ikatan kimia]], manawi konsèp umum réaksi kimia ugi saged dipuntérapakè ing [[diagram Feynman|transformasi partikel-partikel elementer]] sami kaliyan [[reaksi nuklir]]. Reaksi-reaksi kimia ingkang panggènipun dipun-ginakaken sami ing [[sintesis kimia]] kanggé ngasilakné produk senyawa ingkang sampun dados ancasipun. Ing salébéting [[biokimia]] reaksi kimia dipun[[katalisis]] kaliyan [[enzim]] mbéntuk lintasan [[métabolismé]], ing sintesèis saha [[dekomposisi]] ingkang limrahipun botén kédadosan ing [[sèl]] == Séjarah == [[Gambar:David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Antoine Lavoisier]] mengembangkan téyori pangobong minangka reaksi kimia kaliyan oksigèn]] [[Gambar:ThermiteReaction.jpg|thumb|A [[thermite]] reaction using iron(III) oxide. The sparks flying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake.]] [[Gambar:Chemical reactions3.ogv|thumb|Video demonstrating a chemical reaction.]] Rèaksi kimia kados ta [[pangobong]], [[férméntasi]], lan rèduksi saking bijih dados logam sampun dipunmangértosi jaman rumiyèn.Téyori-téyori wiwit transformasi saking matérial-matérial punika dirémbakaké déning filsuf [[Yunani]] Kina, kadas [[Èlèmèn klasik]] saking [[Empedocles]] ingkang ngendika manawi substansi kèmawon kasusun saking èlèmèn dhasar inggih punika: [[Lati]],[[toya]], [[udara]], lan [[bu.ing abad perètengahan, transformasi kimia dipunsinauni déning para [[alkemis]]. Sédaya nyobi, tuladhanipun, ngubah [[timbal]] dados [[émas]], kaliyan ngèrèaksiakén [[timbal]] kaliyan campuran [[témbaga]] [[timbal]] kaliyan [[sulfur]].<ref>[cite journal|last1=Weyer|first1=Jost|title=Neuere Interpretationsmglichkeiten der Alchemie|volume=7|pages=177|journal=Chemie in unserer Zeit|language=German|year=1973|doi=10.1002/ciuz.19730070604|issue=6 Sajarah Reaksi Kimia] (dipununduh Tanggal 30 September)</ref> Produksi saking sényawa-sényawa kimia ingkang botén wonten kanthi alami ing donya, sampun lami para ilmuan, kados sintèsis saking [[asem sulfur]] lan [[asem nitrat]] saking alkemis [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]]. Prosès punika dipunlampahi kanthi cara béntérakèn [[minéral-minéral]] [[sulfat]], saha [[nitrat]], kados [[témbaga sulfat]], [[alum]] lan [[kalium nitrat]]. Ing abad kaping 17, [[Johann Rudolph Glauber]] mroduksi [[asem klorida]] lan [[natrium sulfat]] kaliyan ngréaksiakén [[asem sulfat]] kaliyan [[natrium klorida]]. Wontén ananè parémbagan ''[[lead chamber process]]'' ing taun [[1746]] lan [[prosès Leblanc]], pramila manawi wonten [[asem sulfat]] lan [[natrium karbonat]] ing jumlah ageng, mila rèaksi kimia saged dipunaplikasikakén ing indhustri. Tèknologi [[asem sulfat]] sampun majéng, pungkasaning saged ngasilaken [[prosès kontak]] ing taun [[1880]]-an,<ref>Leonard J. Friedman & Samantha J. Friedman [http://www.aiche-cf.org/Clearwater/2008/Paper2/8.2.7.pdf The History of the Contact Sulfuric Acid Process] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120526112703/http://www.aiche-cf.org/Clearwater/2008/Paper2/8.2.7.pdf |date=2012-05-26 }}, Acid Engineering & Consulting, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida] (dipununduh Tanggal 30 September 2012)</ref> lan [[prosès Haber]] dipunembagagen ing taun 1909–1910 kanggé sintesis [[amonia]].<ref>John E. Lesch [http://books.google.com/books?id=VJIztvolC8cC&pg=PA170 The German chemical industry in the twentieth century], Springer, 2000, ISBN 0-7923-6487-2 p. 170 Sajarah Reaksi Kimia]</ref> Saking abad 16 peneliti kaya déné [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]], [[Robert Boyle]] saha [[Isaac Newton]]nyobi kanggé némtuakén téyori-téyori saking transformasi-transformasi kimia ingkang sampun dipuneksperimenaken ing [[Tèori plogiston]] dipuncetusaken ing taun [[1667]] déning [[Johann Joachim Becher]]. Téyori punika mempostulataken ananè èlèmèn kayadènè [[lati]] ingkang saged dipunwastani "plogiston", ing salébéting bandha-bandha ingkang sagét kabakar saha dipunuwalakén ngantas [[pangobong]]. Téyori punika dipunbuktiaken luput ing taun [[1785]] déning [[Antoine Lavoisier]], ing pungkasan nyukani pangèrtosan ingkang lérés babagan pangobong.<ref>Brock, pp. 34–55</ref> Ing taun [[1808]], [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] mangertosi karakteristik [[gas]] sapunika sami. Adédasar ing téyori saking [[John Dalton]], [[Joseph Proust]] saha ngerembakaken [[ukum perbandingan tetap]]ingkang badhé dados konsèp wiwit saking [[stoikiometri]] saha [[persamaan reaksi]].<ref>Brock, pp. 104–107</ref> == Saminipun == [[Persamaan rèaksi]] dipunginakakén kanggé rèaksi kimia. Sami rèaksi saking [[rumus kimia]] utawi [[rumus struktur]] saking rèaktan sisih kiwa lan produk ing sisih téngèn. Antawis [[produk]] lan [[rèaktan]] dipunpisahakén kaliyan pratitis(→) ingkang nunjukakè arah lan tipé rèaksi. Ujung saking pratanda kasébut nuduhaké rèaksi owah saking arah pundhi. Pratitis panah ganda ({{eqm}}), ingkang gadhah kalih ujung tanda panah ingkang bènten arahipun, diginakakè ing [[rèaksi kéetimbangan]]. Saminipun kimia kédhahipun séimbang, jumbuh kaliyan [[stoikiometri]], jumlah [[atom]] sabén unsur ing sisih kiwa kédhah sami kaliyan jumlah [[atom]] sabén unsur ing sisih téngén. Pényéimbangan punika dipunlampahi supadas nambah angka ing ngajéng [[molèkul senyawa]] (dipunlambangaken kaliyan ''A, B, C'' dan ''D'' dipundiagramaken skèma ing ngandap) kaliyan angka alit (''a, b, c'' dan ''d'') ing ngajengipun.<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=chemical reaction equation|file=C01034}}</ref> :<math>\mathrm{a\ A + b\ B \longrightarrow c\ C + d\ D}</math> [[Gambar:Baeyer-Villiger-Oxidation-V1.svg|thumb|center|750px|Sebuah contoh reaksi organik: [[Oksidasi Baeyer–Villiger|oksidasi]] [[keton]] menjadi [[ester]] kaliyan [[Asam peroksi]]karboksilat]] Rèaksi ingkang langkung rumit dipungambaraken kaliyan skèma réaksi, ancasipun kanggé mangertosi sényawa wiwit utawi pungkasan, utawi ugi nunjukakén [[fasé transisi]]. Pintén-pintén rèaksi kimia ugi saged dipuntambahakén sératan ing inggil tanda panah, tuladhanipu [[penambahan toya]], [[béntèr]], [[iluminasi]], [[katalisasi]], ugi pintén-pintén produk [[minor]] saged dipunpanggénakén ing ngandap panah. [[Gambar:Baeyer-Villiger-Oxidation-V1.svg|thumb|center|750px|Sebuah contoh reaksi organik: [[Oksidasi Baeyer–Villiger|oksidasi]] [[kéton]] dados [[Èstér]] kaliyan [[Asam péroksi]]karboksilat]] [[Analisis rétrosintetik]] saged diginaakèn kanggé désain rèaksi sintèsis komplèks. Analisis dipunwiwiti saking produk, tuladhanipun mécah ikatan kimia ingkang kapilih dados [[reagen]] ènggal. Tanda panah mirunggan (⇒) diginakakén ing réaksi [[rètro]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Corey|first1=E. J.|title=Robert Robinson Lecture. Retrosynthetic thinking?essentials and examples|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chemical-society-great-britain-chemical-society-reviews_1988-03_17_1/page/n58|journal=Chemical Society Reviews|volume=17|pages=111|year=1988|doi=10.1039/CS9881700111}}</ref> == Rèaksi Èlèmèntèr == [[Rèaksi Èlèmèntèr]] inggih punika pemecahan prasaja lan asil saking rèaksi punika botén gadhah produk sampingan..<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=elementary reaction|file=E02035}}</ref> Kathah rèaksi ingkang kasilipun kapanggih inggih punika ngérémbag saking rèaksi [[Èlèmèntèr]] ingkang tuwuh kanthi [[paralèl]] tuwin [[runtut]]. Sebuah rèaksi [[Èlèmèntèr]] saking pintén-pintén.<ref>Gernot Frenking: ''Elementarreaktionen.'' In: Römpp Chemie-Lexikon, Thieme, 2006</ref> :<math>\mathrm{AB \longrightarrow A + B}</math> : <small> Disoasi dari molekul AB menjadi fragmen A dan B </small> Ing reaksi bimolekular, 2 molekul badhé bertabreakan lan saling bereaksi. kasil reaksinipun dipunnamani [[sintesis kimia]] utawa [[reaksi adisi]]. :<math>\mathrm{A + B \longrightarrow AB}</math> Kemungkinan reaksi ingkang sanès inggih punika péranganing sebuah molekul gantos ing sanèsipun. Reaksi jinis kados ta punika, tuladhané inggih punika reaksi redoks lan reaksi asem-basa. Ing reaksi redoks partikel ingkang gantos inggih punika èlèktron, nanging ing reaksi asem-basa ingkang gantos proton. Reaksi kados ta punika ugi dipunsebat kaliyan [[reaksi metatesis]]. :<math>\mathrm{HA + B \longrightarrow A + HB}</math> contohnya :[[Natrium klorida|NaCl]]<sub>(aq)</sub> + [[Pérak nitrat|AgNO<sub>3</sub>]]<sub>(aq)</sub> → [[Natrium nitrat|NaNO<sub>3</sub>]]<sub>(aq)</sub> + [[Pérak klorida|AgCl]]<sub>(s)</sub> == Termodinamika == Reaksi kimia saged kapanggih déning ukum-ukum [[termodinamika]]. Reaksi saged kadadosan kaliyan piyambakipun manawi senyawa mau [[eksergonik]] utawi nguwalaken ènergi. Energi bébas ingkang dipunkasilaken reaksi punika kapérang saking 2 besaran termodinamika inggih punika [[entalpi]] lan entropi]]:<ref>Atkins, pp. 106–108</ref> :<math>\mathrm{\Delta G = \Delta H - T \cdot \Delta S}</math> : <small> G: ènergi bébas, H: entalpi, T: suhu, S: entropi, Δ: perbedaan </small> [[Reaksi eksotermik]] kadadosan manawi ΔH gadhah aji négatif lan ènergi dipunuwalaken. Tuladhaipun reaksi eksotermik inggih punika [[presipitasi (kimia)|presipitasi]] lan kawalikanipun, salebeting reaksi [[endotermik]], benter dipunpendet saking lingkungan. Sapunika saged dipunlampahi kaliyan ningkataken entropi sistem. amargi kenaikan entropi bandinganipun lurus kaliyan ingkang boten kasunyatan, kathah reaksi eksotermik dipunlampahi ing suhu ingkang cendhèk. Owah-owahan témperatur punika saged ngewahi arah reaksi, kados ta tuladha ing [[reaksi Boudouard]]: :<math>\mathrm{CO_2 + C \rightleftharpoons 2\ CO\ ; \quad \Delta H = +172.45\ kJ \cdot mol^{-1}}</math> Reaksi antawis [[karbon dioksida]] lan [[karbon]] kanggé minangka [[karbon monoksida]] punika reaksi endotermik kaliyan suhu ing inggil 800&nbsp;°C lan dados reaksi eksotermik mila suhunipun ing ngandap punika <ref>Wiberg, pp. 810–811</ref> Reaksi ugi saged nglampahi saged ningali lan ugi saged dipunmangertosi kaliyan [[ènergi dalam]] ingkang nyebataken kauwalan ing entropi, volume, lan [[potensial kimia]].<ref>Atkins, p. 150</ref> :<math>\mathrm{d}U = T\, {d}S - p\, {d}V + \mu\, {d}n \!</math> : <small> U: ènergi ing, S: entropi, p: tekanan, μ: po]tensial kimia, n: jumlah molekul, d: [[kalkulus diferensial|tanda ingkang tegesipun kaewahan alit]] </small> == Pengelompokan Reaksi Kimia == Aneka warni reaksi-reaksi kimia lan pendekatan-pendekatanipun ingkang dipunlampahi ing pasinaon njalari kathah cara kanggé klasifikasiaken reaksi-reaksi mau, ingkang asring tumpang tindih. ing ngandap punika tuladha-tuladha klasifikasi reaksi kimia ingkang limrahipun dipun-ginakaken. === Sekawan reaksi dhasar === ==== Sintesis ==== Ing reaksi [[Reaksi kombinasi|kombinasi langsung]] utawi [[Sintesis kimia|sintesis]], kalih utawi langkung senyawa prasaja gegayutan minangka senyawa énggal ingkang langkung kompleks. Kalih reaktan utawi langkung ingkang bereaksi ngasilaken satunggal produk ugi punika salah satunggaling cara kanggé mangertosi manawi reaksi sintesis. Tuladha saking reaksi punika inggih punika gas hidrogen gegayutan kaliyan gas oksigèn ingkang kasilipun inggih punika toya.<ref name="to react or not to react">[http://www.schools.utah.gov/curr/science/sciber00/8th/matter/sciber/chemtype.htm To react or not to react?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825171739/http://schools.utah.gov/curr/Science/sciber00/8th/matter/sciber/chemtype.htm |date=2010-08-25 }}. Utah State Office of Education. Retrieved 4 June 2011.</ref> Tuladha sanès inggih punika gas nitrogen gegayutan kaliyan gas hidrogen badhé minangka amoniak, kaliyan sami reaksi: :[[Nitrogen|N]]<sub>2</sub> + 3 [[Hidrogen|H]]<sub>2</sub> → 2 [[Amonia|NH<sub>3]]</sub> ==== Dekomposisisi ==== Reaksi [[dekomposisi kimiawi|dekomposisi]] utawi '''analisis''' inggih punika ingkang boten kasunyatan saking reaksi sintesis. Sebuah senyawa ingkang langkung kompleks badhé dipunpecah dados senyawa ingkang langkung prasaja.<ref name="to react or not to react"/><ref name="chemical reactions">[http://misterguch.brinkster.net/6typesofchemicalrxn.html Six Types of Chemical Reactions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719060410/http://misterguch.brinkster.net/6typesofchemicalrxn.html |date=2023-07-19 }} – MrGuch ChemFiesta.</ref> Tuladhanipun inggih punika molekul toya ingkang dipunpecah dados gas oksigèn lan gas hidrogen, kaliyan sami reaksi: :2 [[Air|H<sub>2</sub>O]] → 2 H<sub>2</sub> + [[Oksigèn|O]]<sub>2</sub> ==== Panggantosan tunggal ==== Ing [[reaksi penggantian tunggal]] utawi [[reaksi substitusi|substitusi]], sebuah unsur tunggal gantosaken unsur tunggal sanèsipun ing suatu senyawa. Tuladhanipun inggih punika logam natrium ingkang bereaksi kaliyan asem klorida badhé ngasilaken [[natrium klorida]] utawi uyah dapur, kaliyan persamaaan reaksi: :2 [[Natrium|Na]](s) + 2 [[Asam klorida|HCl]][[(aq)]] → 2 [[Natrium klorida|NaCl]](aq) + H<sub>2</sub>(g) ==== Pangertosan ganda ==== Ing reaksi pargantosan ganda, kalih senyawa punika gantos [[ion]] utawi ikatan kanggé minangka senyawa énggal ingkang bènten.<ref name="to react or not to react"/> punika kadadosan ing wanci kation lan anion saking 2 senyawa ingkang bènten saling gantos panggènan, lan minangka kalih senyawa énggal.<ref name="chemical reactions"/> Rumus umum saking reaksi punika inggih punika: :AB + CD → AD + CB Tuladha saking reaksi gantosan ganda inggih punika timbal(II) nitrat bereaksi kaliyan kalium iodida kanggé minangka timbal(II) iodida lan kalium nitrat, kaliyan sami reaksi: :Pb(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 2 KI → PbI<sub>2</sub> + 2 KNO<sub>3</sub> Tuladha sanès inggih punika natrium klorida (uyah dapur) bereaksi kaliyan pérak nitrat minangka natrium nitrat lan pérak klorida, kaliyan persamaan reaksi: :NaCl(aq) + [[Pérak nitrat|AgNO<sub>3</sub>]](aq) → [[Natrium nitrat|NaNO<sub>3</sub>]](aq) + [[Pérak klorida|AgCl]](s) === Oksidasi dan reduksi === [[Gambar:redox reaction.png|thumb|right|300px|Ilustrasi dari reaksi redoks (reduksi oksidasi)]] <!-- html could be replaced by [[:en:Template:Image frame]] --> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner"> <div class="thumbimage"> <div style="width:300px; text-align:center;"> Reduction<br /> Oxidant + e<sup>&ndash;</sup> &xrarr; Product<br /> (Electrons '''gained'''; oxidation number '''decreases''')<br /> <br /> Oxidation<br /> Reductant &xrarr; Product + e<sup>&ndash;</sup><br /> (Electrons '''lost'''; oxidation number '''increases''') </div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption">Dua pérangan reaksi redoks</div> </div> </div> Reaksi [[redoks]] saged dipunpahami dados transfer èlèktron saking salah satunggaling senyawa (dipunsebat [[reduktor]]) ing senyawa sanèsipun (dipunsebat [[oksidator]]). Ing prosès punika, senyawa ingkang satunggal badhé teroksidasi lan senyawa sanèsipun badhé tereduksi, amargi punika mau ''redoks''. Oksidasi piyambak dipunmangertosi dados kenaikan [[bilangan oksidasi]], lan reduksi inggih punika penurunan [[bilangan oksidasi]]. ing praktekipun, transfer saking èlèktron punika badhé ngewahi wilangan oksidasinipun, nanging kathah reaksi ingkang dipunklasifikasiaken dados reaksi redoks manawi sajatosipun boten wonten èlèktron ingkang gantos (kados ta ingkang gayutaken ikatan [[kovalen]]).<ref>Christian B. Anfinsen [http://books.google.com/books?id=HvARsi6S-b0C&pg=PA7 Advances in protéin chemistry], Academic Press, 1991 ISBN 0-12-034242-1 p. 7</ref><ref>A. G. Sykes [http://books.google.com/books?id=qnRkjATn0YUC&pg=PA359 Advances in Inorganic Chemistry, Volume 36], Academic Press, 1991 ISBN 0-12-023636-2 p. 359</ref> Tuladha reaksi redoks inggih punika: :2 S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>2−</sup>(aq) + I<sub>2</sub>(aq) → S<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub><sup>2−</sup>(aq) + 2 I<sup>−</sup>(aq) :Yang mana I<sub>2</sub> dipunreduksi dados I<sup>-</sup> lan S<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup> (anion [[tiosulfat]]) dipunoksidasi dados S<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub><sup>2-</sup>. Kangge mangertosi reaktan pundhi ingkang badhé dados agen pereduksi lan pundhi ingkang badhé dados agen teroksidasi saged dipunmangertosi saking [[keelektronegatifan]] unsur mau. Elemen ingkang gadhah aji keelektronegatifan ingkang cendhèk, kados ta kathah unsur [[logam]], mila badhé gampil maringi èlèktron punika lan teroksidasi-unsur punika dados reduktor. sakwalike, kathah ion ngadahi bilangan oksidasi inggil, kados ta {{chem|link=hidrogen peroksida|H|2|O|2}}, {{chem|link=permanganat|MnO|4|-}}, {{chem|link=kromium trioksida|CrO|3}}, {{chem|link=dikromat|Cr|2|O|7|2-}}, {{chem|link=Osmium(VIII) oksida|OsO|4}}) saged pikoleh satu utawi langkung tambahan èlèktron, ngantos dipunsebat oksidator. Jumlah èlèktron ingkang dipunparingake utawi dipuntampi ing reaksi redoks saged dipunmangertosi saking [[konfigurasi elektronn]] unsur reaktanipun. Saben unsur badhé usaha kanggé dadosaken konfigurasi elektronipun sami kaliyan konfigurasi unsur [[gas mulia]]. Logam alkali lan halogen badhé maringi lan nampi satunggal èlèktron. Elemen gas alam piyambak sajatosipun boten aktif kanthi kimiawi.<ref>Wiberg, pp. 289–290</ref> Salah satunggaling pérangan ingkang wigatos ing reaksi redoks inggih punika reaksi [[elektrokimia]], ing pundhi èlèktron saking sumber listrik dipung reduktor. ingkang dados Reaksi punika wigati sadaya kanggé ndamel unsur-unsur kimia, kados ta [[klorin]]<ref>Wiberg, p. 409</ref> utawi [[aluminium]]. Prosès reaksi redok boten kasunyatan ing pundhi dipun-ginakaken kanggé ngasilaken listrik ugi boten lan prinsip punika dipun-ginakaken ing [[baterai]]. === Reaksi asem-basa === [[Reaksi asem-basa]] inggih punika reaksi ingkang ndonoraken [[proton]] saking sebuah molekul [[asem]] ing molekul [[basa]]. Ing ngriki, [[asem]] gadhah peran dados donor proton lan [[basa]] gadhah peran dados akseptor proton. :<math>\mathrm{HA + B \rightleftharpoons A^- + HB^+}</math> : <small> Reaksi asem basa, HA: asem, B: Basa, A<sup>–</sup>: basa konjugasi, HB<sup>+</sup>: asem konjugasi </small> Kasil saking transfer proton punika ya iku [[asem konjugasi]] lan [[basa konjugasi]].<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=conjugate acid–base pair|file=C01266}}</ref> Reaksi kesetimbangan (bolak-balik) ugi wonten, lan amargi punika asem utawi basa lan asem utawi basa konjugasinipun punika wonten ing kesetimbanganipun. Reaksi kesetimbangan punika dipuntitiki kaliyan wontenipun [[konstanta diasosiasi asem|konstanta diasosiasi asem lan basa]] (''K''<sub>a</sub> dan ''K''<sub>b</sub>) saking saben substansinipun. Sebuah reaksi ingkang mliginipun saking reaksi asem-basa inggih punika [[netralisasi (kimia)|netralisasi]] ing pundhi asem lan basa ing jumlah ingkang sami badhé minangka [[garam (kimia)|garam]] ingkang asifat nétral. Reaksi asem basa gadhah pinten-pinten dhéfinisi gumantung ing konsèp asem basa ingkang dipun-ginakaken. Pinten-pinten dhéfinisi ingkang paling umum inggih punika: ** Dhéfinisi [[Arrhenius]]: asem berdisosiasi ing toya ngelepasaken ion H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>; basa berdisosiasi ing toya ngelepasaken ion OH<sup>-</sup>. ** Dhéfinisi [[Téyori asem-basa Brønsted-Lowry|Brønsted-Lowry]]: Asam inggih punika pendonor proton (H<sup>+</sup>) donors; basa inggih punika nampi (akseptor) proton. anglingkupi dhéfinisi Arrhenius ** Dhéfinisi [[Lewis]]: Asam inggih punika akseptor pasangan èlèktron; basa inggih punika pendonor pasangan èlèktron. Dhéfinisi punika anglingkupi dhéfinisi Brønsted-Lowry. === Presipitasi === [[Gambar:Chemical precipitation diagram multilang.svg|thumb|Presipitasi]] [[Presipitasi (kimia)|Presipitasi]] inggih punika prosès reaksi dumadi padatan (endapan) ing salebeting sebuah larutan dados kasil saking reaksi kimia. Presipitasi punika limrahipun dumadi ing konsèntrasi ion ingkang larut sampun gayuh wates [[kelarutan]]<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=precipitation|file=P04795}}</ref> lan kasilipun inggih punika minangka [[garam (kimia)|garam]]. Reaksi punika saged dipuncepetake manawi nambahaken agen presipitasi utawi ngirangi pelarutnipun. Reaksi presipitasi punika ingkang ngasilaken residu mikrokristalin lan prosès ingkang lambat badhé ngasilaken [[kristal]] tunggal. Kristal tunggal ugi saged pikoleh saking [[rekristalisasi (kimia)|rekristalisasi]] saking garam mikrokristalin.<ref>Jörg Wingender, Stefanie Ortanderl ''Ausfällung.'' In: ''Römpp Chemie-Lexikon.'', Thieme, July 2009</ref> === Reaksi ing Zat Padat === Reaksi saged kadadosan ing antawisipun kalih bandha padat. nanging makaten, amargi tingkat [[difusi]] ing zat padat sanget cendhèk, mila reaksi kimia ingkang kalangsungaken dados sangat lambat. Reaksi saged dipuncepetake kaliyan cara ningkataken suhu pramila badhé mecah reaktan, pramila amba lumah kontak dados langkung ageng.<ref>Ralf Alsfasser, Erwin Riedel, C Janiak, HJ Meyer ''Modern Inorganic Chemistry.'' 3. Edition. de Gruyter, 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-019060-1, p. 171</ref> === Reaksi fotokimia === [[Gambar:Paterno-Buchi reaction.svg|thumb|Dalam [[reaksi Paterno–Büchi]], sebuah gugus karbonil yang tereksitasi akan diamahkan ke [[olefin]] yang tidak tereksitasi, lan ngasilaken [[oksetan]].]] Ing[[reaksi fotokimia]], atom lan molekul badhé nyerap ènergi ([[foton]]) saking cahya lan gayutaken ing[[eksitasi]]. Atom lan molekul punika lajeng saged ngelepasake ènergi kaliyan mecahake ikatan kimia, mila ngasilaken radikal. Reaksi ingkang kalebet ing reaksi fotokimia ing natawisipun reaksi hidrogen-oksigèn, [[polimerisasi radikal]], [[reaksi berantai]] lan [[reaksi penataan ulang]].<ref>Atkins, pp. 937–950</ref> Kathah prosès-prosès ingkang wigati ngginakaken fotokimia. Tuladha ingkangg paling umum inggih punika [[fotosintesis]], ing pundhi tuwuhan ngginakaken ènergi srengéngé kanggé ngubah [[karbon dioksida]] lan [[toya]] dados [[glukosa]] lan [[oksigèn]] dados kasil sampingan. Manungsa ngandalaken fotokimia ing pembentukan vitamin D, lan [[persepsi visual]] dipunkasilaken saking reaksi fotokimia ing [[rhodopsin]].<ref name="rh">Christophe Dugave [http://books.google.com/books?id=udSCHPq5Ii0C&pg=PA56 Cis-trans isomerization in biochemistry], Wiley-VCH, 2006 ISBN 3-527-31304-4 p. 56</ref> Ing [[kunang-kunang]], sebuah [[enzim]] ing abdomen ngkatalisasi reaksi ingkang ngasilaken [[bioluminesensi]].<ref>David Stanley Saunders [http://books.google.com/books?id=3qJOw5Gh_UMC&pg=PA179 Insect clocks], Elsevier, 2002, ISBN 0-444-50407-9 p. 179</ref> Kathah reaksi fotokimia, kados ta pembentukan ozon, kadadosan ing atmosfer bumi ingkang angliputi péranganing [[kimia atmosfer]]. == Katalisis == [[Gambar:Activation energy.svg|thumb|right|Diagram skema ènergi yang menunjukkan efek dari pemberian katalis padha sebuah reaksi kimia endotermik. Adanya katalis akan mempercepat reaksi dengan cara menurunkan ènergi aktivasi. Hasil akhirnya akan sama dengan reaksi tanpa katalis.]] Ing [[katalisis]], reaksinipun boten kalangsungan kanthi spontan, nanging nglampahi substansi katiga ingkang dipunsebat kaliyan [[katalis]]. Boten kados ta reagen sanèsipun ingkang ndhèrèk ing reaksi kimia, katalis boten ndhèrèk sarta ing reaksi punika piyambak, nanging saged nghambat, matikan, utawi ngajuraken nglampahi prosès sékundhèr. Katalis saged dipun-ginakaken ing fase ingkang bènten-bènten ([[katalis heterogen]]) utawi ing fase ingkang sami ([[katalis homogen]]) dados reaktan. Fungsi katalis namung mempercepat reaksi-zat kimia ingkang ngelambataken reaksi dipunsebat kaliyan inhibitor.<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=catalyst|file=C00876}}</ref><ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=inhibitor|file=I03035}}</ref> Substansi yang meningkatkan aktivitas katalis dipunsebat promoter, lan substansi ingkang mematikan katalis dipunsebat racun katalis. Sebuah reaksi kimia ingkang sajatosipun boten kalangsungan amargi ènergi aktivasinipun langkung inggil, saged dados kalangsungan amargi wonten katalis punika. Katalis heterogen limrahipun padat lan wujud bubuk supados saged maksimalaken luas lumah ingkang bereaksi. Zat-zat ingkang wigati ing katalisis heterogen ing antawisipun logam-logam [[grup platinum]] lan logam transisi sanèsipun. Zat-zat punika limrahipun dipun-ginakaken ing [[hidrogenasi]], [[pembentukan katalitik]] lan sintesis saking senyawa-senyawa kimia kados ta [[asem nitrat]] lan [[amonia]]. Asam inggih punika tuladha saking katalis homogen, punika ningkataken nukleofilitas saking [[karbonil]]. Kalangkungan saking katalis homogen inggih punika gampil kanggé dipuncampurake kaliyan reaktanipun, nanging kekiranganipun anggel anggene dipunpisahake saking produk pungkasanipun. Mekawi mekate, katalis heterogen langkung dipunpilih kathah prosès indhustri.<ref>Christoph Elschenbroich: ''Organometallchemie.'' 6th edition, Wiesbaden, 2008, ISBN 978-3-8351-0167-8, p. 263</ref> == Reaksi ingm kimia organik == Ing kimia organik, kathah reaksi ingkang saged kadadosan ingkang ngelibataken [[ikatan kovalen]] ing antawisipun atom karbon lan heteroatom sanèsipun kados ta [[oksigèn]], [[nitrogen]], utawi atom-atom [[halogen]] sanèsipun. Pinten-pinten reaksi ingkang langkung spesifik badhé njelentrehake ing ngandap punika. === Substitusi === Ing [[reaksi substitusi]], sebuah [[gugus fungsi]] ing salebeting [[senyawa kimia]] dipungantosaken kaliyan gugus fungsi sanèsipun.<ref name=jerry>{{JerryMarch}}</ref> Reaksi punika saged dipunbentenaken ugi dados pinten-pinten subtipe inggih punika [[substitusi nukleofilik|nukleofilik]], [[substitusi elektrofilik]], utawi [[substitusi radikal]]. [[multiple image|direction = vertical | image1 = SN1 reaction mechanism.png|width1 = 300|image2 = SN2 reaction mechanism.png|width2 = 300| caption1 = S<sub>N</sub>1 mechanism| caption2 = S<sub>N</sub>2 mechanism]] Ing jinis ingkang kawiwitan, [[nukleofil]], atom utawi molekul ingkang gadhah kalangkungan èlèktron pramila bermuatan négatif, badhé gantosaken atom sanèsipun utawi pérangan sanèsipun saking molekul "substrat". Pasangan èlèktron nukleofil badhé nyatu kaliyan substrat minangka ikatan énggal, nanging [[gugus lepas]] badhé nglepas sami kaliyan sebuah pasangan èlèktron. Nukleofil saged bermuatan nétral utawi positif, nanging substrat limrahipun bermuatan positif utawi nétral. Tuladhané nukleofil inggih punika ion [[hidroksida]], [[alkoksida]], [[amina]], lan [[halida]]. Reaksi sairib punika limrahipun dipuntemuaken ing [[hidrokarbon alifatik]] lan boten dipuntemtuaken ing [[hidrokarbon aromatik]]. Hidrokarbon aromatik gadhah rapatan èlèktron inggal lan ngantos saged kalangsungan [[substitusi aromatik nukleofilik]] namung kaliyan gugus penarik èlèktron ingkang sangat kiat. Substitusi nukleofilik saged kalangsungan nglampahi 2 mekanisme, [[Reaksi SN1|Reaksi S<sub>N</sub>1]] lan [[Reaksi SN2|S<sub>N</sub>2]]. Miturut namanipun, S cekakan saking substitusi, N singkatan dai nukleofilik, lan, angka nedahaken [[ordho (kimia)|ordo kinetik]] reaksi, unimolekuler utawi bimolekuler.<ref>S. R. Hartshorn, [http://books.google.com/books?id=bAo4AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover ''Aliphatic Nucleophilic Substitution''], Cambridge University Press, London, 1973. ISBN 0-521-09801-7 pp. 1 ff</ref> {{multiple image | direction = vertical | align = right | width = 120 | image1= Walden-inversion-3D-balls.png |caption1=3 tahap dalam [[Reaksi SN2|Reaksi S<sub>N</sub>2]]. Nukleofil berwarna hijau dan gugus lepas berwarna merah |image2=SN2-Walden-before-and-after-horizontal-3D-balls.png |caption2=Reaksi S<sub>N</sub>2 menyebabkan inversi stereo (inversi Walden) }} Reaksi S<sub>N</sub>1 kalangsungan ing kalih tahap. Tahap kawiwitan, [[gugus lepas]] badhé ngelepas lan minangka [[karbokation]]. Tahap punika badhé dipundereaken reaksi ingkang sanget rikat kaliyan nukleofil.<ref>{{Cite journal|author = Leslie C. Bateman, Mervyn G. Church, Edward D. Hughes, Christopher K. Ingold and Nazeer Ahmed Taher|doi = 10.1039/JR9400000979|title = 188. Mechanism of substitution at a saturated carbon atom. Part XXIII. A kinetic demonstration of the unimolecular solvolysis of alkyl halides. (Section E) a general discussion|year = 1940|journal = Journal of the Chemical Society|pages = 979}}</ref> Ing mekanisme S<sub>N</sub>2, nukleofil badhé minangka tahap transisi kaliyan molekul ingkang uwal lan namung terlekang. Kalih mekanisme punika bènten-bènten ing kasil [[stereokimia]]nipun. Reaksi S<sub>N</sub>1 ngasilaken [[adisi]] non-stereospesifik lan boten ngasilaken punjer ''chiral'', nanging ing wujud [[Isomerisme cis–trans|isomer geometri]] (''cis/trans''). kawalikane, inversi Warden-punika ingkang dipunamati ing mekanisme S<sub>N</sub>2.<ref>Brückner, pp. 63–77</ref> [[Substitusi elektrofilik]] punika kawalikan saking substitusi nukleofilik ing pundhi atom utawi molekul ingkang ngelepas, utawi [[elektrofil]]nipun, gadhah kerepetan èlèktron ingkang cendhèk ngantos bermuatan positif. Limrahipun elektrofil punika atom karbon saking [[gugus karbonil]], karbokation utawi [[sulfur]] utawi kation [[nitronium]]. Reaksi punika kalangsungan ing hidrokarbon aromatik kemawon, pramila dipunsebat [[substitusi aromatik elektrofilik]]. Serangan elektrofil badhé nyiptaaken kompleks ingkang dipunsebat dados σ-compleks, sebuah fase transisi ing pundhi sistem aromatikipun ical. lajeng, gugus lepas (limrahipun proton), badhé kapisah lan sipat kearomatikipun balik. Alternatif sanès kanggé substitusi aromatik inggih punika substitusi alifatik elektrofilik. Substitusi punika sami kaliyan substitusi aromatik elektrofilik lan ugi gadhah kalih jinis utami inggih punika S<sub>E</sub>1 lan S<sub>E</sub>2<ref>Brückner, pp. 203–206</ref> [[Gambar:Electrophilic aromatic substitution.svg|center|thumb|648px|Mekanisme dari substitusi aromatik elektrofilik]] === Adisi lan eliminasi === [[Reaksi adisi|Adisi]] lan pasanganipu [[reaksi eliminasi|eliminasi]] punika reaksi ingkang ngubah jumlah substituen ing atom karbon, lan minangka [[ikatan kovalen]]. [[Ikatan ganda]] lan [[ikatan tiga|tiga]] saged kaasilaken kaliyan mengeliminasi gugus lepas ingkang jumbuh. Kadasta substitusi nukleofilik, wonten pinten-pinten mekanisme reaksi ingkang kadadosan. Ing mekanisme E1, gugus lepas kalangkungan rumiyen ngelepas lan minangka karbokation. Salajengipun, minangka ikatan ganda kadadosan nglampahi eliminasi proton ([[deprotonasi]]). Dalam mekanisme E1cb, urutan pelepasan terbalik: proton dieliminasi terlebih dahulu. Dalam mekanisme punika ngelibataken suatu basa kedah wonten.<ref>Brückner, hal. 192</ref> Reaksi ing eliminasi E1 utawi E1cb punika bersaing kaliyan substitusi S<sub>N</sub>1 amagi gadhah kaanan reaksi kondisi ingkang sami.<ref>Brückner, hal. 183</ref> {{double image|center|E1-mechanism.svg|400|E1cb-mechanism.svg|400|Eliminasi E1|eliminasi E1cb}} {{clear}} [[Gambar:E2-mechanism.svg|thumb|300px|Eliminasi E2]] Mekanisme E2 ugi mbetahaken basa. nanging, gantos panggènan basa lan eliminasi gugus uwal ingkang kalangsungan kanthi serentak lan boten ngasilaken zat antawisipun ionik. Benten kaliyan eliminasi E1, konfigurasi stereokimia ingkang bènten saged dipunkasilaken ing reaksi ingkang gadhah mekanisme E2 amargi basa badhé langkung memfavoritkan eleminasi proton ingkang wonten ing panggènan-anti kaliyan gugus uwal. Amargi kaanan lan reagen reaksi ingkang sami, eliminasi E2 punika bersaing dengan substitusi S<sub>N</sub>2.<ref>Brückner, hal. 172</ref> [[Gambar:HBr-addition.svg|thumb|300px|Adisi elektrofilik hidrogen bromida]] Kawalikan saking reaksi eliminasi inggih punika reaksi adisi. Ing reaksi adisi, ikatan rangkep kalih utawi rangkap tiga dipunubah dados ikatan rangkap tunggal. Sami kaliyan reaksi substitusi, wonten pinten-pinten jinis saking adisiingkang dipunbentenaken saking partikel ingkang ngadisi. Tuladhanipun, ing [[adisi elektrofilik]] hidrogen bromida, sebuah elektrofil (proton) badhé gantos ikatan rangkep ganda lan minangka [[karbokation]], lajeng ngereaksi kaliyan nukleofil (bromin). Karbokation saged dumadi ing salah satunggaling ikatan rangkep gumantung saking gugus ingkang ngeleket ing pungkasan. Konfigurasi ingkang langkung trep saged dipunprediksiaken kaliyan [[aturan Markovnikov]].<ref>Wiberg, pp. 950, 1602</ref> Aturan Markovnikov ngendikan: "Ing adisi heterolitik saking sebuah molekul polar ing alkena utawi alkuna, atom ingkang gadhah keelektronegatifan ingkang ageng, mila badhé kaiket ing atom karbon ingkang ngikat atom hidrogen ingkang langkung kedhik."<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=Markownikoff rule|file=M03707}}</ref> === Reaksi kimia organik sanèsipun === [[Gambar:Cope Rearrangement Scheme.png|left|thumb|Penataan ulang dari 3-metil-1,5-heksadiena]] {{multiple image | direction = vertical | align = right | width = 220 | image1= Diels Alder Mechanismus.svg |caption1=Mekanisme dari reaksi Diels-Alder | image2= Diels Alder Orbitale.svg |caption2=Orbital overlap in a Diels-Alder reaction}} Ing [[reaksi penataan ulang]], kerangka karbon saking sebuah [[molekul]] dipunsusun malih pramila minangka [[isomer struktur]] saking molekul aslinipun. Reaksi punika kalebet [[reaksi sigmatropik]] kados ta [[penataan ulang Wagner-Meerwein]], ing pundhi gugus [[hidrogen]], [[alkil]], utawi [[aril]] gantos-gantos panggènan saking suatu atom karbon ing atom karbon sanèsipun. Kathah reaksi penataan malih inggih punika pemutusan lan pambentukan ikatan karbon-karbon énggal. Tuladha sanès saking reaksi punika ya iku [[penataan ulang cope]].<ref>Marye Anne Fox, James K. Whitesell [http://books.google.com/books?id=xx_uIP5LgO8C&pg=PA699 Organic chemistry], 2004, ISBN 0-7637-2197-2 p. 699</ref> == Reaksi sanèsipun == * [[Isomerisasi]], ing senyawa kimia nglampahi penataan malih struktur tanpa kauwahan ing komposisi atomipun * [[Pembakaran]], inggih punika sejinis reaksi redoks ingkang bahan-bahanipun ingkang saged kabakar gegayutan kaliyan unsur-unsur oksidator, limrahipun oksigèn, kange ngasilaken benter lan minangka produk ingkang teroksidasi. Istilah pangobong limrahipun dipun-ginakaken kanggé ngerujuk namung ing oksidasi skala ageng ing sadaya molekul. Oksidasi terkontrol namung ing satunggal gugus fungsi tunggal boten kalebet ing prosès pangobong. :C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>8</sub>+ 12 O<sub>2</sub> → 10 CO<sub>2</sub> + 4 H<sub>2</sub>O :CH<sub>2</sub>S + 6 [[fluorin|F<sub>2</sub>]] → [[karbon tetrafluorida|CF<sub>4</sub>]] + 2 [[hidrogen fluorida|HF]] + [[sulfur heksafluorida|SF<sub>6</sub>]] * [[Disproporsionasi]], kaliyan satunggal reaktan minangka kalih jinis produk ingkang bènten namung ing kaanan oksidasinipun. : 2 Sn<sup>2+</sup> → Sn + Sn<sup>4+</sup> == Kinetika kimia == {{main|Kinetika kimia}} [[Laju reaksi]] suatu reaksi kimia punika pengukuran [[konsèntrasi]] utawi [[tekanan]] zat-zat ingkang gegayutan ing reaksi kauwah ing kalampahan wekdal. Analisis laju reaksi punika wigati lan gadhah kathah mupangatipun, tuladhané ing [[tèhnik kimia]] lan kajian [[kesetimbangan kimia]]. Lajeng reaksi kanthi ndasar ngumantung ing: * Konsentrasi [[reaktan]], ingkang limrahipun ndamel reaksi kalampahan kaliyan langkung rikat manawi konsentrasinipun dipununggahake. punika amargi peningkatan pertumbukan atom per ékan wekdal, * [[Jembar lumah]] ingkang kasedia kanggé reaktan kanggé saling berinteraksi, mliginipun reaktan padet ing sistem heterogen. Amba lumah ingkang ageng badhé ningkataken laju reaksi. * [[Tekanan]], kaliyan ningkataken tekanan, punika nurunaken volume antawis molekul pramila badhé ningkataken frekuensi tumbukan molekul. * [[Energi aktivasi]], ingkang dipundefinisiaken dados jumlah ènergi ingkang dipunbetahaken kanggé ndamel reaksi kawiwitan lan berjalan kanthi spontan. Energi aktivasi ingkang langkung inggil ngimplikasiaken manawi reaktan punika langkung mbetahaken kathah kanggé kawiwitan reaksi manawi reaksi ingkang berenergi aktivasi langkung cendhèk. * [[Temperatur]], ingkang ningkataken laju reaksi manawi dipunnaikaken, punika amargi témperatur ingkang inggil ningkaatken ènergi molekul, pramila ningkataken tumbukan antawis molekul per ékan wakdal. * Panggènan utawi ketiadaan [[katalis]]. Katalis inggih punika zat ingkang ngubah lintasan (mekanisme) suatu reaksi lan badhé ningkataken laju reaksi kaliyan nurunaken [[ènergi aktivasi]] ingkang dipunbetahaken supados reaksi saged kalampahan. Katalis boten dipunkonsumsi utawi kaewah selama reaksi, pramila punika saged dipun-ginakaken malih. * Kangge pinten-pinten reaksi, keberadaan [[radiasi èlèktromagnètik]], utamanipun [[ultraviolet]], dipunmbetahaken kanggé mutusaken ikatan ingkang dipunbetahaken supados reaksi saged wiwit. Utaminipun kadadosan ing reaksi ingkang ngelibataken [[radikal]]. Laju reaksi gegayutan kaliyan [[konsèntrasi]] zat-zat ingkang gegayutan ing reaksi. Gegayutan punika dipuntemtuaken déning [[persamaan laju]] saben reaksi. Kedhah dipun-gantos manawi pinten-pinten reaksi gadhah kelajuan ingkang ''boten gumantung'' ing konsèntrasi reaksi. punika dipunsebat dados reaksi orde nol. == Reaksi biokimia == [[Gambar:Induced fit diagram.svg|thumb|left|380px|Ilustrasi dari aktivitas enzim padha reaksi biokimia]] [[Biokimia|Reaksi biokimia]] ing limrahipun dipunkendaliaken déning [[enzim]]. [[Protein|Protein-protéin]] punika namung saged [[Katalisis enzim|mengkatalis]] satunggal jinis reaksi ingkang spesifik, pramila reaksinipun punika saged dipunkontrol. Reaksi punika kalangsungan ing [[sisih aktif]] saking substrat. Reaksi katalisasi enzim punika gumantung ing kathah prekawis, ing antawisipun inggih punika wujud enzimipun, jinis iketanipun, interaksi elektrostatik, kaawehan lan panampi proton (ing reaksi asem utawi basa), lan sanèsipun.<ref>Peter Karlson, Detlef Doenecke, Jan Koolman, Georg Fuchs, Wolfgang Gerok. ''Karlson Biochemistry and Pathobiochemistry,'' 16th edition, Georg Thieme, 2005, ISBN 978-3-13-357815-8, pp. 55–56</ref> Reaksi kimia ingkang kalangsungan ing salebeti salira makluk urip limrahipun ugu dipuntepang kaliyan sebatan [[metabolisme]]. Ing antawisipun sadaya reaksi-reaksi punika, reaksi ingkang wigatos inggih punika reaksi [[anabolisme]], ing pundhi [[DNA]] lan enzim-terkontrol memproses pembentukan [[protéin]] lan [[karbohidrat]] saking senyawa-senyawa ingkang langkung alit.<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=anabolism|file=A00314}}</ref> [[Bioenergitika]] nyinaoni sumber ènergi kanggé reaksi biokimia. Sumber ènergi ingkang wigati ing reaksi punika [[glukosa]], ingkang dipunproduksi tuwuhan nglampahi prosès [[fotosintesis]]. Sedaya organisme mbetahaken glukosa kanggé memproduksi [[adenosin trifosfat]] (ATP), ingkang dipun-ginakaken makhlukurip kanggé njalanaken aktivitaipun. == Penggunaan reaksi kimia == [[Gambar:Velp-thermitewelding-1.jpg|thumb|Reaksi termit digunakan dalam prosès pengelasan.]] Reaksi kimia punika asring dipun-ginakaken déning para ahli [[tèhnik kimia]] kanggé mensintesis senyawa énggal saking sumber daya alam mentah ing alam, kados ta [[lenga bumi]] lan bijih-bijih mineral. punika ingkang wigati kanggé ndamel reaksi ingkang seefisien, memaksimalkan kasil ingkang saged pikoleh lan meminimalkan reagen ingkang dipunagem, ènergi mlebet lan ènergi medhal. [[Katalis]] limrahipun dipun-ginakaken kanggé ngirangi ènergi aktivasi pramila ningkataken laju reaksinipun.<ref>Gerhard Emig, Elias Klemm. Technical Chemistry. 5th edition, Springer, 2005, ISBN 978-3-540-23452-4, pp. 33–34</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Trost|first1=B.|title=The atom economy—a search for synthetic efficiency|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1991-12-06_254_5037/page/1471|journal=Science|volume=254|pages=1471|year=1991|doi=10.1126/science.1962206|issue=5037|pmid=1962206}}</ref> Pinten-pinten reaksi ingkang spesifik gadhah ngginakaken ingkang mlipun. Tuladhané, reaksi [[termit]] dipundamel kanggé ngasilaken surya lan benter ing [[piroteknik]] lan [[pengelasan]]. Manawi reaksi punika langkung anggel dipunkontrol manawi reakai-reaksi sadèrèngipun, nanging piranti-piranti ingkang dipunbetahaken tebih langkung kedhik lan ngantos punika taksih dipun-ginakaken kanggé ngowahi jalur-jalur kereta api ing panggènan terpelosok.<ref>John J. McKetta, Guy E Weismantel [http://books.google.com/books?id=MfjDlUe8Kc0C&pg=PA109 Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design: Volume 67 – Water and Wastewater Treatment: Protective Coating Systems to Zeolite, Volume 67]{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, CRC Press, 1999 ISBN 0-8247-2618-9, p. 109</ref> == Ndelengen uga == * [[Reaksi organik]] * [[Reaksi kimia anorganik]] * [[Stoikiometri]] * [[Téyori keadaan transisi]] * [[Stoikiometri gas]] * [[Reaksi autokatalitik]] * [[Coefficients]] * [[Q values]] * [[Reaksi endoterm]] * [[Reaksi eksoterm]] == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Reaksi kimia| ]] gohq8dq63o11bix7pjmyahq33gsvqw5 Lelara Alzheimer 0 92689 1752972 1670931 2026-08-20T06:56:15Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752972 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Lelara Alzheimer|image=Brain-ALZH.png|caption=Diagram utak lumrah tinimbang utek tiyang kaserang Alzheimer|field=[[Neurologi]]|synonyms=|symptoms=[[Memory loss]], [[primary progressive aphasia|problems with language]], [[Orientation (mental)|disorientation]], [[mood swing]]|complications=[[Dehidrasi]] lan [[pneumonia]] ing tahap-tahap pungkasan|onset=65 warsa|duration=Jangka panjang|causes=Kirang dipunpangertos<ref name=Knopman2021 />|risks=[[Genetika]], [[benturan sirah]], [[depresi klinis]], [[hipertensi]],<ref name=Knopman2021 /> [[stres]],<ref name="Yu 1201–1209"/>|diagnosis=|differential=|prevention=|treatment=|medication=[[Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor]], [[NMDA receptor antagonist]]|prognosis=|frequency=|deaths=|named after=[[Alois Alzheimer]]}} '''Alzheimer''' minangka lelara neurodegeneratif ingkang wiwitanipun alon lan dados langkung parah wekdal lumampah.<ref name="WHO2023">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia|title=Dementia Fact sheet|date=15 March 2023|publisher=World Health Organization|access-date=10 July 2023}}</ref> Alzheimer nyumbang 60-70% kasus demensia.<ref name="WHO20232" /><ref name="Simon2018p111" /> Gejala awal ingkang paling umum saking lelara Alzheimer inggih punika kangelan ngelingi kedadosan ingkang nembe kalampahan. Minangka lelara punika maju, gejala saged kalebet masalah basa, disorientasi, owah-owahan swasana ati, kurang motivasi, nglirwakaken dhiri, lan masalah prilaku.<ref name="WHO20233" /> Tiyang ingkang kaserang lelara Alzheimer asring mundur saking kulawarga lan masyarakat minangka kondisi dados langkung parah.<ref name="BMJ20092">{{cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Alzheimer's disease|journal=BMJ|volume=338|pages=b158|doi=10.1136/bmj.b158|pmid=19196745|vauthors=Burns A, Iliffe S|s2cid=8570146}}</ref> Wekdal lumampah, lelara Alzheimer ngasilaken ilangipun fungsi badan lan pungkasanipun nyebabaken pati. Wekdal urip rata-rata sawise diagnosa lelara Alzheimer inggih punika tigang ngantos 9 taun, sanadyan punika saged beda-beda. Informasi punika kedah dipunanyari.<ref name="NEJM2010">{{cite journal|date=January 2010|title=Alzheimer's disease|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2010-01-28_362_4/page/329|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=362|issue=4|pages=329–344|doi=10.1056/NEJMra0909142|pmid=20107219|vauthors=Querfurth HW, LaFerla FM|s2cid=205115756}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=November 2013|title=Survival in dementia and predictors of mortality: a review|url=https://archive.org/details/international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_2013-11_28_11/page/1109|journal=International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry|volume=28|issue=11|pages=1109–1124|doi=10.1002/gps.3946|pmid=23526458|vauthors=Todd S, Barr S, Roberts M, Passmore AP|s2cid=25445595}}</ref> Sebabipun Alzheimer mboten dipunpangertos kaliyan sae.<ref name="BMJ20093" /> Nanging, lelara menika gadhah gandhengan kaliyan akèh faktor risiko lingkungan lan genetik.<ref name="NIA2021">{{cite web|url=https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/study-reveals-how-apoe4-gene-may-increase-risk-dementia|title=Study reveals how APOE4 gene may increase risk for dementia|date=16 March 2021|publisher=National Institute on Aging|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317180050/https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/study-reveals-how-apoe4-gene-may-increase-risk-dementia|archive-date=17 March 2021|access-date=17 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> Faktor risiko genetik ingkang paling ageng asalipun saking varian gen apolipoprotein E. Faktor risiko sanèsipun kanggé Alzheimer kalebet gadhah riwayat cidera sirah, depresi klinis, lan tekanan darah ingkang dhuwur. Prosesi majuning Alzheimer kalebet pembentukan plak amiloid, tangles neurofibrillary, lan ilangipun sambungan antaraneuron ing otak. Diagnosa kemungkinan Alzheimer dipun-ginakaken adhedhasar riwayat lelara lan tes kognitif, kanthi panggunaan pencitraan medis lan tes getih kanggé mbedakaken sebab sanèsipun. Gejala awal Alzheimer asring dipun-salahartèkaken minangka sepuhipun otak ingkang lumrah.<ref name="BMJ20094" /> Diagnosa pasti Alzheimer mbutuhaken pemeriksaan jaringan otak, ingkang namung saget dipunlaksanakaken sawisé tiwas. Ing wekdal punika, wonten sawetawis pilihan pengobatan kangge ngladosi gejala lelara demensia, nanging dereng wonten kang saged mandhegaken utawi mbalikaken progresi lelara punika. Kangge ngladosi gejala kanthi sementara, diet sehat, aktivitas fisik, lan kegiatan sosial dipunanggep migunani, saha saged mbantu nyuda resiko penurunan kognitif lan Alzheimer. Nanging, tiyang kang kaserang lelara punika saya suwe saya butuh pitulungan saking tiyang sanes, ingkang asring dados bebanten kangge para perawat. Bebanten kangge perawat punika saged kalebet tekanan sosial, psikologis, fisik, lan ekonomi.<ref name="Thom2007">{{cite journal|date=July 2007|title=Systematic review of information and support interventions for caregivers of people with dementia|journal=BMC Geriatrics|volume=7|pages=18|doi=10.1186/1471-2318-7-18|pmc=1951962|pmid=17662119|doi-access=free|vauthors=Thompson CA, Spilsbury K, Hall J, Birks Y, Barnes C, Adamson J}}</ref> Exercise programs may be beneficial with respect to [[activities of daily living]] and can potentially improve outcomes.<ref name="Forb2015">{{cite journal|date=April 2015|title=Exercise programs for people with dementia|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|type=Submitted manuscript|volume=132|issue=4|pages=CD006489|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006489.pub4|pmc=9426996|pmid=25874613|vauthors=Forbes D, Forbes SC, Blake CM, Thiessen EJ, Forbes S}}</ref> Program latihan fisik ugi dipunanggep migunani kangge mbantu aktivitas saben dinten lan potensial kangge ningkataken asil. Sanajan mangkono, panggunaan antipsikotik kangge ngladosi masalah prilaku utawi psikosis amargi demensia kadhang kala dipunanggep, nanging punika saged nambah resiko pati ingkang langkung awal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/ktt7/resources/non-guidance-lowdose-antipsychotics-in-people-with-dementia-pdf|title=Low-dose antipsychotics in people with dementia|publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205183329/https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/ktt7/resources/non-guidance-lowdose-antipsychotics-in-people-with-dementia-pdf|archive-date=5 December 2014|access-date=29 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm124830.htm|title=Information for Healthcare Professionals: Conventional Antipsychotics|date=16 June 2008|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129015823/https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/postmarketdrugsafetyinformationforpatientsandproviders/ucm124830.htm|archive-date=29 November 2014|access-date=29 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ing taun 2020, wonten kinten-kinten 50 yuta tiyang ing donya ingkang gesang kalihan lelara Alzheimer.<ref name="Breijyeh2020" /> Lelara menika asring wiwitanipun ing tiyang ingkang sampun langkung saking 65 warsa, nanging wonten ngantos 10% kasus ingkang minangka awal wiwitan, mangaruhi tiyang ingkang umuripun antawisipun 30 ngantos tengahan 60-an warsa.<ref name="NIA2019">{{cite web|url=https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet|title=Alzheimer's Disease Fact Sheet|publisher=National Institute on Aging|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124194838/https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet|archive-date=24 January 2021|access-date=25 January 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Mend2012">{{cite journal|date=November 2012|title=Early-onset Alzheimer's disease: nonamnestic subtypes and type 2 AD|journal=Archives of Medical Research|volume=43|issue=8|pages=677–685|doi=10.1016/j.arcmed.2012.11.009|pmc=3532551|pmid=23178565|vauthors=Mendez MF}}</ref> Kirang langkung 6% tiyang ingkang umuripun langkung saking 65 warsa kapangaruhan dening lelara Alzheimer, kanthi wanita langkung asring kapangaruhan tinimbang lanang. Lelara menika dipunjenengi miturut Alois Alzheimer, satunggiling psikiater lan patolog Jerman ingkang sepisanan njlentrehake ing taun 1906. Biaya global taunan kanggé lelara Alzheimer dipunkira-kira ngantos US$1 triliun. Alzheimer ugi dados sebab kaping pitu paling dhuwur saking pati ing Amerika Serikat.<ref name="NIA2023">{{cite web|url=https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet|title=Alzheimer's Disease Fact Sheet|publisher=National Institute on Aging|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323200727/https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet|archive-date=23 March 2022|access-date=23 March 2022|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Sitiran == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Lelara]] bynv9zv4zfioib7mpusn017qvfbkf1w Bivalvia 0 92765 1753010 1641101 2026-08-20T08:01:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753010 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} {{Taxobox | name = Bivalvia (kerang-kerangan) | fossil_range = [[Cambrian]]-Recent | image = Haeckel Acephala.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = "Acephala" dalam karya [[Ernst Haeckel]], ''[[Kunstformen der Natur]]'', 1904 | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Mollusca]] | classis = '''Bivalvia''' | classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Subklas]] | subdivision = lihat teks }} '''Bivalvia''' yaiku [[kelas (biologi)|kelas]] jinis [[moluska]] kang kagolong '''kerang-kerangan''': duwé sapasang [[thothok]] (jeneng "bivalvia" artiné thothok loro). jeneng liyané yaiku '''Lamellibranchia''', '''Pelecypoda''', utawa '''bivalva'''. Ning kelompok iki kaya ta [[kerang]], [[kupang]], [[remis]], [[kijing]], [[lokan]], [[simping]], [[tiram]], sarta [[kima]]; meski macemé akèh banget. Kerang-kerangan akèh manfaaté ing kauripané manungsa awit jaman purba. [[Daging]]é dipangan, dadi sumber [[protéin]]. Thothoké dimanfaataké dadi pacetan, [[kerajinan tangan]], bekal kubur, kanggo gantiné dhuwit nalika jaman biyèn. [[Mutiara]] dikasilaké déning tiram. Pemanfaatan [[modhèren]] uga ndadikaké kerang-kerangan dadi [[biofilter]] déning [[polusi|polutan]]. == Sistematika == Klasifikasi Newel (1965) kang didasaraké ngèlmu morfologi. Ana kelompok parafiletik, kaya ta Anomalodesmata. Ana uga sistematika alternatif didasaraké morfologi angsang saka Franc (1960) lan disebutaké ing rengrengan ngisor iki. Franc nggolongaké [[Septibranchia]] saklompok dhéwé, meski kanthi molekular malah nggawe Eulamellibranchia dadi parafiletik. <!-- Due to classification schemes using single organ systems to draw phylogenies, as well as numerous naming schemes, many conflicts have arisen. More recent systems combine multiple organ systems, fossil records, as well as molecular data to draw more robust phylogenies. The systematic layout presented here is according to Newell's 1965 classification based on hinge teeth morphology. There exists no robust phylogeny, and due to the plethora of [[fossil]] lineages, [[DNA sequence]] data is only of limited use should the [[subclass]]es turn out to be [[paraphyletic]]. The [[monophyly]] of the Anomalodesmata is especially disputed, but this is of less consequence as that group does not include higher-level prehistoric [[taxa]]. It is, however, currently accepted that Anomalodesmata resides within the subclass Heterodonta.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Invertebrate Biology |pages=271–324 |title=On bivalve phylogeny: a high-level analysis of the Bivalvia (Mollusca) based on combined morphology and DNA sequence data |last=Giribet |first=Gonzalo |coauthors=Ward Wheeler |volume=121 |issue=4 |year=2002 |doi=10.1111/j.1744-7410.2002.tb00132.x }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |journal=Zoologica Scripta |pages=587–606 |title=A molecular phylogeny of heterodont bivalves (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Heterodonta): new analyses of 18S and 28S rRNA genes |last=Taylor |first=John |coauthors=Suzanne Williams |volume=36 |issue=6 |year=2007 |doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2007.00299.x }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |pages=395-420 |title=Reconstructing the Anomalodesmata (Mollusca:Bivalvia): morphology and molecules |last=Harper |first=Elizabeth |coauthors=Hermann Dreyer and Gerhard Steiner |volume=148 |issue=3 |year=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00260.x }}</ref> --> Subkelas [[Palaeotaxodonta]] ([[Protobranchia]] miturut Franc) * [[Ordo (biologi)|Ordo]] [[Nuculoida]] Subkelas [[Cryptodonta]] ([[Protobranchia]] miturut Franc) * †[[Praecardioida]] * [[Solemyoida]] Subkelas [[Pteriomorphia]] (tiram, kupang, dll., [[Filibranchia]] miturut Franc) * [[Arcoida]] * †[[Cyrtodontoida]] * [[Mytiloida]] * [[Ostreoida]] – kagolong Pterioida * †[[Praecardioida]] * [[Pterioida]] Subkelas [[Paleoheterodonta]] ([[Eulamellibranchia]] miturut Franc) * †[[Trigonioida]] * [[Unionoida]] (jinis-jinis kupang air tawar) * †[[Modiomorpha]] Subkelas [[Heterodonta]] (tuladhané remis, lokan, lan kerang-kerang kang biyasa dikenal, [[Eulamellibranchia]] miturut Franc) * †[[Cycloconchidae]] * †[[Hippuritoida]] * †[[Lyrodesmatidae]] * [[Myoida]] * †[[Redoniidae]] * [[Veneroida]] Subkelas [[Anomalodesmata]] ([[Eulamellibranchia]] miturut Franc) * [[Pholadomyoida]] ==Strukturé Awak== thothoké loro nyambung amarga ana ligamen kang kuwat lan mulur, ligamen iku lumrahé mbukak terus nanging, manawa ana gangguan, ligamen mau bakal nutup. Ligamen mau bisa nutup amarga ana otot kang bantu owah, yaiku ning anterior lan posterior. Bakal ana garis konsentris kang sajajar, garis iki karan uga ''garis pertumbuhan'' kang nunjukaké kepriye ''pertumbuhané'' suwi utawa ora ana pertumbuhan. Garis iki berselangseling karo pita pertumbuhan kang nunjukaké pertumbuhan kang cepat. Tambah akèh pita pertumbuhan, umuré kéwan tambah tuwa. Cangkang kang tuwa dhéwé lumrahé paling kandhel, ana ing persendiaan jenengé ''umbo''. ning pérangan posterior thothok ana rong macem celah kang karan ''sifon''. Celah kang ana ing cedhaké anus dijenengi sifon, fungsiné kanggo ngetokaké lan nglebokaké banyu lan zat-zat sisa. Sawaliké sifon kang ana ing ngisoré sifon fungsiné kanggo nglebokaké oksigèn, banyu, lan panganan.<ref name="BSE">Buku sekolah elektronik {{cite book |last= Idun Kistinnah, Endang Sri Lestari|first= |authorlink= http://bse.depdiknas.go.id/|title= Biologi 1: Makluk Hidup dan Lingkungannya Untuk SMA/MA Kelas X|year= 2009|publisher= Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional|location= Jakarta|id= ISBN 978-979-068-129-3 (no. jilid lengkap) / ISBN 978-979-068-131-6 }}</ref> ===Cangkang Pelecypoda=== Cangkang Pelecypoda bagiané iku.<ref name="BSE" /> # '''Periostrakum''', Periostrakum lapisan paling njaba, diwangun saka [[zat kitin]] kang karan konkiolin fungsiné dadi pelindung. Manawa teles warnané biru tuwa, nanging manawa gaing warnané soklat. # '''Prisma''', ''Prisma'' lapisan tengah kang kasusun saka kristal kalsit. # '''Nakre''', ''Nakre'' karan uga lapisan induk mutiara kang kasusun saka lapisanlapisan tipis paralel lan kalsit (karbonat) kang katon mengkilat. # '''Mantel''', ''Mantel'' ana ing ngisoré nakreas kang kaya ta sèl-sèl nakreas (kang sekreté mbentuk lapisan nakreas lan mbentuk mutiara) jaringan ikat, lan sèl-sèl epitelium kang bersilia. ==Sistem Organ== Dimulai saka cangkem, kerongkongan, lambung, usus, lan anus. Cangkem lan anusé ana ing gronggongan mantel. Sistem ekskresiné ngunakaké sapasang nefridium kang fungsiné kaya ginjel. Sistem sarafé yaiku utek, simpul saraf kaki, lan simpul saraf otot. Sistem peredaran getihé kabuka, jantungé ana bilik lan ana rong serambi. Respirasiné migunakaké angsang.<ref name="BSE" /> ==Daur Hidup== Kéwan iki ana kang sipaté hermaprodit lan lumrahé kéwan iki duwé piranti kelamin kang kapisah. Nalika kawin ,piranti kelamin lanang bakal ngetokaké sperma ning banyu lan bakalé lumebu ing awaké kéwan wadon. Ovum kang nempel ning ruwang mantel, nuli netes lan metu larva kang karan [[glokidium]]. Larva iki bakalé metu saka awaké kéwan wadon liwat sifon metuné banyu, nuli larva mau bakal nempel ning angsang itawa sirip iwak lan larva mau bakal dibungkus karo lendir saka kulit iwak. Larva ini sifaté parasit nganti 3 minggu suwené. Sawisé gedhé, larva bakal ucul saka angsang utawa sirip iwak lan bakal urip bébas.<ref name="BSE" /> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} * Franc, A. (1960): Classe de Bivalves. ''In:'' Grassé, Pierre-Paul: ''Traite de Zoologie'' 5/II. * Newell, N.D. (1969): [Bivalvia systematics]. ''In:'' Moore, R.C.: ''Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology'' Part N. * {{cite journal |pages=1119–1127 |title=Bivalve Systematics During the 20th Century |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-paleontology_2001-11_75_6/page/1119 |author=Jay A. Schneider |volume=75 |issue=6 |date=November 2001 |doi=10.1666/0022-3360(2001)075<1119:BSDTC>2.0.CO;2 |journal=Journal of Paleontology }} == Pranala njaba == {{Commons category|Bivalvia}} * [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ Museum of Paleontology]-[[Palaeontology]] from the [[University of California, Berkeley]] * [http://www.wooster.edu/geology/Bioerosion/Bioerosion.html Bioerosion website at The College of Wooster] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202232618/http://www.wooster.edu/geology/Bioerosion/Bioerosion.html |date=2008-12-02 }} {{Animalia}} [[Kategori:Sato kéwan]] [[Kategori:Avertebrata]] [[Kategori:Heterotrof]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Moluska]] [[Kategori:Kerang-kerangan| ]] {{biologi-stub}} {{kéwan-stub}} r1175f020qm05i0l2tgzyghmefaf2kc Proteomika 0 92843 1752941 1462601 2026-08-20T05:26:36Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752941 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} [[Gambar:protéin pattern analyzer.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI), piranti yang digunakan untuk mempelajari protéin.]] '''Protèomika''' punika kajian kanthi molékular kaliyan sédaya [[protéin]] ingkang dipunhasilakén saking [[èksprèsi genetik|èksprèsi gen]] ing [[sèl (biologi)|sèl]], mliginipun ngenai struktur saha mupangatipun.<ref name="pmid9740045">{{cite journal |author=Anderson NL, Anderson NG |title=Proteome and proteomics: new technologies, new concepts, and new words |journal=Electrophoresis |volume=19 |issue=11 |pages=1853–61 |year=1998 |pmid=9740045 |doi=10.1002/elps.1150191103}}</ref><ref name="pmid10189717">{{cite journal |author=Blackstock WP, Weir MP |title=Proteomics: quantitative and physical mapping of cellular proteins |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-biotechnology_1999-03_17_3/page/121 |journal=Trends Biotechnol. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=121–7 |year=1999 |pmid=10189717| doi = 10.1016/S0167-7799(98)01245-1}}</ref> sadaya protéin ing salebeting sèl dados ''proteom''.<ref name="wilkins1996" /> Istilah ''proteomik'' ingkang wiwit dipuntepang ing taun 1997,ugi dipundamel dhedhasar analogi [[genetika]] kanggé ilmi kanggé pasianaon babagan [[gen]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=P. James |title=Protein identification in the post-genome era: the rapid rise of proteomics.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_quarterly-reviews-of-biophysics_1997-11_30_4/page/279 |journal=Quarterly reviews of biophysics|volume=30 |issue=4|pages=279–331 |year=1997 |pmid=9634650 |doi=10.1017/S0033583597003399}}</ref> kanggé istilah ''proteom'' piyambak, saking gabungan istilah protéin lan [[genom]] ingkang dipunkemukaaken déning [[Marc Wilkins]] ing taun [[1994]] ing wekdal, mendet gelar PhD.<ref name="wilkins1996">{{cite journal |author=Marc R. Wilkins, Christian Pasquali, Ron D. Appel, Keli Ou, Olivier Golaz, Jean-Charles Sanchez, Jun X. Yan, Andrew. A. Gooley, Graham Hughes, Ian Humphery-Smith, Keith L. Williams & Denis F. Hochstrasser|title=From Proteins to Proteomes: Large Scale Protein Identification by Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis and Arnino Acid Analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-biotechnology_1996-01_14_1/page/61|journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=61–65 |year=1996 |pmid=9636313 |doi=10.1038/nbt0196-61|accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref><ref>[http://www.babs.unsw.edu.au/directory.php?personnelID=12 UNSW Staff Bio: Professor Marc Wilkins]</ref> Salah satu piranti yang umumnya digunakan untuk ngèlmu ini ya iku ''matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization'' (MALDI).<ref name="Klopfleisch1">{{cite journal | author =Klopfleisch R, Gruber AD.| title = Increased expression of BRCA2 and RAD51 in lymph node metastases of canine mammary adenocarcinomas.| journal = Veterinary Pathology | volume = 46 | issue = 3 | pages =416–22 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19176491| doi=10.1354/vp.08-VP-0212-K-FL}}</ref> Pinten-pinten jinis métodhe sampun dirembaake kanggé pasinaon [[protéin]].<ref name="brock">{{cite book |author=Madigan MT |coauthors=Martinko JM, Dunlap PV, Clark DP |year=2009 |title= Brock Biology of Microorganisms Twelfth Edition |Publisher= Pearson Benjammin Cummings |Page= 357-358 }}</ref> dipunwiwiti ing abad 1, proteomika ngginakaken analisis 2D wujud gel elektroforesis poliakrilamida.<ref name="brock"/> kaliyan ngginakaken tèhnik punika, protéin ing sampel saged dipunkapisahaken, diindentifikasiaken ,saha dipunukur dhedhasar abot molekulipun.<ref name="brock"/> kaliyan ngginakaken analisis punika, pinten-pinten jinis protéin ingkang dipunkasilaken déning baktèri, kados ta ''[[Escherichia coli]]'',sampun kasil dipunpisahaken saha dipunpurifikasiaken.<ref name="brock"/> Teknologi sanès dipunrembaaken [[spektrometri massa]] ingkang asifat sensitif.<ref name="brock"/> Di samping itu, [[Kromatografi cair berperforma tinggi]] (HPLC) ugi saged dipun-ginakaken ing sampel diginaake ing kolom tekanan inggil saha protéin ingkang ngandut ing kaiket kaliyan [[matriks]] ingkang wonten.<ref name="brock"/> Karsinoma sèl transisional inggih punika jinis ingkang paling umum saking kanker kandung kemih lan kanker paling umum kaping sekawan ing AS sasampunipun kanker prostat, paru-paru, lan kolorektal.Kanker kandung kemih dipunpandang déning urolog minangka lelara kronis amergi frekuensi inggil kambuh, ingkang saged antawisipuna 20 lan 80% depencidng ing stadium tumor ing diagnosis lelara. Pasien ingkang sampun dipunrawat amargi kanker kandung kemih salajengipun nglakoni pemeriksaan cytoscopic berkala kanggé mantau kekambuhan lelara mungkin, nanging, punika prosedur invasif boten nyaman kanggé pasien lan panggènan beban ingkang berat ing layanan urolgy amergi jumlah penderita kanker kandung kemih lan frekuensi check-up ingkang limrahipun dipunlampahi manawi kaping pisan utawi kaping kalih saben taun. Proteomika, merdamel sami kaliyan Salvat Biotech, sampun ngidentifikasi sebuah panèl biomarker urin kanggé diagnosis kekambuhan kanker kandung kemih ing pasien ingkang sadèrèngipun dipunrawat amergi kaanan lan sampun ngembangaken test kit immunoassay kanggé penggunaan in vitro diagnostik. Produk punika kapérang sakingi array solusi berbasis manik ingkang kanthi bersamaan mengkuantifikasi penanda pinten-pinten protéin ing urin pasien lan saged dipun-ginakaken kanggé memperkirakan risiko kekambuhan lelara. Aji diagnostik Tes punika sampun dipuntetepaken nglampahi studi multi-center dipnlampahi ing [[Spanyol]] ingkang nglibataken partisipasi langkung saking 1.500 kunjungan pasien ing urolog antawis taun [[2008]] lan [[2009]]. Punika jumlah sampel ingkang dipunkempalaken lan dianalisis njamin analisis ingkang tepat saking kabetahan mengelompokkan tes lan memungkinkan evaluasi handal kegunaan klinis. Tes Proteomika badhé mbantu ing salebeting ngirangi kabetahan pemeriksaan cytoscopic nglampahi analisis prasaja urin. Tes kaliyan makaten manawarkan mupangatipun kanggé pasien, kaliyan nghindari pemeriksaan cytoscopic invasif, lan kanggé layanan urologi kaliyan ngirangi wekdal lan biaya ingkang kagayutan kaliyan pemantauan kekambuhan lelara ing pasien kanker kandung kemih. == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Spektrometri massa]] {{biologi-stub}} 2of2ymqi8fn26xxbpg0yqnlcxyqtdvk Xilem 0 93155 1753051 1748575 2026-08-20T09:06:45Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753051 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} [[Gambar:Stem-cross-section2.jpg|thumb|250px|Multiple cross sections of a flowering plant stem showing primary and secondary '''xylem''' and phloem<ref>[http://www.hydroponicist.com Winterborne J, 2005. ''Hydroponics - Indoor Horticulture'']</ref>]] [[Gambar:Leaf anatomy universal.svg|thumb|right|Schematic cross section of part of leaf, xylem shown as red circles at figure 8.]] '''Pembuluh kayu''' utawa '''xilèm''' (dari ''xylem'', dari [[basa Yunani]] kuna ''ξυλον'' / [[huruf latin|Lat.]] ''xylon'', ingkang tegesé "kayu") punika salah satunggaling saking kalih kelompok mliginipun jaringan pembuluh ingkang dipungadahi déning tanèman berpembuluh ([[Tracheophyta]]). Pembuluh kayugadahi fungsi nyalurkè zat bahan [[fotosintèsis]] saking [[oyot]] ing [[godong]]. Pembuluh kayu méénika saluran utami kanggé transportasi [[toya]] kaliyan sadaya substansi ingkang terlarut ing dalem saking [[oyot]] (saha ugi tukul tanéman sanès ingkang nyèrèp toya) nuju ing pérangan sanès tanéman, mliginipun [[godong]]. [[Kayu]] kabéntuk mliginipun saking kempalan pémbuluh kayu. Gerakan toya ing xilèèm asifat pasif amérgi xilèm kasusun saking sèl-sèl mati ingkang ngayu (ngélampahi [[lignin|lignifikasi]]), pramila xilèm botén gadhah peran ing prosès punika. Faktor penggerak utami inggih punika [[transpirasi]]. Faktor pembantu sanèsipun inggih punika [[tekanan osmosis|tekanan akar]] sebab wonten bènténipun [[potensial toya]] ing salèbeting jaringan oyot kaliyan ing ruang lemah ing sisih perakaran. Gaya [[kapilaritas]] namung bantu dorong toya gayuh ingkang inggil, nanging botèn bantu gèrak. Sèl-sèl xilèm gadhah pinten-pinten tipè inggih punika '''trakea''' (boten dipungadahi déning [[taneman paku]] lan [[tumbuhan berbiji kabuka]]), '''trakeida''', lan '''serabut trakeida'''. Sèl-sèl xilèm botén gadhah [[protoplasma]]. Ing sistem pembuluh kayu dipuntemuake [[parenkima]] kayu, ingkang ngisi ruang-ruang kosong ing antawis pembuluh saha bantu ngeleketake pembuluh-pembuluh mau. Trakea saged dipunsebat pembuluh ingkang sakjatosipun. sekempalan sel-sel ing [[dinding sel|dinding sel lateralnya]] nglampahi kekandelan kaliyan [[lignin]] (zat kayu) nanging pérangan pucuk inggil lan ngandapipun nglampahi perforasi (pelubangan) pramila gegayutan kaliyan sel-sel ingkang sejenis ing inggil saha andapipun bantuk pipa pipa kapiler dawa. Xylem betha toya saking dalem lemah ing sadaya otgan taneman lan dipundadosaken ènergi kanggé fotosintesis. == Unsur-unsur Xilem == # Unsur Trakeal kapérang saking trakea ingkang sel-selipun bentukipun tabung saha trakeid ingkang sel-selipun lancip dawa, dinding selipun lubang-lubang. # Serabut xilem punika saking sel-sel dawa lan pucuke ngeruncing. # Parenkim kayu isinipun pinten-pinten zat kados ta [[cadangan panganan]], [[tannin]] saha [[kristal]].<ref>[http://www.pustakasekolah.com/jaringan-xilem.html Jaringan Xilem]{{Pranala mati|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (dipununduh Tanggal 21 Oktober 2012)</ref> Xilem punika saking trakeid, trakea utawi pembuluh kayu, parenkim xilem, saha serabut utawa serat xilem. Adedasar bentukipun kapérang dados xilem primer lan xilem sekunder. Xilem primer asalipun saking [[prokambium]] nanging manawi xilem sekunder asalipun saking [[kambium]]. Adedasar prosès kabentukipun xilem primer saged dipunbentenaken dados [[proto xilem]] saha [[meta xilem]]. [[prota xilem]] inggih punika xilem primer ingkang kawiwit sampun dumadi nanging [[meta xilem]] dèrèng dumadi. [[prota xilem]] deferensiasi ing pérangan awak primer ingkang dèrèng rampung pertumbuhanipun lan diferensiasinipun.<ref>[http://www.scribd.com/doc/49188212/xilem-primer Xilem Primer] (dipununduh Tanggal 22 Oktober 2012)</ref> == Rujukan == * {{cite journal|author=C. Wei|author2=E. Steudle; M. T. Tyree & P. M. Lintilhac |title=The essentials of direct xylem pressure measurement |journal=Plant, Cell and Environment |date=May 2001|volume=24|issue=5|pages=549–555 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-3040.2001.00697.x}} is the main source used for the paragraph on recent research. * {{cite journal|author=N. Michele Holbrook |author2=Michael J. Burns, and Christopher B. Field |title=Negative Xylem Pressures in Plants: A Test of the Balancing Pressure Technique |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-11-17_270_5239/page/1193 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=270|issue=5239 |date=November 1995 |pages=1193–4 |doi=10.1126/science.270.5239.1193}} is the first published independent test showing the Scholander bomb actually does measure the tension in the xylem. * {{cite journal|author=Pockman, W.T.|author2=J.S. Sperry and J.W. O'Leary |title=Sustained and significant negative water pressure in xylem |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1995-12-14_378_6558/page/715|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=378|issue=6558|pages=715–6|date=December 1995|doi=10.1038/378715a0}} is the second published independent test showing the Scholander bomb actually does measure the tension in the xylem. * {{cite book|author=Campbell, Neil A.|author2=Jane B. Reece|year=2002|title=Biology|edition=6th|publisher=Benjamin Cummings|isbn=978-0805366242}} * {{cite book|author=Kenrick, Paul|author2=Crane, Peter R.|year=1997|title=The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study|location=Washington, D. C.|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|isbn=1-56098-730-8}} * {{cite journal|author=Muhammad, A.F.|author2=R. Sattler|year=1982|title=Vessel Structure of ''Gnetum'' and the Origin of Angiosperms|journal=American Journal of Botany|volume=69|pages=1004–21 | doi = 10.2307/2442898|issue=6|jstor=2442898|publisher=Botanical Society of America}} * {{cite book|author=Melvin T. Tyree |author2=Martin H. Zimmermann|title=Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap|edition=2nd|isbn=3-540-43354-6|publisher=Springer|year=2003}} recent update of the classic book on xylem transport by the late Martin Zimmermann == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Jaringan]] {{botani-stub}} m2mtc7xk3kv64nkeyqg6kv0am5aryyi Craniata 0 93677 1752857 1547819 2026-08-20T03:23:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752857 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Craniata | fossil_range = {{fossil range|542|0|[[Kambrium Wiwitan]] - saiki}} | image = Pacific hagfish Myxine.jpg | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | unranked_classis = '''Craniata''' | unranked_classis_authority = [[Linnaeus]] 1758 | subdivision_ranks = [[Subfilum]] | subdivision = [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] <small>(diperdebatkan)</small>{{br}} [[Myxini]]{{br}} [[Vertebrata]] }} '''Craniata''' utawa '''Craniota''' yaiku [[klad]] kang diusulaké kanggo kabehé [[Chordata]] kang kagolong vertebrata ([[subfilum]] [[Vertebrata]]) lan [[remang]] (Myxini) dadi wakil ning uripé. Craniata, miturut jenengé iku, golongané kaya ta kéwan kang duwé ''cranium'' utawa [[tengkorak]]. Craniata yaiku suatu [[takson]] ora duwé rengking anggoné nggantikaké pangerten lawas Vertebrata. Anané kelompok iki Craniata, Vertebrata iki kejaba Myxini lan ''[[Cephalaspidomorphi]]'' kang dianggep ora duwé [[balung belakang]] (''vertebrae'') sajati. Ciri-ciri liyané Craniata yaiku duwé rong pérangan [[jantung]] ([[atrium]] lan [[ventrikel]]), telung pérangan [[polo]], sarta paling ora ana saji [[kanal semisirkular]]. == Waca Uga == * {{cite book | author = Cleveland P. Hickman, J., Roberts, L. S., Keen, S. L., Larson, A. & Eisenhour, D. J. | title = Animal Diversity, Fourth Edition | location = New York | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = [[2007]] }} * {{cite journal | author = Delarbre ''et al'' | date = 2002 | title = Complete Mitochondrial DNA of the Hagfish, Eptatretus burgeri: The Comparative Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA Sequences Strongly Supports the Cyclostome Monophyly | url = https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2002-02_22_2/page/184 | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 184-192 }} {{Animalia}} [[Kategori:Chordata]] {{kewan-stub}} 6xmlm1926236qp3h9fuz9rvpfa3j8r9 Alkana 0 93724 1752899 1751397 2026-08-20T04:34:20Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752899 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Methane-2D-stereo.svg|right|thumb|Struktur kimia saka [[metana]], alkana kang paling prasaja]] '''Alkana''' wujud hidrokarbon alifatik [[jenuh]] ya iku [[hidrokarbon]] kanthi ranté kabukak lan kabèh reroncèn antarané [[atom]] karboné wujud roncèn tunggal. Rumus alkana yaiiku: ''C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub>'' ing ngendi n = gunggung atom C.<ref name="internet1">[http://sahri.ohlog.com/alkana.oh84961.htmlAlkana Alkana ing sahri.ohlog.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304222413/http://sahri.ohlog.com/alkana.oh84961.htmlAlkana |date=2016-03-04 }}, (Kaunduh 2/11/12).</ref> == Dhèrèt homolog alkana == Ya iku golongan utawa golongan [[senyawa]] karbon kanthi rumus umum kang padha, duwé sipat kang mèh padha lan antar suku-suku urutané duwé béda [[CH<sub>2</sub>]]. Sipat-sipat dhèrèt homolog: * duwé sipat-sipat kimia kang mèh padha * duwé rumus umum kang padha * bédané [[Massa molekul relatif|Mr]] antara 2 suku urutané gedhéné 14 * selot dawa [[ranté karbon]], selot dhuwur titik umobé.<ref name="internet1"/> == Isomèr alkana == Alkana duwé rumus molekul padha, nanging rumus struktur béda.<ref name="internet1"/> CH<sub>4</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>, C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> ora nduwéni [[isomer]].<ref name="internet1"/> == Tata jeneng alkana == Adhedhasar aturan saka [[IUPAC]]: * Jeneng alkana ngepang kasusun saka 2 pérangan: # pérangan pisanan (ing pérangan ngarep) wujud jeneng pang # pérangan kapindho (pérangan mburi) wujud jeneng ranté indhuk * Ranté indhuk ya iku ranté paling dawa sajeroning molekul. Yèn ana 2 utawa luwih ranté paling dawa, mula kudu dipilih kang duwé pang paling akèh. Indhuk dijenengi alkana jumbuh karo dawané ranté. * Pang dijenengi [[alkil]] ya iku jeneng alkana kang jumbuh, anaging kanthi ngganti akiré [[-ana]] dadi [[-il]]. Gugus alkil duwé rumus umum: C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+1</sub> lan dilambangaké kanthi [[R]] * Posisi pang dinyatakaké kanti awalan angka. Mula saka iku ranté indhuk perlu dinomeri. panomeran diwiwiti saka salah 1 pucuk ranté indhuk saéngga posisi pang olèh nomer paling cilik. * Yèn ana 2 utawa luwih pang sajenis , kudu dinyatakaké kanthi awalan ''di'', ''tri'', ''tetra'', ''penta''. * Pang-pang kang béda disusun selaras karo urutan abjad saka jeneng mau. Awalan normal, sekundhèr lan tèrsièr diluwèhaké. Dadi [[n-butil]], [[sek-butil]] lan [[ters-butil]] dianggep awalan [[b-]]. Awalan [[bisa-]] ora dilalèkaké. dadi [[isopropil]] awalé kanthi hurup [[i-]]. Awalan normal, sekundhèr lan tèrsièr kudu ditulis kanthi hurup cithak miring * Yèn panomeran [[ekivalen]] saka pucuk ranté indhuk, mula kudu dipilih saéngga pang kang kudu ditulis dhisik éntuk nomer cilik.<ref name="internet1"/> == Sipat-sipat alkana == # Arupa senyawa [[nonpolar]], saéngga ora larut ing [[banyu]] # Tansaya akèh [[atom C]] (ranténé tansaya dawa), mula titik umobé uga tansaya dhuwur. # Ing tekanan lan suhu biyasa, [[CH<sub>4</sub> - C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>]] awujud [[gas]], [[C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> - C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>36</sub>]] awujud cuwèr, sak dhuwuré [[C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub>]] awujud padhet. # Gampang ngalami [[reaksi subtitusi]] karo atom-[[atom halogen]] ([[F<sub>2</sub>]], [[Cl<sub>2</sub>]], [[Br<sub>2</sub>]] utawa [[I<sub>2</sub>]]) # Isa ngalami [[oksidasi]] (réaksi pangobongan).<ref name="internet1"/> == Alkana ana ing alam semesta == [[Gambar:Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|[[Metana]] lan [[etana]] wujud salah sijiné komponèn cilik saka atmosfèr [[Yupiter]].]] [[Metana]] lan [[etana]] wujud salah siji komponèn cilik saka atmosfèr [[Yupiter]]. Èkstraksi saka lenga bumi, kang ngandhung akèh komponèn hidrokarbon, kalebu alkana. Alkana wujud senyawa kang ana ing pérangan cilik saka atsmofèr sapérangan [[planit]] kaya ta Yupiter (0.1% metana, 0.0002% etana), [[Saturnus]] (0.2% metana, 0.0005% etana), [[Uranus]] (1.99% metana, 0.00025% etana) lan [[Neptunus]] (1.5% metana, 1.5 ppm etana). [[Titan]] (1.6% metana), salah sijiné satelit saka saturnus, sawisé ditliti déning [[Huygens]] yèn atmosfèr Titan ngedhunaké udan metana kanthi périodhik marang lumahing [[rembulan]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050124004404/http://www.planetary.org/news/2005/huygens_science-results_0121.html Titan: Arizona in an Icebox? huygens_science-results], Alkana ing www.planetary.org, dhokumèn awujud pdf (kaundhuh 7/11/12)</ref> Ing Titan uga dikawruhi ana salah sijiné gunung kang nyemburaké gas metana, lan saka semburan gunung iki njalari akèhé metana ing atsmosfèr Titan. Saliyané iku, katemokaké déning radhar cassini, kétok uga ana sapérangan tlaga metana utawa etana ing saubengé [[Kutub Lor]] saka Titan. Metana lan etana uga dikawruhi ana ing pérangan buntut saka [[komèt Hyakutake]]. Analisis kimia nuduhaké yèn akèhé etana lan metana mèh padha akèhé, lan kabèh iku nuduhaké yèn ès metana lan etana iki kadhapur ing antarané ruwang antar [[lintang]].<ref name="science">{{cite journal | author=Mumma, M.J. | title=Detection of Abundant Ethane and Methane, Along with Carbon Monoxide and Water, in Comet C/1996 B2 Hyakutake: Evidence for Interstellar Origin | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1996-05-31_272_5266/page/1310 | journal=Science | year=1996 | volume=272 | page=1310 | doi=10.1126/science.272.5266.1310 | pmid=8650540 | coauthors = Disanti, M.A., dello Russo, N., Fomenkova, M., Magee-Sauer, K., Kaminski, C.D., and D.X. Xie | issue=5266 | bibcode=1996Sci...272.1310M}}</ref> == Mupangat alkana == Alkana wujud komponèn utama saka [[gas alam]] lan [[lenga bumi]]. Mupangat alkana ya iku: # bahan bakar # pelarut # sumber hidrogèn # pelumas # bahan baku kanggo senyawa organik liya # bahan baku [[indhustri]].<ref name="internet1"/> == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Kimiya]] 8k6ndo2r020u8fcrz6sdhd244q20a3i Allan Hills 84001 0 93954 1752879 1639946 2026-08-20T04:01:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752879 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Meteorite |Name= Allan Hills 84001 |Image= ALH84001.jpg |Image_caption= Pecahan meteorit ALH 84001 |Image_width= |Type= [[Akondrit]] |Class= [[Meteorit Mars]] |Group= ALH 84001 |Structural_classification= |Composition= |Shock= B |Weathering= A/B |Country= [[Antarktika]] |Region= [[Allan Hills]] |Lat_Long= {{Coord|76|55|13|S|156|46|25|E|display=inline,title}}<ref name=database /> |Observed_fall= No |Fall_date= |Found_date= 1984 |TKW= 1930.9 [[gram|g]] |Image2= |Image2_caption= }} [[Gambar:ALH84001 structures.jpg|thumb|230px|left|Mikrograf elektron kang ditemuni ning meteor [[ALH84001]] kang nunjukaké anané struktur kang dinuga dadi baktèri.]] '''Allan Hills 84001''' (racaké disingkat '''ALH 84001'''<ref name=database>{{cite web|url=http://tin.er.usgs.gov/meteor/metbull.php?sea=alh+84001&sfor=names&ants=&falls=&stype=contains&lrec=50&map=ge&browse=&country=All&srt=name&categ=All&mblist=All&phot=&snew=0&pnt=no&code=604|title=Meteoritical Bulletin Database: Allan Hills 84001}}</ref>) ya iku [[meteorit]] kang tinemu ning [[Allan Hills]], [[Antarktika]], nalika tanggal 27 Dhésèmber 1984 déning kelompok pencari meteorit [[Amérikah Sarékat]] saka proyek [[ANSMET]]. ALH 84001 dinuga saka planit [[Mars]]. Nalika tinemu, meteorit iki duwé massa (aboté) 1.93&nbsp;[[kilogram|kg]]. Ning taun 1996, [[NASA]] nyimpulaké manawa bisa waé meteorit iki ngandhut baktèri saka Mars. Wolung taun sawisé iku, NASA mbiwara wara-wara penemuné baktèri asing kang ana ing lumah meteorit mau.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1231052/Fossilised-remains-Martians-meteorite-landed-Earth-13-000-years-ago.html Fossils of Martian bugs found on meteorite that landed on Earth 13,000 years ago], Mail Online, diakses 7 Juni 2010.</ref> Babagan iki esih dadi masalah, amarga ilmuwan liyané nuduh batu meteor mau wis ''terkontaminasi''. Watu iki dikira-kira ngalami kristalisasi saka wewatuan cair kang wis ana kira-kira 4,1 miliar taun mbiyen.<ref name="age3">{{cite journal |last=Lapen |first=T. J. |coauthors=et al. |year=2010 |title=A Younger Age for ALH84001 and Its Geochemical Link to Shergottite Sources in Mars |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2010-04-16_328_5976/page/347 |journal=[[Science (magazine)|Science]] |volume=328 |issue=5976 |pages=347–351 |doi=10.1126/science.1185395 }}</ref> Allan Hills 84001 dikira-kira asalé saka planit Mars nalika masané mars lagi ''"teles"''. Nalika sasi September 2005, [[Vicky Hamilton]] saka ''[[University of Hawaii at Manoa]]'' njlèntrèhaké analisis babagan asal usul ALH 84001 karo nggunakaké data saka ''[[Mars Global Surveyor]]'' lan ''[[Mars Odyssey]]''. Miturut analisis mau, [[Eos Chasma]] ning lembah [[Valles Marineris]] iku asalé meteorit mau.<ref name="location">[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn8004 Birthplace of famous Mars meteorite pinpointed]. ''[[New Scientist]]'' article. Diakses padha 18 Maret 2006.</ref> Nanging, analisis mau ora nyakinaké. == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} == Rujukan == * Mittlefehldt D. W. (1994) [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lpi/meteorites/mitm96.html "ALH84001, a cumulate orthopyroxenite member of the SNC meteorite group"]. Meteoritics, 29, 214-221. URL accessed March 18, 2006. * Stephan T., Jessberger E. K., Heiss C. H. and Rost D. (2003) [http://www.uni-muenster.de/Planetologie/en/members/stephan/Stephan_MAPS38_109.html "TOF-SIMS analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Allan Hills 84001"]. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 38, 109–116. {{Refend}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/alh.html NASA - The ALH 84001 Meteorite] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704123638/http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/alh.html |date=2008-07-04 }} * [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lpi/meteorites/alhnpap.html Allan Treiman's dissection of ALH84001 literature for the non-specialist] [[Kategori:Astrobiologi]] [[Kategori:Kehidupan ekstraterestrial]] [[Kategori:Mars]] {{stub}} 5ro6sttyb2qu5htccao9xn2s1t89gvu Swami Vivekananda 0 93997 1752848 1732130 2026-08-20T01:04:53Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752848 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} {{Infobox_Person | name=Swami Vivekananda | image = Swami_Vivekananda_1893_Scanned_Image.jpg| caption = <!-- Write caption in your language please-->| date_of_birth= [[12 Januari]] [[1863]]| place_of_birth= [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]| date_of_death= [[4 Juli]] [[1902]]| place_of_death= [[Belur Math]] dekat [[Kolkata]] }} [[Gambar:Vivekananda Sig.jpg|rahmenlos|280 px|right]] {{commonscat|Swami Vivekananda}} '''Swami Vivekananda''' (basa [[Bengali]]: [[Shami Bibekanondo]]) ([[12 Januari, 1863 – 4 Juli, 1902]]), dilahéraké kanthi jeneng [[Narendranath Dutta]] (Nôrendronath Dotto), ya iku tokoh sajeroning [[sajarah Hindhu]], [[India]] lan pamikir [[Timur]] ([[orientalis]]) kang ana ing Kulon. Dhèwèké ya iku seduluré [[Shri Bhupendranath Dutt]], [[revolusioner]] ing India.<ref name="internet"/> Vivekananda wujud pribadi kang dikenal donya minangka pemimpin spiritual kang duwé pangribawa gedhé saka ajaran [[Vedanta]] lan [[Yoga]]. Dèwèké ya iku [[Swami]] Hindhu pertama kang teka ing Barat, kanggo ngenalkan Hindhu, Yoga lan Vedanta ing ''World's Parliament of Religions'', sahubungan karo dianakake ''[[World's Fair]]'' ing [[Chicago]] ing [[taun 1893]]. Ing kono jenenge wiwit terkenel, seantero [[Chicago]], banjur ing sekabehane Amérika.<ref name="internet">[http://www.hindu-dharma.org/tag/swami-vivekananda/ swami-vivekananda], (Kaunduh 7/11/12).</ref> == Latar Belakang == dhèwèké ya iku pemimpin saka para siswa kang golèk ngèlmu ing [[Ramakrishna Paramahamsa]] lan uga pendiri saka [[Ramakrishna Mission]] == Buku-buku == * ''The complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' ISBN 81-85301-46-8 * ''Jnana Yoga'' olèh Swami Vivekananda ISBN 0-911206-21-3 * ''[[Raja Yoga (buku)|Raja Yoga]]'' déning Swami Vivekananda ISBN 0-911206-23-X * ''Karma Yoga and Bhakti Yoga'' déning Swami Vivekananda ISBN 0-911206-22-1 * ''Life of Vivekananda'' déning [[Romain Rolland]] ISBN 81-85301-01-8 * ''Vivekananda: A Biography'' déning Swami Nikhilananda ISBN 0-911206-25-6 * ''The life of Swami Vivekananda'' déning murid-muridnya di timur dan barat ISBN 81-7505-044-6 * ''Swami Vivekananda: A Reassessment'' déning Narasingha P. Sil ISBN 0-945636-97-0 * ''The Master As I Saw Him'' déning [[Sister Nivedita]] * ''Notes of Some Wanderings With the Swami Vivekananda'' déning [[Sister Nivedita]] * ''Swami Vivekananda in the West: New Discoveries'' déning [[Marie Lousie Burke]] * ''Comprehensive Biography of Swami Vivekananda'' déning Shailendranath Dhar * ''A Short Life of Swami Vivekananda'' déning [[Swami Tejasananda]] * ''Vivekananda, World Teacher: His Teachings on the Spiritual Unity of Humankind" déning [[Swami Adiswarananda]] * ''Swami Vivekananda Natun Tathya Natun Alo'' déning Shankari Prasad Basu * ''Vivekananda Charit'' déning Satyendranath Majumder * ''Reminiscences of Swami Vivekananda'' ISBN 81-85301-17-4, diterbitkan déning Swami Mumukshananda, Advaita Ashrama, www.advaitaonline.com * ''Letters of Swami Vivekananda'' ISBN 81-7505-062-4 Advaita Ashrama * ''Vivekananda: The Great Spiritual Teacher olèh A Compilation'' ISBN 81-7505-147-7 * ''Teachings of Swami Vivekananda'' ISBN 81-85301-87-5 * ''Inspired Talks olèh Swami Vivekananda'' ISBN 0-911206-24-8 == Liya-liyané == [[Sorban]] kang dikenggo déning Vivekananda diyakini berkat anjuran saka [[Maharaja Khetri]]. Nanging pira-pira nimpuna sajarah lan peneliti duwé pinemu yèn Vivekananda pernah nekani [[Swamithope Pathi]] saksuwiné kunjungané ana ing [[Kanyakumari]] ya iku ing Dhésèmber 1892 lan meyakini yèn dèwèké gumun karo prinsip ing sewalike ritual keagamaan saka keyakinan [[monistic]] mau,<ref>R.Shanmugam's, Nadar Kulathil Narayanar Avataram, Nadar Kuladeepam Publications, 2001, Page:215, ""</ref> Kang ngendi kaum monistic nganggo sejenis tali sirah sajrone ngleksanaake pemujaan ing [[kuil]], ing ngarep kacalan sak panunggale, lan Vivekananda wiwit nganggo sorban nalika iku.<ref>[http://www.vaikunt.org/AyyaVaikuntar/ AyyaVaikuntar]-"Also from the later history, when Swami Vivekananda came to Kanyakumari, He visited Swamythoppu temple when he heard about Lord Vaikunta. From that time he started wearing a turban on his head all the time."</ref> Pira-pira wong nganggep yèn Vivekananda nampa pencerahan spiritual saka [[Ayya Vaikundar]].<ref>Dr. Poulose in his book ''Advaita Philosophy of Brahmashri Chattampi Swamikal'' ([[Ayyavazhi Publications]]), says that Atmanada Swamikal was the disciple of [[Ayya Vaikundar]] and Atmanada Swamikal learned the Marmavidya in Sidha vidya and ghecherividya (Chinmudra) from Ayya Vaikundar and Atmanada Swamikal further taught all these vidyas to his disciple, Sri [[Chattampi Swamikal]]. The book also says that when Swami Vivekananda arrived in Ernakulam, Sri Chattampi Swamikal taught this Chinmudra to him.</ref> Nanging kabèh iki ora ketulis ana ing karyané lan biografine. Ana uga kang ngomongake yèn ing mangsa dhèwèké seneng karo sorban kang dienggo déning tukang kreta, kang ngangkud bapakne mangkat kerja saben dinane. == Trivia == * Swami Vivekananda ya iku wong India pertama kang diundang supaya njabat profesor ''Filsafat Oriental'' di [[Universitas Harvard]]. * India ngrayakake ''National Youth Day'' ing dina laire. * ''Vivekananda Vidyapith Academy of Indian Philosophy and Culture'' di [[New Jersey]], [[Amérikah Sarékat]], dijikuk saka jenenge. * ''The Swami Vivekananda International Convention Centre'', dibangun ing April 2005 di [[Pailes]], [[Mauritius]], uga nganggo jenenge. == Pranala njaba == {{commons|Swami Vivekananda}} * [http://www.vivekananda.net Data biografi lengkap, kalebu karya-karyanya, semua foto, surat, laporan surat kabar, penemuan baru, dll., diteliti dan disusun oleh pakar Vivekananda terkemuka, Frank Parlato Jr.] * [http://www.advaitaashrama.org Advaita Ashrama] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001181054/https://advaitaashrama.org/ |date=2019-10-01 }} * [http://belurmath.org/swamivivekananda.htm lebih jauh tentang Swami Vivekananda pada www.belurmath.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127215922/http://www.belurmath.org/swamivivekananda.htm |date=2007-01-27 }} * [http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info Karya lengkap Swami Vivekananda online] * [http://www.vivekananda.org/biography.asp Biografi Vivekananda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515051503/http://vivekananda.org/biography.asp |date=2008-05-15 }} * [http://sriramakrishnamath.org/magazine/vk/2006/07-3-2.asp Swami Vivekananda, tokoh pendidikan Par Excellence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822211118/http://www.sriramakrishnamath.org/magazine/vk/2006/07-3-2.asp |date=2006-08-22 }} * [http://www.sriramakrishnamath.org/home.asp Sri Ramakrishna Math.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310014757/http://www.sriramakrishnamath.org/home.asp |date=2007-03-10 }} * [http://www.writespirit.net/authors/swami_vivekananda/ Swami Vivekananda ]-Biografi, Ceramah dan Kutipan dari Vivekananda * [http://www.sriramakrishnamath.org/books/elist.asp?ProductType=MA03 Daftar buku tentang dan oleh Swami Vivekananda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020094629/http://www.sriramakrishnamath.org/books/elist.asp?ProductType=MA03 |date=2006-10-20 }} * [http://www.poetseers.org/the_poetseers/vivekananda/vivekanandas_poetry/ Puisi Swami Vivekananda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614132509/http://www.poetseers.org/the_poetseers/vivekananda/vivekanandas_poetry/ |date=2012-06-14 }} * [http://www.angelfire.com/me2/sutras/sv.html Pilihan kutipan dari Swami Vivekananda] * [http://www.rkmathnagpur.org/swami_vivekananda/story_sv.htm Biografi yang sangat menghormati Swami Vivekananda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721030946/http://www.rkmathnagpur.org/swami_vivekananda/story_sv.htm |date=2012-07-21 }} * [http://www.vedanta.org/rko/vivekananda/sv_bio.html Catatan kronoologis Swami Vivekananda di Barat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204002513/http://www.vedanta.org/rko/vivekananda/sv_bio.html |date=2008-12-04 }} * [http://www.vedanta.org/photos/pages/V/vivekananda_1.html Foto-foto Swami Vivekananda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060703002808/http://www.vedanta.org/photos/pages/V/vivekananda_1.html |date=2006-07-03 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061118142117/http://www.btinternet.com/~vivekananda/ Pranala tentang Swami Vivekananda ] * [http://www.vivekanandagospel.org Vivekananda--Pesannya tentang pembentukan manusia] * [http://www.voi.org/books/hhce/Ch13.htm Swami Vivekananda dan Kekristenan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060511202957/http://www.voi.org/books/hhce/Ch13.htm |date=2006-05-11 }} Artikel olèh [[Sita Ram Goel]] * {{tr}} [http://www.neo-vedanta-ve-vivekananda.agniyuga.com/NVeV_SWAMI_VIVEKANANDA.as Swami Vivekananda]{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.theuniversalwisdom.org/category/speakers/swami-vivekananda/ 3 pidato terkenal Swami Vivekananda pada Parlemen Agama Dunia pada 1893]-versi teks dan audio. * Grotz, Toby, "[http://arizonaenergy.org/CommunityEnergy/INFLUENCE%20OF%20VEDIC%20ON%20TESLA'S%20UNDERSTANDING%20OF%20FREE%20ENERGY.htm The Influence of Vedic Philosophy on Nikola Tesla's Understanding of Free Energy]". == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Hindhu India]] [[Kategori:Lair 1863]] swz525vx6qpcdl19pird0203oeuzfjh Olahan Malagasi 0 94076 1752858 1647097 2026-08-20T03:26:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752858 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Achards de mangue et citron lemon mango achar Madagascar.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Acar lemon dan mangga (achards) menemani makanan tradhisional di wewengkon pasisir barat laut Madagaskar.<ref name = achards/>]] [[Gambar:LocationMadagascar.svg|thumb|Lokasi [[Madagaskar]], [[négara pulau]] di timur pérangan selatan Afrika [[Pratélan pulau menurut luas wewengkon|pulau terbesar keempat di donya]]]] '''Masakan Malagasi''' angliputi pintén-pintén tradisi kulinèr ingkang anèka warni inggih punika [[Samudèra Hindia]] ing pulau [[Madagaskar]]. panganan ingkang dipunmadhang ing Madagaskar nyerminaken prabawa [[Asia Tenggara]], [[Afrika]], [[India]], [[Cina]] lan pendatang [[Èropa]] ingkang sampun netep ing pulau punika ing wiwit dipunhuni kaliyan pelaut saking Borneo antawis 100 M lan 500 M. Beras, babagan ingkang wigati ing pola makan Malagasi, dipunbudidayakaken sami kaliyan [[umbi|umbi-umbian]] lan kabetahan pokok saking Asia Tenggara sanèsipun kaliyan para pemukim awal. Pola madhang punika dipunsertai kaliyan madosi madhang lan mbeburu kéwan buruan, ingkang maringi kontribusi ing kepunahan [[burung|burung-burung]] ing pulau mau lan mamalia [[megafauna|raksasa]]. Sumber-sumber panganan punika lajeng dipunjangkepi kaliyan daging sapi ing wujud Zebu ingkang dipuntepangaken ing Madagaskar kaliyan para migran Afrika Timur ingkang tiba antawis 1.000 Masehi. Perdagangan kaliyan pedagang Arab lan India lan pedagang transatlantik [[Éropah]] nyugehake tradisi kuliner ing pulau punika kaliyan dipuntepangaken kathah sayuran, woh-wohan lan bumbu énggal. Nyaris ing sadaya pulau, masakan kontemporer Madagaskar limrahipun saking bahan dhasar beras ingkang dipunsajiaken kaliyan panganan sampingan, ing dhialèk resmi basa Malagasi, sekul mau ''vary'' ({{IPA-mg|ˈvarʲ|}}), lan pendampingan punika ''laoka'' ({{IPA-mg|ˈlokə̥|}}). kathah jinis laoka ingkang manawi vegetarian utawi kalebet protéin hewani, lan limrahipun dipunjangkepi kaliyan saus ingkang dipunbumbui kaliyan bahan kados ta [[jahe]], [[bawang merah]], [[bawang putih]], [[tomat]], [[vanila]], [[garam]], [[bubuk kari]], utawi ingkang langkung boten asrimg kados ta bumbon crakèn sanès utawi taneman sanès. ing pérangan kidul utawi lor ingkang garing, kulawarga pastoral saged gantos beras kaliyan [[jagung]], [[singkong]], utawi [[dadih]] ingkang mau saking fermentasi susu Zebu. pinten-pinten macem kue legi lan gurih sarta panganan jalanan sanèsipun kasedia ing sadaya pulau, kados ta woh-wohan tropis ing iklim ingkang sedeng ingkang aneka warni. Ombenan ingkang diprodhuksi kanthi lokal kalebet jus buah, [[kopi]], [[teh herbal]] lan [[teh ireng|ireng]], lan ombenan beralkohol kados ta [[rum]], [[anggur (minuman)|anggur]] lan [[bir]]. Pinten-pinteni hidangan dipunmadhang ing Madagaskar ing abad ke-21 nawaraken pemahaman ing salebeting sajarah unik pulau punika lan keragaman masarakat ingkang dipunenggeni dinten punika. Kompleksitas panganan Malagasi saking olahan tradhisional ingkang prasaja ingkang dipuntepangaken kaliyan para pemukim awal, kaliyan piring festival ingkang alus dipuncaosaken kanggé raja pulau punika ing [[abad kaping 19]]. nanging madhang Malagasi klasik inggih punika beras lan pendampingnya ingkang ajeg dominan, langkung saking 100 taun pungkasan jinis panganan sanès tukul lan kombinasi ingkang dipunmisuhuraken kaliyan penjajah [[Perancis]] lan imigran saking [[Cina]] dan [[India]]. == Sajarah == === Sebelum taun 1650 === [[Gambar:Ambositra 04.jpg|right|240px|thumb|alt = Terraced rice paddies |Berteras, [[sawah]] [[irigasi]] muncul di dataran tinggi tengah sakiwa-tengené taun 1600 Masehi.<ref name=autogenerated4/>]] Pelaut [[Austronesia]] dipunyakini sampun dados tiyang ingkang wiwiti ingkang netep ing pulau punika tiba antawis taun [[100]] lan [[500]] Masehi.<ref name = Gade105>Gade (1996), p. 105</ref> Dalam cadik kano punika mbeta panganan pokok saking griya kalebet [[beras]], [[gedang]], [[talas]], lan [[uwi]].<ref name = "Blench1">Blench (1996), pp. 420–426</ref> [[Tebu]], [[jahe]], [[kenthang]] [[legi]], [[babi]] lan [[pitik]] jugi manawi dipunbheta ing Madagaskar déning pemukim ingkang wiwit, sami kaliyan kelapa lan gedangg.<ref name = "Blench1"/> Populasi kapusat ingkang wiwit sakig pemukim manungsa tukul ing sepanjang pasisir tenggara pulau, manawi pendaratan ingkang wiwit manawi sampun kadamel ing pasisir lor.<ref>Campbell (1993), pp. 113–114</ref> Setelah tiba, pemukim awal berlatih melakukan ''tavy'' (berladang, pertanian "tebang-dan-bakar") kanggé ngeresiki [[hutan hujan]] perawan pasisir kanggé mbudidayaaken taneman. punika ugi ngumpulken madu, woh-wohan, ndok manuk lan buaya, jamur, biji-bijian lan akar ingkang saged dipunmadhang, lan ombenan alkohol ingkang kadamel saking madu lan jus tebu.<ref name=autogenerated1>Sibree (1896), p. 333</ref> Kéwan buruan punika kanthi teratur dipunburu lan dijebak ing wana, kalebet [[katak]], [[ular]], [[kadal]], [[landak]] lan tenrecs, [[kura-kura]], [[babi]] [[hutan]], [[gegremet]], [[larva]], [[burung]] dan [[lemur]].<ref name = "Stiles">{{Cite journal |last=Stiles |first=D. |title=Tubers and Tenrecs: the Mikea of Southwestern Madagascar |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ethnology_1991-07_30_3/page/251 |journal=Ethnology |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=251–263 |year=1991 |doi=10.2307/3773634}}</ref> Para pemukim ingkang miwit kepanggih kaliyan kamisuhuran Madagaskar saking megafauna, kalebet lemur raksasa, [[burung gajah]], [[fosa raksasa]] lan [[jaran nil Malagasi]]. Masarakat Malagasi manawi sampun madhang ndok lan dipunanggep boten umum inggih punika daging ''[[Aepyornis maximus]]'', manuk ingkang ageng ing donya, ingkang taksih kasebar luas ing sadaya Madagaskarngantos ing abad kaping 17.<ref>{{Cite episode| title= BBC-2 Presents: Attenborough and the Giant Egg | episode-link =| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00z6dsg#broadcasts | series = | series-link = | credits = Presenter: David Attenborough; Director: Sally Thomson; Producer: Sally Thomson; Executive Producer: Michael Gunton | network= BBC| station=BBC Two| city =| airdate= March 2, 2011| began =| ended =| season= | series-no=| number=| minutes= | transcript = | transcript-url= }}</ref> === 1650–1800 === === 1800–1896 === === 1896–1960 === == Masakan kontemporer == === Nasi (vary) === === Makanan pendamping (laoka) === === Makanan jalanan === === Makanan penutup === === Minuman === == Catatan == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Rujukan == {{Commons category|Cuisine of Madagascar}} {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book | last = Auzias | first = Dominique | last2 = Labourdette | first2 = Jean-Paul | last3 = Mauro | first3 = Didier | last4 = Raholiarisoa | first4 = Emeline | title = Le Petit Futé Madagascar | publisher = Petit Futé | location = Paris | year = 2009 | isbn = 2746926849 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=HIbtI1gayWYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} {{Fr icon}} * {{Cite book |last=Blench |first=Roger |chapter=The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-Distance Contacts Between Oceania and East Africa |editor-last=Reade |editor-first=Julian |title=The Indian Ocean in Antiquity |publisher=British Museum |year=1996 |location=London |pages=417–438 |url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology%20data/Africa/East%20Africa%20and%20Indonesia%201996.pdf |accessdate=November 12, 2010 |isbn=0710304358 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721175840/http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology%20data/Africa/East%20Africa%20and%20Indonesia%201996.pdf |archivedate=July 21, 2011 |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite book |last=Boissard |first=Pierre |title=Cuisine Malgache, Cuisine Creole |publisher=Librairie de Tananarive |year=1997 |location=Antananarivo, Madagascar}} {{Fr icon}} * {{Cite book |last1=Bradt |first1=Hilary |last2=Austin |first2=Daniel |title=Madagascar |edition=9th |publisher=The Globe Pequot Press Inc |year=2007 |location=Guilford, Connecticut |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vyNVb2q0RisC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=9781841621975 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Bradt |first1=Hilary |title=Madagascar |edition=10th |publisher=The Globe Pequot Press Inc |year=2011 |location=Guilford, Connecticut |isbn=9781841623412}} * {{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |title=The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=111–148 |year=1993 |doi=10.2307/219188}} * {{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |title=An economic history of Imperial Madagascar, 1750–1895: the rise and fall of an island empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=0521839351 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=13Yt9jLuKzsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{Cite book |last=Chan Tat Chuen |first=William |title=Ma Cuisine de Madagascar |publisher=Jean-Paul Rocher Editeur |year=2010 |location=Paris |isbn=9782917411322}} {{Fr icon}} * {{cite book|last=Donenfeld|first=Jill|title=Mankafy Sakafo:Delicious meals from Madagascar|publisher=iUniverse|location = New York |year=2007|pages = xix|isbn=9780595425914}} * {{Cite book |last=Espagne-Ravo |first=Angéline |title=Ma Cuisine Malgache: Karibo Sakafo |publisher=Edisud |year=1997 |location=Paris |pages= |isbn=2857449461}} {{Fr icon}} * {{Cite journal |last=Faublée |first=Jacques |title=L'alimentation des Bara (Sud de Madagascar) |journal=Journal de la Société des Africanistes |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=157–202 |year=1942 |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jafr_0037-9166_1942_num_12_1_2534 |accessdate=January 7, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094649/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jafr_0037-9166_1942_num_12_1_2534 |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |doi=10.3406/jafr.1942.2534 |url-status=dead }} {{Fr icon}} * {{Cite journal |last=Gade |first=Daniel |title=Deforestation and its effects in Highland Madagascar |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=101–116 |year=1996 |doi=10.2307/3674005}} * {{Cite book |last=Grandidier |first=A. |title=Guide de l’immigrant à Madagascar |publisher=A Colin et cie |location=Paris |year=1899 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZxbgAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} {{Fr icon}} * {{Cite journal |last=Linton |first=R. |title=Culture Areas in Madagascar |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=363–390 |year=1928 |doi=10.1525/aa.1928.30.3.02a00010}} * {{Cite book |last1=Nativel |first1=Didier |first2=Faranirina |last2=Rajaonah |title=Madagascar revisitée: en voyage avec Françoise Raison-Jourde |publisher=Editions Karthala |year=2009 |location=Paris |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6NHOFJJHOc0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=9782811101749 }} {{Fr icon}} * {{cite book|title=The True Story of the French Dispute in Madagascar|last=Oliver|first=Samuel Pasfield|authorlink=Samuel Pasfield Oliver|year=1885|publisher=T.F. Unwin|location=London}} * {{Cite book |title=Savoir Cuisiner: La Cuisine de Madagascar |publisher=Editions Orphie |year=2004 |location=Saint-Denis, Reunion |isbn=287763020X}} {{Fr icon}} * {{Cite book |last=Sibree |first=James |title=Madagascar before the conquest |publisher=T.F. Unwin |year=1896 |location=London |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rENCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} {{refend}} == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Masakan Malagasi]] pifbwczg7qd9hy8ie9pngki4y9s52dx Spica 0 94126 1752948 1650002 2026-08-20T05:36:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752948 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} {{Starbox begin |name = Alpha Virginis A/B }} {{Starbox image | image=[[Gambar:Virgo constellation map.png|250px]] | caption=Lokasi Spica (pérangan kiwa ngisor tengah) }} {{Starbox observe |epoch = J2000 |constell = [[Virgo (constellation)|Virgo]] |pronounce= {{IPA-en|ˈspaɪkə|}} |ra = {{RA|13|25|11.5793}}<ref name=hipparcos/> |dec = {{DEC|−11|09|40.759}}<ref name=hipparcos/> |appmag_v = +1.04 }} {{Starbox character |class = {{nowrap|B1 III-IV/B2 V}}<ref name=aaa483_3/> |b-v = −0.24<ref name=aj76/> |u-b = −0.94<ref name=aj76/> |variable = [[Beta Cephei variable|β Cep]],<br />[[Rotating ellipsoidal variable|Rotating ellipsoid]] }} {{Starbox astrometry |radial_v = +1.0<ref name=gcsrv53/> |prop_mo_ra = −42.50<ref name=hipparcos/> |prop_mo_dec = −31.73<ref name=hipparcos/> |parallax = 12.44 |p_error = 0.86 |parallax_footnote = <ref name=hipparcos/> |absmag_v = −3.55 (−3.5/−1.5)<ref name=mnras151/> }} {{Starbox orbit | reference = <ref name=apj704_1/> | period_unitless = 4.0145898&nbsp;d | eccentricity = {{nowrap|0.067 ± 0.014}} | inclination = {{nowrap|54 ± 6}} | periastron = 2440678.09 | periarg = {{nowrap|140 ± 10}} }}<!-- -->{{Starbox detail |component1 = Primary |age = |metal = |mass = {{nowrap|10.25 ± 0.68}}<ref name=apj704_1/> |radius = {{nowrap|7.40 ± 0.57}}<ref name=apj704_1/> |rotation = |rotational_velocity = {{nowrap|199 ± 5}}<ref name=apj704_1/> |luminosity = 12,100<ref name=kaler/> |temperature = 22,400<ref name=mnras151/> |gravity = {{nowrap|3.7 ± 0.1}}<ref name=mnras151/> |component2 = Secondary |mass2 = {{nowrap|6.97 ± 0.4}}<ref name=apj704_1/> |radius2 = {{nowrap|3.64 ± 0.28}}<ref name=apj704_1/> |rotational_velocity2 = {{nowrap|87 ± 6}}<ref name=apj704_1/> |luminosity2 = 1,500<ref name=kaler/> |temperature2 = 18,500<ref name=kaler/> }}<!-- -->{{Starbox catalog |names = Spica, Azimech, 角宿一, Spica Virginis, Alaraph, Dana, α Virginis, 67&nbsp;Virginis, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 5056, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]] -10°3672, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 116658, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 18144, FK5 498, CCDM 13252-1109, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory Star Catalog|SAO]] 157923, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 65474.<ref name=simbad/> }} {{Starbox end}} '''Spica''' (α Vir, α Virginis, [[alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Virginis) ya iku lintang kang ingkang padhang piyambak ning [[rasi bintang]] [[Virgo (constellation)|Virgo]], lan lintang ingkang padhang piyambak kaping 15 kang katon nalika bengi. Lintang iki dhuweni jarak kira-kira 260 [[taun cahya]] saka [[Bumi]]. Lintang iki uga dikenal dadi ''raksasa biru'', lan kagolong [[variable star|variable]] saka [[Beta Cephei variable|Beta Cephei type]]. Spica kagolong lintang kang paling panas lan lumrahé duwé warna biru. == Rujukan == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name=gcsrv53>{{cite book | last=Wilson | first=Ralph Elmer | year=1953 | title=General Catalogue of Stellar Radial Velocities | publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington | location=Washington | bibcode=1953QB901.W495..... }}</ref> <ref name=hipparcos>{{cite journal | author=Perryman, M. A. C. | coauthors=''et al.'' | title=The HIPPARCOS Catalogue | journal=[[Astronomy & Astrophysics]] | volume=323 | pages=L49–L52 |date=April 1997 | bibcode=1997A&A...323L..49P | last2=Lindegren | last3=Kovalevsky | last4=Hoeg | last5=Bastian | last6=Bernacca | last7=Crézé | last8=Donati | last9=Grenon }}</ref> <ref name=simbad>{{cite web | title=V* alf Vir -- Variable Star of beta Cep type | work=[[SIMBAD]] | publisher=Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url=http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-basic?Ident=alf+Vir | accessdate=2010-04-13 }}</ref> <ref name=evans98>{{cite book | last=Evans | first=James | title=The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | pages=259 | isbn=0195095391 }}</ref> <ref name=allen03>{{cite book | last=Allen | first=Richard Hinckley | title=Star Names and Their Meanings | publisher=Kessinger Publishing | year=2003 | pages=468 | isbn=0766140288}}</ref> <ref name=jrasc37_4>{{cite journal | last=Rufus | first=W. Carl | title=Copernicus, Polish Astronomer, 1473–1543 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-royal-astronomical-society-of-canada_1943-04_37_4/page/134 | journal=[[Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada]] | volume=37 | issue=4 | pages=134 |date=April 1943 | bibcode=1943JRASC..37..129R }}</ref> <ref name=moesgaard73>{{cite conference | first=Kristian P. | last=Moesgaard | title=Copernican influence on Tycho Brahe | editors=Jerzy Dobrzycki | book-title=The reception of Copernicus' heliocentric theory: proceedings of a symposium organized by the Nicolas Copernicus Committee of the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science | location=Toruń, Poland | year=1973 | publisher=Studia Copernicana, Springer | isbn=9027703116 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tAWp34_GYLAC&pg=PA35&dq=copernicus+spica#v=onepage&q=copernicus%20spica&f=false }}</ref> <ref name=breit10>{{cite web | first=Derek C. | last=Breit | date=March 12, 2010 | title=Diary of Astronomical Phenomena 2010 | work=Poyntsource.com | url=http://www.poyntsource.com/New/Diary.htm | accessdate=2010-04-13 }}</ref> <ref name=aj76>{{cite journal | author=Pfleiderer, J.; Mayer, U. | title=Near-ultraviolet surface photometry of the southern Milky Way | journal=[[Astronomical Journal]] | volume=76 | page=691 |date=October 1971 | doi=10.1086/111186 | bibcode=1971AJ.....76..691P }}</ref> <ref name=apj704_1>{{cite journal | author=Harrington, David; Koenigsberger, Gloria; Moreno, Edmundo; Kuhn, Jeffrey | title=Line-profile Variability from Tidal Flows in Alpha Virginis (Spica) | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2009-10-10_704_1/page/813 | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=704 | issue=1 | pages=813–830 |date=October 2009 | doi=10.1088/0004-637X/704/1/813 | bibcode=2009ApJ...704..813H }}</ref> <ref name=mnras151>{{cite journal | title=A study of alpha Virginis with an intensity interferometer | author=Herbison-Evans, D.; Hanbury Brown, R.; Davis, J.; Allen, L. R. | journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] | volume=151 | pages=161−176 | year=1971 | bibcode=1971MNRAS.151..161H | last2=Hanbury Brown | last3=Davis | last4=Allen }}</ref> <ref name=bass33>{{cite journal | title=Spectroscopy of the temporal variations of α Vir | author=Riddle, R. L.; Bagnuolo, W. G.; Gies, D. R. | journal=[[Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society]] | volume=33 | page=1312 |date=December 2001 | bibcode=2001AAS...199.0613R | last2=Bagnuolo | last3=Gies }}</ref> <ref name=aass125_1>{{cite journal | last=Beech | first=M. | title=The ellipsoidal variables. III - Circularization and synchronization | journal=[[Astrophysics and Space Science]] | volume=125 | issue=1 | pages=69–75 |date=August 1986 | doi=10.1007/BF00643972 | bibcode=1986Ap&SS.125...69B }}</ref> <ref name=apj295>{{cite journal | title=The ellipsoidal variable stars | last=Morris | first=S. L. | journal=Astrophysical Journal, Part 1 | volume=295 | pages=143–152 |date=August 1985 | doi=10.1086/163359 | bibcode=1985ApJ...295..143M }}</ref> <ref name=apj479>{{cite journal | author=Gies, Douglas R.; Bagnuolo, William G., Jr.; Penny, Laura R. | title=Photospheric Heating in Colliding-Wind Binaries | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1997-04-10_479_1/page/408 | journal=Astrophysical Journal | volume=479 | page=408 |date=April 1997 | doi=10.1086/303848 | bibcode=1997ApJ...479..408G | last2=Bagnuolo }}</ref> <ref name=kaler>{{cite web | first=Jim | last=Kaler | title=Spica | work=Stars | url=http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/spica.html | accessdate=2010-04-15 }}</ref> <ref name=aaa483_3>{{cite journal | author=Schnerr, R. S. | coauthors=''et al.'' | title=Magnetic field measurements and wind-line variability of OB-type stars | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume=483 | issue=3 | pages=857–867 | date=June 2008 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20077740 | bibcode=2008A&A...483..857S | url=http://remote.science.uva.nl/~rschnerr/papers/OBstars.pdf | accessdate=2010-04-16 }}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> }} [[Kategori:Bintang|Lintang]] [[Kategori:Antariksa]] {{astronomi-stub}} aw4h8igsn37tczx1ypqc81pk3b9x2vo Regulus 0 94127 1752903 1744500 2026-08-20T04:40:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752903 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Starbox begin | name=[http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-id.pl?protocol=html&Ident=Regulus Regulus A/B/C] }} {{Starbox image | image=[[Gambar:Leo constellation map.png|250px]] | caption=Regulus is located at the lower right on this map of the constellation. }} {{Starbox observe | epoch=J2000 | constell=[[Leo (constellation)|Leo]] | ra=A: 10h 08 min 22.3s{{br}}BC: 10h 08 min 12.8/14s | dec=A: +11° 58' 02"{{br}}BC: +11° 59' 48" | appmag_v=1.35/8.14/13.5 }} {{Starbox character | class=B7 V/K1-2 V/M5 V | b-v=−0.11/0.87 | u-b=−0.36/0.54 | variable=Slightly }} {{Starbox astrometry | radial_v=+5.9 | prop_mo_ra=249 | prop_mo_dec=2 | parallax=42.09 | p_error=0.79 | absmag_v=−0.52/4.2/9.5 }} {{Starbox detail| age=5 × 10<sup>7</sup> | metal= | mass=3.5/0.8/0.2 | radius=3.15–4.15/0.5/? | rotation=315 km/s. (15.9 hours)/? | luminosity=150/0.31 | temperature=10,300–15,400/? }} {{Starbox catalog | names=Alpha Leonis, 32 Leo, Cor Leonis, Basilicus, Lion’s Heart, Rex, Kalb al Asad, Kabeleced, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 9316, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 3982, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]] +12° 2149/2147, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 87901/87884, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 2384.00, [[Luyten Two-Tenths catalogue|LTT]] 12716/12714, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|SAO]] 98967/98966, FK5 380, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 49669, TD1 14585. }} {{Starbox reference | Simbad=HD+87901 }} {{Starbox end}} '''Regulus (α Leo / α Leonis / [[alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Leonis)''' yaiku lintang ingkang padhang piyambak ning rasi [[Leo]] lan kagolong lintang kang cemerlang ning langit nalika bengi. [[Lintang]] iki ana ning jarak 77.5 [[taun cahya]] saka [[Bumi]]. Regulus kagolong ning sistem multi bintang tuladhané liyané yaiku papat lintang kang nggabung ning rong pasang bintang. '''Regulus A''' yaiku lintang biru keputihan lan pasanganné kang durung diteliti, bisa baé [[bintang katai]] putih (''white dwarf'').<ref>{{cite journal|title=A Spectroscopic Orbit for Regulus|author=Gies, D.R. ''et al.''|year=2008|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=682|issue=2|pages=L117–L120|doi=10.1086/591148|bibcode=2008ApJ...682L.117G}}</ref> Ing ngarepé ''Regulus A'' ana pasangané yaiku'''Regulus B''' lan '''Regulus C''', kang kagolong lintang remeng. == Observasi == Regulus ana ing garis ekliptik, lan bakal nglakoni okultasi reguler karo [[Bulan]]. [[Okultasi]] karo [[Merkurius]] lan [[Venus]] uga bisa kedaden nanging jarang. Okultasi Regulus déning planit [[Venus]] kedaden nalika tanggal 7 [[Juli]] [[1959]]. Okultasi sawisé iku dikira-kira bakal kedaden ing tanggal 1 [[Oktober]] 2044. [[Matahari]] tekan ing titik paling cedhak karo Regulus nganti tanggal 23 [[Agustus]] nggal taun. Regulus duwé massa 3.5 kali [[Matahari]] lan kagolong lintang kang umuré esih enom, yaiku kira-kira pirangatus yuta taun. Lintang iki mubengé rikat banget, yaiku 15.9 jam, njalari brubahé warna kang rikat.<ref name="apj628">{{cite journal | author=McAlister, H. A., ten Brummelaar, T. A., et al. | title=First Results from the CHARA Array. I. An Interferometric and Spectroscopic Study of the Fast Rotator Alpha Leonis (Regulus). | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2005-07-20_628_1/page/439 | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | year=2005 | volume=628 | pages=439–452 | doi=10.1086/430730 }}</ref> == Visibilitas == '''Regulus A''' yaiku lintang kang cemerlang ning langit nalika bengi karoan [[magnitudo]] kang nengsemaké. '''Regulus B''' kagolong [[lintang katai]] kelas K2 kang katon luwih remeng dibandingaké karo komponèn A. Komponèn akir, '''Regulus C''', yaiku lintang abang cilik lan paling remeng ning watarané telung komponèn sarta saiki lintang iki lagi prosès obeservasi == Ètimologi == ''Rēgulus'' asalé saka [[basa Latin]] kang artiné ''pangeran'' utawa ''raja cilik''. Masarakat [[Yunani]] nyebuté '''Basiliscus''' kang artiné pada. Jeneng liyané kanggo bintang iki yaiku: {| class="wikitable" |- ! jeneng liya ! asal basa ! artiné |- |Qalb Al Asad, Kabelaced / Cor Leōnis||[[Basa Arab|Arab]] / [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ||jantung (sang singa) |- |Rex / Malikiyy ||[[Basa Latin|Latin]] / [[Basa Arab|Arab]] ||raja |- |軒轅十四 / Xuanyuanshísì||[[China]] ||lintang kaping patbelas saka rasi [[Pratélan asterisme ning Bintang#Xuanyuan|Xuanyuan]]<ref>salah sawijining rasi bintang miturut bangsa Cina</ref> |- |軒轅大星 / Xuanyuandàxīng||[[China]] ||bintang besar ning rasi [[Pratélan asterisme ning Bintang#Xuanyuan|Xuanyuan]]<ref name=sb0>http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/sinograms.html</ref> |- |皇后 / Huánghòu||[[China]] ||(bintang) kang berkuasa lan nyumunar<ref name="sb0"/> |- |女主 / Nǚzhu||[[China]] ||pelayan wanita <ref name="sb0"/> |} Saliyané [[rasi]] [[Leo]], lintang iki uga kagolong anggota saka rasi utawa asterisma: {| class="wikitable" |- ! jeneng rasi / asterisma ! asal ! artiné ! anggota liyané |- | 軒轅十 / Xuanyuan || [[China]] ||[[Pratélan asterisme ning Bintang#Xuanyuan|Xuanyuan]]||[[10 Ursae Majoris|10 UMa]], [[HD 77912]], [[38 Lyncis|38 Lyn]], [[Alpha Lyncis|α Lyn]], [[15 Leonis|15 Leo]], [[Kappa Leonis|κ Leo]], [[Lambda Leonis|λ Leo]], [[Epsilon Leonis|ε Leo]], [[Mu Leonis|μ Leo]], [[Zeta Leonis|ζ Leo]], [[Gamma Leonis|γ Leo]], [[Eta Leonis|η Leo]], [[Omicron Leonis|ο Leo]], [[Rho Leonis|ρ Leo]], [[31 Leonis|31 Leo]] |- | Sickle || ||sabit ||[[Gamma Leonis|γ Leo]], [[Epsilon Leonis|ε Leo]], [[Zeta Leonis|ζ Leo]], [[Eta Leonis|η Leo]], [[Mu Leonis|μ Leo]] |- | Al Jabhah || [[Basa Arab|Arab]] ||kepala pérangan depan||[[Gamma Leonis|γ Leo]], [[Zeta Leonis|ζ Leo]], [[Eta Leonis|η Leo]], [[Mu Leonis|μ Leo]] |- | Magha (मघा) || (agama) [[Hindhu]] ||kang agung ||ora ana |- | UR.GU.LA || [[Mesopotamia]] ||raja ||tidak ada |- | Sky Dragon<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.amastro2.org/at/as/asas.html |title=Archive copy |access-date=2012-11-11 |archive-date=2008-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513201128/http://www.amastro2.org/at/as/asas.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>|| ||naga di langit||[[Altair|α Aql]], [[Capella|α Aur]], [[Arcturus|α Boo]], [[Sirius|α CMa]], [[Procyon|α CMi]], [[Alpha Cygni|α Cyg]], [[Beta Geminorum|β Gem]], [[Alpha Geminorum|α Gem]], [[Vega|α Lyr]], [[Rigel|β Or]], [[Betelgeuse|α Or]], [[Fomalhaut|α PsA]], [[Antares|α Sco]], [[Alpha Tauri|α Tau]], [[Spica|α Vir]] |} {{-}} [[Gambar:Regulus1.jpg|thumb|Regulus]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} * Fred Schaaf, “Horrorfications of the Lion’s heart,” ''[[Sky & Telescope]]'', [[April 2006]]. == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100726&org=NSF&from=news Portrait of a Star on the Edge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210043126/http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100726&org=NSF&from=news |date=2009-02-10 }} * [http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/egg_regulus_spinning.html?2112005 Egg-Shaped Regulus is Spinning Fast] * [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060619.html Regulus as Astronomy Picture of the Day of 19th june 2006] * {{cite web | title=Regulus 3 | work=SolStation | url=http://www.solstation.com/stars2/regulus3.htm | dateformat=mdy | accessdate=December 1 2005 | archive-date=2016-04-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412031002/http://www.solstation.com/stars2/regulus3.htm | url-status=dead }} {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Rasi bintang Leo]] [[Kategori:Antariksa]] {{astronomi-stub}} 3luoolf40sp431jzr5lr00cbvb83762 Manusia Modern Anatomis 0 94353 1753029 1646097 2026-08-20T08:29:36Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753029 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} Istilah '''manungsa modhèren anatomis''' ('''MMA''') ing [[paleoantropologi]] ngacu kaliyan individu wiwit saking ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' kaliyan suatu [[Penampilan fisik|penampilan]] ingkang konsistèn kaliyan [[Variasi manungsa|rentang]] [[fenotipe]] ing manungsa modhèren. manungsa modhèren anatomis bérèvolusi saking [[Homo sapiens purba|''Homo sapiens'' purba]] ing masa [[Paleolitik Tengah]], antawis 200.000 taun kapungkur. Munculè manungsa modhèren anatomis nandaakèn pérmulaan saking subspesies '''''Homo sapiens sapiens''''', inggih punika subspesies saking ''Homo sapiens'' ingkang gayutakèn [[statistik signifikan|semua manungsa modhèren]]. Fosil tertua ingkang wonten ing manungsa modhèren anatomis inggih punika [[Omo remains]], ingkang yuswanipun 196.000 tauninglkang kapérang saking kalih cumplung ingkang bènten, lan ugi balung asta, sikil, telapak sikil lan pinggang. Fosil yang lain kalebu ''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]'' dari [[Herto Bouri|Herto]] di [[Etiopia]] yang berusia 150.000 taun dan tilas dari [[Skhul]] di Israèl yang berusia 90.000 taun.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}} == Anatomi == [[Gambar:Sapiens neanderthal comparison.jpg|thumb|right|460px|Perbandingan anatomi dari cumplung manungsa modhèren (kiri) dan ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' (kanan), dari [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]].]] Manusia modhèren anatomis dibedakan dari leluhurnya langsung, ''Homo sapiens'' purba, liwat sejumlah fitur anatomis. ''Homo sapiens'' purba memiliki kerangka yang kokoh, mengindikasikan bahwa mereka hidup bergantung kepada fisik; ini bisa berarti bahwa manungsa modhèren anatomis, dengan rangka yang ramping, menjadi lebih bergantung kepada tèknologi daripada kakuwatan fisik untuk memenuhi tantangan lingkungan. ''Homo sapiens'' purba juga memiliki [[bubung alis]] (tonjolan lapisan balung di atas [[gronggongan mata]]). Dengan munculnya manungsa modhèren anatomis, bubung alis kanthi signifikan berkurang, dan padha manungsa modhèren mereka, rata-rata, samar-samar terlihat. Fitur pembeda lainnya dari MMA ya iku tonjolan dagu, sesuatu yang tidak ada padha ''Homo sapiens'' purba. MMA umumnya memiliki [[dahi]] vertikal dimana leluhur mereka memiliki dahi yang miring ke belakang. <ref>{{cite web |title=Encarta, Human Evolution |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566394_9/human_evolution.html |work= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029044339/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566394_9/Human_Evolution.html |archivedate=2009-10-29 |deadurl=yes |access-date=2012-11-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Miturut [[Desmond Morris]], dahi ingkang vertikal ing manungsa boten namung menaungi utek ingkang ageng nanging tonjolan dahi mainkan peran ingkang wigati ing komunikasi manungsa nglampahi pergerakan [[alis mata]] lan kerutan kulit dahi. <ref>{{cite book |title=The Naked Woman: A Study of the Female Body |chapter=The Brow |chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Wa9zntiEKeAC&printsec=frontcover#PPA22,M1 |last=Desmond Morris |authorlink=Desmond Morris |year=2007 |isbn=0-312-33853-8 }}</ref> == Manusia modhèren awal == [[Gambar:Skhul.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Skhul V]] memperlihatkan pencampuran dari ciri-ciri modhèren dan purba.]] [[Omo remains|Omo]], [[Homo sapiens idaltu|Hertho]], [[Peninggalan Skhul|Skhul]], lan [[Peninggalan Jebel Qafzeh]] manawi mau kaliyan "Manusia Modern Awal" amargi tilas kerangka punika ningalaken campuran saking titikan-titikanipun [[Homo sapiens purba|purba]] lan modhèren. Skhul V, dados tuladha, gadhah bubung alis lan rai ingkang nonjol. nanging, panggènan utek saking Skhul V bènten kaliyan Neanderthal lan sami kaliyan panggènan utek ing manungsa modhèren. ing [[Éropah]], manungsa modhèren wiwit inggih punika [[Cro-Magnon]]. == Asal mula manungsa modhèren == {{Main|Asal-usul terkini manungsa modhèren dari Afrika|Asal-usul multiregional manungsa modhèren|Percampuran Neanderthal}} ing pundhi ingkang limrahipun dipunparingi, wonten kalih modhèl utami ngenai subjek punika-[[Asal-usul terkini manungsa modhèren saking Afrika]] lan [[evolusi multiregional]]. Perdebatan limrahipun merkawisaken ngenai jumlah ''relatif'' pergantosan utawi kawin-silang ingkang kadadosan ing area ing jawi Afrika, saat gelombang manungsa (atau leluhur manungsa) medhal saking Afrika lan menempati area sanèsipun, lan ingkang wigati gegayutan saking gelombang ingkang énggal dados banding kaliyan gelombang ingkang langkung lami. Pandangan utami, ingkang sampun misuwur kaliyan modhèl asal sapunika saking Afrika, nyepeng manawi sadaya utawi nembé sadaya bèntenipun genetika manungsa moderning sadaya donya saged dipuntelusuri ugi ing manungsa modhèren anatomis ingkang wiwitan ninggalaken [[Afrika]]. Model punika dipundukung kaliyan pinten=pinten garis bukti ingkang independen, kados ta catatan fosil lan genetika. Secara sajarah, kritik kaliyan pandangan punika asring maringi tanda kurung mendukung "[[hipotesis multiregional]]", ingkang popularitasipun memudar awit awal 1990-an. pinten=pinten kritik alesanipun manawi sejumlah garis keturunan genetika non-Afrika saged tahan gesang ing pinten-pinten panggènan ing belahan donya ngelangkungi kawin-silang kaliyan manungsa modhèren anatomis. Miturut versi kiat saking modhèl multiregional pinten-pinten populasi manungsa ing sadaya donya sapunika badhé ngadahi materi genetika ingkang tahan ngantos sejauh manungsa wiwit kados ta ''[[Homo erectus]]''. Sekempalan ageng data ing [[Evolusi genetika manungsa]] (Jobling, Hurles dan Tyler-Smith, 2004) dukung kiat modhèl "[[Asal-usul terkini manungsa modhèren saking Afrika|Keluar dari Afrika]]". Analisis saking tiyang-tiyang Éropah modhèren nyaranaken manawi boten wonten [[DNA mitokondria]] (garis keturunan langsung) ingkang asalipun saking [[Neanderthal]] ingkang taksih bertahan ing masa sapunika. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Krings M, Stone A, Schmitz RW, Krainitzki H, Stoneking M, Pääbo S |title=Neandertal DNA sequences and the origin of modhèren humans |url=https://archive.org/details/cell_1997-07-11_90_1/page/19 |journal=Cell |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=19–30 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9230299 |doi=10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80310-4}}</ref><ref>[http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2004/316/2 No Neandertals in the Gene Pool] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215024554/http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2004/316/2 |date=2009-02-15 }}, Science (2004).</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Serre |year=2004 |title=No evidence of Neandertal mtDNA contribution to early modhèren humans |journal=PLoS Biology |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=313–7 |pmid=15024415 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020057 |last2=Langaney |first2=A |last3=Chech |first3=M |last4=[[Maria Teschler-Nicola|Teschler-Nicola]] |first4=M |last5=Paunovic |first5=M |last6=Mennecier |first6=P |last7=Hofreiter |first7=M |last8=Possnert |first8=G |last9=Pääbo |first9=S |pmc=368159 |first1=D }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |date=February 17, 2005 |title=Fossil Reanalysis Pushes Back Origin of Homo sapiens |journal=[[Scientific American]] |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fossil-reanalysis-pushes }}</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Hipotesis asal tunggal terbaru]] [[Kategori:Evolusi manungsa]] [[Kategori:Manusia]] [[Kategori:Zaman Batu Pertengahan]] [[Kategori:Paleoantropologi]] [[Kategori:Spesies awal dari Homo|Homo sapiens]] gnin6fj7s1ql0yozwmtqu3vcix9istb Kaféin 0 94520 1752910 1747787 2026-08-20T04:49:20Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752910 wikitext text/x-wiki {{chembox | Name = Kafeina | ImageFile = Caffeine.svg | ImageSize = 175px | ImageName = hybrid skeletal structure of the caffeine molecule | ImageFile1 = Caffeine-3D-QuteMol.png | ImageSize1 = 134px | ImageName1 = space-filling model of the caffeine molecule | IUPACName = 1,3,7-trimetil-1''H''-purina-2,6(3''H'',7''H'')-dion | OtherNames = 1,3,7-trimetilksantina, trimetilksantina,{{br}} teina, metilteobromina | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | SMILES = C[n]1cnc2N(C)C(=O)N(C)C(=O)c12 | CASNo = 58-08-2 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}} | ChemSpiderID = 2424 | RTECS = EV6475000 }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | Formula = [[karbon|C]]<sub>8</sub>[[hidrogen|H]]<sub>10</sub>[[nitrogen|N]]<sub>4</sub>[[oksigen|O]]<sub>2</sub> | MolarMass = 194,19&nbsp;g·mol<sup>−1</sup> | Appearance = bubuk putih tidak berbau | Density = 1,2&nbsp;g·cm<sup>−3</sup>, padat | Solubility = 22 mg·mL<sup>−1</sup> (25&nbsp;°C){{br}}180 mg·mL<sup>−1</sup> (80&nbsp;°C){{br}}670 mg·mL<sup>−1</sup> (100&nbsp;°C) | MeltingPt = 227-228&nbsp;°C (anhidrat) 234-235&nbsp;°C (monohidrat) | BoilingPt = 178&nbsp;°C ([[penyubliman|menyublim]]) | pKa = −0,13 – 1,22<ref>Merupakan pKa untuk kafeina yang terprotonasi. {{cite book |title=Profiles of Drug Substances, Excipients and Related Methodology, volume 33: Critical Compilation of Pka Values for Pharmaceutical Substances |author=Harry G. Brittain, Richard J. Prankerd |publisher=Academic Press |year=2007 |isbn=012260833X}}</ref> | Dipole = 3,64 [[Debye|D]] (terhitung) }} | Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards | ExternalMSDS = [http://www.sciencestuff.com/msds/C1410.html External MSDS] | MainHazards = Berakibat fatal apabila terhirup, tertelan{{br}}ataupun terserap melalui kulit. | NFPA-H = 2 | NFPA-F = 1 | NFPA-R = | FlashPt = N/A | LD50 = 192 mg/kg (tikus, oral)<ref name="ld50">{{cite journal | title = Factors Affecting Caffeine Toxicity: A Review of the Literature | last=Peters| first=Josef M. | journal = The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and the Journal of New Drugs | year= 1967 | issue=7|pages=131–141 |url = http://jcp.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/7/3/131 }}</ref>}} }} '''Kaféina'''<ref>Dudutan [[Majelis Basa Brunei Darussalam – Indonesia – Malaysia]] (MABBIM) KERTAS F/SP/5 JKTBM [http://dbp.gov.my/mabbim/download.php?FilePoolID=66] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415164739/http://dbp.gov.my/mabbim/download.php?FilePoolID=66 |date=2015-04-15 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.pusatbasa.diknas.go.id/glosarium/index.php?gloss_asing=caffeine&gloss_indonesia=&jinis=exact&Bidang=all&infocmd=Cari Padanan istilah glosarium Pusat Basa]{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>, utawa luwih kawentar kanthi jeneng '''kaféin''', yaiku senyawa [[alkaloid]] [[xantina]] wujud kristal lan rasané pahit kang digunakaké minangka [[obat]] [[perangsang]] [[psikoaktif]] lan [[diuretik]] ènthèng<ref>{{cite journal |last=Maughan |first=RJ |coauthors=Griffin J |title=Caffeine ingestion and fluid balance: a review. |journal=J Human Nutrition Dietetics |volume=16 |pages=411–20 |year=2003}}</ref>. Kafeina tinemu déning kimiawan Jerman, [[Friedrich Ferdinand Runge]], nalika taun 1819. Dèwèké gawé istilah "kaffein" kanggo ngrujuk marang senyawa kimia ing [[kopi]].<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/caffeine caffeine - Definitions from Dictionary.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Kafeina uga karan '''guaranina''' nalika katemokake ing [[guarana]], '''mateina''' nalika katemokake ing [[mate]], lan '''teina''' nalika katemokake ing [[teh]]. Kabèh istilah kaebut padha-pagha ngrujuk marang senyawa kimia kang padha. Kafeina ditemoni kanthi alami ing bahan [[pangan]] kaya [[wiji]] [[kopi]], [[godhong]] [[teh]], [[buah]] [[kola]], [[guarana]], lan ''[[maté]]''. Ing wit-witan, dhèwèké berperan minangka [[pestisida]] alami kang nglumpuhake lan matèni [[gegremet]]-gegremet katentu kang mangan wit-witan mau. Dhèwèké lumrahé dikonsumsi déning manungsa ''mengekstraksi'' saka wiji [[kopi]] lan [[Camellia sinensis|godhong teh]]. Kafeina wujud obat [[perangsang]] [[sistem pusat saraf]] ing [[manungsa]] lan bisa ngilangi rasa [[ngantuk]] kanthi sewentara. ombenan kang ngandut kafeina, kaya [[kopi]], [[teh]], lan [[ombenan entheng]], disenengi banget. Kafeina wujud [[zat psikoaktif]] kang paling akèh dikonsumsi ing donya. ora kaya zat psikoaktif liyané, kafeina legal lan ora diatur déning hukum ing kbeh yuridiksi donya. Ing Amérika Utara, 90% wong diwasa ngombé kafeina saben dina.<ref name="demon drink">{{cite journal | last = Lovett | first = Richard | title = Coffee: The demon drink? | journal = New Scientist | issue = 2518|date = 24 Sèptèmber 2005 | url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725181.700 | format=fee required }}(Kaunduh 26/11/12)</ref> ==Anane== Sumber utama kafeina donya yaiku wiji kopi. Kandungan kafeina ing kopi variasi banget, tergantung ing jinis wiji kopi lan metode panggawean kang digunakaké<ref name="ICO">{{cite web | title=Caffeine | publisher=International Coffee Organization | url=http://www.ico.org/caffeine.asp | access-date=2012-11-27 | archive-date=2009-03-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327113321/http://www.ico.org/caffeine.asp | url-status=dead }}(kaunduh 26/11/12)</ref>. Secara umum, sak sajian kopi ngandut sakiwa-tengené 40&nbsp;mg (30 mL [[espresso]] varietas ''arabica'') kafeina, nganti 100&nbsp;mg kafeina kanggo sak cangkir (120 mL) kopi. Lumrahé, kopi ''dark-roast'' duwé kadar kafeina kang luwih endek amarga prosès pemanggangan bakal mengurangi kandhutan kafeina ing wiji mau.<ref name="caffaq_roast">{{cite web | title=Coffee and Caffeine FAQ: Does dark roast coffee have less caffeine than light roast? | url=http://coffeefaq.com/site/node/15 | access-date=2012-11-27 | archive-date=2010-12-14 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214060638/http://coffeefaq.com/site/node/15 | url-status=dead }}(kaunduh 26/11/12)</ref><ref name="jeremiahspick">{{cite web | title=All About Coffee: Caffeine Level | publisher=Jeremiah’s Pick Coffee Co | url=http://www.jeremiahspick.com/caffeine-e-13.html | access-date=2012-11-27 | archive-date=2008-03-18 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318102343/http://www.jeremiahspick.com/caffeine-e-13.html | url-status=dead }}(kaunduh 26/11/12)</ref> Kopi varietas [[Coffea arabica|''arabica'']] lumrahé ngandut kadar kafeina kang luwih sithik daripada kopi varietas [[Coffea canephora|''robusta'']].<ref name="ICO"/> Kopi uga ngandut pira-pira [[teofilina]], nanging ora ngandut [[teobromina]]. [[Teh]] wujud sumber kafeina liyané. Sanajan teh ngandut kadar kafeina kang luwih dhuwur ketimbang kopi, lumrahé teh disiapke sajrone kadar sajian kang luwih endek. Kandungan kafeina uga variasi ing jinis-jinis godhong teh kang béda. Teh ngandut uga ngandut [[teobromina]] lan kadar [[teofilina]] kang sithik luwih dhuwur ketimbang kopi. Werna banyu teh ora dadi pathokan kang apik kanggo nemtokake kandhutan kafeina.<ref>{{cite web | title=Caffeine in tea vs. steeping time | date=September 1996 | url=http://www.nobleharbor.com/tea/caffiene.html | access-date=2012-11-27 | archive-date=2010-08-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822080534/http://www.nobleharbor.com/tea/caffiene.html | url-status=dead }}(Kaunduh 25/11/12)</ref> minangka conto, teh kaya [[teh ijo]] Jepang [[gyokuro]] kang wernane luwih pucet ngandut kafeina kang luwih ketimbang teh [[lapsang souchong]] kang wrnane luwih peteng. Kafeina uga ana sajrone pira-pira [[ombenan entheng]] kaya [[kola]]. ombenan entheng racaké ngandut sakiwa-tengené 10 nganti 50 miligram kafeina per sajian. Kafeina ing ombenan jinis iki asalé saka bahan ramuan ombenan iku dhéwé utawa saka bahan aditif kang diisakake saka prosès [[dekafeinasi]]. [[Guarana]], bahan utama pembuatan ombenan ènergi, ngandut kafeina kanti jumlah [[teobromina]] lan [[teofilina]] kang cilik.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Haskell | first = C. F. | coauthors = Kennedy D., Wesnes K. A., Milne A. L., Scholey A. B. | title = A double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-dose evaluation of the acute behavioural effects of guarana in humans | url = https://archive.org/details/journal-of-psychopharmacology-uk_2007-01_21_1/page/65 | journal = J Psychopharmacol | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 65–70 |date=January 2007 | pmid = 16533867 | doi = 10.1177/0269881106063815 }}</ref> [[Coklat]] kang diisakake saka [[wiji kakao]] uga ngandut kafeina. Efek rangsangan kang dikasilake déning coklat asalé saka efek kombinasi [[teobromina]], [[teofilina]], lan kafeina.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Smit | first = H. J. | coauthors = Gaffan E. A., Rogers P. J. | title = Methylxanthines are the psycho-pharmacologically active constituents of chocolate | journal = Psychopharmacology | volume = 176 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 412–9 |date=November 2004 |pmid=15549276 | doi = 10.1007/s00213-004-1898-3 <!--Retrieved from PMID by DOI bot--> }}</ref> Coklat ngandut jumlah kafeina kang sithik banget kanggo njalari rangsangan kang padha karo [[kopi]]. 28 g sajian coklat susu batangan ngandut kadar kafeina kang padha karo secangkir kopi kang di''dekafeinasi''. == Sintesis dan ciri-ciri kafeina == [[Gambar:Caffeine USP.jpg|thumb|Kafeina [[anhidrat]] (kering).]] Ing taun 1819, kimiawan [[Jerman]] [[Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge]] kasil ngisolasi kafeinan kang relatif murni kanggo pertama kaline.<ref>Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge, ''Neueste phytochemische Entdeckungen zur Begründung einer wissenschaftlichen Phytochemie'' [Latest phytochemical discoveries for the founding of a scientific phytochemistry] (Berlin, Germany: G. Reimer, 1820). In Chapter 6 ([http://books.google.com/books?id=KLg5AAAAcAAJ&pg=P146&lpg=P146#v=onepage&q&f=false pages 144–159]), Runge details his (partial) isolation of caffeine, which he calls "Kaffebase" (i.e., a base (alkaline substance) that exists in coffee).</ref><ref>In 1821, caffeine was isolated both by French chemist [[Pierre Jean Robiquet]] and by a pair of French chemists, [[Pierre Joseph Pelletier|Pierre-Joseph Pelletier]] and [[Joseph Bienaimé Caventou]], according to Swedish chemist [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]] in his yearly journal, ''Jahres-Bericht über die Fortschritte der physischen Wissenschaften von Jacob Berzelius'' [Annual report on the progress of the physical sciences by Jacob Berzelius] (Dr. F. Wöhler, trans.), vol. 4, [http://books.google.com/books?id=XJI8AAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA180&lpg=RA1-PA180#v=onepage&q&f=false page 180], 1825. Furthermore, Berzelius stated that the French chemists had made their discoveries independently of any knowledge of Runge's work or of each other's work. Berzelius states on page 180: "Cafein is eine Materie im Kaffee, die zu gleicher Zeit, 1821, von Robiquet und [von] Pelletier und Caventou entdekt wurde, von denen aber keine etwas darüber im Drucke bekannt machte." (Caffeine is a substance in coffee, which simultaneously, in 1821, was discovered by Robiquet and by Pelletier and Caventou, by whom however nothing was made known about it in print.)<br /><br />In Pelletier's article on caffeine – "Cafeine", [http://books.google.com/books?id=rFw_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false pages 35–36] in ''Dictionnaire de Médecine'' (Paris, France: Béchet Jeune, April 1822), vol. 4 – Pelletier himself corroborates Berzelius's account: "Cafeine, s. f. Principe cristallisable décovert dans le café en 1821 par M. Robiquet. A la mème époque, cherchant la quinine dans le café, parce que le café, considéré par plusieurs médecins come fébrifuge, est d'ailleurs de la mème famille que le quinquina, MM. Pelletier et Caventou obtenaient de leur côté la cafeine; mais leur recherches n'ayant qu'un but indirect, et n'ayant pas été terminées, laissent à M. Robiquet la priorité sur cet objet. Nous ignorons pourquoi M. Robiquet n'a pas publié l'analyse du café qu'il a lue à la société de pharmacie. Sa publication nous aurait permis de mieux faire connaître la cafeine, et de donner des idées exactes sur la composition du café...." (Caffeine, noun (feminine). Crystalizable substance discovered in coffee in 1821 by Mr. Robiquet. During the same period – while they were searching for quinine in coffee because coffee is considered by several doctors to be a medicine that reduces fevers and because coffee belongs to the same family as the cinchona [quinine] tree – on their part, Mssrs. Pelletier and Caventou obtained caffeine; but because their research had a different goal and because their research had not been finished, they left priority on this subject to Mr. Robiquet. We will ignore why Mr. Robiquet has not published the analysis of coffee which he read to the Pharmacy Society. Its publication would allow us to make caffeine better known and give us accurate ideas of coffee's composition....)<br /><br />In Robiquet's article on coffee – "Cafe," [http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/gpage.cgi?p1=50&p3=8KY1.4%2F100%2F464%2F0%2F0 pages 50–61] in ''Dictionnaire Technologique, ou Nouveau Dictionnaire Universel des Arts et Métiers'',... (Paris, France: Thomine et Fortic, 1823), vol. 4 – Robiquet gives an account of his research on coffee on pages 54–56, detailing the extraction of caffeine and its properties on pages 55–56.<br /><br />Pelletier's elemental analysis of caffeine appears on [http://books.google.com/books?id=-BIAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA182&lpg=PA182#v=onepage&q&f=false pages 182–183] of the article: Dumas and Pelletier (1823) "Recherches sur la composition élémentaire et sur quelques propriéte's caractéristiques des bases salifiables organiques" (Researchs into the elemental composition and some characteristic properties of organic bases), ''Annales de Chimie et de Physique'', vol. 24, pages 163–191.<br /><br />Berzelius later acknowledged Runge's priority in the extraction of caffeine: ''Jahres-Bericht über die Fortschritte der physischen Wissenschaften von Jacob Berzelius'', vol 7, [http://books.google.com/books?id=iGs1AAAAcAAJ&pg=P270&lpg=P270#v=onepage&q&f=false page 270], 1828. Berzelius stated: "Es darf indessen hierbei nicht unerwähnt bleiben, dass Runge (in seinen ''phytochemischen Entdeckungen'' 1820, p.146-7.) dieselben Methode angegeben, und das Caffein unter dem Namen ''Caffeebase'' ein Jahr eher beschrieben hat, als Robiquet, dem die Entdeckung dieser Substanz gewöhnlich zugeschrieben wird, in einer Zussamenkunft der Societé de Pharmacie in Paris die erste mündliche Mittheilung darüber gab." (However, at this point, it should not remain unmentioned that Runge (in his ''Phytochemical Discoveries'', 1820, pages 146–147) specified the same method and described caffeine under the name ''Caffeebase'' a year earlier than Robiquet, to whom the discovery of this substance is usually attributed, having made the first oral announcement about it at a meeting of the Pharmacy Society in Paris.)</ref> Menurut Runge, ia melakukannya atas perintah [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]].<ref name="weinberg">{{cite book|last = Weinberg|first = BA|coauthors = BK Bealer|title = The World of Caffeine|publisher = Routledge|year = 2001|isbn=0-415-92722-6}}</ref> Pada taun 1827, Oudry mengisolasi "teina" dari teh,<ref>Oudry (March 1827) [http://books.google.com/books?id=cGpEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA477&lpg=PA477#v=onepage&q&f=false "Note sur la Théine"] (Note on theine), ''Nouvelle Bibliothèque médicale...'', vol. 1, page 477-479. Deleng uga: Oudry (1827) "Theïn, eine organische Salzbase im Thee" (Theïn, an organic base in tea), Geiger's ''Magazin für Pharmacie'', vol. 19, pages 49–50.</ref> namun kemudian dibuktikan déning [[Gerardus Johannes Mulder|Mulder]]<ref>[[Gerardus Johannes Mulder]] (1838) "Über Kaffein und Thein" (On caffeine and theine), ''Journal für praktische Chemie'', vol. 15, pages 280-284.</ref> dan Jobst<ref>Carl Jobst (1838) "Thein identisch mit Caffein" (Theine is identical to caffeine), Liebig's ''Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie'', vol. 25, pages 63–66.</ref> bahwa teina mau wujud senyawa kang sama dengan kafeina.<ref name="weinberg"/> Struktur kafeina berhasil dipecahkan padha akir abad kaping 19 déning [[Hermann Emil Fischer]], kang uga wujud orang kang pertama kali berhasil men[[sintesis total]] senyawa ini.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2009-08-03|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1902/press.html |title=Nobel Prize Presentation Speech by Professor Hj. Théel, President of the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences|date=December 10, 1902}}</ref> Kabèh atom nitrogen kafeina ing sabenere planar ([[hibridisasi orbital]] sp<sup>2</sup>), nyebapake molekul kafeina sipate [[aromatik]]. amarga kafeina kanti gampang diisakakake minangka produk samping prosès dekafeinasi, kafeina racaké ora disentesis kanthi kimiawi.<ref>{{cite web|author = Simon Tilling|publisher = [[Bristol University]]|url = http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/tilling/synthesis.htm|title = Crystalline Caffeine|access-date = 2012-11-27|archive-date = 2011-08-05|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110805224827/http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/tilling/synthesis.htm|url-status = dead}}(kaunduh 25/11/12)</ref> Apabila diperlukan, kafeina bisa disintesis dari [[dimetilurea]] dan [[asem malonat]].<ref>{{cite book|title = Beverages in Nutrition and Health|author = Ted Wilson, Norman J. Temple|page = 172|isbn = 1-58829-173-1|publisher = Humana Press|year = 2004}}</ref> == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Alkaloid]] 7xznxpqkt3vc6p1fepyp5wn5u8d92jm Jalak surèn 0 94714 1752987 1675820 2026-08-20T07:14:06Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752987 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Jalak surèn​​​​​​​​​<br /> {{Jawa|ꦗꦭ​ꦏ꧀ꦱꦸꦫꦺꦤ꧀}} | image = Asian Pied Starling I IMG 5520.jpg | image_caption = Saka Bengal Kulon | status = LC | status_system = iucn3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{IUCN|version=3.1|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2009|id=147659|taxon=Sturnus contra|access-date=12 Juli 2011}}</ref> | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Aves]] | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Sturnidae]] | genus = ''[[Sturnus]]'' | species = '''''S. contra''''' | binomial = ''Gracupica contra'' | synonyms = | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Systema Naturae Edisi ke-10|1758]] }} '''Jalak surèn''' (''Sturnus contra'') utawa '''jalak urèn'''<ref name=uren>{{cite news |title=Jalak Suren Si Penjaga Rumah kang méh Punah |author=Cakrawala |url=http://cakrawalainterprize.com/2011/11/11/jalak-suren-si-penjga-rumah-yang-hampir-punah/ |newspaper=Cakrawala Online |date=11 Novèmber 2011 }}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}(Kaunduh 25/11/12)</ref> ya iku [[spésies]] [[jalak]] kang tinemu ing [[Anak Bawana India]] lan [[Asia Kidul-wétan]]. Manuk iki lumrahé tinemu sajeroning golongan cilik ing ngisor lembah lan dataran endèk. Jalak surèn biyasa tinemu ing [[kutha]] utawa [[désa]], sanajan manuk iki ora wani kaya [[beo]]. Jalak suren ngasilaké pirang-pirang jinis suwara kanti kaya swara gemericik banyu. Pirang-pirang variasi [[wulu]] ana sajeroning populasi lan sakiwa-tengené lima [[subspesies]] dijenengi. == Deskripsi awak lan suwara == Jalak suren kang ukurané sedeng (24&nbsp;cm), wernané ireng lan putih. [[bathuk]], [[pipi]], [[garis swiwi]], [[tunggir]], lan [[weteng]] wernané [[putih]]; [[dhadha]], [[tenggorokan]], lan awak pérangan nduwur [[ireng]]. Warna ireng iki isih coklat ing manuk kang isih enom.<ref name=pcr>{{cite book|last=Rasmussen|first=P.C.|last2=Anderton|first2=J.C.|year=2005| title=Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2|publisher=Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions|place=Washington DC and Barcelona|page=583}}</ref><ref name=kutilang/> [[Iris]] wernane klawu; kulit tanpa wulu disekitar mata berwrna jingga; paruh merah kanti ujung putih; sikil kuning.<ref name=kutilang>{{cite web |url=http://www.kutilang.or.id/burung/konservasi/jalak-suren/ |title=Jalak Suren |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date=25 April 2012 |work= |publisher=Kutilang Indonésia |access-date=25 November 2012 |archive-date=11 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611122632/http://www.kutilang.or.id/burung/konservasi/jalak-suren/ |url-status=dead }}(Kaunduh 25/11/12)</ref> Wulu lanang lan wédok katon padha.<ref name=pcr/> lanang: duwé awak kang lurus lan luwih gedhé ketimbang wédok. wulu [[ndas]] lan [[punggung]] ireng legam, sarta buntuté sithik luwih dawa lan dadi siji. Wedok: awaké katon mbundher lan cendak kanti warna ireng lan putihé rada suram, kurang lincah lan agresif kaya lanang. == Taksonomi == [[Gambar:Sturnus ex albo et fusco varius Bengalensis.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Ilustrasi kapisanan ngenani jalak surèn déning [[George Edwards (naturalis)|George Edwards]] (1751)]] Spèsies iki kalebu sajeroning génus ''[[Sturnus]]'' lan ''[[Sturnopastor]]'' ing jaman mbièn nanging studi kang anyar ora njurung jalak suren lumebu ing génus ''Sturnus'' kang nyebapaké mbaliké jeneng génus tuwa ''Gracupica''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zuccon|first=Dario|author2=Cibois, Anne; Pasquet, Eric; Ericson, Per G. P.|year=2006|title=Nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data reveal the major lineages of starlings, mynas and related taxa|url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2006_41_2/page/335|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|pmid=16806992|volume=41|issue=2|pages=333–344|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.05.007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Lovette, I., McCleery, B., Talaba, A., & Rubenstein, D.|year=2008|title=A complete species-level molecular phylogeny for the "Eurasian" starlings (Sturnidae: Sturnus, Acridotheres, and allies): Recent diversification in a highly social and dispersive avian group|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution|volume=47|issue=1|pages=251–260|url=http://www.dustinrubenstein.com/webpage/PUBLICATIONS_files/MPE2008.pdf|format=PDF|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.01.020|pmid=18321732|access-date=2012-11-25|archive-date=2009-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205083032/http://www.dustinrubenstein.com/webpage/PUBLICATIONS_files/MPE2008.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Wis didhaku jeneng spésies "contra" asalé saka jeneng [[India]] kanggo iku, sanajan iki durung ditelusuri sebanjuré.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sundevall, CJ|year=1846| title=The birds of Calcutta, collected and described by Carl J. Sundevall |url=http://www.archive.org/stream/annalsmagazineof18lond#page/305/mode/1up |pages=303–309| journal=Annals Mag. Nat. Hist.|volume=18}}</ref> [[Gambar:SturnopastorSmit.jpg|thumb|upright|ndas subspesies ''G. c. contra'' (nduwur), ''G. c. superciliaris'' (tengah), lan ''G. c. jalla'' (ngisor); ilustrasi déning [[Joseph Smit]], 1890]] Subspesies kang dinominasi (andedhasar deskripsi spésies kang diwenehikan Linnaeus ing [[1758]]) tinemu mligi di sedawane pinggiran [[Kali Gangga]] nuju sisih kidul menyang [[Andhra Pradesh]] lan nuju sisih wétan menyang [[Bangladesh]]. Populasi jalak suren ing lor kidul India (saka [[Sadiya]] menyang [[Tirap]] lan [[Pareden Naga]]) dijenengi ''sordida'' (asliné ''Sturnus contra sordidus'') déning [[Sidney Dillon Ripley]] ing 1950. Wujudé jalak suren iki béda karo jalak suren kang ana di India, ya iku pundak lan tengkuk kurang duwé motif garis. Populasi ing [[Manipur]] marang kidul tumuju [[Myanmar]] lan maring ngétan tunuju [[Yunnan]] duwé garis mata lan kalebu subspesies ''superciliaris'' kapisanan diterangaké déning [[Edward Blyth]] ing [[1863]]. Subspesies ing [[Thailand]], [[Laos]] lan [[Kamboja]] kalebu sajeroning ''floweri'' (Sharpe, 1897) sewentara subspesies ''jalla'' dideskribsikaké Horsfield ing [[1821]] tinemu ing [[Sumatra]], [[Jawa]] lan [[Bali]].<ref name=pcr/><ref name=hbk>{{cite book|author=Ali, S & S D Ripley| title=Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 5| edition=2|pages=172–175|year=1986| publisher=Oxford University Press| place= New Delhi}}</ref> == Habitat lan distribusi == Spèsies iki tinemu mligi ing dataran endèk nanging katemokaké uga ing ngisor bukit nganti 70 [[mèter]] ing nduwur lumah [[laut]]. dhèwèké tinemu mligi ing wewengkon cepak banyu. Distribusi utama ing [[India]] ana ing tepian [[Kali Gangga]] nanging nyebar nganti [[kali Krishna]]. Persebaran dhèwèké mundak, kanti populasi kang nggawé akèh panggonan anyar-anyar iki kaya [[Lahore]] (saka 1997<ref>{{cite journal|author= Murtaza, Syed Ali |year=1997| title=Record of the sightings and breeding of Pied Mynah ''Sturnus contra'' at Lahore|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume=94|issue=3| pages=569–570}}</ref>), [[Rajkot]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=Raol, LM |year=1966| title=Unexpected bird|journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] | volume=6|issue=7|pages=9–10| url=http://www.archive.org/stream/NLBW6#page/n87/mode/1up}}</ref> dan [[Bombay]] (wiwit taun 1953<ref>{{cite journal|author= George, NJ |year=1971|title=The Pied Myna, ''Sturnus contra'' (Linnaeus) in Bombay |journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume=68|issue=1|pages=243–244}}</ref>), uga mungkin dibantu déning dagang manuk sangkar lan ucul kanti sengaja.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Naik, Vasant R |year=1987| title= Nest of the Pied Myna ''Sturnus contra'' Linnaeus|journal=J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume=84|issue=1|page= 210}}</ref> Pola lingkungan déweké ing India mligi ing [[Rajasthan]] wis kabantu déning [[irigasi]] lan pola tetanèn.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sharma SK|title=Present distribution of Asian Pied Starling ''Sturnus contra'' in Rajasthan|journal=Zoos' print journal|volume=19|issue=12|pages=1716–1718|year=2004|url=http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2004/December/1716-1718.pdf|access-date=2012-11-25|archive-date=2012-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321092147/http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2004/December/1716-1718.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Spesies iki uga wis mapananké déwéné ing [[Dubai]], [[Uni Emirat Arab|UEA]].<ref name=iucn/> Lan uga, jalak suren diintroduksi nganti [[Taiwan]] lan [[Pulau Honshu]].<ref name="Brazil">{{Harvnb|Brazil|2009|p=394}}</ref> ==Solah tingkah== Jalak surèn lumrahé tinemu ana ing golongan cilik, mligi nalika golèk pakan ing sandhuwuré [[lemah]] nanging tetep nangkring ing [[wit]] utawa wangunan. Manuk iki ora wedi marang kéwan-kéwan kang luwih gedhé, kaya ta [[sapi]], lan sok golèk pakan ing satengahing kumpulan kéwan mau.{{sfn|Freare|Craig|1998|pp=167–168}} Jalak suren ing satengahe golongan tansah ngetokaké swara-swara kang saut-sautan kanthi swara kang manéka warna kaya swara [[sempritan]], swara getaran, lan swara ndhengung, swara klik lan océhan. Jalak surèn enom kang diingu bisa dilatih kanggo niru swara manuk liyané. Jalak surèn lumrahé golèk pakan ing [[sawah]], padhang [[suket]], lan wewengkon kang kabuka kanggo golèk [[wiji]], [[woh]]-wohan, [[gegremet]], [[endhog]] gegremet, gegremet cilik-cilik, [[kupu-kupu]], [[cacing]] lemah, {{sfn|Turut|2010|p=79}} lan [[moluska]] kang racaké dijupuk saka lemah. Nalika golèk pakan, jalak surèn lumrahé mudhun menyang lemah lan nyedhaki sumber [[banyu]] ing panggonan kang ora jero.​ Kaya jinis [[jalak]] kang liya, jalak surèn sok nyongkel utawa mbuka lemah, nusuk-nusuk migunakaké cucuké kanggo ngetokaké panganan kang ana ing sangisoré lemah.<ref name=phylo>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2008.00339.x|title=Phylogenetic relationships among Palearctic–Oriental starlings and mynas (genera Sturnus and Acridotheres: Sturnidae)|last=Zuccon|first=Dario|first2=Eric|last2=Pasquet|first3=Per G. P.|last3=Ericson|journal=Zoologica Scripta|volume=37|pages=469–481|year=2008|url=http://www.nrm.se/download/18.251938811dab4a5dcc8000180/Zuccon+et+al+Sturnus+ZSC+2008.pdf|issue=5|access-date=2013-06-19|archive-date=2016-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412110706/http://www.nrm.se/download/18.251938811dab4a5dcc8000180/Zuccon+et+al+Sturnus+ZSC+2008.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saliyané iku, jalak surèn uga biyasa mudhun menyang panggonan banyu kang ora jero kanggo golék pakan. Jalak surèn duwé otot protaktor kang kuwat saéngga bisa mbongkah pérangan ngisoré [[suket]] lan matané uga duwé posisi kang pas saéngga jalak iki duwé pandeleng binokular kanggo ndheleng celah ing antarané cucuké.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Auk|volume=70|issue=3| year=1953| title=A phylogeny of the Oscines|pages=270–333| last=Beecher|first=William J.|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v070n03/p0270-p0333.pdf|doi=10.2307/4081321}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= A new eocene Chascacocolius-like mousebird (Aves: Coliiformes) with a remarkable gaping adaptation|author=Mayr, Gerald|journal= Organisms, Diversity & Evolution |volume= 5 |year=2005|pages=167–171| doi=10.1016/j.ode.2004.10.013| url=http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/chascacocolius.pdf|issue= 3}}</ref> Nalika arep turu, manuk jalak surèn sok ngetokaké swara seru. Pakulinan urip kaya iki sok ditemoni ing golongan cilik lan kadhangkala pasang-pasangan; jalak surèn biyasa turu wengi ing golongan gedhé kang saling njaga karo jalak surèn liyané.{{sfn|Freare|Craig|1998|pp=167–168}} == Prekembangbiakané == [[Gambar:Asian Pied Starling (Sturnus contra) at nest on Jarul (Lagerstroemia speciosa) in Kolkata I IMG 8745.jpg|thumb|left|Petarangan digawé saka gumpalan jrami mapan ing pang wit [[bungur gedhé]] (''Lagerstroemia speciosa'').]] Mangsa kawin jalak suren ing [[India]] ana ing wulan [[Maret]] tekan [[September]]. Nanging ing [[Jawa]] lan [[Bali]], prekembangbiakane ana ing wulam [[Dhésèmber]] tekan [[Juni]], sanajan sawatara liya ana kang prekembangbiakane terusan sasuwéné taun.<ref name="mac93">{{aut|MacKinnon, J.}} 1993. ''Panduan Lapangan Pengenalan Burung-burung di Jawa dan Bali''. Gadjah Mada Univ. Press. hal. 352</ref> Ing wulan [[Juli]]-[[Dhésèmber]] kalebu mangsa kurange prekawinan Jalak suren. Ing mangsa prekaawinan, cacahé manuk kang nglompok dadi mudhun cacahé, amarga padha golèk pasangan. Kanggo golèk pasangan, manuk iki ngetokaké swara ngundhang, ngepuk-ngepukake wulune lan ngoyang-nggoyangake endhase. Jalak suren nggawé sarang utawa tarangan saka gumpalan jraami, kang digawé dadi kubah kanthi siji lawang lumebu ing sisihihe kang digawé ing wit gedhé. (asring ing wit [[bringin]], [[pelem]],{{sfn|Hume|1889|pp=386{{spaced ndash}}387}} [[nangka]], [[sonokembang]],<ref>{{cite journal|author= Pandey, Deep Narayan |year=1991|title= Nesting habitat selection by the Pied Myna ''Sturnus contra'' Linn|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume=88|issue=2|pages=285–286}}</ref> dan [[aren|pohon aren]]{{sfn|Turut|2010|p=78}}) utawa ing struktur utawa wangunan kang digawé manungsa,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Tiwari,JK |year=1992| title= An unusual nesting site of Pied Myna|journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] | volume=32| issue=3–4 |page=12|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/NLBW32_34#page/n13/mode/1up}}</ref> kadhangkala cedhak karo wewangunan manungsa. Ing alam liyar, jalak suren dilaporke manggon ing sarangkang ukurane gedhé, kandhi dawa 2 kaki ln dhiameter 18 [[inci]]. Ing sisih tengahé, ana papan kang memper gronggongan kanthi jero 9 inci lan dhiameter 3 1/2 inci.{{sfn|Hume|1889|p=387}} Nanging miturut pamanggihe W. Blewitt, sarang/tarangan jalak suren mapan ing kadhuwuran 10-15 kaki saka [[lemah]]. [[F.R. Blewitt]] uga duwé pamanggih dhedhasar panaliten ing [[Delhi]], bilih jalak suren kembangbiake ing wulan Juni-Agustus.{{sfn|Hume|1889|pp=386{{spaced ndash}}387}} Ing Jawa, sarang jalak suren sok digawé ing wit [[palem]] utawi ing rumpun wit-witan [[epifit]].<ref name="mac93"/> {{clear}} == Basa liya == * [[Basa Jerman]]: Elsterstar.<ref name="avibase">{{cite web |url=http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=ID&avibaseid=375766BCC58252B3 |title=Jalak Suren (Sturnus contra) Linnaeus, 1758 |last1=Lepage |first1=Denis |last2= |first2= |date= |work= |publisher=Avibase |access-date=26 Mèi 2012}}</ref> * [[Basa Polen]]: szpak srokaty.<ref name="avibase"/> * [[Basa Jepang]]: ホオジロムクドリ ('''hoojiromukudori''').<ref name="avibase"/> * [[Basa Spanyol]]: Estornino Pío.<ref name="avibase"/> == Gladri == <gallery> Gambar:Asian Pied Starling (Sturnus contra) on Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) in Kolkata W IMG 4513.jpg|Jalak suren ing [[Kolkata]], [[India]] Gambar:Asian Pied Starling (Sturnus contra) preening at Kolkata I IMG 8807.jpg|Jalak Suren Gambar:Asian Pied Starling (Sturnus contra) feeding on Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) in Kolkata I IMG 3091.jpg|Mangan Gambar:Asian Pied Starling (Sturnus contra) calling at Kolkata I IMG 8809.jpg|Saut-sautan Gambar:Asian_Pied_Starling_(Sturnus_contra)-_Adult_feeding_Juveniles_I.jpg|Diwasa lan rumaja Gambar:Asian Pied Starlings I IMG 8265.jpg‎|Jalak suren I Gambar:Asian Pied Starling I IMG 0231.jpg|Jalak suren II Gambar:Pied starling.jpg|Jalak suren III Gambar:Asian Pied Starling- enjoying water drops before taking the plunge I IMG 5698.jpg|Jalak suren IV </gallery> == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist|30em}} === Pratélan pustaka === {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} *{{cite thesis |type=Ph.D. |first=Sajeda |last=Begum |title=Brood Parasitism in Asian Cuckoos:Different Aspects of Interactions Between Cuckoos and Their Hosts in Banggaladésa |trans-title=Parasitisme Indukan padha Cuculidae Asia:Perbedaan Aspek Interaksi Antara Cuculidae dan Tuan Rumah Mereka di Banggaladésa |publisher=Nurwègenn University of Science and Technology |year=2011 |isbn=978-82-471-2949-4 |url=http://ntnu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:472551 |access-date=2013-07-29 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304140705/http://ntnu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:472551 |url-status=dead }} *{{cite book |last1=Bockheim |first1=Greg |last2=Congdon |first2=Susan |year=April 2001 |title=The Sturnidae Husbandry Manual & Resource Guide |trans-title=Panduan Sumber Daya Alam & Pedoman Peternakan Sturnidae |url=http://www.aszk.org.au/docs/sturnids.pdf |publisher= |location= |language=Inggris |isbn= |access-date=2013-07-29 |archive-date=2012-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115005241/http://www.aszk.org.au/docs/sturnids.pdf |url-status=dead }} *{{cite book |last=Brazil |first=Mark |authorlink=Mark Brazil |title=Birds of East Asia; Eastern Cina, Taiwan, Koréa, Japan, Eastern Russia |trans-title=Burung Asia Timur; Cina Timur, Taiwan, Koréa, Jepang, Ruslan Timur |publisher=Cristopher Helm |language=Inggris |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7136-7040-0 |url=http://books.google.co.id/books?id=7-GgBoivL70C }} *{{cite book |first=Douglas |last=Dewar |url=http://archive.org/details/indianbirdsbeing00dewa |year=1923 |title=Indian birds; being a key to the common birds of the plains of India (1923) |trans-title=Burung India; Kunci Burung-Burung yang Umum di Dataran India (1923) |publisher=John Lane Company |location=[[New York]] |oclc=5910457 }} *{{cite book |last1= Freare |first1= Chris |last2= Craig |first2=Adrian |year= 1998 |title= Starlings and Mynas |trans-title=Jalak dan Beo |language = English |publisher = Croom Helm |location = London |language = Inggris |isbn = 0-71363961-X }} *{{cite book |last=Hermawan |first=Rudi |title=Rahasia Sukses Mencetak 50 Jinis Burung Kicau |publisher=Pustaka Baru Press |location=[[Yogyakarta]] |language=Indonésia |year=2012 |pages= |isbn=978-602-99884-8-2 }} *{{cite book |first=Alan O. |last=Hume |editor=Eugene William Oates |url=http://openlibrary.org/books/OL23321406M/The_nests_and_eggs_of_Indian_birds |year=1889 |title=The nests and eggs of Indian birds. |trans-title=Sarang dan Telur Burung India |volume=1 |publisher=R. H. Porter |location=[[London]] |oclc=703941658 }} *{{cite book |author=Sudrajat |url=http://books.google.co.id/books?id=T3PLAtj0t4gC |title=Petunjuk Memilih Burung Ocehan Bakalan |language=Indonésia |year=1997 |publisher=Niaga Swadaya |location= |isbn=979-489-358-7 }} *{{cite book |first=Rusli |last=Turut |authorlink=Rusli Turut |title=Memelihara 42 Burung Ocehan Populer |language=Indonésia |year=2010 |publisher=Penebar Swadaya |location=[[Jakarta]] |isbn=979-002-442-8 }} {{Refend}} 29p1k47f340hmkmp6btizf81aj2uck3 Cleopatra 0 94941 1752896 1641655 2026-08-20T04:29:18Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752896 wikitext text/x-wiki {{artikel ing krama}} '''Cleopatra VII Philopator''' ({{asal tembung|Yunani|Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ}}; Januari [[69 SM]] – [[12 Agustus]] [[30 SM]]) punika [[ratu]] [[Mesir Kuna]], anggota kantun piyambak saking [[wangsa Ptolemeus]]. Éwadéné kathah ratu [[Mesir]] sanès ingkang ngginakaken namanipun, panjenenganipun ingkang dipuntepangi kanthi asma '''Cleopatra''', lan sadaya ingkang ngrumiyini kanthi asma sami mèh dipunsupèni tiyang. Sanajan piyambakipun nyandhang gelar Mesir Kina [[Pirngon]], basa utamanipun inggih basa Yunani; awit sampun sawatara abad sadèrèngipun jumeneng nata, para ratu-ratu Mesir sampun dados katurunan Yunani (= Helenistis) lan sanès kaum pribumi Mesir. Pangadegan kaum ningrat abasa Yunani ing Mesir sangkanipun saking rawuhipun Alexander Agung kirang langkung 300 taun sadèrèngipun. Cleopatra jaréné anggota kulawarganipun ingkang kapisan ingkang sinau basa Mesir. Wangsa Ptolemeus punika nglestantunaken warisan Yunani lan nglantaraken agama Mesir, kamangka kang ndunungi Mesir nganggé aksara Demotik kanggé nyerat, sistèm panyeratan kina mawa hieroglif ingkang utamanipun dipuntrapaken déning para pandhita, sapunika boten dipuntrapaken malih. Cleopatra meluk agama Mesir lan muja Déwa-Dèwi Mesir. Dèwi utamanipun punika Isis lan nalika jumenengipun, tiyang-tiyang sapraja pitadhos manawi Cleopatra punika titisanipun Dèwi Kawicaksanan. Panjenenganipun punika panguwaos Mesir sesarengan kaliyan ramanipun [[Ptolemeus XII]], sedhèrèk kakung ugi garwanipun: [[Ptolemeus XIII]] lan [[Ptolemeus XIV]], lan pungkasanipun ingkang putra [[Caesarion]]. Cleopatra saged ngatasi kudhéta ingkang dipunrancang déning pendhèrèk sedhèrèk kakungipun kanthi sekuton kaliyan [[Julius Caesar]] lan dipunlajengaken déning [[Mark Antony]]. Cleopatra gadhah 1 putra saking Julius Caesar lan 3 putra saking Mark Antony (kalih ing antawisipun punika kembar). Cleopatra nglalu (suduk salira) ing wekdal [[Augustus]] (Octavianus) dados ratu lan nyerang Mesir, kanthi cara nglebetaken tanganipun piyambak ing kranjang kebak sawer ingkang gadhah wisa (asp / satunggaling jinis Cobra asal Afrika Lér). Cariyos gesangipun asring dipundramatisasi wonten ing warni-warni wangun karya (seni), kalebet "''Antony and Cleopatra''" saking [[William Shakespeare]] lan sapérengan filem modérn. == Mangsa alit == [[Gambar:Ptolemy xii.PNG|thumb|center|700px|Sarasilah kulawargi Cleopatra]] Namung sakedhik ingkang dipunmangertos prakawis mangsa alitipun Cleopatra, Cleopatra punika turunan Yunani, sanès katurunan Mesir. Panjenenganipun dipunwiyosaken ing wiwitan taun [[69 SM]], putri nomer 3 saking 6 putra lan miyos ing kalangan [[Dinasti Ptolemaik]] Yunani. Panjenenganipun gadhah kalih mbakyu lan satunggal rayi putri sarta kalih rayi kakung. Panjenenganipun dipunwiyosaken lan ageng wonten ing [[Alexandria]], kitha paling ageng lan paling méwah ing wekdal punika. Karajan saking ramanipun Cleopatra boten aman amargi tekanan lan konflik saking njawi lan saweg rebutan panguwaos, sarta konflik salebeting karajan kados [[papréntahan séntralisasi]] lan [[korupsi]] [[pulitik]]. Prakawis punika njalari pambalélan lan icalipun [[Siprus]] lan [[Cyrenaica]] ingkang njalari mangsa panguwaosipun Ptolemeus dados salah satunggal ingkang paling ''fatal'' ing wangsa mau. Samangsa alit, Cleopatra sampun mirsani pasatron kulawarganipun piyambak. Kacariyos bilih ramanipun kalis saking 2 upaya panyédanan nalika satunggaling réncang manggihi sawer ingkang wisanipun mandi sanget ing pasaréyanipun lan réncang ingkang nyicipi unjukan anggur bendaranipun pejah. Mbakyunipun ingkang nomer satunggal, [[Cleopatra VI saking Mesir|Tryphaena]] ugi nyobi ngracun Cleopatra saéngga panjenenganipun wiwit ngginakaken juru cicip. Nalika panjenenganipun yuswa welasan taun, panjenenganipun nyeksèkaken dhawahipun ramanipun piyambak lan ramanipun dados bonéka [[Kakaisaran Romawi]] amargi awratipun utang ingkang inggil sanget, nanging taksih ngajeng-ajeng supados Romawi boten naklukaken Mesir. Kedadosan punika njalari [[Ptolemeus XII]] kausir rakyat saking Alexandria lan mlajeng dhumateng Romawi. Ing taun [[58 SM]], ibunipun, [[Cleopatra V]] mendhet alih papréntahan sesarengan kaliyan putranipun, [[Berenice IV]] kanthi pitulung gubernur [[Suriah]] ingkang dipunkuwaosi [[kekaisaran Romawi|Romawi]], [[Aulus Gabinius]] salaminipun setaun ngantos ibunipun mangkat, lajeng Berenice IV mréntah piyambak. [[Ptolemeus XII]] nggulingakén putri ingkang paling sepuh taun [[55 SM]] lan ngukum pejah putrinipun, Berenice IV. Mbakyu Cleopatra sanèsipun, [[Cleopatra VI saking Mesir|Tryphaena]] mendhet singgasana lan boten dangu salajengipun panjenenganipun mangkat ingkang nyisakaken Cleopatra kaliyan garwa lan rayinipun, [[Ptolemeus XIII Theos Philopator|Ptolemeus XIII]] dados panerus singgasana. Saking ramanipun, [[Ptolemeus XII]], Cleopatra mangertosi kekiyatan leluhuripun. Leluhuripun sampun ngayahi panaklukan ingkang ngédap-édapi, améh tigang abad kapengker. == Minggah singgasana == [[Ptolemeus XII]] surud dalem ing wulan [[Maret]] taun [[51 SM]], njalari Cleopatra ingkang wekdal samanten yuswanipun kirang langkung 18 taun lan [[Ptolemeus XIII]] 12 taun dados pamimpin gabungan. Tigang taun sepindhah panguwaosanipun awrat amargi masalah ékonomi, kaluwèn, banjir [[bengawan Nil]] lan konflik pulitik. Éwadéné Cleopatra bebrayan kaliyan rayinipun piyambak, Cleopatra nedahaken bilih panjenenganipun boten gadhah karsa kanggé ngedum kakuwaosan kaliyan garwanipun punika. == Kalèngsèraken saking singgasana == Ing wulan [[Agustus]] taun [[51 SM]], sesambetan antawis Cleopatra lan garwanipun risak. Cleopatra ngandhapaken asma Ptolemeus saking dhokumèn resmi lan sliranipun muncul piyambak ing arta koin ingkang wonten ing njawi tradhisi Ptolemaik ingkang nelaaken bilih pamimpin wanita ing andhaping pamimpin kakung. Prakawis punika ngasilaken golongan wadi tiyang ingkang boten kalebet ing pura, kapimpin déning tiyang [[kedhi]] [[Pothinus]], ngandhapaken Cleopatra saking kakuwaosan lan ndadosaken Ptolemeus pamimpin ing taun [[48 SM]] (utawi langkung awal, lan wonten satunggaling dekrit ing taun [[51 SM]] kanthi asma Ptolemeus piyambak). Panjenenganipun nyobi mbaléla ing sacelakipun [[Pelusium]], nanging kepeksa mlajeng saking Mesir kaliyan adhik sanèsipun, [[Arsinoe IV|Arsinoë]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age | author=[[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]] | year=1990 |pages=661–664 | id=ISBN 0-520-05611-6 | location= Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> == Minggah singgasana malih == [[Gambar:Cleopatra&Caesar1877s.jpeg|300px|right|thumb|Cleopatra kepanggih kaliyan Caesar]] Nalika Cleopatra tindak saking Mesir, [[Pompey]] tumut ing [[Perang Sadulur Caesar|perang sadhèrèk Romawi]]. Ing ''mangsa palastra'' taun [[48 SM]], [[Pompey]] mlajeng saking wadya-bala [[Julius Caesar]] tumuju [[Alexandria]] lan pados pangayoman. Ptolemeus ing wekdal samanten yuswa 15 taun lan nengga rawuhipun. Ing tanggal [[28 September]] [[48 SM]], Pompey dipunpejahi déning salah satunggaling tilas opsiripun piyambak ingkang wekdal punika nyambut damel kanggé Ptolemaik. Panjenenganipun dipunpenggal ing ngajengipun garwa lan putranipun, wonten ing kapal dèrèng dangu Panjenenganipun medhak. Ptolemeus menggalih bilih kanthi mréntahaken mejahi Pompey punika ndamel bingahipun [[Julius Caesar]]. Prakawis punika dados klèntunipun Ptolemeus ingkang ageng. Nalika Caesar dumugi ing Mesir kalih dinten sasampunipun, Ptolemeus maringaken dhateng Pompey. Caesar ingkang mirsani prakawis punika sakelangkung duka amargi senaos kanyatan bilih Panjenenganipun mengsah pulitik Caesar, [[Pompey]] punika konsul Roma lan dhudha saking putri Julius Caesar, [[Julia (putrinipun Julius Caesar)|Julia]]. Caesar nguwaosi kutha krajan Mesir lan ndadosaken wasit saking klaim antawisipun Ptolemeus lan Cleopatra. Cleopatra mendhet kasempatan punika lan wangsul dhumateng pura, kapanggih kaliyan Caesar. Dipunpitados bilih Caesar kesengsem déning langkahipun, lan Cleopatra dados pacanganipun. Sangang wulan sasampunipun pepanggihan punika Cleopatra babaran. Ing wekdal samanten, Caesar nilar gagasanipun kanggé nggabungaken Mesir, lan nyengkuyung klaim Cleopatra dhumateng singgasana. Sasampunipun perang sadhèrèk sakedhap, Ptolemeus XIII kesilep wonten ing [[bengawan Nil]] lan Caesar mangsulaken Cleopatra ing tahtanipun, kanthi rayi sanèsipun [[Ptolemeus XIV saking Mesir|Ptolemeus XIV]] dados wakil pamimpin énggal. == Sesambetan Cleopatra kaliyan Julius Caesar == Éwadéné bèntenipun yuswa Cleopatra lan Julius Caesar 30 taun, Cleopatra lan Caesar dados pacangan salaminipun Caesar wonten ing Mesir taun [[48 SM]] dumugi [[47 SM]]. Pepanggihanipun nalika Cleopatra yuswa 21 taun lan Caesar yuswa 50 taun. Ing tanggal [[23 Juni]] [[47 SM]], Cleopatra miyosaken [[Caesarion|Ptolemeus Caesar]] (kasebat "Caesarion" ingkang tegesipun "Caesar alit"). Cleopatra klaim Caesar punika ramanipun lan ngajeng-ajeng putra punika dados ahli waris, nanging Caesar nampik lan langkung milih wayah jaleripun, [[Augustus|Octavian]]. Caesarion dipunmaksudaken kanggé marisi Mesir lan Romawi, nyetunggalaken wétan lan kilèn. Cleopatra lan Caesarion nuwèni Roma ing taun [[47 SM]] dumugi taun [[41 SM]] lan rawuh nalika Caesar dipunpejahi tanggal [[15 Maret]] [[44 SM]]. Sadèrèngipun utawi sasampunipun kadadosan rajapati punika panjenenganipun kondur dhumateng Mesir. Nalika Ptolemeus XIV mangkat amargi gerah, Cleopatra ndadosaken [[Caesarion]] panerusipun. Kanggé njagi panjenenganipun lan Caesarion, rayinipun Arsinoe lajeng kaprejaya. == Sesambetan Cleopatra kaliyan Mark Antony == [[Gambar:Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema - The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''Anthony lan Cleopatra'', dipundamel déning [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]].]] Ing taun [[42 SM]], [[Mark Antony]], salah satunggiling panguwaos ing Roma sasampunipun Caesar mangkat, ndhawuhi Cleopatra pepanggihan ing [[Tarsus ing Sisilia|Tarsus]] kanggé njawab pitakènan kasetyanipun. Cleopatra rawuh lan ndamel Antony kasengsem, ingkang njalari Anthony lajeng nelasaken mangsa asrep taun [[41 SM]]–[[40 SM]] kaliyan Cleopatra ing Alexandria. Ing tanggal [[25 Dhésèmber]] [[40 SM]], Cleopatra miyosaken 2 putra/putri, [[Alexander Helios]] lan [[Cleopatra Selene II]]. Sekawan taun salajengipun, taun [[37 SM]], Antony nuwéni Alexandria sepindhah malih kanggé perang kaliyan [[Parthian]]. Panjenenganipun ngénggalaken sesambetanipun kaliyan Cleopatra, lan wiwit wekdal punika Alexandria dados dalemipun. Panjenenganipun ijab kaliyan Cleopatra miturut ritus Mesir (serat kakutip ing [[Kehidupan 12 Caesar|Suetonius]] ngusulaken punika), éwadéné panjenenganipun sampun gadhah garwa [[Octavia Minor]] ing Roma. Panjenenganipun lan Cleopatra patutan ingkang namanipun [[Ptolemeus Philadelphus (Cleopatra)|Ptolemeus Philadelphus]]. Kanthi dhonasi Alexandria ing taun [[34 SM]], lan ugi serangan Anthony dhumateng [[Karajan Armenia|Armenia]], Cleopatra lan Caesarion dipunmakuthani dados wakil pamimpin [[Mesir]] lan [[Siprus]]. [[Alexander Helios]] dados pamimpin Armenia, [[Medes|Media]], lan [[Parthia]]; Cleopatra Selene II dados pamimpin [[Cyrenaica]] lan [[Libya]]. Ptolemeus Philadelphus dados panguwaos [[Phoenicia]], [[Suriah]], lan [[Sisilia]]. Cleopatra ugi angsal gelar ''"Ratu atas Raja"''. Tumindakipun Anthony kaanggep awon déning Romawi lan Octavian mbujuk sénat supados perang kaliyan Mesir. Ing taun [[31 SM]], wadya-bala Anthony ngadhepi serangan armada Romawi ing pasisir [[peperangan Actium|Actium]]. Kanthi kadadosan [[peperangan Actium]], Octavian nyerang Mesir. Tanpa pengungsi sanès ingkang mlajeng, Anthony nglalu kanthi suduk slira nganggé pedhangipun piyambak, tanggal [[12 Agustus]] [[30 SM]]. == Kapejahan == [[Gambar:The Death of Cleopatra arthur.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gambaran pejahing Cleopatra déning [[Reginald Arthur]].]] Mark Antony nglalu ingkang njalari Cleopatra ugi nglalu. Boten dipunmangertos kadospundi piyambakipun séda, nanging miturut légendha, panjenenganipun mendhet kaputusan kanggé nglalu sasampunipun panjenenganipun ngrumaosi bilih panjenenganipun boten saged nyembadani tujuanipun. Panjenenganipun pejah jalaran kanthi sengaja nglebetaken tangan ing wakul isi woh ara ingkang sampun dipuntlesepi sawer kanthi wisa salangkung mandi saéngga panjenenganipun kacokot sawer wau. Ing detik pungkasan pejahipun, panjenenganipun nelakaken takdiripun dados dèwi.<ref>{{cite book | title=[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]| author=[[William Smith (lexicographer)|Smith, William]]| year=1867 |pages=802 | location= Boston | publisher=Little, Brown & Company}}</ref> Putranipun Cleopatra, [[Caesarion]] klaim dados pirangon Mesir, nanging Octavian mimpang langkung rumiyin. Caesarion dipuncekel lan dipuneksekusi, takdhiripun kalaporaken kakunci déning pangandikan misuwur Octavian: "Kalih Caesar punika kekathahen." Prakawis punika ngakhiri garis pharaoh Mesir. 3 putra/putri saking Cleopatra lan Antony dipunapunten lan dipunbeta kondur dhumateng Roma lan dipunrawat déning garwanipun Anthony, [[Octavia Minor]]. Pelayan Cleopatra, Iras lan Charmion ugi nglalu. Putrinipun Anthony, Octavia dipunapunten lan ugi putranipun, Iullus Antonius. Putranipun ingkang nomer satunggal, Marcus Antonius Antyllus, dipunpejahi nalika nyuwun kanggé ngagesang ing Caesarium. == Cleopatra ing kabudayan populér == [[Gambar:Image-1963 Cleopatra trailer screenshot (35)2.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[Elizabeth Taylor]] dados Cleopatra ing filem ''[[Cleopatra (filem 1963)|Cleopatra]]'' taun [[1963]]]] Carios Cleopatra sampun ndamel éram juru nulis lan artis. Cleopatra punika figur pulitik ingkang kiyat, ugi muncul dados tiyang ingkang saged sekuthon kaliyan 2 tiyang paling kiyat (Julius Caesar lan Mark Antony) ing mangsanipun. Cleopatra muncul ing buku, filem, novèl, drama, permainan video, lukisan lan serial télévisi. Contonipun ing drama ''[[Antony lan Cleopatra]]'' taun [[1609]] karyanipun [[William Shakespeare]]. Film sepindhahan ingkang wonten sesambetanipun kaliyan Cleopatra inggih punika ''[[Antony lan Cleopatra (filem 1908)|Antony and Cleopatra]]'' kanthi [[Florence Lawrence]] dados Cleopatra. Film sepindhahan kanthi subyék ''[[Cleopatra, Ratu Mesir (1912)|Cleopatra, Ratu Mesir]]'', dipunbintangi déning Helen Gardner. Kathah artis ingkang ugi ndadosaken Cleopatra obyék lukisanipun, contonipun [[Guido Cagnacci]] ingkang nglukis prekawis pejahing Cleopatra ing taun [[1658]] == Cathetan suku == <references /> == Réferénsi == * {{cite journal | last = Ullman | first = Berthold L. | authorlink = | title = Cleopatra's Pearls | journal = The Classical Journal | volume = 52 | issue = 5 | pages = 193-201 | publisher = | date = 1957 | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_classical-journal_1957-02_52_5/page/193}} == Ugi pirsani == {{commons|Category:Cleopatra|Cleopatra}} * [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/cleopatra/ Cleopatra ing situs]-470 sumber, kalebet gambar kuna lan modérn. * [http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/cleopatra_vii.htm Rujukan kuno Cleopatra VII Philopator] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912022049/http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/cleopatra_vii.htm |date=2009-09-12 }} * [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Africa/Egypt/_Texts/BEVHOP/13*.html Cleopatra VII&nbsp;(VI) at LacusCurtius] — (Chapter&nbsp;XIII of E.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;Bevan's ''Dewan Ptolemeus'', 1923) * [http://www.gutenberg.net/browse/BIBREC/BR10992.HTM Cleopatra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040314221821/http://www.gutenberg.net/browse/BIBREC/BR10992.HTM |date=2004-03-14 }}-satunggaling buku kanggé bocah Victoria ingkang kaserat déning [[Jacob Abbott]], 1852. * [http://www.geocities.com/christopherjbennett/ptolemies/genealogy.htm Silsilah kulawarga Cleopatra VII] * [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/cleopatra/cleopatra.html James Grout: ''Cleopatra'', bagéyan saking Encyclopædia Romana] {{Panguwaos Mesir Kuno}} [[Kategori:Pirngon]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ingkang nglalu]] [[Kategori:Lair 69 SM]] [[Kategori:Pati 30 SM]] [[Kategori:Artikel mawa basa krama]] {{Link FA|el}} {{Link FA|ms}} kiilmteu97dqodc5kcwms2esmytnew6 Fomalhaut 0 95318 1752875 1642497 2026-08-20T03:54:19Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752875 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} {{Starbox begin | name=Fomalhaut }} {{Starbox image | image=[[Gambar:Fomalhaut_with_Disk_Ring_and_extrasolar_planet_b.jpg|250px]] | caption=Cincin reruntuhan di sekeliling Fomalhaut menampakkan lokasi Planit Fomalhaut b - citra olèh koronagraf [[Teleskop Luar Angkasa Hubble]]. Foto [[NASA]]. }} {{Starbox observe | epoch=J2000 | constell=[[Piscis Austrinus]] | ra={{RA|22|57|39.1}} | dec={{DEC|-29|37|20}} | appmag_v=1,16 }} {{Starbox character | class=A3 V | b-v=0,09 | u-b=0,08 | variable= }} {{Starbox astrometry | radial_v=+6,5 | prop_mo_ra=329.22 | prop_mo_dec=−164.22 | parallax=130.58 | p_error=0.65 | absmag_v=1.73 }} {{Starbox detail| age=2 × 10<sup>8</sup> | metal= | mass=2,3 | radius=1,85 | rotation= | luminosity=16 | temperature=8.500 }} {{Starbox catalog | names=α Piscis Austrini, Alp PsA, Alf PsA, 24 PsA, [[Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars|Gl]] 881, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 8728, [[Cordoba Durchmusterung|CD]] -30°19370, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 216956, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 5565.00, [[Luyten Two-Tenths catalogue|LTT]] 9292, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory Star Catalog|SAO]] 191524, FK5 867, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 113368. }} {{Starbox reference | Simbad=HD+216956 }} {{Starbox end}} '''Fomalhaut''' (α PsA / α Piscis Austrini / Alpha Piscis Austrini) inggih punika [[bintang]] ingkang gamblang ing [[rasi]] [[Piscis Austrinus]]. == Ètimologi == Namanipun kaasal saking [[basa Arab|tembung Arab]] '''{{lang|ar|فم الحوت}}''' ''{{lang|ar-Latn|fum al-ḥawt}}'' ing punika "Tutuk paus". Punika kéwan deret mliginipun kaliyan [[kelas spektrum]] A berjarak sawètais {{convert|25|ly|pc|abbr=off|lk=on}} saking [[Bumi]]. asma sanès saking kéwan punika ya iku: Asma sanès kanggé kéwan punika ya iku: {| class="wikitable" |- ! nama lain ! asal basa ! arti |- |北落師門 / Běilàshīmén||[[Cina]] ||(satunggal bintang ing rasi) [[Pratélan asterisme ing panggènan Berkemah#Gerbang Utara Kamp Militer|Gerbang Utara Kamp Militer]]<ref name=sb0>salah satunggal bintang miturut rasi bintang Cina</ref>) |- |Ō-tama-rākau||[[Maori]] ||<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.teapot.orconhosting.net.nz/maori_star_names.html |title=Archive copy |access-date=2012-12-20 |archive-date=2010-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604235959/http://www.teapot.orconhosting.net.nz/maori_star_names.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> |- |Kukaniloko ||[[Polinesia]] ||jangkar tangisan<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.imiloahawaii.org/73/indigenous-star-names |title=Archive copy |access-date=2012-12-20 |archive-date=2013-01-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131212203/http://www.imiloahawaii.org/73/indigenous-star-names |url-status=dead }}</ref> |- |Hastorang ||[[Pèrsi]] ||salah satunggaling saking sekawan bintang penjaga ing Pèrsi<ref>http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/astronomy/_Texts/secondary/ALLSTA/Piscis_Australis*.html</ref> |} Sanèsipun [[rasi]] [[Piscis Austrinus]], bintang punika ugi dados anggota saking pinten-pinten rasi, asterisma utawi golongan punika: {| class="wikitable" |- ! nama rasi / asterisma / golongan ! asal ! arti ! anggota lainnya |- | 北落師門 / Běilàshīmén|| [[Cina]] || [[Pratélan asterisme ing panggènan Berkemah#Gerbang Utara Kamp Militer|Gerbang Utara Kamp Militer]]||tidak ada |- | Sky Dragon<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.amastro2.org/at/as/asas.html |title=Archive copy |access-date=2012-12-20 |archive-date=2008-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513201128/http://www.amastro2.org/at/as/asas.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>|| ||naga di langit||[[Altair|α Aql]], [[Capella|α Aur]], [[Arcturus|α Boo]], [[Sirius|α CMa]], [[Procyon|α CMi]], [[Alpha Cygni|α Cyg]], [[Beta Geminorum|β Gem]], [[Alpha Geminorum|α Gem]], [[Regulus|α Leo]], [[Vega|α Lyr]], [[Rigel|β Or]], [[Betelgeuse|α Or]], [[Antares|α Sco]], [[Alpha Tauri|α Tau]], [[Spica|α Vir]] |- | Castor Moving Group<ref>http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=article&access=bibcode&bibcode=2003A%2526A...400..297RPDF</ref> || || ||(antara lain): [[Alpha Cephei|α Cep]], [[Alpha Geminorum|α Gem]], [[Zeta Leporis|ζ Lep]], [[Alpha Librae|α<sup>1</sup> Lib]], [[Alpha Librae|α<sup>2</sup> Lib]], [[Vega|α Lyr]], [[TW Piscis Austrini|TW PsA]], [[Kappa Phoenicis|κ Phe]], [[HD 181321]], [[HD 119124]], [[Psi Velorum|ψ Vel]] |} == Sistem == Fomalhaut kinubengan déning piringan debu kadhapur [[toroida]] kaliyan tepian pérangan ing tajam ing jarak 133 [[ékan astronomi|AU]], lan gadhah sudut kemiringan 24 drajat kaliyan garis ndeleng.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kalas |first=Paul |authorlink= |coauthors=Graham, James R.; Clampin, Mark |year=2005 |title=A planetary system as the origin of structure in Fomalhaut's dust belt |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=435 |issue=7045 |pages=1067–1070 |doi=10.1038/nature03601 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-06-23_435_7045/page/1067|accessdate=2008-11-14 |id={{arxiv|astro-ph/0506574}} }}</ref><ref>The disc was reported by {{cite journal |last=Holland |first=Wayne S. |authorlink= |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=1998 |title=Submillimetre images of dusty debris around nearby stars |journal=Nature |volume=392 |issue=6678 |pages=788–791 |doi=10.1038/33874 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1998-04-23_392_6678/page/788|accessdate= |quote= }} They noted that the disc was centered on a cavity, which they suggested might have been swept out by planets.</ref> Debu-debu ingkang ageng ing sebuah sabuk kaliyan amba 25 AU. Ing tanggal 13 November 2008, para astronom ngumumaken penemuan [[planit luar surya]] ingkang ngorbit sekedik ing pérangan ing cincin. inggih punika planit luar surya kawiwitan ingkang wonten dipuntingali kanthi visual, ing ndawa gelombang katingal, ngginakaken [[Teleskop Luar Angkasa Hubble]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iA-PPiKC8oJh3qqkV2ZsF09HmmCA|title=From afar, the first optical photos of an exoplanet|publisher=AFP|date=2008-11-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220130945/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iA-PPiKC8oJh3qqkV2ZsF09HmmCA|archivedate=2008-12-20|access-date=2012-12-20|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Kalas">{{cite web| author=[[Paul Kalas]] |title=Direct Image Of Extrasolar Planit |url=http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=aXKz4nxyPqw |date=2008-11-13 |accessdate=2008-11-14}} (at 3 minutes 45 seconds: "... has to be less than three Jupiter masses. In fact our lower limit to Fomalhaut b is Neptune")</ref> Planit mau dipunnamani [[Fomalhaut b]], dipunperkirakaken gadhah massa manawi sami kaliyan massa [[Neptunus]] ngantos boten langkung saking tiga kali massa [[Yupiter]]. == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Bintang variabel]] [[Kategori:Sistem keplanetan]] {{astronomi-stub}} cvn0rqapzqq0f4nzu3fcbm78nc9q4h9 Pupuk Sriwidjaja Palembang 0 95960 1752838 1752701 2026-08-19T19:51:46Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752838 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} [[Gambar:Pt pupuk sriwijadja.jpg|thumb|240px]] {{for|perusahaan kang dahulu bernama PT Pupuk Sriwidjaja (Persero)|Pupuk Indonésia}} {{Kotak info perusahaan | company_name = PT Pupuk Sriwidjaja Palembang | company_logo = [[Berkas:Pusri.jpeg‎|center|150px]] | company_type = | foundation = [[12 November]] [[2010]] | location = [[Palembang]], [[Indonésia]] | key_people = Parikesit Suprapto, PhD , Komisaris {{br}}Edy Putra Irawady, SH , Direktur Utama |Ir. Arifin Tasrif | industry = [[Urea]] dan [[Amoniak]] | products = {{br}}Urea{{br}} Amoniak | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | num_employees = (organik){{br}} (non-organik) | parent = [[PT Pupuk Indonésia]] | subsid = {{br}}PT Sri Melamin Rejeki {{br}}PT Puspetindo | homepage = http://www.pusri.co.id/ | footnotes = }} '''PT Pupuk Sriwidjaja Palembang''', kang kondhang minangka PT Pusri, wujud anak perusahaan saka [[PT Pupuk Indonésia]] (Persero)<ref name="anak perusahaan pihc">{{Cite web |url=http://pupuk-indonesia.com/id/kepemilikan-saham |title=Anak Perusahaan PT Pupuk Indonésia |access-date=2013-01-14 |archive-date=2013-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115064736/http://pupuk-indonesia.com/id/kepemilikan-saham |url-status=dead }}</ref> kang bergerak ing babagan [[produksi]] lan [[pemasaran]] [[pupuk]]. == Sajarah == ==== Pupuk Sriwidjaja minangka Induk Pupuk Indonésia ==== Nalika taun 1997, Pusri ditunjuk minangka perusahaan induk membawahi papat BUMN kang bergerak ing babagan indhustri pupuk lan petrokimia, ya iku PT Petrokimia Gresik ing [[Gresik]], [[Jawa Timur]]; PT Pupuk Kujang ing [[Cikampek]], [[Jawa Barat]]; PT Pupuk Kaltim ing [[Bontang]], [[Kalimantan Timur]]; lan PT Pupuk Iskandar Muda ing [[Lhokseumawe]], [[Acèh]]; sarta BUMN kang bergerak ing babagan engineering, procurement & construction (EPC), ya iku PT Rekayasa Industri (kantore pusat ing Jakarta). Nalika taun 1998, anak perusahaan Pusri bertambah siji BUMN manhe, ya iku PT Mega Eltra ing Jakarta kang bergerak ing babagan perdagangan. awit Pamaréntah Indonésia mindahake sekabehane sahamnya kang dipanggonake ing Industri Pupuk Dalam Negeri lan ing PT Mega Eltra marang PUSRI, liwat Peraturan Pamaréntah (PP) nomer 28 taun 1997 lan PP nomer 34 taun 1998, mangka PUSRI, kang berkedudukan ing Palembang, Sumatera Selatan, dadi Induk Perusahaan (Operating Holding) kanti membawahi 6 (enam) anak perusahaan kalebu anak perusahaan penyertaan langsung ya iku PT Rekayasa Industri, masing-masing perusahaan bergerak sajrone babagan usaha: * PT Petrokimia Gresik kang berkedudukan ing Gresik, Jawa Timur. Produksi lan masarake pupuk urea, ZA, SP-36/SP-18, [[Phonska]], DAP, NPK, ZK, lan indhustri kimia lliyane sarta Pupuk Organik. * PT Pupuk Kujang, kang berkedudukan ing Cikampek, Jawa Barat. Memproduksi lan masarake pupuk urea lan indhustri kimia liyané. * PT Pupuk Kalimantan Timur, kang kedudukane ing Bontang, Kalimantan Timur. Produksi lan masarake pupuk urea lan indhustri kimia liyané. * PT Pupuk Iskandar Muda, kang kedudukane ing Lhokseumawe, Nangroe Acèh Darussalam. Produksi an masarake pupuk Urea lan indhustri kimia liyané. * PT Rekayasa Industri, kang kedudukane ing Jakarta, Bergerak sajrone penyediaan Jasa Engineering, Procurement & Construction (EPC) guna yasa indhustri gas & lenga bumi, pupuk, kimia dan petrokimia, pertambangan, pembangkit listrik (panas bumi, batu bara, micro-hydro, diesel). * PT Mega Eltra, kang kedudukane ing Jakarta kanti babagan usaha mligi ya iku Perdagangan Umum. === Periode Pupuk Sriwidjaja Palembang === Nalika taun [[2010]], dilakokake pemisahan ('''Spin-Off''') saka PT. Pupuk Sriwidjaja (Persero) (Pusri) marang PT. Pupuk Sriwidjaja Palembang (Pusri Palembang)<ref>[http://www.republika.co.id/berita/breaking-news/ekonomi/11/01/02/155887-pusri-resmi-jadi-holding-bumn-pupuk Pusri resmi jadi holding bumn pupuk]</ref>. Owah-owahan iki terutang sajrone owah-owahan anggaran dhasar<ref name="sajarah pusri">{{Cite web |url=http://www.pusri.co.id/50profil01.php |title=Sejarah Pusri |access-date=2013-01-14 |archive-date=2012-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710060935/http://www.pusri.co.id/50profil01.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>. Pengalihan hak lan kewajiban Pusri marang Pusri Palembang tertuang sajrone [[Rapat Umum Pemegang Saham]] - Luar Biyasa nalika [[24 Dhésèmber]] 2010<ref name="sajarah pusri" />. Serah tampa kalungguhan lan pengalihan hak lan kewajiban efektif nalika [[1 Januari]] 2011<ref name="sajarah pusri" />. Pusri Palembang tetep migunakaké logo lan merk dagang Pusri<ref name="sajarah pusri" />. Pusri dhéwé ganti jeneng dadi [[Pupuk Indonésia]] lan migunakaké merk Pupuk Indonésia lan logo Pupuk Indonésia<ref name="ganti nama dan logo ke pupuk indonesia">[http://www.pupuk-kujang.co.id/allmenu.php?idn=36&idd=166&PHPSESSID=d75250648bd1364e7d411e70d66d8ad9 Lauching Nama dan Logo Baru Holding Pupuk]{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>. == Anak Perusahaan == # PT Sri Melamin Rejeki<ref name="anak perusahaan pusri">{{Cite web |url=http://www.pusri.co.id/50profil10.php |title=Anak Perusahaan Pusri |access-date=2013-01-14 |archive-date=2013-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111035224/http://www.pusri.co.id/50profil10.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> (20%)<ref name="anak perusahaan pusri 2">{{Cite web |url=http://www.pusri.co.id/index0300.php |title=Anak Perusahaan Pusri 2 |access-date=2013-01-14 |archive-date=2012-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717073925/http://www.pusri.co.id/index0300.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>, kang bergerak sajrone produksi melamin. # [http://www.puspetindo.com PT Puspetindo]<ref name="anak perusahaan pusri" /> (5.3%)<ref name="anak perusahaan pusri 2" />, kang bergerak sajrone produksi peralatan pabrik. # [http://twinplazahotèl.co.id/ PT Slipi Sri Indopuri]{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala 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2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}<ref name="anak perusahaan pusri 2" />, kang bergerak sajrone hotèl lan apartemen. == Wewengkon Pemasaran == Surat Dudutan (SK) Menperindag No 70/MPP/Kep/2/2003 tanggal 11 Fèbruari 2003 wis mengatur manèh pola Pengadaan lan Penyaluran Pupuk Bersubsidi kanggo Sektor Pertanian, ya iku kanti pola rayonisasi distribusi pupuk kanggo produsen pupuk. Wewengkon Pemsaran Pupuk Sriwidjaja diduduhake kanti warna biru sarta anakan perusahaane. [[Gambar:Insetpemasaran02.jpg|center|500px]] == Prastawa wigati == # Pusri didegake nalika tanggal 24 Dhésèmber 1959 di Palembang, kanti kagiyatan usaha produksi pupuk urea. # nalika taun [[1963]] beroperasi pabrik pupuk urea pertama ya iku: ” PUSRI I ” kanti kapasitas terpasang 100.000 ton per taun. # Tahun [[1974]] dibangun pabrik pupuk Urea kapindho ya iku “ PUSRI II “ kanti kapasitas terpasang 380.000 ton pertahun (awit taun 1992 kapasitase ditingkatake / optimasi dadi 570.000 ton/taun). # Tahun [[1976]] dibangun pabrik pupuk Urea ketelu, ya iku “ PUSRI III ” kanti kapasitas terpasang 570.000 ton pertahun. # Tahun [[1977]] dibangun pabrik pupuk Urea kepapat, ya iku “ PUSRI IV ” kanti kapasitas terpasang 570.000 ton pertahun. # Tahun [[1979]], pamaréntah ngukuhaké PT.Pusri minangka perusahaan kang bertanggung jawab sajrone pengadaan lan penyaluran sekabehane jinis pupuk bersubsidi, baik kang berskala saka produksi sajrone nagari utawa import kanggo memenuhi kebutuhan program intensivikasi pertanian (Bimas lan Inmas). # Tahun [[1990]] dibangun pabrik pupuk Urea, ya iku “ PUSRI I B ” kanti kapasitas terpasang 570.000 ton pertahun minangka pengganti pabrik Puri I kang diendeg operasine amarga usia teknis lan wis ora efisien manèh. Pabrik iki wiwit produksi nalika taun 1994, wujud pabrik pertama kang digarap sapérangan besar déning ahli-ahli bangsa Indonésia, kang dibangun kanti konsèp hemat ènergi lan migunakaké sistem kendali komputer “Distributed Control System” # Tanggal [[12 November]] [[2010]], pemisahan PT Pupuk Sriwidjaja Palembang saka PT Pusri. == Struktur Kepemilikan Saham == * PT Pupuk Indonésia (99,99%)<ref name="anak perusahaan pusri" /> * Yayasan Kesejahteraan Karyawan Pusri (0,01%)<ref name="anak perusahaan pusri" /> [[Gambar:Strukturholding.jpg|center|600px]] == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.pusri.co.id/ Situs Resmi PT. Pupuk Sriwidjaja Palembang] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326054110/http://pusri.co.id/ |date=2013-03-26 }} [[Kategori:Kota Palembang]] [[Kategori:Perusahaan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Pupuk]] fp4gx76fe9g0v6qn3zgbk4wqokk1b0r Candy Candy 0 96316 1752827 1752768 2026-08-19T14:29:20Z ~2026-45502-32 74149 Ndandani akibat vandalisme. Versi asli ingkang akurat sampun dipunwangsulaken malih. Referensi saha pranala njawi ingkang valid ugi sampun dipunpasang malih 1752827 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox animanga/Header | title_name = Candy Candy | image = Candy candy.jpg | size = 200px | caption = Karakter "Candy" | ja_name = キャンディ・キャンディ | ja_name_trans = | genre = [[roman]], [[sajarah]] }} {{Infobox animanga/Manga | title = | author = [[Kyoko Mizuki]] (carita)<br /> [[Yumiko Igarashi]] (ilustrasi) | publisher = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Kodansha]], [[Chuokoronsha]] | demographic = [[Shōjo]] | serialized = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Nakayoshi]] | first_run = April 1975 | last_run = Maret 1979 | num_volumes = 9 }} {{Infobox animanga/Anime | title = | director = [[Tetsuo Imazawa]] | studio = [[Toei Animation]] | network = {{flagicon|Jepang}} [[TV Asahi]] | network_other = {{flagicon|Prancis}} [[Antenne 2]]<br /> {{flagicon|Yunani}} [[Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi|ERT]]<br /> {{flagicon|Dominican Republic}} [[Antena Latina]]<br /> {{flagicon|Spanyol}} [[RTVE]]<br /> {{flagicon|Itali}} [[Mediaset]]<br /> {{flagicon|Bolivia}} [[Bolivision]]<br /> {{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[RCTI]] (2 Mèi 1993-1996)<br /> {{flagicon|Filipina}} [[Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation|IBC-13]], [[Radio Philippines Network|RPN-9]], [[Southern Broadcasting Network|SBN-21]] | first_aired = [[1 Oktober]] [[1976]] | last_aired = [[2 Fèbruari]] [[1979]] | num_episodes = 115 }} {{Infobox animanga/Video | type = film | title = Candy Candy: The Call of Spring/The May Festival | director = [[Noboru Shiroyama]] | studio = Toei Animation | release_date = 18 Maret 1978 | runtime = }} {{Infobox animanga/Video | type = film | title = Candy Candy's Summer Vacation | director = [[Yukio Kazama]] | studio = Toei Animation | release_date = 22 Juli 1978 | runtime = }} {{Infobox animanga/Video | type = film | title = Candy Candy the Movie | director = [[Tetsuo Imazawa]] | studio = [[Toei Animation]] | release_date = [[25 April]] [[1992]] | runtime = 26 menit }} {{Infobox animanga/Footer}} {{nihongo|'''Candy Candy'''|キャンディ・キャンディ|Kyandi Kyandi}} ya iku [[manga]], [[novèl]] lan [[anime]] kang asalé saka [[Jepang]]. Paraga utama carita iki ya iku '''Candice "Candy" White Ardlay''', bocah wadon Amérika kanti rambut pirang lan ''ikal'' kanti rai ana bintik-bintike ireng amarga panas sengenge lan mata belok (gedhi) kanti wernane ijo. Candy Candy ana pertama kali minangka [[prosa]] novèl karangan penulis Jepang [[Kyoko Mizuki]] nalika wulan April [[1975]]. Mizuki banjur bekerja sama karo ilustrator manga [[Yumiko Igarashi]] kanggo gawé versi manga carita Candy Candy. Cerita manga iki narik perhatian kalawarta Jepang [[Nakayoshi]], kang sebanjure memuat serial manga Candy Candy minangka carita bersambung sak wene 4 taun (April 1975-Maret 1979). Serial manga iki kahasil menang penghargaan pertama [[Penghargaan Manga Kodansha]] kanggo kategori [[shōjo]] nalika taun [[1977]]. Cerita Candy candy banjur diadaptasi dadi serial anime déning [[Toei Animation]].<ref name="internet1">[http://www.monikatanu.com/blog/2007/07/ending-candy-candy/ Ending Komik Candy-candy] (Kaunduh 3/2/13).</ref> Kanggo nggawe crita Candy Candy, penulis Keiko Nagita utamane diilhami dening novel Jean Webster Daddy-Long-Legs, ing ngendi para protagonis Jerusha Abbott lan Jervis Pendleton jatuh cinta sanajan hubungane karo wali. Dheweke wis dikonfirmasi ing macem-macem wawancara yen karakter Albert minangka katresnan sejati lan takdir Candy, saiki ing kabeh fase urip: kepungkur (pangeran), saiki (kanca / wali), lan mangsa (bojo).<ref>[https://elportadesakura.wordpress.com/2025/04/21/candy-y-sus-tres-amores-entrevista-a-keiko-nagita/ "Candy and her three loves. Interview with Keiko Nagita"] - April 21, 2025.</ref> Ing wawancara kanggo Ensiklopedia Keizensha: 'Rahasia Candy dicethakaké!' Nagita ngandika: "Aku mutusaké kanggo nulis crita sing ora mung manga gaib, utawa crita conventional bab cah wadon yatim piatu nggoleki ibune, nanging urip saka cah wadon sing urip looking nerusake, lan ing urip sing aku wanted kanggo kalebu telung tresna. Kapisan iku katresnan dhisikan karo Anthony, katresnan fleeting. A katresnan digawe mung saka tenderness karo cah lanang saka katresnan khusus karo Terry lan Terry kudu kapisah. malah nalika isih tresna Lan pungkasane, aku nulis katresnan sing tenang, diwasa, lan wis ditakdirake karo Albert."<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/shorts/ZJI3_QgyNRc "CANDY CANDY: Who does she end up with?"] - February 1, 2026.</ref><ref>[https://elportadesakura.wordpress.com/2025/04/21/candy-y-sus-tres-amores-entrevista-a-keiko-nagita/ "Candy and her three loves. Interview with Keiko Nagita"] - April 21, 2025.</ref> == Alur carita == Manga "Candy Candy" nyritakake crita sing ditujokake kanggo pamirsa shōjo, sing dumadi saka bocah-bocah wadon enom ing taun-taun sadurunge remaja. Candy minangka bocah yatim piatu sing ditinggalake ing Pony's Home, panti asuhan ing cedhak Lake Michigan ing awal abad kaping 20. Dheweke nglampahi taun pisanan urip ing panti asuhan, ing ngendi dheweke kerep bali ngaso lan mutusake uripe. Nalika Candy umur enem taun, Annie, kanca paling apik saka panti asuhan, diadopsi. Tanpa kancane, Candy mlayu nangis menyang Pony's Hill. Ing kana dheweke sedhela ketemu karo bocah lanang pirang sing misterius lan apik banget kanthi mripat biru langit lan swarane manis, nganggo kilt lan muter bagpipe, sing ngandhani yen dheweke luwih ayu nalika ngguyu tinimbang nalika nangis. Candy kepincut karo wong enom sing nengsemake iki lan menehi kembang (daffodil) lan nyebut dheweke "Pangeran Bukit," nanging wong enom dumadakan ilang. Sawise ilang, Candy nemokake badge sing ilang "Pangeran" nalika lunga; Iki dadi jimat kebahagiaan dheweke lan minangka bukti yen "pangeran dheweke" dudu ngimpi. Nalika dheweke umur rolas, Candy dijupuk dening kulawarga Leagan minangka kanca kanggo putri Eliza. The Leagans nambani dheweke ala lan pungkasanipun dados abdi. Ing kana, Candy ketemu bocah lanang telu: Anthony Brown, sing meh padha karo "Pangeran Bukit," lan sedulur Cornwell, Alistair sing cerdas lan Archibald sing eksentrik (Stair lan Archie). Kabeh padha tresna karo Candy lan dadi kanca. Candy ngrasa soko khusus kanggo Anthony, lan dheweke "tresna pisanan, katresnan resik saka kanak-kanak." Iki ora digatekake dening Eliza, sing uga kepengin weruh Anthony lan kepengin banget ninggalake Candy. Loro-lorone dheweke lan sadulure Neil ngganggu dheweke kapan wae duwe kesempatan. Ing sawijining kesempatan, sedulur loro kasebut bersekongkol nglawan Candy, lan dheweke pungkasane dituduh nyolong, meksa dheweke mlayu. Dheweke kepengin bali menyang Pony Hill, nanging dheweke keturon ing prau cilik lan ana bebaya tiba ing grojogan. Nanging dheweke ditulungi dening wong misterius kanthi jenggot sing kandel sing Candy disalahake minangka bajak laut amarga kaca tingal peteng. Wong iki manggon ing kabin karo kéwan lan pirso piyambak minangka Albert. Candy ngrasakake kebecikan wong lanang kasebut lan kesengsem banget karo dheweke. Dheweke bali menyang Leagans, lan minangka paukuman kanggo "nyolong," dheweke dikirim kanggo bisa ing farm kulawarga ing Meksiko. Sawise ngerti maksud Leagans, Candy nekat njaluk bantuan marang kancane Albert, ninggalake cathetan ing botol sing dilebokake ing kali. Sauntara iku, kanca-kancane nulis layang marang Paman William sing sugih banget, kepala Klan Ardley. Candy pungkasane diluwari nalika Paman William ngadopsi dheweke menyang Klan Ardley, dadi wali sah kanggo nglindhungi dheweke. Identitas sejatine tetep dadi rahasia nganti pungkasane crita. Sajrone pesta prabawa Candy menyang kulawarga Ardley minangka bagéan saka Klan, Anthony tilar donya amarga kacilakan mburu sawise tiba saka jarane. Candy pancen lara ati lan mutusake bali menyang Omah Pony. Sawijining dina, George, asisten pribadine Paman William, muncul lan njaluk Candy ngancani dheweke. Paman William minangka wali Candy lan mutusake kanggo ngirim dheweke, bebarengan karo Archie, Stair, lan sedulur Leagan, menyang London kanggo sinau ing Universitas St. Paul sing bergengsi. Ing kana dheweke ketemu Terrence Granchester, putra ora sah saka adipati Inggris lan aktris Broadway Amerika Eleanor Baker. Terry minangka bocah enom kanthi pribadine mbledhos lan kasar, lan uga duwe masalah karo alkohol. Candy pisanan ndeleng dheweke, nangis, ing Eve Taun Anyar, nalika lagi lelungan nganggo prau menyang London. Senajan iku ora katresnan ing kawitan ngarsane amarga prilaku agresif lan kasar Terry kang, liwat wektu kang dadi "Cinta kapindho Candy, katresnan badai saka remaja pinasthi gagal." Kahanan misahake pasangan nalika Eliza Leagan conspires supaya Candy diusir saka St. Dipuntedahaken skandal, Terry ninggalake St. Paul kanggo nguber ngimpi kang dadi aktor panggung, prioritas sawijine, ninggalake Candy konco. Nalika Candy sinau babagan iki, dheweke uga mutusake ninggalake sekolah kanggo golek dalan uripe dhewe. Nasib reuni Candy karo kanca Albert, sing katon beda saiki, tanpa jenggot kandel, lan katon luwih nggantheng lan enom. Candy lagi latihan dadi perawat ing Chicago nalika Perang Donya I, nalika Terry ngupayakake karir minangka aktor munggah-lan-teka ing New York. Padha nyambung maneh lan ngarep-arep kanggo rekindle sesambetan, sanajan mung adoh liwat huruf. Ing wektu sing padha, Terry banget kepincut karo Susanna, aktris lan anggota saka perusahaan teater. Terry flirts karo Susanna, lan dheweke pungkasanipun tiba ing katresnan karo wong, malah ngakoni raos dheweke ing sawijining wengi ing téater. Sanajan akeh kesempatan, Terry ora nate nyebutake Candy marang dheweke. Nanging, Terry ngakoni awake dhewe yen dheweke uga kepincut karo Susanna. Gosip babagan hubungan intim wis muncul, amarga Terry lan Susanna nglampahi wektu bebarengan sajrone latihan kanggo "Romeo lan Juliet." Sajrone siji gladhen, lampu panggung dadi ngeculke, lan Susanna narik wong metu saka dalan sadurunge bisa tiba ing Terry, nanging dheweke tatu ing proses lan pungkasanipun kelangan wentis. Ibu Susanna nyalahake Terry amarga pungkasane karir akting putrine. Sauntara kuwi, Susanna ngalami depresi sing jero lan nyoba bunuh diri, rumangsa yen dheweke isih urip dheweke bakal dadi beban kanggo Candy lan Terry. Candy nyimpen dheweke saka tiba saka gendheng rumah sakit, lan Terry banjur dipeksa kanggo milih antarane katresnan kanggo Candy lan tetep karo Susanna. Terry milih Susanna, lan Candy bali menyang Chicago kanggo nerusake uripe. Nanging, Terry ora mungkasi Candy ninggalake; tinimbang, dheweke langsung bali menyang Susanna, kang banget kepincut. Terry wis mutusake kanggo tetep karo Susanna, lan Candy pungkasane ngerti maksude. Sadurunge Candy lan Terry nyuwil munggah, Candy wis dadi perawat lan caregiver kanggo kanca nggantheng Albert, sing, dening corak saka nasib, digawa menyang rumah sakit Chicago karo amnesia sawise bom mbledhos ing Sepur ing Italia sak Perang Donya I. Sawise sawetara wektu ing rumah sakit, Candy mutusaké kanggo njupuk Albert menyang apartemen dheweke ing Magnolia House kanggo Care kanggo wong lan mbantu wong waras memori. Sajrone telung taun urip bebarengan, Candy lan Albert kudu nyamar dadi sedulur ing ngarepe masyarakat, amarga urip bebarengan (mung wong loro), malah turu ing amben padha ora nikah. Candy lan Albert ngembangake hubungan sing jero, intim, lan ramah. Albert nylametake nyawa Candy ing sawetara kesempatan, kayata saka cakar singa, lan ngadhepi sawetara preman sing pengin cilaka dheweke. Albert minangka wong sing nglipur Candy nalika bali menyang omah kanthi depresi sawise putus karo Terry. Sawise mbalekake memori, Albert ilang sedhela, mimpin Candy nekat nelusuri dheweke nang endi wae, sadhar carane penting lan indispensable kang urip. Sajrone panelusuran, dheweke ketemu Terry, sing banget nyemplungaken ing alkoholisme lan tampil ing téater lelungan ing Rockstown. Candy bali menyang omah sawise ndeleng Terry entuk semangat sing sadurunge, mesthine sawise ndeleng dheweke ing pamirsa. Sauntara iku, Terry mulih karo Susanna, sing wis dadi tunangane. Candy terus nggoleki Albert, nanging ora sukses. Mbalik ing Pony's Home, Neal Leagan, sing wis tresna karo dheweke, nyoba meksa Candy dadi pertunangan. Albert muncul maneh lan pungkasane nuduhake identitas asline kanggo Candy: dheweke yaiku "Pakdhe William", wali hukum misterius sing durung nate dideleng, sesambungan karo dheweke mung liwat surat. Dheweke ngilangi pertunangan karo Neil, lan ing pungkasan crita, Albert uga ngandhani Candy yen dheweke dadi bocah lanang pitulas taun ing gunung sing ditutupi daffodil nalika dheweke nangis; mula dheweke "Pangeran Bukit." Candy mlaku karo nangis ing mripate menyang tangan mbukak, Albert kang "katresnan katelu dheweke, siji saka diwasa, dheweke bener, predestined, lan katresnan pungkasan."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eluniversal.com/entretenimiento/40388/albert-el-amor-definitivo-de-candy-la-chica-huerfana|title=Albert, the ultimate love of Candy, the orphan girl|website=[[El Universal (Caracas)|El Universal]]}} - May 19, 2019.</ref> == Versi bajakan == Ana akèh versi bajakan saka manga lan serial anime Candy Candy sajrone ira-pira basa.{{cn}} Meh kabèh manga utawa kartun animasi kang ora kanti basa Jepang bisa dipastikake versi bajakan.{{cn}} Sanajan mangkono, serial anime Candy Candy pernah digiyaraké sedelok kanthi legal déning TV ing US lan Canada awal taun 80-an, sajrone basa Inggris lan Perancis. Versi basa Inggrise pernah uga nyebar ing pira-pira nagara Éropah, kayat Italia, Yunani, lan Spanyol. Kaloro versi serial anime iki pernah uga nyebar sithik-sithike sak edisi sajrone wujud kaset VHS ing pertengahan taun 80-an. Ing Hong Kong, "Little Candy Candy" pernah digiyaraké déning [[Television Broadcasts Limited|TVB]] nalika akir taun 70-an and awal taun 80-an. Episode Candy kang digiyaraké déning TVB iki banjur akèh nyebar ing Indonesia sajrone wujud kaset Video(BETA)sewaan.<ref name="test">[http://mangafox.me/manga/candy_candy/ CANDY CANDY Manga], (Kaunduh 3/2/13)</ref> == Pengisi suara == * [[Minori Matsushima]] minangka Candice White Ardlay * [[Makio Inoue]] minangka William Albert Ardlay * [[Kazuhiko Inoue]] minangka Anthony Brown * [[Kei Tomiyama]] minangka Terriuce Graham Grandchester * [[Kaneta Kimotsuki]] minangka Alistair Cornwell * [[Miyoko Aso]] minangka Mary Jane * [[Yuji Mitsuya]] minangka Archibald Cornwell * [[Mami Koyama]] minangka Annie Brighton * [[Chiyoko Kawashima]] minangka Patricia O'Brian * [[Taeko Nakanishi]] minangka Anii Jirarudo, Narrator * [[Yumi Nakatani]] minangka Eliza Leagan * [[Kiyoshi Komiyama]] minangka Neal Leagan == Musik == ;Lagu pembuka * {{nihongo|"Candy Candy"|キャンディ・キャンディ|Kyandi Kyandi}} ** Lirikis: {{nihongo|[[Keiko Nagita]]|名木田 恵子|Nagita Keiko}} ** Komponis: {{nihongo|[[Takeo Watanabe]]|渡辺 岳夫|Watanabe Takeo}} ** Aransemen: {{nihongo|[[Yushi Matsuyama]]|松山 祐士|Matsuyama Yūshi}} ** Penyanyi: {{nihongo|[[Mitsuko Horie]]|堀江 美都子|Horie Mitsuko}} dan [[The Chirps]] ;Lagu penutup * {{nihongo|"Ashita ga suki"|あしたがすき|}} ** Lirikis: Keiko Nagita ** Komponis: Takeo Watanabe ** Aransemen: Yushi Matsuyama ** Penyanyi: Mitsuko Horie dan The Chirps == Cathetan sikil == * Candy candy di Internet Movie Data Base: [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0270761/ Candy-candy (IMDB)] * Mays, Jonathan. [http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/feature/2003-09-13 Anime News Network ] == Pranala njaba == * {{ja}} [http://lakewood.srv7.biz Candy Candy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222181735/http://lakewood.srv7.biz/ |date=2022-12-22 }} Misaki's Candy Candy, situs penggemar resmi ==Cathetan sikil== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Manga]] [[Kategori:Anime]] [[Kategori:Serial anime taun 1976]] [[Kategori:Serial televisi Jepang taun 1976]] 4n4mg0pm5987w6oxnioj2g2bsulxw12 1752841 1752827 2026-08-19T21:06:46Z ~2026-45300-48 74151 Ndandani akibat vandalisme. Versi asli ingkang akurat sampun dipunwangsulaken malih. Referensi saha pranala njawi ingkang valid ugi sampun dipunpasang malih 1752841 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Candy candy.jpg|thumb|250px]] {{Infobox animanga/Header | title_name = Candy Candy | image = Candy c.jpg | size = 200px | caption = Candice White | ja_name = キャンディ・キャンディ | ja_name_trans = | genre = [[roman]], [[sajarah]] }} {{Infobox animanga/Manga | title = | author = [[Kyoko Mizuki]] (carita)<br /> [[Yumiko Igarashi]] (ilustrasi) | publisher = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Kodansha]], [[Chuokoronsha]] | demographic = [[Shōjo]] | serialized = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Nakayoshi]] | first_run = April 1975 | last_run = Maret 1979 | num_volumes = 9 }} {{Infobox animanga/Anime | title = | director = [[Tetsuo Imazawa]] | studio = [[Toei Animation]] | network = {{flagicon|Jepang}} [[TV Asahi]] | network_other = {{flagicon|Prancis}} [[Antenne 2]]<br /> {{flagicon|Yunani}} [[Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi|ERT]]<br /> {{flagicon|Dominican Republic}} [[Antena Latina]]<br /> {{flagicon|Spanyol}} [[RTVE]]<br /> {{flagicon|Itali}} [[Mediaset]]<br /> {{flagicon|Bolivia}} [[Bolivision]]<br /> {{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[RCTI]] (2 Mèi 1993-1996)<br /> {{flagicon|Filipina}} [[Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation|IBC-13]], [[Radio Philippines Network|RPN-9]], [[Southern Broadcasting Network|SBN-21]] | first_aired = [[1 Oktober]] [[1976]] | last_aired = [[2 Fèbruari]] [[1979]] | num_episodes = 115 }} {{Infobox animanga/Video | type = film | title = Candy Candy: The Call of Spring/The May Festival | director = [[Noboru Shiroyama]] | studio = Toei Animation | release_date = 18 Maret 1978 | runtime = }} {{Infobox animanga/Video | type = film | title = Candy Candy's Summer Vacation | director = [[Yukio Kazama]] | studio = Toei Animation | release_date = 22 Juli 1978 | runtime = }} {{Infobox animanga/Video | type = film | title = Candy Candy the Movie | director = [[Tetsuo Imazawa]] | studio = [[Toei Animation]] | release_date = [[25 April]] [[1992]] | runtime = 26 menit }} {{Infobox animanga/Footer}} {{nihongo|'''Candy Candy'''|キャンディ・キャンディ|Kyandi Kyandi}} ya iku [[manga]], [[novèl]] lan [[anime]] kang asalé saka [[Jepang]]. Paraga utama carita iki ya iku '''Candice "Candy" White Ardlay''', bocah wadon Amérika kanti rambut pirang lan ''ikal'' kanti rai ana bintik-bintike ireng amarga panas sengenge lan mata belok (gedhi) kanti wernane ijo. Candy Candy ana pertama kali minangka [[prosa]] novèl karangan penulis Jepang [[Kyoko Mizuki]] nalika wulan April [[1975]]. Mizuki banjur bekerja sama karo ilustrator manga [[Yumiko Igarashi]] kanggo gawé versi manga carita Candy Candy. Cerita manga iki narik perhatian kalawarta Jepang [[Nakayoshi]], kang sebanjure memuat serial manga Candy Candy minangka carita bersambung sak wene 4 taun (April 1975-Maret 1979). Serial manga iki kahasil menang penghargaan pertama [[Penghargaan Manga Kodansha]] kanggo kategori [[shōjo]] nalika taun [[1977]]. Cerita Candy candy banjur diadaptasi dadi serial anime déning [[Toei Animation]].<ref name="internet1">[http://www.monikatanu.com/blog/2007/07/ending-candy-candy/ Ending Komik Candy-candy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313064810/http://www.monikatanu.com/blog/2007/07/ending-candy-candy/ |date=2013-03-13 }} (Kaunduh 3/2/13).</ref> == Alur carita == Andhedhasar carita saka serial komik Candy Candy isi carita mligi ngungkapake kisah perjalanan urip lan katresnan Candy. Cinta pertama Candy yiku paraga kang jenenge Anthony Brown. Nanging serial Candy bakal dieling-eling déning meh kabèh ''fans''e minangka kisah cinta kang tragis antarané Candy lan cinta sajati lan sigaran jiwa Candy, '''Terrence "Terry" Grandchester'''. Saliyané iku ana paraga kang selalu karan-sebut minangka "Pangeran ing Bukit" ("Prince of the Hill"), pawongan enom misterius kang pernah kemu karo Candy ing bukit Pony, nalika Candy isih umur 6 taun lan manggon ing [[panti asuhan]] Rumah Pony. Identitas Pemuda iki akhire dingerteni ing halaman terakhir komik manga lan ing episode terakhir saka serial kartun animasi Candy candy. == Versi bajakan == Ana akèh versi bajakan saka manga lan serial anime Candy Candy sajrone ira-pira basa.{{cn}} Meh kabèh manga utawa kartun animasi kang ora kanti basa Jepang bisa dipastikake versi bajakan.{{cn}} Sanajan mangkono, serial anime Candy Candy pernah digiyaraké sedelok kanthi legal déning TV ing US lan Canada awal taun 80-an, sajrone basa Inggris lan Perancis. Versi basa Inggrise pernah uga nyebar ing pira-pira nagara Éropah, kayat Italia, Yunani, lan Spanyol. Kaloro versi serial anime iki pernah uga nyebar sithik-sithike sak edisi sajrone wujud kaset VHS ing pertengahan taun 80-an. Ing Hong Kong, "Little Candy Candy" pernah digiyaraké déning [[Television Broadcasts Limited|TVB]] nalika akir taun 70-an and awal taun 80-an. Episode Candy kang digiyaraké déning TVB iki banjur akèh nyebar ing Indonesia sajrone wujud kaset Video(BETA)sewaan.<ref name="test">[http://mangafox.me/manga/candy_candy/ CANDY CANDY Manga], (Kaunduh 3/2/13)</ref> = Pengisi suara == * [[Minori Matsushima]] minangka Candice White Ardlay * [[Makio Inoue]] minangka William Albert Ardlay * [[Kazuhiko Inoue]] minangka Anthony Brown * [[Kei Tomiyama]] minangka Terriuce Graham Grandchester * [[Kaneta Kimotsuki]] minangka Alistair Cornwell * [[Miyoko Aso]] minangka Mary Jane * [[Yuji Mitsuya]] minangka Archibald Cornwell * [[Mami Koyama]] minangka Annie Brighton * [[Chiyoko Kawashima]] minangka Patricia O'Brian * [[Taeko Nakanishi]] minangka Anii Jirarudo, Narrator * [[Yumi Nakatani]] minangka Eliza Leagan * [[Kiyoshi Komiyama]] minangka Neal Leagan == Musik == ;Lagu pembuka * {{nihongo|"Candy Candy"|キャンディ・キャンディ|Kyandi Kyandi}} ** Lirikis: {{nihongo|[[Keiko Nagita]]|名木田 恵子|Nagita Keiko}} ** Komponis: {{nihongo|[[Takeo Watanabe]]|渡辺 岳夫|Watanabe Takeo}} ** Aransemen: {{nihongo|[[Yushi Matsuyama]]|松山 祐士|Matsuyama Yūshi}} ** Penyanyi: {{nihongo|[[Mitsuko Horie]]|堀江 美都子|Horie Mitsuko}} dan [[The Chirps]] ;Lagu penutup * {{nihongo|"Ashita ga suki"|あしたがすき|}} ** Lirikis: Keiko Nagita ** Komponis: Takeo Watanabe ** Aransemen: Yushi Matsuyama ** Penyanyi: Mitsuko Horie dan The Chirps == Cathetan sikil == * Candy candy di Internet Movie Data Base: [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0270761/ Candy-candy (IMDB)] * Mays, Jonathan. [http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/feature/2003-09-13 Anime News Network ] == Pranala njaba == * {{ja}} [http://lakewood.srv7.biz Candy Candy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222181735/http://lakewood.srv7.biz/ |date=2022-12-22 }} Misaki's Candy Candy, situs penggemar resmi ==Cathetan sikil== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Manga]] [[Kategori:Anime]] [[Kategori:Serial anime taun 1976]] [[Kategori:Serial televisi Jepang taun 1976]] rh5d08w8r5e7mym2to7vnzok3vcevek Bilirubin 0 96434 1752894 1666896 2026-08-20T04:25:37Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752894 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} [[Gambar:Bilirubin_ZZ.png|thumb|right|300px|Struktur kimiawi Bilirubin]] '''Bilirubin''' ({{lang-en|bilirubin, hematoidin}}) ya iku [[senyawa organik|senyawa]] [[pigmen]] awerna [[kuning]] kang minangka kasil [[katabolisme]] [[enzim]]atik [[biliverdin]] déning [[biliverdin reduktase]]. [[Oksidasi]] bilirubin ngasilaké biliverdin manèh, saéngga mènèhi atribut [[antioksidan]] ing [[senyawa kimia]] iki ing [[fisiologi]] selular, kajaba [[glutathion|GSH]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12456881 | title = Biliverdin reductase: a major physiologic cytoprotectant | accessdate = 2010-10-27 | work = Departments of Neuroscience, Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Baranano DE, Rao M, Ferris CD, Snyder SH. }}</ref> Bilirubin ya iku penghambat respon [[sel T|sel T CD4<sup>+</sup>]], dhuwuré rasio [[serum getih|serum]] bilirubin bakal ngindhuksi [[apoptosis]] sèl T CD4<sup>+</sup> mau, saéngga bilirubin dianggep bisa mandhegaké [[lelara]] [[otoimun]] kaya ta [[sklerosis multipel]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18641326 | title = Bilirubin possesses powerful immunomodulatory activity and suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis | accessdate = 2010-10-27 | work = Brain Research Center, University of British Columbia; Liu Y, Li P, Lu J, Xiong W, Oger J, Tetzlaff W, Cynader M. }}</ref> Bilirubin iku [[pigmen]] kang diculaké nalika sèl-sèl [[getih]] [[abang]] ''(eritrost)'' dipecah.<ref name="internet1">[http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/bilirubin/ Arti Bilirubin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121121071421/http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/bilirubin/ |date=2012-11-21 }}(diundhuh 25 Januari 2013)</ref> Padtan bilirubin diprosès lan ditokaké déning [[ati]].<ref name="internet1"/> Tingkat kaluwihan bilirubin ing [[getih]] (hiperbilirubinemia) bisa ngindhikasi karusakan ati lan bisa njalari [[lelara kuning]].<ref name="internet1"/> Penyakit kuning ya iku lelara kang ditandhani [[kulit]]é kuning, [[mripat]] dadi [[putih]], warna [[tinja]] pucet, lan [[uyuh]] peteng.<ref name="internet1"/> Tingkat bilirubin normal ya iku sangisoré 1,3&nbsp;mg.<ref name="internet1"/> == Fungsi == Bilirubin digawé déning kagiyatan biliverdin reduktase ing biliverdin, pigmen [[empedu]] [[ijo]] tetrapyrrolic kang uga minangka kasil katabolisme [[heme]]. Bilirubin, nalika keoksidai malih dadi biliverdin manèh. Siklus iki, kajaba dhémonstrasi kagiyatan antioksidan kang kuat saka bilirubin <ref name="PMID 3029864">{{cite journal |author=Stocker R, Yamamoto Y, McDonagh AF, Glazer AN, Ames BN |title=Bilirubin is an antioxidant of possible physiological importance |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1987-02-27_235_4792/page/1043 |journal=Science |volume=235 |pages=1043–6 |year=1987 |bibcode=1987Sci...235.1043S |last2=Yamamoto |last3=McDonagh |last4=Glazer |last5=Ames |doi=10.1126/science.3029864 |pmid=3029864 |issue=4792}}</ref> wis mbuktekake yèn kagunan utama bilirubin ya iku minangka antioksidan selular.<ref name="pmid12456881">{{cite journal |author=Baranano DE, Rao M, Ferris CD, Snyder SH |title=Biliverdin reductase: A major physiologic cytoprotectant |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=99 |issue=25 |pages=16093–8 |year=2002 |pmid=12456881 |doi=10.1073/pnas.252626999 |pmc=138570 |bibcode=2002PNAS...9916093B}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Liu Y, Li P, Lu J, Xiong W, Oger J, Tetzlaff W, [[Max Cynader|Cynader M.]] |title=Bilirubin possesses powerful immunomodulatory activity and suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-immunology_2008-08-01_181_3/page/1887 |journal=J. Immunol. |volume=181 |issue=3 |pages=1887–97 |year=2008 |pmid=18641326 }}</ref> == Struktur Kimia == Bilirubin kawangun saka ranté tarbuka saka patang pirol kaya [[ali-ali]] (tetrapyrrole). Ing heme, patang ali-ali kang kahubung ing ali-ali kang luwih gedhé, kang diarani ali-ali [[porfirin]]. Bilirubin bisa ''terkonjugasi'' kanthi molekul asem glukuronat kang nggawé bilirubin larut ing [[banyu]]. Bilirubin mèmper karo ''phycobilin pigmen'' kang digunakaké déning [[ganggang]] tartamtu kanggo nangkep ènergi cahya lan ''pigmen fitokrom'' kang digunakaké déning [[tetuwuhan]] supaya bisa éntuk cahya [[srengéngé]]. Kabèh iki ngandhut ranté tarbuka saka patang ali-ali pyrrolic. Kaya pigmen liyané, sawatara bilirubin digunakaké ing [[fototerapi]] saka [[bayi]] kuning. E, Z-isomer bilirubin kawentuk ing paparan cahya luwih rikat larut tinimbang Z unilluminated Z-isomer minangka bisa dadi ikatan [[hidrogen]] intramolekul. == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Biokimia]] [[Kategori:Antioksidan]] 3738s6gk0w05s9hc2pu1ntuv3rz408m Pablo Neruda 0 96628 1752831 1742330 2026-08-19T16:15:54Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752831 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} [[Gambar:Pablo Neruda profile.jpg|180px|thumb|Pablo Neruda minangka kandidat Présidhèn nalika taun [[1970]].]] '''Pablo Neruda''' ({{lahirmati|[[Parral, Chili|Parral]], sawijining kutha sakitar 300 km ing sisih kidul [[Santiago, Chili|Santiago]], [[Chili]]|12|7|1904||23|9|1973}}) inggih punika sesinglon penulis [[Chili]], '''Ricardo Eliecer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto'''. Neruda ingkang dipunanggep minangka salah satunggaling penyair kanthi [[basa Spanyol]] paling ageng wonten ing abad 20, inggih punika salah satunggaling penulis ingkang paling produktif. Seratan-seratanipun merentang saking puisi-puisi katresnan ingkang erotik, puisi-puisi ingkang surealis, epos sajarah, lan puisi-puisi pulitik, dumugi puisi-puisi babagab hal-hal ingkang biyasa, kados alam, laut. Juru roman [[Kolombia]], [[Gabriel García Márquez]] nyebut piyambakipun minangka "penyair paling ageng abad 20 wonten ing basa punapa kemawon". Nalika taun [[1971]], Neruda dipunanugrahi Penghargaan Nobel babagan Sastra.<ref>http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1971/neruda-bio.html</ref> Nalika gesangipun, Neruda misuwur amargi kayakinan-kayakinan pulitikipun. Minangka salah satunggaling tiyang kuminis ingkang vokal, piyambakipun naté sakedhap dados sénator kanggé [[Parté Kuminis Chili]] wonten ing Konggrès Chili sadéréngipun kapeksa ngasingaken dhiri. Nama samaran Neruda kapendhet saking nama penulis lan penyair [[Ceko]], [[Jan Neruda]]; ing wuri nama punika dados nama resminipun. == Pagesangan == === Taun-taun awal === Neruda miyos wonten ing [[Parral, Chili|Parral]], satunggaling kutha alit sakitar 300&nbsp;km sisih kidul [[Santiago]], [[Chili]]. Bapakipun, José del Carmen Reyes Morales, satuggaling pagawé kereta api; ibunipun, Rosa Neftalí Basoalto Opazo, satunggaling guru sekolah ingkang tilar donya 2 wulan sabibaripun nglairaken Neruda. Neruda lan bapakipun lajeng pindhah dhateng [[Temuco]], lan ing mrika bapakipun palakrama kaliyan Trinidad Candhia Malverde, satunggalin wanita ingkang 9 taun sadérnégipun maringi putra, Rodolfo. Neruda ugi gesang sesarengan kaliyan sadhérékipun, Laura, salah satunggaling putsi saking garwa ingkang sanès. Neruda timur ajejuluk "Neftalí", nama almarhumah ibunipun. Minatipun kaliyan babagan nyerat lan sastra katentang bapakipun, nanging piyambakipun pikantuk panyengkuyung saking tiyang sanès, kalebet [[Gabriela Mistral]] ingkang samangk péikantuk Bebungah Nobel, nalika punika minangka kepala sekolah putri ing mrika. Karyanipun ingkang kapisanan dipunterbitaken wonten ing ariwarti sakitaripun, ''La Mañana'', nalika umur 13 taun: ''Entusiasmo y perseverancia'' ("Antusiasme lan Kagigihan"). Nalika taun [[1920]], nalika piyambakipun mendhat sesinglon Pablo Neruda, piyambakipun sampun nerbitaken kathah puisi, prosa, lan jurnalisme.<ref>http://www.poemhunter.com/pablo-neruda/</ref> == Soneta II == ''Soneta II'' kapendhet saking kempalan ''Cien sonetos de amor'' ("100 Soneta Katresnan") ingkang terbit taun [[1959]]. ''Amor, cuántos caminos hasta llegar a un beso,<br /> ''qué soledad errante hasta tu compañía!''<br /> ''Siguen los trenes solos rodando con la lluvia.''<br /> ''En Taltal no amanece aún la primavera.'' ''Pero tú y yo, amor mío, estamos juntos,''<br /> ''juntos desde la ropa a las raíces,''<br /> ''juntos de otoño, de agua, de caderas,''<br /> ''hasta ser sólo tú, sólo yo juntos.'' ''Pensar que costó tantas piedras que lleva el río,''<br /> ''la desembocadura del agua de Boroa,''<br /> ''pensar que separados por trenes y naciones'' ''tú y yo teníamos que simplemente amarnos,''<br /> ''con todos confundidos, con hombres y mujeres,''<br /> ''con la tierra que implanta y educa los claveles.'' ==Cathetan suku== {{reflist}} == Rujukan == * Adam Feinstein, ''Pablo Neruda: A Passion for Life'', Bloomsbury, 2004. (ISBN 1-58234-410-8) * Pablo Neruda, ''Confieso que he vivido: Memorias'', terj. Hardie St. Martin, Farrar, Straus, dan Giroux, 1977. (ISBN 9374206600) == Pranala njaba == {{wikiquote}} * [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1971/neruda-bio.html Halaman biografi pemenang Hadiah Nobel] * [http://www.neruda.cl Yayasan Neruda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231222537/http://www.neruda.cl/ |date=2008-12-31 }} * [http://www.uchile.cl/neruda/ Universidad de Chile: Neruda] * [http://www.nobelprizes.com/nobel/literature/1971a.html Arsip Hadiah Nobel Internet: Neruda] * [http://www.poetseers.org/nobel_prize_for_literature/pablo_neruda_%281971%29/pablop/ Puisi-puisi terpilih Pablo Neruda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070318075446/http://www.poetseers.org/nobel_prize_for_literature/pablo_neruda_%281971%29/pablop |date=2007-03-18 }} * [http://www.biography.com/search/article.jsp?aid=9421737&page=2&search= A&E kisah kehidupan Neruda] * [http://sunsite.dcc.uchile.cl/chile/misc/odas.html Works of Neruda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070424202321/http://sunsite.dcc.uchile.cl/chile/misc/odas.html |date=2007-04-24 }} (sapérangan diterjemahkan ke dalam basa Inggris) * [http://www.lasebastiana-neruda.cl/ La Sebastiana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403080144/http://www.lasebastiana-neruda.cl/ |date=2007-04-03 }} - salah satu rumah Neruda. * [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=04/07/16/1442233 "Celebrating Chilean Poet Pablo Neruda"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114220421/http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=04%2F07%2F16%2F1442233 |date=2007-11-14 }}, Amy Goodman dari ''Democracy Now!'' mewawancarai [[Martín Espada]], penyair dan profesor di [[Universitas Massachusetts Amherst]]. * [http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/biography/0,,1268470,00.html "The poet conqueror"], olèh Kelly Grovier, ''The Guardian'', 25 Juli 2004 - Tinjauan tentang ''Neruda: A Passion for Life'' {{Nobel Sastra}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Neruda, Pablo}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Kuminis]] [[Kategori:Penyair Chili]] [[Kategori:Penyair berbasa Spanyol]] [[Kategori:Pamenang Bebungah Nobel babagan sastra]] [[Kategori:Lair 1904]] 318c50x05196evzdztn4k002i34s80r Thomas J. Sargent 0 96815 1752865 1691738 2026-08-20T03:35:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 6 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752865 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} [[Gambar:Nobel Thomas J. Sargent 2011-12-08.ogv|thumb|Thomas J. Sargent]] '''Thomas John "Tom" Sargent''' ({{lahirmati||19|7|1943}}) inggih punika salah satunggaling ékonom asal saking nagara [[Amérikah Sarékat]] ingkang nemeni ing babagan ékonomi makro, ékonomi moneter lan ékonometrika deret wekdal. Nalika taun [[2011]], piyambakipun mlebet urutan angka 17 ékonom ingkang paling prabawa wonten ing donya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ideas.repec.org/top/top.person.all.html |title=Economist Rankings at IDEAS |publisher=Ideas.repec.org |date= |accessdate=2013-02-01}}</ref> Piyambakipun pikantuk bebungah Nobel babagan ékonomi nalika taun [[2011]] sareng kaliyan [[Christopher A. Sims]] saking kasiling panalitén empirisipun babagan efek makro ékonomi.<ref>[http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/2011/press.html Nobel Prize Press Release]</ref> ==Pendidikan== Sargent pikantuk [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]]ipun saking [[University of California]], [[Berkeley]] nalika taun [[1964]] lan [[Ph.D.]]nipun saking [[Harvard University|Harvard]] nalika taun [[1968]]. Piyambakipun naté ngajar wonten ing [[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[1970]]–[[1971]]), [[University of Minnesota]] ([[1971]]–[[1987]]), [[University of Chicago]] ([[1991]]–[[1998]]), [[Stanford University]] ([[1998]]–[[2002]]) lan [[Princeton University]] ([[2009]]). ==Penghargaan Nobel== Nalika tanggal 10 Oktober [[2011]], Sargent sareng kaliyan [[Christopher A. Sims|Chris Sims]] pikantuk penghargaan Nobel wonten ing babagan ékonomi. Penghargaan punika amargi jasanipun wonten ing panalitén empiris gayutan sebab akibat makro ékonomi ''"empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy"''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/2011/ |title=The Prize in Economic Sciences 2011 |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date=2008-12-10 |accessdate=2013-02-01}}</ref> ==Publikasi== {{refbegin}} *{{cite journal | author=Sargent, Thomas J. | title=A Note on the Accelerationist Controversy | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-money-credit-and-banking_1971-08_3_3/page/721 | journal=Journal of Money, Credit and Banking| year=1971| volume=3|issue=3 | pages=721–25 | doi=10.2307/1991369 | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | jstor=1991369}} *{{cite journal | author=Sargent, Thomas J., and Neil Wallace| title=The Stability of Models of Money and Growth with Perfect Foresight | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_econometrica_1973-11_41_6/page/1043| journal=Econometrica | year=1973| volume=41|issue=6 | pages=1043–48| doi=10.2307/1914034 | publisher=The Econometric Society | jstor=1914034}} *{{cite book | author=Sargent, Thomas J.| title=Macroeconomic Theory | year=1979, 1987| publisher = New York: Academic Press | isbn = 0-12-619750-4}} *{{cite journal | author=Sargent, Thomas J. and [[Lars P. Hansen]]| title=Formulating and Estimating Dynamic Linear Rational Expectations Models | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-dynamics-control_1980-02_2_1/page/7| journal=Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control| year=1980| volume=2|issue=1 | pages=7–46 | doi=10.1016/0165-1889(80)90049-4}} *{{cite journal | author=Sargent, Thomas J. and Neil Wallace| title=Some Unpleasant Monetarist Arithmetic | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-reserve-bank-of-minneapolis-quarterly-review_fall-1981_5_3/page/1| journal=Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Quarterly Review| year=1981| volume=5|issue=3 | pages=1–17}} *Sargent, Thomas J. (1983). “The Ends of Four Big Inflations” in: ''Inflation: Causes and Effects'', ed. by Robert E. Hall, University of Chicago Press, for the NBER, 1983, p.&nbsp;41–97. *{{cite book | author=Sargent, Thomas J.| title=Dynamic Macroeconomic Theory| year=1987| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 0-674-21877-9}} *{{cite journal | author=Sargent, Thomas J. and [[Albert Marcet]]| title=Convergence of Least Squares Learning Mechanisms in Self-Referential Linear Stochastic Models| url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-economic-theory_1989-08_48_2/page/337| journal=Journal of Economic Theory| year=1989| volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=337–368 |doi=10.1016/0022-0531(89)90032-X}} *{{cite journal | author=Sargent, Thomas J. and Albert Marcet| title=Convergence of Least Squares Learning in Environments with Hidden State Variables and Private Information| journal=Journal of Political Economy| year=1989| volume=97 |issue=6 | doi=10.1086/261603 | page=251 }} *{{cite book | author=Sargent, Thomas J. and Lars Ljungqvist| title=Recursive Macroeconomic Theory | year=2000, 2004| publisher = MIT Press | isbn = 0-262-12274-X}} *{{cite journal | doi=10.1257/aer.91.2.60 | author=Sargent, Thomas J. and Lars Hansen| title=Robust Control and Model Uncertainty| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-economic-review_2001-05_91_2/page/60 | journal=American Economic Review| year=2001| volume=91 |issue=2 | pages=60–66}} {{refend}} == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == *[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~ts43/ Homepage at the New York University website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015235511/http://homepages.nyu.edu/~ts43/ |date=2008-10-15 }} *[http://tomsargent.com/ Sargent personal website] *[http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-10-13/nobels-give-econometrics-pioneers-their-due-lars-peter-hansen.html Bloomberg News "Nobels Give Econometrics Pioneers Their Due"] [[Kategori:Pamenang bebungah Nobel]] [[Kategori:Pamenang Bebungah Nobel babagan ékonomi]] [[Kategori:Lair 1943]] ic18t5oxd5kdcszow1f8red4vpkek3c Dhaptar obyèk NGC 3001 - 4000 0 97406 1753056 1535015 2026-08-20T09:12:22Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753056 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Objèk NGC 3001 - 4000.jpg|thumb|Objèk NGC 3001-4000]] {|align=right |__TOC__ |} '''Pratélan obyèk NGC 3001-4000''' inggih punika salah satunggaling pratélan ingkang ngewrat [[New General Catalogue|Objèk NGC]] 3001-4000. Informasi ingkang kamot wonten ing tabèl punika dipunpendhet saking ''The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters olèh J. L. E. Dreyer'',<ref name="sinnott1988">{{cite book | author=R. W. Sinnott, editor | title= The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Bintang Clusters by J. L. E. Dreyer | year=1988 | publisher=Sky Publishing Corporation and Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-933346-51-4}}</ref> yang di akses melalui VizieR Service (website: http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR), database NASA/IPAC Extragalactic (website: http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/), dan database astronomi SIMBAD (website: http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/). {{clear}} '''New General Catalogue''' (utawi ingkang asring dipuncekak NGC) inggih punika salah satunggaling jinis katalog [[astronomi]] ingkang misuwur wonten ing dunya astronomi. Katalog punika dipunsusun déning [[John Louis Emil Dreyer]] nalika taun [[1888]]. Ngantos sapunika, NGC gadhah kirang langkung 7.840 objek ingkang misuwur kanthi sebatan objek NGC. Katalog punika inggih kalebet katalog ingkang paling komplit ingkang nyangkup sadaya jinis objek akasa, lan boten kawates wonten ing [[galaksi]]. Emil Dreyer ugi medalaken kalih seplemen ingkang misuwur kanthi sebatan ''Index Catalogues'' (utawi ingkang asring dipuncekak kanthi nama '''IC'''). IC ingkang sepisanan dipunwedalaken ing taun [[1895]] lan ngewrat kirang langkung 1.520 objek, déné IC ingkang kaping kalih dipunwedalaken ing anawispun taun [[1908]] lan ngewrat kirang langkung 3.866 objèk, saéngga totalipun wonten kirang langkung 5.386 '''objek IC'''. Objek ingkang wonten ing belahan langit sisih [[kidul]] kirang saged dipundamel katalog kanthi jangkep, sanajan sadaya objek kasebat sampun kathah dipuntingali déning [[John Herschel]] utawi [[James Dunlop]]. Kathah kalepatan ingkang wonten ing NGC, sanajan sampun wonten kupiya kanggé ndandosi katalog ingkang sampun dipunrinti déning proyek NGC/ IC sasampunipun wonten kupiya parsial kaliyan ''Revised New General Catalogue (RNGC)'' déning Sulentic lan Tifft ing taun [[1973]], lan NGC 2000.0 déning Sinnot ing taun [[1988]]. Galaksi NGC 3190 punika kalebet anggota ingkan paling ageng saking Grup Hickson 44, ingkang ugi kalebet salah satunggaling golongan galaksi ingkang paling caket kaliyan golongan lokal galaksi [[Bimasekti]]. Galaksi NGC 3190 gadhah jarak 80 yuta taun cahya lan ngewrat wewengkon ingkang tebihipun kirang langkung 75.000 taun cahya lan katingal saking teleskop alit tumuju dhateng konstelasi Singa ([[Leo]]).<ref>[http://astronesia.blogspot.com/2013/01/gambar-hari-ini-galaksi-spiral-ngc-3190.html]</ref> Galaksi NGC 3256 ingkang nedahaken filamen njlimet ingkang kapérang saking lebu peteng, buntut pasang surut ingkang boten biyasa saking bintang lan pusatipun ingkang aneh ingkang wosipun gadhah kalih wos ingkang béda. NGC 3256 inggih punika péranganing supercluster galaksi Hydra-Centaurus ageng ingkang gadhah amba langkung saking 100 èwu taun cahya lan mapan wonten ing tebih 100 yuta taun cahya saking bumi.<ref>[http://astronesia.blogspot.com/2013/02/gambar-hari-ini-galaksi-tabrakan-di-ngc.html]</ref> ==3001-3100== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Sanèsipun !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objèk !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asènsio rékta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Dèklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3021|3021]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo Minor]] | {{RA|09|50|57}} | {{DEC|33|33|15}} | 12.2 |- | [[NGC 3030|3030]] | | [[Galaksi]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|09|50|10.5}} | {{DEC|-12|13|35}} | 15 |- | [[NGC 3031|3031]] | Messier 81 | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|09|55|33.2}} | {{DEC|+69|03|55}} | 8.1 |- | [[NGC 3032|3032]] | | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|09|52|08.2}} | {{DEC|+29|14|12}} | 13.0 |- | [[NGC 3033|3033]] | | [[Gugus terbuka]] | [[Vela]] | {{RA|09|48|30}} | {{DEC|-56|26}} | 9.2 |- | [[NGC 3034|3034]] | Messier 82 | [[Galaksi#Morfologi lain|Galaksi tak beraturan]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|09|55|52.2}} | {{DEC|+69|40|49}} | 9.2 |- | [[NGC 3035|3035]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Sextans]] | {{RA|09|51|54.0}} | {{DEC|-06|49|15}} | 13.5 |- | [[NGC 3049|3049]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|09|54|49.8}} | {{DEC|+09|16|17}} | 13.5 |- | [[NGC 3054|3054]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|09|54|28.9}} | {{DEC|-25|42|07}} | 12.2 |- | [[NGC 3077|3077]] | | [[Galaksi#Morfologi lain|Galaksi tak beraturan]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|03|20.0}} | {{DEC|+68|44|02}} | 10.9 |- | [[NGC 3079|3079]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|01|58.5}} | {{DEC|+55|40|50}} | 11.2 |- |} ==3101-3200== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3109|3109]] | | [[Galaksi#Morfologi lain|Galaksi tak beraturan]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|10|03|06.7}} | {{DEC|-26|09|32}} | 12 |- | [[NGC 3110|3110]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|04|01.9}} | {{DEC|-06|28|29}} | 13.5 |- | [[NGC 3115|3115]] | Spindle Galaxy | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Sextans]] | {{RA|10|05|13.8}} | {{DEC|-07|43|08}} | 11 |- | [[NGC 3122|3122]] | (Duplikasi [[NGC 3110]]) | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|04|01.9}} | {{DEC|-06|28|29}} | 13.5 |- | [[NGC 3132|3132]] | Nebula Eight-Burst | [[Nebula planit]] | [[Vela]] | {{RA|10|07|01.8}} | {{DEC|-40|26|11}} | 10.1 |- | [[NGC 3169|3169]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Sextans]] | {{RA|10|14|14.7}} | {{DEC|+03|28|01}} | 10.3 |- | [[NGC 3180|3180]] | (Mapan wonten ing [[NGC 3184]]) | [[Nebula]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|18|17.0}} | {{DEC|+41|25|26}} | 10.4 |- | [[NGC 3181|3181]] | (Mapan wonten ing [[NGC 3184]]) | [[Nebula]]<ref name="ned">{{cite web | title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database | work=Results for various objects | url=http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/}}</ref> | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|18|11.5}}<ref name="ned"/> | {{DEC|+41|24|46}}<ref name="ned"/> | |- | [[NGC 3182|3182]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|19|33.3}} | {{DEC|+58|12|20}} | 13.0 |- | [[NGC 3183|3183]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Draco]] | {{RA|10|21|48.9}} | {{DEC|+74|10|40}} | 12.5 |- | [[NGC 3184|3184]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|18|17.0}} | {{DEC|+41|25|26}} | 10.4 |- | [[NGC 3185|3185]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|17|38.7}} | {{DEC|+21|41|17}} | 12.9 |- | [[NGC 3186|3186]] | | [[Galaksi]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|17|38.0}} | {{DEC|+06|58|16}} | 15.0 |- | [[NGC 3187|3187]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|17|47.9}} | {{DEC|+21|52|24}} | 13.8 |- | [[NGC 3188|3188]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|19|42.8}} | {{DEC|+57|25|25}} | 14.7 |- | [[NGC 3189|3189]] | (Duplikasi [[NGC 3190]]) | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|18|05.6}} | {{DEC|+21|49|52}} | 11.9 |- | [[NGC 3190|3190]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|18|05.6}} | {{DEC|+21|49|52}} | 11.9 |- | [[NGC 3191|3191]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|19|05.2}} | {{DEC|+46|27|17}} | 13.9 |- | [[NGC 3192|3192]] | (Duplikasi [[NGC 3191]])<ref name="ned"/> | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|18|58.4}} | {{DEC|+46|27|16}} | 16.1 |- | [[NGC 3193|3193]] | | [[Galaksi#Eliptik|Galaksi eliptik]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|18|25.0}} | {{DEC|+21|53|37}} | 12.4 |- | [[NGC 3194|3194]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Draco]] | {{RA|10|17|40.2}} | {{DEC|+74|20|50}} | 13.9 |- | [[NGC 3195|3195]] | | [[Nebula planit]] | [[Chamaeleon]] | {{RA|10|09|20.9}} | {{DEC|-80|51|31}} | |- | [[NGC 3196|3196]] | | [[Galaksi]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|18|49.0}} | {{DEC|+27|40|08}} | 15.7 |- | [[NGC 3197|3197]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Draco]] | {{RA|10|14|28.2}} | {{DEC|+77|49|12}} | 14.5 |- | [[NGC 3198|3198]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|19|54.8}} | {{DEC|+45|33|01}} | 10.7 |- | [[NGC 3199|3199]] | | [[Nebula]] | [[Carina]] | {{RA|10|16|32.8}} | {{DEC|-57|56|02}} | |- | [[NGC 3200|3200]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|10|18|36.4}} | {{DEC|-17|58|57}} | 12.3 |- |} ==3201-3300== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3201|3201]] | | [[Gugus bola]] | [[Vela]] | {{RA|10|17|36.8}} | {{DEC|-46|24|40}} | 9.2 |- | [[NGC 3218|3218]] | (Duplikasi [[NGC 3183]]) | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Draco]] | {{RA|10|21|48.9}} | {{DEC|+74|10|40}} | 12.5 |- | [[NGC 3226|3226]] | | [[Galaksi#Eliptik|Galaksi eliptik]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|23|27.1}} | {{DEC|+19|53|55}} | 13.3 |- | [[NGC 3227|3227]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|23|30.6}} | {{DEC|+19|51|54}} | 13.5 |- | [[NGC 3242|3242]] | Nebula Mata Kucing;<br/>Hantu Jupiter | [[Nebula planit]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|10|24|46.1}} | {{DEC|-18|38|33}} | 10.3 |- | [[NGC 3244|3244]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Antlia]] | {{RA|10|25|29.2}} | {{DEC|-39|49|40}} | 12.3 |- | [[NGC 3245|3245]] | | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Leo Minor]] | {{RA|10|27|18.5}} | {{DEC|+28|30|25}} | 11.6 |- | [[NGC 3265|3265]] | | [[Galaksi#Eliptik|Galaksi eliptik]] | [[Leo Minor]] | {{RA|10|31|06.8}} | {{DEC|+28|47|47}} | 14.1 |- | [[NGC 3293|3293]] | | [[Gugus terbuka]] | [[Carina]] | {{RA|10|35|48.8}} | {{DEC|-58|13|00}} | 4.8 |- |} ==3301-3400== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3310|3310]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|38|45.9}} | {{DEC|+53|30|12}} | 11.0 |- | [[NGC 3311|3311]] | | [[Galaksi#Eliptik|Galaksi eliptik]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|10|36|43.3}} | {{DEC|-27|31|41}} | 13 |- | [[NGC 3312|3312]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|10|37|02.3}} | {{DEC|-27|33|54}} | 12.7 |- | [[NGC 3314|3314]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] <ref>{{cite journal | author= R. E. White, III, W. C. Keel, C. J. Conselice | title=Seeing Galaxies through Thick and Thin. I. Optical Opacity Measures in Overlapping Galaxies | url= https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2000-10-20_542_2/page/761 | journal=Astrophysical Journal | year=2000 | volume=542 | issue= 2 | pages=761–778 | bibcode=2000ApJ...542..761W | doi=10.1086/317011}}</ref> | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|10|37|12.8}} | {{DEC|-27|41|04}} | 13.1 |- | [[NGC 3344|3344]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo Minor]] | {{RA|10|43|31.1}} | {{DEC|+24|55|20}} | 10.5 |- | [[NGC 3351|3351]] | Messier 95 | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|43|57.7}} | {{DEC|+11|42|13}} | 11.2 |- | [[NGC 3359|3359]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|10|46|36.6}} | {{DEC|+63|13|25}} | 11.0 |- | [[NGC 3368|3368]] | Messier 96 | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|46|45.8}} | {{DEC|+11|49|10}} | 10.0 |- | [[NGC 3369|3369]] | | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|10|46|44.9}} | {{DEC|-25|14|34}} | 14.6 |- | [[NGC 3370|3370]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|47|04.2}} | {{DEC|+17|16|23}} | 12.4 |- | [[NGC 3371|3371]] | (Duplikasi [[NGC 3384]]) | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|48|16.9}} | {{DEC|+12|37|43}} | 10.0 |- | [[NGC 3372|3372]] | Nebula Eta Carina ;<br/>Nebula Lubang kunci | [[Nebula]] | [[Carina]] | {{RA|10|44|19.0}} | {{DEC|-59|53|21}} | |- | [[NGC 3379|3379]] | Messier 105 | [[Galaksi#Eliptik|Galaksi eliptik]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|47|49.8}} | {{DEC|+12|34|55}} | 9.6 |- | [[NGC 3384|3384]] | | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|48|16.9}} | {{DEC|+12|37|43}} | 10.0 |- |} ==3401-3500== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3486|3486]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo Minor]] | {{RA|11|00|24.1}} | {{DEC|+28|58|32}} | 11.2 |- |} ==3501-3600== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3518|3518]] | (Duplikasi [[NGC 3110]]) | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|10|04|01.9}} | {{DEC|-06|28|29}} | 13.5 |- | [[NGC 3521|3521]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|05|48.9}} | {{DEC|-00|02|06}} | 10.1 |- | [[NGC 3532|3532]] | | [[Gugus terbuka]] | [[Carina]] | {{RA|11|05|33}} | {{DEC|-58|44}} | 3.3 |- | [[NGC 3539|3539]] | | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|09|08.8}} | {{DEC|+28|40|21}} |- | [[NGC 3550|3550]] | | Lenticular | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|10|38.3}} | {{DEC|+28|46|04}} | |- | [[NGC 3552|3552]] | | Lenticular | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|10|42.8}} | {{DEC|+28|41|25}} | |- | [[NGC 3553|3553]] | | Lenticular | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|10|40.3}} | {{DEC|+28|51|09}} | |- | [[NGC 3554|3554]] | | Elliptical | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|10|47.8}} | {{DEC|+28|39|38}} | |- | [[NGC 3556|3556]] | Messier 108 | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|11|31.3}} | {{DEC|+55|40|31}} | 10.7 |- | [[NGC 3576|3576]] | | [[Nebula]] | [[Carina]] | {{RA|11|11|49.8}} | {{DEC|-61|18|14}} | |- | [[NGC 3587|3587]] | Messier 97;<br/>Owl Nebula | [[Nebula planit]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|14|47.7}} | {{DEC|+55|01|09}} | |- | [[NGC 3593|3593]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|14|37.1}} | {{DEC|+12|49|03}} | 11.8 |- | [[NGC 3596|3596]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|15|06.3}} | {{DEC|+14|47|12}} | 11.7 |- |} ==3601-3700== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3603|3603]] | | [[Nebula]] | [[Carina]] | {{RA|11|15|09.1}} | {{DEC|-61|16|17}} | 10.1 |- | [[NGC 3621|3621]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Hydra]] | {{RA|11|18|16.8}} | {{DEC|-32|48|49}} | 10.0 |- | [[NGC 3623|3623]] | Messier 65 | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|18|55.8}} | {{DEC|+13|05|32}} | 9.6 |- | [[NGC 3627|3627]] | Messier 66 | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|20|15.1}} | {{DEC|+12|59|22}} | 8.9 |- | [[NGC 3628|3628]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|20|16.9}} | {{DEC|+13|35|14}} | 11.5 |- | [[NGC 3629|3629]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|20|31.9}} | {{DEC|+26|57|47}} | 12.9 |- | [[NGC 3690|3690]] | | [[Galaksi#Morfologi lain|Galaksi yang berinteraksi]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|28|33.1}} | {{DEC|+58|33|54}} | 11.8 |- |} ==3701-3800== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3758|3758]] | Markarian 739 | | searah [[Leo]] | | | |- | [[NGC 3766|3766]] | | [[Gugus terbuka]] | [[Centaurus]] | {{RA|11|36|13.3}} | {{DEC|-61|36|55}} | 5.7 |- | [[NGC 3773|3773]] | | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|38|13.1}} | {{DEC|+12|06|43}} | 13.1 |- |} ==3801-3900== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3808A|3808A]] | | [[Galaksi#Morfologi lain|Galaksi yang berinteraksi]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|40|44.2}} | {{DEC|+22|25|46}} | 14.1 |- | [[NGC 3808B|3808B]] | | [[Galaksi#Morfologi lain|Galaksi yang berinteraksi]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|40|44.5}} | {{DEC|+22|26|48}} | 15 |- | [[NGC 3842|3842]] | | [[Galaksi#Eliptik|Galaksi eliptik]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|44|02.1}} | {{DEC|+19|56|59}} | 12.5 |- | [[NGC 3877|3877]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|46|07.8}} | {{DEC|+47|29|41}} | 11.8 |- |} ==3901-4000== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align:center;" !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | No NGC !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | Nama Lain !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="20%" | Jinis Objek !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Rasi bintang]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Asensio rekta]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="15%" | [[Deklinasi]] !style="background:#CCCCCC;" width="10%" | [[Magnitudo semu]] |- | [[NGC 3918|3918]] | | [[Nebula planit]] | [[Centaurus]] | {{RA|11|50|17.7}} | {{DEC|-57|10|57}} | 10.0 |- | [[NGC 3938|3938]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|52|49.5}} | {{DEC|+44|07|13}} | 11.0 |- | [[NGC 3949|3949]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|53|41.9}} | {{DEC|+47|51|29}} | 10.9 |- | [[NGC 3953|3953]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|53|49.1}} | {{DEC|+52|19|37}} | 10.8 |- | [[NGC 3982|3982]] | | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|56|28.3}} | {{DEC|+55|07|29}} | 11.6 |- | [[NGC 3992|3992]] | Messier 109 | [[Galaksi#Spiral|Galaksi spiral]] | [[Ursa Major]] | {{RA|11|57|35.9}} | {{DEC|+53|22|35}} | 10.7 |- | [[NGC 3999|3999]] | | [[Galaksi|Galaksi lentikular]] | [[Leo]] | {{RA|11|57|56.5}} | {{DEC|+25|04|05}} | 15.7 |- |} ==Cathetan suku== {{reflist}} ==Uga delengen == * [[Pratélan objek NGC]] * [[Pratélan objek NGC 1-1000]] * [[Pratélan objek NGC 1001-2000]] * [[Pratélan objek NGC 2001-3000]] * [[Pratélan objek NGC 4001-5000]] * [[Pratélan objek NGC 5001-6000]] * [[Pratélan objek NGC 6001-7000]] * [[Pratélan objek NGC 7001-7840]] [[Kategori:Obyèk NGC|4]] q24ht19wq3m1g5x4f47oy88r6so4lrc Telescopium 0 97593 1753083 1720849 2026-08-20T10:03:41Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753083 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Constellation | name = Telescopium | abbreviation = Tel | genitive = Telescopii | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|ɛ|l|ɨ|ˈ|s|k|ɒ|p|i|əm}},<br>genitive {{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|ɛ|l|ɨ|ˈ|s|k|ɒ|p|i|.|aɪ}} | symbolism = the [[Telescope]] | RA = 19 | dec= −50 | family = [[La Caille Family|La Caille]] | quadrant = SQ4 | areatotal = 252 | arearank = 57th | numbermainstars = 2 | numberbfstars = 13 | numberstarsplanets = 0 | numberbrightstars = 0 | numbernearbystars = 2 | brighteststarname = [[Alpha Telescopii|α Tel]] | starmagnitude = 3.49 | neareststarname = [[Gliese 754]] | stardistancely = 19.35 | stardistancepc = 5.93 | numbermessierobjects = none | meteorshowers = | bordering = [[Ara (constellation)|Ara]]<br />[[Corona Australis]]<br />[[Indus (constellation)|Indus]]<br />[[Microscopium]] (corner)<br />[[Pavo (constellation)|Pavo]]<br />[[Sagittarius (constellation)|Sagittarius]] | latmax = [[40th parallel north|40]] | latmin = [[South Pole|90]] | month = August | notes= }} '''Telescopium''' inggih punika salah satunggaling konstelasi alit ing sisih kidul ingkang dipundamel nalika [[abad]] kaping 18 déning [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]], salah satunggaling astronom [[Prancis]] lan ugi satunggaling mahasiswa saking langit [[kidul]]. Namanipun inggih wujud [[Latin]] saking tembung ing [[Yunani]] kanggé teleskop.<ref>{{cite web | title=Starry Night Photography: Telescopium Constellation | url=http://www.starrynightphotos.com/constellations/telescopium.htm | accessdate= Pebruary 11, 2013 }}</ref> Punika dipundamel kanggé ngurmati dipunpanggihakenipun [[teleskop]].{{sfn|Staal|1988|p=233}} Boten wonten nama [[Éropah]] kanggé lintang - lintang ing rasi punika. Tiyang [[Cina]] boten maringi nama kanggé α Tel (Kami, ingkang tegesipun mbebayani), lan γ Tel (ing jaman punika dipunsebat G Scorpii) minangka Chuen Shwo, ingkang gadhah makna mitologis. Telescopium kanthi periodik dipunsbeat "''TUBUS Astronomicus''", nanging nama punika ing wekdal sapunika sampun dipunlirwakaken. {{sfn|Staal|1988|p=233}} ==Karakteristik== Telescopium inggih punika satunggaling konstelasi ingkang alit ingkang dipunkiteri déning konstelasi [[Sagitarius]] lan [[Corona Australis]] ingkang wonten ing sisih [[lor]], konstelasi [[Ara]] ingkan wonten ing sisih [[kulon]], konstelasi [[Pavo]] ingkang wonten ing sisih [[selatan]], lan konstelasi [[Indus]] ingkang mapan wonten ing sisih [[wétan]], ing sisih pojok ugi ugi wonten [[Microscopium]] ing sisih wétan radi [[lor]]. Manawi dipuncekak kanthi tigang [[aksara]] kanggé konstelasi, kados ingkang dipunadhopsi déning [[International Astronomical Union]] ing taun [[1922]], inggih punika 'Tel' {{sfn | Russell | 1.922 | p = 469}}. Wates- watesaning konstlasi ingkang resmi kados ingkang sampun dipuntemtokaken déning [[Eugène Joseph Delporte|Eugène Delporte]] ing taun [[1930]], ingkang dipunjabaraken déning poligon saking sekawan segmen. Wonten ing sistem khatulistiwa, [[koordinat]] ingkang paling leres minggihipun inggih ing koordinat watesanipun mapan wonten ing antawisipun {{RA | 18 | 09,1}} lan {{RA | 20 | 29,5}}, déné koordinat deklinasinipun wonten ing antawisipun -45,09 ° dan -56,98 °. {{sfn | IAU,'' The Constellation'', Telescopium}}. ==Sajarah== Telescopium dipunwedalaken kaping sapisan ing taun [[1751]] - [[1752]] déning [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] kanthi nama ing [[Prancis]] inggih punika ''le Telescope'', ingkang nggambaraken satunggaling [[teleskop udara]]. Telescopium punika mapan ing langit, bentanganipun saking [[lor]] ing antawisipun [[Sagitarius]] lan [[Scorpio]]. {{sfn|Ridpath, ''Star Tales'' Telescopium}} [[Johann Elert Bode|Johann Bode]] dipunsebat "''Astronomische Fernrohr''" ing taun [[1805]]. "Gestirne" ingkang ukuranipun badhé tetep stagnan nanging Baily lan Gould lajeng ngirangi ingkang dados wates- watesanipun.{{sfn|Allen|1963|p=414}} Konstelasi ingkang dipunkirangi kanthi kathah badhé ngicalaken sapérangan cahya pepadhanging [[lintang]] dhateng konstelasi sedherekipun: Beta Telescopii badhé éwah dados [[Eta Sagittarii]],{{sfn|Staal|1988|p=233}} ingkang punika malih saderengipun papan Lacaille ing telescopiumipun, {{sfn|Wagman|2003|p=300}} Gamma mapan wonten ing [[Scorpio]] lan dipun-gantos namanipun dados [[G Scorpii]] déning [[Benjamin Apthorp Gould|Benjamin Gould]],{{sfn|Wagman|2003|p=300}} ==Cathetan suku== {{Reflist}} {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | last = Allen | first = Richard Hinckley | authorlink = Richard Hinckley Allen | year = 1963 | origyear = 1899 | title = Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning | edition = reprint | publisher = [[Dover Publications]] | location = [[New York City|New York]], [[New York|NY]] | isbn = 978-0-486-21079-7 }} *{{ cite doi|10.1088/0004-637X/711/2/1316}} <!-- {{sfn|Machacek|O'Sullivan|Randall|Jones|2010|p=xxx}} --> * {{cite book | last1 = Moore | first1 = Patrick | last2 = Tirion | first2 = Wil | year = 2007 | title = Stars and Planets Guide | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0-691-13556-4 }} * {{cite journal | last = Russell | first = Henry Norris | year = 1922 | month = October | title = The new international symbols for the constellations | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1922-10_30_8/page/469 | journal = Popular Astronomy | volume = 30 | page = 469 | bibcode = 1922PA.....30..469R }} * {{cite book |first = Julius D.W. |last = Staal |title = The New Patterns in the Sky |year = 1988 |publisher = McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company |isbn = 0-939923-04-1 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Toddy | first1 = Joseph M. | last2 = Johnson | first2 = Elliott W. | last3 = Darragh | first3 = Andrew N. | last4 = Murphy | first4 =Brian W. | year = 2012 | title = New Variable Stars in the Globular Cluster NGC 6584 | journal = Journal of the Southeastern Association for Research in Astronomy | volume = 6 | issue = | pages = 63–71 | url = http://arxiv.org/pdf/1205.1034v1.pdf | format = PDF | arxiv = 1205.1034 }} * {{cite book | last = Wagman | first = Morton | year = 2003 | title = Lost Stars: Lost, Missing and Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer, Nicholas Louis de Lacaille, John Flamsteed, and Sundry Others | publisher = The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company | location = Blacksburg, [[Virginia|VA]] | isbn = 978-0-939923-78-6 }} {{refend}} '''Online sources''' {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web | last = Ferreira | first = Lucas | date = August 2009 | title = Double Stars in Telescopium | publisher = The Astronomical Society of Southern Africa | work = Deepsky Delights | url = http://assa.saao.ac.za/sections/doublestars/articles/2009MNASSA..68..Aug..166.pdf | format = PDF | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 }} * {{cite web | title = Telescopium, constellation boundary | work = The Constellations | publisher = International Astronomical Union | url = http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/#tel | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|IAU,.27.27The Constellations.27.27, Telescopium}} | archive-date = 2013-06-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130605024208/http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/#tel | url-status = dead }} * {{cite web | last = Kaler | first = Jim | title = Alpha Telescopii | work = Stars | publisher = University of Illinois | url = http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/alphatel.html | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|Kaler,.27.27Alpha Telescopii.27.27}} }} * {{cite web | last = Ridpath | first = Ian | authorlink = Ian Ridpath | year = 1988 | title = Telescopium | work = Star Tales | url = http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/telescopium.htm | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|Ridpath,.27.27Star Tales.27.27 Telescopium}} }} * {{cite web | title = Epsilon Telescopii - Star in Double System | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?submit=display&bibdisplay=refsum&bibyear1=1850&bibyear2=%24currentYear&Ident=%403527004&Name=*+eps+Tel#lab_bib | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD Epsilon Telescopii}} }} * {{cite web | title = HR 6934 | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=HR+6934&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD HR 6934}} }} * {{cite web | title = HR 6938 | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=HR+6938&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD HR 6938}} }} * {{cite web | title = Kappa Telescopii | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-coo?Coord=18+52+39.64405-52+06+26.5372&CooFrame=ICRS&CooEqui=2000.0&CooEpoch=J2000&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=query+around&Radius=2 | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD Kappa Telescopii}} }} * {{cite web | title = LTT 7332 | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=%403512530&Name=LTT%20%207332&submit=submit | access-date = 29 Sèptèmber 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD LTT 7332}} }} * {{cite web | last = Streicher | first = Magda | date = August 2009 | title = A Spyglass Telescope | publisher = The Astronomical Society of Southern Africa | work = Deepsky Delights | url = http://mnassa.saao.ac.za/sections/deepsky/delights/2009_aug_deepsky_delights.pdf | format = PDF | access-date = 11 Fèbruari 2013 | archive-date = 2020-04-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200404173144/http://mnassa.saao.ac.za/sections/deepsky/delights/2009_aug_deepsky_delights.pdf | url-status = dead }} {{refend}} {{Stars of Telescopium}} {{navconstel}} {{Sky|19|00|00|-|50|00|00|10}} [[Kategory:Telescopium (konstelasi)| ]] [[Kategori:Konstelasi]] t1frk4ixu4hwuf6v4pb8vnwerwcgues Perusahaan Gas Negara 0 97783 1752833 1659134 2026-08-19T18:05:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752833 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Gas nagara.jpg|thumb|250px]] {{kotak info perusahaan | company_name = PGN-Perusahaan Gas Nagara<br /><small>PT Perusahaan Gas Nagara (Persero) Tbk</small> | company_logo = [[Gambar:Logo PGN new lowres.jpg|150px|center]] | company_slogan = | company_type = [[Perusahaan publik|Publik]] ({{bei|PGAS}}) | foundation = 1859 (I.J.N. Eindhoven & Co) | location = Kantor Pusat Jl. KH Zainul Arifin No. 20 [[Jakarta]]-11140, [[Indonésia]] | key_people = Hendi Prio Santoso (Direktur Utama) | industry = Transmisi dan distribusi gas bumi| products = [[Gas bumi]] | revenue = | homepage = [http://www.pgn.co.id/ www.pgn.co.id] }} '''PT Perusahaan Gas Nagara (Persero) Tbk''' disingkat '''PGN''' ({{bei|PGAS}}) ya iku [[BUMN]] kang bergerak ing babagan transmisi lan distribusi [[gas bumi]]. == Sajarah == Awalé pengusahaan gas ing Indonésia ya iku perusahaan gas swasta [[Walanda]] kang jenengé I.J.N. Eindhoven lan Co ngadeg nalika taun 1859 kang ngenalaké penggunaan gas kutha ing [[Indonésia]] kang digawé saka [[batu bara]]. Nalika taun [[1958]] perusahaan mau dinasionalisasi lan diowah dadi PN Gas kang seterusé ya iku tanggal [[13 Mèi]] [[1965]] berubah dadi Perusahaan Gas Nagara. Tanggal ikilah kang sebanjuré dipèngeti minangka dina dadi PGN ing saben tahuné. Perusahaan iki wiwit nyaluraké gas alam nggantikaké gas buatan saka batu bara lan [[lenga bumi|lenga]] kang ora ékonomis nalika taun [[1974]]. Konsumené ya iku sektor rumah tangga, komersial lan indhustri. Penyaluran gas alam kanggo pertama kali dilakokaké ing [[Cirebon]] taun [[1974]], banjur disusul katurut-turut ing wewengkon [[Jakarta]] taun 1979, [[Bogor]] taun [[1980]], [[Medan]] taun [[1985]], [[Surabaya]] taun [[1994]], lan [[Palembang]] taun [[1996]]. Andhedhasar kinerjané kang terus ngalami peningkatan, mangka nalika taun [[1984]] statusé berubah dadi [[Perum]] lan nalika taun [[1994]] statusé ditingkatkan lagi dadi Persero kanti penambahan ruang lingkup usaha kang luwih amba ya iku saliyané ing babagan distribusi gas bumi uga ing babagan kang luwih marang sektor hulu ya iku ing babagan transmisi, ing ngendi PGN kanti fungsi minangka transporter. PGN banjur ngleboni babak anyar dadi perusahaan terbuka ditandai kanti kacatheté saham PGN nalika tanggal [[15 Dhésèmber]] [[2003]] ing [[Bursa Efek Indonésia]]. == Bisnis PGN == === Distribusi gas bumi === PGN ngoperasikaké jalur pipa distribusi gas kang dawané nganti 3.750&nbsp;km, nyuplai gas bumi marang pembangkit listrik, indhustri, usaha komersial kalebu restoran, hotèl lan rumah sakit, sarta rumah tangga ing wewengkon-wewengkon kang paling padat penduduké ing Indonésia. PGN éntuk keuntungan saka pangadolan gas marang konsumen. === Transmisi Gas Bumi === Jalur pipa transmisi gas bumi PGN kasusun saka jaringan pipa kanti tekanan dhuwur sedawané sakiwa-tengené 2.160&nbsp;km kang ngirimaké gas bumi saka sumber gas bumi marang stasiun panampa pembeli. PGN nampa ''Toll Fee'' kanggo ngirim gas jumbuh karo Perjanjian Transportasi Gas (GTA) kang berlaku suwéné 10 nganti 20 taun. Unit Bisnis Strategis Kanggo ngawasi kagiyatan operasional transmisi lan distribusi, PGN mbagi area bisnisé dadi papat Unit Bisnis Strategis kanti fokus géografis dhéwé: * SBU Distribusi Wewengkon I, nyakup area [[Sumatera Selatan]] nganti [[Jawa Barat]] (kalebu [[Jakarta]]) * [[PT Perusahaan Gas Nagara (Persero) Tbk, SBU Distribusi Wewengkon II|SBU Distribusi Wewengkon II]], nyakup area [[Jawa Timur]] * SBU Distribusi Wewengkon III, nyakup Sumatera Utara, Riau ([[Pekanbaru]]) lan [[Kapuloan Riau]] ([[Batam]]) * SBU Transmisi, nyakup jaringan transmisi ing Sumatera Selatan lan Jawa Skliyané iku anak perusahaan PGN, PT Transportasi Gas Indonésia, ngemunah bisnis transmisi gas bumi kanggo jaringan Grissik-Duri lan Grissik-Singapura. Anak Perusahaan lan Perusahaan Afiliasi * [[PT Transportasi Gas Indonésia]]: transmisi gas bumi * [[PT PGAS Telekomunikasi Nusantara]] (PGASCOM): telekomunikasi * [[PT PGAS Solution]]: konstruksi * [[PT Nusantara Regas]]: terminal penyimpanan lan regasifikasi nganmbang * [[PT Saka Energi Indonésia]]: kagiyatan ing babagan hulu * [[PT Gagas Energi Indonésia]]: kagiyatan ing babagan hilir * [[PT Gas Energi Jambi]]: perdagangan, konstruksi lan jasa * [[PT Banten Gas Synergi]]: jasa, transportasi, perdagangan lan pertambangan (Afiliasi) == Saham PGN == Bebarengan karo akèhé privatisasi BUMN ing Indonésia, pamaréntah terus nglakokaké pangadolan saham BUMN iki. Saiki pamaréntah amung nguwasani 51 persèn saham PGN wondéné 49 persèn turahané dikuasai publik. Nalika pertengahan Januari 2007, informasi ketelatan komersialisasi gas via pipa transmisi SSWJ saka manajemen PGN dadi penyebab utama anjloké rega saham BUMN iku nganti 23% sajeroning sadina. Sentimen négatif ing pasar modal iku kaitané karo kecurigaan yèn PGN lan pamaréntah nutup-nutupi ketelatan proyèk mau kang kuduné wis operasi nalika Dhésèmber 2006, nanging ditunda nganti Januari 2007 lan katunda maning nganti Maret <ref>{{cite news| title = BEJ dan Bapepam Diminta Selidiki Anjloknya Saham PGN| publisher = Media Indonésia| date = 2007-01-14| url = http://www.médhia-indonesia.com/berita.asp?id=122064}}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}(Kaunduh 14/2/13)(Kaunduh 14/2/13)</ref>. Akibaté PGN kenoi denda déning [[Pertamina]] ya iku US$ 15.000 per dina awit 1 November 2006<ref>{{cite news| title =PGN Bayar Denda| publisher =Kompas Cybermedia| date =2007-01-16| url =http://www.kompas.co.id/ver1/Ekonomi/0701/16/045819.htm| access-date =2013-02-14| archive-date =2007-09-29| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070929102708/http://www.kompas.co.id/ver1/Ekonomi/0701/16/045819.htm| url-status =dead}}(Kaunduh 14/2/13)</ref>. Nalika taun 2011, komposisi saham pamaréntah nganti 57% lan turhane publik 43% <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pgn.co.id/pages/default/investors/our_shareholders/0 |title=Komposisi saham PGN |access-date=2013-02-14 |archive-date=2012-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618220845/http://www.pgn.co.id/pages/default/investors/our_shareholders/0 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.pgn.co.id Situs Web Resmi] * [http://portal.bumn.go.id/gasnagara/ PGN di BUMN Online]{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist}} {{BUMN}} [[Kategori:BUMN]] [[Kategori:Perusahaan lenga dan gas Indonésia]] 7t6onouojvi5fg3f6c2u6er14f2xrxb Pyxis 0 97796 1753073 1648562 2026-08-20T09:47:28Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753073 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Constellation | name = Pyxis | abbreviation = Pyx | genitive = Pyxidis | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|k|s|ɨ|s}}, genitive {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|k|s|ɨ|d|ɨ|s}} | symbolism = the [[compass]] box | RA = 9 | dec= −30 | family = [[Heavenly Waters (astronomy)|Heavenly Waters]] | quadrant = SQ2 | areatotal = 221 | arearank = 65th | numbermainstars = 3 | numberbfstars = 10 | numberstarsplanets = 4 | numberbrightstars = 0 | numbernearbystars = 1 | brighteststarname = [[Alpha Pyxidis|α Pyx]] | starmagnitude = 3.68 | neareststarname = [[Gliese 318]] | stardistancely = 30.13 | stardistancepc = 9.24 | numbermessierobjects = None | meteorshowers = None | bordering = [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]]<br />[[Puppis]]<br />[[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]<br />[[Antlia]] | latmax = [[50th parallel north|50]] | latmin = [[South Pole|90]] | month = March | notes= }} '''Pyxis''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|p|ɪ|k|s|ɨ|s}}; {{lang-el|[[box]]}}) inggih punika satunggaling [[rasi lintang]] ingkang alit, lemes, lan ingkang mapan wonten ing belahan langit sisih [[kidul]].<ref name="internet 1">[http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Sagitta.php Pyxis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504055931/http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Sagitta.php |date=2012-05-04 }} (dipunundhuh tanggal 14 Pebruari 2013)</ref> Pyxis inggih nama [[Latin]] saking [[kompas]] pelaut (kedahipun boten bingung kaliyan konstélasi [[Circinus]], ingkang minangka gambaran saking kompas ''draftman''. Pyxis saestu saged dipuntingali saking garis lintang 53 paralel lor utawi 53 drajat [[lor]], kanthi wekdal ingkang saé piyambak kanggé ningali rasi lintang punika inggih ing wekdal dalu ing langit sasi [[Januari]] ngantos [[Maret]]. Pyxis dipuntepangaken sepisanan déning [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] ing [[abad]] kaping 18. Lan piyambakipun nyebat rasi punika ''Pyxis Nautica'', nanging namanipun lajeng dipuncekak dados ''Pyxis''. Konstelasi punika papanipun caket kaliyan kontelasi wujudipun ingkang sepisanan ingkang sampun sepuh inggih punika kontelasi [[Argo Navis]] (kapal ''Argo''), lan ing [[abad]] kaping 19, astronom [[John Herschel]] paring pamanggih kanggé ngantos nama ''Pxis'' dados ''Malus'', nanging pamanggih punika boten dipundhukung. == Sajarah == Astronom [[Prancis]], [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]], sepisanan ngandharaken konstelasi punika kanthi nama ''la Boussole'' (kompas pelaut) lan pating desain déning Bayer dhateng sedasa lintang - lintang ingkang sapunika dipunparingi nama ''Alpha to Lambda Pyxidis''. == Lintang - lintang == Pyxis mapan wonten ing caket ''stern'' ingkang dipun-ginakaken déning Argo Navis, satunggaling konstelasi ageng ingakng lajeng dipunperang dados kontelaso - konstelasi ingkang alit inggih punika konstelasi [[Carina]], [[Puppis]] lan [[Vela]] déning ''Lacaille''. Konstelasi Pyxis gadhah area ingkang ambanipun kirang langkung 221 drajat pesagi lan ngewrat tigang lintang ingakgn dipunmangertosi dados [[planit]] - [[planit]]. Rasi lintang punika saged dipuntingali ing garis lintang ing antawisipun +50° lan -90°, lan wekdal ingkang saé piyambak kanggé ningali rasi lintang punika inggih jam 9 dalu ing sasi [[Maret]]. Pyxis boten ngewrat kathah lintang ingkang padhangipun langkung saking 4 magnitudo. Lintang ingkang padhang piyambak ingkang wonten ing konstelasi punika inggih [[Alpha Pyxidis]], ingkang gadhah magnitudo 3,68 lan badhé langkung caket dhateng magnitudo 3 manawi boten wonten lebu ingkang nutupi ing antawisipun lintang - lintang. Alpha Pyxidis inggih punika lintang raksasa variabel [[biru]] ingkang panas ingkang tebihipun 845 taun cahya. Lintang ingkang paling dipuncathet wonten ing konstelasi punika inggih lintang ''T Pyxidis'', satunggaling lintang variabel katalisme utawi ''recurrent nova''.{{sfn|Motz|Nathanson|1988|pp=383–84}} Lintang punika dipunsusun saking satunggaling ''white dwarf'' lan lintan pendhukung ingkang mapan wonten ing jarak kirang langkung 6.000 taun cahya saking [[bumi]]. Lintang punika sampun naté njeblug ing taun [[1890]], [[1902]], [[1920]], [[1944]], lan [[1967]], mila jeblugan sanèsipun kedahipun langkung padhang malih amargi lintang punika sampun naté njeblug lan kathah ènergi ingkang dipunakumulasi wonten ing ''white dwarf''. Lintang ingakng ingkang padhang piyambak nomer kalih inggih punika ''beta Pyxidis'', satunggaling lintang binar ingakng tebihipun kirang langkung 390 taun cahya ingkagn katingal dhateng raksasa kelas G. ''Gamma Pyxidis'', inggih lintang ingkang padhang piyambak nomer tiga, ingakgn punika ugi wujudipun raksasa ingkang komposisinipun kados srengéngé. Lintang punika mapan wonten ing tebih kirang langkung 209 taun cahya saking sistem galaksi [[Bimasekti]]. Pyxis ugi kalebet wonten ing konstelasi kullawraga ''Heavenly Waters'', sesarengan kaliyan galaksi [[Delphinus]], [[Equuleus]], [[Eridanus]], [[Piscis Austrinus]], [[Carina]], [[Puppis]], [[Vela]] lan [[Columba]]. Konstelasi ingkang wonten ing sakitering Pyxis inggih punika konstelasi [[Hydra]], [[Puppis]], [[Vela]], lan [[Antlia]]. == Uga delengen == * [[Pratélan lintang ing rasi lintang Pyxis]] == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} * {{cite book | last=Inglis | first=Mike | title=Astronomy of the Milky Way: Observer's Guide to the Southern Sky | publisher=Springer | date=2004 | isbn=1852337427 | url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=1r0qvMjSCGAC&pg=SA3-PA31&dq=Circinus+inglis&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cnHsT6qjEaq4iQea5sDGBQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite journal | title=The G-type eclipsing binary TY Pyxidis. | last=Andersen |first =J. |last2=Popper |first2=D. M. |year=1975 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume= 39 |pages= 131-34 |bibcode=1975A&A....39..131A |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1975A%26A....39..131A }} * {{cite journal | title= Astrometry and radial velocities of the planit host M dwarf Gliese 317: new trigonometric distance, metallicity and upper limit to the mass of Gliese 317 b | last1=Anglada-Escude | first1= Guillem | last2 = Boss | first2= Alan P. | last3= Weinberger |first3= Alycia J. | last4=Thompson |first4= Ian B. |last5= Butler |first5= R. Paul |last6= Vogt |first6= Steven S. |last7=Rivera |first7=Eugenio J. | journal=The [[Astrophysical Journal]] | year=2012 | volume=764 | issue=1 | pages=37A |arxiv =1111.2623 |bibcode = 2012ApJ...746...37A |doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/746/1/37 |url = http://arxiv.org/pdf/1111.2623v1.pdf }}</ref> * {{cite journal | title = RZ Pyxidis - an early-type marginal contact binary | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_monthly-notices-of-the-royal-astronomical-society_1987-07-15_227_2/page/481 | last= Bell |first = S. A. |last2=Malcolm |first2 = G. J. |journal = Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |issn= 0035-8711 | volume= 227 | year = 1987 |pages = 481-500 | bibcode = 1987MNRAS.227..481B }}</ref> * {{cite book | last1 = Motz | first1 = Lloyd | last2 = Nathanson | first2 = Carol | year = 1988 | title = The Constellations | publisher = Doubleday | location = New York City | isbn = 978-0-385-17600-2 }} * {{cite book | first1=Stephen James | last1=O'Meara | title=Steve O'Meara's Herschel 400 Observing Guide | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2007 | isbn=0521858933 | url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Nyh9fAC_tpIC&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=NGC+2613&source=bl&ots=CCr5wqgeqS&sig=0cZ5SI_yl4MewiFyFt7gF-pPs5k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JsJvUNn9BKyciAfCtICQCA&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=NGC%202613&f=false . }} * {{cite journal | last = Russell | first = Henry Norris | year = 1922 | month = October | title = The new international symbols for the constellations | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1922-10_30_8/page/469 | journal = Popular Astronomy | volume = 30 | page = 469 | bibcode = 1922PA.....30..469R }} * {{cite journal | last = Sion | first = Edward M. | year = 2009 | title = 1.The White Dwarfs Within 20 Parsecs of the Sun: Kinematics and Statistics | journal = The Astronomical Journal | volume = 138 |issue = 6 | page = 1681 | doi = 10.1088/0004-6256/138/6/1681 }} * {{cite journal | title=Long-term photometry and periods for 261 nearby pulsating M giants | last=Tabur |first =V. |last2=Bedding |first2=T. R. |year=2009 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume= 400 | issue =4 |pages= 1945-61 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15588.x }} * {{cite book | last = Wagman | first = Morton | year = 2003 | title = Lost Stars: Lost, Missing and Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer, Nicholas Louis de Lacaille, John Flamsteed, and Sundry Others | publisher = The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company | location = Blacksburg, [[Virginia|VA]] | isbn = 978-0-939923-78-6 }} {{refend}} {{Pratélan rasi lintang}} [[Kategori:Rasi lintang]] kbr2pw2rnzbss49s7ejafsflduod2xz Piscis Austrinus 0 97807 1752936 1721995 2026-08-20T05:19:22Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Constellation | name = Piscis Austrinus | abbreviation = PsA | genitive = Piscis Austrini | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|p|aɪ|s|ɨ|s|_|ɒ|s|ˈ|t|r|aɪ|n|ə|s}} or {{IPAc-en|ɒ|s|ˈ|t|r|eɪ|l|ɨ|s}}, genitive {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|aɪ|s|ɨ|s|_|ɒ|ˈ|s|t|r|aɪ|n|aɪ}} | symbolism = the [[South]]ern [[Fish]] | RA = 22 | dec= −30 | family = [[Heavenly Waters (astronomy)|Heavenly Waters]] | quadrant = SQ4 | areatotal = 245 | arearank = 60th | numbermainstars = 7 | numberbfstars = 21 | numberstarsplanets = 3 | numberbrightstars = 1 | numbernearbystars = 3 | brighteststarname = [[Fomalhaut]] (α PsA) | starmagnitude = 1.16 | neareststarname = [[Lacaille 9352]] | stardistancely = 10.74 | stardistancepc = 3.29 | numbermessierobjects = 0 | meteorshowers = ? | bordering = [[Capricornus]]<br />[[Microscopium]]<br />[[Grus (constellation)|Grus]]<br />[[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]<br />[[Aquarius (constellation)|Aquarius]] | latmax = [[55th parallel north|55]] | latmin = [[South Pole|90]] | month = October | notes= }} '''Piscis Austrinus''' (ugi dipunmangertosi kanthi sebatan '''Piscis Australis''') inggih punika salah satunggaling [[rasi lintang]] ingkang mapan wonten ing belahan [[langit]] sisih [[kidul]]. Punika inggih nama [[Latin]] saking "iwak ing sisih kidul]]", ingkang minangka kosok wangsulanipun saking konstélasi ingkang langkung ageng inggih punika konstelasi [[Pisces]], ingkang nggambaraken sak pasang iwak. Mlebet wonten ing [[abad]] kaping 20, rasi lintang punika ugi misuwur kanthi sebatan '''Piscis Notius'''. Punika inggih lintang ingkang padhangipun langkung saking 4 magnitudo, mliginipun inggih punika lintang [[Fomahault]] ingkang minangka lintang sepisanan ingkang ageng lan minangka lintang ingkang padhang piyambak kaping 18 ing langit dalu. Piscis Austrinus inggih punika salah satunggal saking 48 konstelasi ingkang dipundhaptar déning [[astronom]] [[Ptolemy]] ing abad kaping kalih, lan punika ugi kalebet wonten ing 88 rasi lintang modern. Lintang - lintang wonten ing konstelasi modern, inggih punika konstelasi [[Grus]], inggih dipunbentuk saking pérangan konstelasi Piscis Austrinus. Ing taun [[1597]] utawi [[1598]], [[Petrus Plancius]] misah konstelasi punika lan paring nama lintang mau sasampunipun dipundherek. Ing mitos [[Yunani]], rasi lintang punika dipunmangertosi minangka satunggaling [[iwak]] ingkang ageng lan punika dipungambaraken minangka satunggaling iwak ingkang nembé ngombé toya ingkang dipunparingi déning rasi lintang [[Aquarius]], satunggaling konstelasi ingkang mbeto toya. Kalih iwak saking rasi Pisces dipunsebat minangka turunan saking owak ageng. Wonten ing mitos [[Mesir]], iwak punika ingkang nylametaken pagesanganipun dewi Mesir, [[Isis]], dados piyambakipun mapanaken iwak punika lan turunanipun wonten ing langit minangka rasi lintang.<ref>{{cite book | author=Condos, Theony; Eratosthenes; Hyginus | title=Star myths of the Greeks and Romans: a sourcebook containing the Constellations of Pseudo-Eratosthenes and the Poetic astronomy of Hyginus | pages=163–164 | publisher=Red Wheel/Weiser | year=1997 | isbn=1-890482-93-5 }}</ref> == Titikanipun == Piscis Austrinus inggih punika salah satunggaling rasi lintang ingkang dipunkiteri déning [[Capriconus]] wonten ing [[lor]] radi [[kulon]], [[Microscopium]] wonten ing [[kulon]] radi [[kidul]], rasi lintang [[Grus]] wonten ing sisih kidul, rasi lintang [[Sculptor]] wonten ing sisih [[wétan]], lan rasi lintang [[aquarius]] wonten ing sisih lor. Tigang aksara ingkang dipunandharaken kanggé nyekak rasi lontang punika, ingkang dipunpendhet saking [[International Astronomical Union]] ing taun [[1922]], inggih punika 'PsA'.<ref name=pa30_469>{{cite journal | last=Russell | first=Henry Norris |author-link=Henry Norris Russell | title=The new international symbols for the constellations | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1922-10_30_8/page/469 | journal=Popular Astronomy | volume=30 | page=469 | bibcode=1922PA.....30..469R | year=1922 }}</ref> Wates- watesaning rasi lintang ingkang resmi, kados ingkang dipuntemtokaken déning [[Eugène Joseph Delporte|Eugène Delporte]] ing taun [[1930]], inggih dipungambaraken déning wujud poligon saking sekawan pérangan. Wonten ing sistem koordinat [[khatuistiwa]], koordinat watesanipun ingkang pas wonten ing garis minggah mapan wonten ing {{RA|21|27.3}} lan {{RA|23|06.5}}, kanthi deklinasinipun ing koordinat antawisipun -24.83° lan -36.46°.<ref name=boundary>{{Cite document | title=Piscis Austrinus, constellation boundary | work=The Constellations | publisher=International Astronomical Union | url=http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/#psa | accessdate=20 August 2012 | postscript=. | archive-date=5 June 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605024208/http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/#psa | url-status=dead }}</ref> == Wujud lintang == [[Fomalhaut]] ingkang tradhisional nggambaraken cangkemipun iwak. [[Fomahaul b]] ingkang minangka pendhampingipun dipunanggep dados ekstrasolar [[planit]] ingakng sepisanan ingkang sampun naté kedheteksi kanthi [[teleskop]] [[Hublle Space]]. [[TW Piscis Austrini]] saged dipuntingali kanthi caket lan mbok bilih punika gayut kaliyan Fomahault amargi mapan wonten ing satunggal taun cahya ingkang sami, kanthi magnitudo 6,5, punika miturut variabel Draconis. Rasi lintang Pices Austrinus punika gadhah area ingkang ambanipun 245 drajat persegi lan ngewrat tigang lintang ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka planit - [[planit]]. Rasi lintang punika saged dipuntingali ing garis lintang antawisipun +55° lan -90°, lan ingkang saé piyambak dipuntingali ing pukul 9 dalu ing salebeting sasi [[Oktober]].<ref>[http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Piscis-Austrinus.php Piscis Austrinus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306213912/http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Piscis-Austrinus.php |date=2012-03-06 }}(dipunundhuh tanggal 14 Pebruari 2013)</ref> == Lintang - lintang == Piscis Austrinus kalebet satunggal kulawarga kaliyan rasi lintang ''Heacenly Waters'' sesarengan kaliyan rasi lintang [[Delphinus]], [[Equuleus]], [[Eridanus]], [[Carina]], [[Puppis]], [[Vela]], [[Pyxis]] lan [[Columba]]. Rasi lintang sanèsipun ingkang ngiteri rasi lintang Piscis Austrinus inggih punika rasi lintang [[Capricornus]], [[Microscopium]], [[Grus]], [[Sculptor]] lan [[Aquarius]]. == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} {{Pratélan rasi lintang}} [[Kategori:Rasi lintang]] m9kv058kiy3t7ij8sqwbhufz1yf07mm Pictor 0 97809 1752957 1647981 2026-08-20T05:54:44Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752957 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Constellation| name = Pictor | abbreviation = Pic | genitive = Pictoris | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|k|t|ər}},<br>genitive {{IPAc-en|p|ɪ|k|ˈ|t|ɔər|ɨ|s}} | symbolism = the [[Easel]] | RA = 4.53 h ~ 6.85 | dec= −43° ~ −64 | family = [[La Caille Family|La Caille]] | quadrant = SQ1 | areatotal = 247 | arearank = 59th | numbermainstars = 3 | numberbfstars = 15 | numberstarsplanets = 3 | numberbrightstars = none | numbernearbystars = 1 | brighteststarname = [[Alpha Pictoris|α Pic]] | starmagnitude = 3.30 | neareststarname = [[Kapteyn's Star]] | stardistancely = 12.77 | stardistancepc = 3.92 | numbermessierobjects = none | meteorshowers = none | bordering = [[Caelum]]<br />[[Carina (constellation)|Carina]]<br />[[Columba (constellation)|Columba]]<br />[[Dorado]]<br />[[Puppis]]<br />[[Volans]] | latmax = [[26th parallel north|26]] | latmin = [[South Pole|90]] | month = January | notes=}} '''Pictor''' inggih punika salah satunggaling [[rasi lintang]] ingkang mapan wonten ing belahan [[langit]] sisih [[kidul]]. Rasi lintang pictor mapan wonten ing antawisipun lintang ingkang pinter inggih punika [[Canopus]] lan [[Large Magellanic Cloud]]. Rasi lintang punika ingghih nama [[Latin]] saking ''[[painting]]'', nanging ing kasunyatanipun, rasi lintang punika nama aslinipun inggih punika '''Equuleus Pictoris'''. RAsi lintang punika sepisanan dipunbiwarakaken lan dipunparingi nama déning Abbé [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] wonten ing abad kaping 18. ==Lintang-lintang== Rasi lintang Pictor punika gadhah aréa ingkang ambanipun 247 drajat persegi lan ngewrat kalih lintang ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka planit-[[planit]]. Rasi lintang punika saged dipuntingali ing garis lintang antawisipun +26° lan-90°, lan ingkang saé piyambak dipuntingali ing pukul 9 dalu ing salebeting sasi [[Januari]].<ref>[http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Pictor.php Pictor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506193207/http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Pictor.php |date=2012-05-06 }}(dipunundhuh tanggal 14 Pebruari 2013)</ref> * Lintang ingkang padhang piyambak wonten ing konstelasi Pictor punika inggih kanthi nama ''alpha Pictoris'', salah satunggaling lintang tipe A ingkang umuripun udakawis 660 milyar taun, ingkang tebihipun kirang langkung 99 taun cahya saking [[bumi]]. Alpha Pictoris inggih punika lintang wonten ing kutub kidul saking planit [[Merkurius]]. * ''Beta Pictoris'' inggih punika lintang ingkang padhang piyambak nomer kalih wonten ing konstelasi Pictor, lan punika inggih kalebet lintang ingkang sanget enem kanthi umuripun kirang saking 20 milyar taun. Lintang punika gadhah kempalan lebu ingkang kathah lan ugi gas, kanthi komposisinipun meh sami kaliyan komposisi galaksi [[Bimasekti]]. Lintang punika inggih anggota paling wigati wonten ing ''Beta Pictoris Moving Group'', satunggaling grup saking 28 lintang enem ing 17 sistem lintang, ingkang tebihipun kirang langkung 115 taun cahya. Beta Pictoris mapan wonten ing jarak 63,4 taun cahya saking bumi. ''Kapteyn’s Star'' (HD 33793) inggih punika satunggaling wujud ''red dwarf'' ingakng tebihipun 12,78 taun cahya. Pictor ugi ngewrat objek langit lebet ingkang kedah dipuncathet, inggih punika wonten NGC 1705 ingkang kalebet galaksi kurcaci ingkang boten aturan, ingkang ambanipun 2.600 taun cahya kanthi tebihipun kirang langkung 16,6 taun cahya.{{sfn|Wilkins|Dunn|2006}} Pictor kalebet satunggal kulawarga kaliyan rasi lintang ''Lacaille'' sesarengan kaliyan rasi lintang [[Norma]], [[Circinus]], [[Telescopium]], [[Microscopium]], [[Sculptor]], [[Fornax]], [[Caelum]], [[Horologium]], [[Octans]], [[Mensa]], [[Reticulum]] lan [[Antlia]]. Rasi lintang sanèsipun ingkang ngiteri rasi lintang Pictor inggih punika rasi lintang [[Caelum]], [[Carina]], [[Columba]], [[Dorado]], [[Puppis]] lan [[Volans]]. {{sfn|Russell|1922|p=469}} ==Cathetan suku== {{Reflist}} *{{cite journal | first1=A. W. J. | last1=Cousins |title= The eclipsing variable δ Pictoris | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_monthly-notices-of-the-royal-astronomical-society_1966_131_4/page/443 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume = 131 | pages=443-45 |year=1966 |bibcode=1966MNRAS.131..443C }} *{{cite journal | first1=E. | last1=Kotoneva | first2=K. | last2=Innanen | first3=P. C. | last3=Dawson | first4=P. R. | last4=Wood | first5=M. M. | last5=De Robertis | title=A study of Kapteyn's star | year=2005 | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | volume=438 | pages=957–62 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20042287 | bibcode=2005A&A...438..957K | issue=3 }} *{{cite journal | last1=Malkov | first1=O. Yu. | last2=Oblak | first2=E. | last3=Snegireva | first3=E. A. | last4=Torra | first4=J. | title=A catalogue of eclipsing variables | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume=446 | issue=2 | pages=785–89 | month=February | year=2006 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20053137 | bibcode=2006A&A...446..785M |url=http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/vizier/ftp/cats/J/A+A/446/785/catalog.dat (list) }}</ref> * {{cite book | last1 = Motz | first1 = Lloyd | last2 = Nathanson | first2 = Carol | year = 1988 | title = The Constellations | publisher = Doubleday | location = New York City | isbn = 978-0-385-17600-2 }} * {{cite journal |last=Harvard College Observatory |title= Notes |journal=The Observatory |volume= 6 |pages=127-31 | year= 1883 |month=April |bibcode = 1883Obs.....6..127. }} * {{cite journal | last = Patterson | first = Joseph |last2=Moulden |first2=, Margaret |title= Rapid oscillations in cataclysmic variables. X-TW Pictoris (=H 0534-581) |journal=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |issn= 0004-6280 |volume= 105 |issue=689 |pages=779-84 |bibcode=1993PASP..105..779P }} * {{cite journal | last = Pavlovski | first = K. |last2=Cuypers |first2= J. |last3=David |first3=M. |last4=Griffin |first4= R. E. M. |last5=Hensberge |first5= H. |last6=Ilijic |first6= S. |last7=Schneider |first7=H. |last7=Verschueren |first7=W. |title = The nearby ellipsoidal variable TV Pictoris |journal = Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume =331 |pages = 639-50 |year=1998 |bibcode = 1998A&A...331..639P }} * {{cite journal | last = Perley | first = Richard A. |last2=Röser |first2=, Hermann-Josef |last3=Meisenheimer |first3=Klaus | year = 1997 | title = The radio galaxy Pictor A-a study with the VLA | journal = Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume = 328 | page = 12-32 | url = http://www.mso.anu.edu.au/~geoff/HEA/Perley.pdf | bibcode = 1997A&A...328...12P }} * {{cite web | last = Ridpath | first = Ian | authorlink = Ian Ridpath | year = 1988 | title = Pictor | work = Star Tales | url = http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/pictor.htm | access-date = 13 Oktober 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Ridpath,.27.27Star Tales.27.27 Pictor}} }} * {{cite journal | last = Russell | first = Henry Norris | year = 1922 | month = October | title = The new international symbols for the constellations | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1922-10_30_8/page/469 | journal = Popular Astronomy | volume = 30 | page = 469 | bibcode = 1922PA.....30..469R }} *{{cite journal |bibcode=1984Sci...226.1421S |title=A circumstellar disk around Beta Pictoris |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1984-12-21_226_4681/page/1421 |last=Smith |first= B. A. |last2=Terrile |first2=R. J. |year=1984 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=226 |pages=1421–24 |doi=10.1126/science.226.4681.1421 |pmid=17788996 |issue=4681 }} * {{cite book | last = Wagman | first = Morton | year = 2003 | title = Lost Stars: Lost, Missing and Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer, Nicholas Louis de Lacaille, John Flamsteed, and Sundry Others | publisher = The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company | location = Blacksburg, [[Virginia|VA]] | isbn = 978-0-939923-78-6 }} *{{cite book |title = 300 Astronomical Objects: A Visual Reference to the Universe |last1 = Wilkins |first1 = Jamie |last2 = Dunn |first2 = Robert |publisher = Firefly Books |location = Buffalo, New York |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-1-55407-175-3 }}</ref> {{88 rasi lintang modhern}} [[Kategori:Rasi lintang]] jq2i6gi6n0xon0fsavfvjnqj5ob86um Phoenix 0 97815 1752926 1721994 2026-08-20T05:08:28Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752926 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:rasi lintang phoenix.jpg|thumb|rasi lintang phoenix]] {{Infobox constellation | name = Pheonix | abbreviation = Phe | genitive = Pheonicis | pronounce = {{plainlist | * {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|n|ɪ|k|s}} * genitive {{IPAc-en|f|ɨ|ˈ|n|aɪ|s|ɨ|s}} }} | symbolism = the [[Pheonix (mythology)|Pheonix]] | RA = 0 | dec = −50 | family = [[Bayer Family|Bayer]] | quadrant = SQ1 | areatotal = 469 | arearank = 37th | numbermainstars = 4 | numberbfstars = 25 | numberstarsplanets = 5 | numberbrightstars = 1 | numbernearbystars = 1 | brighteststarname = [[Alpha Pheonicis|α Phe]] (Ankaa) | starmagnitude = 2.40 | neareststarname = [[Gliese 915]] | stardistancely = 27.24 | stardistancepc = 8.35 | numbermessierobjects = 0 | meteorshowers = [[Phoenicids]] | bordering = {{plainlist | * [[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]] * [[Grus (constellation)|Grus]] * [[Tucana (constellation)|Tucana]] * [[Hydrus]] (corner) * [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] * [[Fornax]] }} | latmax = [[32nd parallel north|32]] | latmin = [[80th parallel south|80]] | month = November | notes = }} '''Phoenix''' inggih punika satunggaling [[rasi lintang]] ingkang alit ingkang mapan wonten ing belahan [[langit]] sisih [[kidul]]. Nama punika medal sasampunipun wonten mitos ''Phoenix'' ingakng minangka manuk mistik. Rasi lintang phoenix punika ambanipun mbentang saking deklinasi −39° ngantos−57°, lan saking 3,5h ngantos 2,5h wonten ing titik minggah ingkang leres. == Titikanipun == Phoenix inggih punika satunggaling rasi lintang minoritas ingkang dipunkiteri déning konstelasi [[Fornax]] lan [[Sculptor]] wonten ing sisih [[lor]], konstelasi [[Grus]] wonten ing sisih [[kulon]], [[Tucana]] wonten ing sisih [[kidul]], ingkang ngenani pojokanipun rasi lintang [[Hydrus]] wonten ing sisih [[kidul]], lan rasi lintang [[Eridanus]] wonten ing sisih kidul radi [[wétan]]. Lintang ingkang padhang piyambak, inggih punika [[Achenar]] inggih caket ing rasi punika papanipun.<ref name=klepesta>{{cite book|last=Klepešta|first=Josef|author2=Rükl, Antonín |title=Constellations |publisher=Hamlyn|year=1974|origyear=1969|pages=214–15|isbn=0-600-00893-2}}</ref> Tigang aksra kanggé nyekak nama rasi llintang punika ingkang dipunpendhet saking [[International Astronomical Union]] ing taun [[1922]], inggih punika 'Phe'.<ref name=pa30_469>{{cite journal | last=Russell | first=Henry Norris |author-link=Henry Norris Russell | title=The new international symbols for the constellations | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1922-10_30_8/page/469 | journal=Popular Astronomy | volume=30 | page=469 | bibcode=1922PA.....30..469R | year=1922 }}</ref> Wates-watesanipun rasi lintang punika kanthi resmi dipundamel déning [[Eugène Joseph Delporte|Eugène Delporte]] ing taun [[1930]], ingkang nggambaraken wujud poligon kanthi 10 segmen. Wonten ing sistem koordinat [[equator]], titik koordinat pas pérangan minggahipun ingkang wonten ing sakiteripun inggih punika ing antawisipun {{RA|23|26.5}} lan {{RA|02|25.0}}, kanthi titik koordinat deklinasinipun ing antawisipun −39.31° lan −57.84°.<ref name=boundary>{{Cite document | title=Phoenix, constellation boundary | work=The Constellations | publisher=International Astronomical Union | url=http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/#phe | access-date=14 Fèbruari 2013 | postscript=. | archive-date=2013-06-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605024208/http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/#phe | url-status=dead }}</ref> Punika ateges, rasi lintang punika saged dipuntingali déning saben tiyang ingkang dumunung wonten ing laladan ing sak nginggiling bujur 40 ing belahan bumi sisih lor. Rasi lintang punika saged gampil dipuntingali saking [[Australia]] lan [[Afrika Selatan]] ing belahan bumi sisih kidul nalika mangsa panas.<ref>[http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/phoenix/constell.html The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Phoenix]</ref> == Lintang-lintang == Satunggaling garis kurva lintang-lintang ing rasi lintang punika ngewrat sapérangan lintang kados ta ''[[Alpha Phoenicis|Alpha]], [[Kappa Phoenicis|Kappa]], [[Mu Phoenicis|Mu]], [[Beta Phoenicis|Beta]], [[Nu Phoenicis|Nu]] lan [[Gamma Phoenicis]]'' ingkang katingal minangka satunggali kapal ''boat''' déning tiyang [[Arab]] kuna.<ref name=allen>{{cite book |author = [[Richard Hinckley Allen|Allen, Richard Hinckley]], |year = 1963 |origyear = 1899 |title = Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning |edition = [[Reprint|rep]]. |publisher = [[Dover Publications]] Inc. |location = [[New York City|New York]], [[New York|NY]] |url = http://books.google.com.au/books?id=_GUDis0bETgC&pg=PA521&lpg=PA521&dq=star+names+meaning+phoenix&source=bl&ots=6TZbKSSFOh&sig=hECg6uZfryd_FTKa4_PXDcnd9Fo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=onk5UOmNIe-4iAeY6YDoDQ&sqi=2&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=star%20names%20meaning%20phoenix&f=false |isbn = 0-486-21079-0 |pages = 335–36 }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Rasi lintang Phoenix gadhah area ingkang ambanipun kirang langkung 469 drajat peregi ingkang ngewrat enem lintang ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka [[planit]]-planit. Rasi lintang punika ingkang saé piyambak dipuntingali wonten ing garis lintang ing antawisipun +32° lan-90°, ing jam 9 dalu ing sadangunipun sasi [[Novèmber]]. Phoenix namung gadhah kalih lintang ingkang gadhah padhang langkung saking 5,0 magnitudo. ''Alpha Phoenicis'' utawi ingkang dipunsebat ugi ''Ankaa'' inggih punika satunggaling lintang raksasa warna oranye ingkang tebihipun kirang langkung 80 taun cahya. Lintang punika ugi misuwr kanthi sebatan ''Nair al-Zaurak''. Beta Phoenics lan gamma Phoenicis inggih kekalihipun kalebet variabel raksasa, ingkang tebihipun ping tiga langkung tebih tinimbang Ankaa. Zeta Phoenicis inggih punika sistem lintang elips binar, ingkang kalebet tipe variabel Algol, ingkang tebihipun kirang langkung 280 taun cahya. Nu Phoenicis inggih punika lintang ingkang radi meh sami kaliyan srengéngé. Phoenix taksih kalebet kulawarga rasi lintang Johann Bayer, sesarengan kaliyan rasi lintang [[Hydrus]], [[Dorado]], [[Volans]], [[Apus]], [[Pavo]], [[Grus]], [[Tucana]], [[Indus]], [[Chamaeleon]] lan [[Musca]]. Rasi lintang sanèsipun ingkang wonten ing sakitering rasi lintang Phoenix inggih punika rasi lintang [[Sculptor]], [[Tucana]], [[Grus]], [[Hydrus]], [[Eridanus]] lan [[Fornax]].<ref>[http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Phoenix.php Phoenix] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515054537/http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Phoenix.php |date=2014-05-15 }} (dipunundhuh tanggal 14 Pebruari 2013)</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} {{88 rasi lintang modhern}} [[Kategori:Rasi lintang]] 44cxjv4612srm0rz8td4c7krun9n9p4 Microscopium 0 97914 1752873 1721308 2026-08-20T03:49:07Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752873 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Constellation | name = Microscopium | abbreviation = Mic | genitive = Microscopii | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|aɪ|k|r|ə|ˈ|s|k|ɒ|p|i|əm}}, genitive {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|aɪ|k|r|ə|ˈ|s|k|ɒ|p|i|aɪ}} | symbolism = the [[Microscope]] | RA = 21 | dec= −36 | family = [[La Caille Family|La Caille]] | quadrant = SQ4 | areatotal = 210 | arearank = 66th | numbermainstars = 5 | numberbfstars = 13 | numberstarsplanets = 1 | numberbrightstars = 0 | numbernearbystars = 2 | brighteststarname = [[Gamma Microscopii|γ Mic]] | starmagnitude = 4.67 | neareststarname = [[Lacaille 8760]] | stardistancely = 12.87 | stardistancepc = 3.95 | numbermessierobjects = none | meteorshowers = ?????<br />????? | bordering = [[Capricornus (constellation)|Capricornus]]<br />[[Sagittarius (constellation)|Sagittarius]]<br />[[Telescopium]] (corner)<br />[[Indus (constellation)|Indus]]<br />[[Grus (constellation)|Grus]]<br />[[Piscis Austrinus]] | latmax = [[45th parallel north|45]] | latmin = [[South Pole|90]] | month = September | notes=}} '''Microscopium''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˌ|m|aɪ|k|r|ə|ˈ|s|k|ɒ|p|i|əm}}) inggih punika salah satunggaling [[rasi lintang]] ingkang alit lan minoritas ingkang mapan wonten ing langit sisih [[kidul]]. Rasi lintang punika inggih sepisanan dipunandharaken déning [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] ing abad kaping 18.<ref>[http://www.atlascoelestis.com/desu%20Plancius.htm Le costellazioni di Petrus Plancius] on [http://www.atlascoelestis.com/ atlascoelestis.com]</ref> Nama Microscopium punika saking basa [[Latin]] kanggé ''microscope''.{{sfn|Staal|1988|p=233}} Lintang punika inggih boten daya kekiyatan lan angèl sanget dipuntingali saking sapérangan ageng belahan langit sisih [[lor]] ing laladan boten [[tropis]]. == Titikanipun == Microscopium inggih punika kalebet rasi lintang ingkang alit ingkang dipunkiteri déning rasi lintang [[Capriconus]] ing sisih [[lor]], [[piscis Austrinus]] lan [[Grus]] ing sisih [[kulon]], [[Sagittarius]] ing sisih [[wétan]], lan rasi lintang [[Indus]] ing sisih kidul. Tigang [[aksara]] ingkang dipunangge kanggé nyekak nama rasi lintang Microscopium ingkang dipunpendhet saking [[International Astronomical Union]] ing taun 1922, is 'Mic'.<ref name=pa30_469>{{cite journal | last=Russell | first=Henry Norris |author-link=Henry Norris Russell | title=The new international symbols for the constellations | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1922-10_30_8/page/469 | journal=Popular Astronomy | volume=30 | page=469 | bibcode=1922PA.....30..469R | year=1922 }}</ref> Wates-watesaning ingkang resmi saking rasi lintang punika inggih dipunatur déning [[Eugène Joseph Delporte|Eugène Delporte]] ing taun [[1930]], ingkang dipungambaraken kanthi pujud poligon sekawan pérangan. Wonten ing sistem koordinat khatulistiwa, koordinat titik minggahipun ingkang ngiteri rasi lintang punika inggih ing antawisipun {{RA|20|27.3}} lan {{RA|21|28.4}}, kanthi koordinat deklinasi wonten ing antawisipun −27.45° lan −45.09°.<ref name=boundary>{{Cite document | title=Microscopium, constellation boundary | work=The Constellations | publisher=International Astronomical Union | url=http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/#mic | accessdate=13 July 2012 | postscript=. | archive-date=4 June 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604014156/http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/#mic | url-status=dead }}</ref> Amargi magnitudo lintang ing rasi lintang punika namung gangsal, mila rasi lintang punika inggih boten saged dipuntingali kanthi mripat langsung.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kambič|first=Bojan |title=Viewing the Constellations with Binoculars|publisher=Springer|date=2009|page=341|isbn=0387853545|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=3vxLNPNHOcwC&pg=PA340&dq=Microscopium&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RGkDULW-A-eTiAe0zYGBCA&ved=0CFsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Microscopium&f=false}}</ref> == Lintang-lintang == Rasi lintang Microscopium gadhah laladan ingkang ambanipun kirang langkung 210 drajat persegi lan ngewrat satunggal lintang ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka [[planit]]-planit. Rasi lintang Microscopium punika saged dipuntingali ing garis lintang antawisipun +45° lan-90° lan badhé katingal ingkang saé piyambak wujudipun manawi dipuntingali ing jam 9 dalu ing salebeting [[September]]. Microscopium inggih kalebet wonten ing kulawarga rasi lintang Lacaille, sesarangen kaliyan rasi lintang [[Norma]], [[Circinus]], [[Telescopium]], [[Sculptor]], [[Fornax]], [[Caelum]], [[Horologium]], [[Octans]], [[Mensa]], [[Reticulum]], [[Pictor]] lan [[Antlia]]. Rasi lintang Microscopum dipunkiteri kaliyan rasi-rasi lintang sanèsipun inggih punika rasi lintang [[Capricornus]], [[Sagittarius]], [[Telescopium]], [[Indus]], [[Grus]] lan [[Piscis Austrinus]].<ref>[http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Microscopium.php Microscopium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507125940/http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Microscopium.php |date=2012-05-07 }}(dipunundhuh tanggal 17 Pebruari 2013)</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} * {{citation |first = Julius D.W. |last = Staal |title = The New Patterns in the Sky |year = 1988 |publisher = McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company |isbn = 0-939923-04-1}} [[Kategori:Rasi lintang]] hna5a619t05rlupj962naed3xpdfc65 Corona Australis 0 98101 1752877 1751228 2026-08-20T03:57:31Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752877 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox constellation | name = Corona Australis | abbreviation = CrA | genitive = {{plainlist | * Coronae Australis * Coronae Austrinae }} | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|k|ɵ|ˈ|r|oʊ|n|ə|_|ɒ|ˈ|s|t|r|eɪ|l|ɨ|s}} or {{IPAc-en|k|ɵ|ˈ|r|oʊ|n|ə|_|ɒ|ˈ|s|t|r|aɪ|n|ə}}, genitive {{IPAc-en|k|ɵ|ˈ|r|oʊ|n|iː}} | symbolism = The [[South]]ern [[Crown (headgear)|Crown]] | RA = 19 | dec = −40 | family = [[Hercules Family|Hercules]] | quadrant = SQ3 | areatotal = 128 | arearank = 80th | numbermainstars = 6 | numberbfstars = 14 | numberstarsplanets = 2 | numberbrightstars = 0 | numbernearbystars = 0 | brighteststarname = [[Alpha Coronae Australis|α CrA]] | starmagnitude = 4.10 | neareststarname = [[HD 166348]] | stardistancely = 42.26 | stardistancepc = 12.96 | numbermessierobjects = 0 | meteorshowers = [[Corona Australids]] | bordering = {{plainlist | * [[Sagittarius (constellation)|Sagittarius]] * [[Scorpius]] * [[Ara (constellation)|Ara]] * [[Telescopium]] }} | latmax = [[40th parallel north|40]] | latmin = [[South Pole|90]] | month = August | notes = }} [[Gambar:Corona Australis.jpg|thumb|Rasi lintang Corona Australis]] '''Corona Australis''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|k|ɵ|ˈ|r|oʊ|n|ə|_|ɒ|ˈ|s|t|r|eɪ|l|ɨ|s}}) utawi '''Corona Austrina''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|k|ɵ|ˈ|r|oʊ|n|ə|_|ɒ|ˈ|s|t|r|aɪ|n|ə}}){{sfn|Bagnall|2012|p=170}} inggih punika salah satunggaling [[rasi lintang]] ingkang alit ingkang mapan wonten ing [[langit]] sisih [[kidul]]. Corona Australis inggih saking basa [[Latin]] kanggé [[manuk]] [[gagak]] kidul, lan rasi lintang punika inggih pérangan paling kidul saking rasi lintang [[Corona Borealis]]. Corona Australis kalebet salah satunggaling saking 48 rasi lintang ingkang dipundhaptar déning [[Ptolemy]], ingkang namung dipunétang pitung lintang,<ref>{{1728}}</ref> lan rasi lintang punika kalebet 88 rasi lintang modhern. == Titikanipun == Corona Australis inggih punika rasi lintang ingkang alit ingkang dipunkiteri déning rasi lintang [[Sagittarius]] ing sisih [[lor]], [[Scorpius]] ing sisih [[kulon]]. [[Telescopium]] ing sisih kidul, lan rasi lintang [[Ara]] ing sisih kidul radi [[kulon]]. Tigang [[aksara]] ingkang dipun-ginakaken kanggé nyekak nama rasi lintang punika, ingkang dipunpendhet saking [[International Astronomic Union]] ing taun [[1922]] inggih punika 'CrA'.{{sfn|Russell|1922|p=469}} Déné wates-watesaning rasi lintang Corona Australis ingkang resmi inggih dipundamel déning [[Eugène Joseph Delporte|Eugène Delporte]] ing taun [[1930]], ingakng dipungambaraken wujud poligon kanthi sekawan pérangan. Wonten ing sistem koordinat [[khatulistiwa]], koordinat pas minggahipun mapan wonten ing antawisipun {{RA|17|58.3}} lan {{RA|19|19.0}}, kanthi deklinasinipun ing antawispun koordinat −36.77° lan −45.52°.{{sfn|IAU, ''The Constellations'', Corona Australis}} Kanthi gadhah laladan ingkang ambanipun 128 drajat persegi, Corona Australis puncakipun aged dipuntingali ing dalu ing tanggal 30 [[Juni]]{{refn|name=Malin Frew 1995 p218}} lan saking ambanipun laladanipun rasi lintang punika mapan wonten ing ranking 80 saking 88 rasi lintang ingkang wonten.{{sfn|Ridpath, ''Constellations''}} Rasi lintang punika namung saged dipuntingali ing garis lintang 53° lor, lan Corona Australis boten saged dipuntingali saking kapuloan [[Britania]] amargi papanipun ingkang tebih ing sisih kidul,{{refn|name=Moore & Tirion 1997 pp164}} nanging rasi lintang punika saged dipuntingali saking [[Éropa Selatan]] lan ugi saking [[Amérikah Sarékat]] pérangan kidul.{{refn|name=Moore 'Stargazing' 2000 p86}} == Lintang-lintang == Rasi lintang Corona Australis gadhah laladan ingkang ambanipun kirang langkung 128 drajat persegi lan boten gadhah lintang ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka [[planit]]-planit. Rasi lintang punika saged ipuntingali wonten ing garis lintang antawisipun +40° lan-90° lan badhé katingal ingkang saé piyambak manawi dipuntingali ing jam 9 dalu ing salebeting sasi [[Agustus]]. Rasi lintang Corona Australis boten gadhah lintang ingkang padhangipun langkung saking sekawan magnitudo. Déné lintang-lintang ingkang wonten ing rasi lintang punika ing antawisipun inggih punika kados makaten: * ''Beta Coronae Australis'' inggih punika lintang ingkang padhang piyambak wonten ing rasi lintang punika. Beta Coronea Australis inggih gadhah cahya raksasa [[oranye]] ingkang gadhah magnitudo 4,11. ''Alpha Coronae Australis'' utawi ''Alphekka Meridiana'' inggih nama lintang ingkang namung wonten ing rasi lintang punika. Corona Australis ugi ngewrat sapérangan ''global kluster'' lan laladan nebula ingkang narik kawigatosanipun para panaliti. NGC 6541 inggi satunggaling kluster globular ingkang padhang lan amba ingkang tebihipun kirang langkung 15.000 taun cahya saking [[bumi]]. Objek punika saged dipuntingali namung setengah badan ong antawisipun ''theta Coronae Australis'' lan ''theta Scorpii''. Corona Australis taksih kalebet kulawarga saking rasi lintang Hercules, sesarengan kaliyan rasi lintang [[Hercules]], [[Sagitta]], [[Aquila]], [[Lyra]], [[Cygnus]], [[Vulpecula]], [[Hydra]], [[Sextans]], [[Crater]], [[Corvus]], [[Ophiuchus]], [[Serpens]], [[Scutum]], [[Centaurus]], [[Lupus]], [[Ara]], [[Triangulum Australe]] lan [[Crux]]. Déné ing sak kitering Corvus wonten rasi lintang sanèsipun inggih punika [[Sagittarius]], [[Scorpius]], [[Ara]], lan [[Telescopium]].<ref>[http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Corona-Australis.php Corona Australis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212122037/http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Corona-Australis.php |date=2012-02-12 }} (dipunundhuh tanggal 20 Pebruari 2013)</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} {{refs | colwidth = 20em | refs = {{refn | name = Malin Frew 1995 p218 | {{harvnb|Malin|Frew|1995|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=EQAYGmZT0o8C&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=%22Corona+Australis%22#v=onepage&q=%22Corona%20Australis%22&f=false 218]}} }} {{refn | name = Moore & Tirion 1997 pp164 | {{harvnb|Moore|Tirion|1997|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=Mo6R5OPtlfwC&pg=PA164&dq=%22Corona+Australis%22#v=onepage&q=%22Corona%20Australis%22&f=false 164]}} }} {{refn | name = Moore 2005 p202 | {{harvnb|Moore|2005|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=0Pu_YNynaiYC&pg=PA202&dq=%22Corona+Australis%22+visible#v=onepage&q=%22Corona%20Australis%22%20visible&f=false 202]}} }} {{refn | name = Moore 'Stargazing' 2000 p86 | {{harvnb|Moore, ''Stargazing''|2000|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=y6ureVPI49sC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86&dq=%22Corona+Australis%22+%22united+states%22#v=onepage&q=%22Corona%20Australis%22%20%22united%20states%22&f=false 86]}} }} {{refn | name = Falkner 2011 p100 | {{harvnb|Falkner|2011|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=tyj8UUE968wC&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=%22Corona+Australis%22#v=onepage&q=%22Corona%20Australis%22&f=false 100]}} <!-- why does this say p100 and link to p99 ??? --> }} {{refn | name = O'Meara 2002 pp273++ | {{harvnb|O'Meara|2002|pp=[http://books.google.com/?id=3Hg6YHgx9nAC&pg=PA273&dq=R+coronae+australis#v=onepage&q=R%20coronae%20australis&f=false 164–165, 271–273, 311]}} }} {{refn | name = Coe 2007 p105 | {{harvnb|Coe|2007|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=roXyxpcc9MsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Corona+Australis%22#v=onepage&q=%22Corona%20Australis%22&f=false 105]}} }} {{refn | name = Griffiths 2012 p132 | {{harvnb|Griffiths|2012|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=Q2aURFWBI8EC&pg=PA133&dq=Corona+Australis#v=onepage&q=Corona%20Australis&f=false 132]}} }} {{refn | name = O'Meara 2011 p322 | {{harvnb|O'Meara|2011|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=v859bKO0A4gC&pg=PA322&dq=NGC+6541#v=onepage&q=NGC%206541&f=false 322]}} }} {{refn | name = Sherrod Koed 2003 p50 | {{harvnb|Sherrod|Koed|2003|p=[http://books.google.com/?id=4zjv84hHNPcC&pg=PA50&dq=Corona+Australids#v=onepage&q=Corona%20Australids&f=false 50]}} }} {{refn | name = Porter 1996 pp35–36 | {{harvnb|Porter1996|pp=[http://books.google.com/?id=qliI0tHxXRYC&pg=PA35&dq=Corona+Australis+turtle#v=onepage&q=Corona%20Australis%20turtle&f=false 35–36]}} }} }} '''Sources''' {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | last = Allen | first = Richard Hinckley | authorlink = Richard Hinckley Allen | year = 1963 | origyear = 1899 | title = Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning | edition = reprint | publisher = [[Dover Publications]] | location = [[New York City|New York]], [[New York|NY]] | isbn = 978-0-486-21079-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Bagnall | first = Philip M. | year = 2012 | title = The Star Atlas Companion: What you need to know about the Constellations | publisher = Springer New York | isbn = 978-1-4614-0830-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Bakich | first = Michael E. | year = 1995 | title = The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-44921-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Bakich | first = Michael E. | year = 2010 | title = 1,001 Celestial Wonders to See Before You Die | publisher = Springer Science + Business Media | isbn = 978-1-4419-1777-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Coe | first = Steven R. | year = 2007 | title = Nebulae and how to observe them | series = Astronomers' observing guides | publisher = Springer | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-1-84628-482-3 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Drake|first=Jeremy J.|last2=Marshall|first2=Herman L.|last3=Dreizler|first3=Stefan|last4=Freeman|first4=Peter E.|last5=Fruscione|first5=Antonella|last6=Juda|first6=Michael|last7=Kashyap|first7=Vinay|last8=Nicastro|first8=Fabrizio|last9=Pease|first9=Deron O.|date=2002-06-20|title=Is RX J1856.5−3754 a Quark Star?|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/340368|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|language=en|volume=572|issue=2|pages=996–1001|doi=10.1086/340368|issn=0004-637X}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ellyett|first=Cd|last2=Keay|first2=Csl|date=1956|title=Radio Echo Observations of Meteor Activity in the Southern Hemisphere|url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/?paper=PH560471|journal=Australian Journal of Physics|language=en|volume=9|issue=4|pages=471|doi=10.1071/PH560471|issn=0004-9506}} * {{cite book | last = Falkner | first = David E. | year = 2011 | title = The Mythology of the Night Sky: An Amateur Astronomer's Guide to the Ancient Greek and Roman Legends | publisher = Springer | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-1-4614-0136-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Griffiths | first = Martin | year = 2012 | title = Planetary Nebulae and How to Observe Them | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-1-4614-1781-1 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Hamacher | first1 = Duane W. | last2 = Frew | first2 = David J. | year = 2010 | title = An Aboriginal Ostralin Record of the Great Eruption of Eta Carinae | journal = Journal of Astronomical History & Heritage | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 220–234 | url = http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1010/1010.4610.pdf | format = PDF | arxiv = 1010.4610 | bibcode = 2010JAHH...13..220H }} * {{Cite journal|last=Ho|first=W. 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http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-basic?Ident=HR+7152&submit=SIMBAD+search | access-date = 5 Juli 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD Epsilon Coronae Australis}} }} * {{cite web | title = HR 6953 (Kappa² Coronae Australis) | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=%402351842&Name=HR%20%206953&submit=submit | access-date = 17 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD HR 6953}} }} * {{cite web | title = HR 6952 (Kappa¹ Coronae Australis) | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=%402351885&Name=HR%20%206952&submit=submit | access-date = 17 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD HR 6952}} }} * {{cite web | title = Lambda Coronae Australis | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=%402352430&Name=*%20lam%20CrA&submit=submit | access-date = 21 Juli 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD Lambda Coronae Australis}} }} * {{cite web | title = HR 7050 (Mu Coronae Australis) | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=HR+7050&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id | access-date = 8 Sèptèmber 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD Mu Coronae Australis}} }} * {{cite web | title = Zeta Coronae Australis | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=Zeta+Coronae+Australis&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id | access-date = 9 Juli 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD Zeta Coronae Australis}} }} * {{cite web | title = Theta Coronae Australis | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=Theta+Coronae+Australis&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id | access-date = 15 Agustus 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD Theta Coronae Australis}} }} * {{cite web | title = R Coronae Australis | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?protocol=html&Ident=R+CrA&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id | access-date = 4 Juli 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD R Coronae Australis}} }} * {{cite web | title = TY Coronae Australis | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?protocol=html&Ident=TY+CrA&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id | access-date = 6 Juli 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD TY Coronae Australis}} }} * {{cite web | title = RU Coronae Australis | work = SIMBAD Astronomical Database | publisher = Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg | url = http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?protocol=html&Ident=RU+CrA&NbIdent=1&Radius=2&Radius.unit=arcmin&submit=submit+id | access-date = 11 Juli 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|SIMBAD RU Coronae Australis}} }} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Rasi lintang]] nisxjhfujeipgp1d2q6h3t7yj0cumll Cassiopeia 0 98202 1753043 1641470 2026-08-20T08:49:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753043 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Constellation | name = Cassiopeia | abbreviation = Cas | genitive = Cassiopeiae | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|s|i|.|ɵ|ˈ|p|iː|.|ə}} ''Cássiopéia,''<br>colloquially {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|s|i|ˈ|oʊ|p|iː|.|ə}} ''Cássiópeia;''<br>genitive {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|s|i|.|ɵ|ˈ|p|iː|.|iː}} | symbolism = the Seated [[queen regnant|Queen]] | RA = 1 | dec= +60 | family = [[Perseus Family|Perseus]] | quadrant = NQ1 | areatotal = 598 | arearank = 25th | numbermainstars = 5 | numberbfstars = 53 | numberstarsplanets = 5 | numberbrightstars = 4 | numbernearbystars = 7 | brighteststarname = [[Alpha Cassiopeiae|α Cas]] (Schedar) | starmagnitude = 2.15 | neareststarname = [[Eta Cassiopeiae|η Cas]] (Achird) | stardistancely = 19.42 | stardistancepc = 5.95 | numbermessierobjects = 2 | meteorshowers = [[Perseids]] | bordering = [[Camelopardalis]]<br />[[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]]<br /> [[Lacerta]]<br /> [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]]<br /> [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]] | latmax = [[North Pole|90]] | latmin = [[20th parallel south|20]] | month = November | notes=[[Gambar:ConstellationCassiopeia.jpg|thumb|160px|Photographed Oct. 1st, 2004 from near N41° W73° by Randal J.]]}} '''Cassiopeia''' inggih punika salah satunggaling [[rasi lintang]] ingkang padhang ingkang mapan wonten ing belahan [[langit]] sisih [[lor]].<ref>[http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Cassiopeia.php Cassiopeia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214032811/http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Cassiopeia.php |date=2012-02-14 }}(dipunundhuh tanggal 23 Pebruari 2013)</ref> Centaurus inggih kalebet salah satunggaling rasi lintang ingkang mlebet wonten ing kempalan 48 rasi lintang ingkang dipundhaptar déning [[astronom]] saking [[Walanda]], inggih punika [[Ptolemy]] ing abad kaping kalih, lan salajengipun mlebet salah satunggal saking 88 rasi lintang modhern. Ing mitos [[Yunani]]. Cassiopeia nggambaraken ratu Cassiopeia ingkang wonten ing mitos raja [[Ethiopia]]. Cassiopeia badhé paling gampil dipuntingali mbentuk aksara 'W', ingkang kasusun saking gangsal lintang ingkang padhang. Cassiopeia inggih dipunkiteri déning rasi lintang sanèsipun inggih punika rasi lintang [[Andromeda]] ing sisih [[kidul]], [[Perseus]] ing sisih kidul radi [[wétan]], lan [[Cepheus]] ing sisih [[lor]]. Rasi lintang punika inggih kosok wangsulipun ''Big Dipper'', lan saking garis lintang lor saged dipuntingali kanthi cetha ing purwakaning sasi [[Novèmber]]. == Lintang-lintang == Rasi lintang Cassiopeia gadhah laladan ingkang ambanipun kirang langkung 598 drajat persegi lan ngewrat tigang lintang ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka [[planit]]-planit. Rasi lintang punika saged dipuntingali ing garis lintang ing antawispun +90° lan-20° saha badhé katingal ingkang saé piyambak manawi dipuntingali ing jam 9 dalu ing salebeting sasi [[Novèmber]]. Rasi lintang punika gadhah sekawan lintang kanthi magnitudo sedayanipun langkung padhang saking tigang magnitudo, ingkang punika mratandhakaken bilih lintang-lintang punika saged dipuntingali kanthi mripat langsung. Déné lintang-lintang ingkang wonten ing rasi lintang punika inggih kados makaten: * ''Beta Cassiopeiae'' utawi ugi dipunsebat ''Caph'' ([[palem]]) inggih punika ngewrat cahya raksasa [[jene]] ngantos [[pethak]] ingkang gadhah magnitudo 2,28, ingkang kedhaptar minangka tipe variabel ''Delta Scuti''. Lintang punika gadhah ukuran kembar kados [[srengéngé]] lan langkung padhang ping 28. Lintang punika tebihipun 54 taun cahya saking bumi. * ''Alpha Cassiopeiae'' utawi dipunsebat ugi ''Shedir'' utawi ''Shedar'' inggih punika lintang ingkang gadhah magnitudo 2,25 lan minangka lintang ingkang padhang piyambak nomer kalih ing rasi lintang Cassiopeiae. Lintang punika inggih gadhah cahya raksasa [[oranye]] ingkang padhangipun langkung padhang ping 500 tinimbang srengéngé. Lintng Alpha Cassiopeiae tebihipun kirang langkung 229 taun cahya saking bumi. * ''Gamma Cassiopeiae'' inggih punika lintang pusat saking rasi lintang Cassiopeiae. Lintan punika kalebet variabel lintang ingkang aktip anggènipun érupsi. Lintang punika botten gadhah nama tradhisional ing basa [[Latin]] utawi [[Arab]], nanging ing [[Cina]] lintang punika dipunsebat ''Tsih''. * ''Delta Cassiopeiae'', ugi dipunmangertosi minangka ''Ksora'' utawi ''Ruchbah'' (dhengkul), inggih punika lintang binar ekliptika ingkang tebihipun 99 taun cahya lan gadhah variasi magnitudo ing antawisipun 2,68 lan 2,71.{{sfn|Ridpath|Tirion|2001|pp=106-108}} * ''Epsilon Cassiopeiae'' ugi dipunsebat ''Segin'', inggih punika satunggaling cahya raksasa [[biru]] ngantos [[pethak]] ingkang tebihipun kirang langkung 442 taun cahya saking [[bumi]]. Lintang punika gadhah cahya ingakng langkung bening tinimbang [[srengéngé]] ping 720. * ''Rho Cassiopeiae'' lan V509 Cassiopeiae inggih punika lintang ingkang paling bening ingkang saged dipuntingali kanthi mripat langsung ing galaksi punika. * ''Eta Cassiopeiae'' inggih punika lintang binar ingkang ngewrat cahya kurcaci [[jene]] ingkang meh sami kaliyan srengéngé wujudipun lan ngewrat cahya [[oranye]] ugi. == Objek Langit Lebet == Amargi rasi lintang punika mapan wonten ing galaksi [[Bimasekti]], mila Cassiopeia ngewrat objek langit lebet ingkang kathah. Kalih obejek Messier, inggih punika [[Messier 52|M52]] (NGC 7654) lan [[Messier 103|M103]] (NGC 581), inggih mapan wonten ing rasi lintang Cassiopeia punika. Kekalihipun inggih kalebet kluster kebikak. M52 inggih ngewrat kirang langkung 100 lintang lan tebihipun inggih 5200 taun cahya saking bumi. Déné M103 inggih langkung miskin tinimbang M52, ingkang namung ngewrat 25 lintang ing lebetipun lan tebihipun inggih punika 8200 taun cahya saking bumi.{{sfn|Ridpath|Tirion|2001|pp=106-108}} Cassiopeia taksih kalebet wonten ing kulawarga rasi lintang Perseus sesarengan kaliyan rasi lintang [[Cepheus]], [[Andromeda]], [[Perseus]], [[Pegasus]], [[Cetus]], [[Auriga]], [[Lacerta]] lan [[Triangulum]]. Déné rasi lintang sanèsipun ingkang wonten ing sak kiteripun Cassiopeiae inggih punika rasi lintang [[Camelopardalis]], [[Cepheus]], [[Lacerta]], [[Andromeda]] lan [[Perseus]]. == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} * {{cite journal |author1=Krause O |author2=Rieke GH |author3=Birkmann SM |author4=Le Floc'h E |author5=Gordon KD |author6=Egami E |author7=Bieging J |author8=Hughes JP, Young ET, Hinz JL, Quanz SP, Hines DC | title=Infrared echoes near the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-06-10_308_5728/page/1604 | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume=308 | issue=5728 | year=2005 | pages=1604–6 | pmid=15947181 | doi=10.1126/science.1112035|arxiv = astro-ph/0506186 |bibcode = 2005Sci...308.1604K }} * {{citation |title = Deep Sky Objects |last = Levy |first = David H. |publisher = Prometheus Books |year = 2005 |isbn = 1-59102-361-0}} * {{citation |title = Stars and Planets Guide |last1 = Ridpath |first1 = Ian |last2 = Tirion |first2 = Wil |year = 2001 |publisher = Princeton University Press |isbn = 0-691-08913-2}} * {{cite book |author=Ian Ridpath |author2=Wil Tirion |year=2007 |title=Stars and Planets Guide |publisher=Collins |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-725120-9}} * {{cite book | last = Staal | first = Julius D. W. | year = 1988 | title = The New Patterns in the Sky: Myths and Legends of the Stars | publisher = The McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company | isbn = 978-0-939923-04-5 }} [[Kategori:Rasi lintang]] 1wmqrv5zvvas9jhs200xk5xg24tspz1 Auriga 0 98259 1752866 1640339 2026-08-20T03:36:39Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752866 wikitext text/x-wiki {{artikel ing krama}} {{Infobox constellation | name = Auriga | abbreviation = Aur{{sfn|Russell|1922|p=469}} | genitive = Aurigae | pronounce = {{plainlist | * {{IPAc-en|ɔː|ˈ|r|aɪ|ɡ|ə}} ''Auríga'' * genitive {{IPAc-en|ɔː|ˈ|r|aɪ|dʒ|iː}}{{sfn|Pasachoff|2006}} }} | symbolism = the [[Chariot]]eer | RA = 6 | dec = +40 | family = [[Perseus Family|Perseus]] | quadrant = NQ1 | areatotal = 657{{sfn|Ridpath, ''Constellations''}} | arearank = 21st | numbermainstars = 5, 8 | numberbfstars = 65 | numberstarsplanets = 7 | numberbrightstars = 4 | numbernearbystars = 2 | brighteststarname = [[Capella (star)|Capella]] (α Aur) | starmagnitude = 0.08 | neareststarname = [[QY Aurigae|QY Aur]]{{sfn|RECONS, ''The 100 Nearest Star Systems''}} | stardistancely = 20.74 | stardistancepc = 6.36 | numbermessierobjects = 3{{sfn|Bakich|1995|p=54}} | meteorshowers = {{plainlist | * [[Aurigids]] * [[Delta Aurigids]] }} | bordering = {{plainlist | * [[Camelopardalis]] * [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]] * [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] * [[Gemini (constellation)|Gemini]] * [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]{{sfn|Bakich|1995|p=26}} }} | latmax = [[North Pole|90]] | latmin = [[40th parallel south|40]] | month = late February to early March | notes = }} '''Auriga''' inggih punika salah satunggaling [[rasi lintang]] saking 48 rasi lintang ingkang dipundhaptar wonten ing [[abad]] kaping kalih déning [[astronom]] [[Walanda]], [[Ptolemy]] lan sampun mlebet 88 rasi lintan modhèren. Rasi lintang Auriga inggih mapan wonten ing belahan langit sisih [[lor]], ing sak loripun garis [[khatulistiwa]]. Auriga inggih punika nama [[Latin]] saking tembung ''charioteer'', ingkang gadhah gegayutan kaliyan variasi mitos ''charioteers'' ingkang mlebet wonten ing ''Erichtonius of [[Athens]]'' lan ''Myrtilius''. Auriga inggih paling katingal ing salebeting wekdal dalu ing sasi ''winter'' wonten ing langit lor, sesarengan kaliyan gangsal rasi lintang sanèsipun ingkang kalebet lintang ing asterisme [[winter hexagon]]. Amargi deklinasi auriga ingkang radi mangalor, mila Auriga namung saged dpuntingali paling tebih ing drajat 34° lintang [[kidul]]. Wonten ing petangan [[astronomi]] [[Cina]], sekawan lintang ingkang paling baku wonten ing Auriga inggih punika, ''alpha, beta, theta, lan iota Auriga'', ingkang punika sesarengan kaliyan lintang ''beta Tauri'' saking rasi lintang ''Wu Che'' utawi "''five dhariots''". Rasi lintang Auriga gadhah laladan ingkang ambanipun kirang langkung 657 drajat persegi, ingkang punika sepalihipun laladanipun rasi lintang ingkang paling amba inggih punika rasi lintang [[Hydra]]. Rasi lintang Auriga ngewrat enem lintang ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka [[planit]] - planit. Rasi lintang punika saged dipuntingali ing garis lintang antawisipun +90° lan -40° lan badhé katingal ingkang saé piyambak manawi dipuntingali ing jam 9 dalu ing pungkasaning sasi [[Pebruari]] lan ing purwakaning sasi [[Maret]]. == Lintang - lintang == Déné lintang - lintang ingkang wonten ing rasi lintang Auriga ing antawisipun inggih punika kados makaten: * ''Capella'' utawi ''Alpha Aurigae'' inggih punika lintang ingkang padhang piyambak wonten ing rasi lintang Auriga. Capella inggih punika lintang ingkang padhang piyambak nomer enem ing [[langit]] lan lintang ingkang padhang piyambak nomer tiga wonten ing belahan langit lor. Bangsa [[Yunani]] nyebat rasi lintang punika kanthi sebatan ''Aix'' lan wonten ing basa [[Roma]], Capella ngemu teges "[[wedhus]] wadon".{{sfn|Rogers, ''Mesopotamian Traditions''|1998}} Lintang punika nggambaraken ''Amalthaea'', wedhus ingkang ngrawat [[Zeus]]. Lintang sanèsipun ingkang lair sesarengan kaliyan Amalthaea ingkang ugi dipunsebat ''the Haedi'' (putra- putranipun), inggih dipungambaraken déning ''eta Aurigae'' lan ''zeta Aurigae'', tangga tepalihipun lintang Capella. * ''Beta Aurigae'' utawi ''Menkalinan'' inggih punika sistem lintang ingkang gadhah cahya sub raksasa [[pethak]] ingkang kalebet lintang rangkep tiga. Kalih komponenipun ingkang padhang inggih punika sub raksasa pethak tipe A lan lintang ingkang kaping tiga inggih ngemu cahya kurcaci [[abrit]], ingkang namung badhé katingal mawi [[teleskop]]. * ''Theta Aurigae'' utawi ing wekdal tartamtu dipunsebat ''Bogardus'' utawi ''Mahasim'', inggih punika lintang binar kanthi tipe A. * ''Iota Aurigae'' ingkang gadhah nama tradhisional ''Al Kab'' (cekakakn saking ''Kabdhilinan''), inggih punila lintang ingkang ngemu cahya raksasa [[oranye]] tipe K ingkang tebihipun 512 taun cahya saking [[bumi]]. * Lintang sanèsipun ingkang wonten ing rasi lintang Auriga inggih punika lintang ''psi Aurigae'', ingkang kapérang saking sedasa lintang ingkang mapan caket kaliyan sak kiteripun rasi lintang [[Lynx]]. Lintang - lintang ingkang dipungambaraken wonten ing peta inggih punika lintang ''psi 1, psi 2, psi 3, psi 4, psi 5, psi 6, psi 7, psi 8, lan psi 9. Auriga taksih kalebet kulawarga rasi lintang Perseus sesarengan kaliyan rasi lintang [[Cassiopeia]], [[Cepheus]], [[Andromeda]], [[Perseus]], [[Pegasus]], [[Cetus]], [[Lacerta]] lan [[Triangulum]]. Déné rasi lintang sanèsipun ingkang mapan wonten ing sak kiteripun Auriga inggih punika rasi lintang [[Camelopardalis]], [[Perseus]], [[Taurus]], [[Gemini]] lan [[Lynx]].<ref>[http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Auriga.php Aurgae] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308205746/http://www.topastronomer.com/StarCharts/Constellations/Auriga.php |date=2012-03-08 }} (Dipunundhuh tanggal 25 Pebruari 2013)</ref> == Cathetan suku == {{Reflist}} {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite document | last = Allen | first = Richard Hinckley | year = 1899 | title = Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning | publisher = Dover }} * {{cite book | last = Aveni | first = Anthony F. | year = 1977 | title = Native American Astronomy | publisher = University of Texas Press | isbn = }} * {{cite book | last = Bakich | first = Michael E. | year = 1995 | title = The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-44921-2 }} * {{cite journal | last = Buckstaff | first = Ralph N. | year = 1927 | title = Stars and Constellations of a Pawnee Sky Map | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_april-june-1927_29_2/page/279 | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 279–285 | doi = 10.1525/aa.1927.29.2.02a00110 }} * {{cite book | last = Burnham | first = Robert, Jr. | year = 1978 | title = Burnham's Celestial Handbook | publisher = Dover Publications | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-486-24063-3 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Crossen | first1 = Craig | last2 = Rhemann | first2 = Gerald | year = 2004 | title = Sky vistas: astronomy for binoculars and richest-field telescopes | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-3-211-00851-5 }} * {{cite journal | last = Davis | first= George A., Jr. | year = 1944 | title = The Pronunciations, Derivations, and Meanings of a Selected List of Star Names | journal = Popular Science | volume = 52 | pages = 8 | bibcode = 1944PA.....52....8D }} * {{cite journal | last = Drummond | first = Jack D. | year = 1982 | month = September | title = A note on the Delta Aurigid meteor stream | journal = Icarus | volume = 51 | issue = 3 | pages = 655–659 | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0019103582901531 | access-date = 20 Juni 2012 | bibcode = 1982Icar...51..655D | doi = 10.1016/0019-1035(82)90153-1 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Dubietis | first1 = Audrius | last2 = Arlt | first2 = Rainer | year = 2002 | month = October | title = The current Delta-Aurigid meteor shower | journal = WGN, Journal of the International Meteor Organization | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 168–174 | bibcode = 2002JIMO...30..168D }} * {{cite book | last1 = Fekel | first1 = Francis C. | last2 = Tomkin | first2 = Jocelyn | year = 2007 | chapter = Spectroscopic Binary Candidates for Interferometers | pages = | title = Binary Stars as Critical Tools and Tests in Contemporary Astrophysics: Proceedings of the 240th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union Held in Prague, Czech Republic, August 22–25, 2006 | editor1-last = Hartkopf | editor1-first = William I. | editor2-last = Guinan | editor2-first = Edward F. | editor3-last = Harmanec | editor3-first = Petr | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-86348-3 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=pl5LaFS7u3MC&pg=PR34&lpg=PR34&dq=HD+30453#v=onepage&q=HD%2030453&f=false }} * {{cite book | last = Goodenough | first = Ward H. | year = 1953 | title = Native Astronomy in the Central Carolines | publisher = University Museum | isbn = }} * {{cite book | last = Harrington | first = Phil | year = 1992 | chapter = The Challenge of Winter Nebulae | title = Stars and Galaxies | editor-last = Eicher | editor-first = David J. | publisher = Kalmbach Publishing | isbn = 978-0-913135-05-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Higgins | first = David | year = 1992 | chapter = The Ghostly Glow of Gaseous Nebulae | title = Stars and Galaxies | editor-last = Eicher | editor-first = David J. | publisher = 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978-0-521-85349-1 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Kashyap | first1 = V. | last2 = Rosner | first2 = R. | last3 = Harnden | first3 = F.R. 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Senyawa iki minangka obat psikoaktif lan bisa tinemu ing ombèn-ombèn kang ngandhut alkohol lan ing piranti [[termometer]] modhèrn. Étanol kalebu ing alkohol ranté tunggal, kanthi [[rumus kimia]] C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH lan rumus empiris [[Karbon|C]]<sub>2</sub>[[Hidrogen|H]]<sub>6</sub>[[Oksigèn|O]]. Étanol ya iku isomer saka dimetil eter. Étanol asring dicekak dadi '''EtOH''', kanthi "Et" minangka cekakan saka gugus etil (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>). [[Fermentasi|Fèrmèntasi]] [[gula]] dadi étanol ya iku salah sawijiné réaksi organik kang tuwa dhéwé kang tau ditindakaké manungsa. Temahan saka ngonsumsi étanol ya iku bisa nggawé mendem, kang manungsa wis mangertèni wiwit biyèn. Ing jaman modhèrn, étanol diasilaké saka kagunan indhustri pangilangan lenga patro.<ref name=myers>{{Cite book | author=Myers, Richard L.; Myers, Rusty L. | title=The 100 most important chemical compounds: a reference guide | year=2007 | publisher=Greenwood Press | location=Westport, Conn. | isbn=0313337586 | pages=122}}</ref> Étanol akèh digunakaké minangka panglarud manékabahan kimia kang dituduhaké kanggo konsumsi lan kagunan liyané. Tuladhané ya iku ing lenga wangi, panambah rasa, pawarna panganan, lan usada. Ing kimia, étanol ya iku panglarud kang wigati lan minangka reaktan kanggo sintesis senyawa kimia liyané. Ing sujarahé, étanol minangka bahan bakar. == Sujarah == [[Gambar:Alcohol flame.jpg|thumb|left|Étanol asring minangka bahan bakar]] Étanol wis digunakaké déning manungsa wiwit jaman prasujarah minangka bahan kang nggawé mendem ing ombèn-ombèn. Residu kang ditemu ing patilasan [[keramik]] kang umuré 9000 taun saka [[Cina]] pérangan lor nuduhaké bilih ombèn-ombèn alkohol wis digunakaké déning manungsa prasujarah saka jaman [[Neolitik]].<ref name="Roach">Roach, J. ([[18 Juli]] [[2005]]) [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/07/0718_050718_ancientbeer.html "9,000-Year-Old Beer Re-Created From Chinese Recipe."] ''National Geographic News.'', diundhuh [[14 November]] [[2005]].</ref> Étanol iku larutan azeotrop. Mula, menawa murnèkaké étanol kang ngandhut banyu kanthi cara panyulingan namung bisa ngasilaké étanol kanthi kamurnian 96%. Étanol murni dikasilaké sepisanan ing taun [[1976]] déning [[Johan Tobias Lowitz]], ya iku kanthi nyaring alkohol saka prosès lumantar [[areng]]. [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] nggambaraké bilih étanol iku senyawa kang dumadi saka [[karbon]], [[hidrogen]], lan [[oksigèn]]. Ing taun [[1808]], [[Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure|Saussure]] kasil nemtokaké rumus kimia étanol. Sèket taun sabanjuré (1858), [[Archibald Scott Couper|Couper]] mbabaraké rumus kimia étanol. Mula étanol iku salah sawijiné senyawa kimia kang kapisan tinemu rumus kimiané.<ref name="Couper">Couper, A.S. (1858). "On a new chemical theory." ''Philosophical magazine'' '''16''', 104–116. [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/couper/couper.html Online reprint]</ref> Kanthi kapisah [[Henry hennel]] saka [[Britania Raya]] lan S.G Serullas saka [[Perancis]], nggawe étanol saka dekomposisi etil hidrogen sulfat ing taun [[1826]]. Ing taun [[1828]], [[Michael Faraday]] kasil nggawé étanol saka hidrasi [[etilena]] kang dikatalisis déning [[asem]]. Prosès iki kaya prosès sintesis étanol indhustri modern.<ref name=Hennell>{{cite journal |author=Hennell, H. |year=1828 |title=On the mutual action of sulfuric acid and alcohol, and on the nature of the process by which ether is formed |journal=Philosophical Transactions |volume=118 |issue=365–71 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1828.0021 |pages=365}}</ref> Étanol wis digunakaké minangka bahan bakar ing [[Amérikah Sarékat]] wiwit taun [[1840]]. Nanging, pajek panggunaané ora ''ekonomis''. Pajek iki dibusak ing taun [[1906]]<ref name=siegel>{{cite news|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7426827|title=Ethanol, Once Bypassed, Now Surging Ahead|author=Robert Siegel|publisher=NPR|date=2007-02-15|accessdate = 2007-09-22}}</ref> lan wiwit taun [[1908]] otomobil Ford Model T wis bisa dilakokaké nggunakaké étanol.<ref name=dipardo>{{cite web|url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/features/biomass.pdf|title=Outlook for Biomass Ethanol Production and Demand|publisher=United States Department of Energy|author=Joseph DiPardo|accessdate=2007-09-22|format=PDF|archive-date=2007-11-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127095510/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/features/biomass.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Sipat-sipat fisika == {| style="text-align:center" | style="width:33%;"|[[Berkas:Excess Volume Mixture of Ethanol and Water.png|275px]] | style="width:33%;"|[[Berkas:Mixing Enthalpy Mixture of Ethanol and Water.png|275px]] |- |Volum kang punjul campuran étanol karo banyu (kontraksi volume) |Panas pancampuran campuran étanol karo banyu |- | style="width:33%;"|[[Gambar:Phase diagram ethanol water s l en.svg|275px]] | style="width:33%;"|[[Gambar:Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium (Miscibility Gap) Mixture of Ethanol and Dodecane.png|275px]] |- |Kasetimbangan padhet-cuwèr saka campuran étanol lan banyu (kalebu [[eutektikum]]) |Wates katercumparan (''miscibility gap'') ing campuran dodekana lan étanol |} Étanol ya iku cuwèran kang ora ana wernané, gampang nguwab kang nduwé ambu kang khas. Étanol kobong tanpa ninggalaké langes kanthi [[ilat]] [[geni]] awerna [[biru]]. Sifat-sipat fisika étanol mligi dipangaruhi déning anané gugus [[hidroksil]] lan cekaké ranté karbon étanol. Gugus hidroksil bisa mèlu ing jero ikatan hidrogen, saéngga nggawé étanol dadi cuwèr lan luwih angèl nguap saka senyawa organik liyané kanthi massa molekul kang padha. Étanol ya iku panglarud kang sarwaguna, èncèr ing jero banyu lan panglarud organik liyané, kaya ta [[asem asetat]], [[aseton]], [[benzena]], [[karbon tetraklorida]], [[kloroform]], [[dietil eter]], [[etilena glikol]], [[gliserol]], [[nitrometana]], [[piridina]], lan [[toluena]].<ref name=crc/><ref name=merck/> Étanol uga larud ing [[hidrokarbon]] alifatik kang ènthèng, kaya ta [[pentana]] dan [[heksana]], lan uga larud ing senyawa klorida alifatik kaya ta [[1,1,1-trikloroetana|trikloroetana]] lan [[tetrakloroetilena]].<ref name=merck>{{cite book |author=Windholz, Martha |title=The Merck index: an encyclopedia of chemicals and drugs |publisher=Merck |location=Rahway, N.J., U.S.A |year=1976 |isbn=0-911910-26-3 |edition=9th}}</ref> Campuran étanol-banyu nduwé volume kang luwih cilik saka gunggung cuwèran loro mau kanthi kapisah. Campuran étanol lan banyu kanthi [[volume]] kang padha bakal ngasilaké campuran kang volumené mung tikel 1,92 saka gunggung volume wiwitan.<ref name=crc>''CRC Handbook of Chemistry'', 44th ed.</ref><ref name=ChemTech>{{cite encyclopedia |chapter=Ethanol |title=[[#Encyc_Chem|Encyclopedia of chemical technology]] |year=1991 |pages=813 |volume=9}}</ref> Campuran étanol dan air bersifat [[eksotermik]] dengan ènergi sakiwa-tengené 777 J/mol dibebaskan pada 298 K<ref>{{cite journal |author=Costigan MJ, Hodges LJ, Marsh KN, Stokes RH, Tuxford CW |title=The Isothermal Displacement Calorimeter: Design Modifications for Measuring Exothermic Enthalpies of Mixing |journal=Aust J Chem. |volume=33 |issue=10 |pages=2103–19 |year=1980 |url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/nid/51/paper/CH9802103.htm |doi=10.1071/CH9802103}}</ref>. Campuran étanol lan banyu bakal mbentuk [[azeotrop]] dumadi 89%&nbsp;mol étanol lan 11%&nbsp;mo% banyu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lei Z, Wang H, Zhou R, Duan Z |title= Influence of salt added to solvent on extractive distillation|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chemical-engineering-journal_2002-06-28_87_2/page/149 |journal=Chem Eng J. |volume=87 |issue= |pages=149–56 |year=2002 |doi=10.1016/S1385-8947(01)00211-X}}</ref> Perbandhingan iki uga bisa dinyatakaké minangka 96% volume étanol lan 4% volume banyu ing tekanan normal lan T = 351 K. Komposisi azeotropik iki gumantung banget karo suhu lan tekanan. Étanol bakal ngilang ing tenperatur sangisoré 300 K.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pemberton RC, Mash CJ |title=Thermodynamic properties of aqueous non-electrolyte mixtures II. Vapour pressures and excess Gibbs energies for water + ethanol at 303.15 to 363.15 K determined by an accurate static method |journal=J Chem Thermodyn. |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=867–88 |date=September 1978 |doi=10.1016/0021-9614(78)90160-X }}</ref>. [[Gambar:Ethanol-xtal-1976-3D-balls.png|thumb|300px|Ikatan hidrogen ing étanol padhet ing −186&nbsp;°C]] Ikatan hidrogen njalari étanol murni dadi [[higroskopis]] banget, saéngga étanol bakal nyerep banyu saka udara. Sifat gugus hidroksil kang polar njalari étanol bisa larit ing akèh senyawa ion, mligi [[natrium hidroksida]], [[kalium hidroksida]], [[magnesium klorida]], [[kalsium klorida]], [[amonium klorida]], [[amonium bromida]], lan [[natrium bromida]].<ref name=merck/> [[Natrium klorida]] lan [[kalium klorida]] larit sithik ing étanol.<ref name=merck/> Mula étanol uga duwé ranté karbon nonpolar, étanol uga larut ing senyawa nonpolar, kaya ta [[lenga atsiri]].<ref name="merckoils">''Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs'', 9th ed.; monographs 6575 through 6669</ref> lan akèh perasa, pewarna, lan obat. Nambahaké sawatara persèn étanol ing banyu akal ngudhunaké tegangan lumah banyu kanthi akèh. Campuran étanol lan banyu kang punjul 50% étanol asifat gampang kebakar lan gampang murub. Campuran kang kurang saka 50% étanol uga bisa murub yèn larutan mau dipanasaké dhisik. [[Indeks refraksi]] étanol ya iku 1,36242 (ing ''λ''=589,3&nbsp;nm dan 18,35&nbsp;°C).<ref name="crc"/> == Sifat-sipat kimia == Étanol kalebu alkohol primer, kang tegesé bilih karbon uga talènan karo gugus hidroksil paling ora duwé atom hidrogen loro kang katalèn karo étanol. Rekasi kimia kang dilakokaké déning étanol akèh-akèhé ing saubengé gugus hidroksilé. === Reaksi asem-basa === Gugus hidroksil étanol nggawé molekul iki rada [[basa]]. Étanol mèh nétral ing njero banyu, kanthi [[pH]] 100% étanol ya iku 7,33, berbandhing karo pH banyu murni kang gedhéné 7,00. Étanol bisa diowahi dadi [[konjugat basa]]né, ion [[alkoksida|etoksida]] (CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>O<sup>−</sup>), kanthi ngreaksiké karo [[logam alkali]] kaya ta [[natrium]]: :2CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + 2[[sodium|Na]] → 2CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONa + [[hidrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]] utawa karo basa kuat kaya [[natrium hidrida]]: :CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + NaH → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONa + [[hidrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]]. Reaksi kaya iki ora bisa dilakokaké ing larutan akuatik, amarga banyu luwih asem tinimbang étanol, saéngga kawentuké hidroksida luwih disenengi tinimbang kawentuké etoksida. === Halogenasi === Étanol bereaksi karo [[hidrogen halida]] lan ngaasilaké [[haloalkana|etil halida]] kaya ta [[etil klorida]] lan [[etil bromida]]: :CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[asem klorida|HCl]] → [[etil klorida|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>Cl]] + [[air|H<sub>2</sub>O]] Reaksi karo HCl mrelokaké katalis kaya ta [[seng klorida]].<ref name="s_and_h">{{cite book|author=Streitweiser, Andrew Jr.; Heathcock, Clayton H.|title=Introduction to Organic Chemistry|year=1976|publisher=MacMillan|isbn=0-02-418010-6}}</ref> Hidrogen klorida kanthi anané seng klorida dikenal minangka [[reagen Lucas]].<ref name=s_and_h/> :CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[Asam bromida|HBr]] → [[Etil bromida|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>Br]] + [[air|H<sub>2</sub>O]] Reaksi karo HBr mrelokaké prosès [[refluks]] kanthi katalis [[asem sulfat]].<ref name=s_and_h/> Etil halida uga bisa dikasilaké kanthi ngreaksiké alkohol lan [[halogenasi|agen halogenasi]] kang mirunggan, kaya ta [[tionil klorida]] kanggo nggawé etil klorida, utawa [[fosforus tribromida]] kanggo nggawé etil bromida.<ref name=s_and_h/> :CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + SOCl<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>Cl + SO<sub>2</sub> + HCl === Mbentuk ester === Kanthi kaanan ing sangisoré katalis asem, étanol ngreaksi karo [[asem karboksilat]] lan ngasilaké senyawa etil [[eter]] lan banyu: :[[asem karboksilat|RCOOH]] + HOCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> → [[ester|RCOOCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>]] + [[air|H<sub>2</sub>O]]. Supaya reaksi iki ngasilaké rendemen kang cukup dhuwur, banyu prelu dipisahaké saka campuran, reaksi dumadakan nalika étanol kawentuk. Étanol uga bisa mbentuk senyawa eter kanthi asem anorganik. [[Dietil sulfat]] lan [[trietil fosfat]] dikasilaké kanthi ngreaksikaké étanol kanthi [[asem sulfat]] lan [[asem fosfat]]. Senyawa kang dikasilaké déning reaksi iki migunani banget kanggo agen etilasi ing sintesis organik. === Dehidrasi === Asam kuat kang higroskopis banget kaya ta asem sulfat bakal njalari dehidrasi étanol ngasilaké etilena utawa dietil eter: :2 CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH → [[dietil eter|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>]] + [[air|H<sub>2</sub>O]] (ing suhu 120'C) :CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH → [[etilena|H<sub>2</sub>C=CH<sub>2</sub>]] + [[air|H<sub>2</sub>O]] (ing suhu 180'C) === Oksidasi === Étanol bisa dioksidasi dadi [[asetaldehida]], banjur dadi [[asem asetat]]. Ing awak manungsa, reaksi oksidadi iki dikatalisis déning [[enzim]] awak. Ing [[laboratorium]], larutan akuatik oksidator kaya [[asem kromat]] utawa [[kalium permanganat]] minangka ngoksidasi étanol dadi asem asetat. Prosès iki bakal angèl banget ngasilaké asetaldehida amarga kadadèn overoksidasi. Étanol uga bisa dioksidasi dadi asetaldehida tanpa oksidasi luwih manèh dadi asem asetat nggunakaké [[piridinium kloro kromat]] (''Pyridinium chloro chromate, PCC'').<ref name="s_and_h"/> :C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + 2[O] → CH<sub>3</sub>COOH + H<sub>2</sub>O Kasil oksidasi étanol, asem asetat, digunakaké minangka nutrien déning awak manungsa minangka [[asetil-koA]]. === Pembakaran === [[Pembakaran]] étanol bakal ngasilaké [[karbon dioksida]] lan [[banyu]]: :C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH(g) + 3 O<sub>2</sub>(g) → 2 CO<sub>2</sub>(g) + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O(l);(ΔH<sub>r</sub> = −1409 kJ/mol<ref>{{cite journal|title=Heats of Formation of Simple Organic Molecules|author=Frederick D. Rossini|journal=[[Ind. Eng. Chem.]]|year=1937|volume=29|issue=12|pages=1424–1430|doi=10.1021/ie50336a024}}</ref>) == Panggawéan == [[Gambar:Ethanol Flasche.jpg|thumb|upright|94% étanol terdenaturasi ing sawijining botol kanggo kagunan rumah tangga]] Étanol uga dikasilaké kanthi [[petrokimia]] lumantar hidrasi [[etilena]] utawa kanthi cara [[biologi]]s lumantar [[fermentasi]] gula karo [[ragi]].<ref name="Mills-Ecklund">Mills, G.A.; Ecklund, E.E. "{{cite journal |author=Mills GA, Ecklund EE |title=Alcohols as Components of Transportation Fuels |journal=Annual Review of Energy |volume=12 |issue= |pages=47–80 |year=1987 |doi=10.1146/annurev.eg.12.110187.000403 |url=http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.eg.12.110187.000403?journalCode=energy}}</ref> === Hidrasi etilena === Étanol kang minangka kabutuhan indhustri asring digawé saka senyawa petrokimia, mligi ya iku lumantar hidrasi [[etilena]]: :[[etilena|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>]]<sub>(g)</sub> + [[air|H<sub>2</sub>O]]<sub>(g)</sub> → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH<sub>(l)</sub>. Katalisa kang digunakaké padatan ya iku [[asem fosfat]]<ref name=r_and_c>{{cite book|author=Roberts, John D.; Caserio, Marjorie C.|year=1977|publisher=W. A. Benjamin, Inc|title=Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry|isbn=0-8053-8329-8}}</ref>. Katalis ini digunakan pertama kali untuk produksi skala besar étanol olèh [[Shell Oil Company]] pada taun 1947.<ref name="ECT4 820">{{cite encyclopedia |chapter=Ethanol |title=[[#Encyc_Chem|Encyclopedia of chemical technology]] |year=1991 |pages=82-|volume=9}}</ref> Reaksi iki dilakokaké kanthi tekanan uwab kang luwih ing suhu 300&nbsp;°C. Prosès suwé kang tau digunakaké ing taun [[1930]] déning Union Carbide<ref name="ECT4 817">Lodgsdon, J.E. (1994). p. 817</ref> ya iku kanthi ngehidrasi etilena kanthi cara pra langsung lan ngreaksikaké karo [[asem sulfat]] pekat kanggo ngasilaké [[etil sulfat]]. Etil sulfat banjur di[[hidrolisis]] lan ngasilaké étanol:<ref name=s_and_h/> :[[etilena|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>]] + [[asem sulfat|H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>]] → [[etil sulfat|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>H]] :[[etil sulfat|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>H]] + [[air|H<sub>2</sub>O]] → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[asem sulfat|H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>]] === Fermentasi === Étanol kanggo kagunan konsumsi manungsa kaya ng ombènan kang ngandhut alkohol lan kagunan bahan bakar dikasilaké kanthi cara [[fermentasi]]. Spesies ragi tartamtu (tuladhané ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'') ncerna gula lan ngasilaké étanol lan [[karbon dioksida]]: :[[glukosa|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>]] → 2 CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + 2 [[karbon dioksida|CO<sub>2</sub>]]. Prosès ngembangaké ragi kanggo ngasilaké alkohol diarani [[fermentasi]]. Konsentrasi étanol kang dhuwur bakal dadi racun kanggo ragi. Ing jinis ragi kang paling toleran tumrap étanol, ragi mau mung bisa tahan ing lingkungan 15% étanol adhédhasar volume.<ref name="mosttolerant">{{cite journal |author=Morais PB, Rosa CA, Linardi VR, Carazza F, Nonato EA |title=Production of fuel alcohol by Saccharomyces strains from tropical habitats |journal=Biotechnology Letters |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=1351–6 |date=November 1996 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/h32k825756g41318/ |doi=10.1007/BF00129969 }}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Kanggo ngasilaké étanol saka bahan-bahan pati, tuladhané [[serealia]], [[pati]] mau kudu diowahi dhisik dadi gula. Ing panggawéyan [[bir]], iki bisa dilakokaké kanthi cara ngekum wiji [[gandum]] ing jero banyu lan ngenengaké dadi [[cambah]]. Wiji gandum kang anyar mau bakal ngasilaké enzim [[amilase]]. Wiji cambah gandum didheplok lan amilase kang ana bakal ngowahi pati dadié gula. Kanggo étanol bahan bakar, hidrolisis pati dadi glukosa bisa dilakokaké luwih rikat nggunakaké asem sulfat èncèe, nambahaké [[jamur]] kang bisa ngasilaké amilase, utawa campuran antarané rong cara mau.<ref name=hydrolysis>Badger, P.C. "[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/v5-017.html Ethanol From Cellulose: A General Review]." p. 17–21. In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, 2002, Alexandria, VA. Retrieved on September 2, 2007.</ref> == Sifat Medis == Étanol wis kabukti njalari kelainan ing [[metabolisme]] [[lipoprotein]], sintesis [[kolesterol]] lan pamudhunan sintesis [[asem empedu]], [[asem kolat]], [[fosfolipid]], sarta pamudhunan kagiyatan [[enzim]] ''12 alpha-hydroxylase''.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7013554 | title = Effects of acute and chronic ethanol intake on bile acid metabolism | accessdate = 2010-11-18 | work = Monroe P, Vlahcevic ZR, Swell L. }}</ref> == Panggunaan == * Pelarut * Campuran ombènan (intoxicant) * Sintesis bahan kimia liya Étanol uga bisa diombé sithik kanthi campuran banyu lan bisa mbiyantu prosès metabolisme. == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Kimiya]] [[Kategori:Alkohol]] 1do7h651l2gk997r1th6sym7rtp5xfs John Couch Adams 0 98390 1753063 1643831 2026-08-20T09:29:05Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753063 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist |name = John Couch Adams |image = John Couch Adams.jpg |image_size = 240px |caption = Photo c. 1870 |birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1819|06|5}} |birth_place = [[Laneast]], [[Launceston, Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom]] |death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1892|01|21|1819|06|15}} |death_place = [[Cambridge]] Observatory<br>[[Cambridgeshire]], England |residence = |citizenship = |nationality = [[British nationality|British]] |ethnicity = [[British people|British]] |field = |work_institutions = |alma_mater = [[University of Cambridge]] |doctoral_advisor = |academic_advisors = [[John Hymers]] |doctoral_students = |notable_students = |known_for = |author_abbrev_bot = |author_abbrev_zoo = |influences = |influenced = |prizes = |religion = |footnotes = |signature = }} '''John Couch Adams''' [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] inggih punika salah satunggaling [[astronom]] lan ilmuwan [[matematika]] saking [[Inggris]] ingkang miyos wonten ing tanggal [[5 Juni]] [[1819]] lan séda ing tanggal [[21 Januari]] [[1892]]. Adams miyos wonten ing ing [[Laneast]] caket kaliyan tlatah [[Launceston]], [[Cornwall]] lan séda ing [[Cambridge]].<ref>[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Adams.html Biography on the St Andrews database]</ref> ==Prestasi== Asiling prestasinipun ingkang paling misuwur inggih nalika saged paring predhiksi kawontenanipun lan posisinipun [[planit]] [[Neptunus]] kanthi namung ngginakaken ngèlmu matematika. Pétanganipun dipundamel kanggé ngandharaken pabédaning kaliyan orbit [[Uranus]] lan kukum [[fisika]] saking [[Johannes Kepler]] lan [[Isaac Newton]]. Wonten ing wekdal ingkang sami, nanging boten sami dipunmangertosi déning satunggal tiyang kaliyan tiyang sanèsipun, pétangan ingkang sami ugi dipundamel déning [[Urbain Le Verrier]]. Le Verrier badhé mbiyantu astronom saking [[Observatorium Berlin]], [[Johann Gottfried Galle]] kanggé manggihaken planit ing tanggal [[23 September]] [[1846]] ingkang kapanggih wonten ing jarak slisih 1 ° saking papan ingkang sampun dipunpredhiksi, sattunggaling titik geometri ing rasi lintang [[Aquarius]]. John Couch Adams inggih punika satunggaling profésor saking Lowndean ing babagan [[astronomi]] lan [[Geometri]] ing [[University of Cambridge]] ingkang dangunipun tigang dasa tiga taun saking taun [[1859]] saking sedanipun. Piyambakipun ugi sampun naté pikantuk medali emas saking ''Royal Astronomical Society'' ing taun [[1866]]. Lan wonten ing taun [[1884]], piyambakipun rawuh wonten ing adicara ''International Meridian Conference'' minangka wakil kanggé [[Britania Raya]] lan [[Irlandia]], [[Inggris]]. Satunggaling kawah wonten ing [[bulan]] ugi dipunparingi nama piyambakipun sasampunipun piyambakipun sesarengan kaliyan [[Walter Sydney Adams]] lan [[Charles Hitchcock Adams]] manggihaken [[kawah]] punika. Ali-ali Neptunus lan satunggaling [[asteroid]] kanthi nama [[1996 Adams]] ugi dipunparingi namanipun piyambakipun sasampunipun dipunanggihaken déning Adams. Satunggaling penghargaan, ''Adams Prize' inggih dipunwontenaken denig [[Universitas Cambridge]] kanggé ngurmati lan ngenang asiling predhiksinipun saking posisinipun planit Neptunus. Perpustakaan pribadhinipun sapunika sampun dipunrawat déning pabukon Universitas Cambridge ([[Cambridge University Library]]). ==Penghargaan== John Couch Adams sampun naté pikantuk kathah penghargaan saking kathah lembaga, ing antawisipun inggih kados makaten: * Piyambakipun inggih dipunparingi gelar minangka ksatria déning [[Ratu Victoria]] ing taun [[1847]] ing Cambridge. * Anggota kehormatan Luar Negeri saking ''American Academy of Arts and Sciences'' ing taun [[1847]].<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter A|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|accessdate=1 April 2011}}</ref> * ''Copley medal'' saking ''Royal Society'' ing taun [[1848]]; * ''Adams Prize'', ingkang dipundhirikaken déning anggota kolega St John, ingkang badhé dipunparingaken kalih taun sapisan kanggé ilmuwan ingkang saé piyambak ing babagan subjek ngèlmu matematika. * Présidhèn ''Royal Astronomical Society'' ing taun [[1851]]-[[1853]] lan ing taun [[1874]]-[[1876]]. ==Bibliografi== *{{1911|wstitle=Adams, John Couch}} ===Obituari=== *''[[The Times]]'', 22 January 1892, p.&nbsp;6 col.d ([http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Adams.html link on this page]) *{{cite journal | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AJ.../0011//0000112.000.html | title=John Couch Adams | journal=Astronomical Journal | volume=11 | year=1892 | pages=112 | author=[Anon.] | doi=10.1086/101653 | bibcode=1892AJ.....11..112.}} *{{cite journal | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0053//0000184.000.html | title=Obituary: John Couch Adams | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=53 | year=1892 | pages=184 | author=[J. W. L. Glaisher] }} *{{cite journal | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0015//0000173.000.html | title=John Couch Adams | journal=The Observatory | volume=15 | year=1892 | pages=173 | author=J. W. L. Glaisher | authorlink=James Whitbread Lee Glaisher |bibcode = 1892Obs....15..173G }} *[Anon.] (1891-2) ''Journal of the British Astronomical Association'' '''2''': 196–7 ===Adams lan pamanggihipun bab planit Neptunus === *{{cite journal | author=Airy, G. B. | authorlink=George Biddell Airy | title=Account of some circumstances historically connected with the discovery of the planit exterior to Uranus | journal=Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=16 | year=1847 | pages=385–414 }} *{{cite book | url=http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/10655 | title=The Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy | author=Airy, W. | year=1896 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | access-date=2013-03-01 | archive-date=2004-10-14 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041014220248/http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/10655 | url-status=dead }} from [[Project Gutenberg]] *[Anon.] (1911) "[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/John_Couch_Adams John Couch Adams], ''[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]'' *{{cite book | title=In Search of Planet Vulcan: The Ghost in Newton's Clockwork Universe | author=Baum, R. & Sheehan, W. | publisher=Plenum | year=1997 }} *{{cite journal | title=Private research and public duty: George Biddell Airy and the search for Neptune | author=Chapman, A. | journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy | volume=19 | pages=121–139 | year=1988 | issue=2|bibcode = 1988JHA....19..121C }} *{{cite journal | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0026//0000157.000.html | title=Address on award of RAS gold medal for work on secular acceleration of the Moon | journal=Monthly Notes of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=26 | year=1866 | pages=157 | author=de la Rue, W. | authorlink=Warren de la Rue }} *Doggett, L. E. (1997) "Celestial mechanics", in {{cite book | title=History of Astronomy, an Encyclopedia | author=Lankford, J. | year=1997 | pages=131–40 }} *{{cite book | title=History of the Royal Astronomical Society [1]: 1820–1920 | author=Dreyer, J. L. E. & Turner, H. H. (eds) | origyear=1923 | year=1987 | pages=161–2 }} *{{cite book | author=Grosser, M. | title=The Discovery of Neptune | year=1962 | publisher=Harvard University Press | isbn=0-674-21225-8 }} *{{cite encyclopedia | author=— | title = Adams, John Couch | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 1 | pages = 53–54 | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year = 1970 | isbn = 0-684-10114-9 }} *Harrison, H. M (1994). ''Voyager in Time and Space: The Life of John Couch Adams, Cambridge Astronomer''. Lewes: Book Guild, ISBN 0-86332-918-7 *{{cite journal | author=Hughes, D. W. | title=J. C. Adams, Cambridge and Neptune | journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society | volume=50 | year=1996 | issue=2 | pages=245–8 | doi=10.1098/rsnr.1996.0027 }} *Hutchins, R. (2004) "[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/123 Adams, John Couch (1819–1892)]", ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Oxford University Press, accessed 23 August 2007 {{ODNBsub}} *{{cite journal | author=J. W. L. G. [J. W. L. Glaisher] | title=James Challis | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=43 | year=1882–3 | pages=160–79 }} *{{cite web |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/neptune/index.htm |title=Neptune's Discovery. The British Case for Co-Prediction. |accessdate=2007-03-19 |last=Kollerstrom |first=Nick |authorlink=Nicholas Kollerstrom |year=2001 |publisher=University College London |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051111190351/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/nk/neptune/index.htm |archivedate=2005-11-11 |url-status=dead }} *{{cite journal | author=Kushner, D. | year=1989 | title=The controversy surrounding the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archive-for-history-of-exact-sciences_1989_39_4/page/291 | journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences | volume=39 | pages=291–316 | issue=4|bibcode = 1989AHES...39..291K }} *{{cite book | title=The Planet Neptune: An Historical Survey before Voyager | publisher=Praxis | year=1996 | author=Moore, P. | authorsep=Patrick Moore }} *{{cite journal | year=1904 | title=A description of Adams's manuscripts on the perturbations of Uranus | author=Sampson, R.A. | journal=Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=54 | pages=143–161 }} *{{cite journal | title=John Couch Adams's Asperger syndrome and the British non-discovery of Neptune | volume=61 | year=2007 | pages=285–299 | author=Sheehan, W. & Thurber, S. | journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society | doi=10.1098/rsnr.2007.0187 | issue=3}} *Sheehan, W. ''et al.'' (2004). [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000CA850-8EA4-119B-8EA483414B7FFE9F The Case of the Pilfered Planet - Did the British steal Neptune?] ''Scientific American'' *{{cite journal | author=Smart, W. M. | title=John Couch Adams and the discovery of Neptune | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume=158 | year=1946 | issue=4019 | pages=829–830 | doi=10.1038/158648a0 |bibcode = 1946Natur.158..648S }} *{{cite journal | author=— | title=John Couch Adams and the discovery of Neptune | journal=Occasional Notes of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=2 | year=1947 | pages=33–88 }} *{{cite journal | title=The Cambridge network in action: the discovery of Neptune | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_1989-09_80_303/page/395 | author=Smith, R. W. | journal=Isis | volume=80 | pages=395–422 | year=1989 | doi=10.1086/355082 | issue=303}} *{{cite book | year=2000 | title=The Neptune File | author=Standage, T. | publisher=Penguin Press }} ==Cathetan suku== {{Reflist}} {{authority control}} [[Kategori:Winasis Britania]] [[Kategori:Lair 1819]] 2il6jr0iyrtuh1ci0r2sp8c4el4ij8k Thābit ibn Qurra 0 98430 1753074 1660570 2026-08-20T09:48:44Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753074 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scholar | image = 20010219-001-01.jpg | image_size = 180px | alt = | caption = A modern artistic depiction of Thābit ibn Qurra | name = Thābit ibn Qurra | birth_date = 826 CE | birth_place = [[Harran]] | death_date = {{death date|mf=yes|901|2|18}} | death_place = [[Baghdad]] | era = [[Islamic Golden Age]] | religion = [[Islam]] | school_tradition = | main_interests = [[Mathematics]], [[Mechanics]], [[Astronomy]], [[Astrology]], [[Translation]], [[Number theory]] | notable_ideas = {{Unbulleted list|Early reformer of the [[Ptolemaic system]]|A founder of [[statics]]|Length of the [[sidereal year]]|}} | influences = [[Banu Musa]], [[Archimedes]], [[Apollonius of Perga|Apollonius]], [[Nicomachus of Gerasa|Nicomachus]], [[Euclid]] | influenced = [[Al-Khazini]], Al-Isfizari, [[Na'im ibn Musa]]<ref name="panza">{{cite journal|last=Panza|first=Marco|title=The Role of Algebraic Inferences in Na'īm Ibn Mūsā's Collection of Geometrical Propositions|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arabic-sciences-and-philosophy_2008-09_18_2/page/165|journal=Arabic Sciences and Philosophy|year=2008|volume=18|issue=2|pages=165–191|doi=10.1017/S0957423908000532|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref> }} '''{{transl|ar|ALA|Al-Ṣābiʾ Thābit ibn Qurra al-Ḥarrānī}}''' ({{lang-ar|ثابت بن قرة}}, {{lang-la|Thebit/Thebith/Tebit}};<ref>{{cite journal|last=Latham|first=J. D.|title=Review of Richard Lorch's 'Thabit ibn Qurran: On the Sector-Figure and Related Texts'|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-semitic-studies_autumn-2003_48_2/page/401|journal=[[Journal of Semitic Studies]]|year=2003|volume=48|issue=2|pages=401–403|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|doi=10.1093/jss/48.2.401}}</ref> ingkang miyos ing taun [[826]] lan séda ing tanggal [[18 Fèbruari]] [[901]]), inggih punika satunggaling [[ilmuwan]] [[matematika]], [[fisika]], [[astronom]], lan ugi penerjemah wontn ing taun- taun emas [[Islam]] ingkang dumunung wonten ing [[Baghdad]] wonten ing tengahing abad kaping sanga. Thabit ibn Qurra inggih damel satunggaling asling temunan ingkang wigati kairing liring jaman inggih punika wonten ing bab [[aljabar]], [[geometri]], lan ugi [[astronomi]]. Wonten ing babagan astronomi, Thabit medalaken salah satungaling asiling rekonstruksi ingkang sepisanan wonten ing sistem ''Ptolemaic'', lan ing babagan [[mekanik]] piyambakipun ingggih minangka tiyang ingkang manggihaken bab [[statik]].<ref name="holme">{{cite book|last=Holme|first=Audun|title=Geometry: our cultural heritage|year=2010|publisher=Springer|location=Heidelberg|isbn=3-642-14440-3|edition=2nd|page=188}}</ref> ==Biografi== Thabit inggih miyos wonten ing [[Harran]] (ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka Carrhae wonten ing ''classical antiquity'') ing [[Mesopotamia]] sisih inggil utawi ing [[Assyria]] (wonten ing dinten modheren ing [[Turki]]). Wonten ing layang ulemipun [[Muhammad bin Musa|Muhammad bin Musa bin Shakir]], salah satungglaing sedherek kakungipun [[Banu Musa]], Thabit lajeng kesah kanggé sinau ing [[Baghdad]] wonten ing ''House of Eisdom''. Piyambakipun inggih satunggaling ètnis tiyang [[Assyrian]], pendhudhuk asli saking pamicara basa [[Syria]] / [[Aramaic]],<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Thabit|title=Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani}}</ref> lan punika kagunganipun [[Sabian]] Harran, satunggaling sèkté saking [[Hermetisisme|Hermetisme]].<ref>(Churton p. 27)</ref> Déné ing sumber - sumber sanèsipun inggih nyuwun piyambakipun kanggé dados tiyang [[Mandaean]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mandaeanunion.org/History/EN_History_009.htm |title=Archive copy |access-date=2013-03-03 |archive-date=2012-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121220063514/http://www.mandaeanunion.org/History/EN_History_009.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wontn ing kasus sanèsipun, kekalih sekte ingkang wonten inggih ugi gadhah daya tarik ingkang ageng wonten ing babagan [[astronomi]], [[astrologi]], lan [[matematika]] (mliginipun ing tiyang Mandaean). Sabians inggih gesang wonten ing antawasipun pusat paling wigati saking pamarèntahanipun khalifah ngantos taun [[1258]], nalika tiyang [[Mongol]] mbubrahken [[kuil]]ipun ingkang paling pungkasan. Ing salebeting pamarentahanipun tiyang [[Muslim]], para kaum sanèsipun inggih minangka kaum ingkang minor, lan ing sakiteripun [[al Mutawakkil]], ing pamarentahanipun Haran lajeng saged dados papan punjering kanggé nliti bab [[filsafat]], esoteris, lan medis. Piyambakipun inggih bok bilih sampun kegabung kaliyan turunan saking sarjana [[Yunani]] ingkang kafir lan boten dipunparingi toleransi ing pamarentahanipun kaisar [[Byzantium]], lajeng netep wonten ing siti ingkang dados bageyanipun saking khalifah [[Abbasiyah]]. Sasampunipun taun [[750]] [[Masehi]], sapérangan para penguaos Muslin lan para ulama kathah ingkang ketarik kaliyan ngèlmu basa [[Yunani]], lajeng sami ngoleksi lan damel pertalan kanthah karya saking basa [[Yunani Kuno]] saking bab ngèlmu filosofi lan [[matematika]]. Sanajan ta piyambakipun lajeng dados pamicara ing basa [[Arab]], ing jaman pra [[Islam]], lan punika inggih minangka prakawis ingkang sampun biyasa kanggé para Sabian kanggé micara mawi basa [[Yunani]]. Thabit lan para murid- muridipun dumunung ing tengah- tengahing para intelektual ingkang ageng, lab bok bilih ingkang ugi minangka kitha ingkang paling ageng kanthi iliring wekdal, [[Baghdad]]. Piyambakipun lajeng pados padamelan ingkang langkung sibuk kanggé nliti bab [[matematika]], [[astronomi]], [[astrologi]], sikir, [[mekanik]], [[usada]], lan [[filsafat]]. Salajengipun ing gesangipun, ingkang nglindhungi Tabit inggih punika khaifah Al Mu'tadid (ingkang kekuasanipun saking taun [[892]] ngantos taun [[902]]). Thabit lajeng dados kanca celakipun khalifah lan ugi dados punggawanipun khalifah. Thabit séda wonten ing Baghdad. Sasampunipun piyambakipun séda, nama sanèsipun saking tiyang Sabean ingkang ugi dados misuwur inggih punika Abu Abdalah Mohammad bin Jabir [[Al Battani]]. Thabit lan wayahipun, [[Ibrahim ibn Sinan|Ibrahim ibn Sinan ibn Thabit]] nyinaoni bab kurva ingkang dipunbetahaken kanggé damel [[srengéngé]]. Putranipun Thabit ingkang jaler inggih punika [[Sinan ibn Thabit]] inggih punika dados satunggaling [[dhoter]] ingkang misuwur lan gadhah tanggel jawab kanggé ngawasi sedaya griya sakit umum ingkang wonten ing Baghdad. Piyambakipun inggih ugi minangka anggota saking sekte Sabian. ==Cathetan suku== {{Reflist}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor = Thomas Hockey et al | last = Palmeri | first = JoAnn | title=Thābit ibn Qurra | encyclopedia = The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers | publisher = Springer | year = 2007 | location = New York | pages = 1129–30 | url=http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Thabit_ibn_Qurra_BEA.htm | isbn=978-0-387-31022-0}} ([http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Thabit_ibn_Qurra_BEA.pdf PDF version]) * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Thabit|title=Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani}} *{{cite encyclopedia | first=B. A. | last=Rosenfeld | last2 = Grigorian | first2 = A. T. | title=Thābit Ibn Qurra, Al-Ṣābiʾ Al-Ḥarrānī | url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830904272.html | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography|Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | publisher = Encyclopedia.com | origyear=1970-80 | year = 2008 }} *[http://www.renaissanceastrology.com/thabit.html Thabit ibn Qurra on Astrology & Magic] [[Kategori:Ahli astronomi Irak]] [[Kategori:Lair 826]] [[Kategori:Pati 901]] ks6jwbajuliv8no587xu637lg2zb52j Universitas Arizona 0 98927 1752867 1742558 2026-08-20T03:37:40Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752867 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_University| name=Universitas Arizona| sesanti= [[Bear Down]]!| established=[[1885]]| type=[[Perguruan tinggi nagari|Negeri]]| endowment=USD 481 juta| president= [[Eugene G. Sander]] <ref>http://uanews.org/node/40370</ref>| city=[[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]]| state=[[Arizona]]| country=[[Amérikah Sarékat|AS]]| undergrad=30,346<ref name="Fact Book">{{cite web | title = Fact Book 2009-10 | publisher = University of Arizona Office of Institutional Research & Planning Support | url = http://factbook.web.arizona.edu/2009-10/students | accessdate = 13 Maret 2013 }}</ref>| postgrad=8,421<ref name="Fact Book"/>| staff=2,854<ref name="Fact Book"/>| campus=[[Urban]], 1.253.500&nbsp;m²)| athletics= 18 tim universitas| free_label=Yearbook| free=<ref>http://www.e-yearbook.com/zona Desert Yearbook</ref>| colors=Merah kardinal dan biru laut| website=<ref>http://www.arizona.edu/ www.arizona.edu</ref>| mascot=[[Wilbur (mascot)|Wilbur Wildcat]]| image=[[Gambar:UASeal.gif|198px|UA Seal (Trademark of Arizona Board of Regents)]]| }} '''Universitas Arizona''' utawi '''The University of Arizona''' (ugi dipunrujuk minangka UA, U of A, atau Arizona) inggih punika sawijining intitusi pendidikan tinggi lan risèt nagari ingkang dumunung wonten ing kutha [[Tucson]], [[Arizona]], [[Amérikah Sarékat]], ingkang pikantuk dana hibah kanggé pambangunan fasilitas kampus lan pangembangan risèt tèknologi akasa. UA minangka universitas piasanan ing praja Arizona, jumeneng nalika taun [[1885]] (27 taun sadèrèngipun Teritori Arizona pikantuk status praja). Universitas punika nglingkupi University of Arizona College of Medicine ingkang minangka salah satunggal saking tiga sekolah kadhokteran lan satunggalings sekolah kadhokteran ingkang nganugrahaken gelar MD (Doctor of Medicine) ing Arizona. Dumugi mangsa palastra taun 2010, jumlah mahasiswanipun inggih punika 39,086 tiyang.<ref name="Fact Book"/> UA ing sangandhaping pengelolaan Arizona Board of Regents. Misi UA inggih punika "kanggé manggihaken, ndidik, nglayani lan nginspirasi."<ref name="UA Mission">{{cite web | title = About the UA | work = University of Arizona | publisher = University of Arizona | accessdate = 13 Maret 2013 | url = http://www.arizona.edu/home/aboutua.php | archive-date = 2010-03-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100301070539/http://www.arizona.edu/home/aboutua.php | url-status = dead }}</ref> UA inggih punika salah satunggaling anggota kapilih saking [[Asosiasi Universitas Amérika]] (AAU, sawijining organisasi saking institusi-institusi risèt kondhang ing Amérika Utara) lan minangka satunggaling wakil saking praja Arizona wonten ing asosiasi punika. == Sajarah == [[Gambar:Old Main (U of Arizona).jpg|right|thumb|200px|Old Main, yasan tertua di kampus Univeritas Arizona]] Universitas Arizona pambangunanipun dipunsarujuki déning Badan Legislatif Teritori Arizona ingkang dipunkenal kanthi jejuluk ''Thieving Thirteenth'' nalika taun [[1885]]. Kutha [[Tucson]] sadèrèngipun ngarep pikantuk dana kanggé pambangunan griya sakit jiwa Teritori Arizona ingkang dipunalokasikaken sajumlah USD 100,000 lan sanès USD 25,000 ingkang dipunalokasikaken kanggé pambangunan satunggaling universitas ing teritori punika (Arizona State University ugi dipunsarujuki pambentukanipun nalika taun [[1885]], nanging nalika punika dipunrantam minangka sekolah guru Arizona, lan sanès minangka sawijining universitas). Para anggota dewan kutha Tucson telat dumugi ing kutha [[Prescott, Arizona]], akibat banjir ing [[Kali]] Salt (Arizona) lan dumugi nalika kaputusan sampun kapendhet. Perwakilan Tucson kuciwa sanget pikantuk alokasi dana ingkang dipunanggep minangka bebungah hiburan. Nalika boten wonten pihak ingkang kersa majeng lan nyamektakaken tanah kanggé institusi énggal, warga Tucson sawéga kanggé bangsulaken dana dhateng Badan Legislatif Teritori Arizona. Para warga sami éwah pikiripun sasampuning 2 tiyang penjudi lan satunggaling pangusaha bar milih nyumbangaken tanah ingkang dipunbetahaken kanggé yasa universitas mau. Prosès sinau ingkang kapisanan kalaksanan nalika taun [[1891]] kanthi jumlah 32 mahasiswa ing gedung Old Main, yasan pisanan ingkang dipunyasa ing kampus, lan taksih dipun-ginakaken dumugi wekdal punika.<ref name="History 3">{{cite web | title=The Old Main | publisher=Arizona Board of Regents | year=2005 | work=UA History | accessdate=March 13, 2013 | url=http://www.arizona.edu/tours/history/history3.php | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211105338/http://www.arizona.edu/tours/history/history3.php | archivedate=February 11, 2006 | url-status=live }}</ref> Amargi boten wonten sekolah menengah atas ing Teritori Arizona nalika samanten. == Pranala njaba == * Situs resmi: [http://www.arizona.edu www.arizona.edu] * Situs resmi atletik UA: [http://www.arizonaathletics.com www.arizonaathletics.com] * Koran kampus: [http://wildcat.arizona.edu wildcat.arizona.edu] * Stasiun radio kampus: [http://kamp.arizona.edu kamp.arizona.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002221103/http://kamp.arizona.edu/ |date=2009-10-02 }} * Pedoman pengunjung kampus: [http://www.arizona.edu/future/visiting.php Visitor's guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202062048/http://www.arizona.edu/future/visiting.php |date=2007-02-02 }} * Webcam universitas: [http://www.cs.arizona.edu/camera/ http://www.cs.arizona.edu/camera/] (with archives) * Jadwal Football Wildcat: [http://www.azfl.com/arizonawildcatfootball2006.html at AzFL] * [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=tucson&ll=32.231762,-110.950584&spn=0.010750,0.020878&t=k&hl=en Satellite image of campus] (zoomable, from maps.google.com, note: satellite image is several years old) * Museum Minteral Universitas Arizona: [http://www.geo.arizona.edu/minmus/ www.geo.arizona.edu/minmus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100718095333/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/minmus/ |date=2010-07-18 }} == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Universitas ing Amérika]] [[Kategori:Universitas]] {{universitas-stub}} fhgq0qcsfrbw65wvdngv80g2c38sgv1 Reims 0 99486 1752840 1748977 2026-08-19T20:41:48Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752840 wikitext text/x-wiki {| {{prettytable}} align="right" width="300" |+ <big>'''Reims'''</big> |- | style="background: #ffffff;" align="center" colspan="2" | {| cellspacing="0" border="0" cellpadding="2" | align="center" width="140" | [[Gambar:Reims Hotèl de ville 2010.jpg|250px]] |- | align="center" width="140" | <small>(Lambang Kitha Reims (''hôtel de ville)'')</small> |} |- | align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray;" | <small>'''Kitha Reims'''<br /> Logo Reims</small> |- | align="center" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid gray;" | [[Gambar:Blason Reims 51.svg|200px]] |- | '''Nagara''' | Prancis |- | '''Wewengkon Administratif''' | Champagne-Ardenne |- | '''Dhépartemèn''' | Marne |- | '''[[Gubernur]]''' | [[Adeline Hazan]] (2008-2014) |- | '''Wewengkon'''<br />&nbsp;-Wiyaripun:<br /> | <br />47,02&nbsp;km² |- | '''[[Padunung]]'''<br />&nbsp;-Total (2004):<br />&nbsp;-Kapadhetan: | <br />179 992 (2010)<br />318 000/km² |} '''Reims''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|r|iː|m|z}}; utawi '''Rheims'''; French: {{IPA-fr|ʁɛ̃s|}}), inggih punika salah satunggaling kitha ing [[Prancis]] ingkang mlebet wewengkon administratif [[Champagne-Ardenne]]. Saking [[Paris|Kitha Paris]] tebihipun watawis 130 [[kilomèter|km]] utawi 80 [[mil]] sisih [[Lor-Wétan|lèr wétan]].<ref name="Internet1"/> Reims kalebet kitha kagunan lan sajarah ing Prancis ingkang sampun dipunakeni minangka [[Situs warisan donya]] [[UNESCO]].<ref name="Internet24">{{cite web |url=http://www.tripadvisor.com/Travel-g187137-s203/Reims:France:History.html |title=''Reims: History'' |author= tripadvisor.com |year= |publisher=tripadvisor.com |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> Kajawi punika Reims ugi misuwur minangka kitha [[sampanye]] lan [[tekstil|tèkstil]].<ref name="Internet23"/> Sampanye lan tèkstil punika dados satunggaling kakiyatan [[ékonomi]] Reims.<ref name="Internet23"/> Reims dipunsebat dados salah satunggalipun kitha wigati lan gadhah pangaribawa ingkang ageng tumrap [[sajarah Prancis]].<ref name="Internet23">{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/reims.html |title=''Reims'' |author=.infoplease.com |year= |publisher=infoplease.com |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> Bab punika dipunsebabaken amargi Reims asring kanggé pahargyan (upacara) ingkang wigati ing salebetipun sajarah [[monarki]] [[Prancis]]. Sampun langkung saking sedasa abad dangunipun Reims dipundadosaken kanggé jumenengan raja-raja Prancis. Kacathet wiwit saking [[Louis ingkang Saléh]] ing taun [[816]] [[Pananggalan Masèhi|M]] ngantos dumugi [[Charles X saking Prancis|Charles X]] taun [[1825]] M dipunjumenengaken ing kitha punika. Awit saking punika Reims misuwur minangka '''Kitha Jumenengan''' utawi '''Kitha Raja'''.<ref name="Chafid-Reims6">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.french-property.com/property/champagne_ardenne/marne/reims/insight/ |title=''Reims Property Insight''|author= french-property.com |year= |publisher= french-property.com |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> == Sajarah Reims == [[Gambar:ReimsCathedral-01s.jpg|thumb|left|220px|[[Katedral Réims|Katedral Notre-Dame]] ing Reims]] Miturut sajarah, Kitha Reims dipunjumenengaken déning [[Rémus]], lan kalebet kitha ageng ing wekdal [[Kakaisaran Romawi]].<ref name="Internet1">{{fr}}{{cite web|url=http://www.reims-tourisme.com/|title=''Bienvenue à Reims''|author=Office de Tourisme de Reims|year=|publisher=reims-tourisme|access-date=28 Maret 2013|archive-date=2011-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109143036/http://www.reims-tourisme.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Internet9"/> Sadèrèngipun gadhah nama '''Reims''', kitha punika dipunsebat Kitha '''Remi'''.<ref name="Internet24"/> Déning Suku Celtik ingkang gesang ing Kitha Reims, kitha punika dipunsebat Kitha '''Remes'''.<ref name="Internet9"/> Wonten ugi pamanggih bilih tembung Reims asalipun saking tembung '''Rèmes'''.<ref name="Internet8"/> Bilih wekdal samanten kutha krajanipun Rèmes ing Kitha [[Durocorter]], ingkang éwah dados [[Durocortorum]] ing mangsa [[Romawi]].<ref name="Internet8"/> Tembung Durocortorum asalipun saking tembung ''duro''ingkang tegesipun [[bètèng]] ingkang wujud [[paredèn]].<ref name="Internet8">{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/talbert/talbertdatabase/TPPlace609.html |title=''Name: Dvrocortoro'' |author= cambridge |year= |publisher=cambridge |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> Watawis taun 80 [[Pananggalan Masèhi|SM]], kitha Reims dipunyasa [[Oppidum Rémus]] sasampunipun penaklukan [[Romawi]].<ref name="Internet9"/> Kitha punika ugi dipunyasa déning 260 [[biskop|Kabiskopan]] Reims.<ref name="Internet9"/> Sadangunipun invasi ageng, wonten 407 [[biskop]] Reims dipun-pejahi déning [[Nicaise Vandal]].<ref name="Internet9">{{cite web |url=http://www.reims-tourism.com/reims-champagne/heritage-and-discovery/the-history-of-reims.aspx |title=''Ancient Reims'' |author=reims-tourism. |year= |publisher=reims-tourism. |access-date=29 Maret 2013 |archive-date=2013-01-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121200041/http://www.reims-tourism.com/reims-champagne/heritage-and-discovery/the-history-of-reims.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Taun 459 M Reims dados punjering wewengkon [[Austrasia]], ingkang mlebet ing wewengkon punika kados nagara [[Prancis]], [[Jerman]], [[Bèlgi]], lan [[Walanda]].<ref name="Internet24"/> Taun 816 wonten jumenengan raja kapisanan Reims inggih punika Raja [[Louis ingkang Saleh]].<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Upacara ingkang dipunwontenaken ngantos gangsal jam punika dipuntindakaken ing [[Katedral Réims|Katedral Notre-Dame]].<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Sasampunipun pahargyan jumenengan purna, dipunlajengaken jamuan ing [[Pura Tau]] lan ziarah dhateng pasaréyanipun [[biskop Remi]], ing Basilika.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Jumenengan raja ing Reims ingkang paling ageng punika nalika jumenenganipun [[Charles VII saking Prancis|Charles VII]] nalika tanggal [[17 Juli]] [[1429]].<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Wonten 33 gunggungipun raja Prancis ingkang jumenengan ing Kutha Reims, lan ingkang paling pungkasan punika [Charles X ing taun [[1825]].<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Wonten abad parotengah, Reims dados wewengkon ing Prancis ingkang makmur amargi prodhuksi [[tekstil|tèkstil]] lan [[sampanye]].<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Raja Louis XIV marentahaken supados nambahi wiyaripun kebon anggur.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> [[Révolusi Indhustri]] ingkang ngrembaka ing [[Éropa]] ugi mengaruhi éwahipun tatanan Reims.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Kathah wewangunan dipunyasa nggantosaken wewangunan sadèrèngipun.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Maneka pepanggihan internasional ugi dipunwontenaken ing Kutha Reims ing kawitaning abad 20.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Salajengipun wonten [[Perang Donya I]], nalika tanggal [[4 September]] [[1914]], [[prajurit]] [[Jerman]] nyerang dhateng Reims.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Jerman ngupadi nguwaosi Reims kanthi cara ngepung lan ngebom ngantos tigang setengah taun.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2"/> Pangepungan dipunpungkasi kanthi risakipun 80 persèn kitha lan sédanipun 5.000 kurban perang.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS2">{{cite web |url=http://www.reims-tourism.com/reims-champagne/heritage-and-discovery/the-history-of-reims.aspx |title=''Ancient Reims'' |author=reims-tourism.com |year= |publisher=reims-tourism.com |access-date=6 April 2013 |archive-date=21 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121200041/http://www.reims-tourism.com/reims-champagne/heritage-and-discovery/the-history-of-reims.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Tanggal 7 Mèi 1945 sasampunipun [[Perang Donya II]], utusan saking Jerman napakasmani wangsulipun wewengkon Reims dhateng Prancis.<ref name="Sajarah REIMS">{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/reims.html |title=''Reims'' |author= Pearson Education |year= |publisher=infoplease.come |access-date=6 April 2013}}</ref> == [[Géografi]] == === Papan dunungipun === [[Gambar:Communes-Marne-Reims.png|thumb|right|Wewengkon Reims]] Reims dumunung ing Prancis Wétan, sa[[Lor-Kulon|lèr-kilèn]] saking [[Merne]] lan [[kulon|kilènipun]] wewengkon Champagne-Ardenne.<ref name="Internet2"/> Kitha punika ugi dumunung ing wewatesan antawisipun Prancis lan [[Jerman]].<ref name="Internet2"/> Kutha punika tebihipun 130 [[kilomèter|km]] saking [[Paris]], 157&nbsp;km saking [[Métz]], 168&nbsp;km saking [[Lille]], 282&nbsp;km saking [[Strasbourg]].<ref name="Internet2"/> Ing tingkat régional, Reims dumunung 25&nbsp;km sisih [[lor|lèr]] Kutha [[Troyes]].<ref name="Internet2">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.lion1906.com/Php/Resultats/Resultat_Orthodromie1.php?Insee1=51454&Insee2=&Ville1=Reims& |title=''Orthodromie entre Reims et une autre commune de France'' |author=lion1906 |year= |publisher=lion1906 |access-date=29 Maret 2013 }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Reims mapan ing 49,258 drajat lintang [[lor|lèr]] lan 4,031 drajat lintang [[wétan]].<ref name="dunungipun"/> Kitha ingkang paling caket kaliyan Kitha Reims inggih punika: Tinqueux ingkang tebihipun 3,01 [[Kilomèter|km]], Saint-Brice-Courcelles tebihipun 3,29&nbsp;km, Bétheny tebihipun 3,68&nbsp;km, Cormontreuil tebihipun 4,18&nbsp;km, Champigny tebihipun 4,25&nbsp;km, Bezannes tebihipun 5,02&nbsp;km, Cernay-lès-Reims tebihipun 5,32&nbsp;km, lan Thillois tebihipun 5,60&nbsp;km.<ref name="dunungipun">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.map-france.com/Reims-51100/ |title=''City of Reims'' |author= map-france.com |year= |publisher=map-france.com |access-date=15 April 2013}}</ref> === [[Géologi]] === Reims dumunung ing sapinggiring [[cekungan]] [[sédhimèn]] ingkang jero.<ref name="Pembangunan"/> Ing sisih [[kidul]] wonten [[Pagunungan Montagne ing Reims]], ingkang dados sumbering [[Anggur]] ingkang saé piyambak kanggé ndamel [[sampanye]], ing sisih lèr-kidul wonten [[Pagunungan St Thierry]] lan ing [[wétan]] wonten [[Gunung Berru]].<ref name="Pembangunan"/> {{clear}} == Iklim == [[Gambar:FR-51-Landscape6.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Pagunungan Kitha Reims]] [[Iklim]] ing Reims punika teles kanthi iklim [[sagara]].<ref name="Internet6"/> [[Suhu|Hawa]] ing kitha punika asrep ing mangsa jawah [[salju]] lan garing manawi mangsa bentèr (panas).<ref name="Internet6"/> Tingkat curah jawah saben taunipun kinten-kinten 604&nbsp;mm/taun.<ref name="Internet6">{{cite web |url=http://www.linternaute.com/ville/ville/climat/624/reims.shtml |title=''Données climatiques de Reims'' |author=le site linternaute.com |year= |publisher=le site linternaute.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013 |archive-date=2012-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420140819/http://www.linternaute.com/ville/ville/climat/624/reims.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nalika wekdal mangsa [[Kalor|bentèr]] ing [[Éropa]] taun [[2003]], rekor témperaturipun 21,3 ° [[Célsius|C]] ing tanggal [[13 Agustus]], lan maksimum témperatur punika 39,3&nbsp;°C nalika [[12 Agustus]].<ref name="Internet3"/> Digit ingkang kapisan ing tanggal [[20 Agustus]] [[2009]] kanthi suhu 21,9&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Internet3"/> Ngengingi cathetan [[udan|jawah]], dipunasilaken data 69,2 [[Milimèter]] ing tanggal [[4 Juli]] 2006.<ref name="Internet3"/> Cathetan suhu ing wulan Juni kacathet 36,7&nbsp;°C, ingkang dumados tanggal [[28 Juni]] [[2011]].<ref name="Internet3">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://france.meteofrance.com/france/actu/archives/2011/2011?page_id=14728&document_id=25576&portlet_id=78025 |title=''Premières fortes chaleurs de l'été'' |author=France Météofrance.com |year= |publisher=France Météofrance.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013 }}{{Pranala mati|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Internet4">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.meteociel.fr/climatologie/villes.php?code=7070&mois=6&annee=2011 |title=''Données mensuelles de juin 2011 pour Reims-Courcy'' |author= Météociel.fr |year= |publisher=Météociel.fr |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> Wonten ing Kitha Reims ugi wonten stasiun cuaca (watawis 11&nbsp;km saking [[Katedral Réims|Katedral Reims]]), dumunung ing sisih [[wétan-kidul]] [[lapangan udara Prunay]], Reims.<ref name="Internet5"/> Stasiun Reims-Courcy (watasis 8&nbsp;km saking [[Katedral Réims|Katedral]]), dumunung ing sisih [[lor|lèr]] Reims caket kaliyan landhesan pacu saking pangkalan udara.<ref name="Internet5">{{cite web |url=http://climat.meteofrance.com/ |title=''Reims-Courcy, septembre 2012'' |author=Climat MétéoFrance.com |year= |publisher=Climat MétéoFrance.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013 |archive-date=2010-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527204441/http://climat.meteofrance.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Populasi == Tabel ing ngandhap nedahaken cacahing [[kang ndunungi]] Kitha Reims taun [[1968]]-[[2007]].<ref name="Populasi">{{cite web |url=http://www.map-france.com/Reims-51100/population-Reims.html|title=''Population Reims'' |author=map-france.com|year= |publisher=map-france.com|access-date=15 April 2013}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;" |+ Populasi kang ndunungi Reims taun [[1968]]-[[2007]] |- | ! scope="col" | '''2007''' ! scope="col" | '''1999''' ! scope="col" | '''1990''' ! scope="col" | '''1982''' ! scope="col" | '''1975''' ! scope="col" | '''1968''' |- ! scope="row" | Cacahipun | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 183 500 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 187 181 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 180 620 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 177 234 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 178 381 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 154 534 |} * Ngéngingi dhistribusi kang ndunungi [[Lanang|jaler]] lan [[Wadon|èstri]] miturut umur ing Kitha Reims dipunjlèntrèhaken ing ngandhap:<ref name="Populasi"/> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;" |+ Dhistribusi kang ndunungi jaler lan èstri Kitha Reims miturut umur ing taun [[2007]] |- | ! scope="col" | '''0-14 taun''' ! scope="col" | '''15-29 taun''' ! scope="col" | '''30-44 taun''' ! scope="col" | '''45-59 taun''' ! scope="col" | '''60-74 taun''' ! scope="col" | '''75-90 taun''' ! scope="col" | '''≥ 90 taun''' |- ! scope="row" | Cacahipun ([[lanang|jaler]]) | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 15 405 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 26 038 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 17 917 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 14 825 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 8 184 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 4 092 | bgcolor="#F0FF70" | 229 |- ! scope="row" | Cacahipun ([[Wadon|èstri]]) | bgcolor="#F0FF00" | 14 641 | bgcolor="#F0FF00" | 27 612 | bgcolor="#F0FF00" | 17 943 | bgcolor="#F0FF00" | 17 194 | bgcolor="#F0FF00" | 10 312 | bgcolor="#F0FF00" | 8 093 | bgcolor="#F0FF00" | 1 013 |} * Ngéngingi angka kalairan lan angka tilar donya ing Kitha Reims dipunjlèntrèhaken ing ngandhap:<ref name="Populasi"/> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;" |+ Angka kalairan lan tilar donya ing Kitha Reims taun [[1999]]-[[2008]] |- | ! scope="col" | '''2008''' ! scope="col" | '''2007''' ! scope="col" | '''2006''' ! scope="col" | '''2005''' ! scope="col" | '''2004''' ! scope="col" | '''2003''' ! scope="col" | '''2002''' ! scope="col" | '''2001''' ! scope="col" | '''2000''' ! scope="col" | '''1999''' |- ! scope="row" | Angka Lair | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 533 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 549 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 498 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 597 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 553 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 525 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 608 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 798 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 765 | bgcolor="#F0B000" | 2 757 |- ! scope="row" | Angka Tilar Donya | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 516 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 435 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 404 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 418 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 471 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 545 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 505 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 489 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 501 | bgcolor="#F06000" | 1 523 |} == Transportasi == Jinis-jinis [[transportasi]] ingkang dipun-ginakaken ing Reims inggih punika: === Transportasi Trèm === [[Gambar:CITURA Citadis Fuchsia.JPG|thumb|left|transportasi [[trèm]]]] Reims punika kitha ingkang dipunyasa ing sapinggiring Prancis, dumunung ing [[Île-de-France]], caket kaliyan nagara [[Bèlgi]], [[Luksemburg]] lan [[Jerman]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims2">{{cite web |url=https://maps.google.com/maps?hl=id&client=firefox-beta&ie=UTF-8&q=Location+Reims+City&fb=1&hq=Location&hnear=0x47e974334a533b09:0x40a5fb99a3b45c0,Reims,+Prancis&ei=UnVZUe-nGM_trQewm4CYBw&ved=0COUBEMgT |title=''Location Reims City'' |author= maps.google.com |year= |publisher=maps.google.com |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> Transportasi kapisan ing Reims dipundamel taun [[1872]], dipundamel kalih lajur [[dalan|margi]], saking arah [[lor|lèr]]-[[kidul]] lan [[wétan]]-[[kulon|kilèn]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims8"/> Awit suksésipun damel margi punika saged nuwuhaken pambikaan margi-margi sanèsipun ing Kitha Reims.<ref name="Chafid-Reims8"/> Nanging, awit taun [[1881]] lan saterasipun, margi kalih lajur kalawau dipunwiyaraken malih dados sekawan lajur.<ref name="Chafid-Reims8"/> Panambahan punika dipun-ginakaken kanggé margi transportasi [[trèm]] [[jaran|turangga]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims8"/> Ing kawitanipun abad angka 20, ing Reims dipundamel [[Ril sepur|ril]] kanggé trèm [[listrik]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims8"/> Nalika [[Perang Donya I|Perang Donya Kapisan]], margi trèm punika risak, lan jaringan transportasi kalawau dipunyasa malih ing taun [[1920]]-an.<ref name="Chafid-Reims8"/> [[Bis]] pisanan wonten ing Kitha Reims nalika taun 1932, ingkang salajengipun saged ngirangi pangginaan trèm.<ref name="Chafid-Reims8"/> Trèm ingkang pungkasan dipun-ginakaken taun [[1939]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims8">{{cite web |url=http://www.lunion.presse.fr/article/autres-actus/petite-histoire-des-transports-en-commun-a-reims |title=''Petite histoire des transports en commun à Reims'' |author= lunion.presse.fr |year= |publisher=lunion.presse.fr|access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> Wekdal taun [[1952]], perusahaan [[transportasi]] éwah status dados Reims Perkotaan.<ref name="Chafid-Reims9"/> Jaringan transportasi dados ageng malih ing taun [[1975]] ing sadaya kitha ing dhistrik Reims; [[Bétheny Bezannes Cormontreuil]], [[Saint-Brice-Courcelles]] lan Reims.<ref name="Chafid-Reims9"/> Reims ugi wiwit ngginakaken bis lan modérnisasi jaringan.<ref name="Chafid-Reims9"/> Sasampunipun prakawis pangginaan trèm kapisan taun [[1980]] boten kasil, taun [[2011]] transportasi [[trèm]] dipunaktifaken malih ing Reims.<ref name="Chafid-Reims9"/> Panjang rute-nipun 11,2&nbsp;km lan dipunjangkepi kanthi 23 stasiun.<ref name="Chafid-Reims9">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-reims.fr/fr/deplacements/les-transports-en-commun/index.html |title=''Les transports en commun: une compétence de Reims Métropole'' |author= ville-reims.fr |year= |publisher=ville-reims.fr|access-date=1 April 2013|archiveurl=https://archive.is/B1R0|archivedate=2012-09-14}}</ref> === Transportasi Sepur === Wonten tigang stasiun ingkang wonten ing Kitha Reims.<ref name="Chafid-Reims11"/> [[Stasiun sepur]] ingkang utami punika stasiun paling sepuh.<ref name="Chafid-Reims11">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://photoenligne3.free.fr/Marne/Reims/Gare/GareReims.html |title=''Gare de Reims'' |author= photoenligne3.free.fr |year= |publisher=photoenligne3.free.fr|access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> [[Stasiun sepur]] kapisan dipunyasa taun 1877.<ref name="Chafid-Reims11"/> Sapunika dipunlayani ''TER Champagne-Ardenne'' lan ''TER Picardie''.<ref name="Chafid-Reims10"/> Kitha tujuan [[sepur]] kados kitha: [[Amiens]], [[Cambrai]], [[Chalons-en-Champagne]], [[Charleville-Mézières]], [[Château-Thierry]], [[Dijon]], [[Epernay]], [[La Ferte-Milon]], [[Métz]] lan [[Sédan]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims10"/> Sepur TGV ugi mandheg ing stasiun TGV Champagne-Ardenne ingkang mapan ing Kitha [[Bezannes]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims10"/> Stasiun Reims dumunung sacaketing griya sakit Reims.<ref name="Chafid-Reims10"/> Stasiun ingkang kaping tiga stasiun D'Esperey Franchet, dipunbikak ing wulan [[Oktober]] [[2009]], béaya damel stasiun D'Esperey Franchet punika ngantos 3,2 yuta euro.<ref name="Chafid-Reims10">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.rff.fr/IMG/DP-Franchet-Esperey.pdf |title=''Franchet d’Esperey, Inauguration de la halte ferroviaire le 5 octobre 2009'' |author=rff.fr |year= |publisher=rff.fr |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-date=22 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140722090557/http://www.rff.fr/IMG/DP-Franchet-Esperey.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Transportasi Dirgantara === Tanggal [[30 Oktober]] [[1908]] [[Henri Farman]], saking ''Biplan Voisin'', ndamel rintisan trasnportasi udara (dirgantara) saking kitha satunggal dhateng kitha sanèsipun, nyambungaken antawisipun kamp militér Reims [[Chalons-en-Champagne]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims12">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://aviation.maisons-champagne.com/dir.php?centre=02-histoire&menu=02 |title=''1908 / 1er voyage en avion d’une ville à une autre '' |author=aviation.maisons-champagne.com |year= |publisher=aviation.maisons-champagne.com |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-date=25 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625120251/http://aviation.maisons-champagne.com/dir.php?centre=02-histoire |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ing abad angka 20 dipunyasa papan anggegana sipil kapisan ing Reims.<ref name="Chafid-Reims13"/> Papan anggegana punika dipuntutup tanggal [[30 Juni]] [[2006]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims13">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=www.reims.cci.fr/IMG/pdf/dossier092006.pdf |title=''Une histoire chaotique'' |author= eims.cci.fr |year= |publishereims.cci.fr|access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> Reims taksih gadhah satunggal papan anggegana, inggih punika [[Papan Anggegana Prunay]] ingkang manggén ing sisih [[wétan-kidul]] Kitha Reims.<ref name="Chafid-Reims14">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.reims.cci.fr/se-developper/aerodrome-reims-prunay/aerodrome-reims-prunay-article12268.html |title=''Aéroport Reims-en-Champagne'' |author=reims.cci.fr |year= |5=publishereims:reims.cci.fr |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-date=7 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507075336/http://www.reims.cci.fr/se-developper/aerodrome-reims-prunay/aerodrome-reims-prunay-article12268.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Prakawis Pambangunan == [[Gambar:Jaca (1).jpg|250px|thumb|right|Satunggaling griya kanthi taman ing Kitha Reims]] Kitha Reims gadhah rencana ngembangaken prakawis pambangunan kanthi nglibataken tigang perusahaan [[arsitèktur]] ([[Christian Devillers]], [[Bruno Fortier]] lan [[Philippe Panerai]]).<ref name="Internet7"/> Pambangunan kutha Reims dipunrembag ing [[Dhéwan Pangembangan Laladan Reims]] kanthi pambiyantu tigang perusahaan arsitèktur kasebat ing manéka warni prakawis (perencanaan kutha, [[ékonomi]], [[Omah|griya]], [[pendhidhikan]], lan [[transportasi]]).<ref name="Internet7">{{cite web |url=http://www.reims2020.fr/ |title=''le site Reims 2020'' |author=le site Reims 2020 |year= |publisher=le site Reims 2020 |access-date=29 Maret 2013 |archive-date=2013-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404100231/http://reims2020.fr/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Parencanaan pembangunan Reims taun 2020 dipunrencanakaken badhé nambah wiyaripun margi lan papan-papan sanèsipun kados [[taman]], [[kebon]], lan [[gréja]].<ref name="Pembangunan">{{cite web |url=http://www.reims-online.fr/ |title=''Discover the city of Reims'' |author=reims-online.fr |year= |publisher=reims-online.fr |access-date=5 April 2013 |archive-date=29 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329064712/http://www.reims-online.fr/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ngéngingi cacahipun griya ing Kitha Reims taun 2007 wonten 95.408, kapérang saking 88.421 griya utami, 957 griya cadhangan, lan 6.030 griya kothong.<ref name="Griya Reims">{{cite web |url=http://www.map-france.com/Reims-51100/ |title=''City of Reims'' |author= map-france.com |year= |publisher=map-france.com |access-date=15 April 2013}}</ref> * Cacahipun griya ing Reims gadhah parincén: ** Ingkang gadhah griya piyambak 25,1% kanggé rata-rata nasional 55,3%; ** Ingkang nyewa punika 71,6% kanggé rata-rata nasional agengipun 39,8%; ** Ingkang gratis punika 3,3% kanggé rata-rata nasional agengipun 4,9%; * Cacahipun wangunan ing Reims dhedhasar jinis [[wewangunan]]: ** [[Omah|Griya]]: 22,3% kanggé rata-rata nasional 56,8%; ** Apartemén: 74,4% kanggé rata-rata nasional agengipun 40,4%;<ref name="Chafid-Reims6"/> ** Jinis-jinis [[akomodhasi]]: 3,3% kanggé rata-rata nasional 2,8%.<ref name="Chafid-Reims4">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.seloger.com/immobilier/locations/immo-reims-51/bien-appartement/ |title='' Annonces Champagne-Ardenne Marne Reims Locations Appartement'' |author= SeLoger.com |year= |publisher= SeLoger.com |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> ** Reims ugi dipunjangkepi kanthi 82 [[taman]], 14 papan wisata.<ref name="Chafid-Reims6"/> ** Amargi gadhah poténsi [[pariwisata]], ing Kitha Reims kathah wangunan hotèl.<ref name="Chafid-Reims5"/> Kinten-kinten wonten 55 [[hotèl]] lan aréa parkir ing Kutha Reims.<ref name="Chafid-Reims5">{{cite web |url=http://www.tripadvisor.com/Hotèls-g187137-Reims_Marne_Champagne_Ardenne-Hotèls.html |title=''Reims Hotèls'' |author= tripadvisor.com |year= |publisher= tripadvisor.com |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> {{clear}} == Papan Wisata == === Musiyum === [[Gambar:Reims-Musée St Rémi-02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Musiyum Saint-Remi Reims.]] Reims gadhah manéka warni [[Museum|musiyum]].<ref name="WarisanBudaya"/> Musiyum paling sepuh punika [[Musiyum Kagunan Beaux ing Reims]] ingkang dipundamel taun [[1794]].<ref name="WarisanBudaya"/> Wangunan sanèsipun kados [[Gréja]] Saint-Denis dipunyasa taun [[1908]].<ref name="WarisanBudaya"/> [[Biara]] punika taksih njagi manéka karya kagunan abad angka 15 ngantos abad angka 20.<ref name="WarisanBudaya">{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-reims.fr/fr/culture/a-visiter/musee-des-beaux-arts/index.html |title=''Musée des Beaux-arts'' |author= ville-reims.fr |year= |publisher=ville-reims.fr|access-date=13 April 2013|archiveurl=https://archive.is/HFsFs|archivedate=2013-01-07}}</ref> Wonten ugi Musiyum Kagunan ing [[Champagne-Ardenne]] ingkang nyimpen koléksi 600 karya kagunan lukisan, fotografi, gambar vidéo, lan sanès-sanèsipun.<ref name="WarisanBudaya2">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.frac-champagneardenne.org/page-le_frac_presentation-11-1.html |title=''Le frac:Presentation'' |author=frac-champagneardenne.org |year= |publisher=frac-champagneardenne.org |access-date=13 April 2013 |archive-date=12 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712085632/http://frac-champagneardenne.org/page-le_frac_presentation-11-1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Musiyum Vergeur satunggalipun musiyum sepuh ing Reims.<ref name="WarisanBudaya3"/> Musiyum Vergeur gadhah koléksi awit abad angka 20, 50 koléksi lukisan karya [[Albert Durer]], karya saking [[Asia]] abad angka 19 ingkang dipunkempalaken [[Hugues Krafft]].<ref name="WarisanBudaya3">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-reims.fr/fr/culture/a-visiter/musee-le-vergeur/index.html |title=''Musée Le Vergeur'' |author=ville-reims.fr |year= |publisher=ville-reims.fr|accessdate=13April |accessyear=2013|archiveurl=https://archive.is/l9Gnh|archivedate=2013-02-17}}</ref> [[Musiyum Saint-Remi Reims]], satunggalipun musiyum ingkang nyimpen koléksi sajarah lan arkéologi saking Reims.<ref name="WarisanBudaya4">{{fr}}{{cite web|url=http://xxi.ac-reims.fr/hist-geo-gallery/index.php?/category/67|title=''Ressources photographiques champardennaises''|author=xxi.ac-reims.fr|year=|publisher=xxi.ac-reims.fr|access-date=18 April 2013}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Musiyum Saint-Remi ing Reims mapan caket kaliyan [[Katedral Réims|Katedral Reims]].<ref name="WarisanBudaya5"/> Ing musiyum Saint-Remi dipunsimpen koléksi tilaranipun [[Charles X]].<ref name="WarisanBudaya5">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-reims.fr/fr/culture/a-visiter/palais-du-tau/index.html |title=''Palais du Tau'' |author=ville-reims.fr|year= |publisher=ville-reims.fr|access-date=18 April 2013|archiveurl=https://archive.is/Dba5r|archivedate=2013-02-13}}</ref> {{clear}} === Wisata Situs Warisan Donya Reims === Ing taun [[1991]] Kitha Reims dipunpilih minangka kitha warisan donya déning [[UNESCO]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims3"/> Bilih wangunan ing Reims ingkang mlebet warisan donya inggih punika: * [[Katedral Réims|Katedral Reims]], satunggalipun karya [[arsitéktur]] [[Gothic]] ingkang dipunyasa ing abad-13.<ref name="Chafid-Reims3"/> [[Katedral]] punika misuwur amargi dipunanggé kanggé jumenengan raja-raja Prancis.<ref name="Chafid-Reims3"/> Ing katerdal punika wonten [[menara]] ingkang inggilipun 81 [[mèter]] lan wiyaripun 150 mèter.<ref name="Chafid-Reims6"/> * [[Pura Tau ing Reims]], sadèrèngipun kanggé [[pura]] [[biskop]] agung.<ref name="Chafid-Reims3"/> Gedhung punika gadhah kolési [[reca]] ingkang taksih dipunjagi kanthi saé.<ref name="Chafid-Reims3"/> * [[Basilika Saint-Remi ing Reims]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims3">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-reims.fr/index.php?id=889 |title=''UNESCO World Heritage in Reims'' |author= ville-reims.fr |year= |publisher=ville-reims.fr |access-date=22 April 2013|archiveurl=https://archive.is/oWPia|archivedate=2013-07-02}}</ref> <gallery caption="Situs Warisan Donya ing Reims"> Gambar:Notre Dame de Reims - détail haut.JPG|[[Katedral Réims|Katedral Reims]] Gambar:Palais du Tau et cathédrale.jpg|Pura Tau ing Reims Gambar:Façade Basilique Saint-Remi Reims 130208.jpg|Basilika Saint-Remi ing Reims </gallery> === Wisata musik === Kitha Reims awit taun [[1994]] gadhah wangunan mligi dipun-ginakaken kanggé giyaran [[musik]].<ref name="Reims lan musik"/> Wangunan punika ugi dipun-ginakaken kanggé sinau babagan musik, [[jogèd]], lan [[téater]].<ref name="Reims lan musik"/> Paling boten wonten 100 konsér ing saben taunipun.<ref name="Reims lan musik"/> Reims gadhah kalih wangunan auditorium kanthi 400 kursi ugi dipunjangkepi kanthi piranti [[akustik]] lan studiyo [[dansa]].<ref name="Reims lan musik">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.crr-reims.fr/etablissement/presentation/index.html |title=''Un équipement remarquable'' |author=crr-reims.fr |year= |publisher=crr-reims.fr |access-date=22 April 2013 |archive-date=20 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720145246/http://www.crr-reims.fr/etablissement/presentation/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ing Kitha Reims ugi wonten panggénan gedhong ''centre national de création musicale'' utawi gedhong musik nasional ingkang wiyaripun 500 m2.<ref name="Reims lan musik2"/> Piranti musik ing wangunan punika kalebet salah satunggalipun piranti musik ingkang saé piyambak ing [[Prancis]] lan [[Éropa]].<ref name="Reims lan musik2">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.culture.gouv.fr/champagne-ardenne/3documentation/nav2_cesare_inauguration.html |title=''centre national de création musicale'' |author= culture.gouv.frculture.gouv.fr |year= |publisher=cculture.gouv.fr |access-date=22 April 2013}}</ref> Tanggal [[25 Fèbruari]] [[2005]] ing Kutha Reims dipunyasa [[La Cartonnerie]] kanthi wiyar 4.000 m2.<ref name="Reims lan musik3"/> Wangunan punika dipun-ginakaken kanggé giyaran [[musik kontemporér]].<ref name="Reims lan musik3">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.evene.fr/culture/lieux/la-cartonnerie-1800.php |title=''La Cartonnerie '' |author=evene.fr |year= |publisher=evene.fr |access-date=22 April 2013 }}{{Pranala mati|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ing La Cartonnerie saben taunipun dipungiyaraken manéka konsér ngantos 80 konsér musik ([[rock]], [[hip-hop]], [[éléktro]], lan sanèsipun).<ref name="Reims lan musik4">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.cartonnerie.fr/web/presentation |title=''la Cartonnerie Scène de Musiques Actuelles '' |author= cartonnerie.fr |year= |publisher=cartonnerie.fr |access-date=22 April 2013}}</ref> === Wisata sanès === Ing Kitha Reims wonten wangunan pabukon ingkang cacahipun wonten pitu lan mapan sacaketipun [[Katedral Réims|Katedral Reims]].<ref name="Wewangunan sanès3"/> Salah satunggalipun, [[Perpustakaan Jean-Falala]] ingkang dipunbikak 14 Mèi [[2003]] gadhah wiyar 6500m² lan dipunbikak kanggé bebrayan umum.<ref name="Wewangunan sanès3">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.bm-reims.fr/medias/medias.aspx?INSTANCE=EXPLOITATION |title=''Bibliobus et Médiathèque Croix-Rouge'' |author=bm-reims.frm |year= |publisher=bm-reims.fr |access-date=22 April 2013 |archive-date=1 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501070237/http://www.bm-reims.fr/medias/medias.aspx?INSTANCE=EXPLOITATION |url-status=dead }}</ref> Reims ugi gadhah Perpustakaan Carnegie, kalebet pabukon Kitha Reims ingkang dipunyasa kanggé panaliten.<ref name="Perpus"/> Dipunwangun taun 1921 lan dipunresmékaken tanggal [[10 Juni]] [[1928]] déning Présidhén [[Gaston Doumergue]].<ref name="Perpus">{{fr}{{cite web |url=http://www.reims-online.fr/lieux.html |title=''Carnegie Library'' |author=reims-online.fr |year=2013 |publisher=reims-online.fr |access-date=22 April 2013 |archive-date=4 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404142714/http://www.reims-online.fr/lieux.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wangunan ''Opera House'' utawi [[Gedhung Opera Reims]] ingkang dipunyasa déning [[arsitèk]] Reims [[Alphonse Gosset]] lan dipunresmékaken ing taun 1873.<ref name="Wewangunan sanès2"/> Sasampunipun risak ing wulan [[September|Septémber]] [[1914]] amargi [[Perang Donya I]], wangunan punika dipunyasa malih taun 1931 kanthi dipunpandhégani [[arsitèk]] [[Mesh Sollier]].<ref name="Wewangunan sanès2"/> Gedhung Opera punika ngandhut kagunan wangunan gaya [[Art Deco]] kas saking [[Italia]].<ref name="Wewangunan sanès2">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.operadereims.com/Historique,6?lang=fr |title=''Historique'' |author=operadereims.com |year= |publisher=operadereims.com |access-date=22 April 2013 |archive-date=1 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601095914/http://www.operadereims.com/Historique,6?lang=fr |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wonten wangunan punjering/''pusat'' budaya Reims, inggih punika [[Gedhung Punjering Budaya Saint-Exupéry]].<ref name="Wewangunan sanès1"/> Gedhung awujud aula punika dipundamel kanggé partisipasi ing pangembangan budaya Reims.<ref name="Wewangunan sanès1">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.saintex-reims.com/info.php |title=''présentation • adhésion • plan • l'équipe'' |author= Centre culturel Saint-Exupéry |year= |publisher=Centre culturel Saint-Exupéry|access-date=22 April 2013}}</ref> <gallery caption="[[Wewangunan]] ing Reims"> Gambar:Reims Cinéma Opéra 2.jpg|Gedhung Opera Reims Gambar:Statue de Jeanne d'Arc 2.jpg|Patung Joan of Arc ing Place du Cardinal Luzon Gambar:Reims Fontaine Subé 2.jpg|Wangunan d'Erlon Gambar:Place Royale 2.jpg|Gedhung Royalé Gambar:Galerie galo-romaine de la Place du Forum.jpg|Wangunan tilaranipun Romawi-Gallo </gallery> == Papan Ibadah ing Reims == === Ibadah Katulik === * [[Katedral Notre-Dame Reims]].<ref name="Katulik">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.notredamedeparis.fr/spip.php?rubrique2 |title=''Cathédrale Notre-Dame'' |author=Cathédrale Notre-Dame |year= |publisher=notredamedeparis.frm |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=29 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329132953/http://www.notredamedeparis.fr/spip.php?rubrique2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Gréja]] St Jacques de Reims.<ref name="Katolik2">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.courrier-picard.fr/region/le-demontage-de-l-eglise-saint-jacques-durera-trois-mois-ia174b0n11700 |title=''Le démontage de l'église Saint-Jacques durera trois mois '' |author= Par Courrier picard |year= |publisher=courrier-picard.fr |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> * Basilika Saint-remi.<ref name="Katolik3">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.reims-tourisme.com/basilique-saint-remi/commune/tabid/12543/offreid/eb6990b1-5311-4f7f-ac4d-3c875fb6e078/patrimoine-unesco.aspx |title=''BASILIQUE SAINT-REMI'' |author=reims-tourisme.com |year= |publisher=reims-tourisme.com |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=6 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130206093139/http://www.reims-tourisme.com/basilique-saint-remi/commune/tabid/12543/offreid/eb6990b1-5311-4f7f-ac4d-3c875fb6e078/patrimoine-unesco.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Gréja Saint Andre Maurice.<ref name="Katolik4">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.eglisestandre.fr/ |title=''Saint André de SAINT-MAURICE'' |author=eglisestandre.fr |year= |publisher=eglisestandre.fr|access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> * Gréja Saint-Laurent.<ref name="Katolik5">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.imtl.org/edifices/eglise-Saint-Laurent.php |title=''Église Saint-Laurent, images'' |author=imtl.org |year= |publisher=imtl.org |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=13 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313051553/http://imtl.org/edifices/eglise-Saint-Laurent.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Gréja Saint-Andre.<ref name="Katolik6">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://saintandrereims.com/ |title='' Vivre la semaine Sainte '' |author=saintandrereims.com |year= |publisher=saintandrereims.com|access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> * Kapel Notre-Dame-de-la-Paix utawi Kapel Foujita.<ref name="Katolik7">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.panoramio.com/photo/14411490 |title=''Reims: Chapelle Notre dame de la paix dite "chapelle Foujita"'' |author=panoramio.com |year= |publisher=panoramio.com |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> * [[Basilika Sainte-Clotilde ing Reims]].<ref name="Katolik8">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.reims-tourisme.com/tabid/12542/OffreId/c345c71f-20c3-4047-a62b-dbc0cdc35aee/Default.aspx |title=''BASILIQUE SAINTE-CLOTILDE'' |author=reims-tourisme.com |year= |publisher=reims-tourisme.com |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=19 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919024251/http://www.reims-tourisme.com/tabid/12542/OffreId/c345c71f-20c3-4047-a62b-dbc0cdc35aee/Default.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Gréja Sante-Geneviève.<ref name="Katolik9">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.jds.fr/mulhouse/eglise/eglise-sainte-genevieve-7857_L |title=''Eglise Sainte-Geneviève-Mulhouse'' |author=jds.fr |year= |publisher=jds.fr |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> * Gréja Saint-Louis.<ref name="Katolik10">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://fr.nomao.com/1588414.html |title=''Eglise Saint Louis– Reims'' |author=fr.nomao.com |year= |publisher=fr.nomao.com |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=22 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822221424/http://fr.nomao.com/1588414.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Gréja Saint—Jean-Marie-Vianney.<ref name="Katolik11">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://fr.nomao.com/15539538.html |title=''Presbytère Saint Jean Marie Vianney'' |author=fr.nomao.com |year= |publisher=fr.nomao.com |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=10 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110182213/http://fr.nomao.com/15539538.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Gréja Saint-François d'Assise.<ref name="Katolik12">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://egliseinfo.catholique.fr/lieu/51/reims/saint-francois-d-assise |title=''Saint François d'Assise - 51100 REIMS'' |author=egliseinfo.catholique.fr |year= |publisher=egliseinfo.catholique.fr |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> * Gréja Saint-Nicaise.<ref name="Katolik13">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://catholique-reims.cef.fr/spip.php?rubrique214&lang=fr |title=''EGLISE ST-NICAISE'' |author=M. Paul |year= |publisher=catholique-reims.cef.fr |access-date=4 April 2013 }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * Gréja Saint-Vincent de Paul.<ref name="Katolik14">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.flaneriesreims.com/l-39-eglise-saint-vincent-de-paul-flaneries-musicales-de-reims.html |title=''Eglise Saint-Vincent de Paul'' |author=flaneriesreims.com |year= |publisher=flaneriesreims.com |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=3 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703185136/http://flaneriesreims.com/l-39-eglise-saint-vincent-de-paul-flaneries-musicales-de-reims.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Gréja Saint Jean Baptiste.<ref name="Katolik15">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.concertandco.com/lieu/eglise-st-jean-baptiste-reims/salle-concert-14467.htm |title=''Lieu: Eglise St Jean Baptiste-Reims'' |author=concertandco.com |year= |publisher=concertandco.com|access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> * Gréja Saint-Thomas.<ref name="Katolik16">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://annuaire.118712.fr/Marne-51/Reims-51100/Eglise-saint-thomas-0326474419_9X0040C00005T90500V20890S |title=''Eglise Saint-Thomas'' |author=annuaire.118712.f |year= |publisher=annuaire.118712.f |access-date=4 April 2013 |archive-date=13 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213063204/http://annuaire.118712.fr/Marne-51/Reims-51100/Eglise-saint-thomas-0326474419_9X0040C00005T90500V20890S |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Ibadah Yahudi === * [[Sinagog]] Reims ([[1879]]).<ref name="Yahudi">{{cite web |url=http://www.kosherdelight.com/FranceSynagoguesReims.htm |title=''SYNAGOGUES IN REIMS, FRANCE:'' |author= kosherdelight.com |year= |publisher=kosherdelight.com |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> === Ibadah Islam === * [[Masjid]] El-Mansour, ing [[Sainte-Thérèse]].<ref name="muslim">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.annuaire-musulman.com/view.php?id=317&cat=78&page=1 |title=''Mosquée EL-MANSOUR '' |author= Comité de Gestion de la Mosquée El-Mansour |year= |publisher=annuaire-musulman.com |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> * Masjid Reims, ing [[Charles Roche]].<ref name="muslim2">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.guidemusulman.com/mosquee/834/51100-mosquee-a-reims |title=''Mosquée à Reims'' |author= guidemusulman.com |year= |publisher=guidemusulman.com |access-date=4 April 2013}}</ref> <gallery caption="Papan ngibadah ing Reims"> Gambar:Cathedral Notre-Dame de Reims, France-PerCorr.jpg|Katedral Notre-Dame Gambar:Saint maurice façade002.JPG|Gréja Saint Maurcie Gambar:Reims (51) Basilique Sainte-Clotilde 5.jpg|Basilika Sainte-Clotilde ing Reims Gambar:Synagogue Reims.JPG|Sinagog Reims Gambar:Chapelle ste-croix 006.JPG|Kapel Sainte-Croix </gallery> == [[Ombèn-ombèn|Unjukan]] lan [[pangan|Kulinér]] == [[Gambar:Veuve clicquot bottle sizes.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sampanye, unjukan kas Kutha Reims]] [[Gambar:3 Biscuit rose de Reims.jpg|thumb|right|200px|biskuit Abrit-Eném, kulinér saking Reims]] Reims gadhah prodhuk pinunjul saking wewengkon [[Ardenne]].<ref name="Internet26"/> Saking Ardenne dipunasilaken [[sampanye]] ingkang sampun misuwur lan kalebet sumbering [[ékonomi]] Reims.<ref name="Internet26"/> Sanajan ing Reims namung wonten sakedhik kebon [[anggur]], namung 50 hèktar kémawon.<ref name="Internet26"/> Sampanye punika dipunékspor ing saben taunipun 80 yuta [[botol]].<ref name="Internet26">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.lunion.presse.fr/article/a-la-une/dossier-special-quelle-est-la-capitale-du-champagne |title=''DOSSIER SPÉCIAL / Quelle est la capitale du Champagne ?'' |author= lunion.presse.fr |year= |publisher=lunion.presse.fr |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> Déné perusahaan ingkang ngasilaken Sampanye ing Reims inggih punika:''Henri Abele'', ''Boizel-Canon-Lanson-Bruno Paillard'', ''Charles De Cazanove'', ''GH Martel'', ''GH Mumm'', ''Henriot'', ''Krug'', ''Louis Roederer'', ''Piper-Heidsieck'', ''Charles Heidsieck'', ''Ruinart'', ''Taittinger-Irroy'', ''Veuve Clicquot'', lan ''Vranken-Pommery''.<ref name="Internet26"/> Ing Kitha Reims dipunyasa gedhong utawi lembaga mligi kanggé maméran prodhuk-prodhuk sampanye.<ref name="Internet26"/> Déné jinisipun sampanye ingkang dipunasilaken punika sampanye warni [[abang|abrit]], [[putih|pethak]], lan warni sekar [[mawar]].<ref name="Internet27"/> Sampanye punika dipunékspor ing saben taunipun 80 yuta [[botol]].<ref name="Internet26"/> [[pangan|Dhaharan]] kas (kulinér) sanèsipun punika sajinis [[roti]] ingkang nama [[biskuit Abrit-Eném saking Reims]].<ref name="Chafid-Reims6"/> Roti punika dipundamel kapisanan ing taun 1691 déning tukang damel roti ing Reims.<ref name="Internet27"/> Biskuit Abrit-Eném saking Reims dipundamel kanthi campuran [[vanili]].<ref name="Internet27"/> Sampun dados adat ing Reims dhaharan roti/biskuit punika dipundhahar kanthi cara dipuncemplungaken ing sampanye.<ref name="Internet27">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.fossier.fr/histoire_du_biscuit_rose.php |title=''Histoire du Biscuit Rose.'' |author=Biscuits Fossier |year= |publisher=Biscuits Fossier |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-date=13 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513200736/http://www.fossier.fr/histoire_du_biscuit_rose.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> Roti tradisi Reims kathahipun dipunwedalaken ing [[Omah Fossier|Griya Fossier]] ingkang mrodhuksi 50%.<ref name="Internet28">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.crdp-reims.fr/polegout/patrimoine_ca/biscuit_rose.pdf |title=''le site Reims 2020'' |author=LE BISCUIT ROSE |year= |publisher=LE BISCUIT ROSE |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201173604/http://www.cndp.fr/crdp-reims/polegout/patrimoine_ca/biscuit_rose.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dhaharan kas Reims punika sampun dados tradisi awit abad parotengah.<ref name="Internet29">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.fossier.fr/croquignoles_c3.html |title=''croquignoles'' |author=croquignoles |year= |publisher=LE BISCUIT ROSE |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-date=21 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521173537/http://www.fossier.fr/croquignoles_c3.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sanèsipun Biskuit Abrit-Eném ugi wonten [[Roti jaé saking Reims|Roti jaé]].<ref name="Internet30"/> Prodhuksi roti [[jaé]] ing Reims sampun wonten awit abad angka 16.<ref name="Internet30"/> Ing wekdal samanten roti dipunwedalaken piyambak-piyambak.<ref name="Internet30"/> Roti Jaé misuwur ing taun [[1783]] ngangos gadhah jejuluk "roti paling kinurmatan".<ref name="Internet30"/> Roti jaé dipundamel saking adhonan [[glepung]] [[gandum]], [[madu]], [[kayu legi]], lan [[jaé]].<ref name="Internet30">{{cite web |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/pharm_0035-2349_1932_num_20_77_9952_t1_0009_0000_3 |title=''Pol Gosset, Le pain d'épice de Reims in Bulletin du Comité du Folklore Champenois'' |author= Ministry of State for Higher Education and Research |year= |publisher= Ministry of State for Higher Education and Research |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> == Kitha Kembar == Reims gadhah [[kitha kembar]], kados kutha: * [[Florence]], [[Italia]] ([[1954]]); * [[Brazzaville]], [[Républik Kongo]] ([[1961]]); * [[Salzburg]], [[Ostenrik]] ([[1964]]); * [[Canterburi]], [[Inggris]] ([[1962]]); * [[Aachen]], [[Jerman]] ([[1967]]); * [[Arlington]]<ref name="Kutha Kembar2">{{cite web |url=http://www.arlingtonsistercity.org/cities/default.aspx?pageID=11 |title=''Reims, France '' |author= arlingtonsistercity.org |year= |publisher=arlingtonsistercity.org|access-date=3 April 2013}}</ref>, [[Virginia]], [[Amérikah Sarékat]] ([[2005]]).<ref name="Kutha Kembar">{{cite web |url=http://www.ville-reims.fr/index.php?id=999 |title=''Towns twin with Reims'' |author= ville-reims.fr |year= |publisher=ville-reims.fr |access-date=3 April 2013|archiveurl=https://archive.is/oO4j4|archivedate=2013-07-02}}</ref> == Tiyang Misuwur == [[Gambar:Robert Pires1.JPG|thumb|right|180px|[[Robert Pirès]], pemain bal saking Reims]] Reims gadhah [[Manungsa|tokoh]] utawi tiyang-tiyang misuwur, kados kaserat ing ngandhap punika: * [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]] (1619–1683), njabat [[mantri]] [[Prancis]] 1665-1683 ing pamaréntahan Raja [[Louis XIV saka Prancis|Louis XIV]].<ref name="Internet22">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/124928/Jean-Baptiste-Colbert |title=''Jean-Baptiste Colbert '' |author= britannica.com |year= |publisher=britannica.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> * [[Jean-Baptiste de la Salle]] (1651–1719), ilmuwan [[Katulik]].<ref name="Internet20">{{cite web |url=http://www.jeanbaptistedelasalle.com/ |title=''Jean-Baptiste de La Salle'' |author=jeanbaptistedelasalle.com |year= |publisher=jeanbaptistedelasalle.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013 |archive-date=2013-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403041128/http://www.jeanbaptistedelasalle.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Nicolas de Grigny]] (1672–1703), [[komposer]].<ref name="Internet19">{{cite web |url=http://www.choeurnicolasdegrigny.com/ |title=''Nicolas de Grigny '' |author=choeurnicolasdegrigny.com |year= |publisher=choeurnicolasdegrigny.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013 |archive-date=2013-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529150729/http://choeurnicolasdegrigny.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Count d'Erlon]] (1765–1844), [[marshal Prancis]] lan [[prajurit]] [[Napoleon]].<ref name="Internet18">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/171901/Jean-Baptiste-Drouet-count-dErlon |title=''Jean-Baptiste Drouet, count d’Erlon'' |author= britannica.com |year= |publisher=britannica.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> * [[Nicolas Eugène Géruzez]] (1799–1865), [[kritikus]].<ref name="Internet17">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/encyclopedia/g/nicolas_eugene_geruzez.html |title=''Nicolas Eugene Geruzez '' |author= Nicolas Eugene Geruzez |year= |publisher=wiki.answers.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> * [[Adolphe d'Archiac]] (1802–1868), [[geolog]] lan [[paleontolog]].<ref name="Internet16">{{cite web |url=http://wiki.answers.com/Q/When_did_Adolphe_d%27Archiac_die |title=''When did Adolphe d'Archiac die?'' |author= wiki.answers.com |year= |publisher=wiki.answers.com |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> * [[Henri Marteau]] (1874–1934), komposer.<ref name="Internet15">{{cite web |url=http://www.violinwettbewerb-marteau.de/index.php?id=henri_marteau&L=1 |title=''Henri Marteau (1874 - 1934)'' |author=violinwettbewerb-marteau.de |year= |publisher=violinwettbewerb-marteau.de |access-date=29 Maret 2013 }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * [[Maurice Halbwachs]] (1877–1945), [[filosof]].<ref name="Internet14">{{cite web |url=http://www.academia.edu/1437974/Book_Critique_of_Maurice_Halbwachs_On_Collective_Memory_ |title=''Book Critique of Maurice Halbwachs On Collective_Memory'' |author= academia.edu |year= |publisher=academia.edu |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> * [[Roger Caillois]] (1913–1978), [[intellek]].<ref name="Internet13">{{cite web |url=http://www.amazon.com/Roger-Caillois/e/B001IR3CRC |title=''Roger Caillois'' |author= amazon |year= |publisher=amazon |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> * [[Jean Baudrillard]] ([[1929]]–[[2007]]), [[filosof]].<ref name="Internet12">{{cite web |url=http://www.egs.edu/faculty/jean-baudrillard/biography/ |title=''Jean Baudrillard-Biography'' |author= egs.edu |year= |publisher=egs.edu |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> * [[Patrick Poivre d'Arvor]] (miyos [[1947]]), panyerat lan [[wartawan]].<ref name="Internet11">{{cite web |url=http://www.purepeople.com/people/patrick-poivre-d-arvor_p158 |title=''Patrick Poivre d'Arvor'' |author= purepeople |year= |publisher=purepeople |access-date=29 Maret 2013}}</ref> * [[Robert Pirès]] (miyos [[1973]]), Pemain [[bal-balan]].<ref name="Internet10">{{cite web |url=http://www.premierleague.com/en-gb/players/profile.overview.html/robert-pires |title=''Robert Pires'' |author=premierleague |year= |publisher=premierleague |access-date=29 Maret 2013 }}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Logo Reims == {|width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable" |-valign="top" |align="center" style="padding:8px"|[[Gambar:Blason Reims 51.svg|100px|alt=Blason de Reims]] |width="100%" style="padding:8px"|'''Reims''' * '' Kalih karangan [[kembang|sekar]] kanthi pikajeng: "Allah wonten ing salebeting batos".''<ref name="Lambang">{{fr}}{{cite web |url=http://www.euraldic.com/txt_vbh013_reims.html |title=''REIMS'' |author=euraldic.com |year= |publisher=euraldic.com |access-date=15 April 2013 }}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |} {{Clr}} == Cathetan suku == {{reflist|2}} == Pranala njawi == {{Commons|Reims}} {{Wikivoyage|Reims}} * {{fr}}[http://www.reims2020.fr/ ''Website Reims 2020''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404100231/http://reims2020.fr/ |date=2013-04-04 }} * {{fr}}[http://www.ville-reims.fr/ ''Website resmi Reims] [[Kategori:Artikel mawa basa krama]] [[Kategori:Kutha ing Prancis]] 63cc162zu34efhiffizzpz2pdu87cfa Alfred Kastler 0 99521 1753026 1615250 2026-08-20T08:26:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753026 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Scientist |name = Alfred Kastler |image = Kastler.jpg |imagesize = 160px |caption = Alfred Kastler |birth_date = [[3 Mèi]], [[1902]] |birth_place = [[Gambar:Flag of France.svg|18px|France]] [[Guebwiller]], [[Haut-Rhin]], [[Prancis]] |death_date = [[7 Januari]], [[1984]] |death_place = [[Bandol]], [[Var (departemen)|Var]], [[Prancis]] |nationality = [[Gambar:Flag of France.svg|18px|France]] [[Prancis]] |field = [[Fisika]] |work_institutions = |alma_mater = |doctoral_advisor = |doctoral_students = |known_for = |influences = |influenced = |prizes = [[Pratélan penerima Nobel Fisika|Nobel babagan Fisika]] (1966) }} '''Alfred Kastler''' ({{lahirmati|[[Guebwiller]], [[Haut-Rhin]], [[Prancis]]|3|5|1902|[[Bandol]], [[Var (departemen)|Var]], [[Prancis]]|7|1|1984}}) inggih punika [[fisika]]wan asal [[Prancis]] saking katurunan [[Jerman]], nalika taun [[1966]] namanipun Alfred Kastler kaserat wonten ing [[Pratélan panerima Nobel Fisika|Penghargaan Nobel babagan Fisika]].<ref name=laureat_nobel_1966>{{Lien web Nobel |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1966/ |titre=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1966 |auteur=Personnel de rédaction |année= 2010 |éditeur=[[Fondation Nobel]] |citation=for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms |consulté le= 18 juin 2010}}</ref> Kastler punika nimba kawruh wonten ing [[Lycée Bartholdi]], [[Colmar, Alsace]], sasampunipun ngulawentah saking mriku penjenenganipun nglajengaken sekolah ing [[École Normale Supérieure]] [[Paris]] taun 1921.<ref name="sinau">{{cite journal |author=Kastler A |title=Optical Methods for Studying Hertzian Resonances |journal=Science |volume=158 |issue=3798 |pages=214–221 |year=1967 |pmid=17839496 |doi=10.1126/science.158.3798.214 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1967-10-13_158_3798/page/214 |bibcode = 1967Sci...158..214K }}</ref> Sasampunipun ngulawentah ngantos taun 1926, penjenenganipun ngasta [[fisika]] wonten ing [[Lycée Mulhouse]], kaliyan [[Universitas Bordeaux]], wonten [[Universitas Bordeaux]] mriku penjenenganipun dados profesor universitas ngantos taun 1941.<ref name="sinau"/> Nalika taun [[1952]], [[Georges Bruhat]] nyuwun supados Alfred wangsul dhumateng [[École Normale Supérieure]], supados njabat dados profesor.<ref name="sinau"/> == Biografi == Penjenenganipun miyos wonten ing [[Guebwiller]], [[Alsace]].<ref name="fondation Kastler (Fnak)">http://www.fnak.fr/dn_Biographie/</ref> Kastler pindah dhateng [[Horbourg]] kaliyan bibipun (saking pihak ibu) supados saged sumingkir saking perang dunya.<ref name="fondation Kastler (Fnak)"/> Penjenenganipun nimba kawruh kaliyan [[Oberrealschule]] saking Colmar.<ref name="fondation Kastler (Fnak)"/> Nalika taun 1919 Kastler punika pindah saking ngèlmu fisika dhateng babagan pandhidhikan sastra (basa [[Perancis|Prancis]]), nalika taun [[1920]] penjenenganipun angsal [[Abitur]].<ref name="fondation Kastler (Fnak)"/> Panjenenganipun ugi naté mlebet ing sekolah kelas matematika mirunggan satunggal taun laminipun, 1921-1926 panjenenganipun lulus [[École Normale Supérieure]], sasampunipun lulus dipunlajengaken ngulawentah babagan ngèlmu fisika saking [[Henri Abraham]] kaliyan [[Eugene Bloch]], guru-guru punika ingkang nepangaken ngèlmu fisika atom wonten ing Fakultas Ilmu saking Universitas Paris, panjenenganipun nyinau babagan ngèlmu fisika saking [[Charles Fabry]], [[Aimé Cotton]] sarta [[Anatole Leduc]] nalika taun 1923, ing taun punika panjenenganipun ugi angsal idin ngèlmu fisika sarta ngèlmu matematika.<ref name="fondation Kastler (Fnak)"/> Nalika taun 1923 ngantos taun 1924 penjenenganipun ngaso saking ''studi'' amargi kesel sarta ''depresi''.<ref name="fondation Kastler (Fnak)"/> Taun sasampunipun, panjenenganipun nyiapaken ''gelar sarjana'' dipunbimbing déning [[Georges Urbain]].<ref name="fondation Kastler (Fnak)"/> Nalika taun 1926 panjenenganipun dados profesor fisika ingkang kapisan wonten ing sekolah tinggi [[Mulhouse]] (1926-1927), [[Colmar]] (1927-1928) sarta [[Bordeaux]] (1928-1931).<ref name="alf"/> Nalika taun 1931 panjenenganipun dados asistèn [[Pierre Daure]] wonten ing [[Université de Bordeaux]], penjenenganipun mbimbing mahasiswa angsal sertifikat makarya praktek (PCN sarta PCB), taun 1936 penjenenganipun nyiapaken tesis kanggé dhoktor ngèlmu fisika wonten ing fakultas ngèlmu fisika [[Paris]]. <ref name="alf">Alfred Kastler [http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00278192/fr/ ''Recherches sur la fluorescence visible de la vapeur de mercure''] (thèse)</ref> Penjenenganipun dados pamenang [[Bebungah Nobel Fisika]] nalika taun 1966 amarga penemuan kaliyan pangembangan métodhe optik kanggé nyinaoni [[resonansi Hertz]] maring atom.<ref name="nobel 3">{{cite book | last=Nobelstiftelsen | title=Nobel Lectures, Physics 1963–1970 | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1966/kastler-bio.html | location=Amsterdam | publisher=Elsevier Publishing Company | year=1972 | isbn=0-444-40993-9 }}</ref> Penjenenganipun naté dados pimpinan dewan [[Institut d'optique théorique et appliquée]].<ref name="nobel 3"/> Kastler ugi naté nyerat gurit (ngagem basa [[Jerman]]).<ref name="nobel 3"/> Nalika taun 1979 panjenenganipun nyetak gurit mau kanthi irah-irahan ''Europe, ma patrie: Deutsche Lieder eines französischen Europäers'' (''Europe, my fatherland: German songs of a French European'').<ref name="nobel 3"/> ==Laboratoire Kastler-Brossel== [[Gambar:Alfred Kastler French physicist.jpg|thumb|260px|Kastler ca. 1967]] Kauripanipun Profesor Kastler nalika panalitèn punika sok dipuntelasaken kanggé neliti wonten ing [[École Normale Supérieure]], Paris wonten meriku penjenenganipun laksanakaken riset cilik spektroskopi sesarengan kaliyan mahasiswanipun, Jean Brossel sasampunipun yuda/perang.<ref name="spectros">{{cite journal |author=Kastler A |title=Applications of polarimetry to infra-red and micro-wave spectroscopy |journal=Nature |volume=166 |issue=4211 |pages=113 |year=1950 |pmid=15439165 |doi= 10.1038/166113a0|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1950-07-15_166_4211/page/113 |bibcode = 1950Natur.166..113K }}</ref> Bebarengan kaliyan [[Jean Brossel]], penjenenganipun neliti [[mekanika kuantum]], interaksi wataranipun [[cahya]] kaliyan [[atom]], sarta [[spektroskopi]].<ref name="spectros"/> Kastler, nyambut damel wonten ing resonansi optik kaliyan [[resonansi magnetik]], ngembangken tèhnik "[[pompa optik]]".<ref name="spectros"/> Karya-karyanipun saged njangkepi téyori [[laser]] kaliyan [[maser]].<ref name="spectros"/> Sekawan dasa taun sasampunipun, kelompok punika sampun ngulawentah fisikawan eném ingkang saged maringi mampangat dhumateng parkembangan dunya ngèlmu [[fisika]] atom wonten ing [[Perancis|Prancis]].<ref name="spectros"/> [[Laboratoire de Spectroscopie hertzienne]] lajeng dipun-gantos namanipun dados [[Laboratoire Kastler-Brossel]] nalika taun 1994 ugi angsal pérangan wonten ing ''laboratorium'' [[Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie]] sarta angsal [[École Normale Supérieure]], sapunika dados laboratorium mliginipun. Professor Kastler tilar dunya nalika surya kaping 7 January 1984, wonten ing [[Bandol]], [[Prancis]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Dr. Alfred Kastler, 81, Nobel Prize-Winner, Dies |author= |first=Walter |last=Sullivan |author2= |author3= |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1984/01/08/obituaries/dr-alfred-kastler-81-nobel-prize-winner-dies.html |agency= |newspaper=New York Times |date=8 Januari 1984 |page= |pages= |accessdate=2010-11-06 |quote= }}</ref> Alfred Kastler ugi dados ''humanis'', ingkang remen kaliyan tata-tentrem sarta nentang senjata nuklir. Salaminipun perang wonten ing Aljazair, panjenenganipun protes amargi métodhe saking [[Comité de salut public|Comité de salut public d'Alger]] nalika taun 1958, apartemenipun dibakar déning [[Organisation armée secrète|OAS]] nalika taun 1961<ref>Histoire des sciences, Alfred Kastler: des atomes et des hommes, '''392''', Pour la Science (juin 2010), 86-89</ref>, salaminipun présidhèn ''Liga Prancis Hewan, Manusia'', sapunika karan "[[La fondation droit animal, éthique et sciences]]", dipunsebut ugi ''Prix de biologie Alfred Kastler'' (atribut penghargaan biologi Alfred Kastler) kanggé bebungah alternatif wonten ing babagan eksperimen hewan<ref>[[Georges Chapouthier]], ''Le prix Kastler de Biologie'', ''Combat Nature'', 1993, N° 103, p 49</ref>. [[Georges Chapouthier]] nalika taun 1981, panjenenganipun kaliyan [[Michael Damian]] sarta [[Jean-Claude Nouet]], nyerat babagan pembantaian gedhé-gedean, survei kritis saking pertanian intensif. Penyair, panjenenganipun saestunipun panulis gurit basa Jerman kanthi irah-irahan « Europe ma patrie-''{{lang|de|Deutsche Lieder eines französischen Europäers}}'' » dipuncetak déning [[Librairie Flinker Martin]], Paris. ==Cathetan suku== {{Reflist}} ==Ugi pirsani== * [[Pratélan pamenang bebungah Nobel]] == Pranala njawi == {{Commons category|Alfred Kastler}} * [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/alfred_kastler.html Alfred Kastler] {{Nobel Fisika}} [[Kategori:Lair 1902]] [[Kategori:Pati 1984]] [[Kategori:Fisikawan Prancis]] [[Kategori:Pamenang Bebungah Nobel fisika]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Prancis pamenang Bebungah Nobel]] {{Prancis-bio-stub}} 535gwic5qpds4xrbbpi93x2nnm3co98 Urbain Le Verrier 0 99562 1752946 1725059 2026-08-20T05:34:37Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752946 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist |name = Urbain Le Verrier |image =Urbain Le Verrier.jpg |image_size = |caption = |birth_date = {{birth date|1811|03|11|df=y}} |birth_place = [[Saint-Lô]], [[Prancis]] |death_date = {{dda|1877|09|23|1811|03|11|df=y}} |death_place = [[Paris]], [[Prancis]] |nationality = [[Prancis]] |field = [[Matematika]] |work_institutions = |alma_mater = |doctoral_advisor = |doctoral_students = |known_for = [[Penemuan Neptunus]] |author_abbrev_bot = |author_abbrev_zoo = |influences = |influenced = |prizes = |religion = |footnotes = |signature = }} '''Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier''' ({{IPA-fr|yʁbɛ̃ ʒɑ̃ ʒɔzɛf lə vɛʁje}}; {{lahirmati|[[Saint-Lô]], [[Prancis]]|11|3|1811|[[Paris]], [[Prancis]]|23|9|1877}}) inggih punika [[matematikawan]] Prancis ingkang neliti [[mekanika benda langit]], piyambakipun kawentar amargi naté tumut panalitèn ingkang kasilipun panemuan planit [[Neptunus]]. Le Verrier gadhah garwa kaliyan putra.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Urbain_Jean_Joseph_Leverrier|title=Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier|accessdate=23 November 2008|work=Encyclopaedia Britannica|publisher=LoveToKnow Classic Encyclopedia|year=1911}}</ref> Piyambakiipun séda ten [[Paris]], [[Prancis]] dipunpusarakaken wonten ing Cimetière Montparnasse. Wonten globe langit ageng ingkang dipundamel saking watu dipunyasa wonten ing inggilipun kijing. ==Panghargaan== * [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] – 1868 kaliyan 1876 * Nama [[kawah tubrukan|kawah]] wonten ing [[Le Verrier (kawah bulan)|Bulan]] kaliyan [[Mars]], [[Cincin Neptunus]], sarta [[asteroid]] [[1997 Leverrier]] * Salah satunggal saking [[72 asma ingkang dipunserat wonten ing Menara Eiffel]] ==Ugi pirsani== * [[Panemuan Neptunus]] ==Cathetan suku== {{reflist}} ==Sumber Sanes== * David Aubin, The Fading Star of the Paris Observatory in the Nineteenth Century: Astronomers' Urban Culture of Circulation and Observation. [http://www.institut.math.jussieu.fr/~daubin/publis/2003c.pdf ''Osiris''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071129105436/http://www.institut.math.jussieu.fr/~daubin/publis/2003c.pdf |date=2007-11-29 }} 18 (2003), 79–100. * {{ cite book | author=Grosser, M. | title=The Discovery of Neptune | year=1962 | publisher=Harvard University Press | isbn=0674212258 }} * Le Verrier, Urbain (1835). ''[[Annales de Chimie et de Physique]]'' (Paris) '''60''': 174 – Chemical research of Le Verrier * Fabien Locher, L’empire de l’astronome : Urbain Le Verrier, l’Ordre et le Pouvoir. [http://chrhc.revues.org/index248.html ''Cahiers d’histoire. Revue d’histoire critique'']. 102, 2007, pp.&nbsp;33–48. * Fabien Locher, ''Le Savant et la Tempête. Étudier l’atmosphère et prévoir le temps au XIXe siècle'', Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Collection « Carnot », 2008. * [[Dennis Rawlins]] (1999). Recovery of the RGO Neptune Papers. Adams' Final Prediction Missed by Over Ten Degrees. [http://www.dioi.org/vols/w91.pdf ''DIO''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025152752/http://www.dioi.org/vols/w91.pdf |date=2007-10-25 }}, '''9''' (1), pp.&nbsp;3–25. * {{cite journal | author = [[Thomas Jefferson Jackson See|See]], T. J. J. | title = Leverrier's Letter to Galle and the Discovery of Neptune | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1910-10_18_8/page/475 | journal = Popular Astronomy | year = 1910 | volume = 18 | pages = 475&ndash;476 | bibcode = 1910PA.....18..475S }} ==Pranala njaba== * [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money4.htm Le Verrier on the French 50 Franc banknote] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803223823/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money4.htm |date=2018-08-03 }} * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1859AnPar...5....1L "Theorie du Mouvement de Mercure" (195 pages, 17.6 MB)] * [http://books.google.com/books?id=fC4CAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA4-PA453&dq=leverrier&as_brr=1 Obituary] – ''Nature'', 1877, vol. 16, page 453 {{DEFAULTSORT:Le Verrier, Urbain}} [[Kategori:Astronom Prancis]] [[Kategori:Matematikawan Prancis]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Misuwur]] [[Kategori:Lair 1811]] {{prancis-bio-stub}} n3vt351hmjwfi4offfo2zopmnvu38qj Mantophasmatidae 0 99909 1753084 1748927 2026-08-20T10:04:52Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753084 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox | name = Mantophasmatidae | fossil_range= [[Jurassic]] - Saiki | image =Mantophasma zephyra Zompro et al 2002.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Mantophasma zephyrum]]'' Zompro ''sakanca.'', 2002 | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Arthropoda]] | classis = [[Gegremet|Insecta]] | subclassis = [[Pterygota]] | infraclassis = [[Neoptera]] | superordo = [[Exopterygota]] | ordo = [[Notoptera]]<ref name=ArilloEngel2006 /> | ordo_authority = Arillo & Engel, 2006 | subordo = '''Mantophasmatodea''' | familia = '''Mantophasmatidae''' | subdivision_ranks = Subfamili, suku | subdivision = [[#Klasifikasi|pirsani tèks]] }} '''Mantophasmatidae''' iku sawijining subordo saka gegremet sajeroning ordo '''[[Notoptera]]'''. Awalé gegremet-gegremet iki dianggep ordo dhéwé, lan dijenengi '''Mantophasmatodea''', nanging panalitèn sabanjuré nyaranaké yèn gegremet-gegremet iki kalebu sajeroning ordo kang padha kaya déné '''[[Grylloblattidae]]''', lan kaloro subordo digabung sajeroning ordo Notoptera. Mantophasmatidae iku subordo [[gegremet]] [[karnivora]] [[Afrika]] kang tinemu nalika taun [[2001]].<ref name=Klass2002>K.-D. Klass, O. Zompro, N.P. Kristensen, J. Adis. Mantophasmatodea: a new insect order with extant members in the afrotropics Science, 296 (2002), pp. 1456–1459</ref><ref name=Adis2002>Adis, J., O. Zompro, E. Moombolah-Goagoses, and E. Marais. 2002. Gladiators: A new order of insect. Scientific American 287:60-65.</ref> Golongan iki awalé ditepungaké minangka sawijining ordo gegremet anyar, nanging dhedhasar bukti paling anyar nuduhaké gegandhèngan [[adhi golongan]] karo [[Grylloblattidae]] (sadurungé diklasifikasikaké sajeroning ordo [[Grylloblattodea]]),<ref name=TW2005>Terry, M.D., and M.F. Whiting. 2005. Mantophasmatodea and phylogeny of the lower neopterous insects. Cladistics 21(3): 240–257.</ref><ref name=Cameron2006>{{cite journal |author=S. L. Cameron, S. C. Barker & M. F. Whiting |year=2006 |title=Mitochondrial genomics and the new insect order Mantophasmatodea |url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2006_38_1/page/274 |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |volume=38 |pages=274–279 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.09.020 |pmid=16321547 |issue=1}}</ref> Arillo & Engel wis nggabungaké rong golongan mau dadi sak ordo, [[Notoptera]].<ref name=ArilloEngel2006>[http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/5817/1/N3539.pdf Arillo, A. & M. Engel (2006) Rock Crawlers in Baltic Amber (Notoptera: Mantophasmatodea). American Museum Novitates 3539:1-10]</ref> Ordo iki èndhemik tumrap [[Afrika Kidul]] pérangan kulon lan [[Namibia]] ([[Brandberg Massif]]<sup>[http://www.mantophasmatodea.de/gladiator/namibiafahrtGB.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217201015/http://www.mantophasmatodea.de/gladiator/namibiafahrtGB.htm |date=2007-12-17 }}</sup>). == Klasifikasi == Klasifikasi paling anyar<ref name="ArilloEngel2006" /> ngakoni akèh genera, kalebu fosil: [[File:Gladiator.jpg|thumb|Kaindhèntifikasi sajeroning [[Zoologische Staatssammlung München]]]] * [[Basal (évolusi)|Basal]] lan ''[[incertae sedis]]'' ** Genus †''[[Raptophasma]]'' <small>Zompro, 2001</small> ** Genus †''[[Adicophasma]]'' <small>Engel & Grimaldi, 2004</small> ** Genus †''[[Ensiferophasma]]'' <small>Zompro, 2005</small> (mungkin dudu duwèkané Mantophasmatodea) * Subfamili [[Tanzaniophasmatinae]] ** Genus ''[[Tanzaniophasma]]'' <small> Klass, Picker, Damgaard, van Noort, Tojo, 2003</small> * Subfamili [[Mantophasmatinae]] ** Suku [[Tyrannophasmatini]] *** Genus ''[[Praedatophasma]]'' <small>Zompro & Adis, 2002</small> *** Genus ''[[Tyrannophasma]]'' <small>Zompro, 2003</small> ** Suku [[Mantophasmatini]] <small>Zompro, Klass, Kristensen, Adis, 2002</small> ([[paraphyletic]]?) *** Genus ''[[Chrisphasmanae]]''<small> Zompro, Klass, Adis, 2001</small> *** Genus ''[[Mantophasma]]'' <small>Zompro, Klass, Kristensen, Adis, 2002</small> *** Genus ''[[Sclerophasma]]'' <small> Klass, Picker, Damgaard, van Noort, Tojo, 2003</small> ** Suku [[Austrophasmatini]] <small> Klass, Picker, Damgaard, van Noort, Tojo, 2003</small> *** Genus ''[[Viridiphasma]]'' <small> Eberhard, Picker, Klass, 2011</small><ref>Eberhard, MJB, MD Picker and KD Klass. (2011). Sympatry in Mantophasmatodea, with the description of a new species and phylogenetic considerations. Organisms Diversity & Evolution 11(1): 43-59.[http://www.springerlink.com/content/7363030802434484/]{{Pranala mati|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> *** Genus ''[[Austrophasma]]'' <small> Klass, Picker, Damgaard, van Noort, Tojo, 2003</small> *** Genus ''[[Hemilobophasma]]'' <small> Klass, Picker, Damgaard, van Noort, Tojo, 2003</small> *** Genus ''[[Karoophasma]]'' <small> Klass, Picker, Damgaard, van Noort, Tojo, 2003</small> *** Genus ''[[Lobatophasma]]'' <small>Klass, Picker, Damgaard, van Noort, Tojo, 2003</small> (sadurungé ''Lobophasma'') *** Sak ora-orané 3 spésies saka siji utawa luwih genera anyar Sok-sok subfamili lan suku-suku kabèh digedhèkaké kanggo status kulawarga jangkep. == Uga delengen == *[[Oliver Zompro]] == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == {{Commons category|Mantophasmatodea}} {{wikispecies}} * [http://www.sungaya.de/oz/gladiator/ Mantophasmatodea - A new order of insects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030701220008/http://www.sungaya.de/oz/gladiator/ |date=2003-07-01 }} * [http://www.muséums.org.za/bio/insects/mantophasmatodea/index.htm Mantophasmatodea]{{Pranala mati|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/03/0328_0328_TVstickinsect.html New insect order found in Southern Africa] * [http://animals.about.com/cs/insects/a/aa041902a.htm New order of insects identified: Mantophasmatodea find their place in Class Insecta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204012629/http://animals.about.com/cs/insects/a/aa041902a.htm |date=2009-02-04 }} [[Kategori:Gegremet]] [[Kategori:Sato kéwan]] [[Kategori:Fauna]] {{kéwan-stub}} 2r73ii2u8ix82g9tvckstgsibl9guso Anafilaksis 0 101353 1752891 1640023 2026-08-20T04:22:19Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 5 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752891 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Anafilaksis | Image = Angioedema2010.JPG | Caption = [[Angioedema]] ing rai nganti bocah iki ora bisa mbukak mripate. Reaksi iki kedadeyan amarga ketaman [[alergen]]. | DiseasesDB = 29153 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|T|78|2|t|66}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|995.0}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000844 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 128 | MeshID = D000707 }} <!--Definisi, gejala, lan panyebab --> '''Anafilaksis''' ya iku [[reaksi alergi]] abot kang dumadakan kedadeyan lan bisa njalari panandhang nemahi pati.<ref name=Tint10>{{cite book |author=Tintinalli, Judith E. |title=Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli))|publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies |location=New York |year=2010 |pages=177–182 |isbn=0-07-148480-9 |oclc=|doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> [[Penyakit]] iki lumrahé nuwuhaké pirang-pirang tandha-tandha kaya ta [[kulit]] [[abang]] gatel, gorokan abuh, lan [[tekanan darah]] cendhèk. Panyebab lumrahé tumrap reaksi iki ya iku dicokot/diantup [[gegremet]], pangan, lan [[obat]]. <!--Patofisiologi, diagnosis, lan tata laksana --> Ing tataran [[patofisiologi]], anafilaksis disebabake déning lepase mediator saka jinis [[sèl darah putih]] tinamtu kang bisa disengka déning mekanisme [[sistem imum|imunologis]] utawa non-imunologis. Lara iki didiagnosis miturut tandha-tandha lan tandha kang tuwuh. Pangobatan utama ya iku lumantar injeksi [[epinefrin]], lan cara pangrumatan liyané kanggo tambahan bae. <!--Epidemiologi lan sejarah --> Prakira 0,05-2% wong sadonya duwé anafilaksis ing sawijining wektu uripé lan cacahé kaya-kaya saya tambah. Tembung anafilaksis asalé saka tembung [[basa Yunani|Yunani]] ya iku ἀνά ana, ''mungsuh'', lan φύλαξις filaksis,''bètèng kasarasan''. {{TOC limit|3}} == Tandha lan tandha-tandha == [[Gambar:Signs_and_symptoms_of_anaphylaxis.png|thumb|250px|Tandha lan tandha-tandha Anafilaksis.]] Anafilaksis lumrahé muncul ing manéka tandha-tandha kang sasuwéné pirang menit utawa jam<ref>{{cite journal |author=Oswalt ML, Kemp SF |title=Anaphylaxis: office management and prevention |journal=Immunol Allergy Clin North Am |volume=27 |issue=2|pages=177–91, vi |year=2007 |pmid=17493497 |doi=10.1016/j.iac.2007.03.004|quote=Clinically, anaphylaxis is considered likely to be present if any one of three criteria is satisfied within minutes to hours}}</ref><ref name=Review09/>. Yèn disebabake déning zat kang lumebu ing aliran getih (intravena), rata-ratane laku kedadeyan ya iku 5 nganti 30&nbsp;menit. Yèn disebabake déning pangan, bisa nganti 2&nbsp;jam.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Bageyane badan kang paling kerep kena akibate ya iku: kulit (80–90%), saluran napas (70%), saluran cerna (30–45%), jantung lan pembuluh getih (10–45%), lan sistem syaraf pusat (10–15%)<ref name=Review09/>. Lumrahé loro utawa luwih pérangan kang mèlu ketaman.<ref name=World11/> === Kulit === [[Gambar:Rash on the chest of a person with anaphylaxis.jpg|thumb|kiwa|[[Biduren]] lan abang-abang ing gegere pawongan kang kena anafilaksis]] Tandha-tandha kang tuwuh lumrahé kaya ta [[biduren|biduren biyasa]], [[pruritus|gatel-gatel]], [[Kulit abang (fisiologi)|rai lan kulit abang]] utawa lambe kang dadi njedhir.<ref name=Diag06>{{cite journal |author=Sampson HA, Muñoz-Furlong A, Campbell RL, ''et al.''|title=Second symposium on the definition and management of anaphylaxis: summary report—Second National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease/Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network symposium |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-allergy-and-clinical-immunology_2006-02_117_2/page/391|journal=J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.|volume=117 |issue=2 |pages=391–7 |year=2006 |pmid=16461139|doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2005.12.1303}}</ref> Pérangan-pérangan kang abuh utawa kang diarani [[angioedema]] iku malah rasané panas ing kulit kaya kobong dudu gatel.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Ilat lan gorokan abuh kedadeyan ing punjul 20% kasus.<ref name=Shock10/> Kaanan liyané bisa uga kaya irung meler lan abuhe membran mukosa ing mata lan tlapukan mata [[konjungtiva]].<ref name=Aus06/> Kulit uga bisa dadi malih [[sianosis|biru]] amarga [[Hipoksia (medis)|kurang oksigèn]].<ref name=Aus06/> === Saluran napas === Tandha-tandha lan tandha ing saluran napas kalebu ambegan cendhak, [[mengi]] utawa [[seseg]].<ref name=Diag06/> Mengi mau disebabake déning spasme/kram otot [[bronkial]] <ref name=Cardio08/> , yèn seseg ana gegayutane karo bumpete dalan napas kang dadi akibat abuh mau.<ref name=Aus06>{{cite journal|last=Brown|first=SG|coauthors=Mullins, RJ, Gold, MS|title=Anaphylaxis: diagnosis and management.|journal=The Medical journal of Ostrali|date=2006 Sep 4|volume=185|issue=5|pages=283–9|pmid=16948628}}</ref> Serak, lara nalika ngeleg, utawa watuk uga bisa tuwuh.<ref name=Rosen2010/> === Jantung === Pembuluh getih jantung bisa dumadakan kontraksi [[Spasme arteri koroner]] banjur diterusake karo [[infark miokardium]]utawa sèl jantung mati, [[disritmia jantung|disritmiautawa]] denyut jantung kang kecepeten utawa kerendheten, utawa jantung bisa mandeg greg [[henti jantung]]<!-- dalah ora nganggo obat epinefrin -->.<ref name=Review09/><ref name=World11/> Sing sadurungé wis naté duwé lelara jantung duwé risiko luwih gedhé ketaman efek anafilaksis tumrap jantunge.<ref name=Cardio08/> Lelakoné spasme koroner ana gegayutane karo sèl kang nglepas histamin ing jantung.<ref name=Cardio08/> Kedadeyan [[takikardia|denyut jantung rikat]] kang diakibatake déning tekanan darah cendhèk sejatine luwih akèh,<ref name=Aus06/> nanging [[refleks Bezold–Jarisch]] tinemu ing 10% kasus anafilaksis, ya iku wujud kombinasi denyut jantung rendhet [[bradikardia|denyut jantung rendhet]] lan tekanan darah cendhèk [[hipotensi|tekanan darah cendhèk]].<ref name=CEA11/> Mudune tekanan darah [[tekanan darah]] utawa [[syok (sirkulasi)|syok]] (bisa [[syok distributif|distributif]] utawa [[syok kardiogenik|kardiogenik]]) bisa njalari rasa ngelu utawa semaput [[ora sadar]].<ref name=Cardio08/> Déné arang lelakoné, tekanan darah kang kecendheken.<ref name=Shock10/> === Liyane === Tandha-tandha ing weteng karo usus bisa kalebu kram [[lara weteng]], diare, lan mutah.<ref name=Diag06/> Panandhang bisa rumangsa bingung, ora bisa ngatur nguyuh, utawa lara ing cethik kang memper kram [[uterus|kandhungan]].<ref name=Diag06/><ref name=Aus06/> Malihing pembuluh getih ing utek dadi luwih amba bisa njalari [[mumet]].<ref name=Rosen2010/> Panandhang bisa ngalami rasa [[kuwatir]] utawa rasa arep nemahi pati.<ref name=World11/> == Panyebab == Anafilaksis bisa tuwuh amarga awak kang nanggepi arep sakabehing zat asing.<ref name=His11/> Sing kalebu pemicu umum antarané [[wisa]]ne [[cokotan utawa antupan gegremet]], pangan, lan [[obat]].<ref name=CEA11/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Worm|first=M|title=Epidemiology of anaphylaxis.|journal=Chemical immunology and allergy|year=2010|volume=95|pages=12–21|pmid=20519879|doi=10.1159/000315935}}</ref> Pangan ya iku pemicu kang paling umum ing bocah lan remaja, déné obat lan cokotan utawa antupan gegremet paling kerep kedadeyan ing wong diwasa.<ref name=World11/> Panyebab kang arang antarané: faktor fisik, agensia biologis kaya ta [[mani]], lateks, owahing kaanan hormonal, bahan tambahan pangan kaya ta monosodium glutamat lan teres, lan usada kang dileletake ing kulit (pangobatan topikal).<ref name=Aus06/> Faktor fisik kaya ta ulah raga (kang diarani anafilaksis amarga ulah raga) utawa suhu (panas utawa adhem) uga bisa tumindak minangka pemicu lumantar efek langsunge marang [[sèl mast]].<ref name=World11/><ref name=APLS07>{{cite book|last=editors|first=Marianne Gausche-Hill, Susan Fuchs, Loren Yamamoto,|title=The pediatric emergency medicine resource|year=2007|publisher=Jones & Bartlett|location=Sudbury, Mass.|isbn=978-0-7637-4414-4|pages=69|edition=Rev. 4. ed.|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=lLVfDC2dh54C&pg=PA69}}</ref> Kedadeyan anafilaksis amarga ulah raga racaké ana gegayutane karo bubaring memangan sawijining pangan.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Yèn lelakoné nalika panandhang lagi di[[anastesi]], jalaran kang paling kerep ya iku usada kang mènèhi efek nglumpuhake utawa [[obat penghambat syaraf otot]], antibiotik, lan [[lateks]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dewachter|first=P|coauthors=Mouton-Faivre, C, Emala, CW|title=Anaphylaxis and anesthesia: controversies and new insights.|journal=Anesthesiology|date=2009 Nov|volume=111|issue=5|pages=1141–50|pmid=19858877|doi=10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181bbd443}}</ref> Ing 32-50% kasus, panyebabe anafilaksis ora dimangerteni (arane "anafilaksis idiopatik").<ref name="editor 2010 223">{{cite book|last=editor|first=Mariana C. Castells,|title=Anaphylaxis and hypersensitivity reactions|year=2010|publisher=Humana Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-60327-950-5|pages=223|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=bEvnfm7V-LIC&pg=PA223}}</ref> === Pangan === Akeh jinis pangan kang bisa micu anafilaksis; malah bisa kedadeyan ing sapisanan ngeleg sawijining pangan.<ref name=CEA11/> Pangan kang bisa micu iki manéka rupa jinisé ing saindhenging donya. Ing kabudayan barat, jalaran kang paling kerep ya iku memangan utawa senggolan karo rupané kacang, gandum, rupa kacang saka wit,[[kerang]], iwak banyu, susu, lan ndhog.<ref name=Review09/><ref name=World11/> Ing Timur Tengah, [[wijen]] ya iku pangan kang paling kerep dadi pemicu. Déné ing Asia, beras lan [[kacang Arab]] kerep tinemu dadi sumbering anafilasksis.<ref name=World11/> Kasus abot kedadeyan nalika pangan pamicu mau keleg dipangan,<ref name=CEA11/> nanging ana uga wong kang langsung nuduhaké reaksi parah nalika senggolan karo pangan mau. Nalika gedhé, alergi ing bocah bisa suwé - suwé ilang. Ing umur 16 taun, 80% bocah kang duwé anafilaksis kelawan susu lan ndhog lan 20% kang ngalami kasus tunggal anafilaksis marang kacang, akhire bisa ngonsumsi pangan mau tanpa nuwuhaké masalah.<ref name=His11/> === Pangobatan === Saben obat bisa nuwuhaké anafilaksis. Sing paling umum ya iku [[antibiotik β-laktam]] (kaya ta[[penisilin]]) banjur [[aspirin]] lan [[OAINS]] utawa Obat Antiinflamasi Non Steroid/NSAID.<ref name=Review09/><ref name=Book2009>{{cite book|last=Volcheck|first=Gerald W.|title=Clinical allergy: diagnosis and management|year=2009|publisher=Humana Press|location=Totowa, N.J.|isbn=978-1-58829-616-0|pages=442|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=pWZLkZB7EW8C&pg=PA442}}</ref> Jinis [[antibiotik]] liyané ora patiya kerep katut, déné reaksi tumrap OAINS sipate mirunggan marang jinis tinemtu tegesé yèn wong alergi marang salah sijining OAINS, racaké dhèwèké bisa migunakaké jinis liyané tanpa njalari anafilaksis.<ref name=Book2009/> Panyebab liyané kang rada kerep kaya ta [[kemoterapi]], [[vaksin]], [[protamin]] lan jejamon.<ref name=World11/><ref name=Book2009/> Sapérangan obat (antarané [[vankomisin]], [[morfin]],[[radiokontras|agen radiokontras]] utawa obat kang gunané kanggo nerangake asil foto ronsen) njalari anafilaksis kanthi micu langsung lelakoné degranulasi sèl mast.<ref name=CEA11/> Kereping reaksi tumrap obat tinemtu sapérangan gumantung karo kerep orane nganggo obat mau lan sapérangan karo sipat kerjane obat ing jero badan.<ref name=Drug01>{{cite journal|last=Drain|first=KL|coauthors=Volcheck, GW|title=Preventing and managing drug-induced anaphylaxis.|journal=Drug safety: an international journal of medical toxicology and drug experience|year=2001|volume=24|issue=11|pages=843–53|pmid=11665871}}</ref> Anafilaksis amarga penisilin utawa[[sefalosporin]] mung tuwuh yèn usada mau tetalenan karo protéin ing njero badan. Sapérangan obat luwih gampang tetalen tinimbang obat liyané.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Ing saben 2.000 nganti 10.000 wong kang olèh pangobatan saka penisilin nuwuhaké siji anafilaksis. Sing nemahi pati amarga obat iki mung siji saben 50.000 pangobatan nganggo penisilin.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Kedadeyan anafilaksis marang aspirin lan OAINS kira-kira ana siji ing saben 50.000 wong.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Yèn ana wong kang nuduhaké reaksi marang penisilin, biayasane reaksi wong mau marang sefalosporin luwih kuwat, nanging lelakoné isih kurang saka siji ing saben wong 1000.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Obat kang biyèn minangka gawé gambar foto sinar-X luwih cetha njalari reaksi ing 1% kasus, déné kang jinis anyar kang osmolaritase luwih endhek njalari reaksi ing 0,04% kasus.<ref name=Drug01/> === Wisa === Wisa saka gegremet kang ngantup utawa nyokot kaya ta bangsane [[Himenoptera]] (ya iku bangsane tawon) utawa [[Triatominae]] (gegremet kang ngisep getih) bisa micu lelakoné anafilaksis marang wong-wong kang rentan.<ref name=Review09/><ref name="Klotz">{{cite journal|last=Klotz|first=JH|coauthors=Dorn, PL, Logan, JL, Stevens, L, Pinnas, JL, Schmidt, JO, Klotz, SA|title="Kissing bugs": potential disease vectors and cause of anaphylaxis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2010-06-15_50_12/page/1629|journal=Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=2010 Jun 15|volume=50|issue=12|pages=1629–34|pmid=20462351|doi=10.1086/652769}}</ref> Yèn wis tau ngalami [[Penyakit sistemik|reaksi sistemik]], kang wujudé punjul reaksi mligi ing titik antupan, wong mau duwé risiko kena anafilaksis manèh emben buri;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bilò|first=MB|title=Anaphylaxis caused by Hymenoptera stings: from epidemiology to treatment.|journal=Allergy|date=2011 Jul|volume=66 Suppl 95|pages=35–7|pmid=21668850|doi=10.1111/j.1398-9995.2011.02630.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cox|first=L|coauthors=Larenas-Linnemann, D, Lockey, RF, Passalacqua, G|title=Speaking the same language: The World Allergy Organization Subcutaneous Immunotherapy Systemic Reaction Grading System.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-allergy-and-clinical-immunology_2010-03_125_3/page/569|journal=The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology|date=2010 Mar|volume=125|issue=3|pages=569–74, 574.e1-574.e7|pmid=20144472|doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2009.10.060}}</ref> ewasemono, separone kasus kematian amarga anafilaksis ora nuduhaké reaksi sistemik sadurungé.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bilò|first=BM|coauthors=Bonifazi, F|title=Epidemiology of insect-venom anaphylaxis.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2008 Aug|volume=8|issue=4|pages=330–7|pmid=18596590|doi=10.1097/ACI.0b013e32830638c5}}</ref> === Faktor risiko === Wong kang duwé lelara[[atopi]] kaya ta [[asma]], [[eksim]], utawa [[rinitis alergi]] duwé risiko kang dhuwur kena anafilaksis amarga pangan, [[lateks]], lan agen [[radiokontras]]. Ewasemono, wong-wong iku ora duwé risiko luwih gedhé marang obat injeksi utawa antupan.<ref name=World11/><ref name=CEA11/> Salah sijining panaliten tumrap bocah-bocah cilik tinemu yèn 60% bocah duwé riwayat lelara atopi, lan punjul 90% kang nemahi pati amarga anafilaksis duwé asma.<ref name=CEA11/> Wong kang duwé kelainan amarga cacahing sèl mast kang kakehan ing jero jaringan utawa [[mastositosis]] utawa wong kang duwé[[status sosial lan ékonomi]] kang luwih dhuwur duwé risiko kang luwih dhuwur uga.<ref name=World11/><ref name=CEA11/> Saya suwé wektune kawit kena agen jalaran anafilaksis kang paling keri, saya cilik risiko nuwuhaké reaksi anyar.<ref name=Rosen2010/> == Mekanisme == Anafilaksis ya iku[[reaksi alergi]] parah kang lelakoné dumadakan lan ngenani seakehing [[sistem badan]].<ref name=Tint10/><ref name=Khan11>{{cite journal|last=Khan|first=BQ|coauthors=Kemp, SF|title=Pathophysiology of anaphylaxis.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2011 Aug|volume=11|issue=4|pages=319–25|pmid=21659865|doi=10.1097/ACI.0b013e3283481ab6}}</ref> Penyakit iki disebabake déning lepase [[mediator inflamasi]] lan [[sitokin]] saka sèl mast lan [[basofil]]. Panglepasan iki lumrahé disebabake déning [[sistem imun|reaksi sistem imun]] nanging kadhangkala uga disebabake déning mekanisme kang ora ana gegayutane karo reaksi imun.<ref name=Khan11/> === Imunologi === Ing sajeroning mekanisme imunologi, [[imunoglobulin E]] (IgE) tetalenan karo [[antigen]] (benda asing kang nyurung lelakoné reaksi alergi). IgE kang wis tetalenan karo antigen mau banjur ngaktifake reseptor [[FcεRI]] ing sèl mast lan basofil. Akibate seal mast lan basofil nglepas mediator inflamasi kaya [[histamin]]. Mediator mau banjur ningkatake kontraksi [[otot polos]]bronkus, njalari pembuluh getih dadi amba utawa [[vasodilatasi]], ningkatake bocoring cuwèran saka pembuluhing getih nyababake kerjane otot jantung luwih abot.<ref name=Rosen2010/><ref name=Khan11/> Ana uga mekanisme imunologi kang ora gumantung karo IgE, nanging durung dimangerteni yèn mekanisme mau kedadeyan ing manungsa.<ref name=Khan11/> === Non-imunologi === Nalika anafilaksis ora disebabake karo respon imun utawa mawa sipat non-imunologi, mekanisme iki ngatutake zat kang langsung njalari [[degranulasi]] utawa ngrusak sèl mast lan basofil saéngga kekaro nglepas histamin lan senyawa liya kang lumrahé gegayutan karo reaksi alergi.<!-- <ref name=Khan11/> --> Mekanisme mau antarané kang disebabake karo agensia kaya [[zat kontras kanggo sinar-X]], [[opioid]], suhu (panas utawa adhem), lan kedher.<ref name=APLS07/><ref name=Khan11/> == Diagnosis == Anafilaksis didiagnosis gumantung karo tandha-tandha klinis.<ref name=World11/> Yèn tuwuh salah sijining telung tandha-tandha ing ngisor iki ing itungan wektu menit/jam sawisé kena alergen, bisa dipesthekake yèn wong mau kena anafilaksis:<ref name=World11/> # Tandha-tandha ing kulit utawa jaringan mukosa tambah seseg utawa [[tekanan darah]] cendhèk # Tuwuhing loro utawa luwih tandha-tandha ing ngisor iki:- #: a. Tandha-tandha ing kulit utawa mukosa #: b. Seseg #: c. Tekanan darah cendhèk #: d. Tandha-tandha saluran cerna # Tekanan darah cendhèk sawising kena alergen Yèn panandhang nuduhaké reaksi abot sawisé diantup gegremet utawa nginum obat tinemtu, tes getih kanggo nguji kadhar [[triptase]] utawa [[histamin]] (kang dilepasake déning sèl mast) bakal nulung banget ing diagnosis anafilaksis.<!-- <ref name=World11/> --> Nanging, tes iki ora bakal mandi yèn panyebabe anafilaksis ya iku pangan utawa yèn [[tekanan darah]]tetep normal,<ref name=World11/> lan tes-tes mau ora [[sensitifitas lan spesifisitas|spesifik]] kanggo diagnosis anafilaksis.<ref name=His11/> == Klasifikasi == Ana telung klasifikasi utama anafilaksis. Syok anafilaktik gegayutan karo [[vasodilatasi]]sistemik kang njalari [[hipotensi|tekanan darah cendhèk]] nganti wetara 30% luwih cendhek tinimbang tekanan darah normale panandhang utawa malah sangisore manèh.<ref name=Shock10>{{cite journal|last=Limsuwan|first=T|coauthors=Demoly, P|title=Acute symptoms of drug hypersensitivity (urticaria, angioedema, anaphylaxis, anaphylactic shock).|journal=The Medical clinics of North America|date=2010 Jul|volume=94|issue=4|pages=691–710, x|pmid=20609858|url=http://smschile.cl/documentos/cursos2010/MedicalClinicsNorthAmerica/Acute%20Symptoms%20of%20Drug%20Hypersensitivity%20(Urticaria,%20Angioedema,%20Anaphylaxis,%20Anaphylactic%20Shock).pdf|doi=10.1016/j.mcna.2010.03.007|access-date=2013-08-12|archive-date=2012-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426041514/http://smschile.cl/documentos/cursos2010/MedicalClinicsNorthAmerica/Acute%20Symptoms%20of%20Drug%20Hypersensitivity%20(Urticaria,%20Angioedema,%20Anaphylaxis,%20Anaphylactic%20Shock).pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Anafilaksis bifasik ya iku yèn tandha-tandha kang maune kedadeyan tuwuh manèh sawisé 1-72 jam dalah ora tinemu manèh barang kang njalari alergi.<ref name=World11/> Lapuran insiden bisa warna-warna, sapérangan panaliten nyebutake lelakoné nganti 20% kasus.<ref name=BI05/> Kedadeyan kang kapindho iku mau lumrahé tuwuh ing sajeroning wektu 8 jam.<ref name=CEA11/> Tandha-tandha kang kapindho iki uga ditangani mawa cara kang padha karo anafilaksis kang kapisan.<ref name=Review09/> Pseudoanafilaksis utawa reaksi anafilaktoid ya iku jeneng lawase anafilaksis kang ora ngatutake reaksi alergi nanging disebabake langsung déning cidrane sèl mast [[degranulasi]].<ref name=CEA11>{{cite journal|last=Lee|first=JK|coauthors=Vadas, P|title=Anaphylaxis: mechanisms and management.|journal=Clinical and experimental allergy: journal of the British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology|date=2011 Jul|volume=41|issue=7|pages=923–38|pmid=21668816|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03779.x}}</ref><ref name=His10/> Saiki, pseudoanafilaksis diarani anafilaksis non-imun miturut [[Organisasi Alergi Donya]]<ref name=His10/>. Sapérangan wong nyaranake yèn istilah lawas ing ndhuwur mau ora digunakaké manèh.<ref name=CEA11/> === Tes Alergi === [[Gambar:Allergy_skin_testing.JPG|thumb|[[Tes alergi kulit]] dijajal ing tangan tengan]] [[Tes alergi]] bisa mbantu nemtokake pemicu. [[Tes alergi kulit]] (kaya [[Tes tempel (obat)|tes tempel]]) wis sumadhiya kanggo pangan lan wisa tinemtu.<ref name=His11/> Tes getih kanggo IgE mirunggan bisa migunani kanggo negesake alergi kang disebabake karo susu, ndhog, kacang, kacang-kacangan kang saka wit, lan iwak banyu.<ref name=His11/> Tes kulit ana uga kang sumadhiya kanggo nguji alergi [[penisilin]] nanging kang kanggo usada saliyané durung ana.<ref name=His11/> Anafilaksis kang kagolong ing reaksi non-imun mung bisa ditemtokake lumantar riwayat paparan tumrap alergen kang kegayut, ora bisa ditemtokake saka tes kulit utawa getih.<ref name=His10/> === Diagnosis bandhing === Kadhangkala, angèl mbedakake anafilaksis karo [[asma]], semaput asebab kurang oksigèn utawa [[sinkop]], lan [[serangan panik]].<ref name=World11/> Ewasemono, panandhang asma biayasane ora nuwuhaké tandha-tandha gatel-gatel utawa saluran cerna. Yèn semaput, pakulitane wong mesthi pucet ora abang-abang mruntus. Déné yèn kena serangan panik, pakulitane wong bisa semu abang nanging mesthi ora plenthing-plenthing abang lan gatel <ref name=World11/> Kaanan liya kang bisa nuwuhaké ciri kang memper antarané: [[keracunan pangan saka iwak banyu bosok|scrombroidosis]] lan infeksi amarga parasit tinemtu [[anisakiasis]].<ref name=CEA11/> === Panemon Pos-mortem === Saka wong kang mati amarga anafilaksis, tinemu "jantung kosong" ing sajeroning prosès [[otopsi]] kang disebabake déning kurange vena mbalik amarga [[vasodilatasi]] lan mbaliking getih intravaskuler saka pérangan pusat tumuju ing pérangan-pérangan perifer.<ref>Anaphylaxis, Author: Stephen F Kemp, MD, FACP; Chief Editor: Michael A Kaliner, MD;http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135065-overview#showall</ref> Tandha liyané kalebu kebeking banyu kang ora lumrah ing pérangan gorokan (laryngeal edema), cacahing eosinofil tambah akèh (eosinofilia) ing paru, jantung lan jaringan, lan tandha yèn otot jantung kentekan getih amarga kurange aliran getih (hipoperfusi myokardial).<ref name=DaBroi/> Miturut tes laborat, kadheteksi ana paningkatan kadhar serum [[triptase]], paningkatan gunggunge kadhar serum lan serum IgE mirunggan.<ref name=DaBroi>{{cite journal|last=Da Broi|first=U|coauthors=Moreschi, C|title=Post-mortem diagnosis of anaphylaxis: A difficult task in forensic medicine.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_forensic-science-international_2011-01-30_204_1-3/page/n6|journal=Forensic Science International|date=2011 Jan 30|volume=204|issue=1-3|pages=1–5|pmid=20684869|doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.04.039}}</ref> == Panyegahan == Cara kang disaranake kanggo nyegah anafilaksis ya iku nginggati sesenggolan karo samubarang kang njalari reaksi.<!-- <ref name=World11/> --> Yèn angèl, ana obat kang bisa nyegah reaksi awak marang alergen tinemtu (desensitisasi).<!-- <ref name=World11/> --> [[Imunoterapi]] utawa pangobatan cara imun nganggo wisa [[Hymenoptera]] efektif ngudhunake sensitifitas (desensitisasi) nganti 80–90% ing wong diwasa lan 98% ing bocah nglawan alergi [[tawon madu]], [[tawon]],[[tawon suk]], [[tawon yellowjacket]], lan [[semut geni]].<!-- <ref name=World11/> --> Imunoterapi oral bisa uga efektif ing ngudhunake sensitifitas sapérangan wong marang susu, ndhog, kekacangan lan kacang; ewasemono cara iki asring njalari efek samping kang ngerugekake.<!-- <ref name=World11/> --> Desensitisasi uga bisa ditrapake kanggo manéka obat liyané, ewasemono panandhang luwih becik cukup nginggati nganggo obat kang njalari masalah mau.<!-- <ref name=World11/> --> Kanggo wong-wong kang alergi marang lateks, wigati banget nginggati pepanganan kang nuwuhaké reaksi silang kaya ta alpokat, gedhang, lan kenthang.<ref name=World11/> == Tata Laksana == Anafilaksis ya iku kaanan [[darurat medis]] kang merlokake tumindak kanggo nylametake nyawa utawa [[resusitasi]] kaya ta [[nangani dalan ambegan]], nyiapake oksigèn, banyu [[infus intravena]] kang volumene akèh, lan pangawasan raket.<ref name=Review09/> Obat epinefrin diwènèhake kanggo obat pilihan tambah antihistamin lan steroid kang lumrahé digunakaké bareng epinefrin.<ref name=World11/> Yèn panandhang wis mbalik normal manèh, prayogane tetep mondhok ing rumah sakit supaya tetep bisa diawasi sasuwéné nganti 2 - 24 jam ngawati bokmenawa kedadeyan anafilaksis bifasik.<ref name=Rosen2010/><ref name=CEA11/><ref name=BI05/><ref name=UK08>{{cite web|url=http://www.resus.org.uk/pages/reaction.pdf |title=Emergency treatment of anaphylactic reactions – Guidelines for healthcare providers | year=2008 |accessdate=2008-04-22 |format=PDF |work= |publisher=Resuscitation Council (UK)}}</ref> === Epinefrin === [[Gambar:Epipen.jpg|thumb|Suntik mandhiri EpiPen versi lawas]] [[Epinefrin]] (adrenalin) ya iku pangobatan utama anafilaksis tanpa [[kontraindikasi mutlak]] ing panggunane.<ref name=Review09/> Prayogane epinefrin disuntikake ing otot utawa kaaran [[intramuskular]] pas nggon pupu tengah sisih anterolateral nalika tinemu diagnosis anafilaksis.<!-- <ref name=World11/> --> Suntikan mau bisa dibaleni saben 5 - nganti 15 menit yeng panandhang ora weneh tanggepan apik marang obat mau.<ref name=World11/> Dosis kapindho lumrahé diperlokake ing 16 nganti 35% kasus<ref name=CEA11/> nanging tetep arang punjul rong dosis diwènèhake.<ref name=World11/> Suntik kang ngarah njero otot luwih diprayogakake tinimbang suntik ing sangisoring lapis kulit utawa [[subkutan]] amarga suntik ing ngisor kulit bisa-bisa ora rikat diserep.<ref name=Epi10>{{cite journal|last=Simons|first=KJ|coauthors=Simons, FE|title=Epinephrine and its use in anaphylaxis: current issues.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2010 Aug|volume=10|issue=4|pages=354–61|pmid=20543673|doi=10.1097/ACI.0b013e32833bc670}}</ref> Akibat entheng saka panggunan epinefrin kaya ta [[ndredheg]], [[was-was]], mumet, lan dheg-dhegan utawa [[palpitasi]].<ref name=World11/> Panandhang kang nginum obat kang mageli reseptor beta utawa [[β-blocker]] bisa ora mandi yèn diwenenhi epinefrin.<ref name=CEA11/> Ing kaanan kaya mangkono, nalika epinefrin ora efektif, mula suntik intravena [[glukagon]] bisa dilakoni. Glukagon darbe mekanisme aksi kang ora prelu ngatut-ngatutake [[reseptor β]].<ref name=CEA11/> Yèn perlu, epinefrin uga bisa disuntikake [[terapi intravena|intravena]] migunakaké larutan epinefrin kang diencerake. Nanging, epinefrin kang disuntikake intravena kerep dihubung-hubungake karo tuwuhe dheging jantung kang ora teratur utawa [[disritmia kardiak|disritmia]] lan srangan jantung utawa [[infark miokard]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mueller|first=UR|title=Cardiovascular disease and anaphylaxis.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2007 Aug|volume=7|issue=4|pages=337–41|pmid=17620826|doi=10.1097/ACI.0b013e328259c328}}</ref> [[Injektor mandhiri epinefrin]]kang bisa digunakaké kanthi mandhiri karo panandhang lumrahé sumadhiya ing rong dosis, siji kanggo wong diwasa utawa bocah kang boboté 25&nbsp;kg luwih lan sijiné manèh kanggo bocah kang boboté 10 nganti 25&nbsp;kg.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sicherer|first=SH|coauthors=Simons, FE, Section on Allergy and Immunology, American Academy of, Pediatrics|title=Self-injectable epinephrine for first-aid management of anaphylaxis.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2007 Mar|volume=119|issue=3|pages=638–46|pmid=17332221|doi=10.1542/peds.2006-3689}}</ref> === Tata laksana tambahan === [[Antihistamin]] (ya iku [[antihistamin H1|H1]] lan [[antagoni H2|H2]] sakloron), sanajan umum digunakaké lan pandugane efektif miturut waton téyori, nanging pambuktene mung sethithik. Ing [[kajian Cochrane]] taun 2007, ora tinemu panaliten kang kualitase apik kang bisa dadi waton kang prayoga kanggo obat mau.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sheikh A, Ten Broek V, Brown SG, Simons FE |title=H1-antihistamines for the treatment of anaphylaxis: Cochrane systematic review |journal=Allergy|volume=62 |issue=8 |pages=830–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17620060 |doi=10.1111/j.1398-9995.2007.01435.x|url=}}</ref> Antihistamin dipercaya ora bisa ngatasi kebaking banyu ing dalan ambegan utawa kram otot dalam napas.<ref name=CEA11/> [[Kortikosteroid]] kaya-kaya ora bakal ngaruh apa-apa nalika panandhang ana ing serangan anafilaksis, nanging isih bisa minangka ngurangi risiko anafilaksis bifasik, sanajan efektifitase ing nyegah risiko mau durung pesthi.<ref name=BI05>{{cite journal |author=Lieberman P |title=Biphasic anaphylactic reactions |journal=Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=217–26; quiz 226, 258 |year=2005 |pmid=16200811|doi= 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61217-3|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-allergy-asthma-and-immunology_2005-09_95_3/page/217}}</ref> [[Salbutamol]] diwènèhake lumantar terapi inhalasi utawa [[nebulizer]] kanggo tandha-tandha [[bronkospasme]]nalika epinefrin ora mandi.<ref name=CEA11/> [[Metilen biru]] uga wis naté digunakaké tumrap panandhang kang ora nanggepi pangobatan liya amarga dipandugani yèn metilen biru bisa nglemesake otot polos.<ref name=CEA11/> === Siyaga === Wong kang gampang kena anafilaksis prayogane duwé "rancana aksi alergi", lan wong tuwa kudu ngabari sekolahé bab alergi anak-anaké lan apa kang kudu dilakoni yèn kedadeyan darurat anafilaksis.<ref name=Mart08/> Rancana aksi mau lumrahé nglebokaké pangguna [[injektor mandhiri epinefrin]], wasita prayoga supaya nganggo [[gelang pameling medis]], lan sesuluh babagan nginggati pamicu.<ref name=Mart08>{{cite journal|last=Martelli|first=A|coauthors=Ghiglioni, D, Sarratud, T, Calcinai, E, Veehof, S, Terracciano, L, Fiocchi, A|title=Anaphylaxis in the emergency department: a paediatric perspective.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2008 Aug|volume=8|issue=4|pages=321–9|pmid=18596589|doi=10.1097/ACI.0b013e328307a067}}</ref> [[Imunoterapi alergen|Imunoterapi]] utawa pangobatan supaya badan ora kliwat sensitif marang samubarang kang marahi alergi wis sumadhiya kanggo pamicu-pamicu tinemtu. Terapi kaya mangkono bisa nyegah tuwuhing anafilaksis ing mangsa emben. Desensitisasi subkutan kang dilakoni nganti pirang-pirang taun wis kabukten efektif nglawan gegremet kang ngantup, déné desensitisasi oral efektif kanggo manéka jinis pangan.<ref name=Review09/> == Harapan == Para panandhang kang langsung ngerti panyebabe lan langsung olèh pangupakara, harapan uripé apik.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harris|first=edited by Jeffrey|title=Head and neck manifestations of systemic disease|year=2007|publisher=Informa Healthcare|location=London|isbn=978-0-8493-4050-5|pages=325|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=31yUl-V90XoC&pg=PA325|coauthors=Weisman, Micheal S.}}</ref> Sanajan panyebabe ora paham, nanging yèn ana pangobatan panyegah kang cocog, lumrahé harapan uripé tetep apik.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Yèn nganti nyawa oncat, lumrahé disebabake déning prakara dalan ambegan (lumrahé amarga [[asphyxia]]) utawa bumpeting dalan napas utawa prakara kardiovaskuler ([[syok (sirkulatori)|syok]]).<ref name=CEA11/><ref name=Khan11/> Anafilaksis njalari pati nganti 0,7&ndash;20%.<ref name=Rosen2010>{{cite book |title=Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice 7th edition |last=Marx|first=John |authorlink= |year=2010 |publisher=Mosby/Elsevier |location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0-323-05472-0 |page=15111528 }}</ref><ref name=Cardio08>{{cite journal|last=Triggiani|first=M|coauthors=Patella, V, Staiano, RI, Granata, F, Marone, G|title=Allergy and the cardiovascular system.|journal=Clinical and experimental immunology|date=2008 Sep|volume=153 Suppl 1|pages=7–11|pmid=18721322|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2515352/?tool=pubmed|pmc=2515352|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03714.x}}</ref> Ana kasus-kasus mati kang kedadeyan ing itungan menit.<ref name=World11/> Ing panandhang anafilaksis kang disebabake karo kegiyatan fisik, lumrahé tinemu asil kang apik. Sansaya tuwa, kedadeyan anafilaksis saya kurang lan saya entheng.<ref name="editor 2010 223"/> == Peluang Kedadeyan == Insidens anafilaksis ya iku ana 4&ndash;5 saben 100.000 wong saben taun,<ref name=CEA11/> kanthi [[insidens kumulatif|risiko saumuring urip]] kira-kira 0,5&ndash;2%.<ref name=World11>{{cite journal|last=Simons|first=FE|coauthors=World Allergy, Organization|title=World Allergy Organization survey on global availability of essentials for the assessment and management of anaphylaxis by allergy-immunology specialists in health care settings.|journal=Annals of allergy, asthma & immunology: official publication of the American College of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology|date=2010 May|volume=104|issue=5|pages=405–12|pmid=20486330|url=http://www.csaci.ca/include/files/WAO_Anaphylaxis_Guidelines_2011.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.anai.2010.01.023|access-date=2013-08-12|archive-date=2012-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426002319/http://www.csaci.ca/include/files/WAO_Anaphylaxis_Guidelines_2011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Angka mau kaya-kaya tansaya nambah. Ing taun 1980, kira-kira mung ana 20 saben 100.000 wong saben taun, déné ing taun 1990 malih dadi 50 saben 100.000 wong saben taun.<ref name=Review09>{{cite journal |author=Simons FE |title=Anaphylaxis: Recent advances in assessment and treatment |journal=J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. |volume=124 |issue=4 |pages=625–36; quiz 637–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19815109 |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.025 |url=https://secure.muhealth.org/~ed/students/articles/JAClinImmun_124_p0625.pdf |access-date=2013-08-12 |archive-date=2013-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627084618/https://secure.muhealth.org/~ed/students/articles/JAClinImmun_124_p0625.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Panambahan mau kaya-kaya mligi kedadeyan saka anafilaksis kang disebabake déning pangan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Koplin|first=JJ|coauthors=Martin, PE, Allen, KJ|title=An update on epidemiology of anaphylaxis in children and adults.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2011 Oct|volume=11|issue=5|pages=492–6|pmid=21760501|doi=10.1097/ACI.0b013e32834a41a1}}</ref> Risiko gedhé dhéwé tuwuh ing wong-wong enom lan wanita.<ref name=Review09/><ref name=CEA11/> Saiki, anafilaksis bisa njalari pati nganti 500-1000 cacahé saben taun (2,4 saben sejuta) ing Amérikah Sarékat. Déné ing Inggris, ana 20 kasus pati saben taune (0,33 saben sejuta), lan ing Australia, ana 15 kepaten saben taun (0,64 saben sejuta).<ref name=CEA11/> Angka kematian wis mudhun ing antarané taun 1970-an lan 2000-an.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Demain|first=JG|coauthors=Minaei, AA, Tracy, JM|title=Anaphylaxis and insect allergy.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2010 Aug|volume=10|issue=4|pages=318–22|pmid=20543675|doi=10.1097/ACI.0b013e32833a6c72}}</ref> Ing Australia, kepaten amarga anafilaksis saka pangan lumrahé tuwuh mligi ing bangsa wanita. Déné kepaten akibat cokotan gegremet mligi tuwuh ing bangsa priya.<ref name=CEA11/> Kepaten amarga anafilaksis paling umum disebabake déning usada.<ref name=CEA11/> == Sajarah == Istilah "aphylaxis" tinemu déning [[Charles Richet]] ing taun 1902 banjur sawisé digenti dadi "anafilaksis" amarga luwih apik pangocapane.<ref name=His11>{{cite journal|last=Boden|first=SR|coauthors=Wesley Burks, A|title=Anaphylaxis: a history with emphasis on food allergy.|journal=Immunological reviews|date=2011 Jul|volume=242|issue=1|pages=247–57|pmid=21682750|doi=10.1111/j.1600-065X.2011.01028.x}}</ref> Amarga panemon iki, dhèwèké nampa [[Penghargaan Nobel ing Pangobatan lan Fisiologi]] kanggo ngopahi upayane neliti anafilaksis ing 1913.<ref name=Rosen2010/> Ewasemono, fenomena anafilaksis sejatine wis dirasakake wiwit jaman kuna.<ref name=His10>{{cite journal|last=Ring|first=J|coauthors=Behrendt, H, de Weck, A|title=History and classification of anaphylaxis.|journal=Chemical immunology and allergy|year=2010|volume=95|pages=1–11|pmid=20519878|url=http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/42/04708611/0470861142.pdf|doi=10.1159/000315934}}</ref> Tembung mau asalé saka [[basa Yunani|Yunani]] ya iku tembung ἀνά ana, ''klawan'', lan φύλαξις phylaxis, ''perlindhungan''.<ref name=Dict>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anaphylaxis|title=anaphylaxis|accessdate=2009-11-21|publisher=merriam-webster.com }}</ref> == Riset == Pangupaya isih dilakoni kanggo ngembangaké epinefrin kang bisa diwènèhake saka ngisor ilat utawa [[sublingual]] kanggo obat anafilaksis.<ref name=CEA11/> [[Suntikan subkutan]] antobodi anti-IgE [[omalizumab]] isih diteliti kanggo cara nyegah tuwuhing manèh (rekurensi) reaksi. Tekan saiki asil paneliten mau durung dadi rekomendasi.<ref name=World11/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Vichyanond|first=P|title=Omalizumab in allergic diseases, a recent review.|journal=Asian Pacific journal of allergy and immunology / launched by the Allergy and Immunology Society of Thailand|date=2011 Sep|volume=29|issue=3|pages=209–19|pmid=22053590}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Pranala njaba == {{Commons category|Anaphylaxis}} * {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Allergies/Anaphylaxis/}} {{artikel pilihan}} [[Kategori:Alergi]] [[Kategori:Penyakit saluran napas]] 40phxdsjptlovx5yhuz5i1f1jreeuhv Lara gorokan streptokokus 0 101355 1752944 1645562 2026-08-20T05:31:39Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 4 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752944 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Lara gorokan streptokokus | Image = Pos strep.JPG | DiseasesDB = 12507 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|J|02|0|j|00}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|034.0}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000639 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 1811 | MeshID = }} '''Lara gorokan streptokokus''' utawa '''faringitis streptokokus''' iku lelara kang disababaké bibit lelara aran “gugus bakteri streptokokus A”.<ref>{{DorlandsDict|nine/100014400|streptococcal pharyngitis}}</ref> Lara [[gorokan]] jinis iki namani gorokan, [[amandhel]] (klanjer cacah loro wujud lonjong ing gorokan, ing buri cangkem), lan bisa uga kothak swara (laring). Tandha-tandhané kang lumrah kaya ta panas, gorokan karasa lara (uga ingaran pancingen), lan abuhing klanjer (ingaran klanjer getah wening) ing [[gulu]]. Sapréné, ana 37 kasus lara gorokan kang kalakon ing bocah cilik.<ref name=Peds2010/> Lara gorokan streptokokus sumebar lumantar sénggolan raket wong kang nandhang. Saperlu mesthèkaké 100 persèn yèn wong kataman lara gorokan streptokokus, tès aran kultur gorokan prelu katindakaké. Éwa samono, tanpa tès mau, kasus kang dinuga lara gorokan bisa konangan saka tandha-tandha kang muncul. Ing kasus-kasus kang dinuga utawa kang wis pesthi, antibiyotik (tamba kang mbrastha baktèri) bisa ngéndhani lelara supaya ora mundhak mbebayani lan bisa ngrerikat kawarasan.<ref name=Review09/> ==Tandha-tandha== Tandha-tandha lumrah lelara iki kaya ta pancingen, awak panas punjul 38&nbsp;°C (100.4&nbsp;°F), wetuning nanah (barang cuwer kang rupa kuning semu ijo) ing amandhel, lan abuhing klanjer ing gulu.<ref name="Review09">{{cite journal|author=Choby BA|first=|date=|year=2009|title=Diagnosis and treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0301/p383.html|journal=Am Fam Physician|volume=79|issue=5|pages=383–90|doi=|pmid=19275067}}</ref> Kadhang kala uga muncul tandha-tandha liyané: * [[Sirah]] ngelu (mumet)<ref name="Review06">{{cite journal|author=Brook I, Dohar JE|first=|date=|year=2006|title=Management of group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis in children|url=|journal=J Fam Pract|volume=55|issue=12|pages=S1–11; quiz S12|doi=|pmid=17137534}}</ref> * Mutah utawa muleg<ref name=Review06/> * Lara [[weteng]]<ref name=Review06/> * Awak pating klenyer<ref name=Review2001/> * Bidhuren (kulit pating plenthing abang) ing awak utawa ing njero [[cangkem]] utawa gorokan (tandha-tandha kang ora lumrah tumrap lelara iki) <ref name=Review09/> Wong kang nandhang lara gorokan streptokokus bakal nuwuhaké tandha-tandha ing dalem sadina nganti telung dina sawisé sénggolan karo wong liya kang kataman lelara iki.<ref name=Review09/> ==Sabab== Lara gorokan streptokokus disababake bibit lelara (utawa bakteri) aran streptokokus grup A beta-hemolitik utawa grup A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS).<ref name="Review10">{{cite journal|author=Baltimore RS|first=|date=|year=2010|title=Re-evaluation of antibiotic treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis|url=|journal=Curr. Opin. Pediatr.|volume=22|issue=1|pages=77–82|doi=10.1097/MOP.0b013e32833502e7|pmid=19996970}}</ref> Bibit lelara liya uga bisa njalari pancingen.<ref name=Review09/><ref name=Review2001/> Lara gorokan streptokokus nular langsung saka senggolan raket karo wong kang nandhang. Wong akèh kang nglumpuk ing saenggon, kaya ta ing militèr utawa sekolahan, bisa njalar lelara iki sumebar kanthi rikat.<ref name="Review2001">{{cite journal|author=Hayes CS, Williamson H|first=|date=|year=2001|title=Management of Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20010415/1557.html|journal=Am Fam Physician|volume=63|issue=8|pages=1557–64|doi=|pmid=11327431|access-date=2013-08-12|archive-date=2008-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516091711/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20010415/1557.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="pmid15765640">{{cite journal |author=Lindbaek M, Høiby EA, Lermark G, Steinsholt IM, Hjortdahl P |title=Predictors for spread of clinical group A streptococcal tonsillitis within the household |journal=Scand J Prim Health Care |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=239–43 |year=2004 |pmid=15765640 |doi=10.1080/02813430410006729}}</ref> Bibit lelara kang wis garing lan tinemu ing lebu ora bisa njalari wong lara. Bibit teles, kaya ta kang tinemu ing sikat untu, bisa njalari wong lara nganti suwéné 15 dina.<ref name=Review2001/> Bibit-bibit lelara iki bisa urip ing panganan sanajan arang lelakoné, lan bisa njaalari lara marang wong kang mangan panganan mau.<ref name=Review2001/> Rolas persèn bocah kang ora nuduhake tandha-tandha lara gorokan iki nggawa bibit GAS ing gorokane.<ref name="Peds2010">{{cite journal|author=Shaikh N, Leonard E, Martin JM|first=|date=|year=2010|title=Prevalence of streptococcal pharyngitis and streptococcal carriage in children: a meta-analysis|url=|journal=Pediatrics|volume=126|issue=3|pages=e557–64|doi=10.1542/peds.2009-2648|pmid=20696723}}</ref> ==Mesthekake larane== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+ Modhifikasi Sekor Centor !Biji||Prakira Lara streptokokus||Pangobatan |- | 1 utawa kurang|| <10%||Ora perlu antibiotik utawa kultur |- | 2 ||11–17%||rowspan="2"|Antibiotik miturut kultur utawa RADT |- | 3 ||28–35% |- | 4 utawa 5 ||52%||[[Antibiotik empiris]] |} Saprangkat wewaton aran Modhifikasi Sekor Centor dadi cara kanggo nambani wong kang nandhang pancingen. Dhedhasar limang wewaton klinis, Sekor Centor nandhani bener orane lara gorokan streptokokus dumadi.<ref name=Review09/> Angka siji kapasangake ing saben wewaton ing ngisor iki:<ref name=Review09/> *Ora watuk *Klanjer abuh lan empuk ing gulu *Hawa awak punjul 38&nbsp;°C (100.4&nbsp;°F) *Nanahen utawa abuhing klanjer ing gorokan (amandhel) *Umur durung nyandhak 15 (angka siji dikurangi tumrap umur punjul 44) ===Tes laborat=== Tes aran kultur gorokan iku minangka cara kang pokok<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Smith, Ellen Reid |author2=Kahan, Scott |author3=Miller, Redonda G. |title=In A Page Signs & Symptoms |series=In a Page Series |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstown, Maryland|year=2008 |pages=312 |isbn=0-7817-7043-2 |oclc=}}</ref> kanggo mesthekake bener orane wong nandhang lara gorokan streptokokus. Tes iki bisa mesthekake dumadi orane lelarane kanthi patitis 90 nganti 95 persèn saka sakehing wong kang melu tes.<ref name=Review09/> Aliya saka iku, tes liya aran tes kilat Strep (uga aran tes kilat dheteksi antigen utawa rapid antigen detection testing/RADT) uga bisa katindakake. Tes kilat Strep asile luwih rikat tinimbang kultur gorokan nanging mung bisa mènèhi asil patitis 70 persèn saka sakehing wong kang melu tes. Rong tes mau bisa satimbang anggone mesthekake yèn panandhang ora kena lara gorokan streptokokus (kanthi patitis 98 persèn saka sakehing wong kang melu tes).<ref name=Review09/> Kultur gorokan positif (liya ukara, kang nemtokake lara oraning wong) utawa tes kilat Strep, ditambah tandha-tandha lara gorokan streptokokus nuduhake tuwuhing lelara mau.<ref name=IDSAGuideline2002/> Wong kang ora nuwuhaké tandha-tandha ora perlu dites kultur gorokan utawa tes kilat. Gunggung persèn tinemtu saka populasi mau ngemot bakteri streptokokus ing gorokan nanging ora nganti mbebayani.<ref name=IDSAGuideline2002/> ===Lelara liyané kang bisa salah diarani lara gorokan streptokokus=== {{See also|Acute pharyngitis}} Tandha-tandha lara gorokan streptokokus uga bisa kedadeyan ing kaanan lara liyané. Mula, nemtokake lara gorokan streptokokus bisa angèl dilakoni tanpa ngadani tes kultur gorokan utawa tes streptokokus kilat.<ref name=Review09/> Watuk, umbel meler, mencret, lan mripat abang karo perih, saliyané panas lan pancingen racaké luwih memper lara gorokan kang disebabake déning virus tinimbang lara gorokan streptokokus.<ref name=Review09/> Abuhing klanjer (klanjer limfe) ing gulu ditambah pancingen, panas, lan klanjer kang tambah gedhé (amandel) ing gorokan bisa uga tuwuh ing lelara liyané, sinebut mononukleosis infeksiosa.<ref name="pmid15508538">{{cite journal |author=Ebell MH |title=Epstein-Barr virus infectious mononucleosis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=70 |issue=7 |pages=1279–87 |year=2004 |pmid=15508538 |doi= |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20041001/1279.html |access-date=2013-08-12 |archive-date=2008-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724055725/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20041001/1279.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Panyegahan== Oprasi amandel bisa dadi cara pangobatan kanggo wong kang kerep nandhang lara iki supaya ora tuwuh manèh.<ref name=Old84>{{cite journal |author=Paradise JL, Bluestone CD, Bachman RZ, ''et al.'' |title=Efficacy of tonsillectomy for recurrent throat infection in severely affected children. Results of parallel randomized and nonrandomized clinical trials |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=310 |issue=11 |pages=674–83 |date=March 1984 |pmid=6700642 |doi= 10.1056/NEJM198403153101102|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1984-03-15_310_11/page/674}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Alho OP, Koivunen P, Penna T, Teppo H, Koskela M, Luotonen J |title=Tonsillectomy versus watchful waiting in recurrent streptococcal pharyngitis in adults: randomised controlled trial |journal=BMJ |volume=334 |issue=7600 |pages=939|date=May 2007 |pmid=17347187 |pmc=1865439 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39140.632604.55 |url=}}</ref> Nganti taun 2003, yèn lara gorokan streptokokus kedadeyan nganti ping telu luwih ing wektu setahun, oprasi amandel dianggep kang paling trep dilakoni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Johnson BC, Alvi A |title=Cost-effective workup for tonsillitis. Testing, treatment, and potential complications|journal=Postgrad Med |volume=113 |issue=3 |pages=115–8, 121 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12647478 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_postgraduate-medicine_2003-03_113_3/page/115}}</ref> Ewasemono, nunggu kanthi waspada uga bisa.<ref name=Old84/> ==Pangobatan== Lara gorokan streptokokus kang ora ditambani lumrahé mari ing sauntara dina.<ref name=Review09/> Panggunan obat(antibiotik) nyendakake wektu tuwuhing tandha-tandha wetarane nganti 16 jam.<ref name=Review09/> Pangobatan nganggo antibiotik duwé tujuan utama yaiku ngurangi risiko lelara sansaya nemen, kaya ta mundhak panas nemen (sinebut panas rematik) utawa nglumpuking nanah ing gorokan (aran abses retrofaring)<ref name=Review09/>. Obat-obat iku mau bisa mandi yèn diwènèhake ing sajeroning wektu 9 dina wiwit tandha-tandha tuwuh.<ref name=Review10/> ===Pangobatan rasa lara=== Obat kanggo ngurangi rasa lara, kaya ta obat kang ngurangi abuh (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, utawa NSAIDs) utawa obat kang ngudhunake panas (parasetamol, utawa asetaminofen), bisa mbantu ngenthengake rasa lara kang tuwuh bebarengan karo lara gorokan streptokokus.<ref name=Review00>{{cite journal |author=Thomas M, Del Mar C, Glasziou P |title=How effective are treatments other than antibiotics for acute sore throat? |journal=Br J Gen Pract |volume=50 |issue=459 |pages=817–20 |date=October 2000 |pmid=11127175 |pmc=1313826|doi=}}</ref> Steroid bisa uga dianggo <ref name=Review10/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123372200/abstract |title=Effectiveness of Corticosteroid Treatment in Acute Pharyngitis: A Systematic Review of the Literature. |work=Andrew Wing. 2010; Academic Emergency Medicine |accessdate= |archive-date=2012-12-04 |archive-url=https://archive.ph/20121204144746/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1553-2712.2010.00723.x/abstract |url-status=dead }}</ref>, memper kaya salep utawa balsem kang arane lidocaine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/lidocaine_viscous/article.htm |title=Generic Name: Lidocaine Viscous (Xylocaine Viscous) side effects, medical uses, and drug interactions |work=MedicineNet.com |accessdate=2010-05-07}}</ref> Aspirin bisa dianggo karo wong kang wis diwasa nanging ora prayoga kanggo bocah amarga bisa ningkatake risiko lelara aran sindrom Reye's kang bisa nyebabake oncating nyawa.<ref name=Review10/> ===Obat antibiotik=== Antibiotik kang umum digunakaké ing Amérika kanggo nambani lara gorokan streptokokus yaiku penisilin V. Obat iki populer amarga aman, regane murah, lan mandi.<ref name=Review09/> Obat kang arane amoxicillin luwih disenengi ing wewengkon Éropah.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bonsignori F, Chiappini E, De Martino M|title=The infections of the upper respiratory tract in children |journal=Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol |volume=23 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=16–9 |year=2010|pmid=20152073 |doi=}}</ref> Nagara India, kang duwé risiko luwih dhuwur tumrap tuwuhing panas rematik, milih obat suntik kang arane benzathine penicillin G minangka obat utama kang dianggo.<ref name=Review10/> Antibiotik kang bener bisa nyendhakake wektu rata-rata tuwuhing tandha-tandha (yaiku telu nganti limang dina) dadi mung sadina. Obat-obatan iku mau uga bisa ngurangi sumebaring lelara iki.<ref name=IDSAGuideline2002/> Utamane kanggo ngurangi komplikasi kaya ta panas serius, gabagen, utawa infeksi.<ref name=InternalMedPosition2001>{{cite journal |author=Snow V, Mottur-Pilson C, Cooper RJ, Hoffman JR|title=Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute pharyngitis in adults |journal=Ann Intern Med |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=506–8 |date=March 2001 |pmid=11255529 |doi= |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/134/6/506.pdf}}</ref> Linuwihing antibiotik kanggo tamba lara gorokan streptokokus kudu imbang karo efek samping kang bisa tuwuh sabanjuré<ref name=Review2001/>. Obat antibiotik ora prelu diwènèhake marang wong diwasa kang séhat lan nuduhake reaksi négatif marang obat mau.<ref name=InternalMedPosition2001/> Antibiotik kanggo lara gorokan streptokokus kudu diresepake luwih dhuwur tinimbang prakira parahing kedadeyan lelara iki lan kacepetan sumebare.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Linder JA, Bates DW, Lee GM, Finkelstein JA |title=Antibiotic treatment of children with sore throat |journal=J Am Med Assoc |volume=294 |issue=18 |pages=2315–22 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16278359|doi=10.1001/jama.294.18.2315 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/294/18/2315}}</ref> Obat eritromisin (lan usada liyané, kaaran macrolides) prayoga kanggo wong kang alergi parah karo penisilin.<ref name=Review09/> Sadurungé nganggo penisilin, jinis obat kang arane sefalosporin bisa minangka wong kang alergine luwih entheng.<ref name=Review09/> Infeksi streptokokus uga bisa nyebabake abuhing ginjel. Kaanan kaya mangkono tetep bisa tuwuh arepa antibiotik wis dianggo.<ref name=Review10/> ==Bakale Lelara Iki Sabanjure== Tandha-tandha lara gorokan iki lumrahé malih apik, ing watara telu nganti limang dina, ditambani utawa ora.<ref name="IDSAGuideline2002">{{cite journal|author=Bisno AL, Gerber MA, Gwaltney JM, Kaplan EL, Schwartz RH|first=|last3=Gwaltney|date=|year=2002|title=Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis. [[Infectious Diseases Society of America]]|url=|journal=Clin. Infect. Dis.|volume=35|issue=2|pages=113–25|doi=10.1086/340949|pmid=12087516}}</ref> Pangobatan nganggo antibiotiik ngurangi risiko tuwuhing lelara kang luwih serius lan nyegah sumebaring lelara iki. Bocah bisa langsung mangkat sekolah manèh ing wetara 24 jam sawisé ngombé antibiotik.<ref name=Review09/> Kaanan serius ing ngisor iki bisa disebabake déning lara gorokan streptokokus: * Panas nemen, kaya ta panas rematik<ref name=Review06/> utawa scarlet fever<ref name=Uptodate/> * Lelara kang bisa marahi nyawa oncat aransindrom syok toksik<ref name=Uptodate>{{Cite web|url=http://www.utdol.com/online/content/topic.do?topicKey=upp_resp/4610 |title=UpToDate Inc. |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Stevens DL, Tanner MH, Winship J, ''et al.''|title=Severe group A streptococcal infections associated with a toxic shock-like syndrome and scarlet fever toxin A |journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=321 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |date=July 1989 |pmid=2659990 |doi= 10.1056/NEJM198907063210101|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1989-07-06_321_1/page/1}}</ref> * Ginjel abuh<ref name=Review05/> * Lelara sinebut sindrom PANDAS<ref name=Review05>{{cite journal |author=Hahn RG, Knox LM, Forman TA |title=Evaluation of poststreptococcal illness|journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=71 |issue=10 |pages=1949–54 |date=May 2005 |pmid=15926411 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2005-05-15_71_10/page/1949}}</ref>, yaiku masalah imun kang nyebabake tandha-tandha patrap kang tuwuhe dumadakan lan kadhangkala serius ==Pola lan panyebaran lelara== Pancingen (utawa faringitis), yaiku sajembaring kategori lelara kang bisa nuwuhaké lara gorokan streptokokus, kadiagnosa ing 11 yuta wong saben tahune ing Amérikah Sarékat.<ref name=Review09/> Sakehing kasus pancingen mau lumrahé disebabake déning virus. Nanging, bakteri streptokokus grup A beta-hemolitik nyebabake 15 nganti 30 persèn lara pancingen ing bocah lan 5 nganti 20 persèn ing wong diwasa.<ref name=Review09/> Kasus-kasus mau racaké kedadeyan ing sarampunge mangsa dingin lan wiwitane mangsa semi.<ref name=Review09/> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{artikel pilihan}} tdlkqlxdamdxn6xemjo4cb83z1q7n5n Gurat sisi 0 105081 1752963 1613197 2026-08-20T06:39:18Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752963 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Sharks Lateral Line.svg|right|300px|thumb|Lukisan gurat sisih ing iwak [[cucut]]]] [[Gambar:RutilusRutilusScalesLateralLine.JPG|thumb|Sederetan sisik kanthi gurat sisih (tengah) ing iwak ''Rutilus rutilus''.]] '''Gurat sisih''' ([[Bahasa Inggris|Ingg.]]: ''lateral line'', [[Bahasa Latin|Lat.]]: ''linea lateralis'') ya iku kaya déné [[indera peraba]] kang ana ing kéwan-kéwan [[vertebrata]] akuatik, utamanw ing [[iwak]]. [[Indera]] iki padatan kanggo ngerteni owahing getaran lan perobahan ing kolom banyu ing sakiteré. Kaprigelan ngindra iki mbok manawa awit anané modifikasi [[sèl epitelial|sèl-sèl epitelial]], kang dikenal minangka [[sèl rambut|sèl-sèl rambut]], kang bisa ndeteksi pergeseran utawa perpindahan massa banyu akibat perobahan iwak utawa obahan liyané, lan ngowahine dadi impuls [[listrik]] lumantar sawijining [[sinapsis]] panampa rangsang. Gegayutan karo fungsine, gurat sisih duwé peran wigati ing orientasi lingkungan, [[perilaku]] nggrombol, lan uga [[predasi]]. [[Pemangsa|Ikan pemangsa]] tuladhané, kanthi migunakaké gurat sisih, bisa ngindra lan nglacak mangsane lumantar jejak [[vorteks]], ya iku kaya déné turbulensi banyu kang ditinggalake iwak nalika nglangi rikat. Gurat sisih, kaya déné arane, padatan keton minangka garis samar-samar ing sisih badan iwak, saka wewengkon sakiwa-tengené [[operkulum]] (tutup angsang) tekan mburi badan nganti pucuk buntut. Ing sapérangan [[spésies]], organ pengindera ing gurat sisih iki owah fungsi dadi kaya déné elektroreseptor kang bisa ndeteksi impuls listrik ing kiwa-tengené iwak. Akeh-akèhé [[larva]] [[amfibia]], lan uga diwasa saka sapérangan jinisé kang sejatine akuatik, ana sistem [[indera peraba]] mekanosensitif kang setara karo gurat sisih<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00612711 |title=A lateral line analogue in cephalopods: Water waves generate microphonic potentials in the epidermal head lines of ''Sepia'' and ''Lolliguncula'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-comparative-physiology_1988-11_164_1/page/n2 |year=1988 |last1=Budelmann |first1=Bernd U. |last2=Bleckmann |first2=Horst |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A |volume=164 |pages=1–5 |pmid=3236259 |issue=1}}</ref>. == Cathetan suku == {{reflist}} == Rujukan == *{{cite book |last1=Popper |first1=A. N. |first2=C. |last2=Platt |year=1993 |chapter=Inner ear and lateral line of bony fishes |editor1-first=D. H |editor1-last=Evans |title=The Physiology of Fishes |edition=1st |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-8042-6 |pages=99–136}} *{{cite book |last1=Schellart |first1=Nico A. M. |first2=René J. |last2=Wubbels |year=1998 |chapter=The Auditory and Mechanosensory Lateral Line System |chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rHyPWriet7gC&pg=PA283 |editor1-first=David Hudson |editor1-last=Evans |title=The Physiology of Fishes |edition=2nd |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-8427-1 |pages=283–312}} {{Commons category|Lateral line system}} [[Kategori:Indera]] [[Kategori:Anatomi hewan]] [[Kategori:Perilaku hewan]] {{anatomi-stub}} jv8oxvzpn4puvd4wqljnpj93qk06kkc Croup 0 105112 1752995 1747798 2026-08-20T07:31:06Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name =Croup | Image =Croup steeple sign.jpg | Caption = The [[steeple sign]] as seen on an AP neck X-ray of a child with croup | DiseasesDB = 13233 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|J|05|0|j|00}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|464.4}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000959 | eMedicineSubj = ped | eMedicineTopic = 510 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|370}} {{eMedicine2|radhio|199}} | MeshID = D003440 }} '''Croup''' (utawa '''laringotrakeobronkitis''') tegesé infeksi dalan ambegan kang disebabake déning infeksi nemen/parah ing dalan ambegan pérangan ndhuwur. Infeksi mau njalari abuhing gorokan njero. Amarga abuh kaya mangkono, pasien dadi ora bisa ambegan kanthi normal; banjur dadiya tandha-tandha Croup ya iku [[watuk]] kang "njegog" , [[stridor]] (mengi kang nganti nyuwara ngik), lan swara kang [[serak gerok]]. Tandha-tandha Croup bisa entheng, sedhengan, utawa, nemen, lan lumrahé tambah nemen nalika wayah bengi. Dosis [[steroid]] oral sapisan bisa nambani infeksi mau. Kadhangkala [[epinefrin]] uga digunakaké ing kasus-kasus kang luwih nemen. Arang lelakoné yèn pasien kudu dirumat ing rumah sakit. Croup didiagnosis dhedhasar kaanan klinis, jalaran tandha-tandha kang luwih nemen wis ora dianggo manèh (contoné, [[epiglottitis]] utawa [[barang asing kang nyangkut ing dalan ambegan]]). Panlesihan bab-bab liyané—kaya ta tes getih, ronsen [[sinar-X]], lan kultur—ora diprelokake. Croup ya iku kaanan biyasa kang tinemu ing 15% bocah, kang umurane antarané 6 sasi nganti 5–6 taun. Saliyane iku, bocah lanang luwih ringkih kena croup timbang bocah wadon. Remaja karo wong diwasa arang kena Croup. ==Tandha lan tandha-tandha== {{listen | filename = Stridor 2OGG.ogg | title = Stridor | katrangan = Stridor nalika nyerot lan nyebul ambegan ing bocah umur 13 wulan kang lara Croup. | format = [[Ogg]] }} Tandha-tandha Croup antarané [[watuk]] "njegog", [[stridor]] (ambegan nganti nyuwara ngik), [[serak gerok]], lan [[stres dalan ambegan|angèl ambegan]] kang lumrahé tambah nemen ing wayah bengi.<ref name=Au10>{{cite journal |author=Rajapaksa S, Starr M |title=Croup – assessment and management |journal=Aust Fam Physician |volume=39|issue=5 |pages=280–2 |date=May 2010 |pmid=20485713 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Watuk "njegog" mau asring digambarake memper[[Pinniped|anjing laut]] utawa [[singa laut]] nyeluk.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> [[Nangis]] bisa marahi ambegan ngak-ngik mau saya nemen; ngak-ngik bisa amarga dalan napas saya ciyut. Ambegan ngak-ngik bisa mudhun nyata banget nalika Croup saya nemen.<ref name=Au10/> Tandha-tandha liyané kaya ta [[panas]], [[coryza]] (tandha-tandha kang biyasa tuwuh ing [[lara masukangin]]), lan [[dhadha]] kang katon ketarik lumebu.<ref name=Au10/><ref name=Alberta07>{{cite web |url=http://www.childhealthbc.ca/resources/category/5-croup?download=13%3Acroup-guideline |format=PDF|title=Diagnosis and Management of Croup |work=BC Children’s Hospital Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine Clinical Practice Guidelines |accessdate=}}</ref> [[Ngeces]] utawa praupan lara mènèhi pratandha kaanan medis liyané.<ref name=Alberta07/> ==Panyebab== Sawijining virus bisa njalari Croup.<ref name=Au10/><ref name=PedN09/> Saperang wong migunakaké tembung mau kanggo ngatutake[[laringotrakeitis]] nemen, Croup spasmodik, dipteri laringeal, [[trakeitis asebab baktèri]], laringotrakeobronkitis, lan laringotrakeobronkopneumonitis nemen. Rong kaanan kang sinebut pisanan ngatutake virus lan duwé tandha-tandha kang luwih entheng; patang kaanan sabanjuré disebabake déning baktèri lan lumrahé luwih nemen.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> ===Asebab Virus=== Ing 75% kasus [[virus parainfluenza]], mligi jinis 1 lan 2, dadi virus kang njalari Croup/laringotrakeitis akut.<ref name=Croup09/> Kadhangkala viruse ya iku virus liyané kang bisa njalari Croup kalebu virus [[influenza]] A lan B, [[campak]], [[adenovirus]] lan [[virus respiratory syncytial]] (RSV).<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> Croup spasmodik (Croup kang nganggo watuk njegog) disebabake déning gugusing virus kang padha karo jalaran laringotrakeitis akut, nanging ora nuwuhaké tandha-tandha infeksi kang biyasa (kaya ta panas, pancingen, lan nambahing [[cacah sèl darah putih]]).<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> Pangobatan, lan tanggepan tumrap obat uga memper lelara mau.<ref name=Croup09/> ===Asebab Bakteri=== Croup kang disebabake déning baktèri bisa diperang dadi dipteri laringeal, trakeitis baktèri, laringotrakeobronkitis, lan laringotrakeobronkopneumonitis.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> Dipteri laringeal disebabake déning ''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]'' , trakeitis asebab baktèri, laringotrakeobronkitis, lan laringotrakeobronkopneumonitis mligi disebabake déning virus nanging baktèri uga mèlu katut dadi jalaran. Bakteri kang paling umum dadi jalaran ya iku''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'', ''[[Hemophilus influenzae]]'', lan ''[[Moraxella catarrhalis]]''.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> ==Mekanisme== Infeksi virus lumebu ing njero [[sèl darah putih]] banjur njalari abuhing [[laring]], [[trakea ula-ula|trakea]], lan ngambaning [[bronki]]<ref name=PedN09/> (dalan ambegan). Kaanan abuh mau bisa njalari angeling ambegan.<ref name=PedN09/> ==Diagnosis== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+ '''Skor Westley: Klasifikasi nemen orane Croup'''<ref name=Croup09/><ref name=Peds99/> |- ! rowspan="2" |Fitur ! colspan="6" |Cacahing biji kanggo fitur iki |- !0 !1 !2 !3 !4 !5 |- | Retraksi Dhadha<br /> | width="80"|Ora ana | width="80"|Entheng | width="80"|Sedheng | width="80"|Nemen/parah |- |- |- | [[Stridor]] | Ora ana | Dibarengi<br /> agitasi | Nalika ngaso |- | [[Sianosis]] | Ora ana | Dibarengi<br /> agitasi | Nalika ngaso |- | [[Tingkating kasadaran|Tingkating<br />kasadaran]] | Normal | Disorientasi |- | Ambegan lumebu | Normal | Kurang | Mudhun nemen |- Croup ateges diagnosis klinis.<ref name=PedN09/> Tumindak sapisanan ya iku misahake kaanan obstruktif/bengek liyané ing dalan ambegan, mligi[[epiglotitis]], [[barang temangsang]] ing dalan ambegan, [[stenosis subglotik]], [[angioedema]], [[abses retrofaringeal]], lan[[Trakeitis#tracheitis asebab baktèri|trakeitis baktèri]].<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/><ref name=PedN09/> Yèn pamriksan [[Ronsen]] ing pérangan gulu ora dilakoni kanthi rutin,<ref name=PedN09/> nanging saora-orane dilakoni sapisan, asile bakal nuduhaké pérangan trakea kang katon nyiyut kang biyasa tumon ing lelara iki, sinebut [[tandha menara/steeple sign]], amarga wujudé kang memper menara gréja [[Menara (arsitèktur)|menara]]. Tandha menara iki ora katon ing separoning kasus kang dumadi.<ref name=Alberta07/> [[Tes getih]] lan [[kultur virus]]s (tes virus) bisa njalari iritasi kang ora prelu ing dalan ambegan.<ref name=PedN09/> Ewasemono kultur virus, kang dijupuk kanthi [[nasofaringeal]] (ya iku cara migunakaké selang kanggo nyedhot riak saka irung), bisa minangka mesthekake jalaran kang satemene. Kultur iki biayasane diwatesi mung kanggo panaliten.<ref name=Au10/> Yèn pasien durung mari-mari panggonané lara sawisé diwènèhi pangobatan baku, tes sabanjuré bisa ditindaki kanggo mriksa ana oraning baktèri.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> ;Abot oraning lelara Sistem kang paling umum minangka nglasifikasi abot oraning Croup ya iku skor Westley. Tes iki luwih kerep minangka panaliten tinimbang praktek klinis.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM">{{cite journal |author=Cherry JD |title=Clinical practice. Croup |journal=N. J. Med. |volume=358 |issue=4 |pages=384–91 |year=2008 |pmid=18216359 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp072022 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/358/4/384 |access-date=2014-01-09 |archive-date=2010-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105072145/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/358/4/384 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Croup dumadi saka gunggunging biji kang ditrapake tumrap 5 faktor: tingkating kasadaran, sianosis, stridor, lumebuning ambegan, lan retraksi.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> Biji kang dipasangake ing saben faktor katulis ing tabel ing sisih tengen, lan gunggung keprukke antarané saka 0 nganti 17.<ref name=Peds99/> * Gunggung skor ≤&nbsp;2 nandhakake dumadining Croup ''entheng''. Pasien bisa nuduhaké watuk njegog lan swara serak, nanging ora ana ambegan ngak-ngik (wheezing) nalika ngaso.<ref name=Croup09/> * Gunggung skor 3–5 lumebu ing kelas Croup ''sedheng'' — pasien nuduhaké ambegan ngak-ngik lan sawatara tandha liyané.<ref name=Croup09/> * Gunggung skor 6–11 kalebu Croup ''nemen''. Croup iki ditandhani stridor kang cetha banget, uga nuduhaké pérangan [[dhadha]] kang ketarik lumebu.<ref name=Croup09/> * Gunggung skor ≥&nbsp;12 padha karo [[gagal napas]] kang bisa dumadi. Ewasemono watuk njegog lan ambegan ngak-ngik wis ora ketara manèh ing tataran iki.<ref name=Croup09/> 85% pasien bocah kang lumebu UGD nandhang lelara kang entheng; Croup nemen arang lelakoné (<1%).<ref name=Croup09/> ==Panyegahan== [[Imunisasi]] (vaksin) kanggo [[influenza]] lan [[dipteri]] bisa nyegah lelakoné Croup.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> ==Pangobatan== Bocah-bocah kang nandhang Croup kudu bisa digawé tetep anteng lan sabar.<ref name=PedN09/> Steroid rutin diwènèhake, tambah epinefrin yèn penyakite nemen.<ref name=PedN09/> Bocah-bocah kang nandhang [[saturasi oksigèn]] (oksigèn kang ana ing getih) sangisore 92% kudu diwènèhi oksigèn,<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> lan pawongan kang nandhang Croup nemen/abot bisa dilebokake rumah sakit kanggo observasi.<ref name=Alberta07/> Yèn mbutuhake oksigèn, prayogane diwènèhake kanthi "blow-by" (ya iku nyelehake sumbering (selang) oksigèn ing sacedhaking raine bocah) amarga cara iki bisa ngurangi agitasi/kejang yèn dibandhingake karo nganggo [[masker oksigèn|masker]].<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> Yèn ditambani, mung kurang saka 0.2% pasien kang mbutuhake [[intubasi endotrakeal]](pamasangan selang ing njero dalan ambegan).<ref name=Peds99>{{cite journal |author=Klassen TP |title=Croup. A current perspective |journal=Pediatr. North Am. |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=1167–78 |date=December 1999 |pmid=10629679 |doi= 10.1016/S0031-3955(05)70180-2|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatric-clinics-of-north-america_1999-12_46_6/page/1167}}</ref> ===Steroid=== [[Kortikosteroid]], kaya ta [[deksametason]] lan [[budesonida]], bisa minangka nambani Croup ing bocah cilik.<ref name=Cochrane11>{{cite journal |author=Russell KF, Liang Y, O'Gorman K, Johnson DW, Klassen TP |title=Glucocorticoids for croup |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=1 |issue= 1|pages=CD001955 |year=2011 |pmid=21249651 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001955.pub3 |url= |editor1-last=Klassen|editor1-first=Terry P}}</ref> Ambegan langsung bisa lega sajeroning nem jam sawisé obat diwènèhake.<ref name=Cochrane11/> Obat-obatan kaya ngene bisa mandi lumantar cara oral (diombe), [[parenteral]] (disuntikake), utawa diserot, nanging cara diombe kang paling disenengi.<ref name=PedN09/> Lumrahé mung prelu dosis sapisan waé, lan wis umum dianggep aman.<ref name=PedN09/> Deksametason kang dosise 0,15, 0,3 lan 0,6&nbsp;mg/kg katone uga padha mandine.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Port C |title=Towards evidence based emergency medicine: best BETs from the Manchester Royal Infirmary. Dose of dexamethasone in croup |journal=Emerg Med J |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=291–2 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19307398|doi=10.1136/emj.2009.072090 |url=}}</ref> ===Epinefrin=== Croup sedhengan lan nemen bisa ditulung nganggo [[nebulisasi]] [[epinefrin]](larutan kang bisa diserot banjur bisa ngambakake dalan ambegan)<ref name=PedN09>{{cite journal |author=Everard ML|title=Acute bronchiolitis and croup |journal=Pediatr. North Am. |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=119–33, x–xi |date=February 2009|pmid=19135584 |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2008.10.007 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatric-clinics-of-north-america_2009-02_56_1/page/119}}</ref> Epinefrin bisa langsung ngedhunake nemene Croup ing 10–30 menit, ewasemono apike paling mung bisa nganti 2 jam waé.<ref name=Au10/><ref name=PedN09/> Yèn kaanan apik mau bisa terus nganti wektu 2–4&nbsp;jam sawisé ditambani tanpa ana komplikasi liyané, pasien bocah lumrahé bisa langsung digawa mulih saka rumah sakit.<ref name=Au10/><ref name=PedN09/> ===Liyane=== Obat Croup liyané wis naté ditliti, nanging ora ana bukti kang cukup kanggo njurung panggunan usada mau. Nyerot uwab panas utawa hawa humidifikasi ya iku pangobatan [[pribadi]] tradhisional, nanging panaliten klinis ora bisa nemu bukti mandine cara mau<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/><ref name=PedN09/> lan saiki arang dianggo manèh.<ref name=Hist2001>{{cite journal |author=Marchessault V |title=Historical review of croup |journal=Can J Infect Dis |volume=12|issue=6 |pages=337–9 |date=November 2001 |pmid=18159359 |pmc=2094841 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Panggunan [[obat watuk]], kang lumrahé ngandhut[[dektrometorfan]] lan/utawa [[guiafenesin]], iku ora apik.<ref name=Au10/> Biyèn, yyerot [[heliox]] (campuran [[hélium]] lan [[oksigèn]]) kanggo ngurangi ambegan kang abot wis naté dianggo, nanging ora ana bukti kang njurung panggunane.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vorwerk C, Coats T |title=Heliox for croup in children |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=2 |issue= 2|pages=CD006822 |year=2010 |pmid=20166089|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006822.pub2 |url= |editor1-last=Vorwerk |editor1-first=Christiane}}</ref> Croup ya iku lelara kang disebabake virus, mula[[antibiotik]] ora digunakaké kajaba baktèri diprakirakake uga dadi jalaran.<ref name=Au10/> Antibiotik [[vankomisin]] lan [[sefotaksim]] disaranake kanggo infeksi baktèri.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> Ing kasus-kasus nemen kang gegayutan karo influenza&nbsp;A utawa B,[[antivirus]] [[pangalang neuraminidase]] bisa diwènèhake.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> ==Prognosis== Croup kang disebabake déning virus lumrahé mung lelara kang [[Self-limiting (biologi)|maridhewe]] lan mung sadhéla; lelara iki arang njalari pasien nemahi pati amarga [[gagal ambegan]] lan/utawa[[serangan jantung]].<ref name=Au10/> Tandha-tandha lumrahé mundhak dadi apik ing rong&nbsp;dina, nanging bisa uga nganti pitung&nbsp;dina.<ref name=Croup09/> Komplikasi liya nanging ora biyasa ya iku trakeitis asebab baktèri, [[pneumonia]], lan [[edema paru]].<ref name=Croup09>{{cite journal |author=Johnson D|title=Croup |journal=Clin Evid (Online) |volume=2009 |issue= |pages= |year=2009 |pmid=19445760 |doi= |url= |pmc=2907784}}</ref> ==Epidemiologi== Kira-kira 15% bocah, lumrahé saumuran antarané 6 wulan nganti 5–6 taun, wis naté kena Croup.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/><ref name=PedN09/> Croup dadi lelara kang njalari 5% rumatan rumah sakit kanggo gugus umur iki.<ref name=Croup09/> Sanajan arang, bocah saumuran 3 sasi nganti sagedhene 15 taun duwé lelara iki.<ref name=Croup09/> Lanang 50% luwih kerep kena tinimbang wadon; Croup uga luwih kerep kedadeyan ing mangsa palastra.<ref name="Cherry08_NEJM"/> ==Sajarah== Tembung ''croup'' asalé saka tembung kriya [[Basa Inggris Modhern Wiwitan]] ''croup,'' ateges "nangis kanthi swara serak"; aran mau kawitane minangka lelara mau ing Sekotlan banjur dadi kawentar ing abad 18.<ref>Online Etymological Dictionary, [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=croup croup]. Accessed 2010-09-13.</ref> Croup amarga lelara dipteri wis dipahami kawit mangsane [[Homer]] ing jaman [[Yunani Kuna]]. Ing taun 1826, Bretonneau mbedakake Croup asebab virus karo Croup amarga [[dipteri]].<ref name=history>{{cite book |author=Feigin, Ralph D. |title=Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases |publisher=Saunders |location=Philadelphia |year=2004 |page=252 |isbn=0-7216-9329-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Wong-wong Prancis ngarani Croup asebab virus nganggo tembung "faux-croup," lan migunakaké "Croup" kanggo lelara kang disebabake déning baktèri dipteri.<ref name=Hist2001/> Croup asebab dipteri mundhak meh ora dipahami amarga tekané [[imunisasi]] efektif.<ref name=history/> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} 8xkpgzkz0esbcsfmd3wyd54otobs1sz Asem urat 0 105113 1753080 1736770 2026-08-20T10:01:40Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 9 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753080 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Asam urat | Image = The gout james gillray.jpg | Alt = A small creature with sharp teeth is biting into a swollen foot at the base of the big toe | Caption = ''Gout'', a 1799 caricature by [[James Gillray]] | DiseasesDB = 29031 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|M|10||m|05}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|274.00}} {{ICD9|274.1}} {{ICD9|274.8}} {{ICD9|274.9}} | ICDO = | OMIM = 138900 | OMIM_mult = {{OMIM2|300323}} | MedlinePlus = 000422 | eMedicineSubj = emerg | eMedicineTopic = 221 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|med|924}} {{eMedicine2|med|1112}} {{eMedicine2|oph|506}} {{eMedicine2|orthoped|124}}{{eMedicine2|radhio|313}} | MeshID = D006073 }} '''Gout''' utawa asem urat (kang uga dipahami kanthi jeneng '''podagra''' yèn wis nganti kena jempol sikil)<ref name=Egg2007/> ya iku [[Disease|kaanan medis]] kang tandha-tandha lumrahé wujud [[inflammatory arthritis]] ya iku [[joint effusion|ros-rosan abuh]]—kang nganti abang, gembuk, lan panas. [[Metatarsophalangeal articulations|Ros metatarsal-phalangeal]] ing poking [[hallux|jempol sikil]] dadi panggonan kang paling umum ketaman (prakira 50% kasus). Asam urat uga bisa tuwuh minangka benjol-benjol saka klumpukan kristal ing sangisoring kulit, sajeroning ros-rosan, lan sajeroning balung kang sinebut [[tophi]], [[watu ginjel]], utawa nglumpuking kristal urat ing ginjel sinebut [[nefropati urat]]. Sebabe ya iku dhuwuré angka kandhutan [[asem urat]] ing [[getih]]. Asam urat malih dadi kristal, banjur kristal-kristal mau nglumpuk ing ros-rosan, [[téndhon]], lan ing sakupenging [[tissue (biology)|jaringan]]. Diagnosis klinis ditegesake kanthi ndeleng sipating kristal ing lenga ros-rosan. Pangobatan nganggo obat anti-abuh non-steroid utawa [[nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs]] (NSAIDs), [[steroid]], utawa [[kolkisin]] bisa ngatasi tandha-tandha. Nalika serangan akut kalong, angka asem urat lumrahé bisa dikurangi kanthi ngowahi gaya hidup, utawa nganggo obat [[allopurinol]] utawa [[probenesid]] kang bisa nyegah kedadeyan serangan ing let suwé kanggo pasien kang kerep ketaman serangan. Ing pirang-pirang puluh taun kang keri iki, kasus asem urat saya nambah cacah lelakoné, prakira ana 1-2% populasi nagara-nagara [[Western world|Kulon]] kang ketaman lelara iki ing sawijining umuré. Nambahing kedadeyan iki dinuga amarga nambahing faktor-faktor risiko ing populasi mau, kaya ta [[sindrom metabolik]], tingkat harapan hidup utawa [[life expectancy]] lan owahing diet. Miturut sajarah, asem urat iki kawentar dadi "penyakite ratu" utawa "lelara priyayi sugih". ==Tandha lan tandha-tandha== [[Image:Gout2010.JPG|thumb|alt=gambar sikil saka iringan kang nuduhaké kulit abang sandhuwuring ros-rosan ing pok jempol sikil | Asam urat kang tuwuh ing [[Metatarsophalangeal articulations|ros metatarsal-phalangeal]] jempol sikil: Titeni pérangan kulit kang semu abang ing sandhuwuring ros-rosan.]] Asam urat bisa tuwuh ing manéka cara, nadyan kang paling umum ya iku serangan [[inflammatory arthritis]] (ya iku ros-rosan abang, gembuk, panas, lan abuh) kang kerep lan bola-bali kedadeyan.<ref name=Review08/> Ros metatarsal-phalangeal ing poking [[hallux|jempol sikil]] dadi pérangan kang paling kerep ketaman, kira-kira ing separone kasus kang kedadeyan.<ref name=PM2010/> Ros-rosan liyané kaya ta tungkak, dhengkul, ros tangan, lan driji, bisa uga mèlu ketaman.<ref name=PM2010/> Rasa ngilu ros-rosan iki lumrahé wiwit nganti punjul 2–4&nbsp;jam lan lelakoné ing wayah bengi.<ref name=PM2010/> Sing njalari kedadeyan ing wayah bengi iki ya iku mudhuning témperatur badan ing wayah semono.<ref name=Egg2007/> Tandha-tandha liya kang arang mèlu tuwuh bareng ros-rosan ngilu kaya ta [[fatigue (medical)|rasa sayah]] lan [[panas]] dhuwur.<ref name=Egg2007/><ref name=PM2010/> Angka kandhutan [[asem urat]] kang mundhak terus nganti suwé ([[hiperurisemia]]) bisa njalari tandha-tandha liya kaya ta klumpukan asem urat kang atos lan ora krasa lara sinebut [[tophi]]. Tophi kang kebablasen bisa njalari [[arthritis]] kronis jalaran kaanan kang jenenge erosi balung.<ref name=Nature2009/> Angka asem urat kang saya dhuwur uga bisa njalari kristal-kristal mau mandheg ing njero [[ginjel]] kang suwé - suwé dadi [[kidney stone|watu]] banjur njalari [[Acute uric acid nephropathy|nefropati urat]].<ref name=German09/> ==Panyebab== [[Hiperurisemia]] ya iku jalaran utama asem urat. Hiperurisemia bisa tuwuh jalaran saka manéka sebab kalebu diet, turunan genetis, utawa kuranging ekskresi [[Uric acid#Solubility of uric acid and its salts|urat]], ya iku uyahing asem urat.<ref name=Review08/> Kuranging ekskresi asem urat ing ginjel dadi jalaran utama hiperurisemia, kira-kira ing 90% kasus, déné luwih-luwihing produksi asem urat mung dadi panyebabe kurang saka 10% kasus.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Prakira 10% wong kang nandhang hiperurisemia bakal kena asem urat ing sawijining umur uripé.<ref name="pmid18327257">{{cite journal |author=Vitart V, Rudan I, Hayward C, ''et al.'' |title=SLC2A9 is a newly identified urate transporter influencing serum urate concentration, urate excretion and gout |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=437–42 |date=April 2008|pmid=18327257 |doi=10.1038/ng.106 |url=}}</ref> Ewasemono, risikone bisa manéka rupa gumantung karo parah oraning hiperurisemia. Nalika kandhutan asem urat ana ing angka 415 nganti 530&nbsp;μmol/l (7 nganti 8,9&nbsp;mg/dl), risikone ana 0,5% ing saben taune, déné panandhang kang angka kandhutane luwih dhuwur saka 535&nbsp;μmol/l (9&nbsp;mg/dL), risikone 4,5% ing saben taune.<ref name=Egg2007/> ===Gaya Hidup=== Jinis konsumsi pangan njalari 12% kasus asem urat,<ref name=Review08/> kalebu kang ana gegayutan raket karo konsumsi alkohol, ombèn kang ngandhut gula saka jinis [[fruktosa]], daging, lan pangan kang asalé saka sagara.<ref name=Nature2009/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Weaver|first=AL|title=Epidemiology of gout|journal=Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine|date=2008 Jul|volume=75 Suppl 5|pages=S9–12|pmid=18819329}}</ref> Pamicu liyané kaya ta [[trauma fisik]] lan oprasi.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Panaliten anyar nemu yèn faktor pangan kang kawit biyèn dipercaya duwé gegayutan, pranyatane malah ora nglebokaké diet pangan kang wujud jejanganan mawa kandhutan [[purin]] dhuwur (kaya ta, buncis, kapri, kacang tholo, lan bayem) lan protéin total.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Willett W, Curhan G |title=Purine-rich foods, dairy and protéin intake, and the risk of gout in men |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=350 |issue=11 |pages=1093–103 |date=March 2004|pmid=15014182 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa035700 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2004-03-11_350_11/page/1093}}</ref><ref name=Epi2008/> Konsumsi [[kopi]], [[vitamin C]] lan [[produk saka susu]], tambah kabugaran badan kaya-kaya bisa ngurangi risiko mau.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hak AE, Choi HK |title=Lifestyle and gout |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=179–86 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18349748 |doi=10.1097/BOR.0b013e3282f524a2 |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Williams PT|title=Effects of diet, physical activity and performance, and body weight on incident gout in ostensibly healthy, vigorously active men |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=1480–7 |date=May 2008|pmid=18469274 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2008-05_87_5/page/1480}}</ref><ref name=Life2010>{{cite journal |author=Choi HK |title=A prescription for lifestyle change in patients with hyperuricemia and gout |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=165–72|date=March 2010 |pmid=20035225 |doi=10.1097/BOR.0b013e328335ef38 |url=}}</ref> Panduga iki separone dijalari efek pepangan mau ing ngudhunake [[resistensi insulin]].<ref name=Life2010/> ===Genetik=== Lelakoné asem urat separone disebabake déning faktor gen, kang njalari prabawa ing prakira 60% [[Genetic variability|mawarna-wernané]] angka asem urat.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Telung [[gen]] sinebut ''[[SLC2A9]]'', ''[[SLC22A12]]'' lan ''[[ABCG2]]'' wis tinemu biyasa gegayutan karo asem urat, kamanekan ing gen-gen mau bisa kira-kira nikelake risiko.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Merriman|first=TR|author2=Dalbeth, N|title=The genetic basis of hyperuricaemia and gout.|journal=Joint, bone, spine: revue du rhumatisme|date=2011 Jan|volume=78|issue=1|pages=35–40|pmid=20472486|doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2010.02.027}}</ref><ref name=Reginato2012>{{cite journal |author=Reginato AM, Mount DB, Yang I, Choi HK |title=The genetics of hyperuricaemia and gout |journal=Nat Rev Rheumatol |volume= |issue= |pages= |date=September 2012 |pmid=22945592 |doi=10.1038/nrrheum.2012.144|url=}}</ref> Mutasi ilange fungsi ing ''SLC2A9'' lan ''SLC22A12'' njalari hipourisemia turunan wujud mudhune panyerepan urat lan sekresi urat kang ora bisa dilawan.<ref name=Reginato2012/> Ana gangguan-gangguan genetik arang kang uga dikomplikasi karo asem urat. Cacahe ora akèh kaya ta nefropati hiperurisemik ing rumaja amarga turunan sinebut [[Tamm-Horsfall protéin|familial juvenile hyperuricemic nephropathy]], lelara ginjel sistik meduler utawa [[medullary cystic kidney disease]], superaktivitas [[PRPSAP1|sintetase fosforibosilpirofosfat]], lan defisiensi [[hipoxantin-guanin fosforibosiltransferase]] kaya kang tuwuh ing [[sindrom Lesch-Nyhan]].<ref name=Lancet2010/> ===Kaanan Medis=== Asam urat kerep tuwuh bareng karo masalah medis liyané. [[Sindrom metabolik]], banjur [[obesitas abdomen]], [[hipertensi]], [[resistensi insulin]] kang bareng-bareng dadi siji lan [[Dyslipidemia|level lemak abnormal]], tuwuh ing prakira 75% kasus.<ref name=PM2010/> Kaanan liya kang komplikasi karo asem urat antarané: [[pulisitemia]], [[keracunan timbel]], [[gagal ginjel]], [[anemia hemolitik]], [[psoriasis]], lan [[organ transplant|cangkok organ padhet]].<ref name=Lancet2010/><ref name="pmid16392875">{{cite journal |author=Stamp L, Searle M, O'Donnell J, Chapman P |title=Gout in solid organ transplantation: a challenging clinical problem |journal=Drugs |volume=65|issue=18 |pages=2593–611 |year=2005 |pmid=16392875 |doi= |url=}}</ref> [[Indhèks massa tubuh]] utawa indeks aboting badan kang luwih dhuwur utawa padha karo 35 ningkatake risiko asem urat nganti tikel telu tumraping golongan priya.<ref name=Epi2008/> Kakehan kena logam berat timbel nganti kronis utawa ngombé alkohol kang ngandhut kontaminasi timbel uga dadi faktor-faktor risiko asem urat amarga efek mbebayani timbel tumrap fungsi ginjel.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Loghman-Adham M |title=Renal effects of environmental and occupational lead exposure |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_environmental-health-perspectives_1997-09_105_9/page/928 |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=928–38 |date=September 1997 |pmid=9300927 |pmc=1470371 |doi= 10.2307/3433873|publisher=Brogan & Partners |jstor=3433873}}</ref> [[Sindrom Lesch-Nyhan]] kerep sesambungan karo artritis amarga asem urat. ===Pangobatan=== [[Diuretik]] uga disambungaké marang serangan asem urat. Ewasemono, dosis endhek [[hidroklorotiazid]] katone ora ningkatake risiko.<ref name=CFP09/> Obat liya kang wis dianggep gegayutan kalebu [[niasin]] lan [[aspirin]] (asem asetilsalisilat).<ref name=Nature2009/> Obat kang ngalangi imun sinebut [[obat immunosupresif]] [[siklosporin]] lan [[takrolimus]] uga duwé gegayutan karo asem urat,<ref name=Lancet2010/> mligi yèn siklosporin digunakaké bebarengan karo hidroklorotiazid.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Gary S. |editor1-last=Firestein, MD |editor2-first=Ralph C.|editor2-last=Budd, MD |editor3-first=Edward D. |editor3-last=Harris Jr., MD |editor4-first= Iain B.|editor4-last=McInnes PhD, FRCP |editor5-last=Ruddy, MD |editor6-last=Sergent, MD |title=KELLEY'S Textbook of Rheumatology |edition=8th |year=2008 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-4160-4842-8 |chapter=Chapter 87: Gout and Hyperuricemia |editor-first=Shaun |editor3-given=John S.}}</ref> ==Lelakoné== [[Image:Harnsäure Ketoform.svg|thumb|alt=struktur senyawa organik: 7,9-dihidro-1H-purin-2,6,8(3H)-triona|[[Asam urat]]]] Asam urat ya iku gangguan [[metabolisme purin]],<ref name=Lancet2010/> lan tuwuh nalika metabolit pungkasané, ya iku [[asem urat]], malih dadi kristal-kristal ing wujud monosodium urat, banjur mandheg ing ros-rosan, téndhon, lan ing jaringan sakupenge.<ref name=Nature2009/> Kristal-kristal mau banjur njalari reaksi abuh kang ditengahi déning [[imun]].<ref name=Nature2009/> Salah sijining protéin kunci kang ana ing sajeroning prosès lelakoné abuh mau ya iku [[interleukin 1β]].<ref name=Lancet2010/> [[Urikase]] kang fungsine mbongkar asem urat ing manungsa lan [[primata]] kelas dhuwur saya ilang saka sethithik nanging terus-terusan saéngga njalari kaanan iki mau dadi umum kedadeyan.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Sing marahi mandheging asem urat ora patiya dimangerteni. Nalika cacahé normal waé asem urat bisa malih dadi kristal, ewasemono prosès ngristal mau luwih biyasa kedadeyan yèn cacahé mundhak.<ref name=Nature2009/><ref name="pmid17595458">{{cite journal|author=Virsaladze DK, Tetradze LO, Dzhavashvili LV, Esaliia NG, Tananashvili DE |title=[Levels of uric acid in serum in patients with metabolic syndrome] |language=Russian |journal=Georgian Med News |volume= |issue=146 |pages=35–7|date=May 2007 |pmid=17595458 |trans-title=Levels of uric acid in serum in patients with metabolic syndrome}}</ref> Faktor liya kang diyakini wigati ing nuwuhaké kedadeyan artritis akut kalebu kaanan adhem, owahing cacah asem urat kang rikat banget, [[asidosis]],<ref name="pmid12672211">{{cite journal| author = Moyer RA, John DS| title = Acute gout precipitated by total parenteral nutrition| journal = The Journal of rheumatology| volume = 30| issue = 4|pages = 849–50|date=April 2003| pmid = 12672211| doi = | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-rheumatology_2003-04_30_4/page/849| issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid7783706">{{cite journal| author = Halabe A, Sperling O| title = Uric acid nephrolithiasis| journal = Mineral and electrolyte metabolism| volume = 20| issue = 6| pages = 424–31| year = 1994| pmid = 7783706| doi = | url = | issn =}}</ref> hidrasi artikular, lan protéin [[matriks ekstraseluler]] kaya ta [[proteoglikan]], [[kolagen]], lan[[chondroitin sulfat]].<ref name=Lancet2010/> Ngendheging asem urat nalika kaanan adhem bisa nerangake kenang apa ros-rosan sikil dadi pérangan kang paling kerep kena.<ref name=Review08/> Owahing asem urat kang rikat banget busa tuwuh amarga pirang-pirang faktor kaya ta trauma, oprasi, [[kemoterapi]], diuretik, lan [[allopurinol]] kang mandheg utawa wiwit.<ref name=Egg2007/> [[Calcium channel blocker]] utawa pangalang saluran kalsium lan [[losartan]] digandheng-gandhengake karo risiko asem urat kang luwih sithik yèn dibandhingake karo obat liya kanggo [[hipertensi]].<ref name="pmid22240117">{{cite journal| author=Choi HK, Soriano LC, Zhang Y, Rodríguez LA| title=Antihypertensive drugs and risk of incident gout among patients with hypertension: population based case-control study. | journal=BMJ | year= 2012 | volume= 344 | issue= | pages= d8190 | pmid=22240117 |doi=10.1136/bmj.d8190 | pmc=3257215 | url= }}</ref> ==Diagnosis== [[File:Gichtfuss im Roentgenbild 002.png|thumb|Asam urat dideleng nganggo [[sinar-X]] ing sikil kiwa: Panggonan kang umum kena ya iku ros-rosan jempol sikil. Gatekake abuh wujud jaringan gembuk ing wates lateral sikil.]] [[File:Fluorescent uric acid.JPG|thumb|alt=pirang-pirang kristal awujud dom warna-werni katon sangareping latar wungu|Gagang lancip kristal asem urat saka sampel [[lenga sinovial]] difoto nganggo mikroskop mawa [[Polarization (waves)|cahya kang dipolarisasi]]. Formasi kristal asem urat ing ros-rosan gegandhengan karo asem urat.]] Asam urat bisa didiagnosis lan ditambani tanpa panlesikan sateruse ing wong kang nandhang hiperurisemia lan podagra klasik. Yèn diagnosis mau kurang tinercaya, banjur analisis lenga sinovial kudu dilakoni.<ref name=Egg2007/> [[Sinar-X]] migunani ing ngidhentifikasi asem urat kronis, nanging ing serangan akut, cara iki ora patiya migunani.<ref name=Lancet2010/> ===Lenga Sinovial=== Diagnosis definitif asem urat dhedhasar ing idhentifikasi [[urate|kristal monosodium urat]] ing [[lenga sinovial]] utawa [[tophus]].<ref name=PM2010>{{cite journal |author=Schlesinger N |title=Diagnosing and treating gout: a review to aid primary care physicians |journal=Postgrad Med |volume=122 |issue=2 |pages=157–61 |date=March 2010|pmid=20203467 |doi=10.3810/pgm.2010.03.2133 |url=}}</ref> Kabèh sampel lenga sinovial kang dijupuk saka ros-rosan abuh kang durung didiagnosis kudu dipriksa ana oraning kristal iki.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Dideleng lumantar mikroskopi [[cahya polarisasi]], kristal-kristal mau duwé wujud wujud dom lan asipat négatif kuwat [[birefringens]]. Tes iki angèl dilakoni lan mbutuhake panliti kang wis kalatih.<ref name="pmid18299687">{{cite journal |author=Schlesinger N |title=Diagnosis of gout|journal=Minerva Med. |volume=98 |issue=6 |pages=759–67 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18299687 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Lenga iku uga kudu dipriksa sacepete sawisé disedhot amarga témperatur lan pH bakal marahi solubilitase owah.<ref name=Lancet2010/> ===Tes Getih=== [[Hiperurisemia]] ateges sipating asem urat klasik, nanging tuwuhing asem urat iki separone tanpa hiperurisemia, lan sakehing wong kang angka asem urate mundhak ora naté nandhang lara asem urat.<ref name=PM2010/><ref>{{cite journal | author = Sturrock R |title = Gout. Easy to misdiagnose | journal = [[British Medical Journal|BMJ]] | volume = 320 | issue = 7228 | pages = 132–33 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10634714 |url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/320/7228/132 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.320.7228.132 | pmc = 1128728}}</ref> Mula, guna diagnostik ngukur asem urat iku dadine ora akèh.<ref name=PM2010/> Hiperurisemia ateges angka urat [[blood plasma|plasma]] getih luwih dhuwur saka 420 μmol/l (7,0&nbsp;mg/dl) ing priya lan 360 μmol/l (6,0&nbsp;mg/dl) ing wanita.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sachs L, Batra KL, Zimmermann B |title=Medical implications of hyperuricemia |journal=Med Health R I |volume=92 |issue=11 |pages=353–55|date=November 2009 |pmid=19999892 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Tes getih liya kang lumrahé uga ditindakake ya iku [[itungan sèl getih putih]], [[elektrolit]], [[fungsi ginjel]], lan cepeting sedimentasi eritrosit utawa [[lerythrocyte sedimentation rate]] (ESR). Ewasemono, sèl getih putih lan ESR bisa nambah amarga asem urat sanajan tanpa ana infeksi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/329958-diagnosis |title=Gout: Differential Diagnoses & Workup - eMedicine Rheumatology |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/808628-diagnosis|title=Gout and Pseudogout: Differential Diagnoses & Workup - eMedicine Emergency Medicine |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> Cacahing sèl getih putih sakehing 40,0×10<sup>9</sup>/l (40.000/mm<sup>3</sup>) wis naté kacathet.<ref name=Egg2007/> ===Diagnosis bandhing=== [[Diagnosis diferensial]] kang paling wigati ing asem urat ya iku [[arthritis septik]].<ref name=PM2010/><ref name=Lancet2010/> Diagnosis iki kudu lumebu ing tetimbangan tumrap pasien kang nuduhaké tandha-tandha infeksi utawa pasien kang ora mari nadyan wis ditambani.<ref name=PM2010/> Kanggo mbantu prosese diagnosis, prelu gawé uji [[warna Gram]] lan kultur lenga sinovial.<ref name=PM2010/> Kaanan liya kang katon memper kaya ta [[pseudo asem urat]] lan [[arthritis reumatoid]].<ref name=PM2010/> Tophi amarga asem urat, kang ora tuwuh ing ros-rosan malah bisa kliru diarani [[karsinoma sèl basal]],<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jordan DR, Belliveau MJ, Brownstein S, McEachren T, Kyrollos M |title=Medial canthal tophus |journal=Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=403–4 |year=2008 |pmid=18806664 |doi=10.1097/IOP.0b013e3181837a31|url=}}</ref> utawa jinis [[neoplasma]] liyané.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sano K, Kohakura Y, Kimura K, Ozeki S |title=Atypical Triggering at the Wrist due to Intratendinous Infiltration of Tophaceous Gout |journal=Hand (N Y) |volume=4 |issue=1|pages=78–80 |date=March 2009 |pmid=18780009 |doi=10.1007/s11552-008-9120-4 |url= |pmc=2654956}}</ref> ==Panyegahan== Ngowahi gaya hidup lan ngombé obat bisa ngedhunake angka asem urat. Pilihan diet lan gaya hidup kang efektif kalebu ngurangi mangan jinising daging lan pangan laut, ngonsumsi [[vitamin C]] kang cukup, matesi [[alkohol]] lan konsumsi [[fruktosa]], sarta nginggati lelakoné awak kelemon utawa [[obesitas]].<ref name=Review08/> [[Diet kalori endhek]] ing priya kang kelemon bisa ngedhunake angka asem urat nganti 100&nbsp;µmol/l (1,7&nbsp;mg/dl).<ref name=CFP09/> Konsumsi vitamin&nbsp;C sakehing 1.500&nbsp;mg saben dina bisa ngudhunake risiko asem urat nganti 45%.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Choi HK, Gao X, Curhan G |title=Vitamin C intake and the risk of gout in men: a prospective study |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=169 |issue=5 |pages=502–7 |date=March 2009 |pmid=19273781 |doi=10.1001/archinternmed.2008.606 |url= |pmc=2767211}}</ref> Konsumsi kopi, dudu teh, ana gegayutane karo risiko asem urat kang endhek.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Choi HK, Curhan G |title=Coffee, tea, and caffeine consumption and serum uric acid level: the third national health and nutrition examination survey|journal=Arthritis Rheum. |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=816–21 |date=June 2007 |pmid=17530681|doi=10.1002/art.22762 |url=}}</ref> Asam urat bisa uga lelara sékundhèr kang tuwuh amarga [[apnea turu]] amarga prosès uwale [[purin]] saka sèl-sèl kang kurang oksigèn. Pangobatan apnea bisa ngurangi tuwuhing serangan.<ref name="pmid16171252">{{cite journal|author=Abrams B |title=Gout is an indicator of sleep apnea |journal=Sleep |volume=28 |issue=2 |page=275|date=February 2005 |pmid=16171252|doi= |url=}}</ref> ==Pangobatan== Maksud mulabukaning pangobatan ya iku ngendhegake tandha-tandha serangan akut.<ref name="pmid16707532">{{cite journal|author=Zhang W, Doherty M, Bardin T, ''et al.'' |title=EULAR evidence based recommendations for gout. Part II: Management. Report of a task force of the EULAR Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics (ESCISIT) |journal=Ann. Rheum. Dis. |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=1312–24 |date=October 2006|pmid=16707532 |pmc=1798308 |doi=10.1136/ard.2006.055269}}</ref> Serangan kang bola-bali kedadeyan bisa dicegah mawa manéka obat kang kanggo ngurangi angka asem urat serum.<ref name="pmid16707532"/> Es kang ditemplekake sasuwéné 20 nganti 30 menit saben dinane bisa ngurangi rasa lara.<ref name=Review08/><ref name="pmid11838852">{{cite journal |author=Schlesinger N ''et al.''|title=Local ice therapy during bouts of acute gouty arthritis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-rheumatology_2002-02_29_2/page/331|journal=J. Rheumatol. |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=331–4|year=2002 |pmid=11838852 |doi=10.1093/rheumatology/29.5.331}}</ref> Opsi kanggo nambani asem urat akut kalebu obat anti abuh non-steroid utawa [[nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs]] (NSAIDs), [[kolkisin]] lan [[steroid]],<ref name=Review08/> déné opsi kanggo panyegahan antarané [[allopurinol]], [[febuksostat]] lan [[probenesid]]. Ngudhunake angka asem urat bisa marekake lelara iki.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Pangobatan [[comorbidity|komorbiditas]] uga wigati.<ref name=Lancet2010/> ===NSAID=== NSAID ya iku obat garis wiwitan kanggo nambani asem urat, ora ana agensia liya kang efektifitase luwih utawa kurang nyata bedane.<ref name=Review08/> Lelarane bakal krasa mari ing wektu patang jam, lan becike pangobatan dilakoni sasuwéné siji utawa rong minggu.<ref name=Review08/><ref name=Lancet2010/> Ewasemono, wong kang nandhang masalah keséhatan tinemtu, ora prayoga nginum obat iki, kaya ta [[gastrointestinal getihen]], [[gagal ginjel]], utawa [[gagal jantung]].<ref name=JFP09/> Sanajan [[indometasin]] wis dadi kang paling umum dianggo minangka NSAID wiwit jaman biyèn, nanging ana alternatif kaya [[ibuprofen]] kang lumrahé luwih dipilih amarga profil efek samping kang luwih apik nadyan efektifitas superiore ora ana.<ref name=CFP09>{{cite journal|author=Laubscher T, Dumont Z, Regier L, Jensen B |title=Taking the stress out of managing gout |journal=Can Fam Physician |volume=55 |issue=12 |pages=1209–12 |date=December 2009 |pmid=20008601 |doi= |url=|pmc=2793228}}</ref> Kanggo pasien kang duwé efek samping marang padharan amarga NSAID, bokmanawa [[inhibitor pompa proton]] prelu ditambahake.<ref name="CKS-NLH">{{cite web|author=Clinical Knowledge Summaries|title=Gout - Management -- What treatment is recommended in acute gout?|url=http://cks.library.nhs.uk/gout/management/detailed_answers/managing_acute_gout/treatment|publisher=[[National Library for Health]]|accessdate=2008-10-26|archive-date=2008-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216120025/http://cks.library.nhs.uk/gout/management/detailed_answers/managing_acute_gout/treatment|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Kolkisin=== [[Kolkisin]] ya iku alternatif kanggo para panandhang kang ora bisa noleransi obat NSAID.<ref name=Review08/> Efek samping NSAID (mligi tumrap padharan lan usus kang dadi krasa ora karuan) njalari panggunane dadi ora akèh.<ref name="FDA Warning">{{cite web | title=Information for Healthcare Professionals: New Safety Information for Colchicine (marketed as Colcrys) |url=http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/DrugSafetyInformationforHeathcareProfessionals/ucm174315.htm| publisher= [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]]}}</ref> Ewasemono, gangguan gastrointestinal kang tuwuh gumantung karo dosise, yèn dosise dicilikake tanpa ngurangi efektifitase, risiko iki uga bakal kurang.<ref name=CFP09/> Kolkisin bisa interaksi karo obat-obat resep liyané, kaya ta [[atorvastatin]] lan [[eritromisin]], lan sapunanggalane.<ref name="FDA Warning" /> ===Steroid=== [[Glukokortikoid]] tinemu minangka NSAID kang sipate efektif<ref name="pmid17276548">{{cite journal |author=Man CY, Cheung IT, Cameron PA, Rainer TH |title=Comparison of oral prednisolone/paracetamol and oral indomethacin/paracetamol combination therapy in the treatment of acute goutlike arthritis: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-emergency-medicine_2007-05_49_5/page/670 |journal=Annals of Emergency Medicine |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=670–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17276548|doi=10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.11.014}}</ref> lan bisa digunakaké yèn ana kontraindikasi migunakaké NSAID.<ref name=Review08/> Obat iki uga bisa marekake nalika [[Joint injection|disuntikake langsung ing ros-rosan]]; kajaba [[septic arthritis|infeksi ros-rosan]] amarga steroid kang malah njalari kaanan penyakite saya parah.<ref name=Review08/> ===Peglotikase=== [[Peglotikase]] (Krystexxa) diidinake ing AS kanggo nambani asem urat ing taun 2010.<ref name=FDA2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm225810.htm |title=FDA approves new drug for gout|work=FDA |accessdate=}}</ref> Obat iki dadi pilihan kanggo 3% panandhang kang ora bisa noleransi obat liyané.<ref name=FDA2010/> Peglotikase diwènèhake mawa infus intravena saben rong minggu sapisan,<ref name=FDA2010/> lan wis tinemu bisa ngurangi angka asem urat ing antarané populasi panandhang iki.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sundy|first=JS|author2=Baraf, HS, Yood, RA, Edwards, NL, Gutierrez-Urena, SR, Treadwell, EL, Vázquez-Mellado, J, White, WB, Lipsky, PE, Horowitz, Z, Huang, W, Maroli, AN, Waltrip RW, 2nd, Hamburger, SA, Becker, MA|title=Efficacy and tolerability of pegloticase for the treatment of chronic gout in patients refractory to conventional treatment: two randomized controlled trials.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2011-08-17_306_7/page/711|journal=JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association|date=2011 Aug 17|volume=306|issue=7|pages=711–20|pmid=21846852|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1169}}</ref> ===Profilaksis=== Pirang-pirang pangobatan uga migunani kanggo nyegah kedadeyan asem urat sateruse, kalebu [[inhibitor xantin oksidase]] (kaya ta [[allopurinol]] lan [[febuksostat]]) lan [[urikosurik]] (kalebu [[probenesid]] lan [[sulfinpirazon]]). Pangobatan-pangobatan mau racaké ora diwiwiti nganti siji utawa rong minggu sawisé serangan akut mandheg amarga kanthi téyori ana kasamaran manawa bakal marahi serangan saya ndadra.<ref name=Review08/> Lumrahé uga luwih kerep disandhingake karo NSAID utawa kolkisin ing wektu telung utawa nem sasi kawitan.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Pangobatan-pangobatan mau becike ora dianggo nganti sawijining pasien wis ketaman rong serangan asem urat,<ref name=Review08/> kajaba kedadeyan owahing ros-rosan kang ngrusak, tophi, utawa [[Acute uric acid nephropathy|nefropati urat]],<ref name=German09>{{cite journal |author=Tausche AK, Jansen TL, Schröder HE, Bornstein SR, Aringer M, Müller-Ladner U |title=Gout--current diagnosis and treatment |journal=Dtsch Arztebl Int |volume=106 |issue=34–35|pages=549–55 |date=August 2009 |pmid=19795010 |pmc=2754667 |doi=10.3238/arztebl.2009.0549 }}</ref> amarga durung ana pangobatan kang murah regane nganti dina iki.<ref name=Review08/> Cara-cara kanggo ngudhunake angka urat kudu ditambah nganti angka asem urat serum dadi ing sangisore 300–360&nbsp;µmol/l (5,0-6,0&nbsp;mg/dl), banjur tetep diterusake nganti wektu kang ora diwatesi.<ref name=Review08/><ref name=Lancet2010/> Yèn pangobatan-pangobatan mau digunakaké ing wektu suwé nalika kedadeyan serangan, becike obat-obat iku mau diendhegake.<ref name=PM2010/> Yèn angka asem urat ora bisa mudhun nganti sangisore 6,0&nbsp;mg/dl lan serangan isih kedadeyan terus, tegesé padha karo pangobatan wis ora kasil utawa asem urat kang tuwuh asipat refraktori.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ali|first=S|author2=Lally, EV|title=Treatment failure gout.|journal=Medicine and health, Rhode Island|date=2009 Nov|volume=92|issue=11|pages=369-71|pmid=19999896}}</ref> Yèn dideleng sakabehe, probenesid kaya-kaya luwih efektif tinimbang allopurinol.<ref name=Review08/> Pangobatan [[urikosurik]] lumrahé luwih dipilih yèn tinemu kekurangan sekresi asem urat kaya kang wis dituduhake déning pamriksan asem urat saka uyuh kang diklumpukake nganti 24 jam kang kurang saka 800&nbsp;mg.<ref name=agabegi2nd251>{{cite book|author=Elizabeth D Agabegi; Agabegi, Steven S. |title=Step-Up to Medicine (Step-Up Series) |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2008 |pages=251 |isbn=0-7817-7153-6 |oclc= |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=y13wgJyQwkEC&pg=PA251}}</ref> Nanging obat iki ora prayoga kanggo pasien kang duwé riwayat [[watu ginjel]].<ref name=agabegi2nd251/> Yèn ing sajeroning 24 jam klumpukan ekskresi urin tinemu punjul 800&nbsp;mg asem urat, kang padha karo keluwihen prodhuksi, obat [[inhibitor xantin oksidase]] luwih dipilih.<ref name=agabegi2nd251/> Inhibitor xantin oksidase (kalebu allopurinol lan [[febuksostat]]) ngalangi prodhuksi asem urat, lan terapi nganti wektu suwé aman lan bisa ditoleransi, lan bisa digunakaké déning pasien kang nandhang ginjel rusak utawa watu urat, nadyan allopurinol naté njalari hipersensitifitas ing saperang individu.<ref name=Review08/> Yèn kaanan mau kang kedadeyan, panggunan obat alternatif, febuksosat, wis dadi pilihan kang becik.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://guidance.nice.org.uk/TA164/Guidance/Considerations_1 |title=Febuxostat for the management of hyperuricaemia in people with gout (TA164) Chapter 4. Consideration of the evidence |publisher=Guidance.nice.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2011-08-20 |archive-date=2010-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006212851/http://guidance.nice.org.uk/TA164/Guidance/Considerations_1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Pangarep-arep== Tanpa pangobatan, serangan asem urat akut lumrahé mari ing limang nganti pitung dina. Ewasemono, 60% pasien bakal kena serangan kapindho ing wektu setaun.<ref name=Egg2007/> Wong-wong kang nandhang asem urat mundhak tambah duwé risiko [[hipertensi]], [[diabetes mellitus]], [[sindrom metabolik]], lan ginjel lan [[lelara kardiovaskuler]], mula risikone nemahi pati uga dadi tambah.<ref name=Lancet2010/><ref name=Rh2008>{{cite journal |author=Kim SY, De Vera MA, Choi HK |title=Gout and mortality|journal=Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. |volume=26 |issue=5 Suppl 51 |pages=S115–9 |year=2008 |pmid=19026153 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Kaanan iki manawa separone amarga gegayutan karo [[resistensi insulin]] lan kelemon utawa [[obesitas]], nanging saperang tetambahing risiko mau kaya-kaya tuwuh dhéwé.<ref name=Rh2008/> Tanpa pangobatan, kedadeyan-kedadeyan asem urat akut bisa mundhak dadi asem urat akut kang nganti ngrusak rai ros-rosan, ngowahi wujud ros-rosan, lan tophi kang tanpa rasa lara.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Tophi iki tuwuh ing 30% pasien kang ora ditambani nganti limang taunan, kerep-kerepe ing pérangan [[helix (ear)|heliks]] kuping, sandhuwuring prosès [[olekranon]], utawa ing [[téndhon Achilles/tungkak]].<ref name=Lancet2010/> Lumantar pangobatan kang tenanan, kaanan-kaanan mau mesthi bisa ilang. [[Watu ginjel]] kerep dikomplikasi karo asem urat, njalari kaanan iki marang 10 nganti 40% pasien, lan tuwuh jalaran endheking pH urin kang njalari meneping asem urat.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Wujud liya [[Renal failure|disfungsi ginjel kronis]] uga bisa tuwuh.<ref name=Lancet2010/> <gallery> File:Case 30-top.jpg|Bintul-bintul ing driji lan heliks kuping kang nandhani kaanan [[tophus|tophi]] asem urat Image:ChronicGout.jpg|Tophus ing dhengkul Image:Case 30-bottom.jpg|Tophus ing driji sikil, lan ing kemiri njaba Image:Tophigout.JPG|Asam urat dikomplikasi karo tophi kang wis njebluk (asil pamriksan jitahe positip ngandhut kristal asem urat) </gallery> ==Peluang Kedadeyan== Asam urat njalari lelara marang 1–2% populasi ing nagara kulon ing sawijining wektu urip, lan saiki malah mundhak saya umum tinemu.<ref name=Review08>{{cite journal |author=Chen LX, Schumacher HR |title=Gout: an evidence-based review |journal=J Clin Rheumatol |volume=14 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=S55–62 |date=October 2008 |pmid=18830092|doi=10.1097/RHU.0b013e3181896921 |url=}}</ref><ref name=Lancet2010>{{cite journal |author=Richette P, Bardin T|title=Gout |journal=Lancet |volume=375 |issue=9711 |pages=318–28 |date=January 2010 |pmid=19692116|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60883-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_january-23-29-2010_375_9711/page/318}}</ref> Cacahing wong kang nandhang asem urat kurang luwih dadi tikel loro antarané taun 1990 nganti 2010.<ref name=Nature2009>{{cite journal |author=Terkeltaub R |title=Update on gout: new therapeutic strategies and options|journal=Nat Rev Rheumatol |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=30–8 |date=January 2010 |pmid=20046204|doi=10.1038/nrrheum.2009.236 |url=}}</ref> Mundhaking cacah iki dipercaya amarga mundhaking angka harapan hidup, owahing pola diet, lan mundhaking lelara kang gegayutan karo asem urat, kaya ta sindrom metabolik lan [[blegudreg]].<ref name=Epi2008>{{cite journal |author=Weaver AL |title=Epidemiology of gout |journal=Cleve Clin J Med |volume=75 Suppl 5|issue= |pages=S9–12 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18819329 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Pirang-pirang faktor wis tinemu duwé prabawa marang cacahing asem urat, kalebu umur, ras, lan lakuning mangsa saben taun. Ing priya, sandhuwuring umur 30 lan wanita ing sandhuwuring umur 50, prevalensi 2%.<ref name=JFP09>{{cite journal |author=Winzenberg T, Buchbinder R |title=Cochrane Musculoskeletal Group review: acute gout. Steroids or NSAIDs? Let this overview from the Cochrane Group help you decide what's best for your patient |journal=J Fam Pract |volume=58 |issue=7 |pages=E1–4 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19607767|doi= |url=}}</ref> Ing Amérikah Sarékat, kedadeyan asem urat tikel loro ing populasi priya keturunan Afrika Amérika, padha karo ing populasi keturunan Éropah Amérika.<ref>{{cite web | author=Rheumatology Therapeutics Medical Center | title=What Are the Risk Factors for Gout? | url=http://www.arthritisconsult.com/gout.html#risk | accessdate=2007-01-26 | archive-date=2007-03-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070325104830/http://www.arthritisconsult.com/gout.html#risk | url-status=dead }}</ref> Cacahing panandhang ikuh akèh ing satengahing wong kang urip ing kepuloan Pasifik lan suku [[Māori people|Māori]] ing Niu Sélan, nanging arang ing keturunan aborigin Australi, sanajan konsèntrasi rata-ratane asem urat serum luwih dhuwur ing keturunan aborigin iki.<ref name="pmid10225809">{{cite journal|author=Roberts-Thomson RA, Roberts-Thomson PJ |title=Rheumatic disease and the Ostralin aborigine |journal=Ann. Rheum. Dis. |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=266–70 |date=May 1999 |pmid=10225809 |pmc=1752880 |url=http://ard.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/58/5/266 |doi=10.1136/ard.58.5.266}}</ref> Asam urat wis dadi umum ing Cina, Polinesia, lan sub-Sahara Afrika.<ref name=Lancet2010/> Sawetara panaliten nemu serangan asem urat luwih kerep tuwuh ing mangsa semi. Kaanan iki disebabake déning genta-gentining diet, konsumsi alkohol, aktivitas badan, lan témperatur.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fam AG |title=What is new about crystals other than monosodium urate? |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=228–34 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10803754 |doi= 10.1097/00002281-200005000-00013|url=}}</ref> ==Sajarah== [[File:Jan Verkolje - Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.jpg|thumb|alt=Priya nganggo wig dawa kriting lan jobah dawa, njagong sambi ndelengake. Tangan kiwa diselehake ing méja cilik sambi nyekeli kothak. Mburine dhèwèké ana globe. |[[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] nerangake kristal asem urat kang katon kanthi mikroskopis ing taun 1679.<ref name="Pillinger"/>]] Tembung asem urat utawa ing Basa Inggris diarani "gout" sepisanane dianggo déning Randolphus of Bocking, kira-kira ing taun 1200 Masehi. Asale saka tembung [[Latin]] ''gutta'', ateges "satetes" (banyu).<ref name="Pillinger"/> Miturut kamus Oxford English Dictionary, kaanan iki asalé saka [[humorisme]] lan "kaanan 'netesing' materi kang ngandhut lelara saka getih menyang lan ing sakupenging ros-rosan".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/80290 |title=gout, n.1. |work=Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition, 1989 |access-date=18 Sèptèmber 2011}}</ref> Pokoke, asem urat iku wis dipahami kawit jaman kuna. Ing sajarahé, asem urat diarani "rajane lelara lan penyakite ratu"<ref name=Lancet2010/><ref>Kubitz possibly has gout.{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2003/04/01/cx_cd_0401feat.html |title=The Disease Of Kings - Forbes.com |work=Forbes|accessdate=}}</ref> utawa "lelara priyayi".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Rich+Man%27s+Disease |title=Rich Man's Disease - definition of Rich Man's Disease in the Medical dictionary - by the Free Online Medical Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia |work=|accessdate=}}</ref> Cathetan pisanan lelara iki asalé saka Mesir ing taun 2.600 SM bab katrangan ngenani arthritis jempol sikil. Dhokter [[ancient Greece|Yunani]] [[Hippocrates]] kira-kira ing taun 400 SM gawé komentar babagan lelara iki ing ''[[Aforisme]]'', nggarisi ilange lelara iki ing wong lanang kang dadi [[kasim]] lan wanita ing mangsa sadurungé menopause utawa [[premenopause]].<ref name="Pillinger">{{cite journal |last=Pillinger | first=MH | author2=Rosenthal P, Abeles AM | title=Hyperuricemia and gout: new insights into pathogenesis and treatment | journal=Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases | volume=65 | issue=3 |pages=215–221 | year=2007 | url=http://www.nyuhjdbulletin.org/Permalink.aspx?permalinkId=0c3ec9d1-8cc8-49d5-850d-4c5a55cb0669 | pmid=17922673 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/aphorisms.6.vi.html |title=The Internet Classics Archive Aphorisms by Hippocrates |work= |accessdate=July 27, 2010}}</ref> [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] (30 M) nerangake gegayutane karo alkohol, kedadeyan ing wektu liya ing wanita, lan masalah ginjel kang gegandhengan: <blockquote>Sepisan manèh uyuh kang kenthel, ndhep-ndhepan kang metu wernane putih, iku nandhani yèn rasa lara lan penyakite bakal dirasakaké ing pérangan ros-rosan utawa jeroan... Lara ros-rosan tangan lan sikil kerep banget dirasakaké lan ora ilang-ilang, persis kaya kang kedadeyan ing kaanan podagra lan cheiragra. Lelara iki arang nyerang kasim utawa bocah lanang sadurungé sanggama karo wong wadon, utawa wanita kajaba kang wis ora haid manèh...saperang wong iku bisa aman sadawa umuré yèn gelem ninggal anggur, ciu, lan [[sexual intercourse|sanggama]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/4*.html |title=LacusCurtius • Celsus — On Medicine — Book IV |work= |accessdate=}}</ref></blockquote> Ing taun 1683, [[Thomas Sydenham]], dhokter saka Inggris, nerangake kedadeyan asem urat ing wayah pajar, lan kacenderungan lelakoné ing priya kang wis umur: <blockquote>Pasien asem urat, lumrahé, priya umur, utawa priya kang enome seneng ngrusak awake saéngga tuwa sadurungé mangsane—kaya ta priya kang senengane nglakoni kebiyasaane wong lanang lumrahé ya iku medok sadurungé mangsane lan kebablasen, lsp. kang ngentèkaké daya urip. Kurban mangkat turu ing kaanan bagas waras. Kira-kira jam loro bengi, dhèwèké tangi amarga lara kang ora ketulungan ing jempol sikil; kadhangkala ing tungkak, ugel-ugel sikil, utawa dlamakan. Lara mau rasané kaya kesleo, nanging separone rasané kaya disiram banyu adhem. Banjur ditambahi kadhemen lan ndrodhok, lan awake dadi rada panas... Sewengi nutug kesiksa, ora bisa turu, mbolak-mbalik gedabigan; awak diuncalake mrana-mrene saben ros-rosan ngilu ora karuan, malah bisa luwih nemen manèh yèn nganti kejang-kejang.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A11102491 |title=BBC - h2g2 - Gout - The Affliction of Kings |work=BBC |accessdate=July 27, 2010}}</ref></blockquote> Ilmuwan Landa [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] kang pisanan nerangake wujud mikroskopis kristal urat ing taun 1679.<ref name="Pillinger"/> Ing taun 1848, dhokter Inggris [[Alfred Baring Garrod]] rumangsa yèn asem urat kang luwih-luwih ing getih iki kang dadi sebab lara asem urat.<ref name="pmid11600751">{{cite journal | author=Storey GD |title=Alfred Baring Garrod (1819-1907) |journal=Rheumatology (Oxford, England) |volume=40 |issue=10 |pages=1189–90 |date=October 2001|pmid=11600751 | url=http://rheumatology.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/40/10/1189 |doi=10.1093/rheumatology/40.10.1189 }}</ref> ==Ing jinis kéwan liyané== Asam urat arang ing kehe kéwan amarga kabisane kéwan ngasilaké [[urikase]], kang mecah asem urat.<ref name=Animals01>{{cite journal |author=Agudelo CA, Wise CM |title=Gout: diagnosis, pathogenesis, and clinical manifestations |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=234–9 |date=May 2001 |pmid=11333355 |doi= 10.1097/00002281-200105000-00015|url=}}</ref> Manungsa lan jinis [[munyuk gedhé]] ora duwé kabisan iki, mula bisa kena asem urat.<ref name=Egg2007>{{cite journal |author=Eggebeen AT |title=Gout: an update |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=76|issue=6 |pages=801–8 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17910294 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2007-09-15_76_6/page/801}}</ref><ref name=Animals01/> Nanging spésimèn ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' kang dipahami kanthi aran "[[Sue (dinosaur)|Sue]]", diyakini wis naté nandhang lara asem urat.<ref name="Rothschild">{{cite journal | last=Rothschild | first=BM | author2=Tanke D, Carpenter K |title=Tyrannosaurs suffered from gout | journal=Nature | volume=387 | issue=6631 | page=357 | year=1997 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v387/n6631/abs/387357a0.html | doi=10.1038/387357a0 | pmid=9163417 }}</ref> ==Riset== Pirang-pirang obat anyar saiki lagi ditliti kanggo nambani asem urat, kalebu [[anakinra]], [[canakinumab]], lan[[rilonacept]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.musculoskeletalnetwork.com/gout/content/article/1145622/1533314|title=New therapeutic options for gout here and on the horizon - The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine |work=|accessdate=}}</ref> Enzim [[Recombinant DNA|rekombinan]] [[urikase]] ([[rasburikase]]) wis sumadhiya; nanging panggunane sih winates amarga bisa micu reaksi [[autoimun]]. Versi kang luwih ora [[antigenik]] saiki lagi dikembangake.<ref name=Egg2007/> ==Réferènsi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} 9rz11sdcjpmlbvh5vwqkfqsexl3s6sm Wasir 0 106586 1752878 1651845 2026-08-20T04:00:33Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752878 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Hemorrhoids | Image = Internal and external hemorrhoids.png | Caption = Diagram demonstrating the anal anatomy of both internal and external hemorrhoids | Width = 300 | DiseasesDB = 10036 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|84||i|80}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|455}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000292 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 2821 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|242}} | MeshID = D006484 }} '''Wasir''' utawa ambeien kang ing Basa Inggris tinulis '''hemorrhoid''' {{IPAc-en|uk|ˈ|h|ɛ|m|ər|ɔɪ|d|z}}, iku ateges struktur [[sinusoid (blood vessel)|vaskuler]] ing njero [[kanal anus]] kang mbantu ngendhalekake bebuwang.<ref>{{cite book|author=Chen, Herbert |title=Illustrative Handbook of General Surgery |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin|year=2010 |page=217 |isbn=1-84882-088-7 }}</ref><ref name=World09>{{cite journal | last1 = Schubert | first1 = MC | last2 = Sridhar | first2 = S | last3 = Schade | first3 = RR | last4 = Wexner | first4 = SD |title=What every gastroenterologist needs to know about common anorectal disorders |journal=World J Gastroenterol|volume=15 |issue=26 |pages=3201–9 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19598294 |pmc=2710774 |doi= 10.3748/wjg.15.3201| issn = 1007-9327 }}</ref> Struktur pembuluh darah iku bisa malih sipate dadi [[patologis]] utawa sinebut '''piles'''<ref name=Review09/> nalika [[swelling (medical)|abuh]] utawa ngalami [[radang]]. Ing kaanan fisiologise, hemoroid iku tumindak dadi bantalan kang digawé déning [[kanal-kanal arteri-vena]] lan [[jaringan ikat]]. <!--Gejala --> Tandha-tandha wasir patologis gumantung karo jinis kang tuwuh. Tuwuhing wasir internal lumrahé dibarengi karo tuwuhing [[hematochezia|getiyen dubur]] kang ora krasa lara. Déné wasir eksternal, bisa nuwuhaké pirang-pirang tandha-tandha utawa yèn kena [[trombosis]] rasa kang lara banget bisa tuwuh lan ana abuh ing pérangan [[dubur]]. Wong-wong kerep kliru ngartekake tandha-tandha kang tuwuh ing pérangan anus-rektum iku mesthi minangka "wasir" lan mulane jalaran serius tandha-tandha dadi ora digatekake.<ref name=ASCRS2011/> Pancen jalaran pesthine wasir isih durung ketemu, nanging pirang-pirang faktor kang ningkatake tekanan ing njero weteng, kususe [[bebelen]], tinercaya duwé prabawa ing lelakoné wasir. <!--Pangobatan lan kedadeyane--> Pangobatan wiwitan kanggo wasir kang entheng nganti sedhengan ya iku kaya ta nambah pepangan awujud [[dietary fiber|serat]], ngombé banyu kanggo njaga hidrasi, obat [[NSAID]] kanggo nambani rasa lara, lan ngaso kang cukup. Pirang-pirang prosedur entheng manawa kudu dilakoni yèn tandha-tandha mundhak nemen utawa ora kalong/malih entheng sawisé ditambani lumantar tata laksana lawas. Bedah/oprasi dadi prosedur mburi kanggo panandhang kang penyakite ora malih apik sawisé ditambani mawa cara mau. Luwih saka separone manungsa, bakal ngalami masalah wasir ing sawijining wektu uripé. Lumrahé asil tundhone apik. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Tandha lan tandha-tandha== [[File:M 44 anus 22.jpg|thumb|right|[[Wasir eksternal]] kaya kang katon ing saubenge dubur manungsa]] Wasir internal lan eksternal bisa tuwuh kanthi seje; nanging, akèh wong kang bisa uga nandhang kombinasi wasir kaloro.<ref name=World09/> Pendarahan kang rada akèh lan nyebabake [[anemia]] arang lelakoné,<ref name=Kaidar2007/> apa manèh kang nganti nyebabake oncating nyawa.<ref name=AFP2006/> Akèh wong kang rumangsa isin yèn nandhang lelara iki<ref name=Kaidar2007/> akibate kerep-kerepe wong mau padha golèk tamba yèn penyakite wis mundhak nemen.<ref name=World09/> ===Eksternal=== Yèn ora ngalami [[trombosis]], wasir eksternal mung nuwuhaké masalah sethithik.<ref name=Day2006/> Nanging, yèn nganti trombosis, wasir bisa nuwuhaké rasa lara kang ora lumrah.<ref name=World09/><ref name=Review09/> Ewasemono, rasa lara iki bakal ilang sawisé 2 – 3&nbsp; dina.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> Nanging abuhe lagi ilang sawisé sawatara minggu.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> [[Kulit ngandel/akrokordon]] bisa tetep keri nalika wis mari.<ref name=World09/> Yèn wasire rada gedhé lan nyebabake masalah nalika ngresiki dubur, wasire bisa nuwuhaké iritasi ing saubenge kulit lan marakkake gatel ing dubur.<ref name=Day2006/> ===Internal=== Wasir internal lumrahé tuwuh bebarengan karo [[getihen dubur]] kang ora krasa lara, warnané abang seger, nalika utawa sawisé bebuwang.<ref name=World09/> Lumrahé getih iku ngglopot ing tinjane, sawijining kaanan kang sinebut [[hematokezia]], nempol ing tisu WC, utawa netes ing njero WC.<ref name=World09/> Werna tinja mau lumrahé tetep katon normal.<ref name=World09/> Tandha-tandha liyané kaya ta ngetokaké bebuwang yiyid, dobol liwat dubur, [[pruritis ani|gatel]], lan bebuwang kang ora bisa diampet utawa [[inkontinensia fekal]].<ref name=AFP2006>{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=RJ|title=Haemorrhoids.|journal=Clinical evidence|date=2006 Jun|issue=15|pages=711–24|pmid=16973032|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/1001/p1168.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Azimuddin|first=edited by Indru Khubchandani, Nina Paonessa, Khawaja|title=Surgical treatment of hemorrhoids|year=2009|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-1-84800-313-2|page=21|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=7WC4f7BhChEC&pg=PA21|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Wasir internal lumrahé mung krasa lara yèn kedadeyan trombosis utawa [[nekrosis]].<ref name=World09/> ==Panyebab== Panyebab pesthi wasir kang nuwuhaké tandha-tandha ora patiya dimangerteni.<ref name=CE2009/> Pirang-pirang faktor dipercaya nduwé prabawa kaya ta: kabiyasan usus kang ora teratur ([[bebelen]] utawa [[diare]]), kurang ulah raga, faktor gizi (diet kang kandhutan serate sithik), nambahing tekanan ing njero weteng (kesuwen ngeden, [[asites]], bobot ing njero weteng, utawa [[ngandhut]]), genetik, ora ananing katup ing pembuluh-pembuluh darah kang gegayutan karo wasir, lan tambah tuwaning umur.<ref name=Review09/><ref name=Kaidar2007/> Faktor liya kang dipercaya ningkatake risiko kaya ta [[kelemon]], kesuwen njagong,<ref name=World09/> [[watuk kronis]] lan [[disfungsi dhasar panggul]].<ref name=ASCRS2011/> Ewosemono, bukti-bukti kang mbenerake gegayutan ini ora mitayani.<ref name=ASCRS2011/> Ing ing sajeroning wektu [[ngandhut]], tekanan saka jabang bayi utawa [[fetus]] ing weteng bebarengan karo owahing kaanan hormonal nyebabake ngambaning saluran-saluran kang gegayutan karo wasir. Babaran uga ningkatake tekanan ing njero weteng.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/hemorrhoids/ |title=Hemorrhoids |accessdate={{date|2010-03-18}} |author=National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse |date=November 2004 |work=[[National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases]] (NIDDK), [[NIH]] }}</ref> Wanita kang ngandhut lumrahé ora prelu nglakoni oprasi amarga tandha-tandha kang tuwuh lumrahé ilang dhéwé sawisé nglairaké.<ref name=Review09/> == Lelakoné == Bantal hemoroid ya iku pérangan normale anatomi manungsa lan dadi bisa nyebabake lelara (patologis) yèn bantal mau ngalami owah-owahan kang ora normal.<ref name=World09/> Ana telung bantalan kang ana ing [[kanal dubur]] normal.<ref name=Review09/> Panggonan asalé ana ing sisih lateral kiwa, anterior tengen, lan posterior tengen.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> Bantalan-bantalan mau ora kagawé déning [[arteri]] utawa [[vena]] nanging pembuluh getih sinebut [[sinusoid]], [[jaringan ikat]] lan [[otot polos]].<ref name=ASCRS2011>{{cite book|last=Beck|first=David|title=The ASCRS textbook of colon and rectal surgery|year=2011|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=9781441915818|pages=174–177|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=DhQ1A35E8jwC&pg=PA174|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Sinusoid ora duwé [[jaringan otot]] ing kekuliting jaringan kaya déné vena.<ref name=World09/> Prangkat pembuluh getih iki dimangerteni kanthi jeneng [[pleksus hemoroidalis]].<ref name=ASCRS2011/> Bantalan hemoroid wigati kanggo ngatur bebuwang utawa [[fecal incontinence|kontinensi]] fekal. Bantalan-bantalan mau mbantu sagedhene 15–20% ing gawé tekanan panutupan salumrahe lan nglindhungi otot [[sfingter dubur]] ing sajeroning wektu bebuwang ngliwati usus pérangan ngisor.<ref name=World09/> Nalika wong ngeden, tekanan ing njero weteng tambah, banjur bantalan hemoroid mundhak gedhé ukurane kanggo njaga dubur tetep nutup.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> Diyakini yèn tandha-tandha wasir tuwuh nalika struktur vaskuler mau mlorot mudhun utawa nalika tekanan vena nambah dhuwur banget.<ref name=AFP2006/> Nambah dhuwuring tekanan [[sfingter anal]] uga bisa mèlu tuwuh ing tandha-tandha hemoroid.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> Rong jinis wasir kang ana ya iku: internal saka [[pleksus hemoroidal superior]] lan eksternal saka pleksus hemoroidal inferior.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> [[Garis dentata]] dadi garis kang misah kaloro pérangan iki.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> == Diagnosis == {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+ Kelas wasir internal !Kelas !! Diagram !! Gambar - |1|| [[File:Piles Grade 1.svg|140px]] || [[File:Haemorrhoiden 1Grad endo 01.jpg|140px|Endoscopic view]] - |2|| [[File:Piles Grade 2.svg|140px]]||[[File:Hemrrhoids 04.jpg|140px]] |- |3|| [[File:Piles Grade 3.svg|140px]]||[[File:Hemrrhoids 05.jpg|140px]] |- |4|| [[File:Piles Grade 4.svg|140px]]||[[File:Piles 4th deg 01.jpg|140px]] |} Wasir lumrahé didiagnosa lumantar pamriksan fisik.<ref name=NG2011>{{cite journal|last=Rivadeneira|first=DE|coauthors=Steele, SR; Ternent, C; Chalasani, S; Buie, WD; Rafferty, JL; Standards Practice Task Force of The American Society of Colon and Rectal, Surgeons|title=Practice parameters for the management of hemorrhoids (revised 2010)|journal=Diseases of the colon and rectum|date=2011 Sep|volume=54|issue=9|pages=1059–64|pmid=21825884}}</ref> Pamriksan visual dubur lan pérangan-pérangan sakupenge bisa ndiagnosa wasir eksternal utawa kang nganti dobolen.<ref name=World09/> [[Pamriksan rektum]] bokmanawa ditindakake kanggo ndheteksi [[tumor]] rektum kang manawa tuwuh, [[polyp (medicine)|polip]], lan nggedhening [[prostat]], utawa [[abses]].<ref name=World09/> Pamriksan iki manawa ora bisa ditindakake tanpa ananing [[sedasi]] amarga rasa larane, nadyan wasir internal lumrahé ora nggawa rasa lara.<ref name=Review09/> Kapesthen visual wasir internal bisa mrelokake [[anoskopi]], ya iku pranti wujud selang kang salah siji pucukke dipasangi lampu.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> Ana rong jinis wasir: eksternal lan internal. Rong jinis mau dibedakkake saka posisiné kelawan [[garis dentata]].<ref name=Review09/> Sapérangan pasien manawa nuduhake versi tandha-tandha kalorone bebarengan.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> Yèn ana rasa lara, kaanan mau luwih ketara wujud [[fisura ani]] utawa wasir eksternal tinimbang internal.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> === Internal === Wasir internal ya iku kang tuwuh saka pérangan ndhuwur [[garis dentata]].<ref name=Day2006/> Wasir mau ketutup déning [[epitelium kolumnar]] kang ora duwé [[sensory receptor|reseptor]] rasa lara.<ref name=ASCRS2011/> Wasir jinis iki diklasifikasekakke ing taun 1985 dadi patang kelas dhedhasar tingkat wetuné bol utawa [[prolapsis]].<ref name=Review09/><ref name=ASCRS2011/> * Kelas I: Ora dobolen. Mung pembuluh getih kang katon cetha.<ref name=NG2011/> * Kelas II: Dobolen nalika ngeden nanging langsung lumebu manèh. * Kelas III: Dobolen nalika ngeden lan kudu dilebokkake manèh kanthi manual. * Kelas IV: Dobolen kang ora bisa dilebokkake kanthi manual. === Eksternal === [[File:Perianal thrombosis 01.jpg|thumb|left|Wasir eksternal kang nganti trombosis]] [[Wasir eksternal]] ya iku wasir kang tuwuh ing pérangan ngisor dentata utawa [[garis pektinatus]].<ref name=Day2006/> Pérangan kang cerak ketutup déning [[anoderma]] lan kang adoh ketutup kulit, pérangan kaloro iki padha-padha sensitif karo rasa lara lan temperatur.<ref name=ASCRS2011/> === Diagnosis Bandhing === Pirang-pirang prakara anorektal, kalebu [[anal fissure|fisura]], [[anal fistula|fistula]], abses, [[kanker kolorektal]], [[anorectal varices|varises rektal]] lan [[pruritus ani|gatel-gatel]] duwé tandha-tandha kang memper siji lan sijiné lan bisa kliru diarani wasir.<ref name=Review09/> [[Getihen liwat dubur]] uga bisa kedadeyan amarga kanker kolorektal, [[kolitis]] kalebu [[lelara radang usus]], [[lelara divertikular]], lan [[angiodisplasia]].<ref name=NG2011/> Yèn ana [[anemia]] jalaran potensial liyané bisa lumebu ing tetimbangan.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> Kaanan liya kang uga ndadèkaké dobolen kalebu: [[akrokordon]], [[kutil ing dubur]], [[prolapse rektum]], [[polyp (medicine)|polip]] lan nggedhening papilla dubur.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> [[Varises anorektal]] kang disebabake déning [[hipertensi portal]] (tekanan getih ing [[sistem vena portal]]) bisa tuwuh amemper wasir nanging sejatine ya iku kaanan kang ora padha.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> ==Panyegahan== Pirang-pirang cara panyegahan disaranake kalebu nginggati ngeden nalika arep bebuwang, nginggati bebelen, lan diare/mencret kanthi tansah memangan diet kang akèh kandhutan serate, lan ngombé banyu kang akèh, utawa ngombé suplemen serat, uga ulah raga kang cukup.<ref name=Kaidar2007/><ref>{{cite book |author=Frank J Domino |title=The 5-Minute Clinical Consult 2013 (Griffith's 5 Minute Clinical Consult) |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstown, MD |year=2012 |page=572|isbn=1-4511-3735-4|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=rrdEq9tb-WYC&pg=PA572 |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Aja kesuwen ngeden nalika bebuwang [[defekasi]], luwih becik aja bebuwang sinambi maca,<ref name=Review09/> uga ngurangi bobot awak kanggo wong kang kelemon, lan aja ngangkat barang kang abot-abot.<ref>{{cite book|last=Glass|first=[edited by] Jill C. Cash, Cheryl A.|title=Family practice guidelines|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=9780826118127|page=665|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=4uKsZZ4BoRUC&pg=PA665&lpg=PA665|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> ==Tata Laksana== ===Konservatif=== Pangobatan konservatif kaya ta antarané ya iku gizi kang kandhutan [[serat diet]]e dhuwur, ngombé banyu kang akèh kanggo njaga hidrasi, obat [[non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug]] (NSAID), [[njagong kungkum Sitz]], lan ngaso.<ref name=Review09/> Nambah konsumsi pangan kang ngandhut serat wis kabukten bisa ningkatake asile,<ref name="Alonso-Coello P, Guyatt G, Heels-Ansdell D, et al. 2005 CD004649">{{cite journal | last1 = Alonso-Coello | first1 = P. | last2 = Guyatt |first2 = G. H. | last3 = Heels-Ansdell | first3 = D. | last4 = Johanson | first4 = J. F. | last5 = Lopez-Yarto| first5 = M. | last6 = Mills | first6 = E. | last7 = Zhuo | first7 = Q. | last8 = Alonso-Coello | first8 = Pablo |title=Laxatives for the treatment of hemorrhoids |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=4|pages=CD004649 |year=2005 |pmid=16235372 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004649.pub2 | editor1-last = Alonso-Coello |editor1-first = Pablo }}</ref> lan bisa uga dilakoni lumantar nggenta-nggenti asupan utawa ngonsumsi [[fibre supplements|suplemen serat]].<ref name=Review09/><ref name="Alonso-Coello P, Guyatt G, Heels-Ansdell D, et al. 2005 CD004649"/> Ewasemono, bukti ngenani mampangat nglakoni njagong kungkum Sitz kapan baé sajeroning pangobatan kurang banget.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lang|first=DS|coauthors=Tho, PC; Ang, EN|title=Effectiveness of the Sitz bath in managing adult patients with anorectal disorders|journal=Japan journal of nursing science: JJNS|date=2011 Dec|volume=8|issue=2|pages=115–28|pmid=22117576}}</ref> Yèn pancen nglakoni cara pangobatan mau, kungkume kudu diwatesi mung 15 menit ing sabene nglakoni.<ref name=ASCRS2011/> Sanajan akèh agensia topikal lan supositoria sumadhiya kanggo nambani wasir, nanging bukti kang njurung gunané mung sethithik.<ref name=Review09/> Agensia kang ngandhut [[steroid]] ora kena dianggo nganti punjul 14 dina amarga bisa nipisake kulit.<ref name=Review09/> Sakehing agensia kang ana mesthi awujud campuran saka bahan-bahan aktif.<ref name=ASCRS2011/> Bahan-bahan mau bisa kalebu: krim penghambat [[jeli petroleum]] utawa [[seng oksida]], agensia analgesik kaya ta [[lidokain]], lan vasokonstriktor kaya ta [[epinefrin]].<ref name=ASCRS2011/> [[Flavonoid]] gunané isih nuwuhaké pitakonan lan bisa nyebabake efek samping.<ref name=ASCRS2011/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Alonso-Coello P, Zhou Q, Martinez-Zapata MJ, ''et al.'' |title=Meta-analysis of flavonoids for the treatment of haemorrhoids |journal=Br J Surg |volume=93 |issue=8 |pages=909–20 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16736537 |doi=10.1002/bjs.5378 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-surgery_2006-08_93_8/page/909}}</ref> Tandha-tandha lumrahé ilang yèn mbobot; mula pangobatan aktif lumrahé diendhegi sauntara nganti sabubaring babaran.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Quijano|first=CE|coauthors=Abalos, E|title=Conservative management of symptomatic and/or complicated haemorrhoids in pregnancy and the puerperium|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2005 Jul 20|issue=3|pages=CD004077|pmid=16034920}}</ref> === Prosedur === Saperang prosedur bisa ditindakake ing panggonan dhokter praktek. Sanajan lumrahé tetep aman, nanging efek samping kaya [[sepsis|sepsis perianal]] bisa kedadeyan.<ref name=NG2011/> * [[Ligasi gelang karèt]] lumrahé disaranake kanggo ngawiwiti pangobatan kanggo para pasien kang penyakite wis ngancik drajat 1 nganti 3.<ref name=NG2011/> Cara iki ditindakake kanthi masang gelang karèt ing hemoroid internal sakurang-kurange 1&nbsp;cm sandhuwuring [[garis dentata]] kanggo ngendhegake ilining getih.<!-- <ref name=Review09/> --> Sawisé 5–7 dina, hemoroid kang wis garing bakal coplok dhéwé.<!-- <ref name=Review09/> --> Yèn anggoné masang gelang karete kecedhaken karo garis dentata, rasa lara kang ora ketulungan bakal langsung tuwuh sawisé.<ref name=Review09/> Persentase marine lumantar cara iki tinemu kira-kira nganti 87%<ref name=Review09/> dibarengi angka komplikasi sagedhene 3%.<ref name=NG2011/> * [[Skleroterapi]] ngatutake pangobatan kanthi nyuntikake obat kang nyebabake [[sklerosis]], kaya ta [[fenol]], menyang hemoroide. Suntikan iki nyebabake pembuluh vena kempes banjur hemoroide dadi mengkeret. Angka kekasilan sawisé patang taun pangobatan ya iku ~70%<ref name=Review09/> kang pranyata luwih dhuwur tinimbang nganggo cara ligasi gelang karèt.<ref name=NG2011/> * Saperang metodhe [[kauterisasi]] wis kabukten dadi cara kang efektif nambani hemoroid, nanging mung dianggo yèn metodhe liyané ora kasil. Prosedur iki bisa ditindakake lumantar [[elektrokauteri]], [[radiasi infra merah]],[[bedhah laser]],<ref name=Review09/> utawa [[bedhah beku]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Misra|first=MC|coauthors=Imlitemsu,|title=Drug treatment of haemorrhoids|journal=Drugs|year=2005|volume=65|issue=11|pages=1481–91|pmid=16134260}}</ref> Kauterisasi infra merah manawa bisa dadi pilihan kanggo lelara drajat 1 utawa 2.<ref name=NG2011/> Penyakit kang drajate wis tekan 3 utawa 4 lumrahé ngasilaké angka umat manèh kang dhuwur.<ref name=NG2011/> ===Oprasi Bedhah=== Saperang teknik pambedhahan manawa digunakaké yèn tata laksana konservatif lan prosedur prasaja gagal.<ref name=NG2011/> kabèh cara pangobatan liwat oprasi gegayutan karo sawatara drajat komplikasi kalebu pendarahan, infeksi, [[striktur ani]], lan [[retensi urin]], amarga cedhaking let dubur menyang sarap kang ngisi kandhung kemih.<ref name=Review09/> Manawa bisa uga ana risiko sepele awujud [[inkontinensia fekal]] utawa ora bisa ngampet bebuwang, mligi kang cuwer,<ref name=ASCRS2011/><ref name="Pescatori 2008">{{cite journal|last=Pescatori|first=M|coauthors=Gagliardi, G|title=Postoperative complications after procedure for prolapsed hemorrhoids (PPH) and stapled transanal rectal resection (STARR) procedures|journal=Techniques in coloproctology|date=2008 Mar|volume=12|issue=1|pages=7–19|pmid=18512007}}</ref> kang angkane dilapurake wiwit saka 0% nganti 28%.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ommer|first=A|coauthors=Wenger, FA; Rolfs, T; Walz, MK|title=Continence disorders after anal surgery--a relevant problem?|journal=International journal of colorectal disease|date=2008 Nov|volume=23|issue=11|pages=1023–31|pmid=18629515}}</ref> Kaanan liya kang bisa tuwuh sawisé wasir diangkat ya iku [[ectropion]] mukosa (kerep-kerepe dibarengi karo stenosis dubur).<ref name=Garcia2002>{{cite journal|last=Lagares-Garcia|first=JA|coauthors=Nogueras, JJ|title=Anal stenosis and mucosal ectropion.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_surgical-clinics-of-north-america_2002-12_82_6/page/1225|journal=The Surgical clinics of North America|date=2002 Dec|volume=82|issue=6|pages=1225–31, vii|pmid=12516850}}</ref> Kaanan iki bisa dititeni saka wetuné mukosa/barang yiyid saka dubur, kaanan kang luwih entheng tinimbang [[prolaps rektum]].<ref name=Garcia2002/> * Hemoroidektomi eksisional utawa ngangkat wasir kanthi eksisi ya iku pangirisan jaringan hemoroid kang mung ditrapake kanggo kasus-kasus parah.<ref name=Review09/> Cara iki lumrahé ana nyebabake rasa lara bubar oprasi lan lumrahé mbutuhake wektu 2–4&nbsp;minggu supaya pulih.<ref name=Review09/> Ewasemono, cara iki duwé kaluwihan ing mangsa kang luwih suwé kanggo hemoroid tingkat 3 tinimbang ligasi gelang karèt.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shanmugam|first=V|coauthors=Thaha, MA; Rabindranath, KS; Campbell, KL; Steele, RJ; Loudon, MA|title=Rubber band ligation versus excisional haemorrhoidectomy for haemorrhoids|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2005 Jul 20|issue=3|pages=CD005034|pmid=16034963}}</ref> Cara iki prayoga kanggo pasien kang ngalami [[perianal hematoma|hemoroid eksternal amarga trombosis]] yèn ditindakake ing wektu 24–72&nbsp;jam.<ref name=Day2006>{{cite book|last=Dayton|first=senior, Peter F. Lawrence; editors, Richard Bell, Merril T.|title=Essentials of general surgery|year=2006|publisher=Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia ;Baltimore|isbn=9780781750035|page=329|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=QOeHP5Ky610C&pg=PA329|edition=4th ed.}}</ref><ref name=NG2011/> Panggunan salep [[Glyceryl trinitrate (pharmacology)|Gliseril trinitrat]] sawisé oprasi bisa mbantu ngurangi rasa lara lan mbantu pamulihan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ratnasingham|first=K|coauthors=Uzzaman, M; Andreani, SM; Light, D; Patel, B|title=Meta-analysis of the use of glyceryl trinitrate ointment after haemorrhoidectomy as an analgesic and in promoting wound healing|journal=International journal of surgery (London, England)|year=2010|volume=8|issue=8|pages=606–11|pmid=20691294}}</ref> * [[Dearterialisasi hemoroid trans-anal]] mawa tuntunan doppler ya iku pangobatan kang sipate ora patiya invasif nggunakaké ultrasonografi doppler supaya bisa kanthi akurat nemu panggon ilining getih arteri. Arteri-arteri iki banjur "ditaleni" lan jaringan kang ngalami prolaps bakal mbalik ing posisi normale. Tuwuhing wasir manèh ing wektu ngarep sawisé prosedur iki rada dhuwur, nanging komplikasine luwih sethithik tinimbang hemoroidektomi.<ref name=Review09/> * Hemoroidektomi mawa stapler, kang uga dikenal kanthi jeneng [[hemoroidopeksi mawa stapler]], ya iku salah sawijining prosedur kang nganggo pangangkatan jaringan hemoroid kang gedhene abnormal, sabubaré diterusake kanthi mbalekake posisi asalé jaringan hemoroid ing kaanan anatomi normale. Lumrahé larane ora nemen lan mula marine luwih rikat tinimbang yèn hemoroide diilangi kabèh.<ref name=Review09/> Ewasemono, manawa orane hemoroid simtomatik umat manèh luwih gedhé tinimbang hemoroidektomi konvensional<ref name=Jaya2006>{{cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=S|coauthors=Colquhoun, PH; Malthaner, RA|title=Stapled versus conventional surgery for hemorrhoids|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2006 Oct 18|issue=4|pages=CD005393|pmid=17054255}}</ref> saéngga cara iki mung becik ditindakake kanggo lelara tingkat 2 lan 3.<ref name=NG2011/> ==Kereping Kedadeyan== Angel nemtokake kerep orane kedadeyan hemoroid amarga akèh wong kang nandhang lelara iki ora mriksakake menyang klinik keséhatan.<ref name=AFP2006/><ref name=CE2009>{{cite journal|last=Reese|first=GE|coauthors=von Roon, AC; Tekkis, PP|title=Haemorrhoids.|journal=Clinical evidence|date=2009 Jan 29|volume=2009|pmid=19445775}}</ref> Nanging, ana kapitayan yèn hemoroid kang mawa tandha-tandha ngenani 50% populasi AS ing sawatara wektu uriping para pasien mau lan prakira ~5% saka populasi kena prabawané kapan baé.<ref name=Review09/> Lanang utawa wadon padha-padha ngalami kira-kira kedadeyaning kaanan kang padha<ref name=Review09>{{cite journal | last1 = Lorenzo-Rivero | first1 = S |title=Hemorrhoids: diagnosis and current management | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-surgeon_2009-08_75_8/page/n6 |journal=Am Surg |volume=75|issue=8 |pages=635–42 |date=August 2009 |pmid=19725283 }}</ref> kang cacah tuwuhing paling akèh ing antarané umur 45 nganti 65&nbsp;taun.<ref name=Kaidar2007/> Penyakit iki luwih kerep tuwuh ing wong [[Caucasian race|Kaukasia]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1 = Christian Lynge | first1 = Dana | last2 = Weiss | first2 = Barry D. | title = 20 Common Problems: Surgical Problems And Procedures In Primary Care | date = | publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional | location = |isbn = 978-0-07-136002-9 | page = 114 }}</ref> lan wong-wong kang duwé status sosioekonomi dhuwur.<ref name=ASCRS2011/> Asil kanggo wektu suwé lumrahé apik, sanajan saperang wong manawa bola-bali ngalami babak-babak simtomatik.<ref name=AFP2006/> Ora akèh pasien kang tundhone kudu dioprasi.<ref name=ASCRS2011/> ==Sajarah== [[File:11th century English surgery.jpg|thumb|Miniatur Inggris abad 11. Ing sisih tengan ya iku oprasi ngangkat hemoroid.]] Sing kapisanan nerangake lelara iki asalé saka 1700 taun sadurungé Masehi ya iku [[papirus]] saka bangsa Mesir, unine: “… Sampeyan kudu nggawé jamu, lenga kang bisa nglindhungi kanthi apik banget; godhong [[Akasia]], diuleg, diulet, banjut dimasak bareng. Usapake gombal alus secuil ning panggonan kono -bareng godhong mau banjur tempelake ning dubur, mesthi bakal rikat waras."<ref name="Surgical Treatment of Haemorrhoids Charles 2002 (book)">{{cite book|last=Ellesmore, Windsor|title=Surgical Treatment of Haemorrhoids|year=2002|publisher=London: Springer|editor=Charles MV|chapter=Surgical History of Haemorrhoids}}</ref> Ing taun 460 sadurungé Masehi, [[Hippocratic corpus]] nyrasehake pangobatan kang memper cara modern ligasi gelang karèt: “Lan pangetrapane kanggo hemoroid kang kaya mangkono bisa ditambani mawa cara ditubles dom banjur ditaleni nganggo benang wol kang kandel, aja diangkat, dienengke baé nganti puthul dhéwé; banjur nalika pasien waras, wenehi terapi tetuwuhan Hellebore.”<ref name="Surgical Treatment of Haemorrhoids Charles 2002 (book)"/> Hemoroid jare uga diterangake ing kitab [[Injil]].<ref name=Kaidar2007>{{cite journal|last=Kaidar-Person|first=O|coauthors=Person, B; Wexner, SD|title=Hemorrhoidal disease: A comprehensive review|journal=Journal of the American College of Surgeons|date=2007 Jan|volume=204|issue=1|pages=102–17|pmid=17189119|url=http://www.siumed.edu/surgery/clerkship/colorectal_pdfs/Hemmorhoids_review.pdf|access-date=2014-07-14|archive-date=2012-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922155502/http://www.siumed.edu/surgery/clerkship/colorectal_pdfs/Hemmorhoids_review.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=King James Bible|location=1 Samuel 6 4|url=http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/1-Samuel-Chapter-6/}}</ref> [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus|Celsus]] (25 SM – 14 M) nerangake prosedur ligasi lan eksisi, uga nyrasekake potensi komplikasine.<ref name="Agbo 2011"/> [[Galen]] nyaranake supaya matèni pembuluh getih arteri menyang vena, lan ngaku yèn cara iki bisa ngurangi rasa lara lan mrataning gangren.<ref name="Agbo 2011">{{cite journal|last=Agbo|first=SP|title=Surgical management of hemorrhoids|journal=Journal of Surgical Technique and Case Report|date=1 Januari 2011|volume=3|issue=2|page=68|doi=10.4103/2006-8808.92797}}</ref> Buku [[Susruta Samhita]], (abad 4 – 5 M), duwé katrangan kang memper kaya kang diterangake Hippocrates, nanging negesake supaya tatune kudu resik.<ref name="Surgical Treatment of Haemorrhoids Charles 2002 (book)" /> Ing abad 13, dhokter bedhah Éropah kaya ta [[Lanfranc saka Milan]], [[Guy de Chauliac]], [[Henri de Mondeville]] lan John saka Ardene kasil banget nggawé maju lan ngrembakaning teknik bedhah.<ref name="Agbo 2011"/> Panggunan tembung "hemoroid" kang sepisanan ing Inggris kedadeyan ing taun 1398, dumadi saka basa [[Prancis Tuwa]] "emorroides", saka basa [[Latin]] "hæmorrhoida -ae",<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dhaemorrhoida hæmorrhoida], Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, ''A Latin Dictionary'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> saka basa [[Greek language|Yunani]] "αἱμορροΐς" (''haimorrhois''), tegesé "jalaran wetuné getih", saka "αἷμα" (''haima''), "getih"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dai%28%3Dma αἷμα], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> + "ῥόος" (''rhoos''), "dalan, ili, lakuning",<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dr%28o%2Fos ῥόος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> dhéwé saka "ῥέω" (''rheo''), "mili, ngocor".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dr%28e%2Fw ῥέω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> == Kasus-kasus Kawentar == Atlit bisbol kang kawentar [[George Brett (baseball)|George Brett]] ditokkake saka tandhing ing [[1980 World Series]] amarga kelaran hemoroid. Sawisé nglakoni bedhah cilikan, Brett mbalik mèlu main manèh ing tandhing sawisé, karo nylemong "...masalahku saiki wis ana ing mburi."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090305&content_id=3921596| work=Major League Baseball| title=Memories fill Kauffman Stadium| author = Dick Kaegel| date=March 5, 2009}}</ref> Brett banjur nglakoni bedhah hemoroid manèh ing mangsa semi iku.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0DE2DC1439F932A35750C0A967948260| work=The New York Times| title=Brett in Hospital for Surgery| date=March 1, 1981| agency = Associated Press}}</ref> Komentator pulitik konservatif [[Glenn Beck]] nglakoni bedhah hemoroid banjur njelasake pengalaman kang ora nyenengake iku ing video [[YouTube]] taun 2008 kang wis ditonton déning wong akèh banget.<ref>{{cite news|title=Glenn Beck: Put the 'Care' Back in Health Care|url=http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/PainManagement/story?id=4101741&page=1#.UFchlCakt5R|access-date=17 Sèptèmber 2012|newspaper=ABC Good Morning America|date=Jan. 8, 2008}}</ref> {{-}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} == Pranala njaba == {{Commons category|Hemorrhoids}} * {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Digestive_System_Disorders/Anorectal/Hemorrhoids/}} [[Kategori:Lelara]] jv0xz2kpi9u0thz2wux3y4k412ewla1 Ras Kaukasoid 0 107894 1752943 1674694 2026-08-20T05:28:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752943 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''Ras Kaukasoid'''"<ref>For a contrast with the "Mongolic" or [[Mongoloid race]], see footnote #4 of page 58–59 in Beckwith, Christopher. (2009). ''Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present''. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2.</ref> tau kanggo nuduhake [[fenotipe]] umum saka akèh-akèhé penghuni [[Éropah]], [[Afrika Utara]], [[Timur Tengah]], [[Pakistan]] lan [[India|India Utara]].<ref>[http://www.theapricity.com/snpa/chapter-XI1.htm The Races of Europe] by [[Carleton S. Coon|Carlton Stevens Coon]]. From Chapter XI: The Mediterranean World - Introduction: "This third racial zone stretches from Spain across the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence along the southern Mediterranean shores into Arabia, East Africa, Mesopotamia, and the Persian highlands; and across Afghanistan into India."</ref> Keturunanne uga netep ing [[Australia]], [[Amérika Utara]], separo manèh saka [[Amérika Selatan]], [[Afrika Selatan]], lan [[Selandia Baru]]. Anggota "ras Kaukasoid" padhatan sinebut "kulit putih", sanajan mau ora mesti bener. Déning sapérangan nimpuna tuladhané wong Ethiopia lan wong Somalia, kang tengkorake memper tengkorak Kaukasoid, dianggep kalebu "ras" mau, sanajan rambute brintik lan kulike ireng, ciri kang dianggep nemtokake "[[ras Negroid]]". Pakar [[genetika]] asal Itali [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]] wis mbuktekake yèn bagi manungsa ing sajeroning ras minangka sawijining usaha kang siya-siya. Mulane saka segi [[biologi]], istilah kaya ta "ras Kaukasoid" lan racaké, "ras manungsa", ora dianggep manèh. [[Fenotipe]] sawijining wong ditemtokake déning mung sapérangan [[gen]]. Kanthi biologis, mung ana siji ras manungsa, ya iku ''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]''. == Cathetan == <references/> == Uga delengen == * [[Ras Mongoloid]] * [[Ras Negroid]] ==Réferènsi== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite news |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |date=2005-03-14 |title=A Family Tree in Every Gene |publisher=The New York Times |page=A23 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/14/opinion/14leroi.html }} * {{cite web |last=Lewonin |first=R. C. |year=2005 |url=http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Lewontin/ |title=Confusions About Human Races |publisher=Race and Genomics, Social Sciences Research Council |accessdate=2006-12-28 |archive-date=2013-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504132215/http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Lewontin/ |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite journal |last=Painter |first=Nell Irvin |authorlink=Nell Irvin Painter |title=Collective Degradation: Slavery and the Construction of Race. Why White People are Called Caucasian |publisher=Yale University |year=2003 |accessdate=2006-10-09 |url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |format=PDF |archive-date=2013-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020105628/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite journal |author=Risch N, Burchard E, Ziv E, Tang H |title=Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease |journal=Genome Biol. |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=comment2007.2001–12 |date=July 2002 |pmid=12184798 |pmc=139378 |doi=10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007 |url=http://genomebiology.com/1465-6906/3/comment2007 }}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{Cite journal|author=Rosenberg NA|title=Genetic structure of human populations|journal=Science|volume=298|issue=5602|pages=2381–5|date=December 2002|pmid=12493913|doi=10.1126/science.1078311|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/298/5602/2381|bibcode=2002Sci...298.2381R|author2=Pritchard JK|author3=Weber JL|display-authors=3|last4=Cann|first4=HM|last5=Kidd|first5=KK|last6=Zhivotovsky|first6=LA|last7=Feldman|first7=MW|authorlink2=Jonathan K. Pritchard}} * {{Cite journal|author=Rosenberg NA, Mahajan S, Ramachandran S, Zhao C, [[Jonathan K. Pritchard|Pritchard JK]], Feldman MW |title=Clines, Clusters, and the Effect of Study Design on the Inference of Human Population Structure |journal=PLoS Genet. |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=e70 |date=December 2005 |pmid=16355252 |pmc=1310579 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070 |url=}} * {{Cite journal|last=Templeton |first=Alan R. |date=September 1998 |title=Human races: A genetic and evolutionary perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_1998-09_100_3/page/632 |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=632–650 |doi=10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.632 |jstor=682042}} * {{Cite news |last=Camberg |first=Kim |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4525352.stm |title=Long-term tensions behind Sydney riots |publisher=BBC News |date=2005-12-13 |accessdate=2007-03-03 }} {{Refend}} ==Literatur== * Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, ''On the Natural Varieties of Mankind'' (1775) — the book that introduced the concept * {{Cite book|author=Gould, Stephen Jay |title=The mismeasure of man |publisher=Norton |location=New York |year=1981 |pages= |isbn=0-393-01489-4 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} — a history of the pseudoscience of race, skull measurements, and IQ inheritability * {{Cite book|author=Piazza, Alberto; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.; Menozzi, Paolo |title=The history and geography of human genes |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J |year=1996 |pages= |isbn=0-691-02905-9 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} — a major reference of modern population genetics * {{Cite book|author=Cavalli-Sforza, LL |title=Genes, peoples and languages |publisher=Allen Lane |location=London |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-7139-9486-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} * {{Cite book|author=Augstein, HF |chapter=From the Land of the Bible to the Caucasus and Beyond |editor=Harris, Bernard; Ernst, Waltraud |title=Race, science and medicine, 1700–1960 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1999 |pages=58–79 |isbn=0-415-18152-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} * {{Cite book|author=Baum, Bruce |title=The rise and fall of the Caucasian race: a political history of racial identity |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=0-8147-9892-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} * {{Cite book|author=Guthrie, Paul |title=The Making of the Whiteman: From the Original Man to the Whiteman |publisher=Research Associates School Times |location=Chicago, IL |year=1999 |pages= |isbn=0-948390-49-2 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} * {{Cite book|author=Wolf, Eric R.; Cole, John N. |title=The Hidden Frontier: Ecology and Ethnicity in an Alpine Valley |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1999 |pages= |isbn=0-520-21681-4 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} == Pranala njaba == * {{Cite Collier's|Caucasian race}} {{rasmanusia}} [[Kategori:Ras manungsa|Kaukasoid]] [[Kategori:Genetika]] [[Kategori:Genetika populasi]] {{manungsa-stub}} 4iotu9ulbz7yudxb4bbkdh68363fdpl Guwa Péttakéré 0 127170 1752953 1663140 2026-08-20T05:50:16Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752953 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Hands_in_Pettakere_Cave.jpg|right|thumb|400x400px|Citra cithakan tangan sajeroning guwa Péttakéré]] '''Guwa Péttakéré''' ([[Basa Makassar|basa Mangkasar]]: ''Léang Péttakéré'') iku sawijining guwa ana ing [[Taman Nasional Bantimurung Bulusaraung|Kacamatan Bantimurung]], [[Sulawesi Kidul|Sulawèsi Kidul]], [[Indonésia|Indhonésiya]]. Jeroning guwa iki ana cecitra saka mangsa prasajarah.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Wt1VbkTeFRMC|title=1993 Indonesia, Malaysia & Singapore Handbook|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1993|access-date=22 Novèmber 2014}}</ref> == Pracihna == [[File:Pettakere cave, Maros, Sulawesi Selatan.jpg|thumb|Guwa Péttakéré]] Guwa iki, sarta guwa-guwa sawewengkon (Péttaé, Jané, Saripa, lan Karrasa), kalebu "Sasana Prasajarah ''Léang-Léang''" – arané dijupuk saka [[Basa Makassar|basa Mangkasar]].<ref name="Brunei">{{cite web|last=Price|first=Liz|url=http://www.bt.com.bn/travel/2008/01/20/sulawesi_cave_of_hands|title=Sulawesi cave of hands|work=[[The Brunei Times]]|date=20 Januari 2008|access-date=16 Novèmber 2014|archive-date=2014-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129040705/http://www.bt.com.bn/travel/2008/01/20/sulawesi_cave_of_hands|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kayadéné guwa-guwa liyané, guwa iki kawujud saka watu kapur lan panggoné 12 kilomèter (7.5 mil) saka kutha Maros lan 30 kilomèter (19 mil) saka kutha [[Kutha Makassar|Mangkasar]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.se/books?id=ZNdwAAAAMAAJ&q=Pettakere+cave|title=Sulawesi: Island crossroads of Indonesia|first=Toby Alice|last=Volkman|year=1990|publisher=Passport Books|access-date=22 Novèmber 2014|isbn=9780844299068}}</ref> Lawangan guwa iki ana ing ndhuwur parangan 30 mèter saka sawah sangisoré, mula nembé bisa disabani srana andha.<ref name="thejakartaglobe">{{cite news |last=Pitaloka|first=Dyah Ayu|url=http://thejakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/features/exploring-leang-leang-caves-maros/ |title=Exploring the Leang-Leang Caves of Maros |newspaper=[[Jakarta Globe]]|date=6 Juli 2014|access-date=15 Novèmber 2014}}</ref><ref name="DW.de">{{cite news|last=Domínguez|first=Gabriel|url=http://www.dw.de/indonesian-cave-paintings-rewriting-art-history/g-17984540|title=Indonesian cave paintings – Rewriting art history|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=9 Oktober 2014|access-date=16 Novèmber 2014}}</ref> Ana plangitaning lawangan guwa, ana 26 cithakan tangan warna abang putih.<ref name="thejakartaglobe"/> Arupa stènsilan kuna tetanganing manungsa, cithakan warna putih digarap srana "nemplèkaké tangan tumrap tèmbok guwa banjur camboraning okèr warna abang karo banyu disemburaké saubengé tangan mau, wusana nurahi citra négatif ana ing témbok".<ref name="Brunei"/> Cithakan warna abang digawé kanthi ngungkum tangan sajeroning mangsi ginawé saka "gantèn inangan".<ref name="thejakartaglobe"/> Rupaning cithakan tangan ana tapak kiwa saha tapak tengen.<ref name="Brunei"/> Sapérangan tanpa jempol; lantaran wis adating kala semono sadriji kudu dikethok nalika ana sasepuh kang séda.<ref name="thejakartaglobe"/> Miturut pagawéning Sasana Palestarèn Budaya lan Warisan Mangkasar, tapak tangan iku dipitaya duwé aji nolak "bebaya lan kéwan alasan", mula nanggulangi pawongan sing dumunung sajeroning guwa.<ref name="thejakartaglobe"/> Samono uga ana ing kono citraning babikidang (''babirusa''), watara satengah mèter dawané, ing madyaning cithakan tangan-tangan mau.<ref name="thejakartaglobe"/> Gowok-gowok cilik tinemu ana ing ruanganing guwa gedhé dhéwé, diwatara dadi paturoné sing ndunungi guwa.<ref name="thejakartaglobe"/> Hawaning guwa ngancik 27&nbsp;°C (81&nbsp;°F) nalika rina.<ref name="thejakartaglobe"/> == Riwayat == Guwa iki wis suwé kasuwur lan dienggo wong akèh. Arkéolog [[Walanda]] wiwit ngedhuk guwa-guwa sakiwatengené dhèk taun 1950-an, nanging guwa Péttakéré nembé ditlisik déning arkéolog Inggris, Ian Glover, nalika taun 1973.<ref name="Brunei"/><ref name="dw17984021"/> Pandadaran ilmiyah sing dipadhéga dhèk taun 2011 neksir yèn stènsilan tangan karo citraning kéwan ana ing témbok mau watara 35.000 lan 40.000 taun lawasé.<ref name="dw17984021">{{cite web|last=Domínguez|first=Gabriel|url=http://www.dw.de/indonesian-cave-paintings-revolutionized-our-idea-of-human-art/a-17984021|title=Indonesian cave paintings 'revolutionized our idea of human art'|date=9 Oktober 2014|publisher=Deutsche Welle|access-date=22 Novèmber 2014}}</ref> Lawasé citra iki diteksir saka pamriksan radioaktif tumrap tipaking isotop uraniam ing weka sing mrongkol salumahing citra mau.<ref name="dw17984021"/> Cithakan tangan iki padha lawasé karo tunggalé sing ana ing Éropah, kaya ta ana ing Guwa Èl Kastiyo (Spanyol) karo Guwa Gorham (Gibraltar).<ref name="DW.de"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Le Roux|first=Mariette|url=http://www.rappler.com/science-nature/society-culture/71464-indonesia-sulawesi-cave-paintings-ancient-art|title=Southeast Asian cave paintings challenge Europe as cradle of art|publisher=[[Rappler]]|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|date=9 Oktober 2014|access-date=22 Novèmber 2014}}</ref> == Rancangan mbésuk == Nalika wulan Oktober 2014, pamaréntah Indhonésiya mrajanjèni "ngunggahaké" pananggulangan citra-citra guwa kuna lan martakaké rancangan bakal nglebokaké kabèh guwa ing Sulawèsi maring pratélan "warisan bangsa" resmi nagara saha nglamaraké supaya kalebu maring pratélan [[Situs warisan donya|Sasana Warisan Donya]] kagunganing [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/world/regions/asia-pacific/indonesia/71525-indonesia-pledges-to-protect-ancient-cave-paintings|title=Indonesia pledges to protect ancient cave paintings|publisher=Rappler|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=9 Oktober 2014|access-date=22 Novèmber 2014}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|30em}} == Serat tambahan == * {{Cite journal|last = Roebroeks|first = Wil|year = 2014|title = Archaeology: Art on the move|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_nature_2014-10-09_514_7521/page/170|journal = Nature|volume = 514|issue = 7521|pages = 170–171|doi = 10.1038/514170a|pmid = 25297428}} * {{Cite journal|last = Aubert|first = M.|year = 2014|title = Pleistocene cave art from Sulawesi, Indonesia|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_nature_2014-10-09_514_7521/page/223|journal = Nature|volume = 514|issue = 7521|pages = 223–227|doi = 10.1038/nature13422|pmid = 25297435|author2 = and others|display-authors = 1}} [[Kategori:Guwa ing Indonésia|Péttakéré]] mxgxmom3o70ilzxi0fvc8ha6kt7nifx Vasant Gowarikar 0 128251 1752882 1257588 2026-08-20T04:05:58Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752882 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vasant Gowarikar''' (lair [[25 Maret]] [[1933]] - surut [[2 Januari]] [[2015]], nalika tilar donya umuré 81 taun), iku fisikawan India lan ketua Organisasi Risèt Antariksa India. Dhèwèké iku lair ing sajeroning kulawarga kaum brahmana. ==Pati == Vasant Gowarikar nandhang lelara dengue lan infèksi saluran urin, sadurungé tilar donya.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/former-isro-chairman-v-r-gowarikar-died-in-pune-1420278745-1 |title=Former ISRO Chairman V R Gowarikar died in Pune |access-date=2015-11-01 |archive-date=2015-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105185521/http://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/former-isro-chairman-v-r-gowarikar-died-in-pune-1420278745-1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Tokoh India]] [[Kategori:Lair 1933]] [[Kategori:Pati 2015]] p50a5z6ynk68h56lylq20ocxqbltl0x Saréngat Islam 0 128568 1752950 1703940 2026-08-20T05:40:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752950 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Communist Party and Sarekat Islam united, 20 Mei Pelopor 17 Agustus, p37.jpg|thumb|[[Sarékat Islam]] lan [[Parté Komunis Indonésia]]]] '''Saréngat Islam''' ({{lang-ar|شريعة}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|šarīʿah}}'', {{IPA|ʃaˈriːʕa|IPA}}, "" ugi sinebat ''Hukum Islam'', {{lang|ar|قانون إسلامي}} {{transl|ar|DIN|qānūn ʾIslāmī}}) inggih punika angger-angger pranating agami<ref>''Kamus Basa Jawa'' Kanisius (2011:640)</ref> utawi sadaya paugeran ingkang gegayutan kaliyan ngibadah ingkang sampun dipunsebutaken wonten ing [[Kuran]] saha [[Kadis|Hadist]]. Inggih punika sadaya aturan ingkang nata lampahipun gesang tiyang Muslim Islam. Sasanèsipun aturan ugi ngewrat pirembagan prakawis gesang. '''Sarengat''' saged dideleng saking babagan tetembungan lan istilah.<ref name="lppai">{{cite book|title=Akidah Islam|author=Lembaga Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Agama Islam Universitas Islam Indonesia|year=2006|page=79|publisher=UII Press|location=Yogyakarta|ISBN=979-8413-09-1}}</ref> Saking babagan tetembungan, saréngat jarwanipun margi ingkang dipunlangkungi nanging saking babagan istilah jarwanipun gandhèng-cènèngipun manungsa kaliyan [[Allah]], manungsa kaliyan satunggalipun, lan manungsa kaliyan alam.<ref name="lppai"/> Saréngat uga saged gadhah jarwa aturan ingkang ngéngini kaliyan kelakuanipun manungsa.<ref name="dilihatnya">{{cite web|url= http://dilihatya.com/1646/pengertian-syariah-menurut-para-ahli|title= Pengertian Syariah Menurut Para Ahli|accessdate= 15 November 2015|publisher= Dilihatnya|archive-date= 19 October 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151019065749/http://dilihatya.com/1646/pengertian-syariah-menurut-para-ahli|url-status= dead}}</ref> Kajawi punika, saréngat jarwané tujuan gesang manungsa inggih punika alam donya lan akérat.<ref name="pengertianpakar">{{cite web|url= http://www.pengertianpakar.com/2014/09/pengertian-syariah-menurut-para-pakar.html#_|title= Pengertian Syariah Menurut Para Pakar|accessdate= 15 November 2015|publisher= Pengertian Pakar|archive-date= 4 March 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124018/http://www.pengertianpakar.com/2014/09/pengertian-syariah-menurut-para-pakar.html#_|url-status= dead}}</ref> Saréngat kantuk kaperang dados kalih bab, inggih punika [[ibadah]] lan [[muamalah]].<ref name="lppai"/> Wonten panemu benten babagan punapa sarengat kang cocog kagem dhemokrasi, hak asasi manungsa, kebebasan pamikir, hak para wanita, hak LGBT, lan perbankan.<ref name=naim96>{{cite book |first1=Abdullahi A |last1=An-Na'im |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqyWwF5YA1gC&pg=PA337 |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |pages=337–59 |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Witte |editor2-first=Johan D. |editor2-last=van der Vyver |year=1996 |isbn=978-9041101792 }}</ref><ref name=hajjar2004>{{cite journal |last1=Hajjar |first1=Lisa |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_law-social-inquiry_winter-2004_29_1/page/1 |journal=Law & Social Inquiry |volume=29 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=1–38 |jstor=4092696 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x|s2cid=145681085 }}</ref><ref>Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). ''Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East'' (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; {{ISBN|978-0253209399}}{{page needed|date=April 2016}}</ref> [[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|Gegambaran peken [[batur tukon|réncang tumbas]] abad kaping 13, wonten Yaman. Réncang tumbas lan selir dipunanggep bandhaning saréngat; saged dipuntumbas, dipunsadé, dipunsewakaken, dipunparingaken minangka hadiyah, dipunpantha-pantha, lan dipunwarisaken.]] ==Cathetan suku== {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.dakwatuna.com/2008/02/25/412/mengenal-syariat-islam-bagian-1/#axzz3tJq9yKb5 Babagan Saréngat Islam]{{Pranala mati|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani]] 0baszzsh04g67q6ovci6s6smwk7zolv Ferroglobus 0 129591 1752996 1209056 2026-08-20T07:34:15Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752996 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | domain = [[Archaea]] | regnum = [[Euryarchaeota]] | phylum = [[Euryarchaeota]] | classis = [[Archaeoglobi]] | ordo = [[Archaeoglobales]] | familia = [[Archaeoglobaceae]] | genus = '''''Ferroglobus''''' | subdivision_ranks = Spesies | subdivision = * ''[[Ferroglobus placidus|F. placidus]]'' <small> Hafenbradl ''et al.'', 1997</small> | binomial = ''Ferroglobus'' | binomial_authority = Hafenbradl ''et al.'' 1997 }} Sajeroning [[taksonomi]], '''''Ferroglobus''''' ya iku [[genus]] saka [[Archaeoglobaceae]].<ref>See the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information|NCBI]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=54260 webpage on Ferroglobus]. Data extracted from the {{cite web | url=ftp://ftp.ncbi.nih.gov/pub/taxonomy/ | title=NCBI taxonomy resources | publisher=[[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] | accessdate=2007-03-19}}</ref> ==Réferènsi== {{Reflist}} * {{cite journal | author=Hafenbradl, D., Keller, M., Dirmeier, R., Rachel, R., Roßnagel, P., Burggraf, S., Huber, H. and Stetter, K.O. | title=''Ferroglobus placidus ''gen. nov., sp. nov., a novèl hyperthermophilic archaeum that oxidizes Fe<sup>2+</sup> at neutral pH under anoxic conditions | url=https://archive.org/details/archives-of-microbiology_1996-11_166_5/page/308 | journal=Archives of Microbiology | date=1996 | volume=166 | pages=308–314 | pmid = 8929276 | doi=10.1007/s002030050388 | issue=5}} * {{cite book | author=Madigan, M.T. and Martinko, J.M. | title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th Ed. | publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall | date=2005 }} * {{cite journal | author=Tor, J.M., Kashefi, K., and Lovley, D.R. | title=Acetate oxidation coupled to Fe(III) reduction in hyperthermophilic microorganisms | journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology | date=2001 | volume=67 | pages=1363–1365 | doi=10.1128/AEM.67.3.1363-1365.2001 | pmid=11229932 | issue=3 | pmc=92735}} * {{cite journal | author=Tor, J.M., and Lovley, D.R. | title=Anaerobic degradation of aromatic compounds coupled to Fe(III) reduction by ''Ferroglobus placidus'' | journal=Environmental Microbiology | date=2001 | volume=3 | pages=281–287 | doi=10.1046/j.1462-2920.2001.00192.x | pmid=11359514 | issue=4}} ==Wacan liyan== ===Jurnal ilmiah=== *{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Iain|last2=Risso|first2=Carla|last3=Holmes|first3=Dawn|last4=Lucas|first4=Susan|last5=Copeland|first5=Alex|last6=Lapidus|first6=Alla|last7=Cheng|first7=Jan-Fang|last8=Bruce|first8=David|last9=Goodwin|first9=Lynne|last10=Pitluck|first10=Samuel|title=Complete genome sequence of Ferroglobus placidus AEDII12DO|journal=Standards in Genomic Sciences|date=2011|volume=5|issue=1|pages=50–60|doi=10.4056/sigs.2225018|pmid=22180810|accessdate=November 14, 2014|pmc=3236036}} *{{cite journal|last1=Holmes|first1=Dawn E.|last2=Risso|first2=Carla|last3=Smith|first3=Jessica A.|last4=Lovley|first4=Derek R.|title=Anaerobic Oxidation of Benzene by the Hyperthermophilic Archaeon Ferroglobus placidus|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_applied-and-environmental-microbiology_2011-09_77_17/page/5926|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|date=2011|volume=77|issue=17|pages=5926–5933|doi=10.1128/AEM.05452-11}} * {{cite journal|last1=Holmes|first1=Dawn E|last2=Risso|first2=Carla|last3=Smith|first3=Jessica A|last4=Lovley|first4=Derek R|title=Genome-scale analysis of anaerobic benzoate and phenol metabolism in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Ferroglobus placidus|journal=ISME Journal|date=2012|volume=6|issue=1|pages=146–157|doi=10.1038/ismej.2011.88}} *{{cite journal|last1=Vorholt|first1=Julia A.|author1-link=Julia Vorholt|last2=Hafenbradl|first2=Doris|last3=Stetter|first3=Karl O.|last4=Thauer|first4=Rudolf K.|title=Pathways of autotrophic CO-2 fixation and of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to N-2O in Ferroglobus placidus|url=https://archive.org/details/archives-of-microbiology_1997-01_167_1/page/19|journal=Archives of Microbiology|date=1997|volume=167|issue=1|pages=19–23|doi=10.1007/s002030050411}} ===Buku ilmiah=== * {{cite book | author = Huber H, Stetter KO | date = 2001 | chapter = Family I. Archaeoglobaceae fam. nov. Stetter 1989, 2216 | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology Volume 1: The Archaea and the deeply branching and phototrophic Bacteria | edition = 2nd | editor = DR Boone and RW Castenholz, eds. | publisher = Springer Verlag | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-387-98771-2 | page = 169 }} * {{cite book | last = Stetter | first = KO | date = 1989 | chapter = Group II. Archaeobacterial sulfate reducers. Order Archaeoglobales | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume 3 | edition = 1st | editor = JT Staley, MP Bryant, N Pfennig, and JG Holt, eds. | publisher = The Williams & Wilkins Co. | location = Baltimore | page = 169}} ===Database ilmiah=== {{Taxonomic references|taxon=Ferroglobus}} ==Pranala njaba== {{Taxonomic links|microbe=yes|NCBI_taxID=54260|taxoname=Ferroglobus|LSPN_letter=f|LSPN_taxoname=ferroglobus}} [[Kategori:Arkea]] [[Kategori:Euryarchaeota]] {{arkea-stub}} fyav75nzb0ogqnw8z5gi5cxlhgnhn32 Umlaut ing basa Jermanik 0 129663 1753011 1493697 2026-08-20T08:03:08Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753011 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Umlaut ing basa Jermanika''' ya iku sawijining [[umlaut (linguistik)|fénoména linguistik]] nalika sawijining swara mburi owah dadi swara ngarep. Fénoména iki uga diarani mawa jeneng '''umlaut i''' utawa '''mutasi i'''. Fénoména iki wiwit ana lan katon ing sawatara basa-basa Jermanika sing séjé-séjé saka sakiwa-tengené taun 450 nganti 500 M lan mènèhi pangaribawa marang kabèh basa-basa Jermanika awal<ref>{{Cite journal |authorlink=Fausto Cercignani |first=Fausto |last=Cercignani |title=Early "Umlaut" Phenomena in the Germanic Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language_1980-03_56_1/page/126 |journal=Language |volume=56 |issue=1 |year=1980 |pages=126–136 |doi=10.2307/412645}}</ref> kajaba [[basa Gotik]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Fausto |last=Cercignani |title=Alleged Gothic Umlauts |journal=Indogermanische Forschungen |volume=85 |issue= |year=1980 |pages=207–213 }}</ref> Sawijining conto sing ngasilaké alternasi swara iki tuladané ing wujud jamak ''foot'' (sikil) sajeroning basa Inggris sing dadi ''feet'' (sikil-sikil) (saka rékonstruksi basa Jermanik proto */fōts/, jamak */fōtiz/). == Cathetan sikil == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Kulawarga basa Jermanika]] cg0osvngjyb381ewuoo8upw4c1uxi91 Salim A. Fillah 0 131420 1752844 1508518 2026-08-19T22:11:16Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752844 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Writer |name = Salim A. Fillah |image = Salim_A._Fillah.jpg |imagesize = 250px |caption = Salim A. Fillah |pseudonym = |birth_date = {{birth date and age|1984|3|21}} |birth_place = {{Flagicon|Indonésia}} [[Yogyakarta]] |death_date = |death_place = |occupation = Juru sosial, juru nulis |nationality = [[Indonésia]] |period = |genre = |subject = [[Islam]], wiyata |movement = |debut_works = Nikmatnya Pacaran Setelah Pernikahan |spouse = |partner = |children = |relations = |influences = |influenced = |signature = |website = http://www.salimafillah.com/ |footnotes = }} '''Salim A. Fillah''' ({{lahirmati|[[Kutha Ngayogyakarta]]|21|3|1984}}) ya iku juru nulis buku [[Islam]] saka [[Kutha Ngayogyakarta]]. Jenengé dadi kondhang lantaran buku ''Nikmatnya Pacaran Setelah Pernikahan'' (2003). Saliyané nulis buku, Salim A. Fillah uga salah siji sing nguripi Masjid Jogokariyan, Kutha Ngayogyakarta. == Latar wuri == Wiwit cilik, dhèwèké wis seneng buku. Jagading tulis-tinulis lekas dènmempengi nalika ngangsu kawruh ing SMA Teladan Yogyakarta. Kamempengané ing panulis dadi moncèr lantaran buku ''Nikmatnya Pacaran Setelah Pernikahan'' (2003) sing ngiras minangka buku kapisan sing dibabar Pro-U Media. Saliyané nulis buku, Salim A. Fillah uga mempeng ing panityaning Masjid Jogokariyan, Kutha Ngayogyakarta. Ing masjid iki, Salim A. Fillah dadi sing ngamong pangajian Majelis Jejak Nabi. Jeneng Salim A. Fillah tau dadi pawarta magepokan surat binuka sing dènkirim marang bleger-begering pulitik. Surat binuka kapisan dènkirim marang [[Prabowo Subianto]], calon présidhèn saka [[Parté Gerindra]] ing Pilprès 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://salimafillah.com/pak-prabowo-kami-memilih-anda-tapi/ |title=Surat Terbuka Salim A. Fillah kepada Prabowo Subianto |access-date=2016-05-06 |archive-date=2023-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506070943/https://salimafillah.com/pak-prabowo-kami-memilih-anda-tapi/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Surat binuka kapindho ya iku surat binuka marang Wakil Présidhèn [[Jusuf Kalla]] taun 2015.<ref>[http://m.republika.co.id/berita/nasional/umum/15/04/03/nm7d4c-ini-surat-ustaz-salim-a-fillah-yang-sudah-dibaca-wapres-jk-1 Surat Terbuka Salim A. Fillah kepada Jusuf Kalla]</ref> == Karya == * ''Nikmatnya Pacaran Setelah Pernikahan'' (2003). * ''Agar Bidadari Cemburu Padamu'' (2004). * ''Barakallahu Laka: Bahagianya Merayakan Cinta'' (2005). * ''Gue Never Die'' (2006). * ''Saksikan Bahwa Aku Seorang Muslim'' (2007). * ''Jalan Cinta Para Pejuang'' (2008). * ''Dalam Dekapan Ukhuwah'' (2010). * ''Lapis-lapis Keberkahan'' (2014). == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://salimafillah.com Situs resmi Salim A. Fillah] [[Kategori:Panitra Indonésia]] 0onqpn35ljynb6xohf3dib0224xgiux Hans Bethe 0 131987 1752905 1486714 2026-08-20T04:42:36Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752905 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Hans Bethe.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Potrèt Hans Bethe]] '''Hans Albrecht Bethe''' ({{IPA-de|ˈhans ˈalbʁɛçt ˈbeːtə|lang}}; 2 Juli 1906 – 6 Maret 2005) sujana Jerman lan Amérika ing [[fisika nuklir]] sing menang [[Pratélan panampa Nobel Fisika|Bebungah Nobel babagan Fisika taun 1967]] jalaran karyané bab ancangan nukléosintésis lintang. Dhèwèké uga wong wigati sing urun kawruh ing babagan [[astrofisika]], éléktrodhinamika kwantum, lan fisika padhet.<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1098/rsbm.2007.0018|title=Hans Albrecht Bethe. 2 July 1906 -- 6 March 2005: Elected ForMemRS 1957|date=2007|last1=Lee|first1=S.|last2=Brown|first2=G. E.|journal=[[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]]|volume=53|pages=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1092-32|title=Illuminator of the Stars|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_1992-10_267_4/page/32|date=1992|last1=Horgan|first1=John|journal=Scientific American|volume=267|issue=4|pages=32}}</ref> == Tegesing tembung-tembung == {| class="wikitable" !Cara Jawa !Cara Indonésia |- |sujana |''cendekiawan, ilmuwan'' |- |bebungah |''bebungah'' |- |babagan |''babagan'' |- |jalaran |''karena'' |- |bab |''tentang'' |- |ancangan |''téyori'' |- |lintang |''bintang'' |- |wigati |''wigati'' |- |urun kawruh |''menyumbang ngèlmu'' |} == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Lair 1906]] [[Kategori:Pati 2005]] [[Kategori:Fisikawan Amérikah Sarékat]] [[Kategori:Fisikawan Jerman]] [[Kategori:Pemenang Bebungah Nobel dalam babagan fisika]] p2wm99epghzwm5j4g8pb55xoojumbwk Alkimia lan kimia ing jaman Islam tengahan 0 132452 1752960 1288610 2026-08-20T06:02:07Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752960 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Ibn_Umayl_The_Silvery_Water.jpg|jmpl|Ibnu Umail nyandra reca mahardika nggawa tablet kawruh alkimia purwa. Gambaran saka buku transkrip [[Muhammed ibn Umail al-Tamimi]]'s ''Al-mâ' al-waraqî'' (Banyu Kapérakan utawa The Silvery Water), [[Bagdad|Baghdad]], 1339.]] '''Alkimia lan Kimia ing Islam''' ateges pasinaon alkimia tradhisional lan kimia praktis ing mangsa kawitan (kimia kawitan nitipriksa alam kanthi umum) saka sujana ing donya Islam tengahan. Tembung ''alkimia'' asal saka tembung Arab كيمياء or ''kīmiyāʾ''.<ref>"alchemy", entry in ''The Oxford English Dictionary'', J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, ISBN 0-19-861213-3.</ref><ref name="anawati854">p. 854, "Arabic alchemy", Georges C. Anawati, pp. 853-885 in '' Encyclopedia of the history of Arabic science'', eds.</ref> sing wode saka tembung Mesir kuna ''kemi'', tegesé ireng.<ref name="anawati854"/> Sawisé bubrahé Praja Romawi Kulon, pangembanging alkimia ngalih ing kakalifahan lan kabudayan Islam. Utawa sing luwih misuwur alkimia Islam jalaran luwih apik katulis ; akèh-akèhé tulisan wiwitan iku katulis nganggo pertalan Arab.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Alchemy: science of the cosmos, science of the soul|author-link=Titus Burckhardt|first=Titus|last=Burckhardt|year=1967|publisher=Stuart & Watkins|page=46}}</ref> == Prosès lan piranti == Al-Rāzī nyebutaké prosès-prosès kimia mangkéné: * distilasi * kalsinasi, * larutan * evaporasi * kristalisasi * sublimasi, * filtrasi, * amalgamasi, * and serasi (prosès kanggo nggawé pasta padet utawa fusibel.)<ref>p. 89, Holmyard 1990.</ref> Sawènèh operasi iki (calcination, solution, filtration, crystallization, sublimation and distillation) sing uga dikenal wis praktekaké déning juru alkimia Aleksandria pra-Islam.<ref>p. 23, ''A short history of chemistry'', James Riddick Partington, 3rd ed., Courier Dover Publications, 1989, ISBN 0-486-65977-1.</ref> == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Wacan Lanjutan == * {{Cite book|last=Lindberg|first=David C.|chapter=Islamic Science|title=The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450|location=Chicago|publisher=U of Chicago|year=2007|pages=163–92|isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}} * {{Cite journal|last=Principe|first=Lawrence M.|title=Alchemy Restored|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_2011-06_102_2/page/305|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=102|issue=2|year=2011|pages=305–12|doi=10.1086/660139}} * {{Cite journal|last=Sabra|first=A. I.|title=Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_1996-12_87_4/page/654|journal=Isis|volume=87|issue=4|year=1996|pages=654–70|jstor=235197|doi=10.1086/357651}} [[Kategori:Alkimiya]] iulzcp5hcwitzcb13wzp0emnvltz90e Wong Arwaniti 0 132981 1752938 1674741 2026-08-20T05:21:33Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752938 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Wong Arwaniti | image = | population = Diwetara ana 50.000–200.000 | popplace = [[Attica]], [[Peloponnese]], [[Boeotia]], [[Epirus (Greece)|Épirus]] ([[Yunani]]) | rels = [[Ortodoks Yunani]] | langs = [[basa Arwanitika]], [[Greek language|basa Yunani]] | related = [[wong Albania]], [[wong Yunani]], [[Arbëreshë people|wong Arbëreshë (ing Itali)]] }} '''Wong Arwaniti, utawa Arvanites''' ({{Lang-el|Αρβανίτες}}, Arvanitika: ''Arbëreshë'' / Αρbε̰ρεσ̈ε̰ or Arbërorë) ya iku golongan cacah jiwa dwibasa<ref>D Tsitsipis, L., 2004.</ref> ing [[Yunani]] kang asliné nyaturaké basa Arwanitika, sawijining dhialèk [[basa Albania]] bebarengan karo [[basa Yunani]]. Wong-wong iki ndunungi Yunani sasuwéné pungkasaning Jaman Tengahan lan minangka cacah jiwa dhominan ing sawenèh wewengkoning Peloponnese lan [[Attika]] nganti abad angka 19.<ref name="Hall29">Hall, Jonathan M. ''Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity''.</ref> Para Arwaniti ing wektu saiki nganggep awaké dhéwé minangka wong Yunani<ref>Botsi (2003: 90); Lawrence (2007: 22; 156).</ref><ref name="ghm">GHM (1995).</ref><ref name="Hart">{{Cite journal|last1=Hart|first1=Laurie Kain|title=Culture, Civilization, and Demarcation at the Northwest Borders of Greece|doi=10.1525/ae.1999.26.1.196|year=1999|page=196|volume=26|journal=American Ethnologist|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-ethnologist_1999-02_26_1/page/196}}</ref> minangka asil saka prosès asimilasi, lan ora nganggep dhèwèké minangka wong Albania utawa péranganing bangsa Albania.<ref name="Trudgill/Tzavaras 1977">Trudgill/Tzavaras (1977).</ref> Wong-wong iki ngarani awaké dhéwé para Arwaniti utawa Arvanites (ing Yunani) lan Arbëror (ing basané dhéwé). Brayan-brayané para Arwaniti ing Yunani Lor-Kulon diarani Shqiptar (istilah kang pada dianggo wong-wong Albania ing Albania).<ref name="ghm">GHM (1995).</ref> Nalika abad angka 20, basa Arwanitikia mono sangsaya suda panganggoné lumantar ananing kaanan alihan basa menyang basa Yunani lan migrasi internal gedhé-gedhénan menyang kutha-kutha gedhé kang njalari aworing wong-wong. == Démografis == Wewengkon kanthi ananing pangayunan tradhisional saka para Arwaniti tinemu mligi ing papan papan kang padhet ing Yunani Kidul-Wétan, ya iku ing [[Attika]] (Mliginé ing Attika Wétan), Boeotia Kidul, Lor-Wétané Peloponnese, sakiduling pulo Euboea, saloring pulo Andros, lan sawenèh pulo ing Teluk Saronik kalebu Salamis. Ing péranganing wewengkon iki, wong-wong mau mbentuk cacah jiwa mayoritas kang padhet nganti watara taun 1900. Sajeroning Attika, pérangan kutha krajan [[Aténa]] lan wewengkon sapinggiring kutha, ana para Arwanitik nganti pungkasaning abad angka 19.<ref>Travellers in the 19th century were unanimous in identifying Plaka as a heavily "Albanian" quarter of Athens.</ref> Uga ana sawenèh pamukiman ing sawenèh pérangan liyané Peloponnese, lan ing Phthiotis (désa Livanates, Malesina, Martino). Ora ana jumlah kang pesthi ngenani cacah jiwaning para Arwaniti ing Yunani ing wektu iki (ora ana data resmi bab étnisitas ing Yunani). Sawijining sumber saka Venesia ing tengahaning abad angka 15 metara yèn ana 30.000 wong Albania kang urip ana ing Peloponnese ing wektu semana.<ref>Era Vranoussi, Deux documents byzantins inedits sur la presence des Albanais dans le Peloponnese au XVe siecle in The Medieval Albanians, NHRF, Institute for Byzantine Research, p. 294</ref> Ing tengahaning abad angka 19, Johann Georg von Hahn metara jumlahé ing Yunani antaraning 173.000 lan 200.000.<ref>{{Cite book|last=von Hahn|first=Johann Georg|title=Albanesische Studien|year=1854|pages=14, 32}}</ref> Sènsus resmi kang pungkasan saka taun 1951. Awit kuwi, jumlahé wong Arwaniti watara 25.000 tekan 200.000. Ing ngisor iki tingkesaning pangira-ira bab jumlah kang manéka warna (Botsi 2003: 97): * Sénsus 1928: 18.773 warga kang nganggep awaké minangka "Albanophone" ing Yunani. * Sènsus 1951: 22.736 "Albanophones". * Furikis (1934): metara ana 70.000 Arwaniti ing Attika. * Trudgill/Tzavaras (1976/77): metara ana 140.000 ing Attika lan Boeotia. * Sasse (1991): ana watara 50.000 panutur basa Arwanitika ing Yunani. * Étnolog, 2000: 150.000 Arwaniti, ndunungi 300 désa. * Pasarékatan Fédheral Bangsa-bangsa ing Éropah, 1991: 95.000 "wong Albania ing Yunani" (MRG 1991: 189) * Golongan Hak-hak Minoritas Internasional, 1997: 200.000 wong Arwaniti ing Yunani.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Bridget|author2=Minority Rights Group|title=World directory of minorities|url=http://books.google.com/?id=5EQUAQAAIAAJ&dq=arvanitic+league+of+greece&q=arvanites#search_anchor|year=1997|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|isbn=1-873194-36-6|page=155}}</ref> * Jan Markusse (2001): 25.000 Arwaniti ing Yunani<ref>[http://www.google.gr/books?hl=el&lr=&id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA247&dq=arvanites+linguistic+minority&ots=utPOlxqanP&sig=oSa0BiOjcNlgveph7HoFFx3URXQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=linguistic&f=false Markusse Jan, Territoriality in national minority arrangements: European-wide legal standards and practices, in Gertjan Dijkink & Hans Knippenberg (eds.]</ref> Kaya cacah jiwané Yunani kang liya, para Arwaniti uga uwis ngalami émigrasi saka désa-désané menyang kutha, mligi menyang kutha krajan Aténa. Iki njalari pituna ing bab basa tumrap anak putu turun-temuruné.<gallery> File:Ethnographic map of Epirus, based on P. Aravandinos, 1878.jpg|Petha étnisé wewengkon Épirus (1878) File:Pelopones ethnic.JPG|Petha étnografis Jermané wewengkon Peloponnese, 1890. Wewengkon kang nyaturkaé basa Albania awarna abang. File:Balkans-ethnique.JPG|Petha étnografis Prancisé Balkan Peninsula, 1898. Wewengkon kang nyaturaké basa Albania awarna biru enom. </gallery> == Panganggoning basa lan kapahamaning basa == [[Gambar:Apollon1.JPG|jmpl|261x261px|Ayat pambukaning geguritan kang digarap ing basa Arwanitika, kanthi pertalan ing basa Yunani, saperlu ngajèni ningkahé Aleksandra lan Gran Duke Paul saka Russia ing taun 1889.]] Sanajan basa Arwanitika lumrahé karan ''basa Albania'' ing Yunani nganti abad angka 20, pangajabing wong Arwaniti kanggo mahyakaké jati dhirining étnisé minangka wong Yunani uga njalari panulakan marang jati dhiriné [[basa Albania]].<ref name="greekhelsinki.gr">{{Cite web |url=http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/english/reports/arvanites.html |title=GHM 1995 |access-date=2016-08-14 |archive-date=2016-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003100942/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/english/reports/arvanites.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Akir-akir iki, para Arwaniti amung nduwé pamikiran kang keliru ngenani gegayutané basané dhèwè marang basa Albania.<ref>Breu (1985: 424) and Tsitsipis (1983).</ref> Awit Arwanitikia iku mligi minangka basa caturan, wong Arwaniti uga ora rumangsa duwé basa Albania Baku kang dianggo ing Albania, katon saka ora kanggoné basa Albania Baku ing basa tulis lan ing médhiané wong Arwaniti. Pitakonan ngenani celetan ing bab basa utawa adoh cedhaké antaraning basa Arwanitika lan basa Albania uwis ana mligi awit kawitané taun 1990-an, nalika para imigran saka Albania kanthi cacah kang akèh wiwit lumebu Yunani lan kontak karo brayan-brayan Arwaniti lokal.<ref>Botsi (2003), Athanassopoulou (2005).</ref> Wiwit taun 1980-an, uwis ana pangiguh saperlu nglestarékaké pituwah ing bab basa lan budaya saka para Arwaniti. Pakumpulan gedhé dhéwé kang ngupadi kanggo promosi basa Arwanitika ya iku "Arvanitic League of Greece" (Αρβανίτικος σύλλογος Ελλάδος).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.arvasynel.gr/ |title=Arvanitic League of Greece |access-date=2016-08-14 |archive-date=2012-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415122214/http://www.arvasynel.gr/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|30em}} [[Kategori:Wong Arwaniti]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani]] gn5z4qi20bxvxffjvklf06u66ezs8yh Suling 0 134095 1752913 1708775 2026-08-20T04:52:28Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752913 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dwiaksara}} {{For|suling pring|wangsi}} [[File:Shinobue and other flutes-3.jpg|thumb|320px|Werna-werna suling]] [[File:Nubian flute player.jpg|thumb|Wong [[Nubia]] main suling]] '''Suling''' yaiku kulawarga [[piranti musik]] ing golongan piranti sebul kayu. Ora kaya piranti sebul kayu kang ana [[panggetar|panggeteré]], suling iku sawijining piranti [[aérofon]] utawa [[instrumèn angin tanpa panggetar|piranti sebul tanpa panggeter]] kang ngasilaké swara limantar aliran hawa kang ngliwati bukakan. Miturut klasifikasi piranti [[Hornbostel-Sachs]], suling iku piranti [[aérofon sinwara-pinggiran]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = edge-blown aerophone - OnMusic Dictionary|url = http://dictionary.onmusic.org/terms/1278-edge-blown_aerophone|website = OnMusic Dictionary|accessdate = 2015-09-14}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=September 2015}}<!--Cited source does not mention the Hornbostel-Sachs classification system at all. In any case, this citation belongs somewhere in the body of the text, not in the lede, which should only summarize what is in the text, not present otherwise unsupported material.--> Suling yaiku [[Seruling paleolitik|piranti musik]] wiwitan kang isih lestari. Sawènèh suling saka 43.000 nganti 35.000 taun kapungkur tinemu ing laladan [[Swabian Jura]] kang saiki ana ing [[Jerman]]. Tetemon iki mbiyak ananing tradhisi musik déning manungsa modhèren ing Éropah kang tumuwuh ing périodhe wiwitan.<ref name="NYTimes">{{Cite journal| last = Wilford | first = John N.| title = Flutes Offer Clues to Stone-Age Music | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2009-05-14_459_7244/page/248 | volume =459| issue = 7244| pages = 248–52| date = 24 Juni 2009 <!-- deprecated [[en:Template:Cite web#Lay summary]] | laysummary = http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/25/science/25flute.html| lay-source = The New York Times --> | pmid = 19444215| doi = 10.1038/nature07995 |bibcode = 2009Natur.459..248C | journal = Nature }}. Citation on p. 248.</ref><ref name="jhevol">{{Cite journal| title = Τesting models for the beginnings of the Aurignacian and the advent of figurative art and music: The radiocarbon chronology of Geißenklösterle | journal = Journal of Human Evolution|year=2012 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.03.003| last1 = Higham| first1 = Thomas| last2 = Basell| first2 = Laura| last3 = Jacobi| first3 = Roger| last4 = Wood| first4 = Rachel| last5 = Ramsey| first5 = Christopher Bronk| last6 = Conard| first6 = Nicholas J.| volume = 62| issue = 6| pages = 664–76| pmid = 22575323}}</ref> Suling, kalebu [[Bansuri]] kang misuwur, dadi pérangan integral saka [[musik klasik Indhia]] wiwit taun 1500 SM.{{Citation needed|date=Mèi 2016}} Déwa utama [[Hindhu]], yaiku [[Kresna]], tansah magepokan karo suling. ==Réferènsi== {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == {{Commons category|Flutes}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Flute}} {{Wiktionary}} <!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: Links to random pages about flutes DO NOT belong here. That's what the dmoz.org link is for. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:EL --> *Ardal Powell. "[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2241119 Flute]." ''Grove Music Online''. ''Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. (by subscription) *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jiah/hd_jiah.htm Essay on the Jiahu flutes] from the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History at [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] *A selection of historic flutes from around the world at [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/musd/ho_2006.86a-c.htm Walking Stick Flute and Oboe, Georg Henrich Scherer, Butzbach, ca. 1750–57] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/musical_instruments/transverse_flute_in_d_flat_claude_laurent/objectview.aspx?page=1&sort=0&sortdir=asc&keyword=flute*&fp=1&dd1=18&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=18&OID=180013281&vT=1 Glass flute, Claude Laurent, Paris, 1813] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/musical_instruments/transverse_flute_in_d_flat/objectview.aspx?page=2&sort=0&sortdir=asc&keyword=flute*&fp=1&dd1=18&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=18&OID=180015833&vT=1 Porcelain flute, Saxony, 1760–1790] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/musical_instruments/pair_of_transverse_flutes_johann_wilhelm_oberlender/objectview.aspx?page=5&sort=0&sortdir=asc&keyword=flute*&fp=1&dd1=18&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=18&OID=180015236&vT=1 Pair of ivory flutes by Johann Wilhelm Oberlender, mid 18th century, Nuremberg] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/musical_instruments/transverse_flute_garion/objectview.aspx?page=6&sort=0&sortdir=asc&keyword=flute*&fp=1&dd1=18&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=18&OID=180016074&vT=1 Flute by Garion, Paris, ca. 1720–1740] *nature.com [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature08169.html New flutes document the earliest musical tradition in southwestern Germany] * {{dmoz|/Arts/Music/Instruments/Winds/Woodwinds/Flute}} * [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/music/flute/ Flute acoustics] Resources on flute acoustics from the University of New South Wales. * [http://ludowe.instrumenty.edu.pl/en/instruments-/categories/category/326 Folk flutes (''Polish folk musical instruments'')] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320155840/http://www.ludowe.instrumenty.edu.pl/en/instruments-/categories/category/326 |date=2023-03-20 }} <!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: Links to random pages about flutes DO NOT belong here. That's what the dmoz.org link is for. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:EL --> {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Suling| ]] [[Kategori:Piranti musik]] dfei04s773rcbcd3eidhlqvyiff8dci Perang Sadulur Amérika 0 134588 1753012 1737059 2026-08-20T08:06:32Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 4 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753012 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox military conflict |image = [[File:CivilWarUSAColl.png|300px]] |caption = Saarah jarum jam saka ndhuwur: [[Pertempuran Gettysburg]], [[Union Army|Union]] [[John C. Tidball|Captain John Tidball's]] [[Field artillery in the American Civil War|artillery]], [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] prisoners, [[Casemate ironclad|ironclad]] {{USS|Atlanta|1861|6}}, reruntuhan [[Richmond, Virginia]], [[Pertempuran Franklin]] |partof= |date=12 April 1861 – 9 Mèi 1865 (miturut proklamasi)<ref name="NYT JD Cap">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1865/05/10/news/important-proclamations-belligerent-rights-rebels-end-all-nations-warned-against.html|title=The Belligerent Rights of the Rebels at an End. All Nations Warned Against Harboring Their Privateers. If They Do Their Ships Will be Excluded from Our Ports. Restoration of Law in the State of Virginia. The Machinery of Government to be Put in Motion There. |work=The New York Times|agency=[[Associated Press]]|date=May 10, 1865|accessdate=December 23, 2013}}</ref><br />(4 taun, 3 minggu lan 6 dina)<br />([[CSS Shenandoah|Last shot fired]] June 22, 1865) |place=[[Amérikah Sarékat Kidul]], [[Amérikah Sarékat Lor-Wétan]], [[Amérikah Sarékat Kulon]], [[Samodra Atlantik]] |casus=[[Pertempuran Fort Sumter|Serangan Konfederasi ing Fort Sumter]] |result=[[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] victory * [[Batur tukon ing Amérikah Sarékat|Batur tukon]] [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|diilangi]] * [[Territorial integrity]] preserved * Destruction and dissolution of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate States]] * Wiwité [[Éra Rékonstruksi]] |combatant1={{Flag|United States|1863|size=23px}} |combatant2={{Flag|Confederate States of America|name=Confederate States|variant=1861|size=23px}} |commander1='''[[Abraham Lincoln]]'''<br />[[Ulysses S. Grant]]<br />[[William Tecumseh Sherman|William T. Sherman]]<br />[[George B. McClellan]]<br />[[David Farragut]] {{center|''[[Military leadership in the American Civil War#The Union|and others]]''}} |commander2='''[[Jefferson Davis]]'''{{surrendered}}<br />[[Robert E. Lee]]{{surrendered}}<br />[[Joseph E. Johnston]]{{surrendered}}<br />[[Stonewall Jackson]]{{DOW}}<br />[[Raphael Semmes]]{{surrendered}} {{center|''[[Military leadership in the American Civil War#The Confederacy|and others]]''}} |strength1=2,200,000:<ref name="auto">Total number that served</ref> *[[Union Army]] *[[United States Marine Corps|Union Marines]] *[[Union Navy]] *[[United States Revenue Cutter Service|Revenue Service]] 698,000 (peak)<ref name="nps.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/civilwar/facts.htm|title=Facts|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><ref>[http://www.oocities.org/littlegreenmen.geo/UASize.htm "Size of the Union Army in the American Civil War"]: Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army.</ref> |strength2=750,000–1,000,000<ref name="auto"/><ref>Long, E. B. ''The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865.'' Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. {{OCLC|68283123}}. p. 705.</ref> *[[Confederate States Army|Confederate Army]] *[[Confederate States Marines|Confederate Marines]] *[[Confederate States Navy|Confederate Navy]] 360,000 (peak)<ref name="nps.gov"/><ref>[http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;q1=abstract;rgn=full%20text;idno=waro0128;didno=waro0128;view=image;seq=0542 "The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies. ; Series 4 - Volume 2"], United States. War Dept 1900.</ref> |casualties1=110,000+ killed in action/died of wounds<br>230,000+ accident/disease deaths<ref name="civilwarhome.com">Fox, William F. [http://www.civilwarhome.com/foxspref.html Regimental losses in the American Civil War] (1889)</ref><ref name="Official DOD data">{{Cite web |url=https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/report_principal_wars.xhtml |title=Official DOD data |access-date=2016-09-14 |archive-date=2014-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228202255/https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/report_principal_wars.xhtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><br> 25,000–30,000 died in Confederate prisons<ref name="nps.gov"/><ref name="civilwarhome.com" /> 365,000+ total dead{{sfn|Chambers|Anderson|1999|p=849}} 282,000+ wounded<ref name="Official DOD data" /> |casualties2=94,000+ killed in action/died of wounds<ref name="civilwarhome.com" /> 26,000–31,000 died in Union prisons<ref name="Official DOD data" /> 290,000+ total dead 137,000+ wounded |casualties3= 50,000 civilians dead<ref name="StatsWarCost" /><br />'''Total''': 705,000–900,000+ dead<ref>[http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/20/recounting-the-dead/ Recounting the dead], Associate Professor J. David Hacker, "''estimates, based on Census data, indicate that the death toll was approximately 750,000, and may have been as high as 850,000''"</ref> }} '''Perang Sadulur Amérika''' ({{lang-en|American Civil War}}) ya iku [[perang sadulur]] ing [[Amérikah Sarékat]] saka taun 1861 nganti 1865. ''[[Union (Perang Sadulur Amérika)|Union]]'' ngadhepi ''secessionists'' ing sewelas nagara Kidul diklompokaké minangka [[Konfederasi Amérika]]. Union menang perang, kang tetep paling berdarah ing [[Sajarah Amérikah Sarékat|sajarah AS]]. Antarane 34 [[praja AS]] ing Januari 1861, pitu [[praja budak]] tlatah Kidul (''Southern'') mbiwara ''[[secession]]'' saka AS lan mangun Konfederasi Amérika. Perang pecah ing April 1861 nalika Konfederasi nyerang beteng AS [[Fort Sumter]]. ''Konfederasi'' tambah sewelas praja; Konfederasi ngeklaim rong praja liyané lan tlatah kulon [[Arizona]]. Konfederasi ora tau diakoni kanthi diplomasi déning nagara manca. praja kang tetep setya, kalebu [[nagara wates (Perang Sadulur Amérika)|nagara wewatesan ngendi batur tukon légal]], mau ''Union'' utawa ''Lor'' (''the North''). Perang rampung kanthi nyerahé kabèh bala Konfederasi lan ambruké pamaréntah Konfederasi ing mangsa semi 1865. [[Asalé Perang Sadulur Amérika|Perang iki diwiwiti]] saka masalah [[Batur tukon ing Amérikah Sarékat|batur tukon]], mligi nyebaré [[batur tukon]] menyang tlatah kulon. Papat taun peperangan kuat ninggal 620.000-750.000 prajurit mati, jumlahé punjul pati militèr Amérika ing [[Perang Donya I]] lan [[Perang Donya II]] digabungaké, lan akèh infrastruktur Kidul kang dirusak. Konfederasi ambruk lan 4 yuta babu padha dibebaske (paling akèh déning [[Proklamasi Émansipasi]] [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]). [[Éra Rékonstruksi]] (1863-1877) sawisé perang ya iku prosès kanggo mulihake manunggaling nagara, nguwataké pamaréntahan nasional, lan mènèhi [[hak sipil|hak-hak sipil]] kanggo babu kang dibébasaké. ==Rérefènsi== '''Cathetan''' {{reflist|30em|group=N}} '''Sitiran''' {{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= <ref name="StatsWarCost">{{cite web|last=Nofi|first=Al|authorlink=Albert Nofi|title=Statistics on the War's Costs|publisher=Louisiana State University|date=June 13, 2001|url=http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711050249/http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm|archivedate=July 11, 2007|accessdate=October 14, 2007}}</ref> }} ===Bibliografi=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|last= Ahlstrom|first= Sydney E.|title= A Religious History of the American People|publisher= Yale University Press|year= 1972|location= New Haven, Connecticut|isbn= 978-0-300-01762-5|url= https://books.google.com/?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last= Anderson|first= Bern|title= By Sea and By River: The naval history of the Civil War|publisher= Da Capo Press|year= 1989|location= New York, New York|isbn= 978-0-306-80367-3|url= https://books.google.com/?id=hoCK_yzA8xkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last1=Asante|first1=Molefi Kete|last2=Mazama|first2=Ama|title=Encyclopedia of Black Studies|url=https://books.google.com/?id=RcBkDlJ7qjwC&pg=PA82|year=2004|location=Thousand Oaks, California|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-2762-4|edition=}} * Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, ''Why the South Lost the Civil War'' (1986), influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is ''The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion'' (1988) * {{cite journal|last=Bestor |first=Arthur |year=1964 |title=The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1964-01_69_2/page/327 |journal=[[American Historical Review]] |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=327–52 |jstor=1844986 }} * {{cite book |last1=Canney |first1=Donald L. |title=Lincoln's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization, 1861–65 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=1998 |location=Annapolis, Maryland |isbn=978-1-55750-519-4 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=o_fB_SD5QhIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite book| ref={{sfnRef|Catton 1960}} | last= Catton | first= Bruce | title=The Civil War | year= 1960 | publisher= American Heritage Distributed by Houghton Mifflin | location=New York|isbn=978-0-8281-0305-3}} * {{cite book|last1=Chambers|first1=John W.|last2=Anderson|first2=Fred|title=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-507198-6}} * {{cite book| last= Davis | first= William C. | title= Stand in the Day of Battle: The Imperiled Union : 1861–1865 | year= 1983 | publisher= Doubleday | location= Garden City, New York |isbn= 978-0-385-14895-5 }} * {{cite book| last= Davis | first= William C. | title= Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America | year= 2003 | publisher= Free Press | location= New York |isbn=978-0-7432-3499-3 }} * {{cite book| last1= Donald | first1= David | last2= Baker | first2= Jean H. | last3= Holt | first3= Michael F. | title= The Civil War and Reconstruction | year= 2001 | publisher= W. W. Norton & Company | location= New York |isbn= 978-0-393-97427-0}} * {{cite book|last= Fehrenbacher|first= Don E.|title= Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 1981|location= Oxford, New York|isbn= 978-0-19-502883-6|url= https://books.google.com/?id=3KYFlabs2hQC&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book| last1= Fellman| first1= Michael | last2= Gordon | first2= Lesley J. | last3= Sunderland | first3= Daniel E. | title= This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath | year= 2007 |edition = 2 | publisher= Pearson | location= New York |isbn= 978-0-321-38960-2 }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rQSYk-LWTxcC |title=Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War |first=Eric |last=Foner |year=1981 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, New York |isbn=978-0-19-502926-0 |accessdate=April 20, 2012 }} * {{cite book|last1=Foner|first1=Eric|title=The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery|url=https://books.google.com/?id=earytjxi6pEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2010|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co.|location=New York|isbn=978-0-393-34066-2}} * {{cite book| last= Foote| first= Shelby | title= [[The Civil War: A Narrative|The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 1: Fort Sumter to Perryville]] | year= 1974 | publisher= Vintage Books | location= New York |isbn= 978-0-394-74623-4}} * {{cite book|last1=Frank|first1=Joseph Allan|last2=Reaves|first2=George A.|title=Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh|url=https://books.google.com/?id=J_GlcVOb374C&pg=PA170#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2003|location=Urbana, Illinois|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-07126-3}} * {{cite book|last=Fuller |first=Howard J. |title=Clad in Iron – The American Civil War and the Challenge of British Naval Power|location=Annapolis, Maryland |publisher=Naval Institute Press| year=2008 |isbn=978-1-59114-297-3}} * {{cite book|last1=Gallagher|first1=Gary W.|title=The Confederate War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QHNEtpvEB30C&pg=PA57|year=1999|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-16056-9}} * Gara, Larry. 1964. ''The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox'' in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (originally published in Civil War History, X, No. 3, September 1964) * {{cite book|last=Green|first=Fletcher M.|title=Constitutional Development in the South Atlantic States, 1776–1860: A Study in the Evolution of Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/?id=A5c0LKovqJUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2008|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina|isbn=978-1-58477-928-5}} * {{cite book|last1=Guelzo|first1=Allen C.|title=Lincoln: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/?id=XcgqWAt1kZUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-536780-5}} * {{cite book| last= Guelzo| first= Allen C.| title= Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction| year= 2012 | publisher= Oxford University Press | location= Oxford, New York |isbn= 978-0-19-984328-2}} * {{cite journal | first=J. David | last=Hacker | date=December 2011 | title=A Census-Based Count of the Civil War Dead | journal=Civil War History | volume=57 | issue=4 | pages=307–348 | bibcode= | doi=10.1353/cwh.2011.0061 | pmid=22512048 | url=//muse.jhu.edu/journals/civil_war_history/v057/57.4.hacker.html }} * {{cite book| last1= Heidler| first1= David S. |first2= Jeanne T. |last2= Heidler |first3= David J. |last3= Coles | title=Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History | year= 2002 | publisher= ABC-CLIO | location= Santa Barbara, California |isbn=1-57607-382-3}} * {{cite book |last= Herring |first= George C. |title= From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2011 |location= Oxford, New York |isbn= 978-0-19-976553-9 |url= https://books.google.com/?id=fODT-qOVoiIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite journal|first=Richard |last=Hofstadter |title=The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1938-10_44_1/page/50 |journal=[[American Historical Review]] |volume=44 |issue=1 |year=1938 |pages=50–55 |jstor=1840850 }} * {{cite book| last= Holt | first= Michael F. | title= The Fate of Their Country: Politicians, Slavery Extension, and the Coming of the Civil War | year= 2005 | publisher= Hill and Wang | location= New York |isbn= 978-0-8090-4439-9}} * {{cite book|last1=Holzer|first1=Harold|last2=Gabbard|first2=Sara Vaughn|title=Lincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Thirteenth Amendment|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xLbkXsn6xHAC&pg=PA174|year=2007|location=Carbondale, Illinois|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=978-0-8093-2764-5}} * {{cite book|last= Huddleston |first= John |title= Killing Ground: The Civil War and the Changing American Landscape|publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press |year= 2002 |location= Baltimore, Maryland |isbn= 978-0-8018-6773-6}} * {{cite book| last= Johannsen | first= Robert W. | title= Stephen A. Douglas | year= 1973 | publisher= Oxford University Press| location= New York |isbn= 978-0-19-501620-8}} * {{cite book|last= Johnson|first= Timothy D.|title= Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory|publisher=University Press of Kansas |year= 1998 |location= Lawrence, Kansas|isbn= 978-0-7006-0914-7}} * {{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Howard|title=Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gVvZb5oeVtwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1999|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|location=Lincoln, Nebraska|isbn=978-0-8032-2582-4}} * {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Howard|title=Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations to 1913|url=https://books.google.com/?id=TFyLOUrdGFwC&pg=PA225|year=2002|location=Wilmington, Delaware|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8420-2916-2}} * {{cite book| last= Keegan | first= John | title= The American Civil War: A Military History | year= 2009 | publisher= Alfred A. Knopf| location= New York|isbn= 978-0-307-26343-8}} * {{cite book| last= Krannawitter| first= Thomas L. | title= Vindicating Lincoln: defending the politics of our greatest president| year= 2008 | publisher= Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location= Lanham, Maryland |isbn= 0-7425-5972-6}} * {{cite book|last1=Lipset|first1= Seymour Martin |title=Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics|year=1960|publisher= Doubleday & Company, Inc.|location= Garden City, New York |isbn=}} * {{cite book| last= McPherson | first= James M. | title= [[Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era]]| year= 1988 | publisher= Oxford University Press | location= Oxford, New York |isbn= 978-0-19-503863-7}} * {{cite book| last= McPherson | first= James M. | title= Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction | year= 1992 | publisher= McGraw-Hill | location= New York |isbn= 978-0-07-045842-0|edition= 2}} * {{cite book|last1=McPherson|first1=James M.|title=For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1qhEHVki8tEC&pg=PA169|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-974105-2}} * {{cite book| last= McPherson | first= James M. | title= This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War | year= 2007 | publisher= Oxford University Press| location= Oxford, New York |isbn= 978-0-19-539242-5}} * {{cite book|last1=Thornton|first1=Mark|last2=Ekelund|first2=Robert Burton|title=Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War|year=2004|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=|isbn=}} * Murray, Robert Bruce. ''Legal Cases of the Civil War'' (2003). ISBN 0-8117-0059-3 * {{cite book|last1=Murray|first1=Williamson|last2=Bernstein|first2=Alvin|last3=Knox|first3=MacGregor|title=The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ld8NPYqqUnMC&pg=PA235|year=1996|location=Cabmbridge, New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56627-8}} * {{cite book|last= Neely|first= Mark|title= Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties|publisher= Marquette University Press|year= 1993|location= Milwaukee, Wisconsin|isbn= 978-0-87462-325-3|url= https://books.google.com/books/about/Confederate_Bastille.html?id=zPV2AAAAMAAJ}} * {{cite book |last=Nelson |first=James L. |title=Reign of Iron: The Story of the First Battling Ironclads, the Monitor and the Merrimack |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2005 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-052404-3 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=d8XD-j--EVsC&pg=PA149&lpg=PA149&dq=Delamater+Iron+works+monitor }} * [[Allan Nevins|Nevins, Allan]]. ''[[Ordeal of the Union]]'', an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner ** 1. ''Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852''; 2. ''A House Dividing, 1852–1857''; 3. ''Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859''; 4. ''Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861''; vols 5–8 have the series title ''War for the Union''; 5. ''The Improvised War, 1861–1862''; 6. ''War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863''; 7. ''The Organized War, 1863–1864''; 8. ''The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865'' * {{cite book|last=Olsen|first=Christopher J.|title=Political Culture and Secession in Mississippi: Masculinity, Honor, and the Antiparty Tradition, 1830–1860|url=https://books.google.com/?id=RrBb2ThDuCkC&pg=PA237#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-516097-0}} * {{cite book|last1=Perman|first1=Michael|last2=Taylor|first2=Amy M.|title=Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction: Documents and Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rPbZT_hrncC&pg=PA177#v=onepage&q&f=false|edition=3|year=2010|publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning|location=Boston, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0-618-87520-7}} * {{cite journal|first=David M. |last=Potter |title=The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1962-07_67_4/page/924 |journal=[[American Historical Review]] |volume=67 |issue=4 |year=1962 |pages=924–950 |jstor=1845246 }} * {{cite book|first1=David M. |last1=Potter |first2=Don E. |last2=Fehrenbacher |title=The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 |publisher=Harper & Row |location= New York |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-06-013403-7}} * {{cite book | last= Rhodes | first= John Ford | title= History of the Civil War, 1861–1865 | year= 1917 | publisher= The Macmillan Company | location= New York | isbn= | url= https://books.google.com/?id=nY4sAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite book|first=William L.|last=Richter|title=The A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction|url=https://books.google.com/?id=obFt-MmS6ygC&pg=PA49|year=2009|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham|isbn=978-0-8108-6336-1}} * {{cite journal|last=Russell |first=Robert R. |year=1966 |title=Constitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-southern-history_1966-11_32_4/page/466 |journal=[[Journal of Southern History]] |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=466–486 |doi=10.2307/2204926 |jstor=2204926 }} * {{cite book | title=Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia: A Biography | publisher=Louisiana State University Press |last1=Schott|first1= Thomas E. | year=1996 | location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana | isbn=978-0-8071-2106-1}} * {{cite book | last= Sheehan-Dean, ed. | first= Aaron | title= A Companion to the U.S. Civil War | year= 2014 | publisher= Wiley Blackwell | location= New York | url= http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1444351311.html | isbn= 1-4443-5131-1 | access-date= 2016-09-14 | archive-date= 2017-08-23 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170823205138/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1444351311.html | url-status= dead }}, 2 vol. 1232pp; 64 topical chapters by experts; emphasis on historiography. * {{cite book| last= Stampp | first= Kenneth M. | title= America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink | year= 1990 | publisher= Oxford University Press| location= Oxford, New York |isbn= 0-19-503902-5}} * {{cite book|last1=Symonds|first1=Craig L.|last2=Clipson|first2=William J.|title=The Naval Institute Historical Atlas of the U.S. Navy|url=https://books.google.com/?id=q_HIcc8n3K4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2001|publisher=Naval Institute Press|isbn=978-1-55750-984-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Pierpaoli |first2=Paul G. |last3=White |first3=William E. |title=The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2010 |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-1-59884-338-5 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=q4mwAtj2r3UC&pg=PA462#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite book| last= Varon | first= Elizabeth R. | title= Disunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859 | year= 2008 | publisher= University of North Carolina Press| location= Chapel Hill, North Carolina |isbn= 978-0-8078-3232-5}} * {{cite book|last= Vinovskis|first= Maris|title= Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year= 1990|location= Cambridge, England|isbn= 978-0-521-39559-5|url= https://books.google.com/?id=9D4TAwc93VoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book| last= Ward | first= Geoffrey R. | title= The Civil War: An Illustrated History| year= 1990 | publisher= Alfred A. Knopf | location= New York |isbn= 978-0-394-56285-8}} * {{cite book|last=Weeks|first=William E.|title=The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations|url=https://books.google.com/?id=y2zFFnaqgpsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, New York|isbn=978-1-107-00590-7}} * {{cite book | last= Weigley | first= Frank Russell | title= A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865 | year= 2004 | publisher= Indiana University Press | location= Bloomington, Indiana | isbn= 0-253-33738-0 | url= http://www.questia.com/read/14877569 }} * {{cite book |last1= Welles |first1= Gideon |title= Secretary of the Navy's Report |publisher= American Seamen's Friend Society |year= 1865 |volume= 37–38 |url= https://books.google.com/?id=u4gfAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite book|last1=Winters|first1=John D.|title=The Civil War in Louisiana|url=https://books.google.com/?id=PjicJWUQhPYC&pg=PR3|year=1963|publisher=[[Louisiana State University Press]]|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|isbn=978-0-8071-0834-5}} * {{cite book| last1= Woodworth|first= Steven E.| title= American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research | year= 1996 | publisher= Greenwood Press | location= Wesport, Connecticut |isbn= 978-0-313-29019-0}} {{refend}} ==Wacan luwih lanjut== * Gugliotta, Guy. [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/03/science/civil-war-toll-up-by-20-percent-in-new-estimate.html?ref=science&pagewanted=all New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll], ''[[The New York Times]]'', April 3, 2012, p. D1 (of the New York edition), and April 2, 2012 on NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2012-04-03 online. * [[Bibliography of early American naval history#American Civil War|Bibliography of American Civil War naval history]] * {{cite EB1911|wstitle=American Civil War |short=x}} == Pranala njaba == {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons}} {{wikisource index}} {{wikivoyage|American Civil War}} * {{dmoz|Society/History/By_Region/North_America/United_States/Wars/Civil_War/|American Civil War}} * [http://www.archives.gov/research/civil-war/photos/index.html Civil War photos] at the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] * [http://www.loc.gov/pictures/search?st=grid&c=100&co=cwp View images] from the [http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/cwp/ Civil War Photographs Collection] at the Library of Congress * [http://www.civilwar.org/ Civil War Trust] * [http://www.gettysburg.edu/library/gettdigital/civil_war/civilwar.htm Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090811064152/http://www.gettysburg.edu/library/gettdigital/civil_war/civilwar.htm |date=2009-08-11 }} This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College. * [http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/civil-war Civil War 150] ''Washington Post'' interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War. * [http://www.american-south.org/ Civil War in the American South] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313231903/https://www.american-south.org/ |date=2021-03-13 }} – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items—books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts—held at ASERL member libraries * [http://www.sonofthesouth.net/ The Civil War] – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War * {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.54756|name=A HOUSE DIVIDED (1960)}} * [https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=U.S.+Civil+War+reenactments&oq=U.S.+Civil+War+reenactments&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_l=youtube.12...0.0.0.855.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0...0.0.U.S. Civil War Living History Reenactments (videos)] * [http://www.loc.gov/item/map66001088 West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles] * [https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/browse-subject "American Civil World" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection], [[Cornell University Library]] {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Amérikah Sarékat]] io0oaghzf0ze7e2p0pjzif17dbzcmar Radiata 0 137137 1752911 1458702 2026-08-20T04:50:27Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752911 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Artikel ing Banyumasan}} {{Taxobox | name = Radiata | fossil_range = [[Ediacaran]] – Present {{fossilrange|610|0|}} | image = Moon jellyfish at Gota Sagher.JPG | image_caption = Uwur-uwur wulan, ''Aurelia aurita'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | unranked_subregnum = [[Eumetazoa]] | subregnum = '''Radiata''' | subdivision_ranks = Phyla | subdivision = *[[Cnidaria]] *[[Ctenophora]] *[[Trilobozoa]] [[extinction|†]] | synonyms = Coelenterata }} '''Radiata''' iku pringkat taksonomi kang dipigunakaké kanggo klasifikasikna radial simetris kéwan. Istilaeh Radiata iku kesatuan saka sapérangan golongan kéwan kang béda, sapérangan ora mbentuk [[monofiletik]] nangisor tampilané filogèni kéwan. Sebab iki lan masalah homoplasy panganggoan simetri awak dadi karakter filogenetik,<ref>{{cite book|last=Hadzi|first=J|title=Evolusi dari Metazoa.|year=1963|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York, NY, USA|isbn=0080100791|pages=56–57}}</ref> istilaeh iki dipigunakaké mligi ing konteks historis. Ing abad ke-19, [[Georges Cuvier]] nggabungna [[ctenophore]] lan [[cnidaria]] ing Radiata.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cuvier|first=Georges|title=Le Règne Animal Distribué Selon son Organisation, pour Servir de Base à l’Histoire Naturelle des Animaux et d’Introduction à l’Anatomie Comparée|year=1817|publisher=Déterville|location=Paris}}</ref> [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]], ing taun 1983, ndefinisikna maning Radiata dadi subkingdom kang saka [[Myxozoa]], [[Placozoa]], [[Cnidaria]] lan [[Ctenophora]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Cavalier-Smith|first=T|title=Sebuah klasifikasi 6-kraton dan filogèni terpadu. di Endocy biologi II|year=1983|publisher=Walter De Gruyter Inc|isbn=3110086603|pages=1027–1034}}</ref> [[Lynn Margulis]] lan KV Schwartz ndefinisikan maning Radiata ing kelebu Lima Krajan klasifikasi, sekiye kur Cnidaria lan Ctenophora.<ref>{{cite book|last=Margulis|first=Lynn|title=Lima Kingdoms: Sebuah Panduan diilustrasikan dengan Filum Kehidupan di Bumi.|year=1988|publisher=W. H. FREEMAN AND COMPANY|location=New York, NY, USA|isbn=0716730278}}</ref> Sekiye [[simetri radial]], racaké dadi ciri khasé ana ing kéwan kang wis diklasifikasikna ing golongan iki, ana kang jelas lan kualifikasiné. [[Echinodermata]] misalé, nunjukna salah siji simetri bilateral dadi [[larva]]. Ctenophore nunjukna biradial utawa rotasi simetri, kang didefinisikna ana ing sumbu dhapuré kaya sungut lan faring, kang rongkanal letaké ing rongkuadran kebalikanné.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Martindale|first=Mark|author2=Finnerty JR |author3=Henry JQ |title=Radiata dan asal-usul evolusi dari rencana tubuh bilaterian|url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2002-09_24_3/page/358|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|date=September 2002|volume=24|issue=3|pages=358–365|doi=10.1016/s1055-7903(02)00208-7}}</ref> Sapérangan spésies ing kelas cnidarian [[Anthozoa]] iku bilateral simetris (Misale, [[Nematostella vectensis]]). Kaé wis mbiwara angger simetri bilateral kemungkinané wia berévolusi seurungé perpecahan Cnidaria lan Bilateria, lan cnidaria radial simetris wis ngembang dadi simetri radial, kang artiné bilateral ing spésies cnidarian kaya N. vectensis duwé asal utama.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Finnerty|first=JR|author2=Pang K |author3=Burton P |author4=Paulson D |author5=Martindale MQ |title="Asal simetri bilateral: Hox dan èksprèsi dpp di anemon laut".|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-05-28_304_5675/page/1335|journal=Science|date=28 May 2004|volume=304|issue=5675|pages=1335–1337|doi=10.1126/science.1091946}}</ref> == Préferensi == {{reflist}} {{Wikispecies|Radiata}} {{Eukaryota}} {{Animalia}} [[Kategori:Kéwan]] axdjwgyjkjqfj3k9tbojn4rjynm5965 The Prestige (novel) 0 137224 1752979 1651119 2026-08-20T07:05:34Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752979 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox book|name=The Prestige|image=Image:theprestigecover.jpg|caption=First edition|author=[[Christopher Priest (novelist)|Christopher Priest]]|cover_artist=|country=England|language=English|genre=Science fiction, [[horror fiction]]|publisher=Touchstone, [[Simon & Schuster]]|pub_date=1995|media_type=Print|pages=404|isbn=0-671-71924-6|oclc=|dewey=|congress=PR6066.R55 P74}} '''''The Prestige''''' ya iku [[novèl]] kang ditokaké taun [[1995]], pakaryané [[sastrawan]] [[Inggris]], [[Christopher Priest]]. Novèl iki naté diangkat dadi [[film]] déning [[Christopher Nolan]] ing taun [[2006]] kanti sesirah kang padha, nyritakaké saingané wong loro, kanca raket kang tansah ngalap pulih siji lan sijiné. Sesilah novèl iki dijupuk saka istilah donyané sulap. ''The Prestige'' naté nglantaraké panyeraté ngranggeh bebungah James Tait Black Memorial Prize liwat kategori fiksi paling apik lan World Fantasy Award liwat kategori novèl paling apik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/christopherpriest/pres_qa.htm|title=Christopher Priest – Future events|last=Iffergrin|first=Don|date=October 2006|accessdate=1 March 2007|archive-date=22 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722222658/http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/christopherpriest/pres_qa.htm|url-status=dead}} – Christopher Priest states he created the terms in 1995.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ansible.co.uk/writing/prestige.html|title=Christopher Priest, ''The Prestige''|date=1996|publisher=Ansible|author=Langford, David|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=22 July 1996|title=The Prestige|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_publishers-weekly_1996-07-22_243_30/page/226|journal=[[Publishers Weekly]]|volume=243|issue=30|page=226}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hand|first=Elizabeth|date=August 1997|title=The Prestige|url=|journal=[[The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction]]|volume=93|issue=2|page=24+}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kirkman|first=Adam|date=30 March 2007|title=Reading for Pleasure: the White Horse Publications Publisher on the Subtleties of Christopher Priest|journal=[[The Bookseller]]|location=London|issue=5274|page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2006/nov/19/fiction.features2|title=Now You See It|last=Clark|first=Alex|date=18 November 2006|work=[[The Guardian]]|publisher=Guardian News and Media|location=London|accessdate=11 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Levitov|first=Francine|date=May 2007|title=Priest, Christopher. The Prestige|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_kliatt_2007-05_41_3/page/55|journal=Kliatt|volume=41|issue=3|page=55}}</ref><ref name="WWE-1996">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1996|title=1996 Award Winners & Nominees|work=Worlds Without End|accessdate=28 September 2009}}</ref> == Ringkesan == Novèl iki nyritakaké wong loro, kanca raket jenengé Robert Angier lan Alfred Borden, sing padha-padha nelaténi ing pagelaran [[sulap]]. Angier iku juru main sulap saka kalangan bangsawan, éwadènè Alfred Borden namung pesulap ngisoran. Wiwitané, Angier lan Borden mbiyantu proyek-proyeké Cutter. Cutter seneng duwé anak buah pinter kaya wong loro mau. Angier lan Borden uga dikongkon sinau menyang mancanegara sing adoh. Saéngga sawijining dina bojoné Angier mati jalaran saka kaluputané Borden naleni tangané nalika pagelaran sulap. Matiné bojoné kuwi, ndadèkké Angier nesu lan ngalap pulih, sarta tansah ngincim marang Alfred Borden supaya ngakoni kaluputané. Saingan antarané wong loro iku kedlarung-dlarung, Angier mbales nyilakani Borden nganti tugel driji kiwané nalika pagelaran nankep peluru saka pistol. Ora namung meneng, Borden uga gawé bales tumrap Angier. Ing salah sijiné pagelaran ngilangaké manuk saka kurungané, Borden nyamar dadi pamirsa lan maju ing ndhuwur panggung. Ing kono Borden gawé gara-gara kang pungkasané agawe tugel tangané salah sijiné pamirsa kang uga mèlu maju bareng dhèwèké jalaran kecocok kurungan kang lancip. Angier tambah nesu marang Borden, apa manèh dhèwèké weruh Borden nduwé pagelaran apik banget kanthi sesirah "The Transported Man" (wong bisa maleh nggon kanti wektu sakleraban) sing dimainke kanti sampurna déning Borden, saéngga Angier péngin mangerteni wadiné. Sejatiné Cutter wis nerangaké yèn Borden nganggo wong kembar, nanging Angier ora percaya katrangan kuwi. Dhèwèké ngèyèl yèn babak "''the prestige''" kuwi sing metu Borden dhèwé. Pratandhané, driji kiwane Borden kang tugel. Pungkasané disarujuki supaya Angier digolekké wong sing pasuryané meh padha, kareben bisa madhani pagelaran Borden ana ing pagelaran "''The Transported Man''". Nanging, manèh-manèh, Angier tetep ora bombong, amarga wong sing metu pungkasan lan mènèhi pakurmatan marang pamirsa dudu dhèwèké, nanging kembarané. Lan cilakané, "kembarané" mau seneng mendem. Kaanan kuwi dimanfaatké déning Borden kanggo ngreka daya. Ana ing salah sijiné pagelaran sabanjuré, Borden nggawé gara-gara manèh, ya iku nggeser matras kang adaté kanggo terjun Angier nalika ngilangaké awaké, saéngga sikilé tugel. Sawisé kuwi, Borden metu panggung minangka ''"the prestige"'', lan nggantung kembarané Angier sadhuwure panggung. Sawijining dina, Angier lunga ing [[Colorado|Colorado Spring]] kanggo nemoni [[Nikola Tesla]], salah sijiné insinyur lan panemu babagan kelistrikan. Ing kana, dhèwèké njaluk digawekaké mesin kang bisa dienggo ana ing pagelaran sulap "The Transported Man" nanging, ing pungkasan dhèwèké sing metu. Tesla kasil nggawé rancangan mesin kuwi, lan bisa ndobel pribadhiné Angier, nanging ana syaraté, aja nganti ngregeti tangané. Mula saka kuwi, nalika mesin dilakokké, kudu ana salah siji sing dipatèni, lan salah sijiné tumindak minangka ''"the prestige"''. Ndeleng kasampurnan pagelaran Angier kuwi, Alfred Borden ngongkon sadulur kembaré, Bernard Fallon (driji kiwané uga dikethok kanggo madhani Borden), kanggo nggolèk sisik melik wadiné. Nanging awit saka kuwi kacilakan nandhang marang Fallon. Fallon kang meneng-meneng lumebu ing ngisor panggung, weruh Angier lumebu peti banyu sing kekancing. Fallon ngira kuwi ora disengaja lan ngupayakaké nulungi, kangmangka wis diatur déning Angier supaya ing pagelaran kuwi dhèwèké ora ngetokké babak ''"the prestige"''. Pungkasané, kadadéan kuwi kang nyeret Fallon ing pangadilan nanging kabèh wong ngertiné Falon ya Borden. Borden saben dinané macak minangka Fallon. Sawisé ethok-ethok mati, Angier ngganti jenengé dadi Lord Caldlow lan péngin tuku tilas mesin sing naté dienggo, lan disimpen ing pangadilan. Cutter ngeterké mesin mau ing omahé Caldlow, nanging mandahnéya kageté, jebul Lord Caldlow ora liya Robert Angier kang taksih urip. Nalika nata mesin ing gudhangé kuwi ujug-ujug Alfred Borden teka lan nembak Angier nganggo pistolé, lan kena dadané Angier. Ing pawicaran pungkasan, Angier tembé mangerteni jebulé wadine Borden gampang banget, mung nganggo paraga liya, ya iku kembarané. Nanging Borden énggal-énggal nampik yèn wadine pagelaran kuwi larang regané, mbutuhke pangorbanan ngethok driji lan patine Fallon, sadulur kembarane, supaya pagelarané sampurna. Novèl iki dipungkasi kanti matiné Robert Angier. == Nominasi lan pangaji == * Nominasi: British Fantasy Award, 1995<ref name="WWE-1995">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1995|title=1995 Award Winners & Nominees|work=Worlds Without End|accessdate=28 September 2009}}</ref> * Menang: James Tait Black Memorial Prize, 1996 * Nominasi: Bram Stoker Award, 1996<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?4668|title=Bibliography: The Prestige|publisher=[[Internet Speculative Fiction Database]]|accessdate=11 July 2013}}</ref> * Menang: World Fantasy Award, 1996<ref name="WWE-1996" /> * Nominasi Arthur C. Clarke Award, 1996<ref name="WWE-1996" /> == Diangkat ing film == {{main|The Prestige (film)}} Novèl wis diangkat ing [[film|filem]] kang disutradarani [[Christopher Nolan]] lan digebyahaké tanggal [[20 Oktober]] [[2006]] kanthi paraga [[Christian Bale]] minangka Alfred Borden lan [[Hugh Jackman]] minangka Robert Angier. Paraga liyané ya iku [[Michael Caine]], [[Scarlett Johansson]] lan [[David Bowie]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=3 October 2005|title=Magic Mojo for Thesp Duo|url=|journal=[[Variety (magazine)|Daily Variety]]|volume=289|issue=1|page=1|author=Cohen, David S. and Michael Fleming}}</ref> == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.christopher-priest.co.uk/ Christopher Priest's website] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Novèl Amérika]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani II kalamangsa 1]] {{buku-stub}} qzt2fskz7hq8gljz416zaxojx6qmm6v The Prestige 0 137225 1752897 1651118 2026-08-20T04:31:25Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752897 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Film| |name=The Prestige|image=Prestige_poster.jpg|caption=US Promotional poster for ''The Prestige''.|director=[[Christopher Nolan]]|producer=Christopher Nolan<br />[[Emma Thomas]]|writer='''Novèl:'''<br />[[Christopher Priest (English novelist)|Christopher Priest]]<br />'''Skenario:'''<br />[[Jonathan Nolan]]<br />Christopher Nolan|starring=[[Hugh Jackman]]<br />[[Christian Bale]]<br />[[Michael Caine]]<br />[[Scarlett Johansson]]<br />[[David Bowie]]<br />[[Piper Perabo]]|music=[[David Julyan]]|cinematography=[[Wally Pfister]]|editing=[[Lee Smith (juru besut)|Lee Smith]]|distributor=[[Touchstone Pictures]] (NA)<br />[[Warner Bros.]] (worldwide)|released=[[20 Oktober]] [[2006]] ([[AS]])<br />[[10 November]] [[2006]] ([[Karajan Manunggal]])|runtime=130 min.|country=[[Amérikah Sarékat]]|language=[[Bahasa Inggris|Inggris]]|budget=[[US$]]40 million|gross=US$109 million|amg_id=1:337176|imdb_id=0482571}} '''The Prestige''' ya iku [[film|filem]] [[Amérikah Sarékat]] kang digawé taun [[2006]]. Film iki disutradarani [[Christopher Nolan]], dijupuk saka novèl [[The Prestige (novèl)|''The Prestige'']] karyané [[Christopher Priest]]. Sing maragani filem iki antarané [[Hugh Jackman]], [[Christian Bale]], [[Michael Caine]], [[Scarlett Johansson]]. The Prestige dibabar ing tanggal [[20 Oktober]] [[2006]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/christopherpriest/pres_qa.htm|title=Christopher Priest – Future events|last=Iffergrin|first=Don|date=October 2006|accessdate=1 March 2007|archive-date=22 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722222658/http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/christopherpriest/pres_qa.htm|url-status=dead}} – Christopher Priest states he created the terms in 1995.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ansible.co.uk/writing/prestige.html|title=Christopher Priest, ''The Prestige''|date=1996|publisher=Ansible|author=Langford, David|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=22 July 1996|title=The Prestige|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_publishers-weekly_1996-07-22_243_30/page/226|journal=[[Publishers Weekly]]|volume=243|issue=30|page=226}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hand|first=Elizabeth|date=August 1997|title=The Prestige|url=|journal=[[The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction]]|volume=93|issue=2|page=24+}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kirkman|first=Adam|date=30 March 2007|title=Reading for Pleasure: the White Horse Publications Publisher on the Subtleties of Christopher Priest|journal=[[The Bookseller]]|location=London|issue=5274|page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2006/nov/19/fiction.features2|title=Now You See It|last=Clark|first=Alex|date=18 November 2006|work=[[The Guardian]]|publisher=Guardian News and Media|location=London|accessdate=11 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Levitov|first=Francine|date=May 2007|title=Priest, Christopher. The Prestige|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_kliatt_2007-05_41_3/page/55|journal=Kliatt|volume=41|issue=3|page=55}}</ref><ref name="WWE-1996">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1996|title=1996 Award Winners & Nominees|work=Worlds Without End|accessdate=28 September 2009}}</ref> == Ringkesan == Filem iki nyritakaké wong loro, kanca raket jenengé Robert Angier lan Alfred Borden, sing padha-padha nlatèni ing pagelaran [[sulap]]. Angier iku juru sulap saka kalangan ningrat, éwadéné Alfred Borden mung pesulap ngisoran. Wiwitané, Angier lan Borden mbiyantu proyek-proyeké Cutter. Cutter seneng duwé anak buah kang pinter kaya wong loro mau. Angier lan Borden uga dikongkon sinau menyan mancanegara sing adoh. Saéngga sawijining dina bojoné Angier mati jalaran saka kaluputané Borden naleni tangané nalika pagelaran sulap. Matiné bojoné kuwi, ndadèkaké Angier nesu lan ngalap pulih, sarta tansah ngincim marang Alfred Borden supaya ngakoni kaluputané. Saingan antarané wong loro iku kedlarung-dlarung, Angier mbales nyilakani Borden nganti tugel driji kiwané nalika pagelan nangkep peluru saka pistol. Ora namung meneng waé, Borden uga gawé pétungan tumrap Angier. Ing salah sijiné pagelaran ngilangaké manuk saka kurungané, Borden nyamar dadi pamirsa lan maju ing ndhuwur panggung. Ing kono Borden gawé gara-gara kang pungkasané agawe tugel tangané salah sijiné pamirsa kang uga mèlu maju bareng dhèwèkeé jalaran kejepit kurungan kang lancip. Angier tambah nesu marang Borden, apa manèh dhèwèké weruh Borden nduwé pagelaran apik banget kanti sesirah "The Transported Man" (wong bisa orang maleh nggon kanti wektu sakleraban) sing dimainké kanti sampurna déning Borden, saéngga Angier bener-bener péngin mangerteni wadiné. Sajatiné Cutter wis nerangaké yèn Borden nganggo wong kembar, nanging Angier ora percaya katrangan kuwi. Dhèwèké ngèyèl yèn babak "''the prestige''" kuwi sing metu Borden dhéwé. Pratandhané, driji kiwane Borden kang tugel. Pungkasané disarujuki supaya Angier digolekaké wong sing rainé meh padha, kareben bisa madhani pagelarané Borden ana ing pagelaran "''The Transported Man''". Nanging, manèh-manèh, Angier tetep ora bombong, amarga wong sing metu pungkasan lan mènèhi pangormatan marang pamirsa dudu dhèwèké, nanging kembarané. Lan cilakané, "kembarané" mau seneng mendem. Kaanan kuwi dimanfaatké déning Borden kanggo ngreka daya. Ana ing salah sijiné pagelaran sabanjuré, Borden nggawé gara-gara manèh, ya iku nggèsèr matras kang adaté kanggo lambaran Angier nalika ngilangaké awaké dhèwé, saéngga sikilé tugel. Sawisé kuwi, Borden metu panggung minangka ''"the prestige"'', lan nggantung kembarané Angier sadhuwuré panggung. Sawijining dina, Angier lunga ing [[Colorado|Colorado Spring]] kanggo nemoni [[Nikola Tesla]], salah sijiné insinyur lan panemu babagan listrik. Ing kana, dhèwèké njaluk digawékaké mesin kang bisa diénggo ana ing pagelaran sulap "The Transported Man" nanging, ing pungkasan dhèwèké sing metu. Tesla kasil nggawé rancangan mesin kuwi, lan bisa ndobel pribadhiné Angier, nanging ana syaraté, aja nganti ngregeti tangané. Mula saka kuwi, nalika mesin dilakokaké, kudu ana salah siji sing dipatèni, lan sijiné tumindak minangka ''"the prestige"''. Ndeleng kasampurnan pagelaran Angier kuwi, Alfred Borden ngongkon sadulur kembaré, Bernard Fallon (driji kiwane uga dikethok kanggo madhani Borden), kanggo nggolèk sisik melik wadiné. Nanging awit saka kuwi kacilakan nadhang marang Fallon. Fallon kang meneng-meneng lumebu ing ngisor panggung, weruh Angier lumebu peti banyu sing kekancing. Fallon ngira kuwi ora disengaja lan ngupayakke nulungi, kangmangka wis diatur déning Angier supaya ing pagelaran kuwi dhèwèké ora ngetokke babak ''"the prestige"''. Pungkasané, kadadéan kuwi kang nyèrèt Fallon ing pangadilan nanging kabèh wong ngertiné Fallon ya Borden. Ewadéné Borden saben dinané macak minangka Fallon. Sawisé ethok-ethok mati, Angier ngganti jenengé dadi Lord Caldlow lan péngin tuku tilas mesin sing naté dienggo, lan kasimpen ing pangadilan. Cutter ngeterké mesin mau ing omahé Caldlow, nanging mendah kageté, jebul Lord Caldlow ora liya Robert Angier kang isih urip. Nalika nata mesin ing gudhangé kuwi ujug-ujug Alfred Borden teka lan nembak Angier nganggo pistolé, lan kena dadané Angier. Ing pawicaran pungkasan, Angier tembé mangerteni jebulé wadiné Borden gampang banget, mung nganggo paraga liya, ya iku kembarané. Nanging Borden énggal-énggal nampik yèn wadiné pagelaran kuwi larang regané, mbutuhké pangorbanan ngethok driji lan patiné Fallon, sadulur kembaré, supaya pagelarané sampurna. Film iki dipungkasi kanti matiné Robert Angier. == Ingkang maragani == * [[Hugh Jackman]] * [[Hugh Jackman]] * [[Michael Caine]]  * [[Piper Perabo]] * [[Rebecca Hall]] * [[Scarlett Johansson]] * [[David Bowie]] * [[Andy Serkis]] * [[Ricky Jay]] * [[Roger Rees]]  * [[W. Morgan Sheppard]] * [[Daniel Davis]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://theprestige.movies.go.com/ Situs Resmi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070112233058/http://theprestige.movies.go.com/ |date=2007-01-12 }} * [https://sinopsiskita.wordpress.com/2012/03/02/sinop/ Sinopsis Kita] * {{imdb sesirah|id=0482571|sesirah=The Prestige}} * [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/christopherpriest/presmovie.htm Writer Christopher Priest's website] [[Kategori:Film Amérikah Sarékat taun 2006]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani II kalamangsa 1]] {{film-stub|Amérikah Sarékat}} pbay1e2a81ws3c51wdu3tcriydf1dtf Christopher Priest 0 137440 1753048 1641580 2026-08-20T09:03:06Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753048 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer | name = Christopher Priest | image = ChristopherPriest.jpg | imagesize = | alt = | caption = | pseudonym = John Luther Novak, Colin Wedgelock | birth_name = | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1943|7|14|df=yes}}<ref>http://www.debretts.com/people-of-today/profile/15817/Christopher-McKenzie-PRIEST</ref> | birth_place = [[Cheadle, Greater Manchester|Cheadle]], England | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer | nationality = British | ethnicity = English | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | period = 1966 – present | genre = [[Fantasy]], [[horror fiction|horror]], science fiction, [[Slipstream (genre)|slipstream]] | subject = | movement = | notableworks = ''[[Inverted World]]'', ''[[The Affirmation]]'', ''The Glamour'', ''[[The Prestige]]'', ''[[The Separation (2002 novèl)|The Separation]]'', ''The Islanders'' | spouse = | partner = | children = | relatives = | influences = [[H. G. Wells]], [[John Wyndham]] | influenced = | awards = See [[#Awards and honours|below]] | signature = | website = {{URL|http://www.christopher-priest.co.uk/}} | portaldisp = }} '''Christopher Priest''' ({{lairpati|[[Cheadle]], [[Greater Manchester]]|14|7|1943}}) ya iku salah sawijiné [[seniman]] saka [[Inggris]]. Jenengé misuwur lumantar sawenèh karya sastra awujud [[novèl]] [[fiksi ilmiah]], antarané ''Fugue for a Darkening Island'', ''Inverted World'', ''The Affirmation'', ''The Glamour'', ''[[The Prestige (novèl)|The Prestige]]'' lan ''The Separation''. Karya-karyané Christopher Priest akèh sing diperbawani déning fiksi ilmiah anggitané [[Herbert George Wells|H. G. Wells]]. Taun 2006 dhèwèké dipracaya minangka Wakil Présidhèn H. G. Wells Society. Karya Christopher Priest kaping pisan, ''The Run'' sing dimot ing taun 1966. Dhèwèké nelatèni minangka panganggit wiwit taun 1968.<ref>http://www.locusmag.com/2006/Issues/06Priest.html</ref> Salah sawijiné novèl wiwitan sing dianggit, ''The Affirmation'', ngangkat carita bab wong sing ketaman traumatik delusi lan pengalamané nyebrangi [[kepulauan]] lan mampir ing sawijiné pulau sing éndah.  == Pangaji == *  BSFA Award kategori novèl paling apik, ping papat: 1974 lumantar ''Inverted World'';<ref name="WWE-1974">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1974|title = 1974 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 17 May 2009}}</ref> taun 1998 lumantar ''The Extremes'';<ref name="WWE-1998">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1998|title = 1998 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 29 June 2009}}</ref> taun 2002 lumantar ''The Separation''<ref name="WWE-2002">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2002|title = 2002 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 29 June 2009}}</ref> lan taun 2011 lumantar novèl ''The Islanders''.<ref name="WWE-2011">{{cite web|url = https://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2011|title = 2011 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 3 May 2012}}</ref> *  James Tait Black Memorial Prize kategori fiksi kanggo ''The Prestige''<ref name="WWE-1996">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1996|title = 1996 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 17 May 2009}}</ref>. *  BSFA Award awit saka kumpulan [[carita cekak]]é taun 1979 sesirah ''Palely Loitering'';<ref name="WWE-1979">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1979|title = 1979 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 17 May 2009}}</ref> lan lumebu nominasi ing Hugo Awards kategori Best Novèl, Best Novella, Best Novelette, lan Best Non-Fiction Book ''The Space Machine'' ngentukaké pangaji SF Prize Ditmar Awards, taun 1977. Esai sastra Priest taun 1979 sesirah ''The Making of the Lesbian Horse'' (dibabar minangka Novacon) éntukpangaji ''Inverted World''. *  Tahun 1983 asmané Priest kacathet ing salah sijiné 20 novelis panampa pangaji Granta Best of Young British Novelists. Taun 1988 nampani pangaji Kurd-Laßwitz-Preis lumantar anggitané, ''The Glamour''. == Pribadi == Priest manggon ing [[Devon]]. Dhèwèké dhaup karo panganggit Lisa Tuttle nganti tumeka taun 1987. Sabanjuré dhèwèké dhaup manèh karo Leigh Kennedy nganti tekan 2011, lan diparingi putra kembar. Sawisé kuwi, dhèwèké urip bareng karo Nina Allan. == Buku-buku == === Novèl === * ''Indoctrinaire''. London: Faber and Faber, 1970. * ''Fugue for a Darkening Island''. London: Faber and Faber, 1972. Campbell nominee, 1973.<ref name="WWE-1996"/> * ''The Inverted World''. London: Faber and Faber, 1974. sing éntuk pangaji BSFA, 1974,<ref name="WWE-1974"/> nominator Hugo Award, 1975.<ref name="WWE-1975">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1975|title = 1975 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 29 June 2009}}</ref> * ''The Space Machine''. London: Faber and Faber, 1976. * ''A Dream of Wessex'' (US title ''The Perfect Lover''). London: Faber and Faber, 1977. * ''The Affirmation''. London: Faber and Faber, 1981. nominator BSFA, 1981.<ref name="WWE-1981">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1981|title = 1981 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 29 June 2009}}</ref> * ''The Glamour''. London: Jonathan Cape, 1984. sing éntuk pangaji BSFA, 1984.<ref name="WWE-1984">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1984|title = 1984 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 29 June 2009}}</ref> * ''Short Circuit''. Sphere Books, 1986. (Filem tie-in novelisation as Colin Wedgelock) * ''Mona Lisa''. Sphere Books, 1986. (Filem tie-in novelisation as John Luther Novak) * ''The Quiet Woman''. London: Bloomsbury, 1990. * ''[[The Prestige (novèl)|The Prestige]]''. London: Simon and Schuster, 1995. nominator BSFA, 1995;<ref name="WWE-1995">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1995|title = 1995 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 29 June 2009}}</ref> sing éntuk pangaji World Fantasy Award, sing éntuk pangaji James Tait Black Memorial Prizer, nominator Clarke Awards, 1996.<ref name="WWE-1996"/> * ''The Extremes''. London: Simon and Schuster, 1998. sing éntuk pangaji BSFA, 1998;<ref name="WWE-1998"/> nominator Clarke Award, 1999.<ref name="WWE-1999">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1999|title = 1999 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 29 June 2009}}</ref> * ''eXistenZ''. Harper, 1999. (Filem tie-in novelisation) * ''The Separation''. Scribner, 2002. Old Earth Books 2005—sing éntuk pangaji BSFA, 2002;<ref name="WWE-2002"/> sing éntuk pangaji Clark Award, nominator Campbell Award, 2003.<ref name="WWE-2003">{{cite web|url = http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2003|title = 2003 Award Winners & Nominees|work = Worlds Without End|accessdate = 29 June 2009}}</ref> * ''The Islanders''. Gollancz, 2011. sing éntuk pangaji BSFA, 2011; sing éntuk pangaji Campbell Award, 2012. * ''The Adjacent''. Gollancz, 20 June 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://upcoming4.me/news/book-news/christopher-priest-the-adjacent-cover-art-and-synopsis-reveal|title = Christopher Priest – The Adjacent cover art and synopsis reveal|work = Upcoming4.me|accessdate = 23 January 2013}}</ref> === Antologi carita cekak === * ''Real-time World''. Faber and Faber, 1975. dibabar ulang 2009. * ''An Infinite Summer''. Faber and Faber, 1979. Telu carita sing dibabar ulang ing ''The Dream Archipelago''. * ''The Dream Archipelago''. Earthlight, 1999. dibabar ulang 2009. * ''Ersatz Wines – Instructive Short Stories'' GrimGrin Studio, 2008. Antologi ing karyané nalika wiwitan. === Skenario === * ''The Stooge''. 2010 utawa 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.christopher-priest.co.uk/journal/977/the-stooge-online/|author = Priest, Christopher|date = 30 December 2011|title = The Stooge online|publisher = Christopher Priest|accessdate = 10 July 2013|archive-date = 28 June 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130628213327/http://www.christopher-priest.co.uk/journal/977/the-stooge-online/|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title = The Stooge|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_back-stage_may-10-16-2012_53_19/page/32|journal = Back Stage|volume = 53|issue = 19|date = 10 May 2012|page = 32|quote = Arekita Productions is casting ''The Stooge'', a short film from a screenplay by Christopher Priest... The story follows a downtrodden but determined man seeking work as a magician's assistant who enters the world of a legendary illusionist and a captivating showgirl, and soon realizes that the world of magic reveals more surprises than he could ever have imagined.}}</ref> === Non-fiksi === * ''Your Book of Filem-Making''. London: Faber and Faber, 1974. * ''The Making of the Lesbian Horse''. Novacon 9 for the Birmingham Science Fiction Group, 1979. Priest nekani minangka Guest of Honour. * ''The Book on the Edge of Forever''. Seattle: Fantagraphics, 1993. * "Christopher Priest's Top 10 Slipstream Books". 2003. Sawijining ésai for London's ''[[The Guardian]]'', kalebu 10 novèl apik dhéwé, kalebu pagaweyané J. G. Ballard, Angela Carter, [[Jorge Luis Borges|Borges]], Steve Erickson, lan Steven Millhauser.<ref>{{cite news|last = Priest|first = Christopher|authorlink = Christopher Priest (novelist)|title = Christopher Priest's Top 10 Slipstream Books|work = [[The Guardian]]|location = London|publisher = Guardian News and Media|date = 27 May 2003|url = http://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/may/28/top10s.slipstream|quote = "Slipstream does not define a category, but suggests an approach, an attitude, an interest or obsession with thinking the unthinkable or doing the undoable. Slipstream can be visionary, unreliable, odd or metaphysical. It's not [[Magic realism|magical realism]]: it's a larger concept that contains magical realism. Some familiar recent slipstream examples: [[Margaret Atwood]]'s novèl ''[[The Handmaid's Tale]]'', the films ''[[Memento (film)|Memento]]'' or ''[[Being John Malkovich]]'', the opera ''[[Jerry Springer: The Opera|Jerry Springer]]''. Other novelists who have from time to time carried the slipstream torch include [[Anthony Burgess]], [[Haruki Murakami]], [[Don DeLillo]], [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez]], [[John Banville]], [[John Fowles]], [[Paul Auster]] and [[Dino Buzzati]]."|accessdate = 9 June 2014}}</ref> * "Foreword" to Stephen E. Andrews' and Nick Rennison's ''100 Must-Read Science Fiction Novels''. London: A&C Black Academic and Professional/Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-0-7136-7585-6. * ''The Magic – The Story of a Filem''. Hastings: GrimGrin Studio, 2008. * "''La Jetée''". Essay in ''Cinema Futura: Essays on Favourite Science Fiction Movies'', dibesut déning Mark Morris. PS Publishing, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84863-095-6.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pl.cgi?341231|author = Von Ruff, Al|title = Publication Listing|publisher = [[Internet Speculative Fiction Database]]|accessdate = 9 June 2014}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|25em}} == Pranala njaba == * {{Templat:Resmi}} * [http://literature.britishcouncil.org/christopher-priest Christopher Priest]<span> at </span>[[British Council]]<span>: Literature</span> * [http://londoncalling.com/features-placeholder/all-men-are-islands-interview-with-author-christopher-priest/ London Calling Interview with Christopher Priest] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130128024306/http://londoncalling.com/features-placeholder/all-men-are-islands-interview-with-author-christopher-priest/ |date=2013-01-28 }} * {{Templat:Isfdb name|336}}Internet Speculative Fiction Database * His story [http://www.scifi.com/scifiction/originals/originals_archive/priest/priest1.html "The Discharge"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509205046/http://www.scifi.com/scifiction/originals/originals_archive/priest/priest1.html |date=2009-05-09 }} at Sci Fiction * [http://www.ansible.co.uk/writing/cpriest.html 1995 interview by David Langford], includes brief summaries and comments by Priest on most of his novels to date. * His [http://news.ansible.co.uk/a218-cp.html Guest of Honour speech] at the 2005 World Science Fiction Convention * {{Templat:Fr}} [http://www.actusf.com/spip/?article3026 Interview de Christopher Priest] in Actusf.com [[Kategori:Kelahiran 1943]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani II kalamangsa 1]] 1qafgockj71cknd0wzcpxn28jul0u1g Nglalu 0 137458 1752976 1613547 2026-08-20T07:01:01Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752976 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nglalu''' ya iku tumindak mungkasi uripé dhéwé kanthi temaha.<ref name=Sted2006>{{cite book |title=Stedman's Medical Dictionary |year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-7817-3390-8 |edition=28th}}</ref> Ing [[basa Inggris]] karan ''suicide'', saka tembung [[Latin]] ''suicidium'', saka ''sui caedere'', "matèni awaké dhéwé"). Tumindak nglalu asring disebabaké déning rasa mutung kang sebabé digayutaké marang [[gangguan kajiwan]] kaya ta [[dhèprèsi]], gangguan [[bipolar]], [[skizofrenia]], tumungkul marang alkohol/alkoholisme, utawa [[salahguna obat]].<ref name=Hawton2009>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hawton K, van Heeringen K |title=Suicide |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-18-24-2009_373_9672/page/1372 |journal=Lancet |volume=373 |issue=9672 |pages=1372–81 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19376453 |doi= 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60372-è}}</ref> Déné prakara kang njalari [[stres]] ing antarané ya iku masalah ing babagan ékonomi utawa duwé masalah kang magayutan karo wong liya. Uga nandang lelara kang mataun-taun durung mari. Manéka cara bisa kanggo nglalu lan kang paling umum antarané [[gantung dhiri|nggantung]], ngombé [[racun]] lan migunakaké bedhil.<ref name=Aj2008>{{cite journal |author=Ajdacic-Gross V |title=Methods of suicide: international suicide patterns derived from the WHO mortality database |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-health-organization-bulletin_2008-09_86_9/page/726 |journal=Bull. World Health Organ. |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=726–32 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18797649 |pmc=2649482 |doi=10.2471/BLT.07.043489 |name-list-style=vanc|author2=Weiss MG |author3=Ring M |display-authors=3 |last4=Hepp |first4=U |last5=Bopp |first5=M |last6=Gutzwiller |first6=F |last7=Rössler |first7=W}}</ref> Udakara wong cacah 800.000-1.000.000 nglalu saben tauné ing donya, saéngga nglalu uga dadi sebab nomer 10 saka seba-sebabé pati. Nglalu luwih akèh dilakoni déning wong lanang tinimbang wadon. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Pati]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani II kalamangsa 1]] rcnlppe0xpx133gmz0k1n6fntkzwcal Resèp Asli KFC 0 137871 1753047 1648772 2026-08-20T09:02:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753047 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:KFC_Original_Recipe_chicken_in_bucket.jpg|jmpl|Ayam gorèng nganggo Resèp Asli KFC]] '''Resèp Asli KFC''' ya iku campuran adon-adon sing wadi sing dianggo KFC, jejaring griya dhahar saji rikat, nedya nggawé [[ayam gorèng]]. == Sujarah == Kala pungkasané taun 1930-an, pom bènsin ana ing Corbin, Kentucky duwèké Harland Sanders kondhang lantaran ayam gorèng gawéané. Jalaran iku pom bènsiné banjur dibongkar nuli ganti diyasa griya dhahar. Nalika mernahaké resèpé sing wadi sing isiné 11 bumbu, Sanders weruh manawa nggorèng ayam sarana wajan iku kesuwèn, bisa ngentèkaké 30 menit saben pesenan. Éwadéné, nggorèng kanthi ngelemaké ayam ing lenga sarana kranjang kawat butuh wektu saparoné, nanging ngasilaké gorèngan sing ora rata tur garing. Kala taun 1939, dhèwèké nuli weruh yèn nganggo panci prèsto bisa ngasilaké ayam sing empuk tur énak, déné suwéné nggorèng mung wolung tekan sangang menit.<ref name="whitworth19700214">{{cite news|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1970/02/14/kentucky-fried|title=Kentucky-Fried|date=1970-02-14|work=The New Yorker|accessdate=18 April 2015|author=Whitworth, William}}</ref> Kala Juli 1940, Sanders ngrampungaké resèpé sing banjur kawentar ingaran Resèp Asli iku.<ref name="july1940">{{cite news|url=http://jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/072305/bus_19314459.shtml|title=KFC still guards Colonel's secret|last=Schreiner|first=Bruce|date=23 July 2005|accessdate=19 September 2013|newspaper=Associated Press|archive-date=4 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004193700/http://jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/072305/bus_19314459.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sawisé Sanders nglekasi waralaba ayam gorèngé kala taun 1950-an kanthi jeneng Kentucky Fried Chicken (Ayam Gorèng Kentucky), maskapéné milih ngirimaké bumbuné sing wadi iku menyang rèstoran-rèstorané amrih kajagané resèpé.{{R|whitworth19700214}} Dhèwèké ngendikan manawa ana uyah lan mrica sing dianggo ing resèpé lan kandha yèn adon-adoné "ana ing saben raké wong-wong".<ref name="AutoFE-13">{{cite book|title=The Kentucky Encyclopedia|last=Kleber|first=John E.|date=June 1992|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|isbn=0-8131-1772-0|page=796|author2=Thomas D. Clark|author3=Lowell H. Harrison|author4=James C. Klotter}}</ref><ref name="celebritychef2">{{cite book|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/colcookbook/us/pdf/English_FullBook.pdf|title=The Autobiography of the Original Celebrity Chef|last=Sanders|first=Harland|publisher=KFC|year=2012|location=Louiseville|page=42}}</ref> Sanders kawitané kondhang amarga nganggo lenga sayur nedya nggorèng ayam. Nalika taun 1993, awit alesan ékonomi, akèh warung KFC malih nganggo camborané lenga klentik lan lenga kedhelé. Ana ing Jepang, lenga sing dianggo wiyahé lenga wiji kapas lan lenga jagung sing luwih larang amarga KFC Jepang pitaya cara mangkono amrih kajagané kwalitèté rasané.<ref name="okawara">{{cite journal|last=Okawara|first=Takeshi|date=1993|title=Universality and particularity in globalization|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_business-quarterly_business-quarterly_summer-1993_57_4/page/128|journal=Business Quarterly|volume=57|issue=4|pages=128–134}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} 1u0vx1zv0mr76xtifvv534zptfgn7dr Kulawarga basa Formosa 0 137903 1753039 1645316 2026-08-20T08:44:28Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753039 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language family |name = Formosa |ethnicity = [[Wong asli Taiwan]] |region = [[Taiwan]] |familycolor = Austronesian |child1 = [[Basa Rukai|Rukai]] |child2 = [[Basa Puyuma|Puyuma]] |child3 = [[Basa Tsou|Tsou]] |child4 = [[Kulawarga basa Tsou Kidul|Tsou Kidul]] |child5 = [[Kulawarga basa Formosa Lor|Laladan Kulon]] |child6 = [[Kulawarga basa Formosa Lor|Formosa Lor Kulon]] |child7 = [[Basa Atayalik|Atayalik]] |child8 = [[Basa Formosa Wétan|Formosa Wétan]] |child9 = [[Basa Bunun|Bunun]] |child10 = [[Basa Paiwan|Paiwan]] |iso5 = fox |glotto = none |map=Formosan languages (Indonesian version).svg |mapcaption=Kulawarga basa Formosa sadurungé kena migrasi bangsa Cina, per {{harvp|Blust|1999}}. Malayo-Polinésia (abang) kalebu ing Formosa Wétan (wungu). Kudu dingertèni yèn babagan putih ing lor-kulon nagara iki ora ateges yèn wong asli Taiwan ora ana babar pisan ing laladan iku. Ing sumber abasa Cina,<ref>{{Cite web|title = 臺灣原住民平埔族群百年分類史系列地圖 (A history of the classification of Plains Taiwanese tribes over the past century)|url = http://blog.xuite.net/hqq.hqq/blog/25870376-%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E5%B9%B3%E5%9F%94%E6%97%8F%E7%BE%A4%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%8F%B2%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E5%9C%B0%E5%9C%96|website = blog.xuite.net|accessdate = 2017-03-04|archive-date = 2018-02-11|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180211131543/http://blog.xuite.net/hqq.hqq/blog/25870376-%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E5%B9%B3%E5%9F%94%E6%97%8F%E7%BE%A4%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%8F%B2%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E5%9C%B0%E5%9C%96|url-status = dead}}</ref> wewengkon iki kacathet minangka wewengkoné golongan wong [[Pingpu]] (kaya ta wong Kulon), déné golongan wong liyané (kaya ta wong Taokas) digambar rada béda saka sing katon ana ing petha ing dhuwur. }} '''Kulawarga basa Formosa''' iku basa-basa sing dienggo ing gunemané [[Wong Asli Taiwan|wong asli Taiwan]]. Wong asli Taiwan (sing diakoni déning pamaréntah) cacahé ana 2,3% saka sakèhé sing ndunungi Taiwan. Sing bisa mituturaké basa asliné luwih sithik saka cacah iku sabubaré awit wis padha salin basa suwéné pirang-pirang abad. Kira-kira basa asli Taiwan cacahé ana 26. Saorané, ana sepuluh sing wis sirna, déné papat (utawa lima) liyané statusé mèh sirna,<ref name="zeit">{{cite journal|last1=Zeitoun|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Yu|first2=Ching-Hua |title=The Formosan Language Archive: Linguistic Analysis and Language Processing |journal=International Journal of Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing |date=1 Juli 2005 |volume=10|issue=2 |url=http://www.airitilibrary.com/Publication/alDetailedMesh?DocID=1027376x-200507-10-2-167-199-a#Summary |pages=167–200}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Li|first1=Paul Jen-kuei|last2=Tsuchida|first2=Shigeru|title=Kavalan Dictionary |language=English,Chinese |date=2006|publisher=Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica|location=Taipei|isbn=9789860069938}}</ref> lan liyané statusé ing sajeroné bebaya. Basa-basa asli [[Taiwan]] duwé sujarah sing padha amarga Taiwan dianggep dadi panggon mula bukané kabèh basa ing [[Basa-basa Austronésia|kulawarga basa Austronésia]]. Miturut ahli basa [[Robert Blust]], basa-basa Formosa iki cawang sanga saka sepuluh cawang pokok ing kulawarga basa Austronésia<ref>{{cite journal |last=Blust |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Blust |date=1999 |title=Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics |editor1-last=Zeitoun |editor1-first=Elizabeth |editor2-last=Li |editor2-first=Jen-kuei |journal=Selected papers from the Eighth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics |publisher=Academia Sinica |location=Taipei |isbn=9789576716324 }}</ref>, sawatara cawang siji liyané nurunaké mèh 1.200 basa ing [[Basa-basa Malayo-Polinésia|kulawarga Malayo-Polinésia]] ing sajabané Taiwan.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Diamond|first1=Jared M.|title=Taiwan's gift to the world|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2000-02-17_403_6771/page/709|journal=Nature|date=17 Fèbruari 2000|volume=403|issue=6771|pages=709–710|doi=10.1038/35001685|pmid=10693781}}</ref> Sanajan ana ahli basa sing ora sarujuk karo apa sing ditaliti Blust, akèh-akèhé ahli basa sarujuk yèn basa-basa saka kulawarga Austronésia iku asalé saka Taiwan.<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Fox|first1=James|title=Current Developments in Comparative Austronesian Studies|journal=ANU Research Publications |conference=Symposium Austronesia, Pascasarjana Linguististik dan Kajian Budaya Universitas Udayana |place=Bali |date=19-20 August 2004 |url=https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/43158|oclc=677432806}}</ref> Téyori iki uga dikuwataké déning kajian anyar ing génetika populasi manungsa, sing uga nguwataké sipat garis ibu ing migrasi manungsa.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Trejaut|first1=Jean A|last2=Kivisild|first2=Toomas|last3=Loo|first3=Jun Hun|last4=Lee|first4=Chien Liang|last5=He|first5=Chun Lin|last6=Hsu|first6=Chia Jung|last7=Li|first7=Zheng Yuan|last8=Lin|first8=Marie|last9=Penny|first9=David|title=Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations|journal=PLoS Biology|date=5 Juli 2005|volume=3|issue=8|pages=e247|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030247|pmid=15984912|pmc=1166350}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Kulawarga basa Formosa]] [[Kategori:Basa ing Taiwan]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani II kalamangsa 1]] 4ouu0cl1tlim9yqxm2c82wl0j2wlpno Keting 0 138653 1752884 1723464 2026-08-20T04:08:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752884 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = ''Keting'' | image = Myst cf nigri 080503 8436 napo.jpg | image_caption = Iwak keting, saka [[Bayung Lencir, Musi Banyuasin|Bayung Lencir]], <br />[[Musi Banyuasin]], [[Sumatera Selatan]] | image_width = 240px | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Catfish|Siluriformes]] | familia = [[Bagridae]] | genus = '''''Mystus''''' | genus_authority = [[Giovanni Antonio Scopoli|Scopoli]], 1777 | subdivision_ranks = Spesies | subdivision = Lihat pada teks. | synonyms = * ''Aspidobagrus''{{br}}<small>[[Pieter Bleeker|Bleeker]], 1862</small> * ''Hypselobagrus''{{br}}<small>Bleeker, 1862</small> * ''Heterobagrus''{{br}}<small>Bleeker, 1864</small> * ''Prajadhipokia''{{br}}<small>[[Henry Weed Fowler|Fowler]], 1934</small> }} '''Keting''' ya iku jeneng umum tumrapé sawenèh [[iwak]] banyu tawa kang kagolong ing [[génus|marga]] ''Mystus'', ([[familia|suku]] [[Bagridae]], [[ordho|bangsa]] [[Siluriformes]]). Jeneng lokal liyané tumrap iwak iki antarané ''keting, kating, lundhu, luthok, lélé jèngki, ndaringan, sengat, senggiringan, ririgi, kelibere'' lan sapituruté gumantung saka panggon lan spésièsé. Klumpukan jinis iwak saka marga ''Mystus'' manéka warna, saka ukuran cilik nganti sedheng.<ref name="Chakrabarty"/> Sistimatika saka golongan iwak iki durung manteb lan isih prelu disinaoni manèh. Urut-urutan [[filogenik]] saka marga iki durung dimangertèni kanthi cetha nanging miturut panduganing para ahli ana loro garis paseduluruan utama. Marga ''Mystus'' diyakini asalé saka [[Asia Kidul]] lan [[Asia kidulwetan]]. Keting kalebu iwak kang [[omnivora]], gelem mangan sembarang panganan. Sawenèh jinis keting seneng mapan ing kali kang cedhak [[tempuran]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kailbayu.com/2017/01/mancing-ikan-keting-mudah-cepat-banyak-umpan.html|title=Ikan keting - ikan yang mudah dipancing|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109232507/http://www.kailbayu.com/2017/01/mancing-ikan-keting-mudah-cepat-banyak-umpan.html|archive-date=2017-11-09|url-status=dead|access-date=}}</ref> == Spesies == Jinis-jinisé ing antarané:<ref name="Ferraris">{{cite journal|url=http://silurus.acnatsci.org/ACSI/library/biblios/2007_Ferraris_Catfish_Checklist.pdf|title=Checklist of catfishes, recent and fossil (Osteichthyes: Siluriformes), and catalogue of siluriform primary types|first=Carl J., Jr.|last=Ferraris|journal=[[Zootaèa]]|volume=1418|pages=1–628|year=2007|format=[[PDF]]|access-date=2017-05-25|archive-date=2022-03-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311220811/http://silurus.acnatsci.org/ACSI/library/biblios/2007_Ferraris_Catfish_Checklist.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>: {|cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;" !bgcolor="#f0f0f0"|Spesies<ref name="Ferraris"/> !bgcolor="#f0f0f0"|Author<ref name="Ferraris"/> !bgcolor="#f0f0f0"|Jeneng umum !bgcolor="#f0f0f0"|Panyebaran<ref name="Ferraris"/> |- |''[[Mystus alasensis]]''<ref name="Ng2005">{{cite journal|url=http://www.pfeil-verlag.de/04biol/pdf/ief16_1_10.pdf|first=Heok Hee|last=Ng|coauthors=Hadiaty, Renny K.|journal=Ichthyol. Eèplor. Freshwaters|volume=16|issue=1|pages=83-92|date=March 2005|title=Two new bagrid catfishes (Teleostei: Bagridae) from the Alas River drainage, northern Sumatra|format=[[PDF]]|access-date=2017-05-25|archive-date=2007-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215172504/http://www.pfeil-verlag.de/04biol/pdf/ief16_1_10.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |Ng & Hadiaty, 2005. |style="width:20%"| |style="width:40%"|[[Endemik|Èndhemik]] ing Sungai Alas, [[Sumatera Lor]]. |- |''[[Mystus albolineatus|M. albolineatus]]'' |Roberts, 1994 | |Kali Mekong, Bangpakong lan Chao Phraya |- |''[[Mystus armatus|M. armatus]]'' |(Day, 1865) | |Malabar, Kerala lan Manipur, [[India]], lan Distrik Mergui, [[Burma]] |- |''[[Mystus armiger|M. armiger]]'' |Ng, 2004 Kali Kelantan, [[Malaysia]] |- |''[[Mystus atrifasciatus|M. atrifasciatus]]'' |Fowler, 1937 | |Kali Mekong, Meklong lan Chao Phraya |- |''[[Mystus bimaculatus|M. bimaculatus]]'' |(Volz, 1904) | |[[Sumatra]] |- |''[[Mystus bleekeri|M. bleekeri]]'' |(Day, 1877) | |Kali [[Gangga]], Indus lan Mahanadi |- |''[[Mystus bocourti|M. bocourti]]'' |(Bleeker, 1864) Kali Mekong lan Chao Phraya |- |''[[Mystus castaneus|M. castaneus]]'' |Ng, 2002 |Keting |Sumatra tengah, [[Semenanjung Malaya]] lan [[Kalimantan]] |- |''[[Mystus cavasius|M. cavasius]]''<ref name="Chakrabarty">{{cite journal|url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaèa/2005f/zt01093p024.pdf|title=The identity of catfishes identified as ''Mystus cavasius'' (Hamilton, 1822) (Teleostei: Bagridae), with a description of a new species from Myanmar|first=Prosanta|last=Chakrabarty|coauthors=Ng, Heok Hee|journal=[[Zootaèa]]|volume=1093|pages=1–24|year=2005|format=[[PDF]]}}{{Pranala mati|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |(Hamilton, 1822) | |Kali Gangga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Subarnarekhar lan Godavari, India, [[Bangladesh]] lan [[Nepal]] |- |''[[Mystus dalungshanensis|M. dalungshanensis]]''&nbsp;[[cures|†]] |Li & Wang, 1979 | |Guangdong, [[Cina]] |- |''[[Mystus falcarius|M. falcarius]]''<ref name="Chakrabarty"/> |Chakrabarty & Ng, 2005 | |Kali Irawadi, Salween lan tlatah pasisir Burma |- |''[[Mystus gulio|M. gulio]]'' |(Hamilton, 1822) |Lundu, keting, ''kathing'' ([[basa Jawa|Jw.]]) |India, Bangladesh, Burma, lan [[Jawa]] |- |''[[Mystus horai|M. horai]]'' |Jayaram, 1954 | |Kali Indus, India |- |''[[Mystus impluviatus|M. impluviatus]]''<ref name="Ng2003">{{cite journal|title=''Mystus impluviatus'': A New Species of Bagrid Catfish (Teleostei: Bagridae) from Eastern Borneo|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_copeia_2003-06-23_2/page/373|first=Heok Hee|last=Ng|journal=[[Copeia]]|year=2003|issue=2|pages=373–378}}</ref> |Ng, 2003 | |Endemik Ing Kali Mahakam, [[Kalimantan Timur]] |- |''[[Mystus leucophasis|M. leucophasis]]'' |(Blyth, 1860) | |Sungai Irawadi lan Sittang, Burma. |- |''[[Mystus malabaricus|M. malabaricus]]'' |(Jerdon, 1849) | |Pesisir Malabar, pagunungan Wayanad lan Travancore, India. |- |''[[Mystus montanus|M. montanus]]'' |(Jerdon, 1849) | |Anak benua India, Mliginé ing Ghats barat. |- |''[[Mystus multiradiatus|M. multiradiatus]]'' |Roberts, 1992 | |Kali Mekong lan Chao Phraya. |- |''[[Mystus mysticetus|M. mysticetus]]'' |Roberts, 1992 | |Kali Mekong lan Chao Phraya. |- |''[[Mystus nigriceps|M. nigriceps]]''<ref name="Ng2002">{{cite journal|url=http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/50/50rbz161-168.pdf|title=The identity of ''Mystus nigriceps'' (Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1840), with the Description of a New Bagrid Catfish (Teleostei: Siluriformes) from Southeast Asia|first=Heok Hee|last=Ng|journal=The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology|year=2002|volume=50|issue=1|pages=161-168|format=[[PDF]]|access-date=2017-05-25|archive-date=2008-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522091115/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/50/50rbz161-168.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |(Valenciennes, 1840) |Keting |Jawa lan Sumatra sisih kidul. |- |''[[Mystus oculatus|M. oculatus]]'' |(Valenciennes, 1840) | |Nilgiris, Ghats kulon lan pagunungan Karnataka, Kerala lan Tamil Nadu, India |- |''[[Mystus pelusius|M. pelusius]]'' |(Solander, 1794) | |Kali Eufrat lan Tigris. |- |''[[Mystus pulcher|M. pulcher]]'' |(Chaudhuri, 1911) |Kali Irawadi lan Sittang, Burma. |- |''[[Mystus punctifer|M. punctifer]]''<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/49/49rbz355-358.pdf|title=''Mystus punctifer'', a New Species of Bagrid Catfish (Teleostei: Siluriformes) from Northern Sumatra|last=Ng|first=Heok Hee|coauthors=Wirjoatmodjo, Soetikno; Hadiaty, Renny K.|journal=The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology|year=2001|volume=49|issue=2|pages=355-358|format=[[PDF]]|access-date=2017-05-25|archive-date=2008-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522071916/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/49/49rbz355-358.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |Ng, Wirjoatmodjo and Hadiaty, 2001 | |Endemik Ing Sungai Alas, Sumatera Lor. |- |''[[Mystus rhegma|M. rhegma]]'' |Fowler, 1935 | |Kali Mekong, Meklong lan Chao Phraya. |- |''[[Mystus rufescens|M. rufescens]]'' |(Vinciguerra, 1890) | |Kali Irawadi, Sittang lan Salween hilir, Burma. |- |''[[Mystus seengtee|M. seengtee]]''<ref name="Chakrabarty"/> |(Sykes, 1839) | |Kali Krishna lan Cauvery, India. |- |''[[Mystus singaringan|M. singaringan]]'' |(Bleeker, 1846) | Kali Mekong lan Chao Phraya, sarta pulo-pulo [[Sunda Besar]]. |- |''[[Mystus spinipectoralis|M. spinipectoralis]]''&nbsp;[[cures|†]] |Li & Wang, 1979 | |Daratan Cina |- |''[[Mystus tengara|M. tengara]]'' |(Hamilton, 1822) | |India lor, Bangladesh lan [[Pakistan]]. |- |''[[Mystus vittatus|M. vittatus]]'' |(Bloch, 1794) | |Kali-kali ing Pakistan, [[Nepal]], India, [[Srilanka]], lan Bangladesh. |- |''[[Mystus wolffii|M. wolffii]]'' |(Bleeker, 1851) | |Kali-kali gedhé saka [[Thailand]] nganti ing Indonésia, ing tlatah-tlatah kang dipangaruhi déning pasang surut lan banyuné payau. |- |} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{sumberdaya perikanan}} [[Kategori:Bagridae]] [[Kategori:Ikan]] [[Kategori:Ikan air tawar]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani II kalamangsa 1]] {{hewan-stub}} r9iez4dzjt75vshtn3bbg9nn4e3j8ny Ipomoea 0 138704 1752990 1447641 2026-08-20T07:18:31Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752990 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |image = Ipomoea carnea.jpg |image_caption = ''[[Ipomoea carnea]] utawa [[krangkungan]] |regnum = [[Plant]]ae |unranked_divisio = [[Flowering plant|Angiosperms]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]] |ordo = [[Solanales]] |familia = [[Convolvulaceae]] |tribus = [[Ipomoeeae]] |genus = '''''Ipomoea''''' |genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] 1753<ref name="GRIN">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?6064 |title=Genus: ''Ipomoea'' L. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=2007-10-05 |accessdate=2010-11-10}}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = Species |subdivision = Luwih saka 500, delengen rerincene. |synonyms = ''Acmostemon'' <small>Pilg.</small><br> ''Batatas'' <small>Choisy</small><br> ''Bonanox'' <small>Raf.</small><br> ''Calonyction'' <small>Choisy</small><br> ''Calycantherum'' <small>Klotzsch</small><br> ''Diatremis'' <small>Raf.</small><br> ''Dimerodisus'' <small>Gagnep.</small><br> ''Exogonium'' <small>Choisy</small><br> ''Mina'' <small>Cerv.</small><br> ''Parasitipomoea'' <small>Hayata</small><br> ''Pharbitis'' <small>Choisy</small><br> ''Quamoclit'' <small>Mill.</small><br> ''Quamoclit'' <small>Moench</small><ref name="GRIN"/> |}} '''Ipomoea''' ya iku [[génus]] gedhé dhéwé saka tuwuhan kekembangan, kanthi anggota watara cacah 500 spésiès. Klumpukan génus iki kalebu [[krangkungan]], [[kangkung]] lan [[ketéla rambat]] == Spesies == {{Col-begin}} {{col-break}} * ''[[Ipomoea abrupta]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea alba]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea alpina]]'' <small>Rendle</small> * ''[[Ipomoea amnicola]]'' <small>[[Thomas Morong|Morong]]</small> * ''[[Ipomoea aquatica]]'' <small>[[Peter Forsskål|Forssk.]]</small> * ''[[Ipomoea arborescens]]'' <small>G.Don</small> * ''[[Ipomoea aristolochiaefolia]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea asarifolia]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea barbatisepala]]'' <small>A.Gray</small> * ''[[Ipomoea batatas]]'' <small>(L.) Lam.</small> – [[Ketela rambat]] * ''[[Ipomoea batatoides]]'' <small>Benth.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea bona-nox]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea cairica]]'' – * ''[[Ipomoea calobra]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea capillacea]]'' <small>(Kunth) G.Don</small> * ''[[Ipomoea carnea]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea chrysocalyx]]'' <small>D.F.Austin</small> * ''[[Ipomoea coccinea]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea cordatotriloba]]'' <small>L.</small> ** ''Ipomoea cordatotriloba'' var. ''torreyana'' * ''[[Ipomoea cordifolia]]'' <small>Carey ex Voight</small> * ''[[Ipomoea costata]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea costellata]]'' <small>Torr.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea cristulata]]'' <small>Hallier f.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea cynanchifolia]]'' <small>([[Carl Meissner|Meisn.]]) Mart.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea daturaefolia]]'' <small>[[Carl Meissner|Meisn.]]</small> * ''[[Ipomoea demerariana]]'' <small>Choisy</small> (= ''I. phyllomega''<!--- <small>(Vell.) House</small> -->) * ''[[Ipomoea diversifolia]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea dumetorum]]'' <small>Willd. ex Roemer & J.A.Schultes</small> * ''[[Ipomoea eggersiana]]'' <small>Peter</small> * ''[[Ipomoea eggersii]]'' <small>(House) D.Austin</small> * ''[[Ipomoea eriocarpa]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea ghika]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea gracilis]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea graminea]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea halierca]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea hederacea]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea hederifolia]]'' <small>Sessé & Moc.</small>) * ''[[Ipomoea horrida]]'' <small>Huber</small> * ''[[Ipomoea horsfalliae]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea imperati]]'' <small>(Vahl) Griseb.</small><ref name="GRINSpecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?6064 |title=GRIN Species Records of ''Ipomoea'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |accessdate=2010-11-10}}</ref> * ''[[Ipomoea incisa]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea indica]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea jalapa]]'' <small>(L.) Pursh.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea krugii]]'' <small>Urban</small> * ''[[Ipomoea lacunosa]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea leptophylla]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea leucantha]]''{{Verify source|date=November 2009}}<!-- hybrid? --> <small>Jacq. (''non'' Webb ex Hook., Desv. ex Ham.)</small> * ''[[Ipomoea lindheimeri]]'' <small>Gray</small> * ''[[Ipomoea littoralis]]'' <small>Blume</small> * ''[[Ipomoea lobata]]'' <small>(Cerv.) Thell.</small> g * ''[[Ipomoea longifolia]]'' <small>Benth.</small> {{col-break}} {{Col-2}} * ''[[Ipomoea macrantha]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea macrorhiza]]'' <small>Michx.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea marginata]]'' <small>(Desr.) Verdc.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea mauritiana]]'' <small>Jacq.</small> ) * ''[[Ipomoea meyeri]]'' <small>(Spreng.) G.Don</small> * ''[[Ipomoea microdactyla]]'' <small>Griseb.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea × multifida]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea nil]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea obscura]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea ochracea]]'' <small>(Lindl.) G.Don</small> y * ''[[Ipomoea oenotherae]]'' <small>Hallier f.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea pandurata]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea pes-caprae]]'' <small>(L.) R.Br.</small> ** ''Ipomoea pes-caprae'' ssp. ''brasiliensis'' – ''salsa-da-praia'' (Brazil) * ''[[Ipomoea plebeia]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea plummerae]]'' <small>Gray</small> * ''[[Ipomoea polymorpha]]'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small> (= ''I. heterophylla'' <small>R.Br.</small>) * ''[[Ipomoea prismatosyphon]]'' <small>Welw. * ''[[Ipomoea pubescens]]'' <small>Lam.</small> (= ''I. heterophylla'' <small>Ortega</small>) * ''[[Ipomoea pulcherrima]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea purga]]'' <small>(Wender.) Hayne</small> (= ''I. jalapa'' <small>auct. ''non'' L.</small>) * ''[[Ipomoea purpurea]]'' – * ''[[Ipomoea quamoclit]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea racemigera]]'' <small>F.Muell. & Tate</small> * ''[[Ipomoea repanda]]'' <small>Jacq.</small> – ''bejuco colorado'' * ''[[Ipomoea repens]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea rubens]]'' <small>Choisy</small> (= ''I. fragans''<!-- <small>(Bojer ex Choisy) Baker</small> -->) * ''[[Ipomoea rupicola]]'' <small>House</small> * ''[[Ipomoea sagittata]]'' <small>Poir.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea setifera]]'' <small>Poir.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea setosa]]'' <small>Ker Gawl.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea shumardiana]]'' <small>(Torr.) Shinners</small> * ''[[Ipomoea simplex]]'' <small>Thunb.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea simulans]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea sloteri]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea steudelii]]'' <small>Millsp.</small> – Steudel's morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea stolonifera]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea tastensis]]'' <small>Brandegee</small> * ''[[Ipomoea temascaltepecensis]]'' <small>Wilkin</small><ref name="temascaltepecensis">{{Cite journal | last = Wilkin | first = Paul | authorlink = Paul Wilkin | title = A New Species of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) from Mexico State, Mexico, and Its Evolution | url = https://archive.org/details/kew-bulletin_1995_50_1/page/93 | journal = Kew Bulletin | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 93–102 | publisher = Springer | location = Netherlands | year = 1995 | jstor = 4114611 | issn = 1874-933X | doi =10.2307/4114611}}</ref> * ''[[Ipomoea tenuiloba]]'' <small>Torr.</small> – spiderleaf * ''[[Ipomoea tenuirostris]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bussmann | first1 = R. W. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya | journal = J Ethnobiol Ethnomed | volume = 2 | issue = | page = 22 | pmc=1475560 | pmid=16674830 | doi=10.1186/1746-4269-2-22}}</ref> * ''[[Ipomoea tenuissima]]'' <small>Choisy</small> * ''[[Ipomoea ternifolia]]'' <small>Cav.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea thurberi]]'' <small>Gray</small> y * ''[[Ipomoea tricolor]]'' <small>Cav.</small> '' * ''[[Ipomoea triloba]]'' – * ''[[Ipomoea tuberculata]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea tuberosa]]'' <small>L.</small> – * ''[[Ipomoea tuboides]]'' <small>O.Deg. & van Ooststr.</small> y * ''[[Ipomoea turbinata]]'' <small>Lag.</small> l * ''[[Ipomoea velutina]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea violacea]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea wrightii]]'' – {{Col-end}} bpspllj4p1kplp1v2lecga8cjw6ox74 Oeroeg 0 142321 1753045 1647072 2026-08-20T08:57:37Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753045 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Oeroeg''''' (dijarwakakè menyang basa Jawa minangka "Rawa Ireng") ya iku [[novèl]] sepisanan déning  [[Hella Haasse|Hella]] Haasse. Pisanan diterbitakè ing taun 1948 lan dadi salah siji novèl [[Walanda]] paling moncèr. Novèl iki uga dadi novèl sastra pandhidhikan kanggo akèh bocah-bocah sekolah Walanda. Novèl ''Oeroeg'' ngandhani carita saka narator anonim kang urip ing kebon tanah koloni Walanda ing [[Jawa Kulon]]. Novèl ''Oeroeg'' duwèni carita bab bocah lanang keturunan Walanda lan kancanè sing keturunan asli wong Jawa. Bocah lanang mau diliyankè, kasil saka kaanan pulitik lan rasis kala urip ing lemah kolonial. Sawisé [[Perang Donya II]], dhèwèkké mulih ing Walanda, banjur dhèwèkké ngomong yèn lemah Walanda iku dudu lemah dhèwèkké.<ref name="maier">{{cite journal|last=Maier|first=Henk M. J.|year=2004|title=Escape from the Green and Gloss of Java: Hella S. Haasse and Indies Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_indonesia_2004-04_77/page/79|journal=[[Indonesia (journal)|Indonesia]]|volume=77|pages=79–107|jstor=3351420}}</ref> == Latar mburi lan publikasi == ''Oeroeg'' diterbitakè ing 1948, kala Walanda kuatir banget ngliwati mangsa koloni ing sisih Wétan; sawisé pungkasan Perang Donya II iku dadi cetha rikat yèn Indonesia bakal mardika salah siji cara utawa liyanè, lan Walanda bakal kudu mikirkè status bangsa lan. Penulis Rob Nieuwenhuys nyerat yèn sastra révolusi Hindhia iki asring karan "sastra kangen omah", dumunung pengeling-eling urip rikala bocah-bocah.{{Sfn|Nieuwenhuys|van Rosevelt|1999}} Publikasi ing taun 1948 Boekenweek, acara taunan dianakaké kanggo ngundhakaké sastra Walanda; péranganing pangètan publikasi saka buku diwènèhi gratis menyang umum. Hella Haasse, sing wis urip ing [[Indhiya Nèderlan|Hindhia-Walanda]] lan ing wektu iku nyambut gawé ing kabarèt lan téater ing [[Amsterdam]], ngajokkaké naskah kanggo ''Oeroeg''{{Efn|The manuscript is now held in the [[Letterkundig Museum]] in The Hague.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/8408/Hella-Haasse/article/detail/2948502/2011/10/04/Jeugdfoto-s-van-Hella-Haasse-in-Letterkundig-Museum.dhtml|title=Jeugdfoto's van Hella Haasse in Letterkundig Museum|date=4 October 2011|work=[[de Volkskrant]]|language=Dutch|accessdate=4 August 2013}}</ref>}} nganggo jeneng ''Soeka toelis'' ("Kaya kanggo nulis"); jeneng dhèwèké ora diumumké kanggo nganti sawisé novèl iki rampung diterbitaké, dipilih déning anonim panel saka 19 hakim.{{Sfn|Nieuwenhuys|van Rosevelt|1999}} Karo ''Oeroeg'', dhèwèké pisanan publikasi prosa (dhèwèké wis nerbitaké pirang-pirang puisi).<ref name="Wilson1991">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wf1SVbGFg8C&pg=PA516|title=An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers|last=Hoof|first=Dianne van|publisher=Garland|year=1991|isbn=9780824085476|editor-last=Katharina M. Wilson|pages=516–18|chapter=Hella Haasse|access-date=5 August 2013}}</ref> == Plot == Buku iki nyeritakaké bab bocah keturunan Walanda kang urip ing Jawa. Bocah iki duwé kanca jenengé Oeroeg, bocah asli Jawa. Bocah sakloron urip bareng ing omah asrama. Sawijining dina, bapaké Oeroeg séda. Banjur, kala Perang Donya II, bocah lanang keturunan Walanda (narator) mèlu bala Walanda. Sabaline saka Walanda, narator kaget ngerténi yèn Jawa wis ora padha biyèn: wong [[Indonesia|Indonèsia]] wis mardhika lan wis ora nrima wong kolonial manèh. Bapaké narator uga séda, banjur narator arep bali menyang kanca lawasé manèh, Oeroeg. Nanging, Oeroeg mèlu Pergerakan Nasional Indonesia. Pungkasané, narator kélangan kanca lawasé, jati dhiriné, lan negarané.<ref name="PonzanesiMerolla2005">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80rrVolrVpIC&pg=PA241|title=Migrant Cartographies: New Cultural and Literary Spaces in Post-colonial Europe|last=Pattynama|first=Pamela|publisher=Lexington|year=2005|isbn=9780739107553|editor-last=Ponzanesi|editor-first=Sandra|pages=239–52|chapter=The Colonial Past in the Postcolonial Present: Cultural Memory, Gender, and Race in Dutch Cinema|access-date=5 August 2013|editor-last2=Merolla|editor-first2=Daniela}}</ref> == Filem == Ing 1993, novèl ''Oeroeg'' diadaptasi ing [[filem]] kang judhulé padha, kasil kerja bebarengan antarané Walanda, Indonèsia, lan [[Bèlgi]]. Sutradarané ya iku Hans Hylkema lan Jean Van de Velde, uga karakeré déning Rik Launspach, Jeroen Krabbe, Martin Schwab, Ivon Pelasula, lan Jose Rizal Manua. Adhaptasi iki uga diterbitaké internasional judhulé ''Going Home'', nganggo sub [[basa Inggris]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://filmindonesia.or.id/movie/title/lf-o006-92-402367_oeroeg|title=Oeroeg|website=filmindonesia.or.id|publisher=Konfiden Foundation|location=Jakarta|language=Indonesian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014130745/http://filmindonesia.or.id/movie/title/lf-o006-92-402367_oeroeg|archive-date=14 October 2016|access-date=5 August 2013|url-status=dead}} CS1 dandani: Basa ora kaweruhan ([[:Kategori:CS1 dandani: Basa ora kaweruhan|link]])</ref> == Rujukan == === Wedharan cathetan === {{notelist}} === Cathetan Bibliografi === {{Reflist|40em}} [[Kategori:CS1 dandani: Basa ora kaweruhan]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani II kalamangsa 1]] iecgom7x09qn2kbcadt74tag9xq1vap Michael V. Angrosino 0 143470 1752825 1673864 2026-08-19T12:57:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752825 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michael V. Angrosino''' ya iku ahli antropologi saka [[Amérikah Sarékat]] kalahiran taun 1947<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of Social and Cultural Anthropology|last=Amit|first=Vered|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=0-203-64459-X|location=London|pages=10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://anthropology.usf.edu/faculty/angrosino/|title=Michael Angrosino|last=|first=|date=|website=University of South Florida, College of Arts and Sciences|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011232148/http://anthropology.usf.edu/faculty/angrosino|archive-date=2017-10-11|url-status=dead|access-date=}}</ref>. Angrosino iku kawigatané ing antropologi terapan lan mètode panlitian. Terbitan karya tulisané iku ''Do Applied Anthropologists Apply Anthropology'' ing taun 1976. Isi bukuné ngenalaké cara anyar antropologi terapan lan éksplorasi kang suwèné 20 taunan. Buku kuwi uga medharaké mligi dampak advokasi implikasi sosial ing tataran bebrayan. Angrosino fokus ing mètode panlitian kualitatif khususé sujarah urip (''life history'') lan pangamatan partisipan kang intènsif<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.waveland.com/browse.php?t=146|title=Projects in Ethnographic Research|last=|first=|date=|website=Waveland Press|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805013235/https://www.waveland.com/browse.php?t=146|archive-date=2020-08-05|url-status=dead|access-date=}}</ref>. Élmuné mau diolèhaké kang proyék-proyék terapan kang suwéne taunan khususé ing antropologi kedhokteran. Panlitian lapangané wis naté ing [[Aruba]], [[Trinidad lan Tobago]], Saba, lan Amérikah Sarékat. ''Anthropology Field Projects and Doing Cultural Anthropology'' iku dadi conto komitmen dhèwèké nganggo pamulangan murid-murid antropologi. Angrosino oléh gelar Ph.D saka University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill ing taun 1972. Karya tulisané antarané ''Opportunity House: Ethnographic Stories of Mental Retardation'' ing taun 1998 lan ''Doing Cultural Anthropology: Projects for Ethnographic Data Collection'' ing taun 2002<ref name=":0" />. == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Antropolog]] [[Kategori:Artikel Wiki Mrebawani II kalamangsa 2]] 5a8sg8hukwry39yp17b9cb3untu27jo Kurdhistan Turki 0 144882 1752855 1494838 2026-08-20T03:21:18Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752855 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Batman(city).jpg|jmpl|270x270px|Kutha Batman]] '''Kurdhistan Turki''' utawa''' Kurdhistan Lor''' ({{Lang-ku|Bakurê Kurdistanê}}) ngrujuk marang pérangan saka Turki ing wewengkon Anatolia lan wewengkon Anatolia Kidul-Wétan, papan dedunungé wong-wong Kurdhi minangka golongan ètnis sing dhominan. ''Kurdish Institute of Paris'' prakiraan metara yèn ana udakara 20 yuta wong Kurdhi sing manggon ana ing Turki.<ref>[http://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/the-kurdish-population-1232551004 The Kurdish Population] by the [//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_Institute_of_Paris Kurdish Institute of Paris], 2017 estimate. "The territory, which the Kurds call Northern Kurdistan (Kurdistana Bakur), has 14.2 million inhabitants in 2016. According to several surveys, 86% of them are Kurds... So in 2016 there are about 12.2 million Kurds still living in Kurdistan in Turkey. We know that there are also strong Kurdish communities in the big Turkish metropolises like Istanbul, Izmir, Ankara, Adana and Mersin. The numerical importance of this "diaspora" is estimated according to sources at 7 to 10 million... Assuming an average estimate of 8 million Kurds in the Turkish part of Turkey, thus arrives at the figure of 20 million Kurds in Turkey."</ref> Wong Kurdhi lumrahé nganggep pérangan kidul-wétané Turki minangka salah sawijining pérangan saka [[Kurdhistan|Kurdhistan Magung]], sing uga dumadi saka pérangan loré Suriah (Rojava utawa Kurdhistan Kulon), [[Irak]] sisih lor (Kurdhistan Kidul), lan [[Iran]] sisih lor-kulon (Kurdhistan Wétan).<ref>''Kurdish Awakening: Nation Building in a Fragmented Homeland'', (2014), by Ofra Bengio, University of Texas Press</ref> Istilah Kurdhistan Turki kerep digayutaké lan uga digunakaké ing kontèks nasionalismé Kurdhi sing marakaké istilah kasebut dadi kontrovèrsial ing Turki. Amarga iki, ana ambiguitas bab istilah iki, lan istilah iki dadi nduwèni teges sing béda-béda gumantung karo kontèksé. Istilah iki wis digunakaké ing sawenèh tulisan élmiyah lan médhia warta kanggo ngrujuk wewengkon ing Turki sisih kidul-wétan kanthi populasi wong Kurdhi sing akèh.<ref name="De Vos, Hugo, Joost Jongerden, and Jacob Van Etten.">{{Cite journal|last=de Vos|first=Hugo|last2=Jongerden|first2=Joost|last3=van Etten|first3=Jacob|year=2008|title=Images of war: Using satellite images for human rights monitoring in Turkish Kurdistan|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2008.01049.x/full|journal=Disasters|volume=32|issue=3|pages=449-466|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7717.2008.01049.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nevo|first=E|last2=Beiles|first2=A|last3=Kaplan|first3=D|date=24 September 1987|title=Genetic diversity and environmental associations of wild emmer wheat, in Turkey|url=http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v61/n1/abs/hdy198888a.html|journal=Heredity|volume=61|page=31-45|doi=10.1038/hdy.1988.88|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Bruinessen|first=M|date=1988|title=Between guerrilla war and political murder: The Workers' Party of Kurdistan|url=http://www.let.uu.nl/~martin.vanbruinessen/personal/publications/Bruinessen_PKK_between_guerrilla_war_and_political_murder.pdf|journal=Middle East Report|volume=153|page=40-50|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deborah|first=Rund|last2=Tirza|first2=Cohen|last3=Dvora|first3=Filon|last4=Carol|first4=Dowling|last5=Tina|first5=Warren|last6=Igal|first6=Barak|last7=Eliezer|first7=Rachmilewitz|last8=Haig|first8=Kazazian|last9=Ariella|first9=Oppenheim|date=1991|title=Evolution of a genetic disease in an ethnic isolate: beta-thalassemia in the Jews of Kurdistan|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1991-01-01_88_1/page/310|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=88|issue=1|page=310-314|access-date=30 April 2017}}<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;access-date=</code> butuh <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;url=</code> ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#accessdate missing url|pitulung]]) </ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Bruinessen|first=Martin|date=1996|title=Kurds, Turks and the Alevi revival in Turkey.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3013260?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents|journal=Middle East Report|volume=200|page=7-10|doi=10.2307/3013260|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=E. Fuller|first=Graham|date=1993|title=The Fate of the Kurds|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20045529|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=72|issue=2|page=108-121|doi=10.2307/20045529|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=MICHAEL|first=GUNTER|date=2004|title=The Kurdish Question in Perspective|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20672696|journal=World Affairs|volume=166|issue=4|page=197-205|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=P.H.|date=1995|title=Lake Van and Turkish Kurdistan: A Botanical Journey|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1790844|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=122|issue=2|page=156-165|doi=10.2307/1790844}}</ref> == Géografi lan ékonomi == [[Gambar:Kurdish_speaking_provinces_in_Turkey.png|jmpl|250x250px| Provinsi ing Turki kanthi panutur Basa Kurdhi miturut sènsus taun 1965. Wewengkon aweran ijo tuwa, mayoritas wongé (>50%) nuturaké basa Kurdhi; sing awerna ijo enom, ana sawèneh panutur basa Kurdhi.<ref name="census1965(1)">[//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Kloss Heinz Kloss] & Grant McConnel, Linguistic composition of the nations of the world, vol,5, Europe and USSR, Québec, Presses de l'Université Laval, 1984, [//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2763770444 ISBN 2-7637-7044-4]</ref><ref name="census1965(2)">Ahmet Buran Ph.D., Türkiye'de Diller ve Etnik Gruplar, 2012</ref>]] Miturut ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' ana 13 provinsi ing [[Turki]] kanthi wong kurdhi minangka mayoritasé: Iğdır, Tunceli, Bingöl, Muş, Ağrı, Adıyaman, Diyarbakır, Siirt, Bitlis, Van, Şanlıurfa, Mardin, lan Hakkâri.<ref>http://global.britannica.com/place/Kurdistan</ref> Wewengkon iki mujudaké pérangan pinggir kidul-wétané [[Anatolia]]. Wewengkon iki duwé iklim kontinèntal — panas ing mangsa panas, lan adhem ing mangsa salju. Sanadyan mangkono, akèh papan sing loh lan wis kasil ngèkspor gandum lan rajakaya marang kutha-kutha liya. Sanadyan mangkono, ing sawenèh papan ing wewengkon iki, akèh padunungé sing padha migrasi marang wewengkon liya ing Turki amarga anané konflik lan uga akèhé wong sing nganggur.<ref name="ocpw">van Bruinessen, Martin. "Kurdistan." ''Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World'', 2nd edition. Joel Krieger, ed. [//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press Oxford University Press], 2001.</ref> == Sènsus taun 1965: Golongan Ètnis lan Basa == Kurdhistan Turki akèh-akèhé didunungi déning golongan ètnis[[Wong Kurdhi| Kurdhi]], karo Turki, Arab, [[Wong Zaza|Zaza]], lan [[Wong Suryani|Suryani]] minangka golongan minoritas.{{Better source|reason=a secondary source would be stronger then language census/study WP:PRIMARY WP:OR terms like ethnic Kurd and Turkish identity are complex|date=March 2017}} Ing sènsus taun 1965, panutur basa [[Basa Kurdhi|Kurdhi]] dadi cacah jiwa mayoritas ing Ağrı, Batman, Muş, Bingöl, Tunceli, Bitlis, Banjarnegara, Şanlıurfa, Hakkâri, Siirt, Şırnak, lan [[Van]], lan pluralitas ing [[Diyarbakır]]. Wiwit taun 1990-an, imigrasi peksan saka pérangan kidul-wétan njalari akèh wong Kurdhi sing pindhah menyang kutha-kutha liya; kaya ta Istanbul, Ankara lan Izmir.<ref name="education">"[http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/09/turkey-krg-iraq-kurds-anti-kurdish-discourse-hdp.html Kurdish identity becomes more acceptable in Turkish society]", ''[//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Monitor Al Monitor]'', 2014</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Kaca nganggo sitiran mawa accessdate lan tanpa URL]] [[Kategori:Kurdhistan]] 24t7jt1phqddbal0s1yswc2oflzt0ts Jovan Cvijic 0 146506 1752959 1656694 2026-08-20T06:00:39Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752959 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist |name = Jovan Cvijić |image = Јован Цвијић, географ (1865-1927).jpg |image_size = |caption = Photograph by Milan Jovanovic (1911) |birth_date = {{Birth date|1865|9|12|df=yes}} |birth_place = [[Loznica]], [[Principality of Serbia]] |death_date = {{Death date and age|1927|1|16|1865|9|11|df=yes}} |death_place = [[Belgrade]], [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] |resting_place = [[Novo groblje, Belgrade]] |fields = [[Geography]], [[geology]], [[folklore]] |workplaces = |alma_mater = [[University of Belgrade]], [[University of Vienna]] |doctoral_advisor = [[Albrecht Penck]]<ref name=Derek2007>{{cite journal |last1=Ford |first1=Derek |date=2007 |title=Jovan Cvijić and the founding of karst geomorphology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_environmental-geology_2007-01_51_5/page/675|journal=Environmental Geology |volume=51 |issue= |pages=675–684 |doi=10.1007/s00254-006-0379-x }}</ref><br/> |academic_advisors = |doctoral_students = |notable_students = [[Pavle Vujević]] <br> Petar Jovanović |influences = [[William Morris Davis]]<ref name=Derek2007/><br>Albrecht Penck<ref name=Derek2007/><br/>[[Eduard Suess]]<ref name=Derek2007/> |known_for = |awards = |nationality = [[Serbs|Serb]] |religion = [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Orthodox]] |signature = |footnotes = }} '''Jovan Cvijic''' ya iku ahli [[antropologi]] saka Loznica, [[Serbia]], kalairan taun 1865<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/436848672|title=Biographical dictionary of social and cultural anthropology|last=|first=Amit, Vered,|date=|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=020364459X|location=London|pages=146|oclc=436848672}}</ref>. Pandhidhikané naté ing Great School ing Belgrade program Diploma taun 1888. Sabanjuré ing University of Vienna (Ph.D.) taun 1892<ref name=":0" />. Sanajan Jovan iki ora duwé data kang bisa diklasifikasiaké minangka panlitian lapangan antropologi, nanging dhèwèké wis nulis werna-werna karya antropologis<ref name=":0" />. Akéh bab tulisané iku luwih akéh nuduhaké bab sosial pulitik ing wewengkon [[Yugoslavia]]. Contoné ya iku ''La Peninsule balkanique. Geographie humaine'' (The Balkan Peninsula: Human Geography) taun 1918 lan ''Sabrana dela'' (Collected Works) taun 1987<ref name=":0" />. Karir akademisé iku ing géomorfologi minangka kajian doktoral. Nanging pakaryané ing géografi manungsa lan étnologi cukup kawentar<ref name=":0" />. Dhéwéké dikenal minangka ilmuwan antropologi ing Yugoslav ing awal abad 20. Malah amarga jasané, pamréntah Serbia (Yugoslavia) nggawéaké museum kanggo mengeti jasa-jasané<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mgb.org.rs/en/permanent-exhibitions/museum-jovan-cvijic|title=Museum of Jovan Cvijić - Belgrade City Museum|website=www.mgb.org.rs|language=en-gb|access-date=2017-12-25|archive-date=2017-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017103422/http://www.mgb.org.rs/en/permanent-exhibitions/museum-jovan-cvijic|url-status=dead}}</ref>. == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Antropolog]] jtw9kn68dhea3dutuc2vqixrj6nxqvu Songkèt 0 148133 1753053 1742493 2026-08-20T09:08:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753053 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Bamboofabric.png|ka|jmpl|259x259px| Songket Minangkabau, motif segi telu sisih ngisor kang ateges pring utawa bung. ]] '''Songkèt''' iku jinis saka [[Kain (disambiguasi)|kain]] rajut tradhisional sing awalipun saka [[Sumatra]], Indonesia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Purwanti|first1=Retno|last2=Siregar|first2=Sondang Martini|date=2016|title=Sejarah Songkèt Berdasarkan Data Arkeologi|language=id|journal=Revista de Arqueología Siddhayatra|volume=21|issue=2|pages= |doi=10.24832/siddhayatra.v21i2.22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Iskandar|first=Teuku|title=De Hikajat Atjéh|trans-title=Hikayat Aceh|language=nl|date=1958|location=Den Haag, Belanda|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rodgers|first1=Susan|last2=Summerfield|first2=Anne|last3=Summerfield|first3=John|title=Gold Cloths of Sumatra: Indonesia's Songkets from Ceremony to Commodity|language=en|trans-title=Kain Tenun Emas Pulau Sumatra Indonesia: Songket dari Seremoni hingga Komoditi|date=2007|publisher=Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Art Gallery, College of the Holy Cross|location=Worcester, Massachusetts|isbn=978-9067183123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgu6c4qZMkYC&q=srivijaya&pg=PA47 |access-date=15 de enero de 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sturler|first=W.L. de|date=1843|title=Proeve eener beschrijving van het gebiied van Palembang|trans-title=Deskripsi Awal Terkait Wilayah Palembang|language=nl|location=Groningen, Belanda|publisher=J.Oomrens}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hoëvell|first=W.R. van|date=1843|title=Sjair Bidasari, een oorspronkelijk Maleische gedicht. Verhande-lingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap|trans-title=Sjair Bidasari; Puisi Melayu Asli, Risalah Masyarakat Betawi|pages=1-421|volume=19|issue=2|language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blume|first1=C.L.|last2=Deel|first2=Eerste|last3=Plates|first3=With|date=1848|title=De Indische Bij, Tijdschrift Ter Bevordering van de Kennis der Nederlandsche Volkplantingen en Derzelver Belangen|trans-title=Mengenai Nusantara, Jurnal untuk Mengembangkan Pengetahuan tentang Pemukiman Belanda dan Kepentingan Minatnya|language=nl|location=Leiden, Belanda}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Praetorius|first=C.F.G.|date=1843| title=Eenige Bijzonderheden Omtrent Palembang|trans-title=Beberapa Detail Terkait dengan Palembang|language=nl|location=Leiden, Belanda}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sevenhoven|first=J.I. van|date=1823|title=Beschrijving van de Hoofdplaats van Palembang|trans-title=Deskripsi Terkait Ibukota (Sriwijaya) Palembang|language=nl|publisher=Tratados de la Sociedad de Batavia|pages=41-126|volume=9}}</ref> Songkèt digolongaké ing kulawarga rajutan brokat. Songkèt dirajut klawan tangan nganggo utas saka [[emas]] lan pérak. Umumé, songkèt diagem ing acara-acara resmi. Utas logam metalik kang katenun ing latar kain nggawé èfèk kelip-kelip. == Istilah == [[File:KITLV - 10836 - Kurkdjian - Soerabaja - Female songket weaver from Surabaya at the pasar malam in Surabaya - 1905-1906.tif|thumb|300px|milieu|Tukang nggawe Songkèt ing [[Surabaya]] saka taun 1905]] Tembung "''songkèt''" asalé saka gabungan tembung ing basa Palembang yaiku ''{{lang|mui|songsong}}'' + ''{{lang|mui|teket}}'', kang nduweni arti "mundhakaken" lan "sulaman", iki ana gandhèngané karo métodhe cara nggawéné yaiku nggandhengaké lan njupuk sajumput kain tenun, lan banjur nyelipaké utas emas.<ref>National Geographic Traveller Indonesia, Vol 1, No 6, 2009, Jakarta, Indonesia, page 63</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=<!---Not stated---> |first1=Mainur|date=2018 |title=Motif ''Bungo Pacik'' Pada Tenunan Songket Palembang|url=https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/325756-motif-bungo-pacik-pada-tenunan-songket-p-b652f430.pdf|lang=id|journal= Sitakara Jurnal Pendidikan Seni dan Budaya |access-date=25 April 2021}}</ref> [[File:Songket-weefster op Sumatra's Westkust KITLV 84856.tiff|thumb|300px|milieu|Penenun Songkèt ing pesisir kulon [[Sumatra]] saka taun 1890]] Tembung iku sabanjure diserap ing [[Basa Malayu|basa Melayu]] lan [[Basa Indonésia|basa Indonesia]] dadi "sungkit" lan "sangkut", kang tegesè "canthèl".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/menyungkit|title=Sungkit|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id|publisher=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|access-date=25 April 2021|archive-date=27 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027121845/https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/menyungkit|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/menyangkut|title=Sangkut|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id|publisher=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|access-date=25 April 2021|archive-date=27 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027121843/https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/menyangkut|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kajaba iku, miturut sabagiane wong-wong, tembung ''songket'' uga asalé saka tembung ''songka'', songkok khas [[Kutha Palémbang|Palembang]] pitados pisanan pakulinan nenun nganggo utas emas.<ref name="Rodgers and Summerfield">[http://books.google.com.my/books?id=pgu6c4qZMkYC&pg=PA47&dq=songket&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HcUTT6nJCsHMrQeD49zzAQ&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=songket&f=false Gold Cloths of Sumatra: Indonesia’s Songkets from Ceremony to Commodity], Cantor Art Gallery, Worcester, Massachusetts, 2007, by Susan Rodgers, Anne Summerfield, John Summerfield</ref> [[File:Siriah gadang songket.jpg|thumb|300px|milieu|Proses nenun kanggo gawe Songkèt Minangkabau kanthi pola ''{{lang|min|Siriah Gadang}}'' nggunakake piranthi tenun tradisional, kabeh proses nenun ditindakake kanthi manual]] Songkèt iku sawijining kain ageng kang adate dinggo nalika kenduren, dina riyaya utawa nalika pesta. Songkèt adate dibebetake ana ing awak kaya déné sarung, disampirake ing pundhak, utawa minangka destar utawa tanjak, hiasan iket. Miturut tradhisi, kain songket mung bisa dirajut déning prawan utawa wong wadon enom; nanging saiki wong lanang uga nenun songket. Maneka warna saka kain songket tradhisional Sumatra nduweni pola kang ngandhut teges tartamtu. [[File:Indonesia 2001 5000r r.jpg|thumb|300px|milieu|Penenun Songkèt saka Pandai Sikek, [[Sumatra Kulon]] digambarake ing mburine 5000 [[Rupiah]] sing diterbitake taun 1998-2005, tukang tenun iki digambarake nggawe klambi tradisional [[Minangkabau]] sing uga digawe saka Songkèt]] == Songkèt saiki == Ditilik saka bahan, cara panggawe, lan regane; songket kawitane iku kain ageng para bangsawan kang nuduhake kamulyaning drajat lan kawibawan pangageme. Nanging saiki songket ora mung katujokake kanggo golongan masyarakat kang sugih, jalaran regane kang uga werna-werna; wiwit saka kang biasa lan karan murah regane, tumekan kang eksklusif kanthi rega kang larang. Wiwit jaman biyen nganti saiki, songket dadi pilihan kang misuwur kanggone busana adat pangantenan Melayu, Palembang, Minangkabau, Aceh dan Bali. Kain iki kerep diwenehake dening pangantin kakung marang pangantin putri minangka salah sawijinng gawan mas kawin. Ing jaman saiki, busana resmi kakung Melayu uga kerep manganggo songket minangka kain kang dibebetke ing sandhuwure clana utawa didadekake destar, tanjak, utwa iket sirah. Sawetara iku kanggo putri, songket dibebetake minangka kain sarung kang dipadhanake karo kebaya utawa baju kurung. Sanajan asale saka pakaryan tradhisional, industri songket iku dadi pakaryan krajinan kang isih urip lan dinamis. Para pangrajin songket utamane ing Palembang saiki ngupadaya motif-motif anyar kang luwih modheren lan pilihan warna-warna kang luwih alus. == Punjer pakaryan Songkèt == [[Gambar:Traditional_sasak_weaving.jpg|ka|jmpl|200x200px|Tradisional Songkèt [[Wong Sasak|Sasak]], [[Lombok]].]] Ing Indonesia, punjering pakaryan krajinan tangan tenun songket bisa ditemokaké ing [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Propinsi Bali|Bali]], [[Sulawesi|Nusa]], [[Lombok]] lan Sumbawa. Ing pulo Sumatra songket punjering pakaryan kang misuwur lan unggul ana ing wilayah saka Pandai Sikek lan Silungkang, [[Wong Minang|Minangkabau]], [[Sumatra Kulon]],<ref name="Melayu online">[http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1589 Tenun Songket Pandai Sikek (Sumatera Barat - Indonesia)]</ref> uga ing [[Kutha Palémbang|Palembang]], [[Sumatra Kidul]]. Ing Bali, ing desa pangrajin tenun songket bisa ditemokaké ing kabupaten Klungkung, mligine ing desa Pangandaran lan Gelgel. Sawetara iku ing Lombok, désa Sukarara uga misuwur kalawan sawijining krajinan songkete.<ref>National Geographic Traveller Indonesia, Vol 1, No 6, 2009, Jakarta, Indonesia, page 62</ref> Amarga pengaruhe [[Sriwijaya|kemaharajaan Sriwijaya]], songkèt uga bisa ditemokake inf sanjabane Indonesia, tuladhane yaiku ing Semenanjung Kra<ref>[http://books.google.com.my/books?id=5Te9LWyzQvYC&pg=PA137&dq=songket+terengganu&cd=3#v=onepage&q=songket%20terengganu&f=false The Malay handloom weavers: a study of the rise and decline of traditional ... By Maznah Mohamad]</ref> lan Brunei.<ref name="Uchino2005">{{Cite journal|last=Uchino|first=Megumi|year=2005|title=Socio-cultural history of Palembang Songket|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia-and-the-malay-world_2005-07_33_96/page/205|journal=Indonesia and the Malay World|publisher=Routledge|volume=33|issue=96|pages=205–223|doi=10.1080/13639810500283985}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Pranala Njaba == {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:CS1 dandani: Basa ora kaweruhan]] dtg4r4xetbd9o8fn33i79i9oneoqm9j Nagara Wa 0 148243 1752828 1750683 2026-08-19T14:53:27Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752828 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Negara Wa |native_name = {{lang|prk|''Mēng Vax''}} |common_name = Negara Wa |image_flag = Flag of Wa State (white sun).svg |alt_flag = Sawijining gendera horizontal telung werna (biru, abang, biru) kanthi bintang putih pucuk sanga ing tengah. |image_coat = |symbol_type =Wektu Myanmar |national_motto = |national_anthem = |image_map = Wa State territory map.svg |map_caption = Negara Wa, sing diklaim UWSA (ijo),<br>lan Myanmar (abu-abu tuwa). |capital = [[Pangkham]] |coordinates = {{Coord|22|10|N|99|11|E|type:city}} |largest_city = [[Pangkham]] |official_languages = |national_languages = |regional_languages = |languages_type = Basa |languages = Wa; Basa Cina |ethnic_groups =Wa |government_type = Negara partai tunggal |leader_title1 = [[Presiden]] |leader_name1 = Bao Youxiang (Tax Log Pang)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shanland.org/politics/2006/News-08180406/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-12-06 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013221841/http://www.shanland.org/politics/2006/News-08180406/ |archivedate=2013-10-13 |df= }} Quote: ''"Officially, Bao Youxiang is still the President of the Wa State Government and Commander-in-Chief of the United Wa State Army," said a Thai security officer, a ten-year veteran on the Thai-Burma border''</ref> |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Presiden]] |leader_name2 = Xiao Minliang<ref>{{cite web|url=http://democracyforburma.wordpress.com/2011/09/29/a-united-wa-state-army-uwsa-delegation-led-by-vice-president-xiao-minliang-bao-youliang-and-zhao-guo-ang-left-panghsang-for-lashio-today/|title=A United Wa State Army (UWSA) delegation led by Vice President Xiao Minliang, Bao Youliang and Zhao Guo-ang left Panghsang for Lashio today|work=democracy for burma|access-date=29 Novèmber 2014}}</ref> |sovereignty_type = Mardika {{nobold|saka [[Myanmar]]}} |established_event1 = Deklarasi |established_date1 = 17 April 1989 |established_event2 = Diperintah sacara rasmi dening Divisi Otonomi Wa |established_date2 = 20 Agustus 2010 |established_event3 = Pangakuan |established_date3 = Pangakuan Diplomatik |percent_water = diabaikan |population_estimate = 558,000{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} |population_estimate_rank = |population_estimate_year = |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density_km2 = 32.8 |population_density_rank = |population_density_sq_mi = 12.7 |currency = [[Renminbi]] |utc_offset = +06:30 |drives_on = tengen |calling_code = +95 73 }} '''Nagara Wa''' ([[Basa Wa|Wa]]: ''Mēng Vax'' utawa ''Meung Va''; [[Basa Cina]]: 佤邦, ''[[Hanyu Pinyin|pinyin]]'': Wǎ Bāng; [[Basa Myanmar]]: {{lang|my|ဝပြည်နယ်}}; [[Basa Jawa]]: ꧋ꦟꦒꦫꦮ꧉) ya iku sawijining negara kang ora misuwur ing [[Myanmar]] lan saiki ing ngisoré pangawasan Wilayah Khusus Wa 2 laladan [[Shan Lor]].<ref name=phoenix>2004-12-29, [http://www.phoenixtv.com/phoenixtv/76575495906394112/20041229/477702.shtml 佤帮双雄] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050525020629/http://www.phoenixtv.com/phoenixtv/76575495906394112/20041229/477702.shtml |date=2005-05-25 }}, [[Phoenix TV]]</ref><ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,397549,00.html Soldiers of Fortune] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824123825/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,397549,00.html |date=2013-08-24 }}, Time Magazine. '''Quote:''' ''In return for keeping the peace, the UWSA was given full autonomy over what the regime termed "Special Region No. 2," which Bao christened "Wa state."''</ref> Ibukutha negara iki ing [[Pangkham]] ([[Basa Cina]]: 邦康, ''[[Hanyu Pinyin|pinyin]]'': Bāngkāng, mbiyen jenengé Panghsang, 邦桑). Jeneng ''Wa'' dijupuk saka kelompok etnis Wa, singdadi panyatur basa Austrosiatik. Mayoritas wong Wa nganut kepracayan animisme. Ana sing agamané Kristen utawa Buddha, tapi jumlahé sithik. Biyen Wa dijuluki "Wa Liar" karo Tentara Inggris amarga akehe tukang paten wong.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/2007/09/10/idUSBKK83023 "Headhunting days are over for Myanmar's "Wild Wa"", Reuters, Sep 10, 2007.]</ref> == Pulitik lan Masarakat == Negara Wa dipérang dumadi wilayah lor lan kidul kang kapisah siji lan sijine. Ing sisih kidul jembar laladané udakaral 13.000&nbsp;km persegi (5.000 mil persegi) kang watesan karo Thailand lan dumadi 200.000 cacah jiwa.<ref name=jqgc/> Gunggung laladan Nagara Wa ya iku {{convert|17000|sqkm|abbr=on}}. Tokoh pulitik nagara iki akèh-akèhé saka Wong Wa. Pamaréntah Wa nganggo sistem pulitik kaya Nagara Cina, ya iku nduwéni partai tunggal (''Partai Persatuan Nagari Wa'') lan komité sentral. Sacara ''de facto,'' Nagara Wa iku laladan swatantra (daerah otonom) saka Myanmar,<ref>2009年9月, [http://www.ide.go.jp/Japanese/Research/Region/Asia/Radar/200909.html 不透明さ増すミャンマー情勢:2010年総選挙に向けて] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106143106/http://www.ide.go.jp/Japanese/Research/Region/Asia/Radar/200909.html |date=2013-01-06 }}, IDE-JETRO</ref><ref>2011年11月15日, [http://www.excite.co.jp/News/reviewbook/20111115/E1321281192211.html 地図にない街、ワ州潜入ルポが凄い『独裁者の教養』] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130172550/http://www.excite.co.jp/News/reviewbook/20111115/E1321281192211.html |date=2012-11-30 }}, エキサイトレビュー</ref> sesambetan Myanmar lan Wa didasarké ing koeksistensi damai, ya iku Wa ngakoni pamaréntah pusat ngatur sekabehané nagara Myanmar.<ref name=jqgc>2011-10-13, [http://www.jqgc.com/zgjq/18033.shtml 缅甸佤邦竟然是一个山寨版的中国] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126002541/http://www.jqgc.com/zgjq/18033.shtml |date=2016-11-26 }}, 军情观察</ref> Basa kerja ing Negara Wa ya iku Basa Cina.<ref>[http://www.stimson.org/programs/myanmar-map/ Interactive Myanmar Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708051141/http://www.stimson.org/programs/myanmar-map/ |date=2013-07-08 }}, The Stimson Center</ref><ref>[http://www.infomekong.com/peoples/wa/ Wa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915002001/http://www.infomekong.com/peoples/wa/ |date=2013-09-15 }}, Infomekong</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050929165301/http://www.shanland.org/resources/bookspub/humanrights/wa/general_background_of_the_wa.htm General Background of the Wa]. '''Quote:''' ''The official languages (designated by the current UWSP administration) are Mandarin and Wa.''</ref> Basa Mandarin kidul-kulon lan Basa Wa dinggo basa padinan, nanging ing sekolahan, basa sing digunaaké yaku Basa Mandarin Standar. Giyaran TV ing nagara iki migunakaké Basa Mandarin Standar lan Basa Wa. Komoditas nagara iki sakèhé didol menyang Cina. Ing nagara iki [[Renminbi]] ditetepaké minangka mata uang. China Mobile dhuwéni jangkauan sinyal ing pirang-pirang papan ing negara Wa..<ref name=jqgc/> == Subdivisi == Nagara Wa nduwéni 15 distrik. {{columns |colwidth=19em |col1 = *Dhistrik Yiang Chen *Dhistrik Nawi *Dhistrik Gong Ming Shan *Dhistrik Gelong Ba *Dhistrik Kun Ma *Dhistrik Wang Len *Dhistrik Lien He |col2 = *Dhistrik Yin Pan *Dhistrik Pang Yang *Dhistrik Ting Aw *Dhistrik Weng Kao *Dhistrik Pangh Sang *Dhistrik Mong Pawk *Dhistrik Mong Ngen *Dhistrik Hotao }} == Géografi == [[File:Wa state.png|thumb|right|220px|Peta Negara Wa]] Negara iki wujudé gunung-gunung, kanthi èrèngan kang jero. Titik ngisor dhéwé udakara 600 meter saka dhuwuré permukaan sagara, kanthi titik dhuwur dhéwé luwih saka 3000 meter. Wiwitané, Nagara Wa gantungké marang prodhuksi opium.<ref>[http://www.asienhaus.de/public/archiv/focus26-045.pdf Die Wa in Gefahr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923175318/http://www.asienhaus.de/public/archiv/focus26-045.pdf |date=2015-09-23 }} (German)</ref> Kanthi sengkuyungan saka Cina, Negara Wa wiwit nganakaké nandur karet lan teh.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.burmanet.org/news/2007/02/20/xinhua-general-news-service-china-develops-more-substitute-crops-for-opium-poppy-in-bordering-countries/ |title="Xinhua General News Service: China develops more substitute crops for opium poppy in bordering countries" |access-date=2018-01-16 |archive-date=2014-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413123959/http://www.burmanet.org/news/2007/02/20/xinhua-general-news-service-china-develops-more-substitute-crops-for-opium-poppy-in-bordering-countries/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nagara iki ngolah 220.000 hektar karet.<ref name="not fair">[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-wa-idUSKCN1270R3?il=0 Myanmar's strongest ethnic armed group says drug label 'not fair']</ref> Amargi urbanisasi saka pucuk gunung menyang dataran kang gembur,<ref name="nachrichten">[http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs3/BN2005-02-25.html BURMA NACHRICHTEN 4/2005, 25. Februar] (German). '''Quote:''' "Angaben der UN-Organisation zur Drogenbekämpfung UNODC und weiterer Beobachter zufolge droht durch die Ausführung des Plans zur Eliminierung des Opiumanbaus bis 2005 eine ernste humanitäre Krise der vom Opiumanbau abhängigen Bauern."</ref> pungkasané warga uga nandur jagung, pari, lan sayur-sayuran. Puluhan warga mati amargi kecilakan saka munggah gunung.<ref name="not fair"/> Nagara Wa sacara ékonomi gumantung marang Cina, amarga njurung sacara finansial lan nekakaké penasihat militer lan gaman.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www-gatago.com/soc/culture/burma/43590401.html |title=China remains the UWSA's sole patron and arms supplier |access-date=2018-01-16 |archive-date=2020-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607050621/http://www-gatago.com/soc/culture/burma/43590401.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.burmanet.org/news/2006/12/13/world-politics-watch-on-myanmar-china-border-tensions-escalate-between-spdc-narco-militias-michael-black/ World Politics Watch: On Myanmar-China border, tensions escalate between SPDC, narco-militias – Michael Black]</ref> Negara iki nduwéni wates karo Cina dawané 82 mil (133&nbsp;km).<ref>[http://www.irrawaddy.org/archives/20470 UWSA Talks Business, Drugs Cooperation with China]</ref>{{Portal|Myanmar}} == Rujukan == === Sitiran === <references /> === Sumber === * Hideyuki Takano, ''The Shore Beyond Good and Evil: A Report from Inside Burma's Opium Kingdom '' (2002, Kotan, {{ISBN|0-9701716-1-7}}) * [[Andrew Marshall (Asia journalist)|Andrew Marshall]], ''The Trouser People: a Story of Burma in the Shadow of the Empire''. London: Penguin; Washington: Counterpoint, 2002. {{ISBN|1-58243-120-5}}. * The Wa State, Burma [http://nationalstrategy.com/Portals/0/documents/Summer%202011%20NSFR/The%20Wa%20State.pdf The National Strategy Forum Review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111164539/http://nationalstrategy.com/Portals/0/documents/Summer%202011%20NSFR/The%20Wa%20State.pdf |date=2016-01-11 }} * {{cite news |title = Wa leader: UWSA able to defend itself |url = http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4602:wa-leader-uwsa-able-to-defend-itself&catid=85:politics&Itemid=266 |agency = Shan Herald |website = panglong.org |date = 19 April 2012 |access-date = 5 Mèi 2012 |archive-date = 12 September 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170912235019/http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4602:wa-leader-uwsa-able-to-defend-itself&catid=85:politics&Itemid=266 |url-status = dead }} * Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011). ''Traders of the Golden Triangle''. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B006GMID5. * Midnight in Burma. ''Ein Roman über die Tochter eines Generals im Wa-Staat, nicht gerade historisch mit vielen historischen Fehlern, aber sehr spannend geschrieben'', Alex O'Brien. Asia Books {{ISBN|974-8303-58-6}} (2001). * Dr. Ba Nyan, [http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4744:who-are-the-wa&catid=93:general&Itemid=291 Who are the Wa?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508025142/http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4744:who-are-the-wa&catid=93:general&Itemid=291 |date=2016-05-08 }} == Pranala Jawi == *{{zh icon}} [http://blog.sina.com.cn/u/2424587420 Wa state News Bureau](Sina blog) *{{smaller|{{color|dimgray|'''(Standard Mandarin)'''}}}} [http://v.youku.com/v_show/id_XMjU2NTA3NDM2.html Television news broadcast from Wa State] *[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/states/newsrel/nyc012405.html DEA Page] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20101031100157/http://www.burmaissues.org//En/wa.html Wa - Burma Issues] {{coord|22|10|N|99|00|E|region:MM_type:adm1st_source:kolossus-dewiki|display=title}} [[Kategori:Wa people]] [[Kategori:Geography of Myanmar]] [[Kategori:Separatism in Myanmar]] [[Kategori:Unrecognized or largely unrecognized states]] [[Kategori:Chinese-speaking countries and territories]] [[Kategori:States and territories established in 1989]] [[Kategori:Illegal drug trade in Southeast Asia]] [[Kategori:Military dictatorships]] [[Kategori:Enclaves and exclaves]] k6dvimz36kzha3cjfu5ohwq38ec4tkv Pakan kucing 0 150084 1752937 1647307 2026-08-20T05:20:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752937 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Catdryfood.jpg|jmpl|Kucing sing lagi  mangan pakan kucing sing jinisé garing .]] '''Pakan kucing''' iku [[pangan]] mligi sing diwenenhaké lan dipangan déning[[Kucing| kucing lokal]]. Pangan kucing kudu nduwéni kabutuhan gizi sing dibutuhaké déning kucing,<ref>{{En icon}} {{Cite journal|last=Knight|first=A|year=2005|title=In defense of vegetarian cat food|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-veterinary-medical-association-journal_2005-02-15_226_4/page/512|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=226|issue=4|pages=512–3|doi=10.2460/javma.2005.226.512|pmid=15742685}} Diakses 05 Juni 2014.</ref> ya iku panganan sing akeh ngandut [[vitamin]] lan [[asem amino]].<ref>{{En icon}} Howell E. ''Food Enzymes for Health & Longevity'' Woodstock Valley, CT, US: Omangod Press. xx. 1980. Diakses 05 Juni 2014.</ref><ref name="perry">{{En icon}} Perry T. [http://www.preciouspets.org/truth.htm Commercial Pet Food Truth – What’s Really For Dinner] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010124024/http://www.preciouspets.org/truth.htm |date=2012-10-10 }}. Diakses 05 Juni 2014.</ref> Panganan sing ngandut asem amino taurine tuladhané daging. Menawa kurang zat taurine ing wektu sing suwé, umpamané menawa kucing diwenehi pakan asu sing ngamot sethithik ''taurine'', bisa nyebabké kurangé daya saka [[retina]], kelangan pandeleng, lan jantung rusak.<ref name="aquirre">{{En icon}} {{Cite journal|last=Aquirre|first=GD|year=1978|title=Retinal degeneration associated with the feeding of dog foods to cats|journal=J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.|volume=172|pages=791–796}}</ref> == Pangan kucing sing wis umum == Pakan kucing sakeh-akehé bisa dituku ing toko pakan kucing, toko kéwan, lan pasar swalayan, sing tinemu awujud garing (ing [[Amérikah Sarékat]] ditepung minangka "''kibble''") utawa teles disimpen ing blek-blekan. Sawenèh pakan kucing didol kanthi mentah sing wis beku lan ''produk premix'' kanggo sing nduwéni sing péngin menehaké pakan mentah marang kucing. === Pakan Garing === [[Gambar:Katzenfutter.JPG|jmpl|Pakan kucing sing  jinisé garing.]] [[Gambar:Canned_Cat_Food1.jpg|jmpl|Pakan kucing sing jinisé teles.]] [[Gambar:Makanankucingvegan.jpg|jmpl|Pakan Kucing sing jinisé sayuran.]] [[Gambar:Kucingmakan.jpg|jmpl|Kucing sing lagi mangan pakanan gaweane sing duwe kucing.]] Pakan garing  (ngandhut 8-10% banyu) biasané digawé kanthi cara ''ekstrusi ''daging kanthi ''tekanan'' lan ''suhu'' dhuwur. Pakan garing bisa ditambahaké bahan liyané kaya ta lemak kanthi cara disemprotaké kanggo nambah palatability lan rasa.<ref>{{Fr icon}} [http://www.facco.fr/Fabrication-des-croquettes Fabrication des croquettes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220180254/http://facco.fr/Fabrication-des-croquettes |date=2009-02-20 }}. www.facco.fr. Diakses 20 Agustus 2014.</ref> == Referensi == {{reflist|2}} kjyq3g0428qcg9hibgz69szkrs3d0g1 Isopoda 0 152870 1752999 1739059 2026-08-20T07:41:16Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 5 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752999 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Isopoda | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|300|0}} | image = Eurydice pulchra.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Eurydice pulchra]]'', isopoda karnivora ingkang kapanggihaken wonten pantai pasir | regnum = [[Hewan|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Artropoda|Arthropoda]] | subphylum = [[Krustasea|Crustacea]] | classis = [[Malacostraca]] | subclassis = [[Eumalacostraca]] | superordo = [[Peracarida]] | ordo = '''Isopoda''' | ordo_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1817 <ref name=WoRMS>{{cite WoRMS |author=Boxshall, Geoff | year=2014 |title=Isopoda |id=1131 |accessdate=2018-02-19|db=}}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = [[Subordo]] | subdivision = *[[Asellota]] *[[Calabozoida]] *[[Cymothoida]] *[[Limnoriidea]] *[[Microcerberidea]] *[[Oniscidea]] *[[Phoratopidea]] *[[Phreatoicidea]] *[[Sphaeromatidea]] *[[Tainisopidea]] *[[Valvifera]] }} '''Isopoda''' inggih menika [[Ordo (biologi)|ordo]] (kelompok) saking [[krustasea]] ingkang kalebet [[kutu kayu]], ''[[Ligia]]'' lan krabatipun. Isopoda menika urip wonten ing sagara, wonten ing toya ingkang tawar, utawi wonten ing dharat lan sapérangan ageng menika kéwan warni radi klawu (abu-abu) utawi radi putih alit kanthi [[eksoskeleton]] (kerangka èksternal) kaku lan wonten sègmentasi. Isopoda menika gadhah kalih pasang [[Antena (biologi)|anténa]], pitung pasang suku wonten sendhinipun ing [[toraks]], lan gangsal pasang èmbèl-èmbèl mawi cabangipun wonten ing bagéyan [[abdomen]] ingkang dipun-ginakaken wonteh ing [[Respirasi (fisiologi)|respirasi]]. Ingkang babon njagi anakipun wonten ing kanthong sangandhaping toraks. Ngopèni anak Isopoda menika gadhah manéka cara kanggé maringi dhaharan: sapérangan dhahar tuwuhan lan kéwan ingkang mati lan dados bathang, sanèsipun menika dhahar suket utawi pikantuk partikel dhaharan saking toya ingkang sakiwa tengenipun Isopoda, sapérangan ugi menika dados predator lan wonten ugi ingkang dados parasit saé internal utawi èksternal, sapérangan ageng wonten ing [[ulam|iwak]]. Spésies toya sapérangan ageng urip wonten ing dhasaring sagara utawi ing sangandhapipun toya tawar, ananging sapérangan taksa ingkang langkung mlebet derivasi (klompok lajengan) saged nglangi kanthi jarak ingkang cerak. Wujudipun terestrial menika saged owah kanthi mbrangkang lan langkung kapanggihaken wonten ing papan ingkang adhem lan radi teles. Sapérangan spésies saged nggulung piyambakipun dados bal kanggé ngirit toya utawi minangka mekanisme njagi awak. Wonten langkung saking 10.000 spésies isopoda wonten ing donya kanthi kirang langkung spésies ingkang kapanggihaken wonten ing lingkungan sagara, sapérangan ageng wonten ing dhasaring sagara, 500 spésies wonten ing toya tawar lan 5.000 spésies wonten ing dharat. Ordo menika dipunperang dados sewelas subordo. Cathetan fosil isopoda menika asalipun saking periode [[Karbon (periode)|Karbon]] (ing zaman [[Pennsylvanian (geologi)|Pennsylvanian]]), kirang langkung 300 uuta tahun kepengker, nalika isopoda mapan wonten ing sagara ingkang cethek. Nama Isopoda menika asalipun saking akar [[basa Yunani]] {{lang|el|[[:wikt:ἴσος|ἴσος]]}} (''{{lang|el|[[:wikt:iso-|iso-]]}}'', ingkang ateges "sami") lan {{lang|el|[[:wikt:πούς|πούς]]}} (''{{lang|el|pod-, pous}}'', ingkang ateges "suku").<ref>{{cite web|title=Isopod|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/isopod|website=Merriam-Webster|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|accessdate=2014-06-27}}</ref><ref name="Marine">{{cite web |url=http://www.marinespecies.org/isopoda/index.php |title=World List of Marine, Freshwater and Terrestrial Isopod Crustaceans |author=Schotte, M.; Boyko, C. B.; Bruce, N. L.; Markham, J.; Poore, G. C. B.; Taiti, S.; Wilson, G. D. F. |accessdate=2018-02-19 |publisher=[[World Register of Marine Species]]}}</ref> == Dhèskripsi == [[Berkas:Porcellio scaber - male side 2 (aka).jpg|jmpl|kiri|[[Kutu kayu]] ''[[Oniscus asellus]]'' <br/> nedahaken sirah mawi paningal lan antena, karapaks lan suthang ingkang sami dawanipun.]] Isopoda menika dipunlebetaken klasifikasi wonten ing [[artropoda]], isopoda menika gadhah eksoskeleton [[kitin]] lan suthang kaliyan sendi.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[James W. Valentine|Valentine, J. W.]]|title=On the Origin of Phyla|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=2004|isbn=0-226-84548-6|page=33|url=http://books.google.com/?id=DMBkmHm5fe4C&dq=arthropod+synapomorphy}}</ref> Isopoda padatanipun rata [[dorsoventral]] (langkung wiyar tinimbang kaliyan njero),<ref name="Academic Press">{{cite book|last1=Naylor|first1=E.|title=British marine isopods : keys and notes for the identification of the species|date=1978|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=0-12-515150-0|page=2|edition=2}}</ref> sinaosa kathah spésies ingkang nyimpang saking paugeran menika, mliginipun wujud parasit, lan ingkang manggèn wonten ing sagara njero utawi wonten ing habitat toya siti. Werninipun menika kathah, saking klawu dumugi putih.<ref>{{cite web |title=Isopod, Pillbug, Sow Bug Information |url=http://insected.arizona.edu/isoinfo.htm |year=1997 |publisher=University of Arizona |accessdate=2014-08-21 |archive-date=2014-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923101009/http://insected.arizona.edu/isoinfo.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> utawi wonten ing sapérangan kasus wonten abang, ijo, utawi coklat.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Welton L.|title=Color change and the ecology of the marine isopod ''Idothea (Pentidotea) montereyensis'' Maloney, 1933|url=https://archive.org/details/ecology_autumn-1966_47_6/page/930|journal=Ecology|year=1966 |volume=47 |issue=6 |jstor=1935640 |pages=930–941 |doi=10.2307/1935640}}</ref> Isopoda gadhah maneka variasi bab ukuranipun, wiwit saking sapérangan spésies [[Microcerberidae]] ingkang namung 0,3&nbsp;mm dumugi ''[[kutu sagara raksasa|Bathynomus]]'' [[Spesies|spp.]] sagara njero dumugi 50&nbsp;cm.<ref name="Marine"/> Isopoda menika boten gadhah karapaks ingkang jelas, ingkang nglampahi eduksi dados "perisai sefalik" ingkang namung kalebet sirahipun. Menika ateges bilih stuktur kados insan ingkang wonten ing kelompok sanèsipun ingkang dipunjagi déning karapaks, malah wonten dipunpanggihaken ing suthang khusus wonten ing bagéyan weteng (padharan).<ref name="Marine"/><ref name="AM">{{cite web |url=http://www.crustacea.net/crustace/isopoda/index.htm |title=Australian Isopoda: Families |author=Keable, S. J.; Poore, G. C. B.; Wilson, G. D. F. |publisher=[[Australian Museum]] |date=2002-10-02 |accessdate=2018-02-19 }}</ref> Permukaan [[Dorsal (biologi)|dorsal]] (inggil) kéwan menika katutup déning lempeng ingkang tumpang tindih, mawi sendi ingkang paring perlindungan sawetawis ugi ndadosaken fleksibilitas. Awakipun isopoda menika kaperang saking sirah (sefalon), satunggal toraks (pereon) mawi wolung segmen (pereonit), lan abdomen (pleon) mawi enem segmen (pleonit), sapérangan wonten ingkang dados setunggal.<ref name="Academic Press"/> Sirah menika dados setunggal kaliyan segmen sepisan saking torak, ndhapuk [[Sefalon (kepala artropoda)|sefalon]]. Wonten kalih pasang [[Antena (biologi)|antena]] boten wonten cabangipun, pasangan ingkang sepisan [[Vestigialitas|vestigial]] wonten ing spésies dharat. Paningal [[Mata#Mata majemuk|majemuk]] lan boten gadhah tangkai lan tutuk ingkang kalebet sepasang [[maksiliped]] lan sepasang [[Mandibula (bagiyan tutuk artopoda)|mandibula]] (rahang) mawi palpus (embel-embel ingkang nglampahi segmentasi kaliyan fungsi sensorik) an lasinia mobilis (embel-embel ingkang ewah kados déné balung).<ref name=Ruppert>{{cite book|title=Invertebrate Zoology|edition=7|last1=Ruppert|first1=Edward E.|last2=Fox|first2=Richard, S.|last3=Barnes|first3=Robert D.|year=2004|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-81-315-0104-7|pages=661–667 }}</ref> Pitung segmen bebas toraks menika gadhah tanggungan setunggal pasang pereopoda (suthang) mawi cabang. Kathahipun spésies pereopoda menika dipunginakaken kanggé obah lan gadhah ukuran, [[morfologi (biologi)|morfologi]] lan orientasi ingkang sami, paring nama ordo "Isopoda", saking [[basa Yunani]] ''suku ingkang sami''. Wonten ing sapérangan spésies, pasangan bagian ngajeng menika dipundamel modifikasi dados [[gnatopoda]] mawi cakar, ingkang nyepeng segmen terminal. Pereopoda menika boten dipunginakaken wonten ing respirasi, boten kados pratelan awak ingkang sami wonten ing [[amphipoda]], ananging koksae (segmen ingkang sepisan) dados setunggal kaliyan [[Tergum|tergit]] (lempeng dorsal) kanggé damel epimera (lempeng sisih). Wonten ing babon ingkang ageng, sapérangan utawi sedaya anggota awak menika gadhah jangkepan ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka [[oostegit]] ingkang nekuk wonten ing sangandhaping toraks lan damel kanthong kanggé angrem kanggé ngendog. Wonten ing isopoda ingkang jantan, [[gonopori]] (bukaan genital) mapan wonten ing permukaan ventral segmen kaping wolu lan wonten ing isopoda ingkang betina, menika wonten ing papan ingkang sami kaliyan segmen ingkang kaping enem.<ref name=Ruppert/> Salah satunggal utawi langkung saking segmen padharan, dipunwiwiti kanthi segmen ingkang kaping enem, dados setunggal kaliyan [[telson]] (bagian terminal) kanggé ndhapuk [[pleotelson]] kaku.<ref name=Ruppert/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=G. D. F.|title=A systematic revision of the deep-sea subfamily Lipomerinae of the isopod crustacean family Munnopsidae |journal=Bulletin of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography |year=1989 |volume=27 |pages=1–138 |url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/5nm8z7td}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=G. D. F.|title=The road to the Janiroidea: Comparative morphology and evolution of the asellote isopod crustaceans|journal=Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research |year=2009 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=257–280 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0469.1987.tb00608.x}}</ref> Gangsal segmen ingkang sepisan abdomen piyambak-piyambak menika gadhah tanggungan setunggal pasang pleopoda (struktur [[Lamela (anatomi)|lamelar]] ingkang paring layanan bab fungsi ijolan gas, lan wonten ing spésies toya ingkang gadhah fungsi minangka angsang lan propulsi) gadhah cabang kalih,<ref name="Marine"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=George, D. F.|editor-last=Bauer|editor-first= Raymond T.|editor2-last=Martin|editor2-first=Joel W.|title=Crustacean Sexual Biology|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1991|pages=228–245|chapter=Functional morphology and evolution of isopod genitalia|chapter-url=|isbn=0-231-06880-8 }}</ref> lan segmen kapungkasan ingkang nanggung setunggal pasang uropoda (suthang posterior) kanthi cabang kalih. Tumrap ingkang jantan, pasang kekalih pleopoda lan kadang kala ingkang angka sepisan ugi dipunmodifikasi supados dipun-ginakaken kanggé mindhah [[sperma]]. Endopoda (cabang bagian sajroning pleopoda) dipunmodifikasi kanthi struktur kaliyan kutikula (panutup njawi ingkang fleksibel) tipis, permeabel ingkang minangka angsang kanggé ijolan gas.<ref name=Ruppert/> wonten ing sapérangan isopoda terestrial, pérangan menika kados déné [[paru-paru]].<ref name="Marine"/> == Warna-warna Jinis lan klasifikasi == [[Berkas:Numbers of marine Isopoda (except Asellota and crustacean symbionts) in biogeographic regions.png|ka|jmpl|Jumlah Isopoda sagara (kejaba Asellota lan simbion krustasea) wonten ing wewengkon biogeografi]] Isopoda menika kalebet wonten ing [[Peracarida]], ingkang dipundadosaken setunggal awit wontenipun ruang khusus ing sangandhaping toraks kanggé ngangremipun endig. Isopoda menika gadhah [[distribusi kosmopolitan]] lan langkung saking 10.000 [[spésies]] isopoda, dipundamel klasifikasi dados 11 subordo, sampun dipunandharaken wonten ing sedaya donya.<ref name="Marine"/><ref name="M&D">{{cite book|url=http://atiniui.nhm.org/pdfs/3839/3839.pdf|title=An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea|author=Martin, Joel W.; Davis, George E.|year=2001|pages=132 pp|publisher=[[Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County]]|format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]|access-date=2018-02-20|archive-date=2013-05-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512091254/http://atiniui.nhm.org/pdfs/3839/3839.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kirang langkung wonten 4.500 spésies kapanggihaken wonten ing lingkungan sagara, sapérangan ageng wonten ing dhasaring sagara. Kirang langkung wonten 500 spésies kapanggihaken wonten ing toya tawar lan 5.000 spésies sanèsipun menika [[kutu kayu]] terestrial ingkang ndhapuk subordo Oniscidea.<ref name="Brusca">{{cite web |author=Richard Brusca |date=1997-08-06 |title=Isopoda |url=http://tolweb.org/Isopoda/6320/1997.08.06 |work=[[Tree of Life Web Project]] |accessdate=2018-02-19 |archive-date=2016-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322220329/http://tolweb.org/Isopoda/6320/1997.08.06 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wonten ing sajroning sagara, anggota subordo [[Asellota]] menika ingkang langkung gadhah dominasi, kanthi nyisihaken sedaya isopoda sanèsipun, sampun nglampahi[[radiasi adaptif]] ageng wonten ing lingkungan kasebat.<ref name="Brusca"/> Isopoda paling ageng inggih menika wonten ing genus ''[[Bathynomus]]'' lan saperang spésies ageng dipunpancing kanthi komersial kanggé dhaharanipun manungsa wonten ing Meksiko, Jepang, lan Hawaii.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Williams, Ernest H. Jr. |year=2000 |title=Isopods as parasites or associates of fishes |journal=Keynote Address: Southeastern Society of Parasitologists |volume=9–10 |url= }}</ref> sapérangan kelompok isopoda sampun nglampahi evolusi gaya uriping parasit, mliginipun dados parasit eksternal ulam.<ref name=Ruppert/> Isopoda menika saged ngrisak utawi mateni inang lan saged damel tuna (rugi) ing bab ekonomi ingkang signifikan tumrap perikanan komersial.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ravichandran, S.; Rameshkumar, G.; Balasubramanian, T. |year=2010 |title=Infestation of isopod parasites in commercial marine fishes |journal=Journal of Parasitic Diseases |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=97–98 |doi=10.1007/s12639-010-0014-3 }}</ref> Wonten ing[[akuarium]] [[karang]], isopoda parasit saged dados hama, ingkang dados bebaya marang ulam lan saged ugi nyilakani tiyang ingkang njagi akuarium. sapérangan anggota famili [[Cirolanidae]] nyedot getihipun ulam lan sanèsipun, wonten ing famili [[Aegidae]], dhahar getih, sirip, buntut lan daging lan saged mateni ulam mawi proses.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://reefkeeping.com/issues/2002-05/rs/index.php |title=Pills, parasites, and predators; isopods in the reef aquarium |author=Shimek, Ronald L. |year=2002 |journal=Reefkeeping |volume=1 |issue=4 |access-date=2018-02-20 |archive-date=2023-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922023153/http://reefkeeping.com/issues/2002-05/rs/index.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Berkas:Representative marine isopod forms.png|kiri|350px|jmpl|Wujud isopoda sagara perwakilan]] ''Database The World Marine, Freshwater and Terrestrial Isopod Crustaceans'' menika merang ordo menika dhateng sewelas subordo:<ref name=WoRMS/> * [[Asellota]] - Subordo ingkang kalebet kathahipun spésies isopoda toya tawar, kapanggihaken saged wonten ing toya ingkang inggil lan sangandhaping lemah, sareng kaliyan sapérangan spésies sagara ing njero.<ref name=Ruppert/> * [[Calabozoida]] - Satunggaling subordo alit ingkang kaperang saking kalih spésies sagara wonten ing famili [[Calabozoidae]] lan satunggal spésies toya tawar wonten ing famili [[Brasileirinidae]] ingkang kapanggihaken wonten ing papan sangandhaping lemah.<ref>{{cite WoRMS |author=Haskins, Tina | year=2014 |title=Calabozoidea |id=244442 |accessdate=2018-02-19 }}</ref> * [[Cymothoida]] - mliginipun isopoda sagara<ref name=Ruppert/> kanthi langkung saking 2.700 spésies. Anggotanipun sapérangan ageng menika karnivora utawi parasit. Kalebet famili [[Gnathiidae]], juvenil saking parasit wontn ing ulam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bioteaching.com/tongue-biters-and-deep-sea-giants-the-cymothoida-crustacea-isopoda/ |title=Tongue Biters and Deep Sea Giants: The Cymothoida (Crustacea: Isopoda) |author=Srour, Marc |date=2012-07-13 |work=Teaching Biology |accessdate=2014-05-08 |archive-date=2014-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606205614/http://bioteaching.com/tongue-biters-and-deep-sea-giants-the-cymothoida-crustacea-isopoda/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Subordo ingkang dipunakoni saderengipun [[Epicaridea]] dipunlebetaken minangka kalih superfamili wonten ing subordo menika lan Cymothoida samenika kalebet perangan saking subordo ingkang saderengipun dipunakoni [[Flabellifera]].<ref name=Brandt/> * [[Limnoriidea]] - Mliginipun isopoda tropis, sapérangan ing antawisipun menika herbivora.<ref name=Brandt/> * [[Microcerberidea]] - Isopoda alit, kadosdéné cacing ingkang urip ing antawisipun partikel ing dhasaring habitat toya tawar lan sagara ingkang cethek.<ref name=Ruppert/> * [[Oniscidea]] - Isopoda semi-terestrial lan terestrial ingkang nglampahi adaptasi kanggé urip wonten ing dharat.<ref name=Ruppert/> Wonten langkung saking 4.000 spésies kutu kayu ingkang manggen wonten ing wana, pagunungan, padhang pasir lan [[zona litoral]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=4179 |title=Suborder Oniscidea (Terrestrial Isopods) |author=Brusca, Richard; Coelho Vania R.; Taiti, Stefano |year=2001 |work=Tree of Life Web Project |accessdate=2018-02-19}}</ref> * [[Phoratopidea]] - satunggaling spésies sagara tunggal, ''[[Phoratopus remex]]'', ingkang paring jaminan subordo piyambak amargi karakteristik ingkang unik.<ref name=Brandt>{{cite journal |title=Higher classification of the flabelliferan and related Isopoda based on a reappraisal of relationships |author=Brandt, Angelika; Poore, Gary C. B. |journal=Invertebrate Systematics |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=893–923 |year=2003 |doi=10.1071/IS02032}}</ref> * [[Phreatoicidea]] - Subordo alit isopoda toya tawar ingkang kadosdéné [[amphipoda]], winates ing Afrika Kidul, India, Australia, lan Selandia Baru.<ref name=Ruppert/> * [[Sphaeromatidea]] - Isopoda [[bentos|bentik]] sapérangan ageng saking wilahan bumi kidul kaliyan pleopoda pernapasan sajroning ruang brankial. Subordo menika samenika kalebet bagian saking subordo Flabellifera saderengipun dipunakoni.<ref name=Brandt/><ref>{{cite WoRMS |author=Poore, Garry | year=2014 |title=Flabellifera |id=13796 |accessdate=2014-06-12| }}</ref> * [[Tainisopidea]] - Isopoda toya tawar wonten ing "lingkungan reliktual".<ref name=Brandt/> * [[Valvifera]] - Setunggal kelompok ageng isopoda bentik, sagara kanthi pleopoda pernapasan sajroning ruang brankial ing sangandhaping padharan.<ref name=Ruppert/> == Sajarah evolusioner == Isopoda menika sepisan medal wonten ing [[fosil|cathetan fosil]] sedangunipun periode [[Karbon (periode)|Karbon]] saking [[Paleozoikum]] kirang langkung 300 yuta tahun kapungkur.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |year=1970 |volume=169 |issue=3948 |pages=854–855 |doi=10.1126/science.169.3948.854 |title=Isopod from the Pennsylvanian of Illinois |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1970-08-28_169_3948/page/854 |author=Schram, Frederick R. |pmid=5432581}}</ref> Piyambakipun menika primitif, anggota mawi buntut ingkang cekak saking subordo [[Phreatoicidea]]. Kala menika, Phreatoicidea inggih menika organisme sagara kanthi distribusi kosmopolitan. Samenika, anggota subordo menika ingkang saderengipun kasebar wiyar ndhapuk [[Relikt (biologi)|populasi relik]] wonten ing lingkungan toya tawar ing Afrika Kidul, India lan Oseania, Gunggung paling ageng spésies menika wonten ing[[Tasmania]]. Subordo primitif mawi buntut cekak sanèsipun menika [[Asellota]], [[Microcerberidea]], [[Calabozoidea]], lan [[Oniscidea]] terestrial.<ref name="Brusca"/> Isopoda mawi buntut ingkang cekak menika gadhah pleotelson cekak lan uropoda terminal, kados stilus lan gadhah gaya urip ingkang maton wonten ing sangandhaping sedimen ing dhasaring sagara. Isopoda mawi buntut ingkang dawa suwalikipun menika gadhah pleotelson dawa lan uropoda lateral ingkang wiyar ingkang saged dipunginakaken kanggé nglangi. Ingkang menika langkung aktif lan saged damel luncuran saking dhasaring sagara lan nglangi kanthi jarak ingkang cekak. Isopoda mawi buntut ingkang dawa menika langkung maju sapérangan ageng [[Endemisme|endemik]] wonten ing wilahan bumi ing sisih kidul lan saged sampun nglampahi radiasi wonten ing superbenua kuno [[Gondwana]] énggal saksampunipun misah saking [[Laurasia]] kirang langkung 200 yuta kepengker. Wujud buntut ingkang cekak menika saged dipundorong saking sagara ingkang cethek ingkang ing gesangipun nglampahi tekanan predasi saking ulam sagara minangka predator utama. Pangembangan wujud buntut ingkang dawa ugi saged dados tentandhingan ingkang mbiyantu meksa wujud buntut cekak dhateng [[Refugium (biologi populasi)|refugia]]. Ingkang pungkasan samenika winates wonten ing lingkungan kados déné sagara ingkang jero, toya tawar, toya lemah lan papan ingkang garing. Isopoda wonten ing subordo Asellota menika kelompok isopoda sagara ingkang paling sugih spésies.<ref name="Brusca"/> == Lokomosi == Beda kaliyan amphipoda, isopoda sagara lan toya tawar wonten dados [[bentos|bentik]]. Perangan menika ndadosaken paring kalodhang supados nyebar ing wewengkon-wewengkon ingkang énggal lan saged ngandharaken kenging menapa kathah spésies [[Endemisme|endemik]] wonten ing wewengkon ingkang winates. Mbrangkang menika cara utama lokomosi, lan sapérangan spésies ngebor dhateng dhasaraning sagara, lemah utawi struktur kayu. sapérangan anggota [[Flabellifera]] saged nglangi kanthi winates lan gadhah tigang pasang pleopoda ngajeng ingkang dipunmodifikasi kanggé ancas menika, kanthi struktur pernafasan ingkang winates ing pleopoda wingking. Kathahipun spésies dharat menika obah kanthi alon lan ndeliaken awakipun wonten ing sangandhaping kulit wit.''[[Ligia]]'' semi-terestrial saged mlampah kanthi rikat wonten ing dharat lan kathah spésies terestrial saged nggulungaken awakipun dados bal nalika pikantuk ancaman, satunggaling fitur ingkang sampun ngrembaka kanthi mandhiri wonten ing kelompok-kelompok ingkang beda lan ugi wonten ing [[Sphaeromatidea]] sagara.<ref name=Ruppert/> == Dhaharan lan nutrisi == [[Berkas:Spicara flexuosa + Anilocra.jpg|ka|400px|jmpl|''[[Anilocra]]'' ([[Cymothoidae]]) dados parasit wonten ing ulam ''[[Spicara maena]]'', Italia]] Isopoda menika gadhah usus [[usus]] prasaja ingkang boten gadhah bagéyan usus tengah, minangka gantosipun wonten [[Sekum|seka]] ingkang kahubung dhumateng bagian wingking [[lambung]] minangka papan panyerapan kalampahan. Dhaharan menika dipunsedot dhateng kerongkongan, proses ingkang dipunmindhakaken wonten ing spésies parasit ingkang nyedot getih, lan dipunlewataken mawi peristaltik tumuju ing padharan, minangka papan kanggé mroses dhaharan lan dipunsaring. Stuktur lambung menika maneka werna, ananging kathah spésies wonten alur dorsa papan bahan ingkang boten dipuncerna dipunsaluraken lan bagian ventral ingkang kahubung dhateng seka papan pencernaan intraseluler lan panyerapan kalampahan. Bahan ingkang boten dipuncerna lumantar usus wingking lan dipunmedalaken mawi anus ingkang mapan wonten ing pleotelson.<ref name=Ruppert/> Isopoda menika [[detritivor]] lan herbivora, [[karnivora]] (kalebet [[Predasi|predator]] lan [[pemakan bangkai]]), parasit, lan kéwan penyaring lan saged mapani salah satunggal utawi langkung saking relung dhahar. Namung spésies toya lan sagara dipunmangertos parasit utawi kéwan penyaring.<ref name=Poore/><ref name="Warburg 1987">{{cite journal|last1=Warburg|first1=M. R.|title=Isopods and their terrestrial environment|journal=Advances in Ecological Research |date=1987 |volume=17 |pages=187–242 |doi=10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60246-9|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065250408602469}}</ref> sapérangan nindakaken [[koprofagia]] lan ugi dhahar pelet regedanipun piyambak.<ref name="Warburg 1987"/> spésies terestrial padatanipun menika herbivora, mawi kutu kayu ingkang dhahar lumut, kulit kayu, ganggang, fungi lan bahan ingkang sampun bosok. Ing isopoda sagara ingkang dhahar kayu, [[selulosa]] dipuncerna déning enzim ingkang nglampahi sekresi ing seka. ''[[Limnoria lignorum]]'', tuladhanipun damel bor ing kayu lan mianngka tambahanipun dhahar [[miselium|miselia]] jamur ingkang nyerang kayu, satemah nambah [[nitrogen]] ing diet. Penggerek kayu sapérangan ageng dados omah bakteri [[Simbiosis|simbiotik]] ing usus wingking ingkang mbiyantu anggenipun nyerna selulosa. Wonten kathah adaptasi kanggé usus prasaja menika, ananging sapérangan ageng gadhah korelasi kaliyan dhaharan tinimbang kaliyan kelompok taksonomi.<ref name=Ruppert/> spésies parasit inggih menika sapérangan ageng menika parasit eksternal saking ulam utawi krustasea lan dhahar getih. Larva saking famili [[Gnathiidae]] lan dhiwasa [[Cymothoidae]] gadhah tutuk kanggé nusul lan nyedot lan suthang mawi cakar ingkang adaptasi kanggé nempel wonten ing inang. Kanthi umum, isopoda parasit menika gadhah gaya urip ingkang maneka warni lan kalebet ''[[Cancricepon elegans]]'', kapanggihaken wonten ing ruang angsang [[yuyu]]; ''[[Athelges tenuicaudis]]'', nempel wonten abdomen kelomang; ''[[Crinoniscus equitans]]'' urip wonten teritip ''[[Balanus perforatus]]''; [[Cyproniscidae]], mapan ing sajroning [[ostracoda]] lan isopoda ingkang urip kanthi bebas; [[Bopyridae]], mapan wonten ing ruang angsang utawi wonten ing [[karapaks]] urang lan yuyu ingkang damel benjolan karakteristik ingkang dipunmangertosi ing sapérangan krustasea fosil; lan [[Entoniscidae]] mapan wonten ing sapérangan spésies yuyu lan urang.<ref name=Ruppert/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vims.edu/research/departments/eaah/programs/crustacean/research/parasitic_isopods/index.php |title=Epicaridea: The parasitic isopods of Crustacea |author=Shields, Jeffrey |publisher=Virginia Institute of Marine Science |accessdate=2018-02-19 |archive-date=2019-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105043313/http://www.vims.edu/research/departments/eaah/programs/crustacean/research/parasitic_isopods/index.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[Cymothoa exigua]]'' inggih menika parasit saking ''[[Lutjanus guttatus]]'' wonten ing [[Teluk California]]; ingkang damel ilat ulam atrogi lan kalampahan wonten menika ingkang dipunpitadosi dados ingkang sepisan kapanggihaken saking parasit ingkang kanthi fungsional nggantos struktur inang wonten ing kéwan.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brusca, R. C.; Gilligan, M. R. |year=1983 |title=Tongue replacement in a marine fish (''Lutjanus guttatus'') by a parasitic isopod (Crustacea: Isopoda) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_copeia_1983-08-16_3/page/813 |journal=[[Copeia]] |volume=3 |pages=813–816 |doi=10.2307/1444352 |jstor=1444352 |issue=3}}</ref> == Reproduksi lan pakembangan == Kathahipun spésies, jenis kelamin kapisah lan wonten [[dimorfisme seksual]] alit, ananging sapérangan spésies [[hermafrodit]] lan sapérangan wujud parasit menika nedahaken beda ingkang ageng ing bab jinis kelamin.<ref name=Ruppert/> sapérangan Cymothoida inggih menika [[Hermafroditisme berurutan#Protandri|hermafrodit protandri]], wiwit urip minangka ingkang jantan lajeng ngewahi jenis kelaminipun lan sapérangan Anthuroidea menika sawalikipun, dados [[Hermafroditisme berurutan#Protogini|hermafrodit protogini]] ingkang lair betina. sapérangan Gnathiida sesil lan urip dados setunggal kelompok kaliyan betina.<ref name=Poore>{{cite journal |author=Poore, G. C.; Bruce, N. L. |year=2012 |title=Global diversity of marine isopods (except Asellota and crustacean symbionts) |journal=PloS One |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=e43529 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0043529 }}</ref> Jantan menika gadhah sepasang penis, ingkang dados setunggal wonten ing sapérangan spésies. Sperma dipunpindhah dhateng betina mawi pleopoda kaping kalih dipunmodifikasi ingkang nampi saking penis lan lajeng dipunlebetaken wonten ing [[gonopori]] betina. Sperma menika dipunsimpen wonten ing reseptakel khusus, pambengkakan wonten ing [[oviduk]] caket gonopori. Fertilisasi menika namung kalampahan nalika tigan ingkang dipuncul énggal gantos kulit, nalika sambungan dipundamel ing antawsipun reseptakel semen lan oviduk.<ref name=Ruppert/> Tigan ingkang gunggungipun dumugi atusan menika dipunangremi déning ingkang betina wonten ing kanthong marsupium, ruang dipundamel déning pelat datar ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka[[oostegit]] wonten ing sangandhaping toraks. Marsupium dipunisi kaliyan toya ugi wonten ing spésies dharat.<ref name=Ruppert/> Tigan menika netes minangka [[manca]]e, tahap pasca-larva ingkang kados dhiwasa, kejawi boten wontenipun pasangan pungkasan saking pereopoda. Bonten wontenipun fase nglangi wonten ing daur urip menika kalebet faktos ingkang matesi wonten ing panyebaranipun isopoda lan saged tanggel jawab kanggé tingkat inggil [[endemisme]] wonten ing ordo.<ref name="Brusca"/> Minangka dhiwasa, isopoda menika beda kaliyan krustasea sanèsipun bilih [[ekdisis]] kalampahan kanthi kalih tahap ingkang dipunmangertosi minangka "ekdisis bifase".<ref name="Marine"/> Sepisan ngeculaken [[eksoskeleton]] saking bagian posterior saking awak lajeng ngeculaken bagian anterior. Isopoda raksasa Antartika ''[[Glyptonotus antarcticus]]'' menika ingkang dados kejawi kanggé perangan menika lan nindakaken ekdisis wonten ing setunggal proses tunggal.<ref>{{cite journal |author=George, Robert Y. |year=1972 |title=Biphasic moulting in Isopod Crustacea and the finding of an unusual mode of moulting in the antarctic genus ''Glyptonotus'' |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-natural-history_november-december-1972_6_6/page/651 |journal=Journal of Natural History |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=651–656 |doi=10.1080/00222937200770591 }}</ref> == Isopoda terestrial == {{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 200 | align = right | image1 = Armadillidium vulgare 001.jpg | caption1 = ''[[Armadillidium vulgare]]'' obah&nbsp;... | image2 = Armadillidium vulgare 000.jpg | caption2 = ...&nbsp;lan nggulung dados wujud bal }} Kathahipun krustasea akuatik lan isopoda menika salah satunggal saking kelompok ingkang sapérangan anggotanipun samenika urip wonten ing dharat.<ref name=Terrestrial-origins>{{cite journal |last1=Broly|first1=Pierre |last2=Deville |first2=Pascal|last3=Maillet |first3=Sébastien|title=The origin of terrestrial isopods (Crustacea: Isopoda: Oniscidea)|journal=Evolutionary Ecology |year=2012 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=461–476 |doi=10.1007/s10682-012-9625-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fisheries.is/ecosystem/marine-life/benthic-animals/ |title=Benthic animals |publisher=[[Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture (Iceland)|Icelandic Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture]] |accessdate=2018-02-19 |archive-date=2014-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511155231/http://www.fisheries.is/ecosystem/marine-life/benthic-animals/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Satunggaling krustasea sanès ingkang nyakup jumlah alit spésies dharat inggih menika [[amphipoda]] (kados [[Talitridae]]) lan [[dekapoda]] (yuyu, urang, lsp.).<ref name="Terrestrial-origins"/> Isopoda terestrial menika gadhah peran ingkang wigati wonten ing kathah ekosistem tropis lan subtropis kanthi mbiyantu anggenipun dekomposisi bahan tuwuhan lumantar cara mekanis lan kimiawi, lan kanthi nambah aktivitas mikroba.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zimmer, M. |year=2002 |title=Nutrition in terrestrial isopods (Isopoda: Oniscidea): an evolutionary-ecological approach |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-reviews_2002-11_77_4/page/155 |journal=Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=455–493 |pmid=12475050 | doi=10.1017/S1464793102005912}}</ref> Makro-detritivor, kalebet isopoda terestrial, boten wonten ing wewengko kutub lan sub-Arktik, ananging gadhah potensi kanggé miyaraken jangkauan kanthi nambah suhu wonten ing lintang inggil.<ref name="Subarctic detritivores">{{cite journal|last1=Geffen|first1=Koert G.|last2=Berg|first2=Matty P.|last3=Aerts|first3=Rien|title=Potential macro-detritivore range expansion into the subarctic stimulates litter decomposition: a new positive feedback mechanism to climate change? |journal=Oecologia |year=2011 |volume=167 |issue=4 |pages=1163–1175 |doi=10.1007/s00442-011-2051-8}}</ref> Kutu kayu, subordo [[Kutu kayu|Oniscidea]], inggih menika kelompok ingkang paling sukses saking krustasea terestrial<ref name=Ruppert/> lan nedahaken maneka [[adaptasi]] kanggé urip wonten ing dharat. Menika ugi nglampahi penguapan, mliginipun wonten ing wewengkon ventral lan amargi boten gadhah kutikula mawi lilin, kedah ngirit roya, asring mapan wonten ing lingkungan lembab lan sangandhaping watu, ing sampah ron. Padatanipun spésies gurun aktif nalika wanci dalu, nelasaken dinten ing sangandhaping lemah lan medal nalika dalu. Kelembaban pikantuk saking sumber dhaharan utawi kanthi ngunjuk, lan sapérangan spésies saged ndamel pasangan embel-embel uropodal dados tabung lan nyaluraken toya saking bun dhateng pleopoda. Wonten ing kathah taksa, struktur pernapasan ing endopoda internal, mawi [[spirakel]] lan pseudotrakea, ingkang memper paru-paru. Ing spésies sanèsipun, endopoda dipuntekuk wonten eksopoda sisihipun (cabang njawi pleopoda). Kalih pengaturan menika mbiyantu kanggé njagi penguapan saking permukaan pernapasan.<ref name=Ruppert/> Kathah spésies ingkang saged nggulung awakipun dados bal, tumindak ingkang dipunginakaken minangka pertahanan ugi kanggé ngirit toya. Anggota famili [[Ligiidae]] lan [[Tylidae]] menika ingkang paling boten kaspesialisasi saking kutu kayu ingkang urip ing dharat. Menika mapan ing zona percikan sagara ingkang kathah watunipun, dermaga lan tumpukan, saged ugi ndelik wonten ing sangandhaping barang ingkang wonten ing pantai lan saged nglangi nalika kenging toya.<ref name=Ruppert/> == Rujukan == {{reflist|30em}} == Pranala njawi == {{Portal|Arthropoda}} * {{commonscat-inline}} * {{wikispecies-inline}} {{Malacostraca}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Isopoda| ]] [[Kategori:Malacostraca]] 7es26ctakkwzu5yoz79snbbsmlczlbd Pranyatan Balfour 0 156075 1753068 1721997 2026-08-20T09:39:12Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 6 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753068 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pranyatan Balfour''' yaiku prayatan publik dèning pamaréntah Inggris nalika [[Perang Donya I]] kang ngumumaké panjurung kanggo "tanah kelairan kanggo [[Yahudi|wong-wong Yahudi]]" ing [[Palèstina|Palestina]], nalika wektu iku dhaérahé [[kakaisaran Ottoman]] kang dienggoni populasi Yahudi minoritas. Pranyatan iku nyebutaké:{{Quote|Pemerintahan Sri Baginda memandang positif pendirian di Palestina tanah air untuk orang Yahudi, dan akan menggunakan usaha keras terbaik mereka untuk memudahkan tercapainya tujuan ini, karena jelas dipahami bahwa tidak ada suatupun yang boleh dilakukan yang dapat merugikan hak-hak penduduk dan keagamaan dari komunitas-komunitas non-Yahudi yang ada di Palestina, ataupun hak-hak dan status politis yang dimiliki orang Yahudi di negara-negara lainnya.}}Pranyatan iku kacantum ing layang tanggal 2{{nbsp}}Novèmber taun 1917 saka [[Menteri Urusan Luar Negeri Britania Raya|Menteri Mancanagara]] Inggris [[Arthur Balfour]] kanggo [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Gusti Walter Rothschild]], pimpinan [[Yahudi Britania|saka komunitas Yahudi]] Inggris, kanggo tranmisi ing Fèderasi Zionis Inggris lan Irlandia. Tulisan pranyatan iku diterbitaké ing pèrs tanggal 9{{nbsp}}Novèmber taun 1917. [[Kabinet Perang Britania|Kabinèt Laga Inggris]] wiwit nglarasaké mangsa ngarep Palestina nalika pranyatan laga marang Kakaisaran Ottoman ing Novèmber taun 1914. Nalika pranyatan diajukaké, perang kang luwih gedhé tekan puncaké, antarané Sekutu Inggris lan klompok-klompok liyané. Amerika Serikat ngalami kapitunan, lan Ruslan sansaya tumuwuh. Rembagan tingkat dhuwur kang pisanan antarané Inggris lan [[Zionisme|Zionists]] bisa dianakaké ing konferensi ing 7 februari taun 1917 kang kalebu [[Mark Sykes|Sir Tandha Sykes]] lan Zionis pemimpin. Diskusi-diskusi sabanjuré ngasilaké panjaluké Balfour, ing 19 juni, nalika iku Rothschild lan [[Chaim Weizmann]] ngajokaké rancangan saka pranyatan umum. Rancangan-rancangan sabanjuré dirembug déning Kabinèt Inggris ing sasi September lan oktober, karo sartanipun saka wong-wong Zionis Yahudi lan [[Anti-Zionisme|anti-Zionis]] nanging karo ora wakil saka [[Orang Palestina|pedunung lokal ing Palestina]]. Gebyakan saka pranyatan wuri kang sah ing 31 oktober; ing diskusi saka Kabinèt sadurungé wis mènèhi keuntungan saka propaganda ing Yahudi sadonya kanggo upaya laga sekutu. Ukara bukaan pranyatan makili jurungan saka utama kakuwatan politik kanggo Zionisme. Istilah "lemah banyu" ora selaras ing hukum internasional, lan sacara ''intensional'' ngundakaké pitakonan bab apa [[Negara Yahudi|nagara]] Yahudi iku wis trep apa ora karo bab iku. Wewatesan-wewatesan kang ngarahke ing Palestina ora tartamtu, lan pamaréntah Inggris banjur nyatakake tembung "Palestina" yaiku tanah kelairan nasional Yahudi lan ora dimaksudaké kanggo kalebu kabèh saka Palestina. Ing setengah kapindho saka pranyatan kang ditambahaké kanggo nggawé marem mungsuh saka prayatan iku, menawa prayatan iku nyerobot lemahé pedunung asli Palestina lan nyurung antisemitisme marang wong-wong Yahudi ing saindenging donya. Sanajan pernyataan disebut kanggo hak pulitik ing Palestina kanggo wong-wong Yahudi, hak kanggo [[Arab Palestina|Palestina Arab]], kang kalebu mayoritas pedunung lokal, winates orane katrangan saka sipil lan agama. Ing taun 1939, pamaréntah Inggris temen maujud sawangan saka pedunung lokal kudu kadhaptar ing cathetan, lan ing 2017, nyatakake yen pranyatan kudu kasebut kanggo pangayoman saka hak pulitik Palestina Arab. Pranyatan iku duwèni sapérang temahan ing tembé wuri. Iki nemen mundhakaké jurungan kanggo Zionisme, lan pucuké kanggo panyiapan saka Mandat [[Mandhat Inggris ing Palestina|Palestina]], kang mengko dadi [[Israèl|Israel]] lan [[Teritorial Palestina|wilayah Palestina]]. Akibaté, pranyatan punika dianggep kang nimbulaké [[konflik Israel-Palestina]], kang asring dianggep minangka konflik paling wigati ing donya. Padudon iku ngubengi saindenging donya, kaya ta apa pranyatan punika kosokwangsul karo gadang saka sadurungé Inggris digawé kanggo [[Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi|isra ' mi ' raj saka Mekah]] ing [[Korespondensi McMahon–Hussein|surat-suratan McMahon–Hussein]].{{TOC limit|3}} == Latar mburi == === Jurungan inggris awal === [[Gambar:Memorandum_to_Protestant_Monarchs_of_Europe_for_the_restoration_of_the_Jews_to_Palestine,_Colonial_Times_1841.jpg|jmpl|"Memorandum kanggo Para Panggedhe saka Protestan Eropah kanggo Pemugaran saka wong-wong Yahudi ing Palestina" dening Gusti Shaftesbury, diterbitake ing [[Colonial Times|Kolonial Kaping]], ing 1841]] Jurungan pulitik Inggris wiwitan untuk paningkatan anané Yahudi di [[Palèstina|tlatah Palestina]] adhedasar saka itungan geopolitik.{{sfn|Renton|2007|p=2}}{{efn|Renton mendeskripsikannya sebagai berikut: "Sebuah aspek krusial dari penggambaran deskripsi Deklarasi ini sebagai produk pengasihan Inggris, yang berlawanan dengan realpolitik, adalah bahwa Inggris memiliki perhatian alami dan sangat mendalam untuk hak Yahudi dan secara khusus restorasi nasional mereka, yang merupakan bagian peraihan ulang dari budaya dan sejarah Inggris. Dihadirkan dalam cara ini, Deklarasi tersebut menunjukkan peristiwa yang hampir tertata sebelumnya dan alami. Sehingga, Zionisme tak hanya hadir sebagai ''[[Telos (filsafat)|telos]]'' sejarah Yahudi namun juga sejarah Inggris. Penekanan nasionalis dan sejarah Zionis berkembang menuju titik tujuan tunggal dan penebusan yang dibolehkan untuk, saat dibutuhkan, sebuah penjelasan semacam ini. Mitos 'proto-Zionisme' Inggris, yang telah memiliki pengaruh jangka panjang semacam itu pada historiografi Deklarasi Balfour, sehingga dibuat, untuk melayani kebutuhan para propagandis Zionis yang bekerja untuk Pemerintah Inggris."{{sfn|Renton|2007|p=85}}|group=lower-roman}} Jurungan iki diwiwiti ing 1840an{{sfn|Schölch|1992|p=44}} dan dipimpin déning [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Palmerston]], sawisé [[Perang Mesir-Utsmaniyah (1831–33)|pendudukan Suriah]] dan [[Pemberontakan petani di Palestina|Palestina]] déning gubernur Utsmaniyah [[Muhammad Ali dari Mesir|Muhammad Ali saka Mesir]].{{sfn|Stein|1961|pp=5–9}}{{sfn|Liebreich|2004|pp=8–9}} Pangaruh Prancis wis tuwuh ing Palèstina dan Tengah wétan minangka pangayom komunitas [[Gréja Katulik Roma|Katolik]] [[Règlement Organique (Gunung Lebanon)|kang wiwit tuwuh]], kaya ta pangaruh Ruslan kang wis tuwuh dadi pelindung [[Gréja Ortodoks|Ortodoks Timur]] ing tlatah kang padha. Kahanan iki nggawé Inggris ora duwèni prabawa ing tlatah iku,{{sfn|Stein|1961|pp=5–9}} mulané Inggris kudu ngupaya para pamimpin tlatah jinurung inggris.{{sfn|Schölch|1992|p=41}} Konsiderasi pulitik iku dijurung déning sèntimèn Kristen injili simpatetik tumrap "[[Zionisme Kristen|restorasi Yahudi]]" ke Palestina di kalangan elit politik Inggris pertengahan abad ke-19 - terutama [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury|Lord Shaftesbury]].{{efn|Donald Lewis menyatakan: "Ini adalah pengisian dari karya ini yang melalui pemahaman [filosemitisme Kristen dan Zionisme Kristen] yang dapat membuat esensi pengaruh agama dan budaya yang bekerja bersama untuk membuat iklim opini di kalangan elit politik di Inggris yang sangat menunjang Deklarasi Balfour."{{sfn|Lewis|2014|p=10}}|group=lower-roman}} Kantor Mancanagara Inggris nyengkuyung ''èmigrasi'' Yahudi ing Palestina, contohé pranyatan [[Charles Henry Churchill]] ing taun 1841–1842 marang [[Moses Montefiore]], pemimpin paguyuban Yahudi Inggris.{{sfn|Friedman|1973|p=xxxii}}{{efn|Montefiore adalah Yahudi Britania terkaya, dan pemimpin [[Badan Deputi Yahudi Inggris]]. Surat pertama Charles Henry Churchill, pada tahun 1841, ditujukan untuk mengkatalisasikan sebuah peminatan dalam emigrasi Yahudi ke Palestina: "Menyadari bahwa kamu dan para kolegamu harus berada pada peminatanmu sendiri atas subyek penting ini dari pemulihan negara kunomu, ini tampak kepadaku (membentuk opiniku atas sikap saat ini dari urusan-urusan di Kekaisaran Turki) yang hanya menjadi subyek-subyek Porte yang dapat kamu perdagangkan untuk meraih kembali penjejakan di Palestina."{{sfn|Friedman|1973|p=xxxii}}|group=qt}} Upaya-upaya iku sipaté ''prématur'',{{sfn|Friedman|1973|p=xxxii}} lan ora suksès;{{efn|Dengan menghormati skema-skema Eropa untuk mendorong imigrasi Yahudi, Katolik dan Protestan ke Palestina, Schölch menyatakan bahwa "Namun beberapa proyek dan wirausaha kolonisasi, hanya dua yang meraih kesuksesan: pemukiman [[Templer (pemercaya keagamaan)|Templar]] sejak tahun 1868 dan imigran Yahudi sejak tahun 1882."{{sfn|Schölch|1992|p=51}}|group=lower-roman}} mung wong 24,000 Yahudi kang dunung ing Palestina nalika pengadekan [[Zionisme]] kanggo paguyuban Yahudi ing donya ing akhir abad ka-19.{{sfn|Cleveland|Bunton|2016|p=229}} Wiwit geopolitik temahan [[Perang Donya I]], itungan awal saka iku ujungé karo pangadekan strategis dan panawa pulitik ing Tengah wétan dan wétan adoh.{{sfn|Liebreich|2004|pp=8–9}} === Zionisme Wiwitan === Zionisme dikembangaké ing pungkasan abad ka-19 ing reaksi kanggo anti-Semit lan obah-obahan nasionalis eksklusionèr ing Éropa.{{sfn|Cohen|1989|pp=29–31}}{{efn|LeVine dan Mossberg menjelaskannya sebagai berikut: "Induk Zionisme bukanlah Yudaisme dan tradisi, namun anti-Semitisme dan nasionalisme. Gagasan-gagasan Revolusi Perancis perlahan menyebar ke sepanjang Eropa, akhirnya menjapai Pangkal Pemukiman di Kekaisaran Ruslan dan membantu pembentukan Haskalah, atau Pencerahan Yahudi. Ini menimbulkan pemisahan permanen di dunia Yahudi, antara orang yang memegang halakhik atau pandangan sentris agama dari identitas mereka dan orang yang mengadopsi bagian retorika rasial dari masanya dan membuat orang Yahudi menjadi sebuah bangsa. Ini membantu arus pogrom di Eropa Timur yang membuat dua juta Yahudi berpindah; kebanyakan dari mereka bermukim di Amerika, namun beberapa orang memilih Palestina. Sepasukan pergerakan di balik hal ini adalah gerakan Hovevei Zion, yang bekerja dari tahun 1882 untuk mengembangkan identitas Ibrani yang dibedakan dari Yudaisme sebagai agama."{{sfn|LeVine|Mossberg|2014|p=211}}|group=lower-roman}}{{efn|Gelvin menyatakan: "Fakta bahwa nasionalisme Palestina berkembang lebih akhir ketimbang Zionisme dan merupakan tanggapan dari hal yang tidak dalam cara apapun yang menyudutkan pengesahan nasionalisme Palestina atau menjadikannya kurang valid ketimbang Zionisme. Seluruh nasionalisme berkembang dalam penentangan melawan beberapa 'lainnya'. Kenapa yang lainnya akan dibutuhkan untuk menspesifikasikan siapa kamu? Dan seluruh nasionalisme didefinisikan oleh apa yang mereka lawan. Seperti yang kami lihat, Zionisme sendiri berkembang dalam reaksi anti-Semitik dan gerakan-gerakan nasionalis eksklusioner di Eropa. Ini akan membuat Zionisme dicap kurang valid ketimbang anti-Semitisme Eropa atau nasionalisme-nasionalisme tersebut. Selain itu, Zionisme sendiri juga didefinisikan oleh perlawanannya terhadap penduduk asli Palestina di kawasan tersebut. Baik slogan 'penaklukan lahan' maupun 'penaklukan buruh' yang menjadi pusat dari ketegangan dominan dari Zionisme di Yishuv bermula sebagai hasil dari konfrontasi Zionis dengan Palestina 'lainnya'."{{sfn|Gelvin|2014|p=93}}|group=lower-roman|name=Gelvin2014}} [[Nasionalisme romansa|Nasionalisme roman]] ing [[Éropa Tengah|Eropah Tengah]] lan [[Éropa Wétan|Wétan]] kawangun ing tatanan saka [[Haskalah]], utawa "Yahudi Gamblang", nggawé pamisahan ing paguyuban Yahudi antarané wong-wong kang ndeleng Yahudi minangka agama lan wong ndeleng wong minangka kesukuan utawa bangsa.{{sfn|Cohen|1989|pp=29–31}}{{sfn|LeVine|Mossberg|2014|p=211}} [[Pogrom anti-Yahudi di Kekaisaran Ruslan|Pogrom anti-Yahudi ing Kakaisaran Ruslan]] taun 1881-1884 njurung tuwuhé identitas wong-wong kang ndeleng minangka kesukuan utawa bangsa, asil ing tatanan saka pionir organisasi [[Hovevei Zion|Hovevei Sion]], publikasi saka ''[[Autoemancipation]]'' karyané [[Leon Pinsker]], lan saiki ilènan utama imigrasi Yahudi ing Palestina – kang kanthi retrospèktip dijenengi "[[Aliyah Pertama|Aliyah wiwitan]]".{{sfn|Rhett|2015|p=106}}{{sfn|Cohen|1989|pp=31–32}}{{sfn|LeVine|Mossberg|2014|p=211}} [[Gambar:The_"Basel_Program"_at_the_First_Zionist_Congress_in_1897.jpg|kiri|jmpl|"[[Program Basel]]" iku iki sarujuk ing [[Kongres Zionis Pertama|Kawitan Zionis Congress]] ing taun 1897. Ukara kapisan ngandharaken: "Zionisme yakuwi kanggo netepake tanah kelairan (''Heimstätte'') kanggo wong-wong Yahudi ing Palestina ing sesuai ing umum hukum"]] == Cathetan == === Kutipan pendukung primer === {{notelist|45em|group=qt}} === Catatan penjelas dan sudut pandang cendekiawan === {{notelist|45em|group=lower-roman}} == Kutipan == {{Reflist|20em}} == Daftar pustaka == === Karya yang dikhususkan === {{refbegin |colwidth = 30em}} * {{cite book|first=Roger|last= Adelson|title=London and the Invention of the Middle East: Money, Power, and War, 1902–1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fd2dLdoPzsIC&pg=PA141|year=1995|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06094-2}} * {{cite book|first=Ali A.|last=Allawi|authorlink= Ali Allawi |title=Faisal I of Iraq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCLBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA216|date=2014|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19936-9|pages=216–}} * {{cite book|last=Antonius|first=George|authorlink=George Antonius|title=The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab National Movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-eYoAEACAAJ|year=1938|publisher=Hamish Hamilton|isbn= 978-0-7103-0673-9}} *{{cite book | first = Roberto | last = Bachi | title = The Population of Israel | publisher = Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem | year = 1974 | pages = 133, 390–394 | url = http://www.cicred.org/Eng/Publications/pdf/c-c26.pdf | oclc = 7924090 | access-date = 2018-10-07 | archive-date = 2023-10-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231020124048/http://www.cicred.org/Eng/Publications/pdf/c-c26.pdf | url-status = dead }} * {{cite book|first=James|last=Barr|authorlink=James Barr (author)|title=A Line in the Sand: Britain, France and the Struggle that Shaped the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V7r7I9OQ_gIC&pg=PT60|date=2011|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1-84983-903-7|pages=60}} * {{cite journal|authorlink1=M. 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1917–48|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-palestine-studies_spring-2002_31_3/page/21|journal=Journal of Palestine Studies|volume=31|issue=3|year=2002|pages=21–35|issn=0377-919X|doi=10.1525/jps.2002.31.3.21}} * {{cite book|first=Harry|last=Defries|title=Conservative Party Attitudes to Jews 1900–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16bKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA51|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-28462-6|pages=51}} * {{cite journal|first=Sergio|last=Della Pergola|authorlink=Sergio Della Pergola|date=2001|title=Demography in Israel/Palestine: Trends, Prospects, Policy Implications|journal=International Union for the Scientific Study of Population, XXIV, General Population Conference, Salvador de Bahia|url=http://archive.iussp.org/Brazil2001/s60/S64_02_dellapergola.pdf|access-date=2018-10-07|archive-date=2016-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202023038/http://archive.iussp.org/Brazil2001/s60/S64_02_dellapergola.pdf|url-status=dead}} * {{cite 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C.|title=The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics: A Documentary Record – British-French Supremacy, 1914–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9TsVxeUkQMC&pg=PA103|date=1 Juni 1979|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-02203-2}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Elie Kedourie|first=Elie|last=Kedourie|title=Palestine and Israel in the 19th and 20th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nKRlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA87|date=19 Dhésèmber 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-16814-8|origyear=1982}} * {{cite book|last=Khouri|first=Fred John|title=The Arab-Israeli Dilemma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kArEWMDT18C|date=January 1985|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-2340-3}} * {{cite book|last1=Laqueur|first1=Walter|authorlink1=Walter Laqueur|last2=Schueftan|first2=Dan|authorlink2=Daniel Schueftan|title=The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict: Eighth Revised and Updated Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akGXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|year=2016|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-101-99241-8}} * {{cite book|last=Laurens|first=Henry|authorlink=Henry Laurens (scholar)|title=La Question de Palestine - Tome 1 - L'invention de la Terre sainte (1799-1922) [In French]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fhbrDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT305|year=1999|publisher=Fayard|isbn=978-2-213-70357-2}} *{{cite book|last=Lebel|first=G'eni|year=2007|title=Until the Final Solution: The Jews in Belgrade 1521–1942|publisher=Avotaynu|isbn=978-1-88622-333-2}} * {{cite book|last1=LeVine|first1=Mark|last2=Mossberg|first2=Mathias|title=One Land, Two States: Israel and Palestine as Parallel States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnVAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA211|year=2014|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-95840-1|authorlink1=Mark LeVine}} * {{cite book|last=Makdisi|first=Saree|authorlink=Saree Makdisi|title=Palestine Inside Out: An Everyday Occupation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2dBM3Ago2BAC&pg=PA239|date=12 April 2010|publisher=W. W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-33844-7}} * {{cite book|last=Mansfield|first=Peter|title=The Arabs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Evq8QgAACAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-014768-1}} * {{cite book|last=Monroe|first=Elizabeth|title=Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rG2EcgAACAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-2616-0}} * {{cite book|last=Penslar|first=Derek|title=Israel in History: The Jewish State in Comparative Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5t9AgAAQBAJ|date=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-14669-7}} * {{cite book| last = Quigley| first = Carroll| authorlink = Carroll Quigley| title = The Anglo-American Establishment| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=V19nAAAAMAAJ| date = 1981| publisher = Books in Focus| isbn = 978-0-945001-01-0}} *{{cite book|last=Ristović|first=Milan|authorlink=Milan Ristović|editor1-last=Catalan|editor1-first=Tullia |editor2-last=Dogo|editor2-first=Marco|year=2016|title=The Jews and the Nation-States of Southeastern Europe from the 19th Century to the Great Depression: Combining Viewpoints on a Controversial Story|chapter=The Jews of Serbia (1804–1918): From Princely Protection to Formal Emancipation|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-44389-662-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TN_6DAAAQBAJ|pages=23–50}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Charles D.|title=Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History with Documents|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AzlgvgAACAAJ|date=2016|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|isbn=978-1-319-02805-3}} * {{cite book|last=Stein|first=Leslie|title=The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OUPSrjZfcm8C&pg=PA129|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97141-0}} * {{cite book|first=Bernard|last=Wasserstein|title=Israel and Palestine: Why They Fight and Can They Stop?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-YvAQAAIAAJ|date=2008|publisher=Profile Books|isbn=978-1-84668-092-2}} * {{cite book|last=Watts|first=Tim|editor1=Spencer C. Tucker|editor2=Priscilla Roberts|chapter= The Balfour Declaration|title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History &#91;4 volumes&#93;: A Political, Social, and Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA190|date=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-842-2}} {{refend}} === Karya buatan pihak-pihak yang terlibat === {{refbegin |colwidth = 30em}} * {{cite book|last=Amery|first=Leopold|authorlink=Leo Amery|title=My Political Life: War and peace, 1914–1929|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1WwOAQAAIAAJ|year=1953|publisher=Hutchinson|oclc=458439494}} * {{cite book|title=Speeches on Zionism; with a foreword by Sir Herbert Samuel|first=Arthur|last=Balfour|authorlink=Arthur James Balfour|editor=Israel Cohen|publisher=Arrowsmith|year=1928|oclc= 170849|url=http://sammlungen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/freimann/content/titleinfo/955354}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Israel Cohen (Zionist)|first=Israel|last=Cohen|title=The Zionist Movement. Edited and Revised with Supplementary Chapter on Zionism in the United States|url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001865349|publisher=[[Zionist Organization of America]]|year=1946|oclc= 906137115}} * {{cite web|authorlink=George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|first=George|last=Curzon|title=The Future of Palestine, GT 2406, CAB 24/30/6 | publisher=UK National Archives|url=http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/D7640914|date=1917}} * {{cite book|last=de Haas|first=Jacob|authorlink=Jacob de Haas|oclc=1550172|title=Louis D(embitz) Brandeis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TiLPMAAACAAJ|year=1929|publisher=Bloch}} * {{cite book|last=Leslie|first=Shane|authorlink=Shane Leslie|title=Mark Sykes: His Life and Letters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HPSAAAAMAAJ|year=1923|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|quote=Also online at [https://archive.org/details/marksykeshislife00lesluoft Internet Archive]|oclc=656769736}} * {{cite book|last=Lloyd George|first=David|authorlink=David Lloyd George|title=War Memoirs of David Lloyd George: 1915–1916|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8j8pAQAAMAAJ|publisher=AMS Press|isbn=0-404-15042-X|page=50|year=1933|volume=II}} Also at [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.208424 Internet Archive]. * {{cite book|last=Lloyd George|first=David|authorlink=David Lloyd George|title=Memoirs of the Peace Conference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeRmAAAAMAAJ|year=1939|volume=II|publisher=Yale University Press|oclc= 654953981}} * {{cite book|last=Meinertzhagen|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Meinertzhagen|title=Middle East Diary, 1917–1956|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=daBtAAAAMAAJ|year=1959|publisher=Cresset Press|oclc= 397539}} * {{citation|author=Palin Commission|title= Report of the Court of Inquiry Convened by Order of His Excellency the High Commissioner and Commander-in Chief, also known as the "Palin Report", PRO, FO 371/5121, file E9379/85/44|publisher=UK National Archives|date=1920|url=http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C2762786|quote={{wikisource-inline|Palin Report|single=true}}. For further information see the Commission's Wikipedia article at [[Palin Commission]]}} * {{citation|author=Palestine Royal Commission|title=Cmd. 5479, Palestine Royal Commission Report, also known as the "Peel Report"|publisher=HMSO|date=1937|url=https://unispal.un.org/pdfs/Cmd5479.pdf|quote=For further information see the Commission's Wikipedia article at [[Peel Commission]]}} * {{cite book|last=Samuel|first=Herbert|authorlink=Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel|title=Memoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFvSAAAAMAAJ|year=1945|publisher=Cresset Press|oclc= 575921}} * {{cite book|last=Sokolow|first=Nahum|authorlink=Nahum Sokolow|title=History of Zionism 1600–1918: Volume II|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofzionism02sokouoft|year=1919|publisher=Longmans Green & Co|isbn=978-1-4212-2861-7}} * {{cite book|last=Storrs|first=Ronald|authorlink=Ronald Storrs|title=Lawrence of Arabia: Zionism and Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CxbTAAAAMAAJ|year=1943|publisher=Penguin Books|oclc= 977422365}} * {{citation|author=UNSCOP|authorlink=United Nations Special Committee on Palestine|work=Official Records of the Second Session of the General Assembly|title=United Nations Special Committee on Palestine, Report to the General Assembly, Volume 1; A/364|date=1947| publisher=United Nations|url=https://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/07175DE9FA2DE563852568D3006E10F3}} * {{cite book|last=Weizmann|first=Chaim|authorlink=Chaim Weizmann|title=Trial and Error, The Autobiography of Chaim Weizmann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEHOynmjaeEC|year=1949|publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America|oclc= 830295337}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Chaim Weizmann|first=Chaim|last=Weizmann|title=The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann: August 1898 – July 1931|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pg3laOc4okEC&pg=PA122|date=1983|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-87855-279-5}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Konflik Arab-Israel]] m62c44q4mqulh17fa1wgrsshjz6pkji Identitas gender 0 157305 1752949 1613225 2026-08-20T05:39:16Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752949 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Idhéntitas jender''' carané pangertén lan kasadaran saka wong bab jènderé  dhéwé.<ref name="MorrowMessinger">{{Cite book|title=Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression in Social Work Practice|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2006|isbn=0231501862|editor-last=Morrow, D. F.; Messinger, L.|editors=Morrow, D. F.; Messinger, L.|page=8|quote=Gender identity refers to an individual's personal sense of identity as masculine or feminine, or some combination thereof}}Punjul saka siji saka editor-name-list parameters sing kudu diisi ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#redundant parameters|pitulung]]) </ref><ref name="APA2015">{{Cite journal|last=American Psychological Association|year=2015|title=Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-psychologist_2015-12_70_9/page/832|journal=American Psychologist|volume=70|issue=9|pages=832-864|doi=10.1037/a0039906}}</ref> Idhentitas jènder wong bisa slaras karo jinis kang ditetepake ing lair utawa iku temené pancén béda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hrc.org/resources/sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-terminology-and-definitions|title=Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Definitions|publisher=Human Rights Campaign}}</ref> Kabéh masyarakat wis ngreténi saka kategori jènder  minangka basis kanggo tatanan saka idhéntitas sosial wong lan ing hubungan karo wong liya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moghadam|first=V. M.|year=1992|title=Patriarchy and the Politics of Gender in Modernizing Societies: Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan|journal=International Sociology|volume=7|issue=1|pages=35-53|doi=10.1177/026858092007001002|quote=All societies have gender systems.}}</ref> Biyasanè, bédanè kang paling prasaja ana ing sipat sing digandhèngakè karo jinis kelamin lanang lan wadon<ref name="Carlson">{{Citation|last=Carlson|first=N. R.|title=Psychology: the Science of Behaviour|pages=140–141|year=2009|postscript=.|editor-last=Carlson|editor-first=N. R.|contribution=Sensation|edition=4th|publisher=Pearson|isbn=9780205645244|last2=Heth|first2=C. D.}}</ref> kang uga diarani minangka bab jènder. Kekarepané iku uga kanggo ngagengaken imbuhan saka bab- bab sing dianggep [[Maskulinitas|lanang]] lan feminin ing kabéh aspèk saka jinis lan jinis kelamin: jinis biologi, idhéntitas jèndér, lan jèndér ''expression''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Culture and Diversity in the United States: So Many Ways to Be American|last=Eller|first=J. D.|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=1317575784|page=137|quote=... most Western societies, including the United States, traditionally operate with a binary notion of sex/gender...}}line feed character ing <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;title=</code> ing posisi 44 ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#invisible char|pitulung]]) </ref> Sauntara kuwi, ing sawatara masyarakat ana sing individu sing ora ngenali awaké kanggo bagéyan utawa kabèh saka aspèk jinis kelamin sing diutus kanggo wong-wong mau adhedhasar jinis biologi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Transgender Nation|last=MacKenzie|first=G. O.|publisher=Bowling Green State University Popular Press|year=1994|isbn=0879725966|page=43|quote=... transvestites existed in almost all societies.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Empowering People|last=Zastrow|first=C.|publisher=Brooks Cole|year=2013|isbn=128554580X|page=234|quote=There are records of males and females crossing over throughout history and in virtually every culture. It is simply a naturally occurring part of all societies.}}</ref> Sawetara individu sing diklasifikasikaké minangka wong saka transgender utawa syarat. Ing sawatara komunitas liyané uga, ana kategori  jènder katelu. Idhéntitas jénder iku inti saka wong umume kawangun nalika telung taun.<ref name="Kalbfleisch and Cody">{{cite book|title=Gender, Power, and Communication in Human Relationships|publisher=Psychology Press|year=1995|isbn=0805814043|first=P. J.|last=Kalbfleisch|first2=M. J.|last2=Cody}}</ref><ref name="Gallagher">{{cite book|title=Gender Differences in Mathematics: An Integrative Psychological Approach|isbn=0-521-82605-5|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|first=A. M.|last=Gallagher|first2=J. C.|last2=Kaufman}}</ref> Sawisé telung taun, bakal dadi angel banget kanggo ngganti idhéntitas jénder sauntara kuwi, yén upaya digawé ganti iku bisa nimbulaké serangn saka disforia jénder.{{Sfn|Boles|2013}} sakliyané biologi faktor sosial lan faktor wis diusulaké minangka gadhah pengaruh ing tatanan saka identitas gender. == Ing wektu saka tatanan == Ana sawatara teori babagan nalika lan carane idhéntitas jènder saka wong kawangun. Nanging, panalitén sak iki nyedhaki angèl amarga saka [[Pikolèhan basa|kemampuan kanggo n]]<nowiki/>gomong anak kang winates kanggo mimpin panalitén wis kanggo nggawe pemanggih adhedhasar bukti langsung. John Money nyebutaké bocah-bocah  bisa duwé  saka lan lampiran kanggo jènder miwiti antarané umur 18 sasi nganti rong taun. Lawrence Kohlberg ing tangan liyané nyariosaken dhateng kita bilih identitas jènder wis durung kawangun nganti umur telung taun.{{Sfn|Boles|2013}} Iku wis digunakake mangertos sing inti saka idhéntitas jènder wis kawangun kuat ing umur telung taun.{{Sfn|Boles|2013}} Sawetara sumber liyané nalika iku nyebataken bilih idhéntitas jènder wis saya kawangun ing umur 3-4 taun.<ref>{{cite book|first=G. J.|last=Bryjak|first2=M. P.|last2=Soraka|title=Sociology: Cultural Diversity in a Changing World|publisher=Allyn & Bacon|year=1997|pages=209-245}}</ref> Ing jalur iki, anak bisa nggawè unequivocal statement bab sing jènder{{Sfn|Boles|2013}} lan  kanggo milih aktivitas lan olanan sing dirating miturut jenis kelamin{{Sfn|Boles|2013}} (kaya ta boneka kanggo bocah-bocah wadon lan bangunan pemblokiran kanggo lanang),<ref>{{cite book|first=C. B.|last=Doob|title=Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society|publisher=Routledge|year=2012}}</ref> sanajan padha uga durung ngerti mbek saka jinis kelamin sing padha duwe. Sawisé telung taun saka umur, jenis kelamin idhéntitas inti banget angel kanggo bakal diganti nalika ing gaweyan kanggo owah-owahan bisa nimbulaké disforia jènder.{{Sfn|Boles|2013}}<ref>{{cite journal|first=E.|last=Coleman|title=Developmental stages of the coming out process|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|volume=7|issue=2-3|year=1982|pages=31-43|quote=Core gender and sex-role identities are well-formed by the age of 3 (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972). This is believed because attempts to reassign gender identity after age 3 result in further gender dysphoria.}}</ref> Tatanan final saka idhéntitas jènder punika ing sawatara saka umur patang taun<ref name="Kleeman">{{cite journal|first=J. A.|last=Kleeman|title=The establishment of core gender identity in normal girls. I.(a) Introduction;(b) Development of the ego capacity to differentiate|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=1|issue=2|year=1971|pages=103-116|doi=10.1007/BF01541055|quote=Though gender identity formation continues into young adulthood and core gender identity establishment extends into the fourth year and possibly longer, core gender identity is fairly firmly formed by age 3[.]}}</ref> nganti enem taun{{Sfn|Boles|2013}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stein|first=M. T.|last2=Zucker|first2=K. J.|last3=Dixon|first3=S. D.|year=1997|title=Sammy: Gender Identity Concerns in a 6-Year-Old Boy|journal=Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics|volume=18|issue=3|pages=178-182}}</ref> lan terus menyang remaja utawa rada gedhé. == Referensi == {{Reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Kaca mawa sitiran ngemu paramèter dhobel-dhobel]] [[Kategori:Masalah CS1: invisible characters]] 5tdo3ryw7x6cse5baoclqab2nvcfw7b Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck (filem) 0 157323 1752849 1743569 2026-08-20T02:00:09Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752849 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox film |name = Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck |image = 138433067832699 300x430.jpg |image_size = 220px |border = yes |alt = |caption = Poster bioskop |director = [[Sunil Soraya]] |producer = [[Ram Soraya]]<br />[[Sunil Soraya]] |screenplay = [[Donny Dhirgantoro]]<br />[[Imam Tantowi]]<ref>[http://www.gatra.com/entertainmen/film-1/42626-tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-siap-tayang-19-desember.html ''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van Der Wijck'' Tayang 19 Desember] Gatra. Diakses 14 Desember 2013</ref> |based on = {{based on|''[[Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck]]''|[[Hamka]]}} |starring = [[Pevita Pearce]]<br>[[Herjunot Ali]]<ref>[http://www.kapanlagi.com/showbiz/film/indonesia/junot-dalami-peran-paling-intens-di-tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-23a202.html Junot Dalami Peran Paling Intens di ''TENGGELAMNYA KAPAL VAN DER WIJCK'']</ref><br>[[Reza Rahadian]]<br>[[Randy Danistha|Randy Nidji]]<br>[[Arzetti Bilbina]]<br>[[Kevin Andrean]]<br>[[Jajang C. Noer]]<br>[[Niniek L. Karim]]<br>[[Musra Dahrizal Katik Rajo Mangkuto]] |music = [[Andi Ariel Harsya]]<ref name="soundtrack"/> |cinematography = |editing = Sasta Sunu |studio = [[Soraya Intercine Films]] |distributor = [[Soraya Intercine Films]] |released = {{start date|2013|12|19}}<br/>{{start date|2014|9|11}} <small>(versi extended)</small> |runtime = [[164]] [[menit]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Durasi Film Tenggelamnya Kapal Van Der Wijk Hampir Tiga Jam|url=http://id.omg.yahoo.com/news/durasi-film-tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijk-hampir-073244290.html|work=|publisher=Yahoo News|date=|access-date=14 Dhésèmber 2013|archive-date=2013-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216230643/http://id.omg.yahoo.com/news/durasi-film-tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijk-hampir-073244290.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><br>[[195]] [[menit]] <small>(versi extended)</small><ref name="Kapanlagi.com">{{cite web|title=''TENGGELAMNYA KAPAL VAN DER WIJCK'' Versi Extended Tayang 3,5 Jam|url=http://www.kapanlagi.com/showbiz/film/indonesia/tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-versi-extended-tayang-35-jam-2a3605.html|work=|publisher=Kapanlagi.com|date=|accessdate=8 Juli 2014}}</ref> |country = {{negara|Indonesia}} [[Indonesia]] |language = [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Bahasa Minangkabau|Minang]], [[Bahasa Bugis|Bugis]], [[Bahasa Jawa|Jawa]] |budget = |gross = }} '''''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck''''' ya iku film drama romantis [[Indonésia|Indonesia]] tahun [[2013]] kang disutradharai déning Sunil Soraya lan diprodhuksi dening Ram Soraya. Film iki diadaptasi saka novel kanthi irah-irahan kang padha karo karangan [[Hamka|Buya Hamka]]. ''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck'' ngandhani bab prabédan ing latar sosial kang ngalangi gandhèng-cènèng katresnan sapasang manungsa nganti seda. Diprodhuksi déning Soraya Intercine Films, film iki dilakokaké déning [[Pevita Pearce]], [[Mahbub Herjunot Ali|Herjunot Ali]], lan [[Reza Rahadian]], lan Randy Danistha. Nganggo biaya prodhuksi kang dhuwur, ''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck'' dadi film paling larang kang tau diprodhuksi déning Soraya Intercine Films.<ref>[http://www.tribunnews.com/seleb/2013/11/19/tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-jadi-film-termahal-rumah-produksi-ini Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck Jadi Film Termahal Rumah Produksi Ini]. Tribunnews. Diakses 14 Desember 2013</ref> Olah prodhuksi dhéwé nggunakaké wektu liwat limang taun kepungkur, lan panulisan skénario dilakokaké rong taun. Film iki dirilis ing tanggal [[19 Dhésèmber|19]] Desember 2013. == Sinopsis == Film iki lumahé ing taun 1930-an, saka ing lemah kalairané [[Kutha Makassar|Makassar]], Zainuddin ([[Mahbub Herjunot Ali|Herjunot Ali]]) lunga numpak kapal tumuju ing kampungé Bapaké ing Batipuh, [[Kutha Padangpanjang|Padang Panjang]]. Ing kana, Zainuddin kepethuk karo Hayati ([[Pevita Pearce]]), wong wadon ayu kang dadi kembang ing sukuné. Wong loro iku banjur tiba ing katresnan. Nanging, adat lan istiadat kang kuwat ngalangi katresnan wong loro iku. Zainuddin mung wong mlarat kang ora nduwèni suku; amarga saka ibune kang keturunan Bugis lan bapaké keturunan Minang, statusé Zainuddin ing masyarakat Minang , kang pertalian kaluwargané saka garis keturunan ibu ora dianggep. Mulané, Zainuddin dianggep ora duwé pertalian karo kulawarga ing [[Wong Minang|Minangkabau]]. Nalika Hayati wadon Minang andhap asor lan katurunan bangsawan. Ing pungkasané, lamaran Zainuddin ora ditampa déning kaluwarga Hayati. Hayati dipeksa mantèn karo Aziz ([[Reza Rahadian]]), wong lanang sugih saka kang luwih disenengi déning kulawarga Hayati tinimbang Zainuddin kagol lan mutusaké kanggo ngupadhi, lunga saka Minang lan ngumbara menyang lemah [[Jawa]] kanggo bangkit nglawan kasusahané amarga tresna . Zainudin sregep nyambut gawé kanggo mbukak bab anyar ing urip. Akhire dhèwèké dadi panulis  kondhang kang karyané ditampa déning wong-wong ing saindhenging Nusantara. Nanging ana prastawa kang ora bisa dikira-kira déning Zainuddin. Ing tengah gubras bandha lan wis dikenal akèh wong, ing pertunjukkan O[[Opera|pera]], Zainuddin ketemu  Hayati karo Aziz, bojoné. Akhiré, crita katresnan saka Zainuddin lan Hayati ketemu ujian kang paling abot; Hayati bali menyang ing kampung Batipuh numpak [[Baita|kapal]] ''Van der Wijck''. Ing tengah-tengah, kapal kang ditumpaki déning Hayari kelelep. Sadurungé kapal kelelep, Zainuddin ngerti yèn Hayati iku bener isih tresna karo dhèwèké. == Paraga == * [[Pevita Pearce]] minangka "Rangkayo" Hayati * [[Mahbub Herjunot Ali|Herjunot Ali]] minangka Zainuddin * [[Reza Rahadian]] minangka Aziz * Randy Danistha minangka Muluk * [[Arzetti Bilbina|Medan Bilbina]] minangka Ibu Muluk * Kevin Andrean minangka Sophian * Jajang C. Noer minangka Mande Jamilah * Niniek L. Karim minangka Mak Basa * Musra Dahrizal Katik Rajo Mangkuto minangka Datuk Hayati * Gesya Shandy minangka Khadijah * Femmy Prety * Dewi Agustin == Prodhuksi == ''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck'' diadaptasi saka novel karya sastra sarta budaya [[Hamka|Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah]], utawa Hamka, lan dadi film paling larang kang tau diprodhuksi déning Soraya Intercine Films. Sutadhara [[Filem|film]] iki, Sunil Soraya, nandheské yèn iku disebabaké amarga kudu gawé swasana crita film kang minangka kaya kang dicritakaké ing taun 1930-an padha karo jaman [[Novèl|novel]]. Kajaba iku, uga akèh riset lan prekara-prekara liyané kang kudu dilakokaké kanggo njupuk gambar kang maksimal, kang uga ndadekaké biaya prodhuksi dhuwur.<ref>[http://hai-online.com/Hai2013/Entertainment/Movie/News/Tenggelamnya-Kapal-Van-Der-Wrijck-Film-dengan-Budget-Termahal Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck Jadi Film dengan Budget termahal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217223622/http://hai-online.com/Hai2013/Entertainment/Movie/News/Tenggelamnya-Kapal-Van-Der-Wrijck-Film-dengan-Budget-Termahal |date=2013-12-17 }} Hai Magazine. Diakses 14 Desember 2013</ref> Pengamatan, olah praprodhuksi, milih paraga, tekan panulisan skénario wis diwiwiti taun 2008, kang tegesé iku wis lumaku  limang taun. Sunil nyatakaké yèn dhèwèké ragu yèn film iki bisa dirampungaké amarga olahé cukup dawa. Salah siji unsur kang paling angèl ya iku golék kapal kang arep padha karo kapal ''Van der Wijck'' ing taun 1930-an. Akhiré, tiron kapal digawé manèh nganggo cara mesen kapal saka [[Walanda]], kang dadi prodhusèn asli saka kapal ''Van der Wijck''.<ref>[http://www.suarapembaruan.com/hiburan/tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-jadi-film-termahal/45188 ‘Tenggelamnya Kapal Van Der Wijck’ Jadi Film Termahal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311212730/http://suarapembaruan.com/hiburan/tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-jadi-film-termahal/45188 |date=2016-03-11 }} Suara Pembaruan. Diakses 14 Desember 2013</ref> Kanggo olah pambesutan dilakokaké  4-5 taun sawisé olah syuting  6 taun nganggo 300 adegan. Asilé, film iki rampung nganggo durasi 2 jam 49 menit. Kabèh rasukan ing film iki digawé déning parancang busana Samuel Wattimena. Minangka kanggo panulisan skénario ngalami olah révisi kaping pirang-pirang amarga [[Sutradara|s]]<nowiki/>utradhara pengin ngandhani semangat lan pesen saka novel Hamka. Riset kang dilakokaké nagnggo latar lan properti asli kaya [[Montor|mobil]], sandhangan, lan barang-barang jaman taun 1930-an, uga perlu wektu dhawa<ref>[http://www.gatra.com/entertainmen/film-1/42626-tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-siap-tayang-19-desember.html Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck tayang 19 November]</ref>. Olah tèken gambar dhewé wis dilakokaké ing [[Kutha Médan|Medan]], [[Kutha Padang|Padang]], [[Kutha Surabaya|Surabaya]], [[Lombok]], lan [[Jakarta]].<ref>[http://hot.detik.com/movie/read/2013/10/08/150900/2381441/229/reza-rahadian-tampil-sebagai-bangsawan-di-teaser-tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijk Reza Rahadian Tampil sebagai Bangsawan di Teaser 'Tenggelamnya Kapal Van Der Wijk']. Detikhot. Diakses 14 Desember 2013</ref> Sutradhara uga kidu golèk sagara kang ora nduwèni ombak gedhé, amarga kapal ''Van der Wijck'' ing crita klelep ora amarga saka ombak gedhé. Nalika panggon pakaryan sagarané kenceng banget. Akhiré tim prodhuksi nggawa tenaga ahli saka njaba kanggo nampilaké èfèk kanggo nglelebkaké tanpa nggunakaké [[animasi]]. Salah siji saka panulis skénario, Donny Dhirgantoro nerangaké skenario ditulis rong taun nganggo riset. Bebarengan karo [[Imam Tantowi]], wong loro iku gawé skenario kang pas karo jaman iku babagan kapal tekan adat [[Wong Minang|Minang]]  dadi materi kanggo para paraga film.<ref name="skenario">[http://www.suarapembaruan.com/hiburan/tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-jadi-film-termahal/45188 Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311212730/http://suarapembaruan.com/hiburan/tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-jadi-film-termahal/45188 |date=2016-03-11 }} Diakses 14 Desember 2013</ref> == Trek swara == Grup musik [[Nidji]] dipercaya minangka ngisi trek swara kanggo film lan nyepakaké papat lagu. Gitaris Nidji, Andi Ariel Harsya, tumindak minangka prodhuser kanggo album trek swara kuwi. Olah rekaman lagu nglibataké sahabat Nidji saka [[Inggris|I]]<nowiki/>nggris, Jason O'Bryan. Single kapisan kang dipilih ya iku ''Sumpah & Cinta Matiku''. Nidji nglebokaké konsèp pop Britania nganggo unsur saka musik gregorian kanggo mènèhi rasa megah lan kolosal.<ref name="soundtrack">{{Cite web|url=http://www.gatra.com/entertainmen/music/41758-lagu-megah-tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-dari-nidji.html|title=Lagu Megah Tenggelamnya Kapal van Der Wijck dari Nidji|publisher=Gatra|access-date=14 Dhésèmber 2013}}Priksa gandra date ing: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;access-date=</code> ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#bad date|pitulung]]) </ref> == Kontrovèrsi == Sawise poster film iki dirilis, sawatara saka masyarakat [[Wong Minang|Minang]] kang gabung ing klompok ing jaringan sosial [[Facebook]] protès poster film iki kang miturut wong-wong mau ora padha karo adat lan budaya saka Minang kang njunjung dhuwur ajaran [[Islam]]. Masyarakat nduwèni klaim yèn poster iki  bentuk saka "rudo pekso saka karya Hamka, amarga Hayati  kang diparagakaké déning Pevita Pearce iku cah wadon Minang kang kuwat adat lan agama, ora nyandhang klambi kang kebukak kaya ing poster."<ref name="protes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hidayatullah.com/read/2013/11/06/7168/poster-film-kapal-van-der-wijck-tuai-protes-masyarakat-minang.html|title=Poster Film Kapal Van Der Wijck Tuai Protes Masyarakat Minang|publisher=Hidayatullah.com|access-date=December 14, 2013|archive-date=October 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015004401/https://www.hidayatullah.com/read/2013/11/06/7168/poster-film-kapal-van-der-wijck-tuai-protes-masyarakat-minang.html|url-status=dead}}Priksa gandra date ing: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;access-date=</code> ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#bad date|pitulung]])</ref> == ''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck Extended'' == ''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck'' bisa nggawa pamirsa akehé minangka 1.724.110 sasuwéné masa tayang ing taun 2013. Mulané, film paling laris ing taun 2013 iki diputer manèh ing [[Biyoskup|b]]<nowiki/>ioskop ing tanggal [[11 Sèptèmber|11 September]] [[2014]]. Film iki wis diputer versi lengkapé lan durasiné luwih dawa ya iku 3.5 jam.<ref name="Kapanlagi.com">{{cite web|title=''TENGGELAMNYA KAPAL VAN DER WIJCK'' Versi Extended Tayang 3,5 Jam|url=http://www.kapanlagi.com/showbiz/film/indonesia/tenggelamnya-kapal-van-der-wijck-versi-extended-tayang-35-jam-2a3605.html|work=|publisher=Kapanlagi.com|date=|accessdate=8 Juli 2014}}</ref> == Penghargaan == {| class="wikitable" style="margin-bottom: 34px;" !Taun !Penghargaan !Nominasi !Asil !Panampa !Referensi |- | rowspan="11" |[[2014]] | rowspan="3" |Indonesian Choice Awards 2014 |Movie of The Year | {{nominated}} |''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck'' |<center><ref name="NET">{{Cite web|url=https://id.celebrity.yahoo.com/news/net-tv-gelar-ajang-indonesian-choice-awards-2014-003914594.html|title=NET TV Gelar Ajang Indonesian Choice Awards 2014|access-date=27 Agustus 2014|archive-date=2014-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904085158/https://id.celebrity.yahoo.com/news/net-tv-gelar-ajang-indonesian-choice-awards-2014-003914594.html|url-status=dead}}Priksa gandra date ing: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;access-date=</code> ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#bad date|pitulung]])</ref></center> |- |Aktor of The Year | {{nominated}} |[[Mahbub Herjunot Ali|Herjunot Ali]] | |- |Actress of The Year | {{won}} |[[Pevita Pearce]] | |- | rowspan="3" |Festival Film Bandung 2014 |Film Terpuji | {{nominated}} |''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck'' |<center><ref name="FFB">{{Cite web|url=http://celebrity.okezone.com/read/2014/09/14/206/1038811/deretan-nama-pemenang-festival-film-bandung-2014|title=Deretan Nama Pemenang Festival Film Bandung 2014|access-date=12 Oktober 2015}}Priksa gandra date ing: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;access-date=</code> ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#bad date|pitulung]]) </ref></center> |- |Pemeran Utama Pria Terpuji | {{won}} |Herjunot Ali (bebarengan karo Ikranagara ing ''Sang Kiai'') | |- |Pemeran Utama Wanita Terpuji | {{won}} |Pevita Pearce | |- | rowspan="5" |Festival Film Indonesia 2014 |Pemeran Utama Pria Terbaik | {{nominated}} |Herjunot Ali |<center><ref name="FFI">{{Cite web|url=http://m.detik.com/movie/read/2014/12/06/231232/2769825/229/ini-daftar-lengkap-pemenang-piala-citra-ffi-2014|title=Ini Daftar Lengkap Pemenang Piala Citra FFI 2014|access-date=12 Oktober 2015}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}Priksa gandra date ing: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;access-date=</code> ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#bad date|pitulung]])</ref></center> |- |Pemeran Pendukung Pria Terbaik | {{nominated}} |[[Reza Rahadian|Reza Rahardian]] | |- |Penulis Skenario Adaptasi Terbaik | {{nominated}} |[[Imam Tantowi]], Donny Dhirgantoro, Riheam Junianti & Sunil Soraya | |- |Penata Visual Efek Terbaik | {{won}} |Eltra Studio & Adam Howarth | |- |Penata Busana Terbaik | {{nominated}} |Samuel Watimenna | |- | rowspan="3" |[[2015]] | rowspan="3" |Indonesian Choice Awards 2015 |Movie of The Year | {{nominated}} |''Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck Lengkap'' |<center><ref name="NET2015">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tabloidbintang.com/articles/film-tv-musik/kabar/22321-daftar-pemenang-net-indonesian-choice-awards-2015|title=Daftar Pemenang NET. Indonesian Choice Awards 2015|access-date=12 Oktober 2015|archive-date=2017-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606213147/http://www.tabloidbintang.com/articles/film-tv-musik/kabar/22321-daftar-pemenang-net-indonesian-choice-awards-2015|url-status=dead}}Priksa gandra date ing: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;access-date=</code> ([[:en:Help:CS1 errors#bad date|pitulung]])</ref></center> |- |Actor of The Year | {{nominated}} |Herjunot Ali | |- |Actress of The Year | {{nominated}} |Pevita Pearce | |} == Referensi == {{reflist|2}} == Pranala njaba == * (Inggris) T''enggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck (film)'' di Internet Movie Database  * (Indonesia) Situs Resmi Soraya Intercine Films  * (Indonesia) Tenggelamnya Kapal Van der Wijck [[Kategori:Masalah CS1: dates]] [[Kategori:Artikel mawa pranala njaba basa Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Filem 2013]] lhlgvsxd9rqgb37fu3vpbwsp9s9wm0e Let lairan 0 158503 1752870 1607119 2026-08-20T03:45:28Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752870 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Mother_and_newborn_child_in_Orissa.jpg|jmpl|350x350px| Simbok karo bayiné kang mentas lair ]] '''Let lairan''' utawa '''let garbini''' ateges lawasé mangsa let siji wanita nggarbini (meteng) utawa lairan saka mangsa nggarbini utawa lairan kang sadurungé. Ana résiko kaséhatan kang gegayutan lairan-lairan kang leté sadhéla lan kang leté suwé, nanging pérangan gedhéning résiko gegayutan karo lairan-lairan kang leté sadhéla.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/interpregnancy-interval-and-obstetrical-complications|title=Interpregnancy interval and obstetrical complications|last=Shachar|first=Bat Zion|last2=Lyell|first2=Deirdre J|website=www.uptodate.com|access-date=2018-04-22}}</ref> March of Dimes mrayogakaké wanita saorané ngentèni 18 sasi sadurungé nggarbini manèh sawisé lairan normal;<ref name=":0" /> [[WHO]] mrayogakaké 24 sasi.<ref name=":2" /> Let kang luwih sedhéla, adaté 6 sasi, bisa kalakon manawa nggarbini kang sadurungé karuntuhaké (aborsi) utawa ngalami gogrog (''miscarriage'').<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.marchofdimes.org/pregnancy/how-long-should-you-wait-before-getting-pregnant-again.aspx|title=How long should you wait before getting pregnant again?|last=|first=|date=|work=The March of Dimes|access-date=2018-04-03|archive-url=|archive-date=|url-status=|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> Yèn kang ibu bubar nindakaké bedhah sésar, kaprayogakaké kang ibu ngentèni siji tekan telung taun sadurungé lairan manèh amarga anané résiko kendhoring guwa garwa (''uterine rupture''). Let lairan kang lawasé nganti punjul 5 taun iku gegayutan marang résiko pra-èklampsiyah.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=April 2007|title=Effects of birth spacing on maternal health: a systematic review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-obstetrics-and-gynecology_2007-04_196_4/page/297|journal=American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology|language=English|volume=196|issue=4|pages=297–308|doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2006.05.055|pmid=17403398}}</ref> Sangganing (''burden'') kaséhatan warga sajagat marang let lairan kang sadhéla iku gedhé.<ref name=":2">{{cite report|url=http://www.who.int/entity/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/birth_spacing.pdf|title=Report of a technical consultation on birth spacing|last=|first=|date=2005|publisher=WHO|access-date=2018-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202023531/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/69855/1/WHO_RHR_07.1_eng.pdf|archive-date=February 2017}}</ref> [[KB|Rancangan kulawarga]] bisa ngundhakaké let antaraning lairan.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|date=October 2016|title=Role of birth spacing, family planning services, safe abortion services and post-abortion care in reducing maternal mortality|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology|volume=36|pages=145–155|doi=10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2016.07.008|pmid=27640082}}</ref> == Kaséhatan warga == Sangganing kaséhatan warga sajagat marang let lairan kang sadhéla iku gedhé.<ref name=":2">{{cite report|url=http://www.who.int/entity/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/birth_spacing.pdf|title=Report of a technical consultation on birth spacing|last=|first=|date=2005|publisher=WHO|access-date=2018-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202023531/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/69855/1/WHO_RHR_07.1_eng.pdf|archive-date=February 2017}}</ref> Ing nagara-nagara ngembang, bocah-bocah kang lairé rong taun utawa kurang sawisé kakangé kena résiko nganti 60% ngalami pepati nalika isih bayi, déné bocah-bocah kang let lairané antarané loro tekan telung taun kena résiko nganti 10%. Kang ora kena résiko iku bocah-bocah kang let lairané papat tekan limang taun.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=April 2005|title=Effects of preceding birth intervals on neonatal, infant and under-five years mortality and nutritional status in developing countries: evidence from the demographic and health surveys|journal=International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics|volume=89 Suppl 1|pages=S7–24|doi=10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.11.012|pmid=15820369}}</ref> Manéka organisasi, kalebu [[WHO|Organisasi Kaséhatan Donya]]<ref name=":2" /> lan Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation<ref name=":5">{{Cite news|url=https://www.gatesnotes.com/2017-Annual-Letter?WT.mc_id=02_14_2017_02_AL2017GFO_GF-GFO_&WT.tsrc=GFGFO|title=Warren Buffett’s Best Investment|last=Gates|first=Bill|work=gatesnotes.com|access-date=2018-04-22|last2=Gates|first2=Melinda}}</ref> wis nitik yèn let lairan iku babagan wigati ing budidaya kaséhatan warga (''public health intervention''). == Réferènsi == {{reflist|2}} 536zd9jcxhukfn3ol69cfb12p7plek7 The Heirs 0 160112 1752851 1750424 2026-08-20T02:06:22Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752851 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''The Heirs''''' ( {{Lang|ko|왕관을 쓰려는 자, 그 무게를 견뎌라 – 상속자들}} ), uga dikenal minangka ''The Inheritors'', ya iku sèrial televisi [[Koréa Kidul|Korea Kidul kang]] dibintangi [[Lee Min Ho|Lee Min-ho]], [[Park Shin-hye]] lan Kim Woo-bin . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20131008000723|title=Lee Min-ho, back to class|last=Oh|first=Jean|date=October 8, 2013|website=[[The Korea Herald]]|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> Ditulis déning Kim Eun-sook, ''setting'' drama kasebut ing sawijining sekolah menengah sing dipanggonké déning wong sing duwé hak istimewa lan sugih. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2978629|title=Famed scriptwriter revels in cliche|last=Won|first=Ho-yeon|date=October 10, 2013|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=August 11, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811033201/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aId=2978629|url-status=dead}}</ref> Drama iki disiarké ing SBS saka 9 Oktober nganti 12 Desember 2013. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenasia.com/lee-min-ho-park-shin-hye-team-up-for-1st-script-reading-session-of-inherits/|title=Lee Min-ho, Park Shin-hye Team Up for 1st Script Reading Session of ''Inherits''|last=Kang|first=Jung-yeon|date=September 5, 2013|website=TenAsia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328152611/http://www.tenasia.com/lee-min-ho-park-shin-hye-team-up-for-1st-script-reading-session-of-inherits/|archive-date=March 28, 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> Drama iki minangka drama Korea pisanan kang digawé déning platform distribusi digital Amérika ''DramaFever'' lan perusahaan produksi Korea Hwa <nowiki>&</nowiki>amp; Dam Pictures . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hancinema.net/dramafever-set-to-premiere-first-original-co-production-the-heirs-61317.html|title=Dramafever Set To Premiere First Original Co-production ''The Heirs''|date=October 8, 2013|website=[[Hancinema]]|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> Seri iki minangka ''hit'' utama ing Korea Kidul lan nampa popularitas ing Asia. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kdramastars.com/articles/13557/20131228/2013-kdramas-that-got-the-best-ratings.htm|title=2013 Kdramas That Got The Best Ratings : Drama Stories|date=|website=KDramaStars|access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref> <ref name="hallyu">{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2986309|title=Hallyu booming again in China, bigger than ever|date=March 14, 2014|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=April 26, 2019|archive-date=May 28, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528230918/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2986309|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2984060|title=''Cinderella'' programs enchant TV audiences|last=Lee|first=Da-gyeong|last2=Ha|first2=Hyeon-kyung|date=January 25, 2014|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=July 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720135725/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2984060|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Sinopsis == Seri kasebut nyeritaké klompok siswa sugih, kaya sing bakal nguwasani kerajaan bisnis, ngatasi kesulitan lan ngembangaké saben langkah bisnisé. Kim Tan ( [[Lee Min Ho|Lee Min-ho]] ) minangka pewaris sugih ing konglomerat Korea sing diarani Jeguk Group. <ref> ''Jeguk'' tegese "kekaisaran" ing basa [[Korean language|Korea]] . </ref> Dhèwèké diasingaké menyang AS déning kakangné Kim Won ( Choi Jin-hyuk ), sing nyoba ngontrol bisnis keluarga. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenasia.com/lee-min-ho-choi-jin-hyuk-to-have-fiery-showdown-in-the-inheritors/|title=Lee Min-ho, Choi Jin-hyuk to Have Fiery Showdown in ''The Inheritors''|last=Lee|first=Hye-ji|date=October 1, 2013|website=TenAsia|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=March 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328131716/http://www.tenasia.com/lee-min-ho-choi-jin-hyuk-to-have-fiery-showdown-in-the-inheritors/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nalika ing Amerika Serikat, dhèwèké ketemu Cha Eun-sang ( [[Park Shin-hye]] ). <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenasia.com/lee-min-ho-park-shin-hye-to-have-romantic-encounter-in-inherits/|title=Lee Min-ho, Park Shin-hye to Have Romantic Encounter in ''Inherits''|last=Kang|first=Jung-yeon|date=September 24, 2013|website=TenAsia|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=March 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328135127/http://www.tenasia.com/lee-min-ho-park-shin-hye-to-have-romantic-encounter-in-inherits/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kim Tan langsung jatuh cinta karo Eun-sang. Nalika Kim Tan bali menyang Korea, mungsuhe Choi Young-do ( Kim Woo-bin ) wiwit milih Eun-sang kanggo nganggu Tan. Ketegangan nyebabaké nalika Young-do uga jatuh cinta karo Eun-sang, lan Kim Tan dipeksa milih antarane tanggung jawab dhèwèké kanggo nggayuh bisnis kulawarga utawa katresnan. == Paraga == === Utama === * [[Lee Min Ho|Lee Min-ho]] minangka Kim Tan <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://enewsworld.interest.me/enews/contents.asp?idx=32681|title=Lee Min Ho to Return to TV with ''Secret Garden'' Writer|last=Hong|first=Grace Danbi|date=March 29, 2013|website=enewsWorld|access-date=May 31, 2013}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2978516|title=Lee Min-ho heads back to high school|last=Lee|first=Sun-min|date=October 8, 2013|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=September 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920161258/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aId=2978516|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenasia.com/interview-lee-min-ho-now-the-fatally-attractive-inheritor-kim-tan/|title=INTERVIEW: Lee Min-ho, Now the Fatally Attractive Inheritor Kim Tan|last=Bae|first=Sun-young|date=October 11, 2013|website=TenAsia|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=March 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328133816/http://www.tenasia.com/interview-lee-min-ho-now-the-fatally-attractive-inheritor-kim-tan/|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/54726/interview-leeminho-talks-about-acting-in-the-heirs|title=Interview: Lee Min Ho Talks About Why He Chose ''The Heirs''|last=Lee|first=Na-rae|date=December 31, 2013|website=enewsWorld|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=March 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195029/http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/54726/interview-leeminho-talks-about-acting-in-the-heirs|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/54744/interview-leeminho-talks-about-his-fame-and-popularity|title=Interview: Lee Min Ho Talks About the Weight of His Crown as a Star|last=Kim|first=Ji-yeon|date=January 1, 2014|website=enewsWorld|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/54736/interview-leeminho-talks-about-kimwoobin-in-interview|title=Interview: ''The Heirs'' Lee Min Ho Says Kim Woo Bin is a Mature Friend|last=Lee|first=Na-rae|date=January 1, 2014|website=enewsWorld|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2982879|title=Lee Min-ho done with high school|last=Won|first=Ho-yeon|date=January 2, 2014|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> ** Jung Chan-woo minangka bocah enom Tan * [[Park Shin-hye]] minangka Cha Eun-sang <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://enewsworld.interest.me/enews/contents.asp?idx=33298|title=Park Shin Hye Cast for ''The Heirs''|last=An|first=So-hyun|date=April 5, 2013|website=enewsWorld|access-date=May 31, 2013|archive-date=June 8, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130608083227/http://enewsworld.interest.me/enews/contents.asp?idx=33298|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2969691|title=Park Shin-hye to star in SBS drama|last=Lee|first=Sun-min|date=April 6, 2013|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=June 15, 2013}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenasia.com/park-shin-hye-says-hearty-goodbye-to-the-inheritors/|title=Park Shin-hye Says Hearty Goodbye to ''The Inheritors''|last=Lee|first=Cory|date=December 31, 2013|website=TenAsia|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=March 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328135805/http://www.tenasia.com/park-shin-hye-says-hearty-goodbye-to-the-inheritors/|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2014/01/04/2014010400376.html|title=Park Shin-hye Scales Acting Career High with New Series|date=January 4, 2014|website=[[The Chosun Ilbo]]|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> * Kim Woo-bin minangka Choi Young-do <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/article/40836|title=Kim Woo Bin Confirmed in Role for ''The Heirs''|last=An|first=So-hyoun|date=July 16, 2013|website=enewsWorld|access-date=July 19, 2013}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2981877|title=Kim Woo-bin's star shines ever bright|last=Lee|first=Sun-min|date=December 12, 2013|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2982487|title=Model inherits rebellious role|last=Kim|first=Yeon-ji|date=December 24, 2013|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=February 3, 2014|archive-date=November 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116024728/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2982487|url-status=dead}}</ref> ** Yang Hyun-mo minangka Choi Young-do enom === Aktor Pendhukung === * Kim Ji-won minangka Rachel Yoo <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mwave.interest.me/en/kpop-news/article/51224/kim-ji-won-poses-for-instyle|title=Kim Ji Won Enjoys Working with Flower Boys Everywhere|website=enewsWorld}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2014/01/08/2014010800707.html|title=Kim Ji-won on Playing the Woman Viewers Love to Hate|date=January 8, 2014|website=The Chosun Ilbo}}</ref> * Kang Min-hyuk minangka Yoon Chan-young <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenasia.com/cnblue-kang-min-hyuk-shows-golden-smile-on-the-set-of-inherits/|title=CNBLUE Kang Min-hyuk Shows Golden Smile on the Set of ''Inherits''|last=Lee|first=Hye-ji|date=September 12, 2013|website=TenAsia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328132143/http://www.tenasia.com/cnblue-kang-min-hyuk-shows-golden-smile-on-the-set-of-inherits/|archive-date=March 28, 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> <ref name="cast">{{Cite web|url=http://en.tenasia.com/archives/65187|title=CNBLUE Kang Min-hyuk, ZE:A Hyungsik Join Lee Min-ho Drama|date=July 17, 2013|website=10Asia|access-date=April 26, 2019|archive-date=February 1, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201075757/http://en.tenasia.com/archives/65187|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Kang Ha-neul minangka Lee Hyo-shin <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/51226/kang-ha-neul-poses-for-instyle|title=Kang Ha Neul Feels like He's Really Going to School While Filming ''The Heirs''|last=Hong|first=Grace Danbi|date=November 20, 2013|website=enewsWorld|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> * [[Krystal Jung]] minangka Lee Bo-na <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenasia.com/fx-krystal-to-turn-perfect-girl-in-inheritors/|title=f(x) Krystal to Turn Perfect Girl in ''Inheritors''|last=Lee|first=Hye-ji|date=September 16, 2013|website=TenAsia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328132507/http://www.tenasia.com/fx-krystal-to-turn-perfect-girl-in-inheritors/|archive-date=March 28, 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> * Park Hyung-sik minangka Jo Myung-soo <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/en/web/20170729181215/http://mwave.interest.me/en/kpop-news/article/47614/hyung-siks-character-is-just-like-him|title=ZE:A’s Hyung Sik says His Character Was Written for Him|date=October 17, 2013|website=Mwave}}</ref> <ref name="cast"/> * Jeon Soo-jin minangka Kang Ye-sol * Choi Tae-hwan minangka Lee Sang-woo * Yang Seung-pil minangka Hyo-joon * Cho Yoon-woo minangka Moon Joon-young <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hancinema.net/jo-yoon-woo-on-site-61973.html|title=Jo Yoon-woo on site|date=October 25, 2013|website=Hancinema|publisher=Xports News}}</ref> ==''Remake''== Drama televisi Cina taun 2014 kanthi irah-irahan ''Billion Dollar Heir'' (口万 继承人) dibintangi Yu Xiao Tong, Kan Qing Zi lan penyanyi Korea- [[Choi Siwon]] wiwitané dilaporaké minangka ''remake'' ''The Heirs'', <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/54469/chinese-version-of-the-heirs-will-come-out-in-2014|title=China to Remake ''The Heirs'' and Start Filming in January|last=Jo|first=Yeon-kyung|date=December 26, 2013|website=enewsWorld|access-date=February 3, 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenasia.com/super-juniors-siwon-cast-in-chinese-drama/|title=Super Junior's Siwon Cast in Chinese Drama|last=Kim|first=Gwang-kuk|date=February 3, 2014|website=TenAsia|access-date=February 4, 2014|archive-date=March 28, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328132843/http://www.tenasia.com/super-juniors-siwon-cast-in-chinese-drama/|url-status=dead}}</ref> nanging ditolak dening Choi lan sutradara Li Shao Hong, nyathet crita lan karakter sing beda-beda. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2988646|title=Si-won to star in Chinese drama|last=Kim|first=Hee-eun|date=May 2, 2014|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|access-date=May 2, 2014}}</ref> Ing 2016, diumumaké yèn film Korea-Cina adhedhasar ''The Heirs'' ing karya. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.soompi.com/2016/02/23/chinese-film-based-on-heirs-to-be-co-produced-between-korea-and-china|title=Chinese Film Based on "Heirs" to Be Co-Produced Between Korea and China|date=February 23, 2016|website=[[Soompi]]|access-date=April 26, 2019|archive-date=January 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108094028/https://www.soompi.com/2016/02/23/chinese-film-based-on-heirs-to-be-co-produced-between-korea-and-china/|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references group="" responsive="0"></references> == Pranala njaba == * Situs web resmi {{Ko icon}} * {{Hancinema film|The_Heirs|The Heirs}} * {{IMDb title|3243098|The Heirs}} [[Kategori:Koréa]] [[Kategori:Korean Broadcasting System]] [[Kategori:Drama Seri Koréa]] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] [[Kategori:Filem]] qjvupz1xq3unmeoc1ziiskwl1y3gdt5 Pietro Badoglio 0 160342 1752881 1698217 2026-08-20T04:04:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752881 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Prime Minister | name = <small>The 1st [[Duke of Addis Abeba]]</small> | image = Pietro Badoglio 3.jpg | order = 28th | office = Prime Minister of Italy | monarch = [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Vittorio Emanuele III]] | 1blankname1 = {{nowrap|{{small|Lieutenant General}}}} | 1namedata1 = [[Umberto II of Italy|Prince Umberto]] | term_start = 25 July 1943 | term_end = 8 June 1944 | predecessor1 = [[Benito Mussolini]] | successor1 = [[Ivanoe Bonomi]] | office2 = [[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] | term_start2 = 11 February 1944 | term_end2 = 8 June 1944 | predecessor2 = [[Raffaele Guariglia]] | successor2 = [[Ivanoe Bonomi]] | office3 = [[Ministry of the Colonies (Italy)|Minister of the Italian Africa]] | term_start3 = 11 February 1944 | term_end3 = 8 June 1944 | predecessor3 = Melchiade Gabba | successor3 = [[Ivanoe Bonomi]] | office4 = [[List of viceroys of Italian East Africa|Viceroy]] of the [[Italian East Africa]] <br /> [[Italian Ethiopia|Viceroy of Ethiopia]] | term_start4 = 9 May 1936 | term_end4 = 11 June 1936 | monarch4 = [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Vittorio Emanuele III]] | 4namedata4 = [[Benito Mussolini]] | 4blankname4 = Duce | predecessor4 = Positions established | successor4 = [[Rodolfo Graziani]] | office5 = Commissary of the [[Italian East Africa]] | term_start5 = 28 November 1935 | term_end5 = 9 May 1936 | predecessor5 = [[Emilio De Bono]] | successor5 = Position abolished | office6 = Commissary of [[Eritrea]] | term_start6 = 22 November 1935 | term_end6 = 9 May 1936 | predecessor6 = [[Emilio De Bono]] | successor6 = [[Alfredo Guzzoni]] | office7 = Commissary of [[Tripolitania]] and [[Cirenaica]] | term_start7 = 24 January 1929 | term_end7 = 31 December 1933 | predecessor7 = [[Emilio De Bono]] {{small|(Tripolitania)}}<br />[[Attilio Teruzzi]] {{small|(Cyrenaica)}} | successor7 = [[Italo Balbo]] {{small|(Governor of Libia)}} | birth_date = {{Birth date|1871|9|28|df=y}} | death_date = {{death date and age|1956|11|1|1871|9|28|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Grazzano Badoglio|Grazzano Monferrato]], [[Piedmont]], [[Kingdom of Italy]] | death_place = [[Grazzano Badoglio]], Piedmont, Italy | nationality = [[Italians|Italian]] | party = [[Independent politician|Independent]] | spouse = Sofia Valania <small>(1884–1942)</small> | allegiance = {{flag|Kingdom of Italy}} | branch = {{army|Kingdom of Italy}} | serviceyears = 1892–1943 | rank = [[Marshal of Italy]] | battles = {{*}}[[First Italo–Ethiopian War]]<br />{{*}}[[Italo–Turkish War]]<br />{{*}}[[World War I]]<br />{{*}}[[Pacification of Libya]]<br />{{*}}[[Second Italo–Ethiopian War]]<br />{{*}}[[World War II]] }} '''Marshal Pietro Badoglio''' ( palafalan jroning basa Italia: [ˈpjɛːtro baˈdɔʎʎo] ; 28 September 1871 - 1 November 1956), iku sawijining jenderal Italia nalika Perang Donya lan pamimpin pertama Afrika Wétan Italia.<ref name=EBweb>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pietro-Badoglio|title=Pietro Badoglio|work=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> Kanthi tiba ing rezim Fascist ing Italia, dhèwèké dadi Nayakotama Italia . ==Biyografi lan karir awal== Badoglio lair ing taun 1871. Bapanipun, Mario Badoglio, minangka pemilik dhasar, lan ibunipun, Antonietta Pittarelli, minangka latar belakang borjuis ingkang sugih. Tanggal 5 Oktober 1888 dhèwèké diakoni dening Royal Military Academy ing Turin . Piyambakipun pikantuk pangkat Lètnan II ing taun 1890. Taun 1892, dhèwèké rampung sinau lan dipromosekake dadi Letnan. Sasampunipun sinau, panjenenganipun nyambut damel ing Tentara Italia wiwit taun 1892, nalika wiwitanipun minangka Letnan ( Tenente ) ing artileri, ngasta perang awal kolonial Italia ing Eritrea (1896), lan ing Libya (1912). ==Perang Donya I== Ing awal pamerintahan Italia ing Perang Donya I, panjenenganipun minangka Kolonel Letnan ( Tenente Colonnello ); piyambakipun mundur dados pangkat Mayor Jenderal sasampunipun penanganan panangkaran Monte Sabotino ing wulan Mei 1916 lan pungkasanipun wulan 1917, sakmenika sampun dados Letnan Jenderal, dipunangkat minangka Wakil Kepala Staf ( Sottocapo di Stato Maggiore ) senadyan dadi salah sawijining sing utama sing tanggung jawab kanggo bencana iki sajrone Pertempuran Caporetto tanggal 24 Oktober 1917. Wiwit Pertempuran Caporetto, senadyan dhèwèké disalahake ing maneka warna papan kanggo papréntahan pasukan miturut komando sadurunge perang, komisi penyelidikan ditolak paling akeh kritik sing ditindakake.<ref name=eb>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Badoglio, Pietro}}</ref> Ing taun sawisé Perang Dunia I ing période sing dianakaké sawatara jabatan tinggi ing Tentara Italia, Badoglio mènèhi upaya sing rapi kanggo modifikasi dokumen resmi kanggo ndhelikaké perané ing kekalahan kasebut.<ref name="Quirico 2006">{{cite book|first=Domenico|last=Quirico|title=Generali|chapter=I vinti|publisher=Mondadori|year=2006}}</ref> ==Tilar Donya== Amarga tambah ketegangan karo Uni Soviet, pamaréntah Inggris nyumurupi Badoglio minangka penjamin saka negara anti-komunis pasca perang. Akibaté, Badoglio ora tau nyoba kanggo nindakake kejahatan perang Italia ing Afrika.<ref name="Pedaliu_JContHistory">{{cite journal|author-link=Effie Pedaliu|jstor=4141408|title=Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_2004-10_39_4/page/503|id=Special Issue: Collective Memory|first=Effie G. H.|last=Pedaliu|date=1 January 2004|publisher=|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=39|issue=4|pages=503–529}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odradek.it/Schedelibri/criminalidiguerra.html |title=Criminali di guerra Italiani |author=Conti, Davide |publisher=Odradek Edizioni|year=2011 |accessdate=2012-10-14}}</ref><ref>Di Sante, Costantino (2005) [http://www.ombrecorte.it/more.asp?id=15 Italiani senza onore: I crimini in Jugoslavia e i processi negati (1941–1951)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002054449/http://www.ombrecorte.it/more.asp?id=15 |date=2013-10-02 }}, Ombre Corte, Milano. ()</ref> Badoglio tilar donya ing Grazzano Badoglio tanggal 1 November 1956.<ref name=EBweb/> ==Ndeleng ugo== * [[Royal Italian Army]] * [[Royal Italian Army (1940–1946)]] * [[Italian Co-Belligerent Army]] == Kapustakaan == * Pietro Badoglio: ''Italy in the Second World War, memories and documents''. (Transl.: Muriel Currey). Oxford University Press, 1948. Repr. 1976, Greenwood Press: {{ISBN|0-8371-8485-1}} * Pietro Badoglio: ''The war in Abyssinia''. (Foreword: [[Benito Mussolini]]). London, Methuen Publishers, 1937. ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} ==Wacan lianne== *Italian Defence Minister website official [https://web.archive.org/web/20101001033605/http://www.difesa.it/SMD/CaSMD/Capi-SMD/Pietro+BADOGLIO.htm biography of Pietro Badoglio] as Chief of the General Staff *Armellini, Quirino, and Pietro Badoglio. ''Con Badoglio in Etiopia, Etc.'' 1937. {{OCLC|556812967}} *Bertoldi, Silvio. ''Badoglio''. Milano: Rizzoli, 1982. {{OCLC|9862086}} *De Luna, Giovanni. ''Badoglio: Un Militaire al Potere''. Milan: Bompiani, 1974. For English translation, see {{OCLC|883962565}}. *Whittam, John. ''The Politics of the Italian Army, 1861–1918''. London: Croom Helm, 1977. {{ISBN|0-208-01597-3}} {{OCLC|2373034}} *Del Boca, Angelo. ''La guerra d'Etiopia. L'ultima impresa del colonialismo''. Milan: Longanesi, 2010. {{ISBN|978-88304-2716-7}}. ==Pranala njaba== * {{PM20|FID=pe/000854}} {{s-start}} {{s-mil}} {{s-bef|before=[[Armando Diaz]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Chief of Staff of the Italian Army]]|years=1919–1921}} {{s-aft|after=Giuseppe Vaccari}} |- {{s-non|reason=Position established}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Chief of the Defence Staff (Italy)|Chief of the Defence Staff]]|years=1925–1940}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ugo Cavallero]]}} |- {{s-gov}} {{s-bef|before=[[Emilio De Bono]]<br />{{small|''as'' Commissary of Tripolitania}}}} {{s-ttl|title=Commissary of [[Tripolitania]] and [[Cirenaica]]|years=1929–1933|rows=2}} {{s-aft|after=[[Italo Balbo]]<br />{{small|''as'' Governor of Libia}}|rows=2}} {{s-bef|before=[[Attilio Teruzzi]]<br />{{small|''as'' Commissary of Cyrenaica}}}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Emilio De Bono]]|rows=2}} {{s-ttl|title=Commissary of [[Eritrea]]|years=1935–1936}} {{s-aft|after=[[Alfredo Guzzoni]]}} |- {{s-ttl|title=Commissary of the [[Italian East Africa]]|years=1935–1936}} {{s-non|reason=Position abolished}} |- {{s-non|reason=Positions established}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of viceroys of Italian East Africa|Viceroy]] of the [[Italian East Africa]]<br />[[Italian Ethiopia|Viceroy of Ethiopia]]|years=1936}} {{s-aft|after=[[Rodolfo Graziani]]}} |- {{s-bef|before=Melchiade Gabba}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of the Colonies (Italy)|Minister of the Italian Africa]]|years=1944}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ivanoe Bonomi]]|rows=2}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Raffaele Guariglia]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Italy)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|years=1944}} |- {{s-aca}} {{s-bef|before=[[Guglielmo Marconi]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[National Research Council (Italy)|President of the National Research Council]]|years=1937–1941}} {{s-aft|after=Giancarlo Vallauri}}1871 - 1 November 1956 |- {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Benito Mussolini]]|rows=2}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Fascist Grand Council|Head of the Fascist Grand Council]]|years=1943}} {{s-non|reason=Position abolished}} |- {{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Italy]]|years=1943–1944}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ivanoe Bonomi]]}} |- {{s-reg|it}} {{s-new}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of Addis Abeba]]|years=1936–1956}} {{s-aft|after=Pietro Badoglio, 2nd Duke of Addis Abeba}} {{s-end}} [[Kategori:Lair 1871]] [[Kategori:Pati 1956]] nf2stwnoi509r7w7lkue0i1vkgbsb3e Natriyum bènzowat 0 161546 1753049 1675709 2026-08-20T09:04:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753049 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox bordered" style="border-collapse:collapse; width:22em; text-align:left; ;" |+ id="5" style="text-align:center;" |Natrium benzoat | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;" |[[Berkas:Sodium Benzoate V.1.svg|102x102px|Rumus skeleton natrium benzoat]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;" |[[Berkas:Sodium benzoate-substance.jpg|200x200px|Bubuk natrium benzoat]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Nama |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |[[Tata nama senyawa kimia|Nama IUPAC]] <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">Natrium benzoat</div> |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |Nama lain <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">E211, soda benzoat</div> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Penanda |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Nomor CAS]]</div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.commonchemistry.org">[http://www.commonchemistry.org/ChemicalDetail.aspx?ref=532-32-1 532-32-1]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Model 3D ([[Jmol|JSmol]])</div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="chemapps.stolaf.edu (model interaktif 3D)">[https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=%5BNa%2B%5D.%5BO-%5DC%28%3DO%29c1ccccc1 Gambar interaktif]</span> </div> |- |[[ChEMBL]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.ebi.ac.uk">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembldb/index.php/compound/inspect/ChEMBL1356 ChEMBL1356]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |[[ChemSpider]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.chemspider.com">[http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.10305.html 10305]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |[[ECHA InfoCard|<span title="echa.europa.eu">ECHA InfoCard</span>]] |[https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.007.760 100.007.760] |- |[[Nomor E|<span title="Nomor E (kode aditif makanan)">Nomor E</span>]] |E211 [[Nomor E#E200–E299|(pengawet)]] |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[PubChem]] <abbr title="<nowiki&gt;Compound ID</nowiki&gt;">CID</abbr></div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/517055 517055]</span> </div> |- |[[RTECS|Nomor RTECS]] |DH6650000 |- |[[Unique Ingredient Identifier|UNII]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="fdasis.nlm.nih.gov">[https://fdasis.nlm.nih.gov/srs/srsdirect.jsp?regno=OJ245FE5EU OJ245FE5EU] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305143509/http://fdasis.nlm.nih.gov/srs/srsdirect.jsp?regno=OJ245FE5EU |date=2016-03-05 }}</span><sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- | colspan="2" |<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;">[[International Chemical Identifier|InChI]]</div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">InChI=1S/C7H6O2.Na/c8-7(9)6-4-2-1-3-5-6;/h1-5H,(H,8,9);/q;+1/p-1<sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">Key:&nbsp;WXMKPNITSTVMEF-UHFFFAOYSA-M<sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></div></div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">InChI=1/C7H6O2.Na/c8-7(9)6-4-2-1-3-5-6;/h1-5H,(H,8,9);/q;+1/p-1</div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">Key:&nbsp;WXMKPNITSTVMEF-REWHXWOFAY</div></div> </div> |- | colspan="2" |<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;">[[SMILES]]</div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.6em; word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">[Na+].[O-]C(=O)c1ccccc1</div> </div> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Sifat |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Rumus kimia]]</div> |<span title="Carbon">C</span><sub>7</sub><span title="Hydrogen">H</span><sub>5</sub><span title="Sodium">Na</span><span title="Oxygen">O</span><sub>2</sub> |- |[[Massa molar]] |144,10&nbsp;g·mol<sup>−1</sup> |- |Penampilan |Bubuk putih/ kristal bening |- |[[Bau]] |Tanpa bau |- |[[Massa jenis|Densitas]] |1.497 g/cm<sup>3</sup> |- |[[Titik lebur]] |410&nbsp;°C (770&nbsp;°F) |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Larutan berair|Kelarutan dalam air]]</div> |62.7 g/100 mL (0&nbsp;°C)<br /><br /> 62.78 g/100 mL (15&nbsp;°C)<br /><br /> 62.6 g/100 mL (30&nbsp;°C)<br /><br /> 71.11 g/100 mL (100&nbsp;°C)<ref name="chemister" /> |- |[[Kelarutan]] |Larut dalam [[ammonia]] cair, [[piridin]]<ref name="chemister">{{Cite web |url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=1004 |title=Archive copy |access-date=2019-05-21 |archive-date=2014-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140524024102/http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=1004 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |- |[[Kelarutan]] dalam [[metanol]] |8.22 g/100 g (15&nbsp;°C)<br /><br /> 7.55 g/100 g (66.2&nbsp;°C)<ref name="chemister" /> |- |[[Kelarutan]] dalam [[etanol]] |2.3 g/100 g (25&nbsp;°C)<br /><br /> 8.3 g/100 g (78&nbsp;°C)<ref name="chemister" /> |- |[[Kelarutan]] dalam [[1,4-Dioksana]] |818 μg/kg (25&nbsp;°C)<ref name="chemister" /> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Bahaya |- |[[Piktogram bahaya GHS|Piktogram GHS]] |[[Berkas:GHS-pictogram-exclam.svg|50x50px|The exclamation-mark pictogram in the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)]]<ref name="sigma">[[Sigma-Aldrich|Sigma-Aldrich Co.]], [http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/w302503 Sodium benzoate]. Retrieved on 2014-05-23.</ref> |- |[[Sistem Harmonisasi Global Klasifikasi dan Label pada Bahan Kimia|Keterangan bahaya GHS]] |Warning |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Pernyataan bahaya GHS]]</div> |<abbr class="abbr" title="Causes serious eye irritation">H319</abbr><ref name="sigma" /> |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Langkah perlindungan GHS]]</div> |<abbr class="abbr" title="IF IN EYES: Rinse continuously with water for several minutes. Remove contact lenses if present and easy to do – continue rinsing">P305+351+338</abbr><ref name="sigma" /> |- |[[Titik nyala]] | 100&nbsp;°C (212&nbsp;°F; 373&nbsp;K) |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f1f1f1;" |Dosis atau konsentrasi letal (''LD'', ''LC''): |- style="background:#f4f4f4;" | style="padding-left:1em;" |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">''LD''<sub>50</sub> ([[Dosis letal#LD50|dosis median]])</div> |4100&nbsp;mg/kg (oral, rat) |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#f8eaba;" |<div style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Kecuali dinyatakan lain, data di atas berlaku pada [[temperatur dan tekanan standar]] (25&nbsp;°C [77&nbsp;°F], 100&nbsp;kPa).</div></div> |- style="background:#f8eaba; border-top:2px solid transparent;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|12x12px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span>&nbsp;<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[//id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Istimewa:ComparePages&rev1=477001450&page2=Natrium+benzoat verifikasi]</span>&nbsp;([[wikipedia:ProyekWiki Kimia/Validasi kotak info kimia|apa ini]]&nbsp;<sup>[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span>[[Berkas:X mark.svg|pra=|al=|8x8px]]<span style="display:none">N</span></sup>&nbsp;?) |- style="background:#f8eaba; border-top:2px solid transparent;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[wikipedia:Kotak info kimia#Referensi|Sangkalan dan&nbsp;referensi]] |- style="background:#f8eaba;" | style="width:40%; max-height:1px; border-top:2px solid transparent; border-right:1px solid transparent;" | | style="width:60%; max-height:1px; border-top:2px solid transparent; border-left:1px solid transparent;" | |} '''Natriyum bènzowat''' iku rumusé [[Natriyum|Na]] [[Karbon|C <sub>7</sub>]] [[Hidrogen|H <sub>5</sub>]] [[Oksigèn|O <sub>2</sub>]] . Digunakaké minangka pengawet pangan kanthi nomer E '''E211''' . Iku pepanthan uyah Natrium saka [[asam benzoat]] sing katon metu nalika larut ing banyu. Kang bsa diprodhuksi kanthi cara reaksi [[Natrium hidroksida|sodium hydroxide]] kanthi [[asam benzoat]] . Asam benzoat ana ing jumlah cilik ing kranberi, [[prune]]s, [[kayu manis]], [[cengkèh]], lan [[apel]] . == Piguna == === Pengawet pangan === Natrium benzoat bisa nahan [[Baktèri|bakteri]] lan [[jamur]] ing kahanan asam. Digunakaké ing panganan ngandhut asam kaya ta ombenan karbonasi, jus, selé woh, lan sapituruté Uga digunakaké minangka tambahan obat lan [[Kosmètik|kosmetik]] .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cosmeticsdatabase.com/product.php?prod_id=49779|title=Skin Deep® Cosmetics Database &#124; Environmental Working Group|date=|publisher=Cosmeticsdatabase.com|access-date=2013-01-14}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rxmed.com/b.main/b2.pharmaceutical/b2.1.monographs/CPS-%20Monographs/CPS-%20(General%20Monographs-%20R)/ROBITUSSIN.html|title=Sodium benzoate in Robitussin cough|date=|publisher=Rxmed.com|access-date=2013-01-14}}</ref> === Farmasi === Natrium benzoat digunakaké minangka perawatan kanggo gangguan siklus urea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Häberle|first=J|last2=Boddaert|first2=N|last3=Burlina|first3=A|last4=Chakrapani|first4=A|last5=Dixon|first5=M|last6=Huemer|first6=M|last7=Karall|first7=D|last8=Martinelli|first8=D|last9=Crespo|first9=PS|year=2012|title=Suggested guidelines for the diagnosis and management of urea cycle disorders|journal=Orphanet journal of rare diseases|volume=7|pages=32|doi=10.1186/1750-1172-7-32|pmc=3488504|pmid=22642880}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wilcken|first=B|year=2004|title=Problems in the management of urea cycle disorders|journal=Molecular genetics and metabolism|volume=81 Suppl 1|pages=S86–91|doi=10.1016/j.ymgme.2003.10.016|pmid=15050980}}</ref> === Liyané === Uga dipigunakaké ana ing [[kembang api]] minangka bubuk bahan bakar sing bisa dijupuk sèmbar nalika dimampetaké ing jero tabung lan diobong. == Mekanisme pengawetan pangan == Diwiwiti kanthi nyerep asam benzoat menyang jero sel. Menawa pH intraselular mudhun ana nandhang <5, fermentasi anaerobik saka [[glukosa]] liwat [[Fosfofruktokinase|phosphofruktokinase]] kurang banget <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Krebs HA, Wiggins D, Stubbs M, Sols A, Bedoya F|date=September 1983|title=Studies on the mechanism of the antifungal action of benzoate|journal=Biochem. J.|volume=214|issue=3|pages=657–63|pmc=1152300|pmid=6226283}}</ref> saengga bisa nyegah tambahing lan kalangsungan mikro-[[organisme]] kang bisa ngrusak pangan. == Produksi == Diprodhuksi dening netralisasi asam benzoat kanthi [[natrium]] hidroksida.<ref name="Sodium benzoate and Benzoic acid">{{Cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/cicads/cicads/cicad26.htm#SectionNumber:4.1|title=International Programme On Chemical Safety|date=|publisher=Inchem.org|access-date=2013-01-14}}</ref> Natrium Benzoat uga bisa digawé kanthi nambah asam benzoat menyang larutan [[Natrium karbonat|natrium karbonat sing]] konsentrasi kenthel panas nganti unthuké ilang. Larutan banjur nguap, ngadhem, lan ngristal nganti garing, banjur dibentuk bubuk. == Kasarasan == Sodium benzoate aman kanggo konsumsi. [[Kucing]] kurang trep karo asam benzoat lan uyah-uyahé tinimbang [[tikus]] .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bedford PG, Clarke EG|date=January 1972|title=Experimental benzoic acid poisoning in the cat|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_veterinary-record_1972-01-15_90_3/page/n12|journal=Vet. Rec.|volume=90|issue=3|pages=53–8|doi=10.1136/vr.90.3.53|pmid=4672555}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/SO/sodium_benzoate.html Data safety kanggo sodium benzoate] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211073854/http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/SO/sodium_benzoate.html |date=2011-12-11 }} (UK) * [http://www.republika.co.id/berita/gaya-hidup/info-sehat/12/04/17/m2mflv-waspadai-bahan-pengawet-dalam-makanan-ini-dia-salah-satunya Beware of Preservatives in Food, Here Is One of them] at Republika.co.id * [http://news.detik.com/read/2006/12/11/155921/718699/10/natrium-benzoat--kalium-sorbat-aman-dikonsumsi Sodium Benzoate & Kalium Sorbate Aman Dipakan] ing Detik Berita [[Kategori:Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes]] [[Kategori:Chembox image size set]] [[Kategori:Kimia organik]] [[Kategori:Panganan]] [[Kategori:Rasa]] [[Kategori:Enak]] g93nf371o4w1v36gobyggcgh54kqwg8 Seng klorida 0 161549 1753044 1659784 2026-08-20T08:54:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 6 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753044 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox bordered" style="border-collapse:collapse; width:22em; text-align:left; ;" |+ id="5" style="text-align:center;" |Seng klorida | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;" |[[Berkas:Zinc chloride.jpg|220x220px|Seng klorida hidrat]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;" |[[Berkas:Kristallstruktur Zinkchlorid.png|220x220px]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Nama |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |[[Tata nama senyawa kimia|Nama IUPAC]] <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">Seng klorida</div> |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |Nama lain <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">Seng(II) klorida Seng diklorida ''Butter of zinc''</div> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Penanda |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Nomor CAS]]</div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.commonchemistry.org">[http://www.commonchemistry.org/ChemicalDetail.aspx?ref=7646-85-7 7646-85-7]</span> Anhidrat<sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> * <span title="www.commonchemistry.org">[http://www.commonchemistry.org/ChemicalDetail.aspx?ref=29426-92-4 29426-92-4]</span> Tetrahidrat<sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:X mark.svg|pra=|al=|8x8px]]<span style="display:none">N</span></sup> </div> |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Model 3D ([[Jmol|JSmol]])</div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="chemapps.stolaf.edu (model interaktif 3D)">[https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=Cl%5BZn%5DCl Gambar interaktif]</span> </div> |- |[[ChEBI]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.ebi.ac.uk">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=49976 CHEBI:49976]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |[[ChEMBL]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.ebi.ac.uk">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembldb/index.php/compound/inspect/ChEMBL1200679 ChEMBL1200679]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:X mark.svg|pra=|al=|8x8px]]<span style="display:none">N</span></sup> </div> |- |[[ChemSpider]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.chemspider.com">[http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.5525.html 5525]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |[[ECHA InfoCard|<span title="echa.europa.eu">ECHA InfoCard</span>]] |[https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.028.720 100.028.720] |- |[[Nomor EC|<span title="Nomor Masyarakat Eropa (penanda kimia)">Nomor EC</span>]] |231-592-0 |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[PubChem]] <abbr title="<nowiki&gt;Compound ID</nowiki&gt;">CID</abbr></div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/3007855 3007855]</span> </div> |- |[[RTECS|Nomor RTECS]] |ZH1400000 |- |[[Unique Ingredient Identifier|UNII]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="fdasis.nlm.nih.gov">[https://fdasis.nlm.nih.gov/srs/srsdirect.jsp?regno=86Q357L16B 86Q357L16B] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305143157/http://fdasis.nlm.nih.gov/srs/srsdirect.jsp?regno=86Q357L16B |date=2016-03-05 }}</span><sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |[[Nomor UN]] |2331 |- | colspan="2" |<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;">[[International Chemical Identifier|InChI]]</div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">InChI=1S/2ClH.Zn/h2*1H;/q;;+2/p-2<sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">Key:&nbsp;JIAARYAFYJHUJI-UHFFFAOYSA-L<sup>&nbsp;[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></div></div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">InChI=1/2ClH.Zn/h2*1H;/q;;+2/p-2</div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">Key:&nbsp;JIAARYAFYJHUJI-NUQVWONBAB</div></div> </div> |- | colspan="2" |<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;">[[SMILES]]</div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.6em; word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">Cl[Zn]Cl</div> </div> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Sifat |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Rumus kimia]]</div> |ZnCl<sub>2</sub> |- |[[Massa molar]] |136.315 g/mol |- |Penampilan |Padatan kristalin putih<br /><br />sangat [[higroskopis]] |- |[[Bau]] |Tak berbau |- |[[Massa jenis|Densitas]] |2.907 g/cm<sup>3</sup> |- |[[Titik lebur]] | 290&nbsp;°C (554&nbsp;°F; 563&nbsp;K)<ref name="Merck"><cite class="citation book">O'Neil, M. J.; et al. (2001). ''The Merck index : an encyclopedia of chemicals, drugs, and biologicals''. N. J.: Whitehouse Station. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Istimewa:Sumber buku/0911910131|0911910131]].</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Merck+index+%3A+an+encyclopedia+of+chemicals%2C+drugs%2C+and+biologicals&rft.place=N.+J.&rft.pub=Whitehouse+Station&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0911910131&rft.au=O%27Neil%2C+M.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fid.wikipedia.org%3ASeng+klorida"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></ref> |- |[[Titik didih]] | 732&nbsp;°C (1350&nbsp;°F; 1005&nbsp;K)<ref name="Merck" /> |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Larutan berair|Kelarutan dalam air]]</div> |432.0 g/ 100 g (25&nbsp;°C) |- |[[Kelarutan]] |larut dalam [[etanol]], [[gliserol]] dan [[aseton]] |- |[[Kelarutan]] dalam [[alkohol]] |430.0 g/100ml |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Suseptibilitas magnetik]] (χ)</div> |−65.0·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Struktur |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Geometri koordinasi]]</div> |[[Tetrahedral]], linear dalam fasa gas |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Farmakologi |- |[[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System|Kode ATC]] |[[ATC code B05|B05]]<span class="reflink plainlinksneverexpand">[http://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=B05XA12 XA12]</span> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Bahaya |- |[[Lembar data keselamatan]] |[http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ZI/zinc_chloride.html External MSDS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701093158/http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ZI/zinc_chloride.html |date=2007-07-01 }} |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Petunjuk Zat Berbahaya (67/548/EEC)|Klasifikasi&nbsp;UE]] (DSD) <span style="background:moccasin; line-height:85%;">[[Regulasi CLP#Implementasi|<small title="Per Regulasi CLP, usang per 1 Juni 2017. Digantikan oleh data GHS">''(usang)''</small>]]</span></div> |Berbahaya ('''Xn''')<br /><br />Korosif ('''C''')<br /><br />Berbahaya bagi lingkungan ('''N''') |- |[[Daftar frasa R|Frasa-R]] |<span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="R22: Berbahaya jika tertelan">R22</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Menyebabkan luka bakar">R34</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="R50/53: Sangat beracun untuk organisme akuatik, dapat menyebabkan efek merusak jangka panjang jika terpapar pada lingkungan akuatik">R50/53</span> |- |[[Daftar frasa S|Frasa-S]] |<span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Keep locked up and out of the reach of children">(S1/2)</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Jika kena mata cuci segera dengan air dan cari bantuan dokter">S26</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="S36/37/39: Gunakan pakaian standar keselamatan, sarung tangan, dan pelindung mata/wajah">S36/37/39</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Jika terjadi kecelakaan atau anda merasa kurang sehat cari bantuan medis secepatnya">S45</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="S60: Material ini dan kontainernya harus dibuang sebagai sampah beracun">S60</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Dilarang dibebaskan ke lingkungan. Membutuhkan instruksi/data keamanan khusus.">S61</span> |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f1f1f1;" |Dosis atau konsentrasi letal (''LD'', ''LC''): |- style="background:#f4f4f4;" | style="padding-left:1em;" |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">''LD''<sub>50</sub> ([[Dosis letal#LD50|dosis median]])</div> |350&nbsp;mg/kg (tikus, oral)<br /><br />350&nbsp;mg/kg (tikus, oral)<br /><br />200&nbsp;mg/kg (guinea pig, oral)<br /><br />1100&nbsp;mg/kg (rat, oral)<br /><br />1250&nbsp;mg/kg (tikus, oral)<ref name="IDLH" /><ref name="PGCH"><cite class="citation web">[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0674.html "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0674"]. [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH).</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NIOSH+Pocket+Guide+to+Chemical+Hazards+%230674&rft.pub=National+Institute+for+Occupational+Safety+and+Health+%28NIOSH%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fniosh%2Fnpg%2Fnpgd0674.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fid.wikipedia.org%3ASeng+klorida"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></ref> |- style="background:#f4f4f4;" | style="padding-left:1em;" |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">''LC''<sub>50</sub> ([[Dosis letal#LC50|konsentrasi median]])</div> |1260&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (tikus, 30 min)<br /><br />1180&nbsp;mg-min/m<sup>3</sup><ref name="IDLH"><cite class="citation web">[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/7646857.html "Uap seng klorida"]. ''Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health''. [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH).</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Immediately+Dangerous+to+Life+and+Health&rft.atitle=Uap+seng+klorida&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fniosh%2Fidlh%2F7646857.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fid.wikipedia.org%3ASeng+klorida"><span style="display:none;">&nbsp;</span></span></ref> |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f1f1f1;" |Batas imbas kesehatan AS ([[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|NIOSH]]): |- style="background:#f4f4f4;" | style="padding-left:1em;" |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Batas paparan yang diperbolehkan|PEL]] (yang diperbolehkan)</div> |TWA 1&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (uap)<ref name="PGCH" /> |- style="background:#f4f4f4;" | style="padding-left:1em;" |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Batas paparan yang direkomendasikan|REL]] (yang direkomendasikan)</div> |TWA 1&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> ST 2&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (uap)<ref name="PGCH" /> |- style="background:#f4f4f4;" | style="padding-left:1em;" |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Langsung berbahaya bagi kehidupan atau kesehatan|IDLH]] (langsung berbahaya)</div> |50&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (uap)<ref name="PGCH" /> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Senyawa terkait |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Ion|Anion]] lain</div> |[[Seng fluorida]]<br /><br />[[Seng bromida]]<br /><br />[[Seng iodida]] |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Ion|Kation]] lainnya</div> |[[Kadmium klorida]]<br /><br />[[Raksa(II) klorida]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#f8eaba;" |<div style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Kecuali dinyatakan lain, data di atas berlaku pada [[temperatur dan tekanan standar]] (25&nbsp;°C [77&nbsp;°F], 100&nbsp;kPa).</div></div> |- style="background:#f8eaba; border-top:2px solid transparent;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[Berkas:X mark.svg|pra=|al=|14x14px]]<span style="display:none">N</span>&nbsp;<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[//id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Istimewa:ComparePages&rev1=477004315&page2=Seng+klorida verifikasi]</span>&nbsp;([[wikipedia:ProyekWiki Kimia/Validasi kotak info kimia|apa ini]]&nbsp;<sup>[[Berkas:Yes check.svg|pra=|al=Ya|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span>[[Berkas:X mark.svg|pra=|al=|8x8px]]<span style="display:none">N</span></sup>&nbsp;?) |- style="background:#f8eaba; border-top:2px solid transparent;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[wikipedia:Kotak info kimia#Referensi|Sangkalan dan&nbsp;referensi]] |- style="background:#f8eaba;" | style="width:40%; max-height:1px; border-top:2px solid transparent; border-right:1px solid transparent;" | | style="width:60%; max-height:1px; border-top:2px solid transparent; border-left:1px solid transparent;" | |} '''Seng klorida''' ya iku salah sawijining [[Senyawa Kimia|senyawa]] [[Rumus kimia|kimia kanthi rumus kimia]] ZnCl <sub>2</sub> lan hidraté. Seng Klorida, ing e sangang wangun kristalé, dimangertèni minangka kristal putih sing ora ana warna, lan [[larut]] banget ing banyu. ZnCl <sub>2</sub> dhewé yaiku hygroscopik . Sampel saka senyawa iki kudu direksa saka sumber kelembapan, kalebu kelembapan banyu sing ditemokaké ana ing hawa ambien. Seng klorida nduwéni aplikasi ing pamrosesan [[Kain|tekstil]], fluks metalurgi, lan ing sintesis kimia. Ora ana mineral kang nduweni komposisi kimia sing dimangerténi uga sakliyané [[mineral]] langka simonkolleite, Zn <sub>5</sub> (OH) <sub>8</sub> Cl <sub>2</sub> · H <sub>2</sub> O. == Struktur lan sipat == Wangun awujud kristallin ( [[Polimorfisme|polimorf]] ) saka ZnCl <sub>2</sub> dikenal: α, β, γ, lan δ, lan ing saben kasus ion Zn <sup>2+</sup> kaordinasi tetrahedron karo papat ion klorida.<ref name="Wells">{{Cite book|title=Structural Inorganic Chemistry|last=Wells, A. F.|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1984|isbn=0-19-855370-6|location=Oxford}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! Bentuke ! Simetri ! Simbol Pearson ! Klompok iki ! Ora Ana. ! a (nm) ! b (nm) ! c (nm) ! Z ! ρ (g / cm <sup>3</sup> ) |- | α | Tetragonal | t12 | Aku 4 2d | 122 | 0.5398 | 0.5398 | 0.64223 | 4 | 3.00 |- | β | Tetragonal | tp6 | P4 <sub>2</sub> / nmc | 137 | 0.3696 | 0.3696 | 1.071 | 2 | 3.09 |- | γ | Monoclinic | mP36 | P2 <sub>1</sub> / c | 14 | 0.654 | 1.113 | 1.23328 | 12 | 2.98 |- | δ | Orthopedic | oP12 | Pna2 <sub>1</sub> | 33 | 0.6125 | 0.6443 | 0.7693 | 4 | 2.98 |} Ing kene, a, b, lan c minangka konstanta kisi, Z ya iku gungguné struktur per [[sel]] satuan lan ρ ya iku kapadhetan sing dicacah saka parameter struktural.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oswald|first=H. R.|last2=Jaggi|first2=H.|year=1960|title=Zur Struktur der wasserfreien Zinkhalogenide I. Die wasserfreien Zinkchloride|journal=Helvetica Chimica Acta|volume=43|issue=1|pages=72–77|doi=10.1002/hlca.19600430109}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brynestad|first=J.|last2=Yakel|first2=H. L.|year=1978|title=Preparation and Structure of Anhydrous Zinc Chloride|journal=Inorganic Chemistry|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1376–1377|doi=10.1021/ic50183a059}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brehler|first=B.|year=1961|title=Kristallstrukturuntersuchungen an ZnCl<sub>2</sub>|journal=Zeitschrift für Kristallographie|volume=115|issue=5-6|pages=373–402|doi=10.1524/zkri.1961.115.5-6.373}}</ref> Bentuk orthorhombic (δ) anhidrat murni lan cepet ngowahi salah sawijining wangun ana ing paparan [[atmosfer]] sing liyané lan wedharan kang mungkin yaiku menawa ion OH <sup>-</sup> sing asalé saka banyu sing diserap dadi luwih gampang kanggo nyusun ulang.<ref name="Wells"/> Panganyep cepet saka dledekan ZnCl <sub>2</sub> ngasilaké kaca .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mackenzie, J. D.|last2=Murphy, W. K.|year=1960|title=Structure of Glass-Forming Halides. II. Liquid Zinc Chloride|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-chemical-physics_1960-08_33_2/page/366|journal=The Journal of Chemical Physics|volume=33|issue=2|pages=366–369|doi=10.1063/1.1731151}}</ref> Sipat [[Ikatan Kovalen|kovalen]] ing materi anhidrat dituduhaké dening titik leleh sing relatif kurang 275 &nbsp; °C.<ref name="Greenwood">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw}}</ref> bukti kang luwih kanggo kovalensi ditandani dening sipat nyampur nyawiji kang dhuwur ing diklorida ing pe;arut etereal iku ngewangun ''adducts'' karo rumus ZnCl <sub>2</sub> L <sub>2,</sub> ana kene L = ligan kaya ta O (C <nowiki><sub id="mwZg">2</sub></nowiki> H <nowiki><sub id="mwZw">5)</sub></nowiki> <nowiki><sub id="mwaA">2</sub></nowiki> . Ana ing fase gas, molekul ZnCl <sub>2</sub> ngewangun linear kanthi dawa iketan 205 pm.<ref name="prince">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry|last=Prince, R. H.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=1994|isbn=0-471-93620-0|editor-last=King, R. B.}}</ref> Dledekan ZnCl <sub>2</sub> nduweni viskositas kang dhuwur ing titik leleh lan konduktivitas elektrikal sing relatif cendhek sing mundhak nyata saka hawa.<ref name="prince"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Melts: Molten Salts, Slags and Glasses|last=Ray, H. S.|publisher=Allied Publishers|year=2006|isbn=81-7764-875-6}}</ref> Sinau hamburan Raman sing miturut nuduhake anané struktur polimer <ref>{{Cite book|title=Physico-Chemical Analysis of Molten Electrolytes|last=Danek, V.|publisher=Elsevier|year=2006|isbn=0-444-52116-X}}</ref> lan studi panyebaran neutron nuduhaké anané kompleks tetrahedral {ZnCl <sub>4</sub> }.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=D. L.|last2=Saboungi|first2=M.-L.|last3=Susman|first3=S.|last4=Volin|first4=K. J.|last5=Wright|first5=A. C.|year=1991|title=Neutron Scattering Function of Vitreous and Molten Zinc Chloride|journal=Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter|volume=3|issue=49|pages=9835–9842|doi=10.1088/0953-8984/3/49/001}}</ref> === Hidrat === Limang hidrat saka seng klorida sing dimangerteni, ZnCl <sub>2</sub> (H <sub>2</sub> O) <sub>n</sub> n = 1, 1.5, 2.5, 3 lan 4.<ref name="Holleman">{{Cite book|title=Inorganic Chemistry|last=Holleman, A. F.|last2=Wiberg, E.|publisher=Academic Press|year=2001|isbn=0-12-352651-5|location=San Diego}}</ref> Tetrahydrate ZnCl <sub>2</sub> (H <sub>2</sub> O) <sub>4</sub> kristal saka larutan mbanyu seng klorida.<ref name="Holleman" /> == Preparasi lan Pamurnèn == ZnCl <sub>2</sub> anhidrat bisa dicepakaké saka seng lan hidrogen klorida . : Zn (s) + 2 HCl → ZnCl <sub>2</sub> + H <sub>2 (g)</sub> Bentuk hidrasi lan larutan banyu bisa disiapaké kanthi cara sing padha kanthi réaksikaké logam Zn karo asam klorida. Seng oksida lan seng sulfida bereaksi karo HCl: : ZnS ( s ) + 2 [[Asem klorid|HCl]] (aq) → ZnCl <sub>2</sub> (aq) + H <nowiki><sub id="mwiA">2</sub></nowiki> S ( [[Gas|g]] ) ora kaya unsur-unsur sanesipun, seng sakmenika namung wonten ing satunggaling kadadeyan oksidasi, 2+, ingkang nyederhanake pamurnian klorida. Tuladha seng klorida komersial biasane ngandhut [[banyu]] lan produk saka hidrolisis minangka pangreged. Sampel kasebut bisa diresiki dening [[Rekristalisasi|recrystallization]] saka [[Dioksan|dioxane]] panas. Sampel anhidrat bisa dimurnèkaké kanthi sublimasi ing aliran gas hidrogen klorida, diiringi pamanasan sublimasi ing 400 &nbsp; °C ing kahanan garing aliran gas [[nitrogen]] . Pungkasané, metode paling gampang gumantung ing opènan seng klorida karo thionil klorida .<ref>{{Cite book|title=Inorganic Syntheses|last=Pray, A. P.|publisher=J. Wiley & Sons|year=1990|isbn=0-471-52619-3|volume=28|location=New York|pages=321–322}}</ref> == Reaksi == ZnCl <sub>2</sub> meleleh ing suhu 500-700 &nbsp; °C ngeculake logam seng, lan, kanthi cepet ing leleh, kaca diamagnetik kuning dibentuk, sing ing panliten Raman nuduhake isi ion {{Chem|Zn|2|2+}} .<ref name="Holleman"/> Sawetara uyah ngemot Anion tetraklorozinkat, Zn {{Chem|Cl|4|2−}} sing dikenal.<ref name="prince"/> "Reagent Caulton," V <sub>2</sub> Cl <sub>3</sub> (THF) <sub>6</sub> Zn <sub>2</sub> Cl <sub>6</sub> iku salah siji conto saka uyah ngemot Zn <sub>2</sub> {{Chem|Cl|6|2−}} <ref>{{Cite book|title=Organic Synthesis Highlights|publisher=Wiley-VCH|year=1998|isbn=3-527-29500-3|editor-last=Mulzer, J.|volume=3|editor-last2=Waldmann, H.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bouma|first=R. J.|last2=Teuben|first2=J. H.|last3=Beukema|first3=W. R.|last4=Bansemer|first4=R. L.|last5=Huffman|first5=J. C.|last6=Caulton|first6=K. G.|year=1984|title=Identification of the Zinc Reduction Product of VCl<sub>3</sub> · 3THF sebagai <nowiki>[</nowiki>V<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>3</sub>(THF)<sub>6</sub><nowiki>]</nowiki><sub>2</sub><nowiki>[</nowiki>Zn<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>6</sub><nowiki>]</nowiki>|journal=Inorganic Chemistry|volume=23|issue=17|pages=2715–2718|doi=10.1021/ic00185a033}}</ref> Cs <sub>3</sub> ZnCl <sub>5</sub> ngandhut ZnCl {{Chem|Cl|4|2−}} tetrahedral lan anion Cl <sup>-</sup> .<ref name="Wells"/> Ora senyawa ngemot Zn ion {{Chem|Cl|6|4−}} sing wis ditondoi.<ref name="Wells" /> Nalika zink klorida larut banget ing banyu, larutan kasebut ora bisa dianggep ngandhut ion Zn <sup>2+</sup> lan Cl <sup>-</sup> ion, ZnCl <sub>x</sub> H <sub>2</sub> O <sub>(4 - x)</sub> sing uga ana.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Irish|first=D. E.|last2=McCarroll|first2=B.|last3=Young|first3=T. F.|year=1963|title=Raman Study of Zinc Chloride Solutions|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-chemical-physics_1963-12-15_39_12/page/3436|journal=The Journal of Chemical Physics|volume=39|issue=12|pages=3436–3444|doi=10.1063/1.1734212}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yamaguchi|first=T.|last2=Hayashi|first2=S.|last3=Ohtaki|first3=H.|year=1989|title=X-Ray Diffraction and Raman Studies of Zinc(II) Chloride Hydrate Melts, ZnCl<sub>2</sub> · RH<sub>2</sub>O (R = 1.8, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, and 6.2)|journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry|volume=93|issue=6|pages=2620–2625|doi=10.1021/j100343a074}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pye, C. C.|last2=Corbeil, C. R.|last3=Rudolph, W. W.|year=2006|title=An ''ab initio'' Investigation of Zinc Chloro Complexes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physical-chemistry-chemical-physics-pccp_2006-12-14_8_46/page/5428|journal=Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics|volume=8|issue=46|pages=5428–5436|doi=10.1039/b610084h|issn=1463-9076|pmid=17119651}}</ref> ZnCl <sub>2</sub> solusi banyu sing ngandhut asam: larutan banyu kanthi konsentrasi 6 M nduweni pH 1.<ref name="Holleman"/> Keasaman dari larutan ZnCl <sub>2</sub> banyu saka garam Zn <sup>2+</sup> liyane yaiku amarga pembentukan kompleks aqua aoro tetrahedra sing ngurangi angka koordinasi saka 6 nganti 4 luwih nyuda kekuatan ikatan OH ing molekul banyu sing wis solvasi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Chemical Bond in Inorganic Chemistry: The Bond Valence Model|last=Brown, I. D.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-19-929881-5}}</ref> == Aplikasi == Penggunaan inisial seng klorida (Silzic) ing bangunan rangka karbon kanthi ngirangaken molekul [[Metanol|methanol]] . Produk [[hidrokarbon]] tak jenuh minangka produk utama, kanthi kondisi reaksi sing nyebabake distribusi produk, sanajan ana senyawa aromatik sing dibentuk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olah|first=George A.|last2=Doggweiler|first2=Hans|last3=Felberg|first3=Jeff D.|last4=Frohlich|first4=Stephan|last5=Grdina|first5=Mary Jo|last6=Karpeles|first6=Richard|last7=Keumi|first7=Takashi|last8=Inaba|first8=Shin-ichi|last9=Ip|first9=Wai M.|year=1984|title=Onium Ylide chemistry. 1. Bifunctional acid-base-catalyzed conversion of heterosubstituted methanes into ethylene and derived hydrocarbons. The onium ylide mechanism of the C<sub>1</sub> → C<sub>2</sub> conversion|url=https://archive.org/details/american-chemical-society-journal_1984-04-04_106_7/page/2143|journal=[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=7|pages=2143–2149|doi=10.1021/ja00319a039}}</ref> Taun 1880, ditemokake yen seng klorida cair ngilangake reaksi aromatik sing digawé hexamethylbenzene . Ing titik lebur ZnCl <sub>2</sub> (283 &nbsp; °C), reaksi kasebut ΔG saka -1090 &nbsp; kJ &nbsp; mol <sup>−1</sup> lan bisa olih kanggo:<ref name="HMB">{{Cite journal|last=Chang|first=Clarence D.|year=1983|title=Hydrocarbons from Methanol|journal=[[Catal. Rev. - Sci. Eng.]]|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1-118|doi=10.1080/01614948308078874}}</ref> : 15 {{Chem|CH|3|OH}} → {{Chem|C|6|(CH|3|)|6}} + 3 {{Chem|CH|4}} + 15 {{Chem|H|2|O}} Panemu reaksi iki dirasionalake amarga iku melu kondensasi unit methylene sing diikuti dening Metilasi lengkap Friedel-Crafts cincin benzene sing diprodhuksi ''ing'' chloromethane ''situ'' .<ref name="HMB"/> Transformasi alkilasi kasebut minangka aplikasi saka kekuwatan seng moderat minangka [[Asem|asam Lewis]], sing dadi peran utama ing sintesis laboratorium. Conto liyane kalebu catalyzing (A) sintesis indole Fischer,<ref>{{OrgSynth|last1=Shriner|first1=R. L.|last2=Ashley|first2=W. C.|last3=Welch|first3=E.|title=2-Phenylindole|year=1942|volume=22|pages=98|collvol=3|collvolpages=725|doi=10.15227/orgsyn.022.00981955|prep=cv3p0725}}</ref> lan uga (B) reaksi acylation Friedel-Craft sing nyakup dering aromatik sing aktif.<ref>{{OrgSynth|last=Cooper|first=S. R.|title=Resacetophenone|collvol=3|collvolpages=761|prep=cv3p0761|year=1941|volume=21|pages=103|doi=10.15227/orgsyn.021.0103}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dike|first=S. Y.|last2=Merchant|first2=J. R.|last3=Sapre|first3=N. Y.|year=1991|title=A New and Efficient General Method for the Synthesis of 2-Spirobenzopyrans: First Synthesis of Cyclic Analogues of Precocene I and Related Compounds|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tetrahedron_1991-06-24_47_26/page/4775|journal=[[Tetrahedron (jurnal)|Tetrahedron]]|volume=47|issue=26|pages=4775–4786|doi=10.1016/S0040-4020(01)86481-4}}</ref> [[Berkas:ZnCl2 aromatics.gif|480x480px]] Saliyane kuwi, produksi pewarna fluorescein klasik saka phthalic anhydride lan resorcinol, kang nyakup acylation Friedel-Crafts .<ref>{{Cite book|title=Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry|last=Furnell, B. S.|publisher=Longman/Wiley|year=1989|edition=5th|location=New York}}</ref> Transformasi iki bener-bener wis digayuh kanthi nggunakake sampel ZnCl <sub>2 sing</sub> terhidrasi ing gambar ing ngisor iki. [[Berkas:ZnCl2 fluorescein.png|480x480px]] [[Asem klorid|asam klorida]] dewe apa sing ditanggepi ala karo [[Alkohol|alcohols utami]] lan [[Alkohol|alcohols secondary]], nanging kombinasi HCl karo ZnCl <sub>2</sub> (dikenal dados " Reagent Lucas ") efektif kanggo preparation saka amonium alkyl. Reaksi khas ditindakake ing 130 &nbsp; °C. Reaksi iki kerep dilakokake liwat mekanisme S <nowiki><sub id="mw6A">N</sub></nowiki> 2 karo alkohol utama nanging kanggo alkohol sekunder liwat mekanisme S <nowiki><sub id="mw6g">N</sub></nowiki> 1 . [[Berkas:ZnCl2 Lucas.gif|300x300px]] Zinc chloride uga ngaktivasi halimil benzyllic lan allylic ing arah penggantian nukleofil sing lemah kaya ta alkenes :<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bauml, E.|last2=Tschemschlok, K.|last3=Pock, R.|last4=Mayr, H.|year=1988|title=Synthesis of γ-Lactones from Alkenes Employing p-Methoxybenzyl Chloride as <sup>+</sup>CH<sub>2</sub>-CO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> Equivalent|url=http://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/3799/1/086.pdf|journal=Tetrahedron Letters|volume=29|issue=52|pages=6925–6926|doi=10.1016/S0040-4039(00)88476-2}}</ref> [[Berkas:ZnCl2 benzylation.gif|480x480px]] Kanthi gaya sing padha, ZnCl <sub>2</sub> ndhukung pengurangan selektif NaBH <nowiki><sub id="mw-w">3</sub></nowiki> CN ing senyawa tersier, allylic utawa benzylated dadi hidrokarbon sing cocok. Zinc klorida uga minangka reagen wiwitan sing migunani kanggo sintesis saka reagen organik, kaya ta sing digunakake ing kopling Negishi sing diprakirake dening palladium karo aril halida utawa vinyl halida .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kim, S.|last2=Kim, Y. J.|last3=Ahn, K. H.|year=1983|title=Selective Reduction of Tertiary, Allyl, and Benzyl Halides by Zinc-Modified Cyanoborohydride in Diethyl Ether|journal=Tetrahedron Letters|volume=24|issue=32|pages=3369–3372|doi=10.1016/S0040-4039(00)86272-3}}</ref> Ing kasus kasebut, senyawa organoseng biasane digawé dening transmetrasi saka reagen organolithium utawa Grignard, umpamane: [[Berkas:ZnCl2 Negishi.gif|480x480px]] Zinc enolate, disiapake saka enolate alkali logam lan ZnCl <sub>2</sub>, nyedhiyakake kontrol stereokimia ing reaksi kondensasi aldol amarga chelation in seng. Ing conto ing ngisor iki, prodhuk ''threo'' luwih disenengi liwat ''eritros'' kanthi faktor 5: 1 nalika ZnCl <sub>2</sub> ing DME / eter digunakake.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=House, H. O.|last2=Crumrine, D. S.|last3=Teranishi, A. Y.|last4=Olmstead, H. D.|year=1973|title=Chemistry of Carbanions. XXIII. Use of Metal Complexes to Control the Aldol Condensation|url=https://archive.org/details/american-chemical-society-journal_1973-05-16_95_10/page/3310|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=95|issue=10|pages=3310–3324|doi=10.1021/ja00791a039}}</ref> Chelates luwih stabil yen klompok fenil pseudo- khatulistiwa saka pseudo- aksial, contone, ''threos'' dibanding ''eritrosit'' . [[Berkas:ZnCl2 aldol.gif|600x600px]] === Ing babagan tekstil lan kertas === Larutan zinc klorida (luwih saka 64% bobot / bobot seng klorida) ing banyu nduweni sipat sing menarik kanggo mbubehaké pati, [[sutra]], lan selulosa . Mangkono, solusi kasebut ora bisa disaring liwat kertas panyaring standar. Kasedhiya babagan afinitas kasebut, ZnCl <sub>2</sub> digunakake minangka agen pemisah geni lan kain kaya ta Febreze. Serat retread digawé saka kertas sing nganggo klorida seng klorida. === Granat keluk === Komposisi asap zink klorida ("HC") sing digunakake ing granat gram ngandung zink oksida lan hexachlorethane, sing, nalika diobong, bereaksi kanggo mbentuk asap seng klorida, layar asap sing efektif.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Methods for Field Studies of Effects of Military Smokes, Obscurants, and Riot-control Agents on Threatened and Endangered Species|last=Sample, B. E.|publisher=DIANE Publishing|year=1997|isbn=1-4289-1233-9}}</ref> === Deteksi cap driji === Ninhydrin bereaksi karo [[Asem amino|asam amino]] lan amina kanggo mbentuk senyawa berwarna "purple Ruhemann" (RP). Nyemprotake solusi seng klorida mbentuk komplek 1: 1 RP: ZnCl (H <sub>2</sub> O) <sub>2</sub>, sing luwih gampang dideteksi amarga bisa fluoresce luwih apik tinimbang ungu Ruhemann.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fingerprint Detection with Lasers|last=Menzel, E. R.|publisher=CRC Press|year=1999|isbn=0-8247-1974-3}}</ref> === Disinfektan === Sacara historis, larutan zink klorida banyu sing dipigunakaké minangka disinfektan kanthi jeneng " ''Fluid Disinfecting Burnett'' ".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/adictionarychem11wattgoog|title=A Dictionary of Chemistry and the Allied Branches of Other Sciences|last=Watts, H.|publisher=Longmans, Green|year=1869}}</ref> Senyawa iki uga digunakake ing pirang-pirang merek komersil mouthwash antiseptik. == Keamanan == Seng klorida minangka irritant kulit. Sawise kontak karo kulit, langsung nglakoni reresik kanthi nggunakake sinetron lan banyu lumaku. Yen kontak karo mripat, tumindak cukup kanggo njupuk banyu, nggunakake tetes mata Isogutt, lan langsung ngubungi ophthalmologist sanalika bisa.<ref name="a">{{Citation|last=Dieter M. M. Rohe|title=[[Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry]]|pages=1–6|year=2007|contribution=Zinc Compounds|edition=7th|publisher=Wiley|doi=10.1002/14356007.a28_537|last2=Hans Uwe Wolf}}</ref> Seng klorida arupa caustic kanggo saluran pencernaan, kadhangkala tumuju marang [[Mutah getih|hematemesis]] . Gejala keracunan akut sing bisa kedadeyan kaya ta indigestion, diare, mual, lan nyeri abdomen. Vomiting occurs meh universal. Cara dekontaminasi ing saluran gastrointestinal sawise njupuk senyawa zinc sacara oral ora akeh, amarga pasien biasane muntah kanthi cekap. Susu bisa diwenehi kanggo ngurangi panyerapan logam. Tingkat seng bisa normalake karo EDTA asin .<ref name="a"/> Inhalasi seng seng, seng oksida, utawa seng klorida nyebabake edema pulmonary lan demam asam metalik. Serang ana ing 4-6 jam lan bisa ditundha nganti 8 jam. Gejala sing bisa kedadeyan yaiku ambegan kanthi cepet, watuk, demam, kedinginan, sweating, pain dada lan leg, myalgia, lemes, rasa metalik, saliva, thirst lan leukocytosis, sing bisa tahan 24 nganti 48 jam. Ing kasus inhalasi kumelun, persiapan cortisone kudu diterapake kanthi cepet (contone, kanthi nghirup Auxilosone ) kanggo ngindhari perkembangan edema paru.<ref name="a"/> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == * NN Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, ''Kimia Unsur'', edisi kaping 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 1997. * Lide, DR, ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th edition). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. <nowiki>ISBN   0-8493-0486-5</nowiki> . * ''Indeks Merck'', edisi kaping 7, Merck & Co, Rahway, New Jersey, USA, 1960. * D. Nicholls, ''Kompleks lan Unsur Transisi Kaping pisanan'', Macmillan Press, London, 1973. * J. March, ''Advanced Organic Chemistry'', 4th ed., P. &nbsp; 723, Wiley, New York, 1992. * GJ McGarvey, ing ''Handbook of Reagents for Organic Synthesis, Volume 1: Reagents, Auxiliaries and Catalysts for Formation Bonds Bond'', (RM Coates, SE Dhènemarken, eds.), Pp. &nbsp; 220-3, Wiley, New York, 1999. == Pranala njaba == * [http://muby.itgo.com/zincchloride.html Tingkat lan Aplikasi Seng Klorida] * [http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=5727 Ringkesan ZnCl <sub>2</sub> ing PubChem] . [[Kategori:Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes]] [[Kategori:Senyawa anorganik]] [[Kategori:Klorida]] [[Kategori:Kimia koloid]] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] lu5dkv10n0i3uruil7fcorqx4nqy091 Wiji kopi 0 161930 1752869 1733930 2026-08-20T03:43:32Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752869 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:75_degrees_green_coffee.png|jmpl|Buncis warung kopi]] [[Gambar:Coffee_Beans_Photographed_in_Macro.jpg|jmpl|wiji kopi kopi sing wis dilebokake]] [[Gambar:Roasted coffee beans.jpg|jmpl|wiji kopi kang wis digongso]] '''Wiji kopi''' yaiku [[wiji]] saka [[Coffea|tetanduran saka warung]] lan sumber omban-ombaenan [[kopi]] . Werna wiji putih lan paling akeh yaiku [[Endosperma|endosperms]] <ref name="multiple">{{Cite web|url=http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/coffeeplant.htm|title=Arabica and Robusta Coffee Plant|publisher=Coffee Research Institute|access-date=25 August 2011}}</ref> . Saben woh nduweni rong wiji. Woh sing isiné mung siji wiji diarani ''peaberry'' lan dipercaya nduweni rasa sing luwih becilk.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hypecoffee.com/content/what-is-a-peaberry |title=Archive copy |access-date=2019-05-29 |archive-date=2019-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529135415/http://www.hypecoffee.com/content/what-is-a-peaberry |url-status=dead }}</ref> Varietas sing paling diolah yaiku kopi arabica (75%) lan kopi robusta (20%).<ref name="multiple"/> Kopi Arabica ngandhut kira-kira 0,8-1,4 persen [[Kaféin|kafein]], nalika kopi Robusta yaiku 1,6-4% kafein.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp|title=Botanical Aspects|publisher=International Coffee Organization|access-date=25 August 2011|archive-date=3 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003123956/http://dev.ico.org/botanical.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kopi minangka salah siji saka komoditas utama lan komoditas ekspor saka setengah negara berkembang ing donya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp|title=The Story of Coffee|publisher=International Coffee Organization|access-date=25 August 2011|archive-date=3 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124016/http://dev.ico.org/coffee_story.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Budidaya == Wit kopi bisa tuwuh nganti dhuwur 10 meter. Tanduran kopi umume ditemokake kanthi jarak kira-kira rong meter antarane wit. Arabica lan kopi robusta saben duwe kabutuhan lingkungan; Kopi Arab arupa prioritas pangaturan regan lan kopi Robusta mbutuhake suhu sing luwih anget.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dev.ico.org/ecology.asp|title=Ecology|publisher=International Coffee Organization|access-date=25 August 2011|archive-date=26 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326032056/http://dev.ico.org/ecology.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> Minangka tanduran fruiting liyane, warung mbutuhake mangsa sing cukup garing lan panas nalika diwenehi woh. === Sakwise Panen === Nalika woh diwasa, umume dipilih kanthi tangan lan njupuk sabar saka petani kanggo milih woh-wohan sing sacukupé. Saliyane pamilihan kanthi selektif, cara liya yaiku para petani bisa ngetokake kabèh woh ing salah sawijining cawangan, ora mung woh-wohan sing mateng, sing bakal dipilih ing situs pangolahan. Ing fasilitas pangolahan kopi, woh kopi ngliwati prosès pamisahan daging woh saka wiji, banjur ngendhih banyu ing sajrone banyu sajrone rong dina kanggo mbubaraké woh daging lan pulp sing isih ana ing wiji. Saliyane nggunakake metode soaking, wiji kopi bisa uga dikeringake ing srengenge kanggo garing kanggo misahake daging lan wiji woh. == Nutrisi == [[Kaféin|Kafein]] ( ''1,3,7-trimetil-xanthine'' ) minangka senyawa alkaloid sing paling akèh ditemoni ing wiji kopi, seger lan wis dilebur. Tingkat kasebut beda-beda gumantung saka 1 nganti 2,5 persen. Kandungan kafein saka biji kopi ora ngalami owah-owahan sing signifikan sajrone ripening buah ing wit kasebut.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clifford, MN, and Kazi, M|year=1987|title=The influence of coffee bean maturity on the content of [[chlorogenic acid]]s, caffeine, and trigonelline|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=26|pages=59–69|doi=10.1016/0308-8146(87)90167-1}}</ref> Kelarutan kafein ing banyu mundhak kanthi suhu tambah lan tambahan saka asam klorin, asam sitrat, lan asam tartaric, kabèh sing uga ana ing wiji kopi.<ref>''[[The Merck Index]]'', 13th Edition</ref> Saliyane kafein, ana uga alkaloid theophylline, theobromine, paraxantine, liberin, lan metililiberine kanthi tingkat kurang. Theophylline uga minangka alkaloid sing ditemokake ing [[tèh ijo]], lan tingkat alkaloid ing wiji kopi ngurangi nalika biji kopi disebar.<ref>WEIDNER, M, and MAIER, HG; 1999, Seltene Purinalkaloide in Roestkaffee, Lebensmittelchemie, Vol 53, 3, p.58</ref> Trigonelin ( ''N-metil-nikotinat'' ) yaiku senyawa turunan [[vitamin B6]] lan ditemokake ing wiji kopi seger kanthi tingkat 0.6 nganti 1 persen. Filtrasi ngowahi sebagian besar trigonelin dadi niacin .<ref>POISSON, J, 1979, Aspects chimiques et biologiquesde la composition du café vert; 8th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Abidjan, 28. Nov to 3. December 1988, published by ASIC 1979, p 33-37; http://www.asic-cafe.org {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010174116/https://www.asic-cafe.org/ |date=2023-10-10 }}</ref> Trigolenin wis diamati nduweni sipat [[Mutasi|mutagenik]] .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wu X, Skog K, Jägerstad M|date=July 1997|title=Trigonelline, a naturally occurring constituent of green coffee beans behind the mutagenic activity of roasted coffee?|url=|journal=Mutat. Res.|volume=391|issue=3|pages=171–7|doi=10.1016/s1383-5718(97)00065-x|pmid=9268042}}</ref> [[Protéin|Protein]] ditemokake ing wiji kopi garing kanthi tingkat antara 8 lan 12 persen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-31312001000100004|title=Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal - Seed storage proteins in coffee|date=|publisher=Scielo.br|access-date=2013-12-08}}</ref> Sebagéyan gedhé protèin iki mudhun dadi asam amino bébas sajroning mateng wit lan proses filtrasi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Montavon P, Duruz E, Rumo G, Pratz G|date=April 2003|title=Evolution of green coffee protein profiles with maturation and relationship to coffee cup quality|url=|journal=J. Agric. Food Chem.|volume=51|issue=8|pages=2328–34|doi=10.1021/jf020831j|pmid=12670177}}</ref> Asam, temperatur, lan tingkat oksigen sing dhuwur bisa nyebabake protein ing biji kopi bakal mudhun dadi peptida lan asam amino. wiji kopi warnane seger ngemot paling ora 4 miligram asam amino saben gram biji kopi kanggo kopi robusta, lan 4,5 miligram saben gram biji kopi kanggo kopi arabika. Ing arabica lan kopi robusta, alanine yaiku asam amino sing paling dhuwur kanthi tingkatan kopi 1.2&nbsp;mg / gram arabica lan kopi biji 0,8&nbsp;mg / gram, diikuti asparagine kanthi tingkat 0.66&nbsp;mg / gram warung kopi arabica lan 0,36&nbsp;mg / gram saben kopi robusta.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1007/BF01192946}}<br /></ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Murkovic M, Derler K|date=November 2006|title=Analysis of amino acids and carbohydrates in green coffee|url=|journal=J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods|volume=69|issue=1-2|pages=25–32|doi=10.1016/j.jbbm.2006.02.001|pmid=16563515}}</ref> Asam amino hidrofobik kaya ta isoleucine, leucine, valine, tyrosine, lan phenylalanine nyebabake rasa ora stabil ing kopi.<ref>TEUTSCH, IA, 2004, Einfluss der Rohkaffeeverarbeitung auf Aromastoffveränderungen in gerösteten Kaffeebohnen sowie im Kaffeebetränk, PhD Thesis, Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Germany; www.deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=97339305x& dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=97339305x.pdf</ref> Nanging, sebagian besar asam amino gratis sing ora ditemokake ing sajrone kopi dikorup amarga wis diurai liwat proses Maillard, lan produk saka asam amino hidrofobik kaya ta diketopiperazin minangka kontributor utama kanggo rasa pait ing kopi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=GINZ, M|year=2001|title=Bittere Diketopiperazine und chlorogensäurederivate in Roestkaffee|url=http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00001257|access-date=2019-05-29|archive-date=2020-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626064147/https://publikationsserver.tu-braunschweig.de/receive/dbbs_mods_00001257|url-status=dead}}PhD-thesis, Technical University Carolo-Wilhelminia, Brunswig, Germany</ref> === Karbohidrat === [[Karbohidrat]] nyumbang kira-kira 50 persen saka bobot garing wiji kopi seger. Karbohidrat utamané diprodhuksi saka arabinogalactant, galactomannan, lan [[polisakarida]] selulosa, lan cenderung ora ngandhut.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Redgwell RJ, Curti D, Rogers J, Nicolas P, Fischer M|date=June 2003|title=Changes to the galactose/mannose ratio in galactomannans during coffee bean (Coffea arabica L.) development: implications for in vivo modification of galactomannan synthesis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_planta_2003-06_217_2/page/316|journal=Planta|volume=217|issue=2|pages=316–26|doi=10.1007/s00425-003-1003-x|pmid=12783340}}</ref> Monosakarida gratis kaya ta [[sukrosa]] ditemokake ing biji kopi karo werna kulit kekuningan kanthi tingkat 9000&nbsp;mg saben gram biji kopi arabica lan 4500&nbsp;mg saben gram biji kopi robusta. Selan uga ngandhut fruktosa, galaktosa, lan D-manitol .<ref>TRESSEL, R, HOLZER, M and KAMPERSCHROER, H, 1983, Bildung von Aromastoffenin Roestkaffee in Abhaengigkeit vom Gehalt an freien Aminosaeren und reduzierenden Zuckern; 10th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Salvador, Bahia 11 October to 14 Oct; ASIC publication 1983, p279-292</ref> === Lipid === Lipid sing ana ing biji kopi kalebu asam linoleat, asam palmitat, asam oleat, asam stearat, asam arakidat, terpenes, trigliserida, ester lan [[amida]] . Jumlah lipid ing wiji kopi garing antara 11,7 nganti 14 gram saben 100 gram biji kopi.<ref>ROFFI, J, CORTE DOS SANTOS, A, MEXIA, JT, BUSSON, F, and MIAGROT, M, 1973, Café verts et torrefiesde l Angola. Etude chimique, 5th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Lisboa, 14 June to 19 June 1971; published by ASIC 1973, pp 179-200</ref> Saben lipid ana ing kulit wiji kopi lan minangka bagéan saka lapisan bubuk panutup biji kopi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Coffee: botany, biochemistry, and production of beans and beverage|last=Clifford MN|publisher=Croom Helm AVI|year=1985|isbn=0-7099-0787-7|editor-last=Clifford MN, Wilson KC|location=London|pages=305–74|chapter=Chemical and physical aspects of green coffee and coffee products}}</ref> Ing kopi arabika, lipid ana ing tingkat sing luwih dhuwur.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee KJ, Jeong HG|date=September 2007|title=Protective effects of kahweol and cafestol against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage|url=|journal=Toxicol. Lett.|volume=173|issue=2|pages=80–7|doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.06.008|pmid=17689207}}</ref> == Deleng uga == {{Portal|Pertanian}} * Kakao == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Kopi]] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] tq6ir8enb9j7ang414davvrwkj4ggsv Lenga cengkèh 0 161948 1752912 1653365 2026-08-20T04:51:21Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752912 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:CloveEssOil.png|ka|jmpl|303x303px| Mbusak lenga cengkeh kekuningan]] [[Gambar:Cengkih.jpg|jmpl|cengkeh kang dadi bahan dhasar]] '''Lenga cengkèh''' iku lenga [[Lenga Atsiri|Atsiri]] sing diasilaké dening [[Distilasi|Destilasi]] bagéan saka tanduran [[Cengkèh|cengkeh]], utamané godhong lan kembang [[Cengkèh|cengkeh]] .<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.id/books?isbn=9797814157|title=20 ramuan esensial nusantara untuk cantik dan bugar|last=Dian Malini|year=2006|isbn=9797814157}}</ref> {{Rp|52}} Kabeh bagéan saka tanduran cengkeh ngandhut lenga, nanging kembang nduweni paling akeh lenga.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.id/books?isbn=9793357290|title=Tanaman Pengendali Lalat Buah|last=Kardinan, A.|publisher=Agromedia|isbn=9793357290}}</ref> {{Rp|27}} Amarga godhong cengkeh lan galih uga ngasilake lenga, loro-lorone uga dadi pangasilan kanggo among tani cengkeh kang ngasilake kembang cengkeh kanggo [[rokok]] . wong-wong mung nglumpukake godhong lan galih sing ambruk ing saubengé wit lan nggawe panyulingan biasa kanggo ngasilaké lenga cengkeh.<ref name="Asiri">{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.id/books?id=R67XizGcyLEC|title=Minyak Asiri|publisher=PT Niaga Swadaya}}</ref> {{Rp|27}} == Sejarah == Reformasi bidang kedokteran saka Switserlan, ya iku [[Philippus Aureolus Paracelcus]] ing abad kaping 16 ngira-ira menawa tanduran arum éntuk ganda saka senyawa tartamtu. Dheweké ngundang ''esensiia quinta'' . Hipotesis kasebut minangka kunci kalairan prodhuksi minyak esensial ana ing Eropa. Prodhuksi lenga cengkeh sing pisanan ora bisa dipisahaké saka sejarah kolonialisme Walanda ing Indonesia. Ing dataran Eropah nalika dadi lenga lavender sing populer, yaiku lenga atsiri kang minangka asil penyulingan saka kembang [[lavender]] . ora suwé sasampunipun wonten cengkèh ing Eropah, maneka warna tetanduran ingkang ambune arum, kalebu cengkèh, disuling kanggo ngasilake lengané.<ref name="Asiri"/> {{Rp|3}} == Isi kimia == Minyak cengkèh ngandhut [[Eugenol|eugenol nganti]] 78-98 persen.<ref name="Aak">{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.id/books?isbn=9794135984|title=Petunjuk Bercocok Tanam Cengkih|last=Aak|publisher=Kanisius|isbn=9794135984}}</ref> {{Rp|125}} Zat kasebut diprodhuksi saka kelenjar minyak sing ditemokaké ana ing awaké kembang cengkeh.<ref name="Aak" /> {{Rp|24}} padatané, godhong cengkeh lan galih ngandhut eugenol kanthi konsentrasi luwih akeh tinimbang kembang cengkeh kasebut. Ing lenga kang diasilaké saka godhong cengkeh ana eugenol 82-88%, lan galih nganti 90-95%. Dibandhingaké karo lenga saka kembang cengkeh sing mung ngandung eugenol 60-90%, sing liyané yaiku [[eugenyl asetat]], [[caryophyllene]], lan senyawa minor liyane.<ref name="Lawless">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Lawless, J.|encyclopedia=The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Essential Oils|year=1995|isbn=1-85230-661-0}}</ref> Nagara Indonesia karo Negara [[Madagaskar]] minangka prodhusen utama minyak cengkèh.<ref name="Lawless"/> == Mupangat == Minyak cengkèh digunakaké ana ing indhustri kanggo ngasilaké obat-obatan untu, perasa utawa panyedhep, minyak wangi <ref name="Aak"/> {{Rp|16}}, minangka [[Fungisida]], [[Bakterisida|anti-bakteri]], lan [[Insèktisida|Insektisida]] .<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.id/books?isbn=9793357177|title=Tanaman Pengusir & Pembasmi Nyamuk|last=Kardinan, A.|publisher=Agromedia|isbn=9793357177}}</ref> {{Rp|29}} Minyak cengkeh uga bisa digunakakè minangka pambius pengganti [[sianida]] <ref name="Asiri"/> {{Rp|9}} supaya [[Mancing|pancing]] iwak urip bisa luwih ramah lingkungan. Pasinaon kang dilakokake dening [[Kuwait University|Universitas Kuwait]] nemokaké yen minyak cengkeh duwe efek efektif kanggo [[benzocain]]e minangka pareda ngelu ing tutuk.<ref name="Alqareer 2006">{{Cite journal|last=Alqareer|first=Athbi|date=November 2006|title=The effect of clove and benzocaine versus placebo as topical anesthetics|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-dentistry_2006-11_34_10/page/747|journal=Journal of Dentistry|volume=34|issue=10|pages=747–750|doi=10.1016/j.jdent.2006.01.009|pmid=16530911|id=|access-date=2012-05-06}}</ref><ref name="O">{{Cite news|url=http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/remedies-clove-oil-for-tooth-pain/|title=Remedies: Clove Oil for Tooth Pain|last=O'Connor|first=Anahad|date=2011-02-17|work=The New York Times|access-date=2012-05-06}}</ref><ref name="ACS">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/HerbsVitaminsandMinerals/cloves|title=Cloves|website=American Cancer Society|access-date=2012-05-06|archive-date=2012-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514064827/http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/HerbsVitaminsandMinerals/cloves|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sanajan dimangerteni minangka pareda lara untu, FDA durung sarujuk.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/251.html|title=Clove|website=MedlinePlus|publisher=NIH}}</ref> == Trivia == Minyak clove ana ing novel Perfume dening [[Patrick Süskind]] . Ing novel, ana sing nyebutaké yen lenga cengkeh minangka salah sawijining campuran kanggo ngasilake wangi kang ngganda supaya bisa tangi wong sing semaput.<ref>[[Perfume (novel)|novel Perfume]] bab sembilan halaman 91</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Lenga atsiri]] [[Kategori:Tetuwuhan Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Lenga]] 6en0vvc5nndkvsad7qr35z7ami1wwng Panumpes ing Kamboja 0 162040 1753066 1613584 2026-08-20T09:33:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753066 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox civilian attack | title = Panumpes ing Kamboja | partof = [[Khmer Rouge pandhéganing Kamboja]] | image = | image_size = 300px | alt = | caption = Cumplung kurban-kurbané panumpes ing Kamboja. | map = | map_size = | map_alt = | map_caption = | target = {{NoteTag|Cambodia's previous military and political leadership, business leaders, journalists, students, doctors, lawyers, [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Chams]], [[Chinese Cambodians]], [[Christians]], [[intellectual]]s, Thai Cambodians, [[Vietnamese Cambodians]] |name=NCambgen1}} | location = [[Democratic Kampuchea]] | date = 17 April 1975 – 7 Januari, 1979 (3 taun, 8 sasi, 20 dina) | type =[[Genocide]], [[classicide]], [[politicide]], [[torture]], [[famine]], [[forced labor]], [[deportation]], [[crimes against humanity]] | perps = [[Khmer Rouge]] | motive = {{NoteTag|[[Persecution of Buddhists#Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge|Anti-Buddhism]], anti-Cham sentiment, [[Class discrimination|classism]], [[Persecution of Christians|anti-Christianity]], [[anti-intellectualism]], [[anti-Thai sentiment]], [[anti-Vietnamese sentiment]], [[Islamophobia]], [[Khmer nationalism|Khmer ultra-nationalism]], [[Sinophobia]], [[Marxism]], [[Communism]] |name=NCambgen2}} | fatalities = 1.671 - 1.871 yuta<ref name="kiernanD"/><br> 1.8 - 2.5 yuta<ref> http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm COUNTING HELL by Bruce Sharp</ref> }} '''Panumpes ing Kamboja''' utawa '''Génosidha ing Kamboja''' ({{lang-km|ហាយនភាពខ្មែរ}} ''or'' {{lang|km|ការប្រល័យពូជសាសន៍ខ្មែរ}}, {{lang-fr|Génocide cambodgien}}) ya iku sawijining panumpes gedhèn-gedhèn kang katindakaké ing [[Kamboja]] déning [[rézim Khmer Rouge]] sangisoring pandhéganing [[Pol Pot]]. Kurban mati saka panumpes iki ngancik udakara 1.671 lan 1.871 yuta saka taun 1975 nganti taun 1979, utawa 21 nganti 24 persèn saka populasiné Kamboja ing taun 1975.<ref name="kiernanD">{{cite journal|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|year=2003|title=The Demography of Genocide in Southeast Asia. The Death Tolls in Cambodia, 1975-79, and East Timor, 1975-80|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_critical-asian-studies_2003-12_35_4/page/585|journal=Critical Asian Studies|volume=35|issue=4|pages=585–597|doi=10.1080/1467271032000147041}}</ref> Khmer Rogue duwé pepénginan ndadèkaké nagara iku républik agraria sosialis, adhédhasar aturan-aturan ultra-[[Maoisme]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Cambodia, 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death|last=Jackson|first=Karl D|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1989|isbn=978-0-691-02541-4|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=h27D3EYGwzgC&pg=PA219 219]}}</ref><ref>Ervin Staub. ''The roots of evil: the origins of genocide and other group violence.'' [[Cambridge University Press]], 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=29u-vt_KgGEC&pg=PA202 p. 202]</ref> Ing taun 1976, ''Khmer Rouge'' ngowahi jeneng nagarané dadi [[Kampuchéa Dhémokratik]]. Supaya ancasé bisa kagayuh, ''Khmer Rouge'' ngothongaké kutha kanthi meksa wong-wong Kamboja supaya pindhah (rélokasi) menyang pondhokan-pondhokan kanggoné para buruh kang pernahé ing sapinggiring nagara kuwi. Ing papan kuwi, akèh panumpesan gedhèn-gedhèn, buruh peksan, pilara fisik, malnutrisi, lan lelara. Bab-bab kasebut nyebabaké 25 persèn saka populasiné wong Kamboja tiwas. {{sfn|Etcheson|2005|p=119}}{{sfn|Heuveline|1998|pp=49-65}} Udakara 20.000 wong Kamboja kudu manggon ana ing [[Tuol Sleng]] (uga dikenal mawa jeneng Kunjara Kaamanan S-21), siji saka 196 kunjara kang dilakokaé déning ''Khmer Rouge'',<ref>{{cite journal|last=Locard|first=Henri|date=March 2005|title=State Violence in Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979) and Retribution (1979–2004)|journal=[[European Review of History]]|volume=12|issue=1|pages=121–143|citeseerx=10.1.1.692.8388|doi=10.1080/13507480500047811|quote=Since 1979, the so-called Pol Pot regime has been equated to Hitler and the Nazis. This is why the word 'genocide' (associated with Nazism) has been used for the first time in a distinctly Communist regime by the invading Vietnamese to distance themselves from a government they had overturned. This 'revisionism' was expressed in several ways. The Khmer Rouge were said to have killed 3.3 million, some 1.3 million more people than they had in fact killed. There was one abominable state prison, S–21, now the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum. In fact, there were more than 150 on the same model, at least one per district.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.d.dccam.org/Projects/Maps/MappingKillingField.htm|title=Mapping the Killing Fields|date=|work=Documentation Center of Cambodia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326190928/http://www.d.dccam.org/Projects/Maps/MappingKillingField.htm|archive-date=2016-03-26|url-status=dead|accessdate=2018-06-06|quote=Through interviews and physical exploration, DC-Cam identified 19,733 mass burial pits, 196 prisons that operated during the Democratic Kampuchea (DK) period, and 81 memorials constructed by survivors of the DK regime.}}</ref> lan mung ana wong dhiwasa cacah 7 kang kasil meger.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mq8sAcvg-AgC&q=464#v=snippet&q=464&f=false|title=The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia Under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2014|isbn=9780300142990|p=464|quote=Like all but seven of the twenty thousand Tuol Sleng prisoners, she was murdered anyway.|authorlink=Ben Kiernan}}</ref> Para pasakitan digiring menyang Lapangan Panumpesan, lan ing kana wong-wong kasebut diukum mati (kerepé nganggo ''[[pickaxes]]'' supaya bisa hemat pluru<ref>Landsiedel, Peter, [http://p-eworldtour.com/2017/03/27/the-killing-fields/ “The Killing Fields: Genocide in Cambodia”], ‘’P&E World Tour’’, March 27th, 2017. Accessed March 17th, 2019</ref>) lan dikubur ing pakuburan masal. == Rujukan == <references /> == Cathetan suku == {{NoteFoot}} ouaf9v0ptuy9dvp9xtirpadzup886lw Ketindhihan 0 162990 1752965 1644977 2026-08-20T06:44:38Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752965 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:John_Henry_Fuseli_-_The_Nightmare.JPG|jmpl|280x280px| ''The Nightmare'', déning Henry Fuseli (1781) minangka salah sawijining gambaran klasik sing ana sesambungané karo kapercayan babagan lumpuh turu amarga "ditindhes" déning dhemit .]] '''''Sleep paralysis''''' utawa '''lumpuh''' '''turu''' utawa ketindhihan yaiku kahanan kang nyebabaké awak ora bisa obah nalika [[turu]] utawa tangi turu. Nalika kena lumpuh turu biasané ora bisa ngobahaké awak, ora bisa ngetokaké swara, lansapanunggalané. Lumpuh turu biasané uga dibarengi karo ngimpi kang ala. Lumpuh turu bisa kedadéyan nalika setengah turu, turu angler, uga bisa nalika durung turu utawa isih sadhar. Kahanan iki umume dumadi nalika turu mathang-mathang, tandhané angèl ambegan, dhadha sesek, awak ora bisa obah, lan angèl ngetokaké swara . Kedadéyan iki diprecaya sebabé amarga kagangguné fasé turu REM ''(Rapid Eye Movement sleep)'' , nyebabaké ''atonia otot lengkap'' kang nyegah tindakaning badan ing sajabané ngimpi. Lumpuh turu digayutaké karo gangguan liyané kaya ta [[Narcolepsy|narkolepsi]], [[Migren|migrain]], kelainan kecemasan, lan [[Apnea turu sing apik|apnea turu obstruktif]] .<ref name="Ohayon">{{Cite journal|last=Ohayon|first=M.|last2=Zulley|first2=J.|last3=Guilleminault|first3=C.|last4=Smirne|first4=S.|year=1999|title=Prevalence and pathologic associations of sleep paralysis in the general population|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_1999-04-12_52_6/page/1194|journal=Neurology|volume=52|pages=1194–2000}}</ref><ref name="Terrillon">{{Cite journal|last=Terrillon|first=J.|last2=Marques-Bonham|first2=S.|year=2001|title=Does Recurrent Isolated Sleep Paralysis Involve More Than Cognitive Neurosciences?|journal=Journal of Scientific Exploration|volume=15|pages=97–123}}</ref> == Jinis == Kalumpuhan turu bisa dipérang dadi loro, yaiku ''lumpuh turu terisolasi (ISP)'' lan ''lumpuh turu terisolasi berulang (RISP)'' . Saka rong jinis kasebut, ISP luwih umum yen dibandhingaké karo RISP.<ref name="Terrillon"/> ISP dumadi kanthi wektu sedhéla, udakara samenit. Lumpuh turu ISP kedadeyan paling ora sepisan saumur urip. Déné RISP bisa dilebokaké golongan kronis. Manungsa bisa ngalami lumpuh turu bola-bali. Bédané antara ISP lan RISP yaiku dawané wektu nalika ngalami lumpuh turu; RISP bisa nganti 1 jam utawa luwih, lan awak ngalami kedadéyan kang luwih sengsara, déné ISP dumadi kanthi wektu sing sedhela (biasane ora luwih saka samenit) lan kedadéyane mung sawates ngimpi ala utawa [[Hobi inubus|hallucinations incubus]] . Saliyane kuwi, ing kahanan RISP, ing sawengi panandhang bisa ngalami lumpuh turu bola-bali, déné ing ISP ora. Rada angèl mbédakaké antarané [[katapleksi]] kang disebabaké déning [[narkolepsi]] karo amarga lumpuh turu.<ref name="Terrillon"/> Cara paling apik kanggo mbedakaké yaiku nyathet wektu kedadéyan serangan kasebut. [[Narkolepsi]] umumé dumadi nalika panandhang durung turu, déné ISP lan RISP umumé kedadéyan nalika panandhang kasebut turu.<ref name="FISP">{{Cite journal|last=Sharpless|first=B.|last2=McCarthy|first2=K.|last3=Chambless|first3=D.|last4=Milrod|first4=B.|last5=Khalsa|first5=S.|last6=Barber|first6=J.|year=2010|title=Isolated sleep paralysis and fearful isolated sleep paralysis in outpatients with panic attacks|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychology_2010-12_66_12/page/1292|journal=Journal Of Clinical Psychology|volume=66|pages=1292–1306}}</ref> == Kahanan Umum == Kalumpuhan turu ''terisolasi'' umumé dialami para [[Sing sabar|pasien]] kang di[[diagnosis]] lelara [[narkolepsi]]. Udakara 30-50% wong sing didiagnosis narkolepsi ngalami lumpuh turu minangka pratandha tambahan.<ref name="Ohayon"/><ref name="Dauvilliers">{{Cite journal|last=Dauvilliers|first=Y.|last2=Billiard|first2=M.|last3=Montplaisir|first3=J.|year=2003|title=Clinical aspects and pathophysiology of narcolepsy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-neurophysiology_2003-11_114_11/page/2000|journal=Clinical Neurophysiology|volume=114|pages=2000–2017}}</ref> ''[[Prevalensi]]'' lumpuh turu ing masarakat udakara 6,2%. Umumé wong kang ngalami lumpuh turu iku sawulan pisan utawa sataun pisan. Déné ana 3% wong kang ngalami lumpuh turu ing saben wenginé; kaya sing wis kasebut sadurungé, wong-wong iki didiagnosis RISP. Kalumpuhan turu bisa kedadéyan marang sapa waé, wong lanang utawa wong wadon. Nanging, klompok umur tartamtu bisa luwih gampang kena lumpuh turu. Udakara 36% individu kang ngalami lumpuh turu saka klompok umur 25-44 taun, lan umur rata-rata wong sepisanan ngalami gangguan turu yaiku 14-17 taun. == Tandha lan gejala == [[Patofisiologi]] lumpuh turu durung bisa dimangertèni kanthi nyata, nanging ana sawetara teori babagan apa sing nyebabaké wong ngalami lumpuh turu. Sing kapisan yaiku saka pangertèn yèn lumpuh turu iku [[parasomnia]] kang disebabaké déning fasé REM kang ora laras karo tangi turu, kanthi tembung liya, [[utek]] isih turu, nanging awak péngin tangi, saéngga awak ora bisa obah.<ref name="Goldstein">{{Cite journal|last=Goldstein|first=K.|year=2011|title=Parasomnias|journal=Dis Mon|volume=57|pages=364–88}}</ref> Panalitèn [[polisomografik]] ngandhakaké manawa wong sing ngalami lumpuh turu kuwi duwèni wektu turu REM kang luwih sethithik tinimbang padatané.<ref name="Walther">{{Cite journal|last=Walther|first=B.|last2=Schulz|first2=H.|year=2004|title=Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis: Polysomnographic and clinical findings|journal=Somnologie - Schlafforschung und Schlafmedizin|volume=8|pages=53–60}}</ref> Panaliten iki uga ngandharaké pola turu sing ora ajeg bisa nyebabaké lumpuh turu, amarga malafungsi turu REM biasané dumadi nalika pola turu kaganggu. Saliyané kuwi, panalitèn uga mbuktèkaké yèn kurang turu uga bisa nyebabaké lumpuh turu. Adhedhasar gelombang [[utek]], turu kapérang dadi 4 tataran. Tataran kasebut yaiku tatar turu sing paling ènthèng (isih sadhar), tatar turu sing luwih jero, turu sing paling jero lan tatar REM. Ngimpi bisa kedadéyan ing tahap REM. Menawa awak lagi kesel utawa kurang turu, gelombang utek ora kaya padatané; saka tataran sadhar nganti tataran turu kang paling ènthèng, banjur mlumpat menyang tataran REM. Dadi, nalika utek ujug-ujug tangi saka tataran REM nanging awak durung, bisa kedadéyan lumpuh turu. Wong kang ngalami bisa ngrasakaké nanging ora bisa obah. Katambahan anané ''halusinasi'' metuné wujud liya kang sanyatané [[karakteristik]] saka ngimpi.<ref name="Cheyneninenine2">{{cite journal|last=Cheyne|first=J.|last2=Rueffer|first2=S.|last3=Newby-Clark|first3=I.|title=Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Hallucinations during Sleep Paralysis: Neurological and Cultural Construction of the Night-Mare|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|year=1999|volume=8|pages=319–337}}</ref> Kalumpuhan turu asring diiringi halusinasi kang medèni ( [[Hipnotis|hypnopompics]] utawa [[Hipnagogik|hypnagogics]] ) lan rasa wedi sing nemen.<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007 p. 380">Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis. p. 380</ref> Kawedènan panandhang iki amarga cethane halusinasi kang dialami. Halusinasi kang dialami panandhang umumé ditegesi yèn kuwi wujud saka ngimpi, amarga obyek sing ora nyata bisa katon ing kamar kanthi pandeleng kasar.<ref>Hersen Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref> Ana angen-angen yèn lumpuh turu iku sipatè [[Genetika|genetik]].<ref name="Sehgal">{{Cite journal|last=Sehgal|first=A.|last2=Mignot|first2=E.|year=2011|title=Genetics of Sleep and Sleep Disorders|journal=Cell|volume=146|pages=194–207}}</ref> Panalitèn marang sapasang bocah kembar mbuktikaké menawa salah sijining bocah kuwi mau ngalami lumpuh turu, bocah sing liya uga bisa kena. Sawetara faktor wis dianggep minangka prekara sing nyebabaké lumpuh turu. Faktor-faktor kasebut ing antawisipun [[insomnia]] lan kurang turu, jadwal turu sing ora teratur, turu kanthi cara mathang-mahang, strès, kakèhan nggunakaké [[stimulan]], kesel, lan nggunakaké obat-obatan tartamtu kanggo nambani ADHD.<ref name="Terrillon"/> Turu kanthi cara mathang-mathang diarani dadi panyebab utama lumpuh turu.<ref name="Cheynetwotwo">{{Cite journal|last=Cheyne|first=J.|year=2002|title=Situational factors affecting sleep paralysis and associated hallucinations: position and timing effects|journal=Journal Of Sleep Research|volume=11|pages=169–177}}</ref> Kalumpuhan turu uga bisa dadi pratandha [[Narcolepsy|narkolepsi]] (serangan turu kang ujug-ujug tanpa ana tandha-tandha ngantuk), ''apnea'' turu (ngorok), kuwatir, utawa [[depresi]] . == Ing budaya == Nalika ngalami lumpuh turu, panandhang asring ngalami halusinasi, kaya lagi ndelok wujud utawa ayang-ayang ireng ing sapinggiré ambèn. Mula, kedadéyan iki asring digayutaké karo barang-barang mistis. * Ing [[Finlan]]d lan [[Swèdhen]], lumpuh turu diprecaya disebabaké déning [[mare]], makhluk gaib sing ana gandhèngané karo [[incubi]] lan [[succubi]]. Miturut kaprecayan masarakat, mare yaiku wanita sing dikutuk lan awaké digawa lunga nalika dhèwèké turu. Dhèwèké banjur nekani para warga nalika dalu lan nglungguhi balung iga kang nyebabaké ngimpi ala.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://translate.google.com.au/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://lesgivresdlabobine.wordpress.com/2010/12/13/entretien-avec-le-realisateur-filip-tegstedt-a-propos-de-marianne/&ei=BLVqTaK9D4nQceTO_Y0M&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEAQ7gEwBg|title=Interview with director Filip Tegstedt, about Marianne|last=Bjursell|first=Aurore|date=13 December 2010|access-date=13 May 2011}}</ref> * Ing folklor Newfoundland, [[South Carolina]] lan [[Géorgia|Georgia]], diceritakaké yèn lumpuh turu panyebabé roh ala, [[Hag]], sing ninggalaké awaké ing wayah wengi, lan lungguh ing dhadhané kurban. Kurban biasane tangi kanthi rasa wedi, lan kangèlan ambegan amarga dhadhané ditindhihi déning Hag. * Ing [[Fiji]], fénoména iki diarani ''kana tevoro'', yaiku "dipangan" déning Iblis. Sétan iki diprecaya minangka sadulur saka wong kang lagi waé séda lan duwèni jejibahan kanggo ngrampungaké urusan wong kang séda sing durung rampung. * Ing [[Turki]], lumpuh turu diarani ''[[karabasan]]'', versi liyané saka kunjungan setan nalika turu. * Ing [[Tanah Thai|Thailand]], diprecaya lumpuh turu disebabaké déning para sétan saka carita rakyat Thailand sing dikenal kanthi jeneng ''Phi Am'' ( {{Lang-th|ผีอำ}} ).<ref>[http://lungkitti.tarad.com/img-lib/spd_20120725124110_b.jpg ผีอำ]{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * Ing [[Indonésia|Indonesia]] lan [[Malaysia]], lumpuh turu luwih dikenal kanthi jeneng ketindhihan. * Ing budaya [[Mèksiko|Meksiko]], diarani ''se me subio el muerto'' lan diprecaya anané arwah wong kang wis séda nèmplèk ana badané salah sawijining uwong. * Ing budaya [[Jepang]], diarani ''kanashibari'', sing sejatiné tegesé nalèni saéngga ditegesi dadi ditalèni déning sétan. == Rujukan == {{Reflist|30em}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://www.stanford.edu/~dement/paralysis.html Informasi turu lan tautan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306075040/http://stanford.edu/~dement/paralysis.html |date=2016-03-06 }} saka Universitas Stanford * [http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/S_P.html Paralisis Turu lan Pengalaman Hypnagogic lan Hypnopompic Associated] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030605094412/http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/S_P.html |date=2003-06-05 }} saka Universitas Waterloo * [http://www.csicop.org/doubtandabout/sleep/ Tangi turu Tumpuh] * [http://www.realitysandwich.com/sleep_paralysis Vokal Paralisis Turu: Dhemit, Succubi, lan Pikiran Archetypal] dening Ryan Hurd * [http://www.thesleepparalysisproject.org/short sumber film lan platform platform sing njelajah fenomena kasebut] dening Carla MacKinnon 7j8nc2fjkueog3z1cosn7kb860o0q90 Edema paru 0 163469 1752974 1642264 2026-08-20T06:58:17Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752974 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Edema Paru | Image = PulmEdema.PNG | Caption = Edema paru dengan efusi minimal pada kedua sisi.| DiseasesDB = 11017 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|J|81||j|80}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|514}} {{ICD9|518.4}} | MedlinePlus = 000140 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 1955 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|radio|581}} | MeshID = D011654 | }} '''Edema pulmonary''' ya iku cairan kang kakumpul ana ing gronggongan hawa lan [[parenkim]] paru-paru kang nyebabaké gangguan obahing hawa lan ndadékaké [[gagal napas]]. Kedadéyan iki amarga gagaling jantung kanggo ngompa getih supaya metu saka [[sirkulasi paru]], utawa amarga cedera parenkim utawa [[Pembuluh Darah|pembuluh]] paru.<ref name="Ware">{{Cite journal|last=Ware LB, Matthay MA|date=December 2005|title=Clinical practice. Acute pulmonary edema|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2005-12-29_353_26/page/2788|journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=353|issue=26|pages=2788–96|doi=10.1056/NEJMcp052699|pmid=16382065}}</ref> Anggoné nambani édéma paru fokus ing telung aspèk: kang sapisanan ya iku ngundhakaké fungsi napas, kang nomer loro nambani panyebab, lan katelu nyegah karusakan kang luwih nemen. Edema paru, mliginé ing fasé akut, bisa nyebabaké gangguan ambegan, [[Gagal jantung|serangan jantung]] amarga hipoksia, lan pati. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Pranala jaba == * [http://www.heartfailurematters.org/English_Lang/Single/Pages/Animations.aspx AnimFailureMatters.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605084143/http://www.heartfailurematters.org/English_Lang/Single/Pages/Animations.aspx |date=2010-06-05 }} Animasi sing nuduhake Cara Gagal jantung [http://www.heartfailurematters.org/English_Lang/Single/Pages/Animations.aspx nyebabake akumulasi flu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605084143/http://www.heartfailurematters.org/English_Lang/Single/Pages/Animations.aspx |date=2010-06-05 }} - Digawé dening Asosiasi Gagal jantung Eropa 7uvaj0bgi3y77z73tehawekn9qbhph8 Plankton lan Karén 0 163562 1752835 1744434 2026-08-19T18:37:03Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox character|series=[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]|name=Plankton and Karen|colour=#FBEC5D|image=Plankton and Karen.svg|caption=Plankton (right) and Karen (left)|first="Plankton!" (1999)|last=<!--- Please do not add episodes to this parameter. It is not used for characters who are still active in the series to avoid confusion with those who no longer appear. --->|occupation=Owners and founders of the Chum Bucket|lbl1=[[Voice acting|Voiced by]]|data1='''Plankton''': [[Mr. Lawrence]]<br/>'''Karen''': [[Jill Talley]]|lbl2=Portrayed by|data2='''Plankton''': [[Wesley Taylor]] ([[SpongeBob SquarePants (musical)|Broadway]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.playbill.com/article/get-to-know-spongebob-squarepants-wesley-taylor|title=Get to Know SpongeBob SquarePants' Wesley Taylor|first=Olivia|last=Clement|date=1 Maret 2018|access-date=9 Agustus 2019|work=[[Playbill]]}}</ref><br/>'''Karen''': Stephanie Hsu ([[SpongeBob SquarePants (musical)|Broadway]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.broadwaybox.com/daily-scoop/introduce-yourselfie-spongebob-star-stephanie-hsu/|first=Stephanie|last=Hsu|title=Introduce Yourself(ie): 10 Questions with SpongeBob SquarePants Star Stephanie Hsu|work=BroadwayBox.com|date=22 Januari 2018|access-date=24 Juli 2019}}</ref>|creator=[[Stephen Hillenburg]]|species='''Plankton''': [[Copepod]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-82792771.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610060614/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-82792771.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 10, 2014|title=Stephen Hillenburg created the undersea world of SpongeBob|date=February 12, 2002|newspaper=[[Orange County Register]]|last=Wilson|first=Amy|url-access=subscription }}</ref><br/>'''Karen''': [[Supercomputer]]|lbl21=Pets|data21=Spot (pet [[amoeba]])}} '''Sheldon J. Plankton''' lan '''Karen Plankton minangka''' paraga fiksi ing seri televisi animasi Amerika, ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' . Dhéwèkè masing-masing diswaraké dening Pak Lawrence lan Jill Talley . sesawangan pertama yaiku ing babak "Plankton!" sing dimulai tanggal 31 Juli 1999. Dhéwèkè digawé lan dirancang dening [[Biologi seganten|ahli biologi laut]] lan animator [[Stephen Hillenburg]], pangripta seri kasebut, kanthi pangembangan paraga tambahan dening Lawrence. Plankton lan Karen minangka juragan omah saka warung mangan Chum Bucket sing ora sukses. Plankton minangka [[Copepoda|copepod]] [[plankton]]ik intelektual lan Karen minangka superkomputer anti banyu. Plankton nuduhaké saingan karo [[Mr. Krabs|Pak Krabs]], sing duwé warung mangan [[Krusty Krab|Krusty Krab sing]] luwih nguntungaké lan adol burger fiksi sing diarani Krabby Patty. Plankton lan Karen asring ngrancang rencana nyolong resep Krabby Patty rahasia, nanging upaya kasebut mesthi diganggu dening Krabs lan karyawané. Resepsi kritis kanggo Plankton lan Karen wis positif, kanthi pujian sing ditunjuk menyang swarané lan dialog bebarengan. Dhéwèkè diwiwiti minangka paraga cilik, nanging Lawrence ngembangaké kapribaden ing sajroné musim wiwitan pertunjukan lan pungkasané dadi antagonis utama francais. Planktons main paraga utama ing film teater 2004, sing dadi loro kanggo anggota paraga utama ing kridit, lan terusan 2015 . Dhéwèkè uga wis tampil ing maneka werna media, kalebu publikasi dasi, dolanan, lan barang-barang liyané. == Plankton == === Paraga ing ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' === {{Quote box|align=right|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=34em|style=max-width:40%|quote=[Plankton is a] complex, wounded character who is really looking for a friend in a way, but can't let that happen because of his evil front. He carries deep hurt underneath and doesn't want to let anybody know that.|source=— [[Mr. Lawrence]] on the character of Plankton<ref name="Beck105"/>}} Plankton minangka nemesis lan mantan kanca paling apik saka Pak Krabs.<ref name="Friend">{{Cite episode|title=Friend or Foe|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=5|number=81|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> Dhéwèkè nggarap Ember Chum, sing ana ing sisih tengen ruangan saka warung mangan Krabs, [[Krusty Krab]] .<ref name="Komputer Overload">{{Cite episode|title=Komputer Overload|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=6|number=118b|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> Embung Chum utamané adol chum (umpan sing kalebu bagean iwak), sing umume dianggep ora bisa ditemokaké dening paraga liyané. Kadhangkala, warung mangan kasebut gagal kegagalan komersial. Tujuan utama Plankton ing seri kasebut yaiku supaya Krabs metu saka bisnis lan entuk monopoli ing industri panganan cepet. Usaha jahat kanggo nindakaké iki umume dikenal ing acara kasebut; paraga fellow [[Squidward Tentacles]] nuduhaké Plankton minangka "perkara sing paling disengiti ing Bikini Bottom".<ref name="F.U.N.">{{Cite episode|title=F.U.N.|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=1|number=10b|network=Nickelodeon|quote=How does it feel to be the most hated thing in Bikini Bottom, Plankton?! It hurts, doesn't it?!}} "Get moving, genius, don't let him get away." "Befriend the SpongeBob, then when the time is just right, take the Krabby Patty!"</ref> Lelucon sing lumaku ing saindenging seri yaiku kasunyatané Plankton luwih cilik tinimbang paraga biasa liyané; dhéwèkè gampang diterusaké lan dikirim mabur bali menyang Chum Bucket kanthi gulung driji mung.<ref name="Truth or Square">{{Cite episode|title=Truth or Square|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=6|number=123/124|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> Ukuran cilik dhéwèkè nyebabaké dhéwèkè nggawé kompleks Napoleon, sing kadhangkala diwujudaké minangka kepinginan kanggo dominasi global.<ref name="Absorbing">{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lT7VzFW0acE|title=The Absorbing Tale Behind "The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie"|date=March 1, 2005|last=Lawrence|first=Doug|author-link=Mr. Lawrence|time=9:50–9:58|quote=Plankton's about this big, a little cyclops&nbsp;... he's got a little bit of a Napoleon complex, I'd say.}}</ref> Dhéwèkè minangka panému trampil lan rutin nggawé mesin, loro kanggo mbantu dhéwèkè, lan kanggo golek batine dhewe. Sanajan dhéwèkè nggunakaké kapinteran kanggo tumindak ala, Plankton durung miwiti dadi ilmuwan sing jahat; dhèwèké ngedegaké Karen, ing pertemuan pisanan, nalika wis kekancan karo Pak Krabs nalika sekolah kelas.<ref name="Friend"/> Penting ing sesawangan wiwitan, plankton plankton yaiku "Aku lumebu kuliah!", Ujar kanggo nggambaraké kapinteran paraga kasebut.<ref name="Beck107">[[Plankton and Karen#CITEREFBeck2013|Beck 2013]], p.&nbsp;107</ref> Dhéwèkè uga nduwé kewan binatang peliharaan sing jenenge Spot sing wiwitané asu njaga, nanging mengko dadi pensiunan. Peranan Plankton ora antagonis mliginé. Ing njaba bisnis, dhéwèkè bisa duwé hubungan sing ramah karo SpongeBob. Ing ''Film SpongeBob: Sponge Out of Water'', Plankton mbuwang permusuhan dhéwèkè kanggo SpongeBob lan kerja bareng karo dhéwèkè menyang tujuan sing umum. Film kasebut diterangaké dening ''The Guardian'' minangka "film buddy" ing antarané Plankton lan SpongeBob.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/feb/03/spongebob-movie-sponge-out-of-water-first-look-review|title=The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water first look review – superhero slugfest drags a good sequel down|last=Hoffman|first=Jordan|date=February 3, 2015|website=[[The Guardian]]|publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]]}}</ref> pangripta seri [[Stephen Hillenburg]] nganggep Plankton "luwih akéh karikatur saka penjahat" tinimbang paraga ala sing ala.<ref name="Beck102">[[Plankton and Karen#CITEREFBeck2013|Beck 2013]], p.&nbsp;102</ref> === Pengembangan === Nalika ''SpongeBob SquarePants dadi'' perdana, Plankton ora dadi bagian saka paraga utama seri kasebut. Aktor swara ing Plankton, Pak Lawrence, nyatakaké sawise ngasilaké babak debut Plankton ing pungkasan taun 1990an, panyipta Stephen Hillenburg ora yakin manawa dhéwèkè bakal nggunakaké paraga kasebut. Sawise nyathet, Hillenburg ora kalebu wong liya, ngandhani Lawrence: "Mungkin kita bakal nggawé [Plankton babak liyané] taun ngarep," <ref name="Beck111">[[Plankton and Karen#CITEREFBeck2013|Beck 2013]], p.&nbsp;111</ref> Lawrence ngringkes asal-usul Plankton ing taun 2015, ujar manawa dhéwèkè "mung dianggep dadi siji utawa loro babak., nanging aku dadi penulis ing acara lan aku seneng banget karo paraga iki ".<ref name="courier">{{Cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/138093814/|title=Meet the voice behind a 'SpongeBob' character|last=Bourbeau|first=Mary Ann|date=November 15, 2015|work=[[Courier News]]|publisher=[[Gannett Company]]}}</ref> Sawise rekaman swarané pisanan minangka Plankton, Lawrence ngrancang sawétara gagasan dhéwèkè dhewe kanggo paraga kasebut lan dikirim menyang Hillenburg. Mula, Plankton wiwit katon luwih asring. Lawrence nganggep musim ketiga yaiku Plankton minangka paraga utama. Sak produksi ing mangsa wiwitan ''SpongeBob'' ' Lawrence mung anggota Staff nulis latar lan negesaké nglibatno Plankton. Ing wektu kasebut, dhéwèkè rumangsa "kudu mbuktekaké Plankton bisa urip luwih saka paraga siji-cathetan".<ref name="Beck105">[[Plankton and Karen#CITEREFBeck2013|Beck 2013]], p.&nbsp;105</ref> Wiwit saiki, pirang-pirang panulis nulis kanggo Plankton tanpa keterlibatan Lawrence, kalebu tim panulis sing tanggung jawab kanggo peran dibintangi Plankton ing film ''SpongeBob'' . Lawrence terus nulis babak Plankton, nalika ujar taun 2015, "Aku dudu swara dhéwèkè. Aku kudu nggawé kepriye paraga ditulis lan kepriye suwé-suwé saya urip. " <ref name="courier"/> Gambar sketsa wiwitan kanggo Plankton nggambaraké dhéwèkè ing setelan robot, kanthi sistem Karen dibangun ing njero; setelan kasebut ora katon ing seri.<ref name="BoytoBob">{{Cite magazine|date=June 2003|title=From Boy to Bob|magazine=[[Nickelodeon Magazine|Nick Mag Presents: SpongeBob SquarePants]]|publisher=[[Viacom International]]}}</ref> Koper kasebut minangka cara kanggo nambah ngarsané Plankton, amarga salah sawijining niat asli Hillenburg yaiku supaya paraga kasebut cilik banget kanggo ndeleng tanpa kaca gedhé. Nalika seri kasebut terus, animator nggedhékaké ukuran Plankton, rumangsa dadi mikroskopis "ora kondus marang dhéwèkè sesambungan karo paraga liyané". ==== Swara ==== [[Gambar:Mr._Lawrence_on_Panel.jpg|ka|jmpl|250x250px| Lawrence (tengen) lan Jill Talley (kiwa), swarané Plankton lan Karen.]] Swara Plankton diwenehaké dening aktor Amerika Doug Lawrence, biasané dikonfirmasi minangka "Pak Lawrence." Swara kasebut asale minangka niru salah sawijining kanca sekolah ing dhuwur.<ref name="courier"/> Ing televisi, Lawrence pisanan nggunakaké swara iki kanggo paraga sing kedadeyan ing ''Rocko's Modern Life'' . Aktor swara fungsional Tom Kenny nemokaké nyenengaké, nyebabaké keputusan Lawrence nggunakaké nalika audisi kanggo peran ing ''SpongeBob'' .<ref name="Beck105"/> Lawrence pisanan nyoba kanggo peran SpongeBob sajroné pre-produksi sadurunge seri, nanging Stephen Hillenburg pengin swara sing luwih resik kanggo paraga kasebut lan nggawé dhéwèkè mudhun. Lawrence terus nggarap pertunjukan, nyritakaké paraga cilik, sing pungkasané nyebabaké dhéwèkè ditawani peran Plankton kanggo "Plankton!" babak Dhéwèkè nerangaké swarané Plankton minangka "kombinasi Gregory Peck lan Tony the Tiger ." Nalika "Plankton!" babak dipasang ing [[Nickelodeon]], Hillenburg wis mutusaké yen pengin Lawrence mainaké Plankton. Nanging, eksekutif jaringan kepengin bintang tamu nyedhiyakaké swarané wiwit wis siyap tampil ing mung siji babak. Lawrence nyebutaké ing wawanrembug karo aktor ''SpongeBob'', Thomas F. Wilson, manawa studio kasebut ujar, "'kita bisa ngejar . Sampeyan ngerti, kita bisa duwé [[Bruce Willis]] nglakoni swara kasebut. ' Lan Steve [Hillenburg] kaya, 'Doug, apa sampeyan ora krungu? Iki watak! Lha wong iki! '" === Panampa === ==== Tanggepan kritis ==== paraga Plankton wis entuk resepsi umum sing positif sajroné ''nglakokaké SpongeBob SquarePants'' . Nalika ditinjau babagan musim kaping papat, Paul Mavis saka ''DVD Talk'' nyatakaké manawa para pamirsa diwasa bisa nemokaké Plankton luwih lucu tinimbang wong liya, memuji swara "swarané wong apik".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dvdtalk.com/reviews/25858/spongebob-squarepants-season-4-vol-2/|title=SpongeBob SquarePants - Season 4, Vol. 2 review|last=Mavis|first=Paul|date=January 9, 2007|website=[[DVD Talk]]}}</ref> Ing Review babagan musim enem " Clash of Triton ," Mavis diarani Plankton "siji-sijine paraga ''SpongeBob'' sekunder sing bisa" sukses "dadi cekak dhewe".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dvdtalk.com/reviews/44570/spongebob-squarepants-tritons-revenge/|title=SpongeBob SquarePants - Triton's Revenge review|last=Mavis|first=Paul|date=July 13, 2010|website=[[DVD Talk]]}}</ref> Bettijané Levine saka ''The Los Angeles Times'' nyerat kanthi positif babagan gambar Plankton sing nyebutaké luwih apik tinimbang ora laku jina, yaiku nggambaraké dhéwèkè minangka "kota meanie" &nbsp; ... nanging tegese beda karo ala. Ora ana sing ala, malah ora kepenak kaya menace, ing jagad SpongeBob sing aman, jagad aman. " <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2002/apr/07/news/lv-spongebob7/2|title=Adults Find Their Inner Sponge|last=Levine|first=Bettijane|date=April 7, 2002|publisher=[[Tronc|Tronc, Inc.]]}}</ref> Ann Hagman Cardinal of Blogcritics muji paraga kasebut, kanthi retorik takon ing tinjauan 2007, "sing ora geleng karo Plankton sing ketat, Kirk Douglas -panyuwara Plankton kanthi rencana ala film sing bisu nyolong resep rahasia kanggo Krabby Patty?" <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogcritics.org/spongebob-philosopherpants/|title=SpongeBob PhilosopherPants|last=Cardinal|first=Ann Hagman|date=October 30, 2007|website=[[Blogcritics]]|publisher=Critical Lens Media|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402170251/http://blogcritics.org/spongebob-philosopherpants/|archive-date=April 2, 2017}}</ref> Penulis Boston.com, Jamie Loftus duwé rasa campuran babagan Plankton ing artikel ing 2015, negesaké manawa "meh saben babak sing nampilaké pengawasan Plankton sing cilik rumus," dhéwèkè ora tau "lawas".<ref name="bdcwire">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bdcwire.com/best-spongebob-episodes/|title=The Complete Guide to SpongeBob's Greatest Episodes|last=Loftus|first=Jamie|date=February 9, 2015|website=[[Boston.com|BDCWire]]|publisher=[[The Boston Globe]]}}</ref> James Poniewozik saka majalah ''Time'' ngomentari Plankton ing artikel 2001. Dhéwèkè nyatakaké yen "ora ana sing ngira manawa wong jahat kutha, yaiku Plankton megalomaniacal, minangka organisme siji-sel" minangka bagean saka "swasana warni, goofy" program kasebut.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,187600,00.html|title=Soaking Up Attention|last=Poniewozik|first=James|date=December 9, 2001|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|author-link=James Poniewozik|access-date=November 11, 2019|archive-date=December 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229004630/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C187600%2C00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ing artikel kanggo ''The AV Club'', Zack Handlen ujar manawa "humor Plankton asale saka cita-cita operasional dhéwèkè terus diluncuraké dening bocah sing wis dipitados.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.avclub.com/article/spongebob-squarepants-built-its-undersea-empire-on-201164|title=''SpongeBob SquarePants'' built its undersea empire on nonsense and enthusiasm|last=Handlen|first=Zack|date=February 17, 2014|website=[[The A.V. Club]]|publisher=[[The Onion|Onion, Inc.]]}}</ref> Ing taun 2015, ''Entertainment Weekly'' ' s Hillary Busis jenenge Plankton minangka salah sawijining paraga sing paling jahat ing televisi, nambah komentar dhéwèkè yen "diswarakaké kanggo kesempurnaan duraka dening Doug Lawrence".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ew.com/gallery/devious-schemers-tv-characters/plankton-spongebob/|title=TV's most devious schemers|last=Busis|first=Hillary|date=March 1, 2015|website=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|access-date=November 11, 2019|archive-date=August 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801195324/http://ew.com/gallery/devious-schemers-tv-characters/plankton-spongebob/|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{Interlanguage link multi|José Antonio Gómez Marín|es|José Antonio Gómez Marín}} saka ''El Mundo'' dibandhingaké rencana Plankton karo crita saka Georges Simenon ing artikel 2013.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.elmundo.es/andalucia/2013/11/13/5283704d684341532f8b4574.html|title=La cruz del sur: Bob Esponja|last=José Antonio Gómez Marín|date=November 13, 2013|work=[[El Mundo (Spain)|El Mundo]]|publisher=[[Unidad Editorial]]|language=Spanish|author-link=:es:José Antonio Gómez Marín}}</ref> Ing buku kasebut ing ''SpongeBob SquarePants and Philosophy'', ilmuwan politik Joseph J. Foy, ujar manawa "Plankton bisa uga dadi pahlawan sing ora ana ing siri kasebut, lan SpongeBob dadi penjahat sing sejati." Dhéwèkè mbandhingaké paraga kasebut ing Nietzschean <nowiki><i id="mwvA">Übermensch</i></nowiki>, kanthi <nowiki><i id="mwvA">nggatekaké kajiwaan</i></nowiki> mental dhéwèkè dibandhingaké karo paraga liyané ing pertunjukan kasebut, lan pitakon babagan carané Plankton mung "diadili dadi ala amarga, ora preduli saka pirang-pirang prekara gedhé sing ditindakaké, tujuané dianggep ora jelas ". Foy ngrampungaké analisis kanthi ngritik kasunyatan manawa "SpongeBob dipuji luwih mulia amarga nyoba nahan mundur Plankton." <ref name="Foy73-80">[[Plankton and Karen#CITEREFFoy2011|Foy 2011]], p.&nbsp;73–80</ref> == Karen == === Paraga ing ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' === Sheldon Plankton nikah karo superkomputer anti banyu sing jenenge Karen Plankton, sing uga dadi kanca sgagasankick lan kanca sing paling apik.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIfzd7YnW_oC|title=SpongeBob Exposed!: The Insider's Guide to SpongeBob SquarePants|last=Banks|first=Steven|date=September 21, 2004|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|others=Schigiel, Gregg (illustrator)|isbn=978-0-689-86870-2|page=15|author-link=Steven Banks}}</ref> Karen minangka penemuan Plankton dhewe, dipasang saka kalkulator lan pirang-pirang kabel.<ref name="Komputer Overload"/> Dhéwèkè dadi penemuan pertama Plankton nalika dhéwèkè sekolah, lan dhéwèkè tanggal sadurunge dhéwèkè dadi ala.<ref name="Friend"/> Sistem dhéwèkè dibangun ing meh kabèh mesin Plankton (kalebu Chum Bucket dhewe) saengga dhéwèkè lan Plankton bisa komunikasi nalika pungkasan ana misi. Dhéwèkè minangka Mark II Surplus UNIVAC sing ana 256 gigabytes [[RAM|memori akses acak]] .<ref name="singlecell">{{Cite episode|title=Single Cell Anniversary|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=6|number=122b|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> Dhéwèkè uga duwé program darurat ing ibu hukum. (EMILP) Karen nanggung maneka werna pakaryan ing Chum Bucket, kalebu busser, chef lan cashier; dhéwèkè arang kudu netepi dhéwèkè amarga ora populer ing warung mangan. Dhéwèkè uga cenderung tetep luwih fokus tinimbang Plankton ing misi inti nyolong formula Krabs. Karen asring ngelingaké dhéwèkè supaya tetep nindakaké tugas <ref name="F.U.N."/> lan nyengkuyung supaya dhéwèkè terus maju nalika kelangan kapitadosn.<ref name="Truth or Square"/> Amarga dhéwèkè ora duwé ati, Karen biasané ora bisa ngrasakaké empati marang wong-wong ing saubenge.<ref name="Friend"/> Interaksi dhéwèkè ora mung dibantu Plankton, nanging; dhéwèkè dadi kanca [[Shandy Cheeks|Sandy Cheeks]], uga cerdas lan kepengin banget ilmu.<ref>{{Cite episode|title=Salsa Imbecilicus|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=9|number=203b|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> Karen duwé kabiasaan kanggo ngubungi SpongeBob minangka "SpongeBob." Karen luwih kompeten tinimbang Plankton ngrancang plot nyolong resep Krabby Patty. Umume rencana sing efektif yaiku saka Karen, kalebu "Plan Z" - mung rencana kanggo ngasilaké Plankton kanthi sukses nyolong rumus kasebut lan nggunakaké bathi - ing ''Film SpongeBob SquarePants'' . Ewadene, dhéwèkè isih duwé kredit kanggo dhéwèkè luwih kuciwa. Karen kanthi gampang nyolong rumus Krabs tanpa pitulung Plankton, nanging garwané mesthi ora sengaja.<ref name="singlecell"/> Amarga prilaku sing beda, Plankton lan Karen duwé karep kanggo mbantah. Tom Kenny, aktor swara SpongeBob, wis nate ngarani pernikahané " ''Honéymoonérs'' -like", mbandhingaké pasangan kasebut saka pasangan ''Honéymoonérs'' .<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/tv-season/spongebob-squarepants-tom-kennys-top-20/id321575301|title=SpongeBob SquarePants: Tom Kenny's Top 20|date=May 15, 2009|website=[[iTunes]]|publisher=[[Apple Inc.]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613220206/https://itunes.apple.com/us/tv-season/spongebob-squarepants-tom-kennys-top-20/id321575301|archive-date=June 13, 2017}}</ref> Minangka komputer ing lantai samodra, kamampuan Karen kanggo ngoperasik ing jero banyu durung diterangno ing babak kasebut. Tom Kenny micaraaké ing wawanrembug taun 2004 karo [[Associated Press]], sing nyatakaké fungsine Karen minangka aspek "Aja-takon-kenapa" ''SpongeBob'' lan "logika ora duwé papan" ing jagad raya kasebut.<ref name="today">{{Cite web|url=http://www.today.com/popculture/ten-secrets-spongebob-movie-wbna6494823|title=Ten secrets of the SpongeBob movie|last=Associated Press|authorlink=Associated Press|date=November 15, 2004|publisher=[[Today (U.S. TV program)|Today]]}}</ref> === Pengembangan === Karen uga digawé dening Stephen Hillenburg, sing jeneng paraga kasebut garwané, Karen Hillenburg (née Umland). Hillenburg wiwitané ngrancang laboratorium kanggo Plankton kanggo nyampurnakaké katrampilan teknologi paraga, tumuju pembangunan Karen minangka sistem komputer pusat lab.<ref name="BoytoBob"/> Kaya Plankton, dhéwèkè ora wiwitan dadi paraga utama; peran dhéwèkè ing seri kasebut tuwuh nalika Lawrence nulis gagasan supaya menehi kapribadhen kanggo Planktons. Liwat musim pisanan lan kaloro seri, Karen ora ditetepaké dadi garwané Plankton; Biografi resmi Plankton wiwit taun 2000 mung nyatakaké yen dhéwèkè kerja "kanthi bantuan komputer, Karen".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/spongebobsquarep00fain|title=''SpongeBob SquarePants'' Trivia Book|last=Fain|first=David|date=September 1, 2000|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|isbn=978-0-689-84018-0|page=13|url-access=registration}}</ref> Ing pambuka musim ketiga, seri " The Algae's laging Greener ," Plankton nuduhaké Karen minangka bojoné sing pertama.<ref>{{Cite episode|title=The Algae's Always Greener|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=3|number=41a|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> Aspèk pernikahané, kaya ta ulang taun lan bulan madu, wis dadi fokus ing babak wiwit saiki.<ref name="Beck110">[[Plankton and Karen#CITEREFBeck2013|Beck 2013]], p.&nbsp;110</ref> Ing babak wiwitan, Karen tansah ndhukung lan grapyak marang bojoné. Nanging, nalika seri kasebut terus, dhéwèkè dadi luwih sinis lan narkoba amarga obsesi Plankton kanthi formula Krabby Patty.<ref name="Foy67">[[Plankton and Karen#CITEREFFoy2011|Foy 2011]], p.&nbsp;67</ref> Nanging, dhéwèkè tetep maha lan tresna marang dhéwèkè. akéh babak sing ditulis dening Lawrence sing berkembang lan njelajah hubungan antara Karen lan bojoné. Lawrence nyatakaké yen dhéwèkè ngrasakaké manawa Karen nggawé babak sing fokus ing Plankton luwih lucu lan ngarsané dhéwèkè mbantu nggambaraké dhéwèkè minangka paraga multidimensional. Ing wawanrembug ing taun 2009 karo Andy Goodman, dhéwèkè ujar, "Aku pengin Karen luwih akéh &nbsp; . . . Urip sing nikah karo jenius sing ala iku paling nyenengaké kanggo aku, mula babagan kasebut [Karen] temtunipun nambah critané Plankton, nggawé dhéwèkè luwih saka wong jahat sing khas. " Umume sesawangan Karen ing papat musim pisanan sing nggambaraké dhéwèkè minangka monitor biru sing gedhé ing laboratorium Chum Bucket;<ref>{{Cite episode|title=Plankton!|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=1|number=3b|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> ing wektu liya, swarané mung keprungu saka njero robank Plankton.<ref>{{Cite episode|title=Imitation Krabs|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=2|number=24b|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> Ing ''Film SpongeBob SquarePants'', unit seluler dikenalaké supaya Karen bisa sesambungan kanthi gampang karo wong liya.<ref>{{Cite AV media|title=[[The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie]]|date=November 14, 2004|last=[[Stephen Hillenburg]]|type=Motion picture|language=English|publisher=[[Paramount Pictures]]}}</ref> Showrunner Vincent Waller ngandhakaké, unit mobile kasebut dikenalaké amarga nduwé Karen bisa mindhah luwih trep kanggo tujuan cerita.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/VincentWaller72/status/866382329056555011|title=Vincent Waller on Twitter|last=Vincent Waller|authorlink=Vincent Waller|date=May 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613213722/https://twitter.com/VincentWaller72/status/866382329056555011|archive-date=June 13, 2017}}</ref> Karen ganti antara pirang-pirang wujud ing pirang-pirang babak sing digawé sawise film kasebut. Ing musim kaping sepuluh, monitor tembok dhéwèkè ora digunakaké manéh lan bentuk ponsel dhéwèkè mesthi nganggo lengen robot.<ref name="Plankton Retires">{{Cite episode|title=Plankton Retires|series=SpongeBob SquarePants|season=10|number=211a|network=Nickelodeon}}</ref> ==== Swara ==== Karen diswaraké dening aktris Amerika Jill Talley, sing uga dadi garwané aktor swara SpongeBob, Tom Kenny. Talley nggunakaké aksen Midwestern kanggo paraga kasebut.<ref name="about">{{Cite web|url=http://animatedtv.about.com/od/spongebobsquarepants/tp/SpongeBob-SquarePants-Cast.htm|title='SpongeBob SquarePants' Cast: Who Does What Voice?|last=Basile|first=Nancy|date=January 30, 2016|website=[[About.com]]|access-date=November 11, 2019|archive-date=April 12, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412230115/http://animatedtv.about.com/od/spongebobsquarepants/tp/SpongeBob-SquarePants-Cast.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nalika Karen ngomong, swarané bisa dicampur karo efek swara elektronik dening insinyur audio seri kanggo nggawé swara robot.<ref>{{Cite AV media|title=F.U.N. backstage featurette, Nautical Nonsense|date=2002|last=Lawrence, Doug|publisher=[[Paramount Home Media Distribution|Paramount Home Entertainment]]}}</ref> Swarané, sing luwih monoton ing babak sadurunge, wis diterangaké "deadpan" dening Associated Press.<ref name="today"/> Sawétara omongané Karen karo Plankton ora ana ing antarané Talley lan Lawrence. Pungkasan kasebut nggambaraké improvisasi kasebut minangka salah sawijining "bagean favorit" saka swara ing taun 2009. Dhéwèkè njelasaké wawanrembug ing taun 2012, ujar, "Aku mesthi seneng mundur. [Talley lan aku] wiwit bener-bener nyuwil-nyuwil, sing kudu dirating [direktur swara], 'oh, mandheg nggarap, sebaraké apa sing sampeyan ucapaké!' " Lawrence uga rumangsa yen bisa nyritakaké paraga nganti suwé banget nggawé sesambungan ing antarané aktor loro. Ing topik, dhéwèkè kandha, "Perkawinan on-TV sing kita lakoni iki, jagad kabèh ngerti yen kita wis nikah &nbsp; . . . Kita miwiti dadi pasangan bojo [nalika ngrekam]. " === Panampa === ==== Tanggepan kritis ==== Karen wis nampa reaksi positif saka kritikus. Ing tinjauan taun 2010 saka ''SpongeBob Terakhir'', Paul Mavis, Paul Mavis nulis banget babagan dialog Karen lan Plankton, nyatakaké yen loro "bisa duwé sitkome dhewe".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dvdtalk.com/reviews/41486/spongebobs-last-stand/|title=SpongeBob's Last Stand review|last=Mavis|first=Paul|date=March 16, 2010|website=[[DVD Talk]]}}</ref> Sandie Angulo Chen saka Media Sense Umum memuji jumlah layar sing diwenehaké marang Karen ing ''Sponge Out of Water'', kanthi nyebut dhéwèkè "lucu".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/movie-reviews/the-spongebob-movie-sponge-out-of-water|title=The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water Review|last=Chen|first=Sandie Angulo|date=February 6, 2015|website=[[Common Sense Media]]}}</ref> Ing taun 2015, Jamie Loftus ing Boston.com nganggit Karen minangka alasan dhéwèkè jenenge 2002 "Welcome to the Chum Bucket" salah sawijining nembelas babak ''SpongeBob'' paling gedhé.<ref name="bdcwire"/> Gizmodo 's Ryan Lufkin wrote ing 2016 sing ''<nowiki/>''' s "90s-tingkat wiring" wis buktiakén dening paraga kaya Plankton lan Karen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2016/02/90s-cartoons-were-weird-as-hell-and-i-loved-it/|title='90s Cartoons Were Freakin' Weird, and I Loved It|last=Lufkin|first=Ryan|date=February 23, 2016|website=[[Gizmodo]]|publisher=[[Univision Communications]]}}</ref> The About Group 's Nancy Basile muji gambar Jill Talley babagan paraga kasebut, manawa ujar manawa "ora kejutan dhéwèkè nindakaké peran kasebut kanthi becik" amarga pakaryan dhéwèkè wiwitan karo Second City lan ''Pak Show'' .<ref name="about"/> Ing analisis babagan pamriksan kasebut wis owah, mula Saluran Frederator negesaké manawa paraga utama ''SpongeBob'' –spesifikatif Sandy, Patrick, Pak Krabs, Squidward lan Karen - wis dikurangi saka multidimensi supaya bisa dipitados karo sipat siji. Miturut tampilan iki, "Karen saiki dadi full-blown nag" ing babak sing luwih anyar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4oaGJ7cUqx4|title=SpongeBob SquarePants: Then vs. Now|last=Polk|first=Christina|last2=Tarzi|first2=Nahreen|date=March 20, 2017|website=[[Channel Frederator Network]]|publisher=[[Frederator Networks, Inc.]]}}</ref> Aspek paraga Karen iki uga dikritik dening penulis Joseph J. Foy, ing bukune ''SpongeBob SquarePants and Philosophy'' . Panjenenganipun nganggep trope iki salah siji saka sawétara dobel mbebayani saiki ing program, sing nulis "motif saka bojo Nagging mesthi masalah pantes dissection ing dealing karo para rawuh enom, bebarengan karo teen putri ngrusak <nowiki>[</nowiki> [[Mr. Krabs|Pearl]] <nowiki>]</nowiki> lan bodho paling kanca <nowiki>[</nowiki> Patrick <nowiki>]</nowiki> ".<ref name="Foy67"/> Lampooning kontroversi sekitar seksualitas SpongeBob, ahli ilmu jiwa Dennis Hans nulis potongan sindiran 2005 kanggo ''Reporter Katulik Nasional sing'' fokus marang pernikahané Plankton lan Karen. Dhéwèkè ujar manawa, manawa orientasi seksual SpongeBob minangka masalah sing luwih murah dibandhingaké perwakilan positif " tekniseksualitas " Plankton. Hans ngenalaké kedadeyan Plankton loro minangka pasangan sing ditresnani lan guyon: "pesen subliminal saka para pangripta SpongeBob &nbsp; ... [yaiku] gaya urip teknis tegese iket terus karo katresnan sejati sing sejatine ".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives2/2005a/021805/021805q.php|title=Plankton's insidious technosexual agenda|last=Hans|first=Dennis|date=February 18, 2005|work=[[National Catholic Reporter]]|access-date=November 11, 2019|archive-date=March 17, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317161252/http://natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives2/2005a/021805/021805q.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Ing medhia liyané == Plankton lan Karen wis ditampilaké ing maneka werna jinis barang dagangan ''SpongeBob SquarePants'', kalebu game vgagasano lan tokoh tumindak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.walmart.com/ip/Fisher-Price-Imaginext-SpongeBob-SquarePants-Krusty-Krab-Playset/44786247|title=Imaginext SpongeBob SquarePants: Krusty Krab playset|website=[[Walmart|Walmart.com]]|publisher=Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.}}</ref> Ing taun 2006, Beanie Babies Ty Inc. ngenalaké dolanan plush adhedhasar Plankton.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbtoystore.com/store/BB_sheldonjplankton.html|title=TY Beanie Baby - SHELDON J PLANKTON (SpongeBob SquarePants) (9 inch)|publisher=BB Toy Store|access-date=May 2, 2013|archive-date=May 16, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516081417/http://www.bbtoystore.com/store/BB_sheldonjplankton.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> A bangunan [[Lego]] adhedhasar Chum Bucket, kalebu minifigure Plankton lan laboratorium karo Karen, dirilis ing taun 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mi-od-live-s.legocdn.com/bigdownloads/buildinginstructions/4516580.pdf#page=56|title=Lego SpongeBob SquarePants: Chum Bucket|date=2007|website=[[Lego|Lego.com]]|publisher=[[The Lego Group]]|access-date=2019-11-11|archive-date=2017-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614010559/https://mi-od-live-s.legocdn.com/bigdownloads/buildinginstructions/4516580.pdf#page=56|url-status=dead}}</ref> Masalah patbelas ''SpongeBob Comics'', kanthi judhul "Plankton Comics," pusataké ing Plankton lan kalebu enem crita asli sing dipasang ing Chum Bucket.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://comics.panini.it/store/pub_ita_it/mpaca014-it-panini-cartoon-spongebob-n-14.html|title=SpongeBob Comics #14|date=December 2, 2015|website=[[Panini Comics]]|publisher=[[Panini Group]]|access-date=November 11, 2019|archive-date=February 5, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205130029/http://comics.panini.it/store/pub_ita_it/mpaca014-it-panini-cartoon-spongebob-n-14.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''Revenge Robot ing'' vgagasano 2013 ing taun Plankton kanthi tema Plankton lan nampilaké Lawrence lan Jill Talley nolak peran swara saka pertunjukan kasebut minangka Plankton lan Karen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/01/spongebob-squarepants-planktons-robotic-revenge-review|title=SpongeBob SquarePants: Plankton's Robotic Revenge Review|last=Fekete|first=Bob|date=November 1, 2013|website=[[IGN|IGN.com]]|publisher=[[Ziff Davis]]}}</ref> Plankton lan Karen katon ing sawétara karya salib Nickelodeon, kalebu ''Nicktoons Unite taun'' 2005 ''!'' game <ref>{{Cite video game|title=[[Nicktoons Unite!]]|developer=[[Blue Tongue Entertainment]]|publisher=[[THQ]]|date=October 26, 2005|level=8}}</ref> lan salah sawijining urutan, ''Nicktoons: Globs of Doom'' .<ref>{{Cite video game|title=[[SpongeBob SquarePants featuring Nicktoons: Globs of Doom]]|developer=[[Incinerator Studios]]|publisher=[[THQ]]|date=October 20, 2008}}</ref> Loro game kasebut nampilaké Chum Bucket minangka lokasi dolanan lan sing terakhir, Plankton minangka paraga pamuter .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2009/02/04/spongebob-squarepants-featuring-nicktoons-globs-of-doom-review|title=SpongeBob SquarePants featuring Nicktoons: Globs of Doom review|last=Ballard|first=Adam|date=February 3, 2009|website=[[IGN|IGN.com]]|publisher=[[Ziff Davis]]}}</ref> Tambahan, Plankton lan Karen sing kasebut dening Eric Lange (minangka paraga Sikowitz ) ing " Tori Goes Platinum ," babak saka Nickelodeon kang sitkom ''[[Victorious]]'' .<ref>{{Cite episode|title=Tori Goes Platinum|series=Victorious|series-link=Victorious|season=3|number=42|network=Nickelodeon|time=18:50}}</ref> [[File:SpongeBob_SquarePants_Plankton_and_Karen_Replicas_in_Taipei.jpg|ka|jmpl| Tandha saka laboratorium Plankton ing Kabupaten Zhongzheng, [[Taipei]] . ]] Acara "SpongeBob ParadePants" ing Sea World Australia, sing dibukak ing Desember 2011, kalebu float sing nampilaké Karen lan Plankton sing lagi micara.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://themeparks.com.au/~/media/Files/Shared/domestic%20sales/sw1205603_Trade_Brochure.ashx#page=2|title=Gold Coast Theme Parks Trade Brochure 2012|website=Gold Coast Attractions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011175137/http://themeparks.com.au/~/media/Files/Shared/domestic%20sales/sw1205603_Trade_Brochure.ashx|archive-date=October 11, 2012}}</ref> Ing taun 2015, rekreasi laboratorium Plankton dibangun kanggo acara ''SpongeBob'' ing Balai Peringatan Chiang Kai-shek ing Distrik Zhongzheng, [[Taipei]] .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cksmh.gov.tw/index.php?code=list&flag=detail&ids=86&article_id=10484|title=SpongeBob SquarePants art exhibition at the National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall|date=2015|website=[[Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall|CKSMH.gov.tw]]|publisher=[[Government of the Republic of China]]|language=Chinese}}</ref> Iki kalebu tiron monitor Karen, sing dienggo minangka tivi, babak screening ''SpongeBob'', lan patung Plankton miniatur.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kham.com.tw/ad.asp?P1=7000000395|title=SpongeBob SquarePants event at Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall|date=March 19, 2015|website=Kham.com.tw|language=Chinese|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319180633/http://www.kham.com.tw/ad.asp?P1=7000000395|archive-date=March 19, 2015}}</ref> Lagu Flaming Lips " Spongebob lan Patrick Ngadhuh Tembok Tenaga Psikik ," direkam kanggo ''The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie'', ditutup karo sawétara garis sing fokus ing Plankton lan Karen. Lagu kasebut nggambaraké Plankton minangka salah sawijine kesalahan bingung sing bakal luwih bahagia yen mandheg fokus marang gagal lan sambat karo Karen.<ref>{{Cite AV media|title=SpongeBob and Patrick Confront the Psychic Wall of Energy|last=[[Wayne Coyne]], [[Steven Drozd]], [[Michael Ivins]]|language=English|publisher=[[Nick Records]]|year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|date=November 2004|title=''The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie'' issue|magazine=[[Nickelodeon Magazine]]|publisher=[[Viacom International]]}}</ref> Plankton nembang lagu ing album paling anyar ing ''Best Day Ever kanthi'' irah-irahan "You Will Obey," ing babagan mantan gitaris [[Elvis Presley|Elham Presley]], James Burton main gitar.<ref name="EWSpeaks">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,1534894,00.html|title=SpongeBob Speaks!|last=Willman|first=Chris|date=September 14, 2006|website=Entertainment Weekly|access-date=February 12, 2014|archive-date=February 22, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222112118/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,1534894,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saka album kasebut, Tom Kenny ujar "salah sawijining endhog Paskah sing didhelikaké sing muga-muga luwih saka telung wong ing saindenging jagad iki yaiku sajroné solo gitar nalika Plankton ujar 'Jupuk, James', yaiku sing dicritakaké Elvis ing saben salah sawijining film konser ". Penyusun film John Debney ngasilaké musik tema Plankton kanggo film ''SpongeBob'' kaloro, nggunakaké tembaga lan trombon sing kurang. Ing film kang skor kalebu saparagagan trek jenenge sawise Plankton, kalebu "Plankton ngluwari Karen," kang digunakaké sajroné pemandangan nuduhaké kerjasama Plankton karo pahlawan SpongeBob.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/spongebob-movie-sponge-out-water-music-from-motion/id976361400|title=The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water (Music from the Motion Picture)|date=March 23, 2015|website=[[iTunes]]|publisher=[[Apple Inc.]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media|title=[[The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water]]|date=February 6, 2015|last=[[Paul Tibbitt]]|type=Motion picture|language=English|publisher=[[Paramount Pictures]]}}</ref> Plankton lan Karen minangka antagonis utama ing adaptasi Broadway pertunjukan,<ref name="Suntimes">{{Cite web|url=http://chicago.suntimes.com/entertainment/feel-good-spongebob-musical-rumbles-toils-and-bubbles/|title=Feel-good 'SpongeBob Musical' rumbles, toils and bubbles|last=Weiss|first=Hedy|date=June 19, 2016|publisher=[[Chicago Sun-Times]]}}</ref> ing gambar kasebut digambaraké dening Wesley Taylor lan Stephanie Hsu. Saliyané nganggo kostum sing diilhami dening paraga, Taylor lan Hsu uga diiringi bonéka Plankton lan tiron saka bentuk mobile Karen, masing-masing. Kekaroné uga nyanyi nomer musik kanthi irah-irahan "Nalika Going Gough Tough" (kasusun saka TI ) . Plot kasebut nampilaké dhéwèkè nyoba hipotesis warga Bikini Bottom supaya seneng panganan sing disuguhaké ing Chum Bucket. Ing taun 2009, aktor Andy Peart nggambaraké Plankton ing adaptasi musik ing babak kaping tiga " The Sponge Who Who Fly ".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nottinghampost.com/Review-Spongebob-Squarepants/story-12234729-detail/story.html|title=Review: SpongeBob SquarePants, Theatre Royal|date=April 30, 2009|website=[[Nottingham Post]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427155734/http://www.nottinghampost.com/Review-Spongebob-Squarepants/story-12234729-detail/story.html|archive-date=April 27, 2014|access-date=April 27, 2014}}</ref> Viv Hardwick saka ''Northern Echo kanthi'' positif mriksa produksi kasebut lan nyathet yen Peart duwé cara sing padha karo Plankton kartun.<ref name="Hardwick">{{Cite news|title=Theatre critics|last=Hardwick, Viv|date=April 24, 2009|work=[[The Northern Echo]]|page=25}}</ref> == Cathetan == {{Reflist}} === Kapustakan === {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPRymAEACAAJ|title=The SpongeBob SquarePants Experience: A Deep Dive Into the World of Bikini Bottom|last=Beck|first=Jerry|date=2013|publisher=Insight Editions|isbn=978-1-60887-184-1|author-link=Jerry Beck}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fO0Ljpn7SD4C&pg=PA67|title=SpongeBob SquarePants and Philosophy: Soaking Up Secrets Under the Sea!|last=Foy|first=Joseph J.|date=August 21, 2013|publisher=[[Open Court Publishing Company]]|isbn=978-0-8126-9735-3}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:SpongeBob SquarePants]] [[Kategori:Filem]] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] jqatn6b0rvtycdljpe5o5lbmf8okhru Lipida dwilapis 0 163641 1753009 1731204 2026-08-20T08:00:17Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 7 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753009 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Lipid_bilayer_section.gif|ka|jmpl|300x300px| Sesawangan cuwéran lipid dumadi saka fosfatidil kolina]] '''Lipid Dwilapis''' (utawa '''fosfolipid dwilapis''' ) yaiku lapisan membran tipis sing dumadi saka rong lapisan [[molekul]] lipid . Membran iki ana lembar warata sing dadi alangan terus ing [[Sèl (biologi)|sèla]] . [[Mémbran sèl|Membran sèl]] meh saben [[Organisme|organisme urip]] lan akéh jinis [[virus]], uga membran sing ngubengi [[Inti sel|inti sèl]] lan struktur sub-sèl liyané, dibentuk dening lapisan lipid Lapis. Lipid dwilapis minangka alangan sing njaga [[ion]], [[Protéin|protein]] lan molekul liyané ing endi sing dibutuhaké lan ngalangi supaya ora nglewati menyang wilayah liyané sing ora dibutuhaké. Bilayered lemak sampurna cocog kanggo muter peran iki amarga sanajan iku mung sawetara [[Nanometer|nanomèter]] sudhut,<ref name="andersen2007">{{Cite journal|last=Andersen|first=Olaf S.|last2=Koeppe, II|first2=Roger E.|date=June 2007|title=Bilayer Thickness and Membrane Protein Function: An Energetic Perspective|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.biophys.36.040306.132643|journal=Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure|volume=36|issue=1|pages=107–130|doi=10.1146/annurev.biophys.36.040306.132643|access-date=12 December 2014}}</ref> iku bisa ora bakal penetrated dening paling molekul telat ing banyu ( hidrofilik ). Kajaba iku, dwilapis kasebut ora bisa ditembus dening ion, ngidini sèl kanggo ngatur konsentrasi uyah lan tingkat pH kanthi ngompa ion ing membran nggunakaké protein sing diarani pompa ion . Dwilapis alami biasané kalebu [[fosfolipid]] sing duwé sirah hidrofilik lan loro buntut hidrofobik ing saben molekul. Nalika phospholipid kapapar banyu, disusun kanggo mbentuk rong lapisan (siji dwilapis) kanthi saben molekul nuding ing tengah lembaran iki. Pusat dwilapis meh ora duwé banyu lan rahasia molekul kaya ta [[gula]] lan uyah sing bisa larut ing banyu nanging ora ana minyak. Proses instalasi iki meh padha karo proses tetesan minyak sing ana ing banyu lan didorong dening daya sing padha, sing diarani efek hidrofobik . Amarga lipid dwilapis rada ringkih lan tipis nganti ora bisa ndeleng nggunakaké mikroskop tradisional, overlay banget angel sinau. Penghapusan suku dwilapis asring mbutuhaké teknik sing canggih kaya ta mikroskop elektron lan mikroskopis atom . Phosolipid kanthi pirang-pirang pepanthan sirah bisa ngganti kimia lumahing dwilapis lan bisa nindakaké barang kaya ta menehi sèl supaya bisa dirusak dening [[Sistem imun|sistem kekebalan]] . Buntut lipid uga bisa mangaruhi karakteristik membran, kaya ta kanthi nemtokaké fase dwilapis. Wilayah kasebut bisa duwé bentuk gel padhet ing suhu sing luwih murah, nanging fase dadi bentuk Cairan kanthi suhu sing luwih dhuwur. Komposisi lipid ing dwilapis uga menehi pengaruh karakteristik mekanik, kalebu resistensi kanggo mbengkongaké lan mbengkongaké. Umumé fitur kasebut diteliti nganggo lapisan "model" gawean ing laboratorium. Vesikel sing diasilaké model dwilapis uga digunakaké sacara klinik kanggo obat. [[Mémbran sèl|Membran biologis]] biasané ngemot pirang-pirang jinis lipid saliyané fosfolipid. Conto utama kanggo sèl kewan yaiku [[kolesterol]] sing mbantu nguataké dwilapis lan nyuda wolung. Kolesterol uga mbantu ngontrol kegiatan sawetara protein membran integral . Protein membran integral bisa digunakaké nalika digabung dadi lapisan lipid. Amarga dwilapis nemtokaké wates kanggo siji sèl lan komponen, protein membran iki melu macem-macem proses pangolahan ing jero lan sèl. Sawetara jinis protein membran melu proses gawe putih rong lapisan bebarengan. Bunder iki ngidini nggabungaké rong struktur sing beda kaya ta ing proses persenyawaan [[endhog]] kanthi [[Spermatozoid|sperma]] utawa ngetik [[virus]] menyang sèl. == Struktur lan organisasi == [[Gambar:Bilayer_hydration_profile.svg|ka|jmpl|275x275px| Rencana profil lipid salib khas. Ana telung wilayah sing béda: pepanthan sirah sing dihidrat kanthi lengkap, inti alkané dehidrasi lan area antara hidrasi sing cekak lan sebagean. Sanajan pepanthan sirah ora netral, dheweke duwé wektu dipole sing signifikan sing mengaruhi susunan molekul.<ref>Mashaghi et al. Hydration strongly affects the molecular and electronic structure of membrane phospholipids. 136, 114709 (2012)</ref>]] Lipid dwi-lipid, uga dikenal minangka fosfolipid dual -lipid, yaiku rong lembar lipid-lipid sing disusun supaya sirah fosfat hidrofilik langsung metu menyang banyu ing sisih loro glosari, lan buntut hidrofobik uga ngadhepi lumebu menyang inti dwarfic. Pengaturan iki ngasilaké rong "lembar"; saben lembar siji lapisan molekuler. Lipid sing nyusun awaké dhewe nggawe struktur iki amarga efek hidrofobik sing nyebabaké reaksi sing sregep antarané buntut hidrofobik lipid lan banyu ing sekitare. Dadi, formasi lipid dwilapis biasané dipertahanaké dening pasukan non-kovalen sing ora kalebu penampilan [[Roncèn kimia|ikatan kimia ing]] antarané siji molekul. Ana sawetara persamaan ing antarané struktur iki lan [[sabun]] scum biasa, sanajan ana uga bedané penting. Minangka ditampilaké, loro struktur nglibataké rong lapisan molekul bahan amphiphilic . Kanggo sinetron scum, rong lapisan sabun nutupi lapisan banyu ing antarané loro.<ref name="Divecha1995">{{Cite journal|last=Divecha|first=Nullin|last2=Irvine|first2=Robin F|date=27 January 1995|title=Phospholipid signaling|url=http://ac.els-cdn.com/0092867495904093/1-s2.0-0092867495904093-main.pdf?_tid=98202c6e-dc68-11e3-85aa-00000aacb35e&acdnat=1400182934_aecb2735d6748a91f12b61ce3dfbc000|format=PDF, 0.04 MB|journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]|volume=80|issue=2|pages=269–278|doi=10.1016/0092-8674(95)90409-3|pmid=7834746}}</ref> Sirah hidrofilik ngadhepi lumebu menyang inti banyu iki, déné buntut hidrofobik nuding menyang udara. Kanggo dwilapis lipid uga, struktur iki dibalik, yaiku sirah ing njaba lan buntut ing njero. Bedané liyané antarané dwidapis lipid lan sinetron yaiku ukuran sing relatif. Sabun umumé biasané ana sawetara atus nanomèter - luwih utawa kurang padha karo gelombang gelombang, lan iki minangka sababe pengaruh gangguan nggawe pelangi ing permukaan umpluk. Beda, siji dwilapis lipid mung kira-kira limang nanomèter tebal, luwih cilik tinimbang gelombang gelombang. Dadi, lapisan iki ora bisa didelok mripat manungsa, utawa uga mikroskop sing entheng. === Analisis penampang === [[Gambar:Bacillus_subtilis.jpg|kiri|jmpl|240x240px| Gambar bakteri TEM . Penampilan wulu ing njaba amarga ana gula dawa sing dipasang ing membran sèl. Lapisan iki mbantu banyu trobosan supaya bakteri ora dadi séhat.]] Dwilapis lipid banget lancip dibandhingaké karo dimensi tambahan. Yen sèl mamalia khas (~ 10 mikromèter diamèter) ditambahaké ukuran semangka (~ 1 &nbsp; ft / 30 &nbsp; cm), lipid dwilapis sing arus [[Mémbran sèl|membran plasma]] meh padha karo kertas kertas. Sanajan mung sawetara nanomèter sing kandel, dwilapis kalebu pirang-pirang wilayah kimia sing beda ing bagean kasebut. Wilayah lan interaksi karo banyu lingkungan wis di wènèhi pratandha ing dekadé anyar kanthi nggunakaké reflectometry x-ray,<ref name="Lewis1983">{{Cite journal|date=May 1983|title=Lipid bilayer thickness varies linearly with acyl chain length in fluid phosphatidylcholine vesicles|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_1983-05-15_166_2/page/211|journal=J. Mol. Biol.|volume=166|issue=2|pages=211–7|doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(83)80007-2|pmid=6854644}}</ref> semprotané saka neutron <ref name="Zaccai1975">{{Cite journal|date=January 1975|title=Neutron Diffraction Studies on the Location of Water in Lecithin Bilayer Model Membranes|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.|volume=72|issue=1|pages=376–380|bibcode=1975PNAS...72..376Z|doi=10.1073/pnas.72.1.376|pmc=432308|pmid=16592215}}</ref> lan resonansi magnetik nuklir . Wilayah pisanan ing sisih loro dwilapis yaiku pepanthan kepala hidrofilik. Bagean iki membran dihidrat kanthi lengkap lan biasané ana ing sekitar 0.8-0.9 &nbsp; nm nglukis. Ing [[Fosfolipid|phospholipids]] bilayered grup, [[fosfat]] ing area iki hydrated, kira-kira 0,5 &nbsp; Nm ing njaba inti hidrofobik <ref name="Nagle2000">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Structure of lipid bilayers|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304-4157(00)00016-2|journal=Biochim. Biophys. Acta|volume=1469|issue=3|pages=159–95|doi=10.1016/S0304-4157(00)00016-2|pmc=2747654|pmid=11063882}}</ref> Ing sawetara kasus, wilayah terhidrat bisa luwih adoh, umpamané ing lipid kanthi protein gedhé utawa chain gula sing dawa digabung menyang sirah. Salah sawijining conto modifikasi sing umum yaiku lapisan [[Lipopolisakarida|lipopolysakarida]] ing membran njaba bakteri,<ref name="Brock2003">{{Cite book|title=Brock biology of microorganisms|vauthors=Parker J, Madigan MT, Brock TD, Martinko JM|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2003|isbn=0-13-049147-0|edition=10th|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J}}</ref> sing mbantu njaga lapisan banyu ing sekitar [[Baktèri|bakteri]] supaya nyegah dehidrasi. Sabanjuré menyang area sing ana hydrated yaiku area penengah sing mung ana hydrated. Lapisan bates iki udakara 0.3 &nbsp; nm nglukis. Ing jarak cendhak kasebut, konsentrasi banyu nyelehaké saka 2M ing sisih endhas nganti meh nul ing buntut (inti).<ref name="Marsh2001">{{Cite journal|last=Marsh D|date=July 2001|title=Polarity and permeation profiles in lipid membranes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2001-07-03_98_14/page/7777|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.|volume=98|issue=14|pages=7777–82|bibcode=2001PNAS...98.7777M|doi=10.1073/pnas.131023798|pmc=35418|pmid=11438731}}</ref><ref name="Marsh2002">{{Cite journal|last=Marsh D|date=December 2002|title=Membrane water-penetration profiles from spin labels|journal=Eur. Biophys. J.|volume=31|issue=7|pages=559–62|doi=10.1007/s00249-002-0245-z|pmid=12602343}}</ref> Intine hidrofobik Dwilapis biasané 3-4 tebal &nbsp; nm, nanging nilai kasebut beda karo dawa rantai lan kimia.<ref name="Lewis1983"/><ref name="Rawicz2000">{{Cite journal|date=July 2000|title=Effect of chain length and unsaturation on elasticity of lipid bilayers|journal=Biophys. J.|volume=79|issue=1|pages=328–39|bibcode=2000BpJ....79..328R|doi=10.1016/S0006-3495(00)76295-3|pmc=1300937|pmid=10866959}}</ref> Kekandelan inti uga beda karo suhu, utamané kanthi owah-owahan fase.<ref name="Trauble1971">{{Cite journal|year=1971|title=The volume change in lipid bilayer lamellae at the crystalline-liquid crystalline phase transition|journal=Chem. Phys. Lipids.|volume=7|issue=4|pages=324–35|doi=10.1016/0009-3084(71)90010-7}}</ref> === Kimia panampang === Nalika buntut lipid utamané modifikasi tumindak fase dwilapis, iku pepanthan kepala sing nemtokaké kimia permukaan dwilapis. Umumé dwilapis alami kalebu [[fosfolipid]], sanajan sphingolipid kaya ta sphingomyelin lan sterol kaya ta [[kolesterol]] uga dadi komponen penting. Saka fosfolipid, pepanthan sirah sing paling umum yaiku fosfatidil kolin (PC), kira-kira setengah saka phospholipid ing sèl-sèl mamalia.<ref name="Yeagle1993">{{Cite book|title=The membranes of cells|last=Yeagle, Philip|publisher=Academic Press|year=1993|isbn=0-12-769041-7|edition=2nd|location=Boston}}</ref> PC minangka pepanthan kepala zwitterionic, amarga nduwéni biaya negatif marang pepanthan fosfat lan biaya positif ing amine nanging, amarga biaya lokal iki seimbang, ora ana biaya net. Pepantah sirah liyané uga ana ing macem-macem tingkat lan bisa kalebu fosfatidilserine (PS) fosfatidiletanolamine (PE) lan fosfatidilgliker (PG). Kluster alternatif iki asring nyedhiyakaké fungsi biologis spesifik sing gumantung banget karo konteks. Contone, anané PS ing permukaan membran ekstrasèl [[Eritrosit|erythrocyte]] minangka panandha apoptosis sèl,<ref name="Fadoka1998">{{Cite journal|date=July 1998|title=The role of phosphatidylserine in recognition of apoptotic cells by phagocytes|journal=Cell Death Differ.|volume=5|issue=7|pages=551–62|doi=10.1038/sj.cdd.4400404|pmid=10200509}}</ref> déné PS ing piring tuwuh dibutuhaké kanggo inti saka kristal hidroksisapatit lan mineralisasi sakteruse.<ref name="Anderson2005">{{Cite journal|date=January 2005|title=The role of matrix vesicles in growth plate development and biomineralization|url=http://www.bioscience.org/2005/v10/af/1576/fulltext.htm|journal=Front. Biosci.|volume=10|issue=1–3|pages=822–37|doi=10.2741/1576|pmid=15569622|access-date=2019-11-16|archive-date=2020-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527060747/http://www.bioscience.org/2005/v10/af/1576/fulltext.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Eanes1987">{{Cite journal|date=January 1987|title=Calcium phosphate precipitation in aqueous suspensions of phosphatidylserine-containing anionic liposomes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_calcified-tissue-international_1987-01_40_1/page/43|journal=Calcif. Tissue Int.|volume=40|issue=1|pages=43–8|doi=10.1007/BF02555727|pmid=3103899}}</ref> Ora kaya PC, sawetara pepanthan sirah liyané nggawa muatan, sing bisa ngganti interaksi elektrostatik molekul cilik kanthi dwilapis.<ref name="Kim1991">{{Cite journal|date=July 1991|title=Binding of peptides with basic residues to membranes containing acidic phospholipids|journal=Biophys. J.|volume=60|issue=1|pages=135–48|bibcode=1991BpJ....60..135K|doi=10.1016/S0006-3495(91)82037-9|pmc=1260045|pmid=1883932}}</ref> == Sejarah == Awal abad kaping 20 para wasis wiwit percaya yen sèl dikubengi alangan kaya minyak tipis,<ref name="Loeb1904">{{Cite journal|last=Loeb J|date=December 1904|title=The recent development of Biology|journal=Science|volume=20|issue=519|pages=777–786|bibcode=1904Sci....20..777L|doi=10.1126/science.20.519.777|pmid=17730464}}</ref> nanging sifat strukture membran iki ora dingerteni. Loro eksperimen ing taun 1925 nggawe dhasar kanggo ngisi sèla iki. Kanthi ngukur kapasitase larutan [[Eritrosit|erythrocyte]], Hugo Fricke nemtokaké manawa membran sèl duwé ketebalan 3,3 &nbsp; n.<ref name="Fricke1925">{{Cite journal|last=Fricke H|year=1925|title=The electrical capacity of suspensions with special reference to blood|journal=Journal of General Physiology|volume=9|issue=2|pages=137–52|doi=10.1085/jgp.9.2.137|pmc=2140799|pmid=19872238}}</ref> Sanajan asil eksperimen iki akurat, Fricke salah ngelingaké data manawa membran sèl minangka lapisan molekuler. Prof. Pak Dr. Evert Gorter <ref name="Gorterbio">{{Cite journal|year=1986|title=On bimolecular layers of lipids on the chromocytes of the blood|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_european-journal-of-pediatrics_1986-10_145_5/page/329|journal=Journal of European Journal of Pediatrics|volume=145|issue=5|page=329|doi=10.1007/BF00439232}}</ref> (1881-1954) lan F. Grendel saka Universitas Leiden nyedhaki perkara kasebut saka perspektif sing beda, nyebar lipid erythrocyte minangka monolapis ing bolongan Langmuir-Blodgett . Nalika mbandhingaké area monolitik karo area permukaan sèl, dheweke nemokaké rasio loro nganti siji.<ref name="Gorter1925">{{Cite journal|year=1925|title=On bimolecular layers of lipids on the chromocytes of the blood|journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=41|issue=4|pages=439–43|doi=10.1084/jem.41.4.439|pmc=2130960|pmid=19868999}}</ref> Analisa sakteruse ngungkapaké pirang-pirang kesalahan lan asumsi sing salah karo eksperimen iki nanging, bebarengan, kasalahan kasebut dibatalaké lan saka data kekurangan Gorter lan Grendel, narik kesimpulan sing bener - manawa membran sèl minangka dwilapis lipid.<ref name="Yeagle1993"/> Teori iki dikonfirmasi kanthi nggunakaké mikroskop elektron ing pungkasan taun 1950an. Sanajan dheweke ora nerbitaké sinau mikroskop elektron pisanan saka lipid dwilapis <ref name="Sjöstrand1958">{{Cite journal|date=April 1958|title=The ultrastructure of the intercalated discs of frog, mouse and guinea pig cardiac muscle|journal=J. Ultrastruct. Res.|volume=1|issue=3|pages=271–87|doi=10.1016/S0022-5320(58)80008-8|pmid=13550367}}</ref> J. David Robertson minangka wong sing pisanan nyatakaké yen rong pita gelap elektron sing padhet yaiku pepanthan sirah lan protein sing gegandhengan karo loro monolither lipid.<ref name="Robertson1960">{{Cite journal|last=Robertson JD|year=1960|title=The molecular structure and contact relationships of cell membranes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_progress-in-biophysics-and-molecular-biology_1960_10/page/343|journal=Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.|volume=10|issue=|pages=343–418|pmid=13742209}}</ref><ref name="Robertson1959">{{Cite journal|last=Robertson JD|year=1959|title=The ultrastructure of cell membranes and their derivatives|journal=Biochem. Soc. Symp.|volume=16|issue=|pages=3–43|pmid=13651159}}</ref> Ing karya iki, Robertson ngutarakaké konsep "unit membran". Iki minangka struktur dwilapis sing diwenehaké sacara universal ing kabèh [[Mémbran sèl|membran sèl]] lan membran [[Organel|organél]] . Sawetara wektu sing padha, pangembangan modhèl membran dikonfirmasi manawa lipid dwilapis minangka struktur stabil sing bisa ana kanthi mandhiri [[Protéin|protein]] . Kanthi "nglukis" larutan lipid ing pelarut organik ing ndhuwur ''aperture'', Mueller lan Rudin bisa nggawe lapisan ganda tiruan lan nemtokaké manawa cairan iki mengko lateral, resistensi listrik sing dhuwur lan penyembuhan diri kanggo nanggepi cublesan,<ref name="Mueller1962">{{Cite journal|date=June 1962|title=Reconstitution of cell membrane structure in vitro and its transformation into an excitable system|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1962-06-09_194_4832/page/979|journal=Nature|volume=194|issue=4832|pages=979–80|bibcode=1962Natur.194..979M|doi=10.1038/194979a0|pmid=14476933}}</ref> kabèh kalebu sipat membran. sèl alami. Sawetara taun sabanjuré, Alec Bangham nuduhaké yen dwilapis, ing bentuk vesikel lipid, bisa uga mung dibentuk kanthi nganalisa sampel lipid garing menyang banyu.<ref name="Bangham1964">{{Cite journal|last=Bangham|first=A. D.|last2=Horne|first2=R. W.|year=1964|title=Negative Staining of Phospholipids and Their Structural Modification by Surface-Active Agents As Observed in the Electron Microscope|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_1964-05_8_5/page/660|journal=Journal of Molecular Biology|volume=8|issue=5|pages=660–668|doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80115-7|pmid=14187392}}</ref> Iki minangka kemajuan penting, amarga nuduhaké yen dwilapis lipid dibentuk sacara spontan liwat swarakit lan ora mbutuhaké struktur dhukungan pola. == Deleng uga == {{Div col||22em}} * [[Surfaktan]] * [[Protein]] * [[Eksositosis]] * [[Membran sel]] * [[Polimorfisme lipid]] * [[Liposom]] * [[Lipidomik]] {{Div col end}} == Cathetan == {{Reflist|2}} == Pranala njaba == * [http://avantilipids.com/ Avanti Lipids] Salah sawijining [http://avantilipids.com/ suplemen] lipid komersial paling gedhé. Informasi teknis babagan sifat lipid lan teknik nangani lan nyiapaké dwilapis lipid. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090830182312/http://www.lipidat.ul.ie/search.htm LIPIDAT] Database ekstensif situs fisik lipid * [http://blanco.biomol.uci.edu/Bilayer_Struc.html Struktur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411145853/http://blanco.biomol.uci.edu/Bilayer_Struc.html |date=2011-04-11 }} Simulasi [http://blanco.biomol.uci.edu/Bilayer_Struc.html Fluid Lipid Bilayers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411145853/http://blanco.biomol.uci.edu/Bilayer_Struc.html |date=2011-04-11 }} lan pranala sing ana hubungané karo publikasi ing struktur cross-section lipid dwidapis. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131030133335/http://biomodel.uah.es/en/model2/bilayer/en/inicio.htm Lipid Bilayers lan Saluran Gramicidin] (mbutuhaké plugin Java) Gambar lan film sing nuduhaké simulasi asil dinamika molekuler lipid dwilapis. * [http://blanco.biomol.uci.edu/Bilayer_Struc.html Struktur Fluid Lipid Bilayers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411145853/http://blanco.biomol.uci.edu/Bilayer_Struc.html |date=2011-04-11 }}, saka laboratorium Stephen White ing Universitas California, Irvine * [http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/biology/MembranePage/index2.html Animasi dinamika lipid Dwilapis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612051816/http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/biology/MembranePage/index2.html |date=2007-06-12 }} (mbutuhaké plugin Flash) [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Biologi sèl]] [[Kategori:Biokimia]] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] kf264rmf0ikup50aa3jhj25pe9rr2a3 Dhegelen 0 163702 1752890 1738958 2026-08-20T04:18:32Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752890 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease||Name=Sembelit|ICD10={{ICD10|K|59|0|k|55}}|ICD9={{ICD9|564.0}}|ICDO=|Image=Constipation.JPG|Caption=Foto hasil [[sinar-x]] seorang anak laki-laki yang sedang mengalami konstipasi. Lingkaran menunjukan area penumpukan tinja.|OMIM=|MedlinePlus=003125|eMedicineSubj=med|eMedicineTopic=2833|DiseasesDB=3080|MeshID=D003248}} '''Degelen''' kang asring disebut '''konstipasi''' yaiku gangguan [[Sistem pancernan|sistem pencernaan]] [[manungsa]] (utawa bisa uga ing [[Sato kéwan|kéwan]] ) ngalami panumpukan [[Stool|feces]] sing gedhe banget dadi angel kanggo dibuwang saka utawa diwetokaké lan bisa nimbulaké rasa lara kang gedhe kanggo panandang. Degelen kuat uga diarani '''obstipasi''' . Ana alangan abot bisa nyebabaké kanker usus sing mateni kanggo nandhang lara. == Cara nyegah == * Aja mangan panganan ing sadhengah papan. * Ngindhari panganan sing ngemot lemak lan gula sing dhuwur. * ngombe [[banyu]] putih sawetara 1,5 nganti 2 [[liter]] banyu (bab 8 kaca tingal) saka dina adi lan luwih saben dina.<ref name="Jangan Biarkan Sembelit Berlarut-larut">[http://health.kompas.com/read/2011/03/28/12001824/Jangan%20Biarkan%20Sembelit%20Berlarut-larut Jangan Biarkan Sembelit Berlarut-larut]</ref> * [[Ulah raga|Olahraga]], kaya ta lumaku-lumaku (joging) bisa ditindakaké. Paling sithik 10-15 menit kanggo latihan entheng, lan paling ora 2 jam kanggo olahraga sing luwih abot. * Mbiasakaké mbuwang hajat lan ora seneng nahan gerakan usus. Ora perlu meksa mbuwang saben dina yen ora ana stimulasi amarga siklus pencernaan saben wong beda. * Konsumsi panganan sing akeh serat, kaya ta [[Woh|woh-wohan]] lan [[Jangan|sayuran]] . * Turu paling ora 4 jam dina. * Tambahaké panganan kanggo panganan, kajaba lombok. * Diet ora kakéhan. * Mangan panganan anti inflamasi, kaya ta [[Apokat|alpukat]], apel, lan [[Krambil|kerambil]] . * Push up == Pangobatan == [[Gambar:Running_woman_backside_06-11-2010.jpg|ka|jmpl|300x300px| Lumayu minangka salah sawijining olahraga sing bisa nyuda lan nyegah konstipasi.]] Pangobatan alami saka dhegelen bisa ditindakaké kanthi ngganti panganan kang luwih sehat, [[Ulah raga|olahraga kanthi]] sregep, ngurutaké weteng lan [[geger]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://benpi-constipation.info/benpi/benpi_fukube.html |title=腹部マッサージで便秘を解消しましょう |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2013-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426103003/http://benpi-constipation.info/benpi/benpi_fukube.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ngombe [[Banyu|banyu akéh]], ngombe omben-omben prebiotik lan probiotik, utawa dadi biasa mbuwang hajat saben dina kanthi gawé jadwal ngising disebut ''bowel'' ''training paling njero.'' Babagan pengobatan ngguyu uga bisa rampung, amarga ngguyu ing refleks otot-otot weteng kanggo mindhah supaya weteng kepijetmangkono pancingan peristalsis usus lan Gamelan gerakan bagean paling njero. Degelen uga bisa mari utawa ditanggulangi dening ngekum sikil ing banyu adhem. Sikil dikum nganti krasa adhem banget. Terapi iki uga bisa ngatasi sikil perih, perdarahan irung, lan [[insomnia]] . Semana uga, kanthi ''kepeksa'' sethitik, biasané kanggo wong-wong kanthi alangan, yaiku kanthi njupuk obat pencahar diarani ''laxatives'' (sing kadhangkala nyebabaké [[weteng]] rumangsa cengkrongan, utawa uga ketergantungan laxative), nyedhot feses kanthi alat khusus, terapi serat, lan operasi (sanajan pilihan iki arang banget). Tekanan ing saluran pencernaan sithik banget kanggo nyuda feses saka usus. Supaya tekanan kudu dhuwur, bagean ndhuwur usus kudu digawé supaya tekanan luwih dhuwur tinimbang ngisor, kanthi masang banyu es ing weteng lan banyu anget ing bokong. Iki biasané ditrapaké kanggo sembelit sing dumadakan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://health.detik.com/read/2013/06/24/181518/2282874/763/sulit-bab-tempelkan-air-es-di-perut-dan-air-hangat-di-pantat?l771108bcj |title=Sulit BAB? Tempelkan Air Es di Perut dan Air Hangat di Pantat |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104118/http://health.detik.com/read/2013/06/24/181518/2282874/763/sulit-bab-tempelkan-air-es-di-perut-dan-air-hangat-di-pantat?l771108bcj |url-status=dead }}</ref> Supaya wong sing ngalami sembelit bisa pulih kanthi cepet, mula para penderita ora oleh: * Nahan rasa mbuwang hajat. * Mangan panganan kanthi cepet lan panas. * Mangan ing porsi gedhe. * Ngombe omben [[Kaféin|kafein]] lan omben-omben soda. * Ngonsumsi panganan utawa ombenan sing adhem. == Sebabé == Degelen yaiku keluhan sing paling umum ing sistem pencernaan lan umumé ditemokaké ing komunitas sing luwih akéh kalebu ing sekitar kita. Nyatané, kira-kira sekitar 80% wong ngalami konstipasi. Penyebab konstipasi utawa dhegelening saubengé kalebu: {{Fact|date=September 2012}} * Kekurangan cairan [[Badan|awak]] utawa dehidrasi .<ref name="Kurang Minum, Anak Sekolah Rentan Sembelit">[http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2011/05/30/107337568/Kurang-Minum-Anak-Sekolah-Rentan-Sembelit Kurang Minum, Anak Sekolah Rentan Sembelit]{{Pranala mati|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * Kasedhiya saka panas nang . * Stres utawa depresi lan kegiatan sing cukup kandhel.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://benpi-constipation.info/benpi/benpi_utsubyou.html |title=うつ病とも関係する便秘 |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2013-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405002458/http://benpi-constipation.info/benpi/benpi_utsubyou.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Efek [[hormon]] ing awak (umpamané nalika [[Nggarap sari|haid]] utawa meteng). * Usus kurang elastis (biasané amarga ana nalika meteng utawa umur tuwa). * Kelainan [[anatomi]] ing sistem pencernaan. * Pola gaya urip lan pola mangan sing kurang biasa (kaya ta panganan sing ala). * Efek samping saka njupuk obat sing ngemot [[Kalsiyum|kalsium]] utawa [[Alumuniyum|aluminium]] (umpamané antidiarrheal, analgesik, lan obat antacid ). * Kurang asupan [[vitamin C]] lan kekurangan panganan sing berserat. * Apa gejala [[Lelara|penyakit]] (umpamané typhus lan hernias ). * Asring tahan stimulasi kanggo defecate suwene suwe. * Emosi, amarga wong sing emosi utawa kuatir karo spasme usus, mula usus pertalti mandheg lan usus gedhe nyuda cairan fase. Akibate, bangku kasebut dadi angel. * Jarang utawa kurang olahraga.<ref name="9 Penyebab Konstipasi">[http://health.kompas.com/read/2011/02/09/1635535/9.Penyebab.Konstipasi 9 Penyebab Konstipasi]</ref> * Konsumsi serat sing berlebihan.<ref>[http://www.femina.co.id/isu.wanita/kesehatan/salak.vs.pencernaan/005/005/54 Salak vs pencernaan]</ref> * Mangan daging sing kakéhan. Utamané daging abang amarga angel dicerna lan akéh wesi. Wesi minangka bahan sing ndadekaké pengkerané najis, dadi peteng lan ireng. * Saka penyalahgunaan narkoba, kaya ta obat pencahar. Contone, panggunaan laxatives migunani kanggo ngetokaké peristalsis. Suwe-suwe usus wis biasa lan gumantung saka obat kasebut, nyebabaké reaksi usus alon, lan nyegah peristalsis usus bebas. * Panganan beku ngirit wektu lan tenaga nanging nyebabaké akéh masalah kesehatan. Panganan beku duwe serat sing sithik banget lan akéh pengawét sing bisa ngganggu gerakan usus. Kaya es krim sing ora ngemot meh ora ana serat supaya ora bisa ngontrol gerakan usus sing digandhengaké karo isi gula lan susu ing njerone bisa harden najis. * Mangan woh-wohan utawa sayur-sayuran tartamtu sing bisa ngetrapaké kekotoran alami kanthi [[gedhang]] kaya [[gedhang]] .<ref name="Biang Keladi yang Bisa Bikin Perut Sembelit">{{Cite web |url=http://health.detik.com/read/2013/07/11/080118/2298798/763/ini-biang-keladi-yang-bisa-bikin-perut-sembelit |title=Biang Keladi yang Bisa Bikin Perut Sembelit |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2017-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512103602/http://health.detik.com/read/2013/07/11/080118/2298798/763/ini-biang-keladi-yang-bisa-bikin-perut-sembelit |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Tandha lan gejala == [[Gambar:Blonde_woman_sitting_on_toilet.jpg|ka|200x200px]] Gejala lan pratandha bakal beda karo siji wong liya, amarga diet, [[hormon]], gaya urip lan bentuk saben [[Usus gedhé|usus gedhe]] beda, nanging biasané gejala lan pratandha sing asring ditemokaké ing umumé utawa kadang sawetara penderita minangka nderek : * Lambung kasebut rumangsa kebak, lengkap, lan malah krasa kaku amarga tumpukan kukul (yen bangku wis tumpuk udakara udakara 1 minggu utawa luwih, weteng pasien bisa katon kaya dheweke ngandut). * Sayuran dadi luwih angel, luwih panas, luwih tipis, luwih sithik tinimbang biasané (kurang saka 30 [[gram]] ), lan malah bisa mbentuk cilik nalika parah. * Ing wektu defecation dhingklik angel mbusak utawa dibuwak, kadhangkala kudu push utawa remet [[weteng]] sakdurunge supaya narik metu dhingklik (malah menyang ombone saka [[Wasir|hemorrhoids]] lan sweaty kadhemen ). * Swara [[swara]] ing weteng. * Duri ngrasa kebak, lan rumangsa gebug diiringi lara amarga ngelek-elek ing bangku panas lan atos. * Frekuensi gerakan usus ditambah karo mambu sing luwih elek tinimbang biasané (sok-sok pasien ngalami kangelan utawa ora bisa urinate). * Frekuensi usus sing suda, lan nambah wektu transit usus (biasané cacat nganti 3 dina utawa luwih). * Kadhangkala ngalami mual lan muntah yen lagi parah. * Sakit punggung yen ana bangku cukup. * [[Cangkem|Nafas ora enak]] . Kanggo gejala psikologis sing bisa kedadeyan ing wong sing ngalami constipation, antara liya: * Kurang kapercayan * Luwih seneng sepi utawa jarak saka wong-wong ing sekitar. * Isih keluwen, nanging yen mangan bakal kebak banget (luwih-luwih nalika meteng weteng bakal krasa pedhot ) amarga papan ing [[Weteng|weteng saya]] suda. * Emosi mundhak kanthi cepet. * Palpitations asring banget emosi sing nyebabaké stres supaya [[Lara sirah|sirah]] utawa demam . * Badan ora pas, ora puas, ora kepenak, kesel, lan rumangsa abot banget supaya kesusu kanggo nindakaké sesuatu sanajan sok ngantuk ngantuk. * Kurang bungah ing kegiatan kasebut. * Kagiyatan saben dina kaget amarga kakéhan awak sing nyebabaké kualitas kualitas lan produktivitas kerja. * Kapabilitas bisa nyuda. == Degelen lan wanita == [[Berkas:Sembelit.jpg|ka|jmpl|240x240px| Wanita sing krasa weteng ora kepenak amarga sembelit.]] Degelen minangka pain kanggo wanita. Kanggo pirang-pirang dina ora rusak, mesthi nggawé weteng dadi kesel. Ora mung ngono, weteng krasa ora kuwatir amarga proses pembuangan dadi ora lancar nganti pirang-pirang dina utawa minggu. Perbandingan kasebut yaiku papat wanita karo wong lanang siji. Buruh wanita sing umur 18-55 taun luwih cenderung ngalami indigestion, utamané constipation.<ref name="Activia Blogger's Day">{{Cite web |url=http://www.activia.co.id/file/Summary%20Bloggers%20day%2019%20Jul%202011..pdf |title=Activia Blogger's Day |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2014-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222102403/http://www.activia.co.id/file/Summary%20Bloggers%20day%2019%20Jul%202011..pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Panyebab wanita asring ngalami sembelit yaiku: * Kekuwatan sphincter lan weteng sing luwih lemah tinimbang wong lanang luwih angel wanita ngalami cacat yen dibandhingaké karo lanang. * Yen ana kepinginan bencong ing papan umum utawa njaba omah, wanita seneng ora rumangsa ora bisa cacat amarga ana alesan kaya ta rasa isin utawa nesu ing jamban umum.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://constipationinwomen.com/constipation-in-women-causes.html |title=Constipation in women causes |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2013-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219121515/http://constipationinwomen.com/constipation-in-women-causes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Akeh wanita sing mangan gedhe banget. Peristalsis saka usus misale jek diabaikan kanthi pola diet sing ora bener. Penyebab utama amarga kekurangan intaké serat. * Corpus luteum sing ngasilaké progesteron hormon bisa nglumpukaké kelembapan ing awak. Akibaté, cairan kanggo nyusup najis dikurangi, saéngga bangku dadi angel lan angel dicopot (iki minangka hormon fisiologis saka haid lan meteng). * Ing kandhutan awal, ana rasa wedi marang wanita nalika rusak banget bakal nyebabaké janin metu nganti keguguran. Iki amarga ana anggapan sing sempit sajrone defecation padha karo strat sajrone tenaga kerja. Umumé wanita ngandhut ngalami sembelit nalika meteng. Utamané nalika meteng tekan trimester kaping tiga utawa udakara 7 wulan. * Wangun pelvis wanita sing amba kanggo ngusir janin bisa nggawé usus dadi ora stabil. Kajaba iku, kanggo akumulasi lemak awak lan getih cenderung uga diklumpukaké ing panggul uga. * Bentuk usus wanita ngidini distorsi amarga panggul wanita sing gedhe, mula bangku angel gampang macet ing kana (umpamané, bohlam rektum). * Padharan wanita iku luwih sempit amarga ana janin lan ovari.<ref name="Jangan Biarkan Sembelit Berlarut-larut"/> * Tekanan amarga sindrom usus sing gampang nesu (IBS) amarga usus dadi disebrat, banjur nyebabaké alangan, mula tinjau kasebut kepepet ing kana. == Kelainan kulit == [[Gambar:Akne-jugend.jpg|ka|jmpl|180x180px| Degelen bisa nyebabaké breakout rai.]] Kelainan [[kulit]] biasané ora bisa ditemokaké ing wong sing ngalami sembelit biasa lan luwih gampang cenderung nyerang wong sing ngalami stres. Yen panandhang nduweni sistem kekebalan lemah, mula kelainan kasebut bakal saya tambah. Alesan kasebut amarga [[racun]] utawa racun sing asale saka feces, kalebu [[karbon dioksida]] lan asam laktat saka pencernaan panganan sing nglumpukaké ing [[Usus gedhé|usus gedhe]] lan mbebani kinerja [[ati]] . Amarga kinerja ati mbobot, awak ora bisa ngasilaké getih sing resik lan metabolisme diganggu. Akibaté, kakébalan sing nyuda, nyebabaké gejala amarga panyebaran toksin iki sing bisa katon langsung ing kulit pasien.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://benpi-constipation.info/benpi/benpi_hadaare.html |title=肌荒れも引き起こす便秘 |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2013-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405003346/http://benpi-constipation.info/benpi/benpi_hadaare.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Toksin sing diserep ing usus gedhe uga bisa nyuda proses penyerapan gizi, nyebabaké reaksi alergi, lan malah nyebabaké penyakit yen sistem kekebalan awak saya ringkih.<ref name="Jangan Biarkan Sembelit Berlarut-larut"/> Gangguan sing bisa kedadeyan, umpamané, kulit katon kurang kusut, kulit ngrasa kasar, bintik-bintik ireng, [[Kukul|pimples]], eczema, lan liya-liyané. Biasané kelainan kasebut mung bisa ilang yen pasien wis pulih saka sembelit utawa obesif. == Epidemiologi == * Saben taun ing [[Amérikah Sarékat|Amerika]], luwih saka 2,5 yuta wong menyang dokter lan ngentekaké 725 yuta dolar amarga sembelit. * Contipasi biasané dumadi ing wanita (amarga faktor fisik lan psikologis), wong tuwa (amarga kinerja sistem pencernaan ing wong tuwa wiwit mudhun), lan bocah-bocah (amarga sistem pencernaan ing bocah ora banget sampurna).<ref name="Epi89">{{Cite journal|last=Sonnenberg|first=A|last2=Koch|first2=TR|year=1989|title=Epidemiology of constipation in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_diseases-of-the-colon-rectum_1989-01_32_1/page/n14|journal=Dis Colon Rectum|volume=32|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1007/BF02554713|pmid=2910654}}</ref> * Udakara 12% populasi ing saindenging jagad ngalami sembelit.<ref name="ESPAÑA ENTRE LOS PAÍSES CON MÁS ESTREÑIMIENTO (final)">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dulcolaxo.es/es/Main/Notas_de_Prensa/Poster_Epi_data_FINAL_06.05.08.pdf |title=Wald A, Kamm MA, Muller-Lissner SA, Scarpignato C, Marx W, Schuijt C. The BI Omnibus Study: An international survey of community prevalence of constipation and laxative use in adults. Digestive Disorders Week. 20–25 May 2006. Abstract T1255. Retrieved 7-18-2010. |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=2 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302132114/http://www.dulcolaxo.es/es/Main/Notas_de_Prensa/Poster_Epi_data_FINAL_06.05.08.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Pendhaftaran saka pasien alangan, kira-kira 3% saka total pendapatan pasien.<ref name="walia">{{Cite journal|last=Walia|first=R.|last2=Mahajan|first2=L.|last3=Steffen|first3=R.|year=2009|title=Recent advances in chronic constipation|journal=Curr Opin Pediatr|volume=21|issue=5|pages=661–6|doi=10.1097/MOP.0b013e32832ff241|pmid=19606041}}</ref> * Kemungkinan wong kena pengaruh saka sembelit ing sawijining masyarakat yaiku 2 nganti 30%. * Udakara 50% pasien sembelit sing lunga menyang rumah sakit sambat yen gerakan usus dicegah. * Cacahing pendhudhuk ing Amerika Serikat lan Asia-Pasifik udakara 17,3%, kaping pindho dibandhingaké karo Eropa yaiku 8,75%.<ref name="ESPAÑA ENTRE LOS PAÍSES CON MÁS ESTREÑIMIENTO">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dulcolaxo.es/es/Main/Notas_de_Prensa/espaa-estreimiento.pdf |title=Wald A, Kamm MA, Muller-Lissner SA, Scarpignato C, Marx W, Schuijt C. The BI Omnibus Study: A new study, sponsored by Boehringer Ingelheim, provides new information on the incidence of constipation and shows that those affected do not use more effective treatments. Digestive Disease Week. 23 May 2006. Abstract T1255. |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=20 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620150224/http://www.dulcolaxo.es/es/Main/Notas_de_Prensa/espaa-estreimiento.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Udakara 25% penderita dhegelencenderung ora bisa nindakaké apa-apa kanggo ngobati dhegelensing dialami, lan dheweke luwih seneng ngeculaké kanthi mandhiri. Udakara 20% wong sing ngalami sembelit ora bisa ngremehaké gejala sanajan dheweke wis ngalami pirang-pirang wulan lan mikir normal.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.activia.ru/problems.html |title=что мешает свет |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2012-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010063825/http://activia.ru/problems.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Udakara pihak katelu sing nggunakaké julap sembelit, sanajan ana tinjauan anyar sing ditampilaké yen julap iku perawatan aman lan efektif.<ref name="ESPAÑA ENTRE LOS PAÍSES CON MÁS ESTREÑIMIENTO"/> * Udakara 18% wong sing ngalami sembelit ora bisa musataké ing karya lan mula 12% wong uga ora bisa ngrampungaké tugas kanthi bener.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.activiaturkiye.com/sindirim_sistemimiz/saglikli_sindirimsistemine_ihtiyac.aspx |title=Saglikli Sindirimsistemine Ihtiyac |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2012-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807155659/http://www.activiaturkiye.com/sindirim_sistemimiz/saglikli_sindirimsistemine_ihtiyac.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Halangan pseudo == Kadhangkala, wong kuwatir banget nandhang lara sembelit, nanging sejatine ora ngalami sembelit. Nyalahaké salah yen saben wong ora ngala-ngilang saben dina, mula dheweke dikandhani constipation. Yaiku salah sawijining irama alami awak. Irama alami awak ngatur kabèh, kalebu "jadwal alam" kanggo defecation. Sawetara wong sing sehat malah cacat kaping telu seminggu.<ref name="Dulcolax:Type of Costipation">[http://www.dulcolax.com/constipation/different_types.html Types of constipation]{{Pranala mati|date=January 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sawise ngombe julap, pangguna kadang-kadang bakal ngalami wektu yen dheweke ora rusak. Iki amarga usus gedhe banget kosong (meh ora ana tinjau), sawise julise nuduhaké efek kasebut. Biasané bakal entuk siji nganti rong dina sadurunge usus gedhe diisi lan dikontrak.<ref name="Dulcolax:Type of Costipation"/> == Sing liyané == Munculaké rasa lara ati lan rasa lara ing [[weteng]] ora mesthi dadi tandha lan gejala, uga heartburn lan pain sing ora bisa ditrapaké uga ora nyebabaké gejala penyakit kasebut. Ing anak,<ref name="Kurang Minum, Anak Sekolah Rentan Sembelit"/> dhegelenbisa mimpin kanggo soiling ( enuresis lan encopresis ).<ref>[http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/articles/article.aspx?articleId=111&sectionId=1 NHS direct] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305012620/http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/articles/article.aspx?articleId=111&sectionId=1 |date=2008-03-05 }} page on constipation.</ref> Degelen pancen ngganggu, nanging dhegelenisih dibutuhaké dening awak kanggo ngimbangi proses pencernaan lan nyegah diverticulosis.<ref name="ICN">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ic-network.com/forum/showthread.php?t=73583 |title=Fascinating Study On Diverticulosis |access-date=2019-11-23 |archive-date=2012-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504231021/http://ic-network.com/forum/showthread.php?t=73583 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Deleng uga == * [[Mbusak|Ngéséng]] * [[Diaré|Diare]] == Cathetan == {{Reflist}} == Link njaba == * {{En icon}} [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec09/ch129/ch129b.html Merck Home 09-129b] * {{En icon}} [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/constipation.html MedlinePlus Ringkesan constipation] * {{En icon}} [http://www.letstalkconstipation.com/basics/do_i_have_it/ Apa sampeyan duwe sembelit sing kronis?] * {{En icon}} [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzvWWHoAVvU Cara ngilangi kontipasi kanthi alami] [[Kategori:Gastroenterologi]] [[Kategori:Sistem pancernan]] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] 0m91h2nbtrpvaaa3xgpi58a71hefhc8 Cokotan ula 0 163722 1752868 1500504 2026-08-20T03:37:41Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752868 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Snake Bite injury.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Cokotan ula ing sikil]] '''Cokotan ula''' ya iku tatu amarga dicokot déning sawijining [[ula]], utamané ula kang duwé wisa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/snakebite|title=Definition of Snakebite|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|accessdate=17 June 2019}}</ref> Titikané cokotan ula iku ana rong tatu sudukan saka siyungé ula kasebut.<ref name="CDC2012">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/snakes/|title=Venomous Snakes|date=24 February 2012|publisher=[[U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429051901/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/snakes/|archivedate=29 April 2015|accessdate=19 May 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Kadhang kala, nalikané ula kasebut nyokot, ula kuwi uga nyuntikaké wisané.<ref name="WHO2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs373/en/|title=Animal bites: Fact sheet N°373|date=February 2015|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504100257/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs373/en/|archivedate=4 May 2015|accessdate=19 May 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Cokotan lan wisa ula iki bisa njalari kulit utawa awaké kurban dadi abang, bengkak, lan lara banget sakjam sawisé dicokot. <ref name="CDC2012" /><ref name="Gold2002">{{Cite journal|last=Gold|first=Barry S.|author2=Richard C. Dart|author3=Robert A. Barish|date=1 April 2002|title=Bites of venomous snakes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2002-08-01_347_5/page/347|journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]|volume=347|issue=5|pages=347–56|doi=10.1056/NEJMra013477|pmid=12151473}}</ref> [[Mutah]], pandeleng kang ora cetha, ana rasa gringgingen ing sikil, lan kurbané uga bakal gemrobyos kringetan.<ref name="CDC2012" /><ref name="Gold2002" /> Cokotan ula biyasané ana ing tangan, lengen, utawa sikil.<ref name="Gold2002" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Daley|first1=BJ|last2=Torres|first2=J|date=June 2014|title=Venomous snakebites.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jems-a-journal-of-emergency-medical-services_2014-06_39_6/page/n63|journal=JEMS : A Journal of Emergency Medical Services|volume=39|issue=6|pages=58–62|pmid=25109149}}</ref> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Cokotan kéwan]] csc3ymh390p23ielhtarbbb0i6wpaay Cokotan kemangga 0 163724 1753021 1737477 2026-08-20T08:17:06Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753021 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Araneus diadematus (Clerck, 1757).JPG|jmpl|Kemangga]] '''Kêmangga''' yaiku salah sijiné jinis kutu cilik kang kêrêp ditemokaké ing wilayah ''tropis'' lan ''subtropis.'' Kêmangga uga kéwan kang tahan karo kondisi ''ekosistêm'' guwa saka sêgi ''morfologi'' lan ''fisiologi.'' K''ê''mangga kêrêp nyêbabaké gangguan amarga bisa nyokot kulit manungsa. Cokotan kêmangga umumé ora mbêbayani, nanging gawé rasa ora nyaman.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Musfira Hayati|first=Syukria|date=2022-01-28|title=Inventarisasi Kemangga (Arthropoda:Arachhnida) Wonten ing Gua Ngalau Tarang dan Gua Ngalau Kamang, Kabupaten Agam, Sumatera Barat|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=id&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=inventarisasi+laba+laba&btnG=#d=gs_qabs&t=1763620581752&u=%23p%3DkOkKflMYm8sJ|journal=Academia.edu|pages=4}}</ref> Cokotan kêmangga iku tatu amarga dicokot déning kéwan kêmangga. Sawisé dicokot, kulit biasané dadi abang, gatêl, lan rada abuh. Umumé, gêjala iki ora suwé lan bakal mari dhéwé. Èfèk saka cokotan iki ora parah.<ref name="Lancet2011">{{cite journal|last1=Isbister|first1=GK|last2=Fan|first2=HW|date=2011-12-10|title=Spider bite.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_december-10-16-2011_378_9808/page/2039|journal=Lancet|volume=378|issue=9808|pages=2039–47|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(10)62230-1|pmid=21762981}}</ref> Cokotan kêmangga umumé nyebabaké gangguan ing pérangan awak kang kêna cokot.<ref name="Lancet2011" /> Nanging, cokotan kêmangga uga bisa nyebabaké tatu têkan bosok lan lara banget.<ref name="Andrews">{{cite book|title=Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology|author1=James, William D.|author2=Berger, Timothy G.|publisher=Saunders Elsevier|year=2006|isbn=0-7216-2921-0|location=|pages=455|doi=|oclc=|display-authors=etal|accessdate=}}</ref> Kemangga uga dianggep dadi sumber pênyakit, sanajan buktiné isih gumantung jinis kêmangga lan lingkungané, nanging umume cokotan kêmangga namung gawé ''réaksi'' sing ora parah.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yahya|first=Harun|date=2001-05-07|title=Jelajah Dunyone Kemangga|url=https://bhianrangga.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/menjelajah_dunia_laba_laba.pdf|journal=JIIP-Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu Pendidikan|pages=15}}</ref> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Cokotan kéwan]] <references /> 2kou95tb0hzj38prridadsvufckudmz Cicuta 0 164111 1752952 1751225 2026-08-20T05:46:48Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 6 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752952 wikitext text/x-wiki {{automatic taxobox |image = Illustration_Cicuta_virosa0.jpg |image_caption = ''Cicuta virosa'' |display_parents = 2 |taxon = Cicuta |authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |type_species = ''Cicuta virosa'' |type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |subdivision_ranks = Species |subdivision = *''[[Cicuta bulbifera]]'' *''[[Cicuta douglasii]]'' *''[[Cicuta maculata]]'' *''[[Cicuta virosa]]'' }} '''Cicuta''' ya iku bisa diarani hemlock [[banyu]], kalebu salah siji jinis saka papat spèsies tanduran ana racuné saka kulawarga Apiaceae. Kalebu tanduran [[alas]] saka taunan kang tuwuh nganti dhuwur 2,5 meter (8,2 kaki), duwé [[kembang]] ijo cilik utawa putih kang unik ditata ing kaya mahkota kembang, bentuké kaya payung, bisa uga disebut umbel. Umbel iku jinis saka ''indeterminate inflorescence''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Vascular Plant Taxonomy|author1=Walters, D.R.|author2=Keil, D.J.|publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company|year=1975|location=Dubuque}}</ref> == Taksonomi == Gènus Cicuta minangka sawijiné genera ing kulawarga Apiaceae, ana ing urutan Apiales. Apiaceae uga dikenal minangka Umbelliferae. Saka kéné lan kaloro jeneng kulawarga iki diijinaké digunakaké dèning Internasional Nomenklatur kanggo ganggang, jamur, lan tanduran.<ref name="Anderson 1162–1168">{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Ron J.|last2=Boumbulian|first2=Paul J.|last3=Pickens|first3=S. Sue|date=|title=The role of U.S. public hospitals in urban health|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15563650|journal=Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges|volume=79|issue=12|pages=1162–1168|doi=10.1097/00001888-200412000-00008|issn=1040-2446|pmid=15563650}}</ref> Ing [[Éropah|Èropa]], Cicuta ora dibedakaké karo gènus-gènus kang padha sadurungé taun 1500. Penyebutan gènus ing Amerika Sarèkat ya iku ing abad kaping wolulas.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/217956|title=Poisonous plants of the United States and Canada.|last=Kingsbury, John Merriam, 1928-|date= 1964|publisher=Prentice-Hall|isbn=0-13-685016-2|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,|oclc=217956}}</ref> Carl Linnaeus sacara resmi nggambaraké telung spèsies ing taun 1753.<ref name="Linnaeus2">{{cite book|url=http://www.botanicus.org/title/b12069590|title=Species plantarum|last=Linnaeus|first=Carl|year=1753|location=Stockholm|pages=255–56|language=Latin|access-date=2020-03-12|archive-date=2009-04-03|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090403040509/http://www.botanicus.org/title/b12069590|url-status=dead}}</ref> iki kalebu jinis.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedflora03abra|title=An illustrated flora of the Pacific States: Washington, Oregon, and California|last=Le Roy|first=Abrams|author2=Ferris, Roxana Stinchfield|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1951|isbn=0-8047-0005-2|location=Stanford, California|page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedflora03abra/page/237 237]|authorlink=}}</ref> Gènus iki dibagi dadi papat ya iku: {| class="wikitable" !Species Name !Common Name |- |''[[Cicuta bulbifera]]'' [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |bulblet-bearing water hemlock, bulbous water hemlock |- |''[[Cicuta douglasii]]'' ([[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|DC.]]) [[Thomas Coulter|Coult.]] & [[Joseph Nelson Rose|Rose]] |Douglas water hemlock, western water hemlock |- |''[[Cicuta maculata]]'' [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |spotted cowbane, spotted parsley, spotted water hemlock |- |''[[Cicuta virosa]]'' [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] |cowbane, Mackenzie’s water hemlock, northern water hemlock |} Jeneng spèsies liyané kaya ta Cicuta bolanderi, Cicuta californiaica, lan Cicuta curtissii minangka jeneng tuwa kang saiki dikenal minangka jinis variabel Cicuta maculata kang nyebar lan morfologis.<ref name="Burrows, George E. George Edward, 1935- 2001">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45393517|title=Toxic plants of North America|last=Burrows, George E. (George Edward), 1935-|date=2001|publisher=Iowa State University Press|isbn=0-8138-2266-1|edition=1st ed|location=Ames|oclc=45393517}}</ref> Cicuta maculata saiki dikenali duwé papat jinis: var. maculata, var. angustifolia, var. victorinii, lan var. bolanderi. Jeneng umum liyané kanggo jinis genus kalebu racun parsnip, racun berang, wortel liar, petnip liar, lan parsley abal-abal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maslak|first=P.|date=2004-06-30|title=Lymphoid Blast|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/ashimagebank-2004-101139|journal=ASH Image Bank|volume=2004|issue=0630|pages=101139–101139|doi=10.1182/ashimagebank-2004-101139|issn=1559-7237}}</ref> == Distribusi == Cicuta spp. ditemokaké tuwuh ing Amérika Lor lan Èropa. Biasané, dhèwéké tuwuh ing habitat kang duwèni udan deres. Biasané ing pinggir mapan ing pinggiran kedhung lan kali, ing rawa, utawa papan kang ana rawané. Tanduran uga tinemu tuwuh ing banyu.<ref name="Burrows, George E. George Edward, 1935- 2001"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/217956|title=Poisonous plants of the United States and Canada.|last=Kingsbury, John Merriam, 1928-|first=|date=|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=|isbn=0-13-685016-2|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,|pages=|oclc=217956}}</ref> Saka papat jinis iku, Cicuta maculata duwé distribusi paling akèh ing saindenging mayoritas Amèrika Lor. Bulbifera Cicuta uga duwé distribusi lumayan akèh, ditemokaké ing saindenging Amérika Lor. Cicuta douglasii ditemokaké ing pojok sisih lor-kulon Amérika Lor, dènè Cicuta virosa mung ditemokaké ing tengah Èropa lan ing sisih ing Amèrika Lor.<ref name="Anderson 1162–1168"/> == Zat Racun == Kabèh anggota Cicuta kajaba C. bulbifera ngemot cicutoxin kang dhuwur, alkohol alifatik ora jenuh kang ana hubungané karo oenanthotoxin racun kang ditemokaké ing tètès banyu hemlock tanduran. Cicutoxin saiki ana ing kabèh tahap ngundhuh lan ing kabèh bagèan tanduran, nanging ing oyot paling akèh racuné ing wayah musim semi. Èfek racun iku utami ya iku tumindak minangka stimulan ing sistem saraf pusat. Iku kalebu antagonis réseptor gamma-aminobutyric (GABA) kang ora kompetitif. Cicutoxin tumindak ing reseptor GABA<small>A</small> nyebabaké blok saluran klorida kang nyebabaké depolarisasi neuronal. Ing ngarsané cicutoxin iki depolarisasi terus ora nyebabaké overactivity sèl. Hiperaktif ing sel otak nyebabaké sawan.<ref name="Schep">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Becket G, Beasley DM |title=Poisoning due to water hemlock |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-toxicology_april-may-2009_47_4/page/270 |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=270–78 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19514873 |doi=10.1080/15563650902904332 |issn=1556-3650}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Exploring the structural basis of neurotoxicity in C(17)-polyacetylenes isolated from water hemlock|journal=Journal of Medicinal Chemistry|volume=43|issue=23|pages=4508–15|doi=10.1021/jm000185k|issn=0022-2623|pmid=11087575|vauthors=Uwai K, Ohashi K, Takaya Y, Ohta T, Tadano T, Kisara K, Shibusawa K, Sakakibara R, Oshima Y}}</ref> Cicutoxin ana racun lan banyu hemlock dianggep minangka salah sawijining tanduran kang ngandhut racun ing Amerika Lor.<ref name="Schep2">{{cite journal|date=April 2009|title=Poisoning due to water hemlock|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-toxicology_april-may-2009_47_4/page/270|journal=Clinical Toxicology|volume=47|issue=4|pages=270–78|doi=10.1080/15563650902904332|issn=1556-3650|pmid=19514873|vauthors=Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Becket G, Beasley DM}}</ref><ref name="Mutter">{{cite journal|author=Mutter L|date=September 1976|title=Poisoning by Western Water Hemlock|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-public-health_september-october-1976_67_5/page/386|journal=Canadian Journal of Public Health|volume=67|issue=5|page=386|issn=0008-4263|pmid=991044}}</ref> Cicuta bisa uga ngalami bebrayan ing manungsa lan ana laporan ing literatur médhis keracunan lan pati nganti awal taun 1670. Sawetara wong uga wis mati sawisé mangan tanduran iki ing abad kaping-20 lan 21.<ref name="Landers">{{cite journal|date=May 1985|title=Seizures and Death on a White River Float Trip: Report of Water Hemlock Poisoning|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_california-and-western-medicine_1985-05_142_5/page/637|format=Free full text|journal=The Western Journal of Medicine|volume=142|issue=5|pages=637–40|issn=0093-0415|pmc=1306130|pmid=4013278|vauthors=Landers D, Seppi K, Blauer W}}</ref><ref name="CDC">{{cite journal|author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=April 1994|title=Water hemlock poisoning--Maine, 1992|url=|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=43|issue=13|pages=229–31|issn=0149-2195|pmid=8145712}}</ref><ref name="Heath">{{cite journal|author=Heath KB|date=February 2001|title=A fatal case of apparent water hemlock poisoning|url=|format=|journal=Veterinary and Human Toxicology|volume=43|issue=1|pages=35–6|doi=|issn=0145-6296|pmid=11205076}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Vogt E|date=September 1951|title=[Water hemlock (''Cicuta virosa'') poisoning; report of two cases.]|journal=Tidsskrift for den Norske Lægeforening : Tidsskrift for Praktisk Medicin, NY Række|language=Norwegian|volume=71|issue=18|pages=577–78|issn=0029-2001|pmid=14884156}}</ref><ref name="Withers">{{cite journal|date=September 1969|title=Water-hemlock poisoning|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1969-09-04_281_10/page/566|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=281|issue=10|pages=566–67|doi=10.1056/NEJM196909042811029|issn=0028-4793|pmid=5800524|vauthors=Withers LM, Cole FR, Nelson RB}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 1991|title=1990 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers National Data Collection System|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-emergency-medicine_1991-09_9_5/page/461|journal=The American Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=9|issue=5|pages=461–509|doi=10.1016/0735-6757(91)90216-7|issn=0735-6757|pmid=1863304|vauthors=Litovitz TL, Bailey KM, Schmitz BF, Holm KC, Klein-Schwartz W}}</ref> ==Galèri== <gallery> File:Conioselinum pacificum 3573.JPG|Compound umbel of a hemlock-parsley, ''[[Conioselinum pacificum]]'' (Apiaceae) File:Daucus carota May 2008-1 edit.jpg|Compound umbel of a wild carrot, ''[[Daucus carota]]'' (Apiaceae) File:Fatsia japonica1.jpg|Simple umbel of ''[[Fatsia|Fatsia japonica]]'' (Araliaceae) File:Primula veris (inflorescense).jpg|[[Involucral bract|Involucrate]] simple umbels of ''[[Primula veris]]''. </gallery> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Genus]] [[Kategori:Amérika Lèr]] eztatgvgm1sxnqecpacbsntmxk6nhai Agrippa (A Book of the Dead) 0 164343 1753065 1625899 2026-08-20T09:32:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753065 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox book|name=Agrippa (A Book of the Dead)|series=|isbn=|pages=|media_type=[[Artist's book]]|english_pub_date=|pub_date=1992|publisher=Kevin Begos Jr.|genre=Poetry|subject=Memory|language=|italic title=no|country=|cover_artist=[[Dennis Ashbaugh]]|illustrator=|author=[[William Gibson]]|caption=|alt=Image constructed for this work by a graphic artist. It shows a decayed book-shaped object delicately wrapped in mesh cloth.|image=Agrippa-cover.jpg|translator=|title_orig=|oclc=48079355}}'''Agrippa (A Book of the Dead)''' minangka karya seni sing digawé saka novelis fiksi ilmiah William Gibson, seniman Dennis Ashbaugh lan penerbit Kevin Begos Jr. ing taun 1992. Karya kasebut kasusun saka puisi elektronik semi-autobiografis 300 baris dening Gibson, lan dipasang ing buku seniman dening Ashbaugh. Teks Gibson sing fokus ing ''ethereal,'' kenangan alam manungsa sing disimpen sajrone wektu kepungkur (judhul sing diarani album foto Kodak saka gambar teks kasebut dijupuk). Kekhususan utama muncul amarga kasunyatane geguritan, sing disimpen ing diskèt "floppy 3,5", diprogram kanggo ''encrypt'' dhewe sawise dienggo siji; uga, kaca-kaca ing buku kasebut dianggep karo bahan kimia fotosensitif, ngetrapake fase saka tembung-tembung sacara bertahap. lan gambar cahya saka pisanan buku.<ref name="jonas">{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE3DE1030F93AA1575BC0A965958260|title=The Disappearing $2,000 Book|last=Jonas|first=Gerald|date=August 29, 1993|work=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=July 30, 2008|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref><ref name="text">{{cite journal|last=Kirschenbaum|first=Matthew G.|year=2002|title=Textual Studies and First Generation Electronic Objects|url=https://archive.org/details/textinterdiscipl0000unse/page/15|journal=Text: An Interdisciplinary Annual of Textual Studies|location=Ann Arbor|publisher=University of Michigan Press|volume=14|pages=[https://archive.org/details/textinterdiscipl0000unse/page/15 15–16]|isbn=978-0-472-11272-2|editor=Burns, Edward}}</ref> == Isi lan sèri buku == {{quote box|quote=''Agrippa'' comes in a rough-hewn black box adorned with a blinking green light and an LCD readout that flickers with an endless stream of decoded DNA. The top opens like a laptop computer, revealing a hologram of a circuit board. Inside is a battered volume, the pages of which are antique rag-paper, bound and singed by hand.|align=right|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|width=30%|source=Gavin Edwards, ''[[Details (magazine)|Details]]'', June 1992.}}Buku kasebut diterbitake ing taun 1992 ing rong edisi winates - Deluxe lan Cilik - dening Kevin Begos Jr. Publishing, New York City. Edisi deluxe lumebu ing kasus bolong logam sing 16-inci (41&nbsp;cm × 55&nbsp;cm) ing Kevlar (polimer sing digunakake kanggo nggawe rompi peluru) lan dirancang kaya relik dikubur. Ing njero buku ana kaca 93 sing kacathet lan isi kaca sing dijahit nganggo tangan lan diikat nganggo kain sing ditaleni lan disanyi dening Karl Foulkes; buku kasebut menehi kesan yen bisa urip saka geni; iki diterangake dening Peter Schwenger minangka "kothak ireng pulih saka sawetara bencana sing durung ditemtokake." Edisi kasebut kalebu kaca urutan DNA sing disetel ing kolom kaping pindho 42 garis saben kaya Gutenberg Bible lan kuping akuatint tembaga dening Ashbaugh sing diterbitake dening Peter Pettingill ing kertas Fabriano Tiepolo. Etchings monochromatic nggambarake kromosom stylized, ciri khas saka karya Ashbaugh, diiringi gegambaran pistol, kamera utawa ing sawetara gambar sing gampang baris - kabèh kontribusi kanggo sumbangan Gibson.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Cryptographic Imagination|last=Rosenheim|first=Shawn|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8018-5331-9|location=Baltimore|page=250}}</ref> Edisi deluxe disetel ing Monotype Gill Sans ing Golgonooza Letter Foundry lan dicithak ing teks abot Rives dening Begos lan Sun Hill Press. 60 kaca pungkasan kasebut banjur digabung bebarengan, kanthi bagean sing dipotong ana ing sisih tengah, ngemot disket sing ngilangake teks geguritan Gibson. Enkripsi kasebut minangka karya programer komputer pseudonymous, "BRASH", dibantu para pengadeg Electronic Frontier Foundation John Perry Barlow lan John Gilmore. Edisi deluxe iki asale didol AS $ 1500 (mengko $ 2000), lan saben salinan unik kanggo sawetara gelar amarga unsur-unsur gaweyan tangan utawa rampung. Edisi cilik kasebut didol $ 450; kaya edisi deluxe, iki dipasang ing Monotype Gill Sans, nanging ing kolom siji. Iki dicithak ing teks Mohawk Superfine dening Sun Hill Press, kanthi ngasilake penghasilan etchings sing dicithak ing printer laser Canon. Edisi kasebut banjur dijahit ing Spectrum Bindery lan dipasang ing kothak solander. Salinan tukang pethi kothak-kothak uga dirilis lan didol ing $ 7,500. Ora luwih saka 95 edisi Agrippa sing cukup, sanajan nomer sing tepat ora dingerteni lan minangka sumber misteri sing akeh. Museum Victoria lan Albert nduwe edisi alus, nomer 4 saka 10. Salin saka versi edisi deluxe kasedhiya ing Divisi Rare Books of New York Public Library lan salinan cilik sing manggon ing Universitas Western Michigan, Kalamazoo, Michigan, nalika Perpustakaan Frances Mulhall Achilles ing Museum Kesenian Amerika Whitney ing New York City dadi prospek promosi. Salinan Museum Victoria lan Albert pisanan dipamerake ing layar kanthi judhul The Book and Beyond, sing dianakake ing Museum Museum abad kaping-20 wiwit April nganti Oktober 1995. Salinan sing padha uga dilebokake ing tampilan V&A sing judhul Pelopor Digital, wiwit taun 2009–2010 . Salin saka buku liyane sing dipamerake ing pameran taun 2003-2004 Ninety saka Nineties ing Perpustakaan Umum New York. Gibson ing sawijining wektu ngaku ora tau ndeleng salinan buku sing dicithak, spekulasi spurring sing durung ana salinan. Akeh salinan sing wis didokumentasikake, lan tandha Gibson dicathet ing salinan sing dicekel New Library Public New York Ing taun 2011, Departemen Koleksi Khusus Pustaka Bodleian ing Universitas Oxford entuk salinan Agrippa Kevin Begos, uga arsip saka. Makalah begos sing gegayutan karo pakaryan kasebut.<ref name="lindberg">{{cite journal|last=Lindberg|first=Kathryne V.|date=October 1996|title=Prosthetic Mnemonics and Prophylactic Politics: William Gibson among the Subjectivity Mechanisms|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_boundary-2_summer-1996_23_2/page/44|journal=Boundary 2|publisher=Duke University Press|volume=23|issue=2|pages=44–83|doi=10.2307/303807|jstor=303807}}</ref> == Rujukan == hqaur7vte8urqpf523eumipxo9i92fq Roti lapis prau silem 0 170282 1752856 1526486 2026-08-20T03:22:27Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752856 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|name=Submarine sandwich|image=File:Submarine sandwich with toppings and dijon mustard.jpg|image_size=250px|caption=A submarine sandwich|alternate_name={{Collapsible list | Bomber | Cuban sandwich | garibaldi | grinder | hero | hoagie | Italian sandwich | musalatta | poor boy | rocket | torpedo<ref name="Eames">{{cite journal |last1=Eames |first1=Edwin |last2=Robboy |first2=Howard |title=The Submarine Sandwich, Lexical Variations in a Cultural Context |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-speech_1967-12_42_4/page/n40 |journal=[[American Speech]] |volume=42 |number=4 |date=December 1967 |pages=279–288 |doi=10.2307/452990 |jstor=452990 |postscript=. Accessed 15 January 2020.}} {{subscription}}</ref> }}|country=United States|region=Northeast|main_ingredient=Multiple|variations=Multiple}} '''Roti lapis prau silem''', uga dikenal minangka '''sub''', '''hoagie''', '''hero''', utawa '''grinder''', yaiku jinis panganan gulungan sing dumadi saka roti dawa utawa gulung diisi macem-macem daging, keju, janganan, lan isèn-isèn. <ref name="AHD">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=submarine+sandwich|title=submarine sandwich|year=2000|website=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co.|access-date=August 22, 2013|edition=Fourth}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=po'boy|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/po'boy|encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary|accessdate=20 March 2018}}</ref> Gulungan ora duwe jeneng standar, kanthi pirang-pirangvariasi sing digunakake ing saindenging jagad. Tembung ''[[wiktionary:submarine|submarine]]'' lan ''sub'' iki nyebar lan ora disebaraké ing tlatah tartamtu, sanajan akeh istilah lokal sing gegayutan ing sisih lor-wétan Amerika Serikat. == Referensi == [[Kategori:Roti]] 9nk2h7tqzw9e07ev650gdv6uogv36h9 Gréja Garde 0 170386 1752975 1666042 2026-08-20T06:59:16Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752975 wikitext text/x-wiki {{coord|57.31712|18.58229|format=dms|type:landmark_region:SE|display=inline,title}} [[Gambar:Garda View 01 edit.jpg|thumb|Gréja Garde dideleng saka kidul-wétan]] '''Gréja Garde''' utawa kadhangkala '''Gréja Garda''' ([[basa Swèdhen]]: ''Garde kyrka'') iku gréja saka abad tengahan ing [[Garde, Gotland|Garde]] ing [[Gotland|Pulo Gotland]], Swèdhen. Gréja iki olèhé mbangun mawa fase nalika Abad Tengahan. Bagéan sing lawas dhéwé iku panti umat lan dhasar menara, kamangka bagéan sing anyar dhéwé olèhé mbangun iku panti imam sing gedhé. Rénovasi gedhèn dilakoni ing dasawarsa 1960-an. Gréja Garde karo kuburané (kerkop) lan papat gapura kuburané iku salah sawijiné gréja saka abad tengahan sing isih apik kalestarèkaké ing Swèdhen. Gréjané iki digawé saka gamping lan dilabur putih. Yèn dideleng, telu lawang-lawangé iku ndarbèni désain prasaja lan pancèn gagrag Romanesque, kayadéné padatané kanggo gréja-gréja lawas ing Gotland. Lawang kaping papat, sing nuju menyang panti imam, iku gagragé Gotik. Gréja iki ngamot lukisan témbok saka udakara taun 1200 mawa gagrag Ruslan-Bizantium, sing unik ing Swèdhen. Sawetara prabotané, kaya ta bak baptis lan salib kamenangan uga saka mangsa sing padha, kamangka rerengganing altar iku saka abad kaping 17. Gréja iki darbèné Gréja Swèdhen lan dunungé ana ing Kabiskopan Visby. == Lokasi lan sakiwa tengené == Gréja Garde lan pasaréané ([[kerkop]]) iku dadi salah sawijiné komplèks gréja saka Abad Tengahan sing apik kalestarèkaké ing Swèdhen.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=253}} Dunungé ana udakara 300 mèter saloré dalan gedhé antara [[Ljugarn]] lan Lye ing Pulo Gotland sisih wétan. Laladan iki kaanggep minangka tlatah warisan budaya sing wigati ing tingkat nasional.<ref name=kyrkomiljon>{{cite web|url= http://www.bebyggelseregistret.raa.se/bbr2/miljo/visaBeskrivning.raa?miljoId=21220000011687&page=beskrivning|title=Gotland kn, Garde kyrka kyrkomiljö, Gotland|publisher=Riksantikvarieämbetet (Badan Warisan Nasional Swèdhen)|language=Swedish|access-date=17 Maret 2020}}</ref> Gréjané iki dunungé ana ing tengahé pasaréan, sing kaubengen déning témbok endhèk. Témboké wis diréparasi salawasé abad-abad iki, nanging ora tau diganti akèh sawisé dibangun.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=253}} Dhuwuré antara kurang luwih 110&nbsp;cm lan 160&nbsp;cm lan nduwé papat gapura pasaréan asli. Gapura kulon iku kori lumebu sing baku lan salah sawijining gapura pasaréan abad tengahan sing gedhé dhéwé in Swèdhen, katoné dibangun ing paro pisan abad kaping 13. Gedhong iki katata saka telung tingkat gamping lan dilabur putih, kajaba pojokan lan koriné. Gapura pasaréan iki asliné nduwé rong kori, lan panggonan antarané katutupan lan ditrapi karo nis (legokan ing témbok) loro mawa kursi. Tingkat loro sadhuwuré iku asliné kanggo nyimpen gandum, sumbangan saprasepuluh gréja, nganti tahun 1917. Tingkat dhuwur dhéwé gapura pasaréan iki uga dienggo gudhang gréja.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=256}} Gapura kidul lan lor pasaréan iki bisa diarani padha, kayadéné gapura wétan, senadyan iku luwih cilik tinimbang liyané. Kabèh digawé saka gamping tumpuk sing dilabur, kejaba ing poojok lan pinggirané sing digawé saka gamping tatah. Ing jeroné ana nis mawa palungguhané. Kabèh asalé saka abad kaping 14.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|pp=253–258}} Banjur uga ana gapura pasaréan sing manuju menyang pasturan, dunungé salor-wétané gréja, saka dalan. Iki asalé ya saka abad kaping 14, lan siji-sijiné sing isih lestari ing Gotland.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=252}} Ana tapak tangan tukang bangunan ing limang panggonan ing gapura pasaréan lor sing padha rupané karo tapak tangan juru bangunan ing [[Gréja Martebo]] lan [[Gréja Stånga]].{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=258}} Sawetara kuburan saka Mangsa Viking, darbèné wong-wong Kristen, ditemokaké ing pasaréan iki, ngamot fragmèn klambi.{{sfn|Andrén|2011|pp=199–201}} Sadurungé taun 1739, tata panggonan kuburan iku wong-wong sing sugih dhéwé dikubur paling cedhak gréja ing sisih kidul lan wétan, lan wong sing ora nduwé ing sisih kulon gréja. Sisih lor iku kanggo para durjana.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=258}} === Gapura pasaréan gréja === <gallery> Gambar:Lychgate na igrexa de Garde.jpg|Gapura kulon (baku) Gambar:Lychgate na igrexa de Garde 03.jpg|Gapura lor Gambar:Garde kyrka - KMB - 16000200019440.jpg|Gapura kidul Gambar:Lychgate na igrexa de Garde 02.jpg|Gapura wétan Gambar:Garda Church yard portal 02.jpg|Gapura sing dalané menyang pasturan </gallery> == Sujarah == [[Gambar:Portal sur da nave da igrexa de Garde.jpg|thumb|right|Kori lumebu kidul panti umat sing awujud lengkungan bundher prasaja. Rupa kaya mangkéné pancèn wis dadi karakteristik kanggo gréja-gréja lawas dhéwé ing Pulo Gotland]] Gréja saiki ing Garde katoné biyèn didhisiki déning gréja kayu, kaya ta ditandhani déning anané bolongan sangisoring jogan, sing bisa waé karepé kanggo cagak kayu.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=288}}{{sfn|Andrén|2011|pp=199–200}}<ref name=raa>{{cite web|url= http://www.bebyggelseregistret.raa.se/bbr2/byggnad/visaHistorik.raa?byggnadId=21400000444025|title=GOTLAND GARDE KYRKOGÅRDEN 1:1 - husnr 1, GARDE KYRKA|publisher=Riksantikvarieämbetet ([[Riksantikvarieämbetet]])|language=Swèdhen|access-date=21 Maret 2020}}</ref> Bolongan iki kabèh ditemokaké nalika ana èkskavasi taun 1968. Wong ngerti menawa sawetara gréja ing Gotland iku didhisiki déning gréja-gréja kayu. Antarané ya bisa menawa rangka atep gréja asalé saja gréja kayu lawas sing sadurungé wis ana.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=288}} Nanging bukti genah yèn tau ana gréja kayu ora bisa ditemokaké.{{sfn|Trotzig|1970|pp=14–16}} Gréja watu sing saiki ana kuwi, kepriyé waé dadi salah sawijining gréja lawas dhéwé ing Gotland. Olèhé mbangun bisa waé udakara taun 1130.{{sfn|Andrén|2011|pp=199–201}}<ref name=raa/>{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=290}} Ana dokumèn saka Kabiskopan Linköping, sing nalika iku Gotland dadi laladané nalika abad Tengahan, singa ngamot cathetan perkara misa tahbisan ing taun 1200.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=290}} Gréja iki katoné kawangun saka menara, panti umat, lan panti imam saha [[apsis]]. Bagéan gréja watu pisan sing kalestarèkaké iku namung panti umaté.{{sfn|Jacobsson|Johansson|Johansson|Andersson|1990|p=690}} Sing karakteristik kanggo gréja-gréja awal ing Gotland iku watu sing ora patiya alus ditatah kanggo bahan bangunan gedhong, ora anané dhasar sing cetha utawa dhasar reca, lan gapura lumebu sing prasaja waé, awujud bundher. Kabèh unsur iki katemokaké ing panti umat Gréja Garde.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=290}} Bak baptis lan salib kamenangan sing isih ana ing gréja iku saka jaman sing padha lan katoné olèhé digawé ana gandhèngané karo tahbisan gréja iki.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=290}}{{sfn|Jacobsson|Johansson|Johansson|Andersson|1990|p=690}} Menarané didhuwuraké nganti dhuwuré sing saiki ing tengahan abad kaping 13. Nalika ing paroh pisan abad kaping 14, panti imam sing luwih awal diganti déning panti imam sing saiki sing ukurané ora imbang lan sakristi. Karepé iku bokmanawa arep mbangun ulang gréja, kayadéné ditandani déning témbok sauntara sing isih ana lan nyambungaké papan kur lan panti umat. Papan kur sing anyar dibangun déning bèngkèkl diarani mawa 'jeneng darurat' ([[basa Jerman|Jerman]] ''[[Notname]]'') Egypticus.<ref name=raa/>{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=291}} Gréja iki banjur dipepaki mawa plafon anyar ing dasawarsa 1690, lan interioré banjur dilabur putih ing taun 1701. Sawetara karya rékonstruksi dianakaké ing taun 1869. Mbokmenawa ing taun iki [[kaca patri]] pungkasan saka abad Tengahan ilang. Rénovasi teliti dilakoni ing taun 1963-68, nalika iku fragmèn-fragmèn lukisan témbok saka abad Tengahan ing panti umat ditemokaké manèh.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=291}} Rénovasi liyané dilakoni ing taun 2004, nalika menarané didandani lan jabané dicèt bali manèh.<ref name=raa/> == Arsitèktur == === Jaba === Bahan bangunan Gréja Garde iku watu gamping awarna blawu lan watu bata, sing kusus ditrapaké ing unsur-unsur dhékorasi ing témbok menara. Gréjané iki dilabur putih, kejaba gapura lumebu, pojokan panti imam, panti umat lan menara, lan dhasaré menara lan panti imam. Kabèh kuwi digawé saka gamping sing ditatah ngati-ati.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=259}} Gréjané nduwé patang lawan, telu ing antarané iku prasaja (ing menara, lan siji ing saben sisih panti umat), ing gagrag Romanesque. Gapura lor panti umat bisa waé asliné lawang lumebu panti iman kapisan sing saiki wis ora ana, lan dielih menyang dunungé sing saiki nalika gréja dibangun ulang ing abad kaping 14.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|pp=259–263}} Gapura kidul panti imané iku gagragé arsitèktur Gotik. Gapura lumebuné iku ana undhak-undhakané mawa telung pilar ing saben sisih ing pojok. [[Kapital (arsitèktur)|Kapital]]é didhékorasi mawa ornamèn tetandhuran sing ana bekasé cèt asli samun-samun.<ref name=paint>{{cite journal|last1= Nord|first1= Anders G.|last2= Tronner|first2= Kate|date= 2014|title= Färganalys av fem gotlandskyrkors portaler och muralmålningar [Analyses of paint from portals and murals in five Medieval churches on Gotland]|url= http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/7834/2014_118.pdf|journal= Fornvännen. Journal of Swedish Antiquarian Research|volume= |issue= |pages= 118–126|doi= |access-date= 17 Maret 2020|archive-date= 2020-03-19|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200319202502/http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/7834/2014_118.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>[[Timpanum (arsitèktur)|Timpanum]] sadhuwuré lawang iku dipaèsi mawa recané Kristus sing lagi lenggah mawa astané sing disèlèhaké ing sadhuwuring buku lan sing liyané paring berkah pangèstu.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=264}} Panti umat ndarbèni enem cendhéla, lan papat antarané iku saka abad tengahan lan ada siji sing prasaja, mawa dhésain lengkungan. Panti imam ndarbèni cendhéla lora gedhé mawa krawang mucuk Gotik. Wujud kaya mangkéné iki uga bisa ditemokaké ing Gréja [[Gréja Väte Church|Väte]], [[Gréja Grötlingbo|Grötlingbo]] lan [[Gréja Hablingbo|Hablingbo]].{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|pp=265–267}} Menarané nduwé telung tingkat sadhuwuré tingkat dhuwur sing ngamot loncèng gréja. Miturut sawijining prasasti, loncèng gréjané digawé ing [[Lübeck]] taun 1608, lan dicithak manèh ing [[Stockholm]].{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|pp=336–337}} Sadurungé menara iki digedhèkaké ing abad kaping 12, ana bolongan swara papat ing bagéan ngisor. Sawisé menara didhuwuraké, saiki ana rolas bolongan sing yèn dibandhingaké dhuwur mawa lengkungan lancip, telu ing saben sisih menara. Kombinasi antara gamping lan watu bata ing dhékorasiné iku mèmper bolongan ing menara gréja ing [[Gréja Lye|Lye]] lan [[Gréja Burs|Burs]].{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=270}} === Jero === [[File:Garda Wall cupboard 01.jpg|thumb|right|Manten tabernakel gréja, abad kaping 14. Lawang kayuné iku modhèren.]] Interior gréja iku bisa binagi ing telung papan baken: jogan ngisoré menara manuju kulon, panti umat ing tengah lan panti imam manuju ing kulon. Jogan ngisoré menara iku yèn dibandhingaké ciyut lan peteng, lan digandhèngaké mawa panti umat mawa lengkungan ciyut nanging dhuwur. Panti umat panggonané dhuwur, cendhélané, kamangka panti imam sing luwih gedhé olèh cahyané saka cendhéla agagrag Gotik gedhé ing témbok wétan lan kidul. Lengkungan panti imam sing nyambungaké panti umat karo panti imam digawé saka gamping sing ditatah alus. Plafon panti imam lan jogan menara iku rata lan plafoné saka kayu, kamangka panti imam plafoné ana kubahé.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|pp=284–287}} Sadhuwuré plafon panti umat, lan sangisoré atep, ana rangka atep Romanesque lawas sing digawé apik lan kalestarèkaké.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=284}}{{sfn|Jacobsson|Johansson|Johansson|Andersson|1990|p=690}} Jogan gréja akèhé saka jaman sawisé dirénovasi ing dasawarsa 1960-an. Kala iku, fragmèn-fragmèn saka [[watu gambar]] ditemokaké ing jogan asli. Sawetara antaranya didokok cedhak témbok kidul gréja.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=332}} In témbok panti umat ana lima [[nis (arsitèktur)|nis]] (legokan ing témbok), sing sangkané saka mangsa pambangunan gréja iki. Sing gedhé dhéwé iku nis mawa lungguhan ing témbok kidul panti imam, interioré dipaèsi mawa lukisan saka abad kaping 14.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=287}} Ana lukisan sing nggambaraké Kristus lenggah ing singgasana.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=303}} Ing témbok lor papan kur ana nis sing luwih cilik lan asliné kanggo tabernakel gréja, sing uga ngamot dhékorasi saka abad kaping 14.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=287}} Jeroné témbok gréja ngamot akèh ukiran, kalebu prasasti ing aksara Rune lan gambaré kapal-kapal, sing pungkasan iku katoné digawé ing jaman abad Tengahan Akir.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=304}} Ora ana [[kaca patri]] asli sing isih ana sajroning gréja, senadyan cendhéla panti imam isih ngamot kaca patri ing dasawarsa 1860-an.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=304}} === Lukisan témbok === {{utama|Lukisan témbok gréja ing Swèdhen}} Panti umaté kabèh katoné asliné didhékorasi kebak mawa lukisan témbok, nanging saiki sabagéan gedhé wis padha sirna.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=292}} Isih ana lukisan sasèt sing kalestarèkaké ing ''soffit'' lengkungan sing nggandhèngaké panti umat karo jogan dhasar menara, lukisan iki ora tau ditutupi cèt liya.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=29}} Lukisan iki gagragé Ruslan-Bizantium,{{sfn|Andrén|2011|pp=199–201}}{{sfn|Jonsson|Lindquist|1987|pp=165–166}} mawa sawetara pangaribawa saka [[kagunan Gotik]], sing katon ing dhétail ornamèntal mligi.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|pp=296–297}}. Kabèh iku diakoni menawa kwalitasé dhuwur lan diarani "bukti apik dhéwé bèngkèl mawa gagrag Bizantium ing Gotland lan déné pancèn diakoni kaya mengkono".{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=29}}{{sfn|Cutler|1969|p=258}} Ana sing mènèhi panemu menawa ana gandhèngané antara lukisan fragmèntaris ing Gréja [[Gréja Källunge|Källunge]] lan [[Gréja Havdhem|Havdhem]], nanging ora ana lukisan liya sing bisa dibandhingaké èksis ing Swèdhen.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=296}} Kabèh iku katoné digawé udakara taun 1200.{{sfn|Tuulse|1971|p=164}} Lukisan témbok nggambaraké [[santo]] loro, sing ngadeg sangisoré lengkungan apaès palmèt, disokong déning cagak loro sing dipaèsi mawa [[kapital (arsitèktur)|kapital]]. Saben santo ngadeg, kepara arah ''contrapposto'', lan ngadhep para pamirsa, mawa tangan kiwané diangkat minangka tandha berkah lan tangan tengené nyekel salib.{{sfn|Cutler|1969|p=259}}{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=301}} Loro-loro nganggo [[klambi Bizantium|klambi gagrag Bizantium]]. Cara nggambaraké santo kaya mengkéné ditepungi saka Ruslan lan tlatah liyané (contoné [[Basilik Santo Markus]] ing Venesia), nanging mesthi saka laladan sing kena pangaribawa Bizantium.{{sfn|Cutler|1969|p=259}} Ana sing ngusulaké manawa loro-loroné iku nggambaraké para santo [[Florus lan Laurus]], lan kamèmperan karo gambar sagolongan saka para santo iki ing [[Gréja Agioi Anargyroi]] ing [[Kastoria]], Yunani, wis kagatèkaké. {{sfn|Tuulse|1971|p=164}}{{sfn|Cutler|1969|pp=259-260}} Sawetara pangudi wis kalaksanan kanggo nerangaké saka ngendi sangkané pangaribawa gagrag lukisan témbok ini lan spékulasi perkara asalé utawa jatidhiri para seniman sing padha nggawé kabèh iki. Sujarawan kagunan kapisan sing nuduhaké kagandhèngan karo [[Kagunan Bizantium]] iku [[Johnny Roosval]] ing taun 1911.{{sfn|Tuulse|1971|p=163}} Ing taun candhaké, upaya kaping pisanan nemokaké gagrag sing paralèl ing kagunan Ruslan dilakoni déning Ture J. Arne, sing mènèhi sugèsti gandhèngané lukisan témbok ing Garde lan ing gréja-gréja Ruslan Nereditsa lan Santo George ing Staraya Ladoga.{{sfn|Tuulse|1971|p=163}}{{sfn|Arne|1912|p=63}} Riset ing tembé uga nyoroti pepadhan karo Greja Santo George ing Staraya Ladoga.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=301}} Gandhèngan presisé antara gréja-gréja Ruslan lan lukisan témbok ing Garde isih dadi pitakonan tinarbuka. Awaké dhéwé ngerti menawa ana gréja Ruslan ing Visby (saiki kari puing) lan ana kamungkinan menawa para seniman Ruslan lunga menyang Gotland kanggo maèsi gréja iki, lan ing wektu sing padha maèsi greja ing Garde.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=297}} Bisa uga para dagang saka Gotland nggawa seniman Ruslan menyang Gotland saka pesisir wétan [[Sagara Baltik]].{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=297}} Banjur, wis dingertèni manawa lukisan iku uga bisa nuduhaké pangaribawa langsung saka kagunan Yunani lan Sisilia, ya kagunan Barat, sing luwih njlimetaké babagan tetimbangan final babagan sangkan-paraning seniman kasebut.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=300}} Campuran pangaribawa iki marai anané hipotèsis yèn seniman kasebut dilatih ing lingkungan Ruslan-Bazantium, nanging uga ngganggo agambar minangka buku motif.{{sfn|Tuulse|1971|pp=166–167}} Paralèl kontemporer karo naskah agambar Ruslan lan Bizantium uga wis disebut.{{sfn|Tuulse|1971|pp=167–168}}{{sfn|Cutler|1969|p=260}} Ing endi waé para seniman iku bisa nemokaké inspirasi, mula bakal ditandhesaké manawa gréja kasebut dibangun minangka gréja Katulik, lan dudu gréja Ortodoks; mèmper karo gréja-gréja ing Sisilia saka abad kaping 12, pangaribawa turuna saka kagunan Ortodoks "sanadyan ana béda doktrin lan liturgis".{{sfn|Cutler|1969|p=266}} <gallery mode="packed" caption="Lukisan Ruslan-Bizantium" heights="220px"> Gambar:Garde kyrka - KMB - 16001000149564.jpg|Santo, sisih kidul Gambar:Arco de entrada á torre de Garde.jpg|Lengkungan mawa lukisan Gambar:Garde kyrka - KMB - 16001000149584.jpg|Santo, sisih lor </gallery> == Prabotan == [[File:Garda Baptismal font 01.jpg|thumb|right|Bak baptis, karyané Byzantios (pungkasan abad kaping 12).]] Bak baptis gréja iki saka abad kaping 12 lan digawé déning seniman utawa bèngkèkl sing ditepungi mawa ''Notname'' Byzantios. Bak-bak baptis sing mèmper iki uga ana ing gréja-gréja Atlingbo lan Hogrän. Kaya déné bak-bak baptisan liyané déning Byzantios, wujudé iku bak oktagonal, didhékorasi mawa gambar-gambar ing rèlièf asor antara cagak cendhak sing nyokong lengkungan bunder. Bekas cèt asli isih ana ing dhasaré bak baptis; cèt sing bisa disawang ing bak iki asalé saka tengahan abad kaping 18.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|pp=315–318}} Rerengganing altar Gréja Garde iku digawé saka watu gamping sing diukir lan dicèt, saka taun 1689 utawa bisa uga 1682. Bagéan tengahé nggambaraké [[Bujana Ndalu]], lan diapit déning rong reca [[Musa]] lan [[Harun]] ing sisih loro-loroné. Ing dhuwuré ana [[monogram]] Raja [[Charles XI saka Swèdhen]].{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=306}} [[Mimbar gréja]] digawé taun 1662, lan katoné dicèt mawa warna sing saiki isih katon ing taun 1749.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=309}} Bangku-bangku gréja sing saiki dienggo, lagi didokok nalika dasawarsa 1960-an.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=310}} Salib kamenangan gréja kawangun saka reca Kristus, sing katoné digawé taun 1200, didokok ing salib sing luwih anyar - katoné saka abad kaping 18. Mahkuthané iku réplika anyar sing nganggo salib kamenangan saka [[Gréja Lokrume]] minangka modhèl. Dhuwuré udakara 250&nbsp;cm lan ambané 180&nbsp;cm.{{sfn|Lagerlöf|1972|p=309}} == Olèhé dienggo saiki lan status cagar budaya == Gréja Garde iku kalebu Paroki Garde sajeroning "kontrakt Sudertredingens" Gréja Swèdhen. "Kontrakt" ing Gréja Swèdhen iku kurang luwih pasepuhan désa<ref name=engelska>{{cite web |url= https://www.svenskakyrkan.se/lundsstift/in-english|title= In English – Lunds stift|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= 14 Agustus 2019|website= |publisher= [[Diocese of Lund]] ([[Church of Sweden]])|access-date= 13 Maret 2020|quote=}}</ref> lan bagéan saka Kabiskopan Visby sajeroning Gréja Swèdhen.<ref name=forsamlingen>{{cite web |url= https://www.svenskakyrkan.se/garde|title= Garde församling|author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= Garde parish|publisher= [[Diocese of Visby]] ([[Church of Sweden]])|access-date= 13 Maret 2020|quote=}}</ref> Gréja Garde iku monumèn ibadah, mawa nomer 21300000002676 (sub-nomer: 21400000444025) ing pangkalan data 'Dhines Warisan Nasional Swèdhen'. Ing taun 2019, Gréja Garde iku salah sawijining saka 56 monumèn cagar budaya kapisan ing Gotland lan Swèdhen iki sengaja ditandhani mawa tamèng biru lan putih [[Konvènsi Den Haag kanggo Pangreksan Darbènan Budaya menawa ana Konflik Gegaman]].<ref name=svt>{{cite web |url= https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/ost/om-kriget-kommer-kulturegendom-ska-skyddas|title= Om kriget kommer – kulturegendom ska skyddas|last=Larsson|first=Carl|date= 16 Novèmber 2019|website= svt.se|publisher= [[Sveriges Television]]|access-date= 14 Maret 2020|quote=}}</ref> == Gladri == <gallery> File:Gotland-GardeKirche-01.jpg|Gréja dideleng saka kulon File:Garda Portal relief01.jpg|Pita kapital ing gapura kidul mawa dhékorasi méwah File: Garda Baptismal font 01.jpg|Bak baptis sing digawé déning Byzantios File: Gotland-GardeKirche-05.jpg|Altar lan rerenggané, 1689 File: Garda Pulpit 01.jpg|Mimbar gréja, 1662 File:Garde_epitafium.jpg |Épitaf saka taun 1661 ngenani rèktor Niels Lauritsen File: Gotland-GardeKirche-07.jpg|Lukisan Ruslan-Bizantium ing lengkungan kamenangan saka abad kaping 13 File:Garda Wall cupboard 02.jpg|Lemari tabernakel </gallery> == Réferènsi == {{reflist|2}} == Kapustakan == ===Umum=== *{{cite book |last= Andrén|first= Anders|language=Swèdhen|authorlink= |title= Det Medeltida Gotland. En arkeologisk guidebok|url= |year= 2011|publisher= Historiska Media|location= Lund|isbn= 978-91-85873-83-8}} *{{cite book |last1= Jacobsson|first1= Britta|last2= Johansson|first2= Eva|last3= Johansson|first3= Per|last4= Andersson|first4= Rolf|date= 1990|title= Våra kyrkor|url= |location= Västervik|publisher= Klarkullens förlag AB|isbn= 91-971561-08}} *{{cite book |last1= Jonsson|first1= Marita|last2=Lindquist|first2=Sven-Olof|language=Swèdhen|authorlink= |title= Vägen till kulturen på Gotland|url= |year= 1987|publisher= Gotlands fornsal|location= Visby|isbn= 91-971048-1-7}} *{{cite book |last= Lagerlöf|first= Erland|date= 1972|title= Garde kyrka|series= Sveriges kyrkor, konsthistoriskt inventarium|language= Swèdhen|volume= 145|url= http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1244134/FULLTEXT01.pdf|location= Stockholm|publisher= Almqvist & Wiksell|issn=0284-1894}} *{{cite journal|last1= Trotzig|first1= Gustaf|date= 1970|title= En arkeologisk undersökning i Garda kyrka på Gotland|url= http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/2093/1970_001.pdf|journal= Fornvännen. Journal of Swedish Antquarian Research|volume= |issue= |pages= 1–17|doi= |access-date= 20 Maret 2020|archive-date= 2020-03-21|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200321201422/http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/2093/1970_001.pdf|url-status= dead}} ===Lukisan témbok=== *{{cite journal|last= Arne|first= Ture J.|date= 1912|title= Rysk-byzantinska målningar i en gotlandskyrka|url= http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/609/1912_057.pdf|journal= Fornvännen. Journal of Swedish Antquarian Research|volume= |issue= |pages= 57–64|doi= |language= Swedish|access-date= 21 Maret 2020|archive-date= 2020-03-19|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200319200819/http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/609/1912_057.pdf|url-status= dead}} *{{cite journal |last= Cutler|first= Anthony|date= 1969|title=Garda, Källunge, and the Byzantine Tradition on Gotland|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_art-bulletin_1969-09_51_3/page/n78|journal= The Art Bulletin|volume= 51|issue= 3|pages= 257–266|doi= 10.2307/3048630|jstor= 3048630}} *{{cite journal|last= Tuulse|first= Armin|date= 1971|title= Väst och öst i Gotlands romanik|url= http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/2155/1971_154.pdf|journal= Fornvännen. Journal of Swedish Antquarian Research|volume= |issue= |pages= 154–172|doi= |language= Swèdhen|access-date= 21 Maret 2020|archive-date= 2021-01-16|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210116120947/http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/2155/1971_154.pdf|url-status= dead}} == Pranala njaba == *{{commons category-inline|Garde kyrka|Gréja Garde}} *[http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/default.aspx?id=664321 Situs wèb resmi (basa Swèdhen)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701235918/http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/default.aspx?id=664321 |date=2015-07-01 }} [[Kategori:Gréja ing Swèdhen]] gyp0aeh47n949w8lefuiw0fvskbv4qu Dhaptar iwak paling cilik 0 170457 1752883 1641973 2026-08-20T04:07:15Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752883 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Iwak paling cilik''' ing jagad gumantung saka pangukuran sing digunakake. Adhedasar ukuran standar minimal nalika umur contenders utama yaiku Paedocypris progenetica ing endi wanita bisa nyedhaki kanthi udakara 7,9&nbsp;mm (0.31&nbsp;in), infantfish sing gagah (Schindleria brevipinguis) ing kono wanita umure nganti 7&nbsp;mm ( 0,28 ing) lan lanang umur 6,5&nbsp;mm (0.26 ing), lan spinocory Photocorynus ing ngendi lanang bisa nyedhaki 6,2&nbsp;mm (0.24 lumebu), nanging dipasang karo wanita sing luwih gedhe. Yen dianggep paling cilik adhedhasar ukuran maksimum spesies (pangukuran sing asring digunakake kanggo iwak), Paedocypris progenetica, dwarf pygmy goby (Pandaka pygmaea), dwarfgoby kerdil (Nanas Trimmatom) lan bayi cilik sing kuwat (Schindleria brevipinguis) ora dingerteni luwih saka 11&nbsp;mm (0,43 in) dawane standar, lan loro gobies turu Leptophilypnion kurang saka 10&nbsp;mm (0,39 in). Tingkat ora yakin babagan sawetara ukuran lengkap, sawetara sawetara, amarga mung sawetara spesimen sing wis diukur. Paling ora utawa ora kasedhiya data sing bobote umume, nanging kurang saka 1 miligram (0,015 gr) umume iwak cilik sing gagah (Schindleria brevipinguis) paling cilik yen nggunakake fitur iki. ==Dhaptar iwak paling cilik ing donya== {| class="sortable wikitable" |- style="background:#ececec;" !Gambar !Jeneng !Spesies !Famili !Ukuran paling cilik !Ukuran paling gedhe |- |[[File:Paedocypris progenetica 001.jpg|50px]] | |''[[Paedocypris progenetica]]'' |[[Cyprinidae]] |{{convert|7.9|mm|abbr=on}}, wadon<ref name=Pprogenetica>{{FishBase species | genus = Paedocypris | species = progenetica | month = September| year = 2017}}</ref> |{{convert|10.3|mm|abbr=on}}<ref name=Pprogenetica/> |- | | |''[[Leptophilypnion]] fittkaui'' |[[Eleotridae]] |? |{{convert|9.5|mm|abbr=on}}<ref name=Roberts2013>Roberts, T.R. (2013). ''Leptophilypnion'', a new genus with two new species of tiny central Amazonian gobioid fishes (Teleostei, Eleotridae). ''aqua, International Journal of Ichthyology, 19 (2): 85-98.''</ref> |- | | |''[[Leptophilypnion]] pusillus'' |[[Eleotridae]] |? |{{convert|9.1|mm|abbr=on}}<ref name=Roberts2013/> |- |[[File:Papyg u0.gif|50px]] |[[Dwarf pygmy goby]] |''[[Pandaka pygmaea]]'' |[[Gobiidae]] |{{convert|9|mm|abbr=on}}, lanang<ref name=Ppygmaea>{{FishBase species | genus = Pandaka | species = pygmaea| month = September| year = 2017}}</ref> |{{convert|11|mm|abbr=on}}<ref name=Ppygmaea/> |- | |[[Midget dwarfgoby]] |''[[Trimmatom nanus]]'' |[[Gobiidae]] |{{convert|10|mm|abbr=on}}<ref name=Tnanus>{{FishBase species | genus = Trimmatom | species = nanus| month = September| year = 2017}}</ref> |{{convert|10|mm|abbr=on}}<ref name=Tnanus/> |- | | |''[[Photocorynus spiniceps]]'' |[[Linophrynidae]] |{{convert|6.2|mm|abbr=on}}, lanang<ref name=Pietsch>{{cite journal|title=Dimorphism, parasitism, and sex revisited: modes of reproduction among deep-sea ceratioid anglerfishes (Teleostei: Lophiiformes)|url=https://archive.org/details/ichthyological-research_2005-08-25_52_3/page/207|author=Theodore W. Pietsch|journal=Ichthyological Research|volume=52|issue=3|year=2005|pages=207–236|doi=10.1007/s10228-005-0286-2}}</ref> |{{convert|50.2|mm|abbr=on}}, wanita luwih gedhe tinimbang lanang lan spesies ora paling cilik kanthi dawa standar maksimal.<ref name=Pietsch/> |- | |[[Stout infantfish]]<ref name ="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">[http://scrippsnews.ucsd.edu/Releases/?releaseID=639 Scientists Describe the World's Smallest, Lightest Fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513073401/http://scrippsnews.ucsd.edu/Releases/?releaseID=639 |date=2013-05-13 }} Retrieved September 17, 2011</ref> |''[[Schindleria brevipinguis]]'' |[[Gobiidae]] |{{convert|6.5|mm|abbr=on}}, lanang |{{convert|10|mm|abbr=on}}<ref name=Sbrevipinguis>{{FishBase species | genus = Schindleria | species = brevipinguis| month = September| year = 2017}}</ref> |} ==Referensi== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Iwak]] 62uwbqeh4pr0wleywxvtclq5jm8a26e Injèra 0 170963 1752994 1736421 2026-08-20T07:28:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752994 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|image=File:Alicha 1.jpg|caption=Meal consisting of ''injera'' and several kinds of ''[[Wat (food)|wat]]'' or ''tsebhi'' (stew), typical of [[Ethiopian cuisine|Ethiopian]] and [[Eritrean cuisine|Eritrean]] cuisine}}'''Injera''' (basa Amhar : {{Transl|am|ənǧära}}, {{Lang|am|እንጀራ}} , [ɨndʒəra] ) minangka roti difermentasi asem kanthi tekstur sing rada spons, kanthi tradisional digawe saka [[Glepung|tepung]] teff ing masakan Ethiopia lan Eritrea . Iki minangka panganan nasional kanggo kaloro negara kasebut, lan negara-negara Afrika Wétan. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/recipe-injera.html|title=Ethiopian Injera Recipe|date=4 October 2016|publisher=[[Exploratorium]]|access-date=28 March 2017|archive-date=28 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628083649/http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/bread/recipe-injera.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pusat kanggo proses mangan ing budaya kasebut amarga roti minangka komponen sing paling wigati . <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lyons|first=Diane|last2=D' Andrea|first2=A. Catherine|date=September 2003|title=Griddles, Ovens, and Agricultural Origins: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Bread Baking in Highland Ethiopia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_2003-09_105_3/page/515|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=105|issue=3|pages=515–530|doi=10.1525/aa.2003.105.3.515|jstor=3566902|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSgmwugWCGMC&pg=PA362|title=Ethiopia: the Land, Its People, History and Culture|last=Mekonnen|first=Yohannes|date=29 January 2013|publisher=Yohannes Mekonnen|isbn=978-1-4823-1117-4|page=362}}</ref> == Nyepakaké == Injera biasane digawe saka wiji teff sing sugih wesi, sing digiling dadi glepung. Produksi teff diwatesi mung ing sawetara tengah sing duwe udan sing cukup, lan minangka panen panen sing murah, <ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-4tlDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PA341|title=The economics of teff: Exploring Ethiopia's biggest cash crop|last=Bart|first=Minten|last2=Seyoum|first2=Taffesse, Alemayehu|last3=Petra|first3=Brown|date=2018-07-19|publisher=Intl Food Policy Res Inst|isbn=9780896292833|language=en}}</ref> lumayan larang kanggo rata-rata rumah tangga. Minangka akeh petani ing dataran tinggi Ethiopia tuwuh pari-parian iku dhewe, gandum, [[Jawawut|gandum]], [[jagung]], utawa [[Pantun|beras]] glepung sing kadhangkala dipigunakaké kanggo ngganti sawetara utawa kabeh isi teff. Wiji teff dinilai miturut warna, digunakake kanggo nggawe macem-macem jinis injera: ''nech'' (putih), ''kunci'' utawa ''quey'' (abang), lan ''sergegna'' (campuran). Tepung teff bebas ngandhut gluten. == Referensi == lwba3513zic4e1sqcspcyk40931nrq7 Jeruk getih 0 171000 1753020 1535051 2026-08-20T08:16:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753020 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Blood orange - 25100877091.jpg|jmpl|Jeruk getih ]] {{Infobox cultivar|name=Blood orange|image=BloodOrange.jpg|image_caption=A sliced blood orange|species=[[Citrus × sinensis|''Citrus'' × ''sinensis'']]|group=Blood orange cultivars|origin=[[Mediterranean|Southern Mediterranean]], 18th century|subdivision={{plainlist| * 'Tarocco' (native to Italy) * 'Sanguinello' (native to Spain) * 'Moro' ([[Sicily]]) }}}}{{Infobox cultivar|name=Blood orange|image=BloodOrange.jpg|image_caption=A sliced blood orange|species=[[Citrus × sinensis|''Citrus'' × ''sinensis'']]|group=Blood orange cultivars|origin=[[Mediterranean|Southern Mediterranean]], 18th century|subdivision={{plainlist| * 'Tarocco' (native to Italy) * 'Sanguinello' (native to Spain) * 'Moro' ([[Sicily]]) }}}} '''Jeruk getih''' iku jinis [[Jeruk|orange]] ( <nowiki><i id="mwCQ">Citrus</i></nowiki> × <nowiki><i id="mwCg">sinensis</i></nowiki> ) karo layung, meh [[getih]] werna daginge. Werna daging peteng sing khas yaiku amarga ana [[Antosianin|anthocyanin]], kulawarga pigmen [[Polifenol|polifenol sing]] umume akeh kembang lan woh, nanging ora umum ana ing [[Sitrus|buah jeruk]] . <ref name="journalafc">{{Cite journal|last=Paolo|first=Rapisarda|last2=Fabiana|first2=Fanella|last3=Emanuele|first3=Maccarone|date=2000|title=Reliability of Analytical Methods for Determining Anthocyanins in Blood Orange Juices|journal=J. Agric. Food Chem.|volume=48|issue=6|pages=2249–2252|doi=10.1021/jf991157h|pmid=10888531}}</ref> Chrysanthemin (cyanidin 3- ''O'' -glucoside) minangka senyawa utama sing ditemokake ing jeruk abang. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Felgines|first=C.|last2=Texier|first2=O.|last3=Besson|first3=C.|last4=Vitaglione|first4=P|last5=Lamaison|first5=J.-L.|last6=Fogliano|first6=V.|last7=Scalbert|first7=A.|last8=Vanella|first8=L.|last9=Galvano|first9=F.|date=2008|title=Influence of glucose on cyanidin 3-glucoside absorption in rats|journal=Mol. Nutr. Food Res.|volume=52|issue=8|pages=959–64|doi=10.1002/mnfr.200700377|pmid=18646002}}</ref> Daging ngembang warna maroon khas nalika woh tuwuh kanthi suhu sithik nalika wengi. <ref name="McGee">{{Cite book|title=On food and cooking: the science and lore of the kitchen|last=McGee, Harold|publisher=Scribner|year=2004|isbn=0-684-80001-2|location=New York|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bKVCtH4AjwgC&pg=PA376#v=onepage&q&f=false 376]|doi=|oclc=|access-date=}}</ref> Kadhangkala, pewarnaan peteng katon ing njaba kulit, uga gumantung karo jinis jeruk getih. Kulit bisa dadi luwih angel lan angel dikupas tinimbang jeruk liyane. Jeruk getih duwe roso unik dibandhingake karo jeruk liyane, kayata raspberry sing beda saliyane catetan jeruk sing biasa. Pigmen anthocyanin jeruk getih wiwit nglumpukake ing vesikel ing pinggir segmen, lan ing sisih pungkasan woh, lan terus akumulasi ing panyimpenan adhem sawise panen. Jeruk getih minangka mutasi alami saka oranye, sing dhewe hibrida, bisa uga antara [[Jeruk bali|pomelo]] lan jeruk [[Jeruk bali|keprok]], <ref name="Nicolosi">{{Cite journal|last=Nicolosi|first=E.|last2=Deng|first2=Z. N.|last3=Gentile|first3=A.|last4=La Malfa|first4=S.|last5=Continella|first5=G.|last6=Tribulato|first6=E.|year=2000|title=Citrus phylogeny and genetic origin of important species as investigated by molecular markers|url=https://archive.org/details/theoretical-and-applied-genetics_2000-06_100_8/page/1155|journal=Theor. Appl. Genet.|volume=100|issue=8|pages=1155–1166|doi=10.1007/s001220051419}}</ref> Eropa, ''arancia rossa di Sicilia'' (oranye abang ing [[Sisilia]] ) nduweni Status Geografis sing Dijaga . <ref name="ProtectedDesignation">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aranciarossadisiciliaigp.it/en/territorio_consumerl.php|title=IGP Arancia Rossa di Sicilia: Territory|publisher=IGP Arancia Rossa di Sicilia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722023803/http://www.aranciarossadisiciliaigp.it/en/territorio_consumerl.php|archive-date=2011-07-22|access-date=2010-12-28}}</ref> Ing Komunitas Valencian, diperkenalkan ing paruh kapindho abad kaping 19. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Horts de tarongers. La formació del verger valencià|last=Besó Ros|first=Adrià|publisher=Institució Alfons el Magnànim|year=2016|isbn=978-84-7822-686-3|location=Valencia|page=144|language=Valencian}}</ref> == Rujukan == cnjqt7md7muihxq9rxtkjan1dv0hrzm Putih endhog 0 171345 1753081 1550074 2026-08-20T10:02:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753081 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Chicken_egg01_monovular.jpg|jmpl|Endhog endhog mentah dikubengi endhog putih]] '''Endhog putih''' iku sawijining Cairan (uga disebut '''albumen''' utawa '''glair''' / '''glaire)''' sing ana ing [[endhog]] . Ing [[pitik]] digawe saka lapisan sekresi ing bagian ngarep oviduk pitik sajrone endhog.<ref>Ornithology, Volume 1994 By Frank B. Gill p. 361</ref> Wangun ing sekitar kuning telur sing dibuahi utawa ora dibuahi. Ancas alami utama endhog putih yaiku kanggo nglindhungi kuning telur lan menehi nutrisi tambahan kanggo tuwuh [[embrio]] (nalika dibuahi). Putih endhog kalebu utamane udakara 90% banyu sing udakara 10% [[Protéin|protein]] (kalebu [[albumin]], mucoprotein, lan globulin ) dibubarake. Beda karo kuning telur, sing akeh lipid (lemak), endhog putih meh ora ana lemak, lan isi [[karbohidrat]] kurang saka 1%. Putih endhog ngemot udakara 56% protein ing endhog. Endhog putih akeh kagunan ing panganan (kaya ta [[meringue]], mousse ) lan uga akeh panggunaan liyane (kaya ta ing [[Vaksin|nyiyapake vaksin]] kaya ta kanggo influenza <ref>{{Cite journal|last=James|first=John M.|last2=Zeiger|first2=Robert S.|last3=Lester|first3=Mitchell R.|last4=Fasano|first4=Mary Beth|last5=Gern|first5=James E.|last6=Mansfield|first6=Lyndon E.|last7=Schwartz|first7=Howard J.|last8=Sampson|first8=Hugh A.|last9=Windom|first9=Hugh H.|year=1998|title=Safe administration of influenza vaccine to patients with egg allergy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-pediatrics_1998-11_133_5/page/624|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=133|issue=5|pages=624–8|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(98)70101-5|pmid=9821418}}</ref> ). [[Kategori:Endhog]] 8r6q6f5hkw18twhopzckqglfr03ccu3 Bora 0 171359 1753075 1741910 2026-08-20T09:49:35Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753075 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Charles Kerry - An Aboriginal Bora Ceremony, 1898.jpg|nirbing|pus|275px|Foto upacara Bora, dijupuk taun 1898 dening [[Charles Kerry]]]]. Bora minangka upacara inisiasi masarakat Aborigin ing Australia Wétan. Tembung "bora" uga nuduhake situs sing ditindakake inisiatif. Ing situs kasebut, bocah lanang, wis diwasa, entuk status pria. Upacara wiwitan beda karo budaya Aborigin dadi budaya, nanging asring, ing level fisik, kalebu scarification, sunat, subincision lan, ing sawetara wilayah, uga ngilangi untu.{{sfn|Rolls|Johnson|2010|p=40}} Sajrone upacara adat, para mudha sing bakal diwiwiti diajari nyipta lagu-lagu suci tradisional, rahasia saka visi, tarian, lan budaya tradisional suku kasebut. Akeh klan sing beda bakal nglumpuk kanggo melu upacara inisiasi. Wanita lan bocah-bocah ora diidini teka ing lapangan bora suci sing ditindakake ritual kasebut.{{sfn|Rolls|Johnson|2010|p=40}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} === Sumber liyane === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite book| title = Australian Aboriginal Religion, Parts 1-4 | last = Berndt | first = Ronald Murray | author-link = Ronald Murray Berndt | year = 1974 | publisher = [[BRILL Publishers]] | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PtE3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA28 | isbn = 978-9-004-03861-5 }} * {{Cite book| title = The Melbourne Dreaming: A Guide to the Aboriginal Places of Melbourne | last = Eidelson | first = Meyer | year = 1997 | publisher = Aboriginal Studies Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=U3pkVr2jVJoC | isbn = 978-0-855-75306-1 }} * {{Cite book| title = Footprints on Rock | year = 1997 | publisher = Metropolitan Local Aboriginal Land Council | location = Sydney | isbn = 978-0-7313-1002-9 | ref = {{harvid|MLALC|1997}} }} * {{Cite journal | title = Earth rings at Sunbury, Victoria | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_archaeology-in-oceania_1982-07_17_2/page/89 | last = Frankel | first = David | journal = Archaeology in Oceania | year = 1982 | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 89–97 | doi = 10.1002/j.1834-4453.1982.tb00043.x }} * {{Cite journal | title = Astronomical Orientations of Bora Ceremonial Grounds in Southeast Australia | last1 = Fuller | first1 = Robert S. | last2 = Hamacher | first2 = Duane W. | last3 = Norris | first3 = Ray P. | journal = [[Australian Archaeology]] | year = 2013 | issue = 77 | pages = 30–37 | arxiv = 1305.0881 }} * {{Cite journal | title = The Burbung of the Darkinung Tribes | last = Mathews | first = Robert Hamilton | author-link = Robert Hamilton Mathews | journal = [[Royal Society of Victoria|Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria]] | year = 1897 | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–12 | url = https://downloads.newcastle.edu.au/library/cultural%20collections/awaba//documents/mathews1897.pdf }} * {{Cite book | title = Results of an archaeological survey of the Southern region of Moreton Bay and of Moreton Island (1963-1964) | last = Ponosov | first = Vladimir Vasil'evich | year = 1974 | publisher = [[University of Queensland]] | url = http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:324910/V_V_Ponosov.pdf | access-date = 2020-10-15 | archive-date = 2017-01-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170116165845/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:324910/V_V_Ponosov.pdf | url-status = dead }} * {{Cite book| title = Wild Places: Wilderness in Eastern New South Wales | last1 = Prineas | first1 = Peter | last2 = Gold | first2 = Henry | year = 1997 | publisher = Katsehamos & the Great Idea | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=u6RwkTU6hsAC&pg=PA184 | isbn = 978-0-858-81158-4 }} * {{Cite book| title = Historical Dictionary of Australian Aborigines | last1 = Rolls | first1 = Mitchell | last2 = Johnson | first2 = Murray | year = 2010 | publisher = [[Scarecrow Press]] | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=a9ppOE30u8EC&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40 | isbn = 978-0-810-87475-6 }} {{refend}} slfplw1fnf78fqgmlj9lokqn39p4k4h Chin chin 0 171852 1753082 1562995 2026-08-20T10:03:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753082 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|image=File:LoveChinChin.jpg|image_size=250px|country=[[West Africa]]|caption=A bowl of chin chin}}'''Chin chin''' minangka cemilan goreng ing [[Afrika Kulon]]. Iku padha karo Scandinavian cemilan klenat, kaya [[Dhonat|donut]] panggang utawa goreng [[Adhonan|adonan]] saka glepung gandum, lan baking item umume liyane. Uwang dagu bisa uga ngemot cowpeas . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Akubor|first=Peter I.|date=2004|title=Protein contents, physical and sensory properties of Nigerian snack foods (cake, chin-chin and puff-puff) prepared from cowpea - wheat flour blends|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-food-science-and-technology_2004-04_39_4/page/419|journal=[[International Journal of Food Science & Technology]]|volume=39|issue=4|pages=419–424|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00771.x}}</ref> Akeh wong sing manggang nganggo [[pala]] kanggo nambahi rasa ==  rujukan == cbpaymwlsn2kwrmj59725wdunm6t8f0 Noraniza Idris 0 172374 1753087 1736522 2026-08-20T10:55:59Z ~2026-38892-59 73578 1753087 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox wong }} '''Nor Aniza binte Haji Idris''' utawi '''Noraniza Idris''' ({{lahirmati|[[Johor Bahru]], [[Johor]], [[Malaysia]]|27|08|1968}}) inggih punika salah satunggalipun [[penyanyi]] [[Malaysia]]. ==Diskografi== *''Kaparinyo'' (1986) *''Nostalgia Malindo'' (1987) *''Mengemis Rindu'' (1987) *''Inginku Sandarkan Harapan'' (1988) *''Masihkah Dirimu Menyayangiku'' (1990) *''Noraniza Idris'' (1992) *''[[Ala Dondang]]'' (1997) *''Masyhur'' (1998) *''Bekaba'' (1999) *''Iktiraf'' (2000) *''Aura'' (2002) *''Sawo' Matang'' (2004) *''Cintaku Satu'' (2010) == Pranala njaba == * {{Instagram|noraniza_idris}} {{penyanyi-stub}} {{pemeran-stub}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Idris, Noraniza}} [[Kategori:Penyanyi Malaysia]] [[Kategori:Aktris Malaysia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Melayu]] hxg03ry5k527a76ifxcy8rbmhq1vamv 1753088 1753087 2026-08-20T10:58:07Z ~2026-38892-59 73578 /* */ 1753088 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox wong }} '''Nor Aniza binte Haji Idris''' utawi '''Noraniza Idris''' ({{lahirmati|[[Johor Bahru]], [[Johor]], [[Malaysia]]|27|08|1968}}) inggih punika salah satunggalipun [[penyanyi]] lan [[aktris]] [[Malaysia]]. ==Diskografi== *''Kaparinyo'' (1986) *''Nostalgia Malindo'' (1987) *''Mengemis Rindu'' (1987) *''Inginku Sandarkan Harapan'' (1988) *''Masihkah Dirimu Menyayangiku'' (1990) *''Noraniza Idris'' (1992) *''[[Ala Dondang]]'' (1997) *''Masyhur'' (1998) *''Bekaba'' (1999) *''Iktiraf'' (2000) *''Aura'' (2002) *''Sawo' Matang'' (2004) *''Cintaku Satu'' (2010) == Pranala njaba == * {{Instagram|noraniza_idris}} {{penyanyi-stub}} {{pemeran-stub}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Idris, Noraniza}} [[Kategori:Penyanyi Malaysia]] [[Kategori:Aktris Malaysia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Melayu]] aa0t65jnnfflpmm8bxxqb9ao4bn6vyj Panganan cepet saji 0 172581 1752915 1746246 2026-08-20T04:54:36Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752915 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:In and Out Burger Double 2011 Summer Vacation California Las Vegas July 24, 201126.jpg|jmpl|berger]]'''Panganan sesuguh rikat''' minangka jinis panganan sing diproduksi massal sing dirancang kanggo adol komersial lan kanthi prioritas sing kuat ditrapake kanggo "kacepetan layanan" mungsuh faktor liyane sing ana gandhengane karo ilmu kuliner . Wiwitane panganan cepet digawe minangka strategi komersial kanggo nampung akeh penumpang sing akeh, plancongan, lan buruh upah sing asring ora sempat lungguh ing omah umum utawa restoran lan ngenteni mangan . Kanthi nggawe kacepetan layanan dadi prioritas, iki mesthekake yen para pelanggan kanthi wektu sing winates banget (komuter sing mandheg golek [[Mangan wengi|nedha bengi]] kanggo mulih menyang kulawarga, kayata, utawa buruh saben jam istirahat makan siang sing sithik ) ora kepenak nalika ngenteni panganan sing bakal dimasak langsung (kaya sing diarepake saka restoran tradisional "lungguh"). Kanggo sing ora duwe kalodhangan, panganan cepet dadi industri miliaran dolar. Ing taun 2018, industri panganan cepet regane udakara $ 570 milyar global. <ref name="FH-2018">{{Cite web|url=https://www.franchisehelp.com/industry-reports/fast-food-industry-analysis-2018-cost-trends/|title=Fast Food Industry Analysis 2018 – Cost & Trends|date=2018|website=franchisehelp.com|publisher=Franchise Help|page=1|access-date=16 July 2019}}</ref> Bentuk "panganan cepet" sing paling cepet kalebu panganan sing wis dimasak sing [[Pitik rotisserie|siyap-siyap tekane]] pelanggan ( [[pitik rotisserie]] Pasar Boston, [[pizza]] Little Caesars, lsp), kanthi wektu ngenteni dikurangi nganti sawetara detik. Gerai panganan cepet liyane, utamane toko [[hamburger]] ( McDonald's, Burger King, lsp.) Nggunakake bahan-bahan sing wis disiapake kanthi massal (roti & bumbu, daging sapi beku beku, sayuran sing wis diiris / diiris, lan liya-liyane) nanging sampeyan butuh banget menyang pelanggan manawa " daging lan kentang " ( [[hamburger]] lan [[Kenthang gorèng|kentang goreng]] ) mesthi dimasak seger (utawa paling ora bubar bubar) lan dipasang "kanggo pesen" (kaya ing restoran). [[Barkas:French fries box.jpg|jmpl| kenthang gorèng]] Senajan macem-macem jembar pangan bisa "masak cepet", "cepet pangan" iku istilah komersial winates kanggo pangan didol ing restoran utawa nyimpen karo beku, úa preheated utawa precooked, lan dadi kanggo customer ing wangun rangkep kanggo take- metu / njupuk-adoh. Restoran panganan cepat saji biasane dibedakake kanthi kemampuan ngladeni panganan liwat drive-through . Outlet bisa uga ana kios utawa kios, sing ora bisa nyedhiyani papan perlindungan utawa papan, <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/fastfoodroadside0000jakl|title=Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age|last=Jakle|first=John|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8018-6920-4|url-access=registration}}; {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/textsundernegoti0000brue|title=Texts Under Negotiation: The Bible and Postmodern Imagination|last=Brueggemann|first=Walter|publisher=Fortress Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-8006-2736-2|url-access=registration}}</ref> utawa restoran panganan cepat saji (uga dikenal minangka ''restoran layanan cepet'' ).  Operasi waralaba sing dadi bagean saka rantai restoran duwe bahan baku panganan sing dikirim menyang saben restoran saka lokasi pusat. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Fast Food, Fast Track: Immigrants, Big Business, and the American Dream|last=Talwar|first=Jennifer|publisher=Westview Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8133-4155-2}}</ref> [[Barkas:Pizza basil.jpg|jmpl|pizza]] Panganan cepet diwiwiti karo toko [[Kripik lan iwak|iwak lan chip]] pisanan ing Inggris ing taun 1860an.  Restoran drive-through pisanan dipopulerake ing taun 1950-an ing Amerika Serikat. Tembung "fast food" diakoni ing kamus dening [[Merriam-Webster|Merriam – Webster]] ing taun 1951.  Mangan panganan cepet wis ana gandheng cenenge, penyakit kardiovaskular, kanker kolorektal, [[obesitas]], kolesterol dhuwur, kondisi resistensi insulin lan [[Gangguan swasana ati|depresi]] . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-03/f-sf-tlb033012.php|title=The link between fast food and depression has been confirmed|website=EurekAlert!|language=en|access-date=April 22, 2018|archive-date=April 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423102221/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-03/f-sf-tlb033012.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.healthline.com/health/fast-food-effects-on-body|title=13 Effects of Fast Food on the Body|last=Pietrangelo|first=Ann|last2=Carey|first2=Elea|website=Healthline|access-date=March 20, 2016}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://coloncancerfoundation.org/prevention/eatingWellDiet.html|title=Susan Cohan Colon Cancer Foundation: Prevention: Eating Well/Diet|website=coloncancerfoundation.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018155440/https://coloncancerfoundation.org/prevention/eatingWellDiet.html|archive-date=October 18, 2016|access-date=August 16, 2016}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.health.harvard.edu/family-health-guide/red-meat-and-colon-cancer|title=Red meat and colon cancer – Harvard Health|last=Publications|first=Harvard Health|language=en-US|access-date=August 16, 2016|archive-date=December 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222181735/http://www.health.harvard.edu/family-health-guide/red-meat-and-colon-cancer|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bao|first=Wei|last2=Tobias|first2=Deirdre K.|last3=Olsen|first3=Sjurdur F.|last4=Zhang|first4=Cuilin|date=2014-12-01|title=Pre-pregnancy fried food consumption and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study|journal=Diabetologia|language=en|volume=57|issue=12|pages=2485–2491|doi=10.1007/s00125-014-3382-x|issn=1432-0428|pmc=4221538|pmid=25303998|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ngontrol diet lan gaya urip liyane sing mbantah konsumen panganan cepet asring ora ngganggu asosiasi kasebut lan kadang-kadang nguatake hubungan antarane konsumsi panganan cepet lan kematian. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pan|first=An|last2=Malik|first2=Vasanti|last3=Hu|first3=Frank B.|date=2012-07-10|title=Exporting Diabetes to Asia: The Impact of Western-Style Fast Food|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_circulation_2012-07-10_126_2/page/163|journal=Circulation|volume=126|issue=2|pages=163–165|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.115923|issn=0009-7322|pmc=3401093|pmid=22753305}}</ref> Akeh panganan cepet cenderung lemak jenuh, gula, uyah lan kalori akeh. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.livestrong.com/article/49366-definition-fast-foods/|title=Definition of Fast Foods {{!}} LIVESTRONG.COM|last=Hellesvig-Gaskell|first=Karen|website=LIVESTRONG.COM|access-date=May 3, 2016|archive-date=March 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302133604/https://www.livestrong.com/article/49366-definition-fast-foods/|url-status=dead}}</ref> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" data-ve-ignore="true" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B; ''<nowiki><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2017)">perlu rujukan</span></nowiki>'' &#x5D;</sup> [[Barkas:9790Crispy Fry chicken Paksiw na Sugpo 03.jpg|jmpl|Kentaki]] == Rujukan == gn1w7rovuhjzpejiku4txhesaicmkkh Stephenson 2-18 0 172605 1753055 1539241 2026-08-20T09:11:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753055 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Stephenson 2-18 zoomed in, 2MASS survey, 2003.png|thumb|Bidhang lintang kandhel ing sakubenge lintang raksasa super abang St2-18 (lintang paling padhang ing gambar) kaya sing dideleng saka survey [[2MASS | 2MASS survey astronomi]]. Gambar kasebut diterbitake ing taun 2003. (Université de Strasbourg/CNRS)]] [[File:Size_Comparison_of_Stephenson_2-18_and_VY_Canis_Majoris.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Bandhingane Stephenson 2-18 lan [[VY Canis Majoris]].]] '''Stephenson 2-18 (St2-18)''', uga dikenal minangka '''Stephenson 2 DFK 1''' utawa '''RSGC2-18''', minangka [[lintang]] raksasa super abang ing rasi lintang Scutum. Dumunung ing cedhak kluster terbuka Stephenson 2, sing dununge udakara 6.000 parsek (20.000 taun cahya) saka [[Donya]], lan dianggep minangka salah sawijining klompok lintang kanthi jarak sing padha. Lintang iki kalebu lintang sing paling misuwur, yen dudu lintang paling gedhe, lan salah sawijining raksasa super abang sing paling padhang, kanthi radius kira-kira udakara 2,150 kali tinimbang Matahari (R☉), sing jumbuh karo volume udakara 10 milyar kali luwih gedhe tinimbang [[Srengenge]]. Yen diselehake ing tengah Sistem Surya, bageyan fotosfer lintang iki bakal ngambah orbit planet Saturnus.<ref name=Davies2007>{{Cite journal | last1 = Davies | first1 = B. | last2 = Figer | first2 = D. F. | last3 = Kudritzki | first3 = R. P. | last4 = MacKenty | first4 = J. | last5 = Najarro | first5 = F. | last6 = Herrero | first6 = A. | s2cid = 1447781 | doi = 10.1086/522224 | title = A Massive Cluster of Red Supergiants at the Base of the Scutum‐Crux Arm | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-12-10_671_1/page/781 | journal = [[The Astrophysical Journal]] | volume = 671 | issue = 1 | pages = 781–801 | year = 2007 | pmid = | pmc =| bibcode=2007ApJ...671..781D|arxiv = 0708.0821 }}</ref><ref name=Stephenson1990>{{Cite journal | year = 1990 | pmid = | pmc =| bibcode = 1990AJ.....99.1867S | pages = 1867 | volume = 99 | doi = 10.1086/115464 | title = A possible new and very remote galactic cluster | journal = [[The Astronomical Journal]] | last1 = Stephenson | first1 = C. B.}}</ref><ref name=negueruela2010>{{Cite journal | volume = 513 | journal = Astronomy and Astrophysics | title = Another cluster of red supergiants close to RSGC1 | pages = A74 | year = 2010| bibcode = 2010A&A...513A..74N | doi = 10.1051/0004-6361/200913373 | first5 = S. | last5 = Martínez-Núñez | first2 = C. | last2 = González-Fernández | first1 = I. | last3 = Marco | first3 = A. | first4 = J. S. | last4 = Clark | last1 = Negueruela|arxiv = 1002.1823 }}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} {{stub}} 46va77suqbwry4hcuec615g38kjhtdd Lara ati 0 172947 1752940 1599083 2026-08-20T05:24:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752940 wikitext text/x-wiki '''lara ati''' (uga dikenal minangka '''Remuk ati''') yaiku kiasan kanggo stres utawa rasa emosi sing kuat sing dirasakake nalika ngrasakake rasa pangarep-arep. Konsep kasebut lintas budaya, asring dikutip kanthi nyebutake pacangan sing dikepengini utawa ilang.<ref name=Johnson>{{cite web|last1=Johnson|first1=R. Skip|title=A Broken Heart can Really Hurt You |publisher=[[BPDFamily.com]] |url=http://bpdfamily.com/content/broken-heart-can-hurt-you |accessdate=14 June 2014}}</ref> Katresnan romantis sing gagal bisa nglarani banget; panandhang ati sing lara bisa uga ngalami depresi, kuatir lan, ing kasus sing luwih ekstrim, bisa ngalami stres ''posttraumatic''.<ref name="Depression through the first year a">{{cite journal|last1=Zisook|first1=S|last2=Shuchter|first2=SR|title=Depression through the first year after the death of a spouse|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_1991-10_148_10/page/1346|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|date=October 1991|volume=148|issue=10|pages=1346–52|doi=10.1176/ajp.148.10.1346|pmid=1897615}}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} {{stub}} j9469u0cvmx01glirrjs9wqacirffbx Kuciwo 0 173036 1752902 1645295 2026-08-20T04:39:31Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752902 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:"Disappointment" - 1882 - Julius Leblanc Stewart.jpg|thumb|''Kuciwo'' (1882), dening [[Julius LeBlanc Stewart]]]] '''Kuciwo''' yaiku rasa ora marem sing nuwuhake kegagalan pangarepan utawa [[pangarep-arep]] kang ora bisa diwujudake. Beda karo getun, beda karo wong sing rumangsa getun fokus utamane ing pilihan pribadi sing nyumbang asil sing ora apik, dene wong sing rumangsa kuciwa fokus marang asil kasebut dhewe.<ref name="Regret">{{cite journal |author=Bell, David E. |title=Putting a premium on regret |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_management-science_1985-01_31_1/page/117 |journal=Management Science |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=117–20 |date=January 1985 |doi=10.1287/mnsc.31.1.117 |jstor=2631680}}</ref> Iki minangka sumber stres psikologis.<ref name="Ma">Ma, Lybi. (March 29, 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119051209/http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=37951 Down But Not Out]. Originally published in ''Psychology Today''. Hosted with permission by medicinenet.com. Retrieved 22/02/08.</ref> Sinau babagan kuciwo — panyebab, pengaruh, lan derajat keputusan individu sing motivasi saka kepinginan kanggo nyingkiri — minangka fokus ing bidang analisis keputusan,<ref name="Regret"/><ref name="Blessed">{{cite journal |author=Wilco, W. van Dijk, Marcel Zeelenberg and Joop van der Pligt |title=Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment |journal=Journal of Economic Psychology |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=505–16 |date=August 2003 |doi=10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 |url=https://pure.uvt.nl/portal/en/publications/blessed-are-those-who-expect-nothing(882bcb55-d219-460a-b35f-d9be810701a1).html }}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> amarga kuciwo, uga getun, salah siji saka rong emosi utama sing ana gandhengane karo keputusan.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wilco W. van Dijk |author2=Marcel Zeelenberg |title=Investigating the appraisal patterns of regret and disappointment |journal=Motivation and Emotion |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=321–31 |date=December 2002 |doi=10.1023/A:1022823221146|url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/6d0324bf-70d0-4095-9e6a-b1052b904324 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wilco W. van Dijk |author2=Marcel Zeelenberg |title=Investigating the appraisal patterns of regret and disappointment |journal=Motivation and Emotion |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=321–31 |date=December 2002 |doi=10.1023/A:1022823221146|url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/6d0324bf-70d0-4095-9e6a-b1052b904324 }}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} m2xyrld6lz3vl6bihtwusk1bqrgr8py Ngimpi 0 173121 1752973 1554257 2026-08-20T06:57:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752973 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Henri Rousseau - Le Rêve - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|400px|''The Dream'' utawa ''Impen-impen'' dening Henri Rousseau]] '''Ngimpi''' yaiku suksesi gambar, ide, emosi, lan sensasi sing biasane kedadeyan tanpa sengaja ing pikiran sajrone [[turu]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/dream |title=Dream |publisher= The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. 2000 |accessdate=May 7, 2009}}</ref> Isi lan tujuan impen durung dingerteni kanthi lengkap, sanajan wis dadi topik minat ilmiah, filosofis, lan agama sajrone sejarah [[manungsa]]. Tafsiran impen minangka upaya nggambar makna saka impen lan nggoleki pesen sing ndasari. Sinau ilmiah babagan impen diarani oneirology.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kavanau |first=J.L. |title=Sleep, memory maintenance, and mental disorders |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neuropsychiatry-and-clinical-neurosciences_spring-2000_12_2/page/199 |journal=Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences |year=2000 |volume=12|issue=2|pages=199–208 |doi=10.1176/jnp.12.2.199 |pmid=11001598 }}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} {{stub}} nkyz22x4mv9vra5vz7vhg5y8krr6fgn Léci 0 173132 1752904 1645884 2026-08-20T04:41:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752904 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |name = Léci |image = Lichubagan19.jpg |image_caption = Léci sing mateng |regnum = [[Plantae]] |unranked_divisio = [[Angiospermae]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudikotil]] |unranked_ordo = [[Rosidae]] |ordo = [[Sapindales]] |familia = [[Sapindaceae]] |genus = '''''Litchi''''' |genus_authority = [[Pierre Sonnerat|Sonn.]] |species = '''''L. chinensis''''' |binomial = ''Litchi chinensis'' |binomial_authority = Sonn. |}} [[Barkas:Lychee fruits and seed.jpg|jmpl]] Léci minangka salah sawijining wit taunan saka kulawarga sapindaceae. Wit iki minangka wit [[Tropika|tropis sing]] asale saka propinsi [[Guangdong]] lan [[Fujian|Fujian,]] kidul-wetan [[Républik Rakyat Cina|China]], ing endi budidaya didokumentasikake wiwit abad kaping 11. <ref name="Purdue">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lychee.html|title=Lychee in Fruits of Warm Climates|last=Morton JF|date=1987|publisher=Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, West Lafayette, Indiana|pages=249–259|access-date=2013-10-30}}</ref> China minangka penghasil utama lychees, disusul karo India, negara liya ing [[Asia Kidul-wétan|Asia Tenggara]], [[Anak Benua India|Benua India]] lan [[Afrika Kidul|Afrika Selatan]] . Wit [[Evergreen|ijo sing]] dhuwur, lchee ngasilake [[Drupe|woh-wohan cilik]] . Sisih njaba woh-wohan jambon-abang, kanthi tekstur lan ora bisa dipangan, nutupi daging legi sing dipangan ing macem-macem panganan cuci mulut. == Wedharan == Leci ditandur kanthi wiyar ing China kidul, [[Républik Cina|Taiwan]], [[Viètnam|Vietnam]] lan sakiwa-tengene tropis [[Asia Kidul-wétan|Asia Tenggara]], [[Anak Benua India|Benua India]], <ref name="mitra">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ac684e/ac684e04.htm|title=Overview of lychee production in the Asia-Pacific region|last=SK Mitra|date=2000|publisher=Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Office for Asia and the Pacific|access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> lan ing wilayah [[Tropika|tropis ing]] pirang-pirang negara liyane. <ref name="Purdue2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lychee.html|title=Lychee in Fruits of Warm Climates|last=Morton JF|date=1987|publisher=Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, West Lafayette, Indiana|pages=249–259|access-date=2013-10-30}}</ref> <ref name="mitra" /> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG051|title=Lychee growing in the Florida home landscape|last=Crane|first=Jonathan H.|last2=Carlos F. Balerdi|year=2008|publisher=University of Florida|orig-year=1968|access-date=30 June 2009|last3=Ian Maguire}}</ref> Padha mbutuhake iklim tropis sing ora beku lan ora ngisor suhu {{Convert|−4|C|F}} . <ref name="Purdue2" /> <ref name="mitra" /> Leci mbutuhake iklim sing panas banget, udan, lan asor ing musim panas, tuwuh kanthi optimal ing [[Lemah|lemah sing]] lemes, rada asam kanthi bahan organik lan mulsa. <ref name="Purdue2" /> <ref name="mitra" /> Wiji Lychee ngemot [[Asam asetat siklopropil asetilena|methylene cyclopropyl glycine]] sing bisa nyebabake [[Hipoglikemia|hypoglycemia]] digandhengake karo wabah [[encephalopathy]] ing bocah-bocah [[Wong India|India]] lan [[Viètnam|Vietnam sing]] kurang gizi sing ngonsumsi buah lychee. <ref name="lancet">{{Cite journal|year=2017|title=The enigma of litchi toxicity: an emerging health concern in southern Asia|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(17)30046-3/fulltext|journal=The Lancet|volume=Online, 30 January 2017|issue=4|pages=e383–e384|doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30046-3|pmid=28153516|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="lancet2">{{Cite journal|last=Aakash Shrivastava|last2=Anil Kumar|last3=Jerry D Thomas|last4=Kayla F Laserson|last5=Gyan Bhushan|last6=Melissa D Carter|last7=Mala Chhabra|last8=Veena Mittal|last9=Shashi Khare|year=2017|title=Association of acute toxic encephalopathy with lychee consumption in an outbreak in Muzaffarpur, India, 2014: a case-control study|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(17)30035-9/fulltext?rss=yes|journal=The Lancet|volume=30 January 2017 (online)|issue=4|pages=e458–e466|doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30035-9|pmid=28153514|doi-access=free}}</ref> Udakara 200 [[kultivar]] ana, kanthi bentuk diwasa lan pungkasan wis cocog kanggo iklim sing luwih anget lan adhem, <ref name="Purdue3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lychee.html|title=Lychee in Fruits of Warm Climates|last=Morton JF|date=1987|publisher=Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, West Lafayette, Indiana|pages=249–259|access-date=2013-10-30}}</ref> sanajan umume wolung kultivar digunakake kanggo perdagangan ing Tiongkok. <ref name="mitra2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ac684e/ac684e04.htm|title=Overview of lychee production in the Asia-Pacific region|last=SK Mitra|date=2000|publisher=Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Office for Asia and the Pacific|access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> Dheweke uga ditandur minangka [[Tetanduran hias|wit hias]], uga kanggo woh-wohan. <ref name="Purdue3" /> Cara nyebarake lychee paling umum yaiku kanthi metode sing disebut lapisan udara utawa marcotting. Lapisan udara, utawa marcotts, digawe kanthi motong cabang wit diwasa, nutupi potongan nganggo medium rooting, kayata [[gambut]] utawa [[Sphagnum|lumut sphagnum]], banjur bungkus medium nganggo film [[polietilen]] lan ngidini oyot bisa tuwuh. Sawise rooting signifikan, marcott dipotong saka cabang lan pot. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Menzel|first=C.M.|date=January 1985|title=Propagation of lychee: A review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scientia-horticulturae_1985-01_25_1/page/31|journal=Scientia Horticulturae|volume=25|issue=1|pages=31–48|doi=10.1016/0304-4238(85)90074-3|issn=0304-4238}}</ref> Miturut [[Folklor|folklore]], wit lychee sing ora ngasilake akeh woh bisa [[Sabuk|diikat]], nyebabake ngasilake woh luwih akeh. Nalika bukaan tengah wit ditindakake minangka latihan lan pruning, [[Woh stereo|fruiting stereo]] bisa diasilake kanggo produktivitas kebon sing luwih dhuwur. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nrclitchi.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/good-management-practices-in-litchi.pdf|title=Good management practices in litchi|date=2016|publisher=National Research Centre on Litchi, Bihar, India|access-date=24 November 2016|archive-date=20 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820161034/https://www.nrclitchi.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/good-management-practices-in-litchi.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Lychees umume didol seger ing pasar Asia. <ref name="Purdue4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lychee.html|title=Lychee in Fruits of Warm Climates|last=Morton JF|date=1987|publisher=Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, West Lafayette, Indiana|pages=249–259|access-date=2013-10-30}}</ref> <ref name="mitra3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ac684e/ac684e04.htm|title=Overview of lychee production in the Asia-Pacific region|last=SK Mitra|date=2000|publisher=Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Office for Asia and the Pacific|access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> Kulit abang dadi coklat tuwa nalika woh wis adhem, nanging rasane ora kena. Uga didol kaleng ing saindenging taun. Woh kasebut bisa dikeringake kanthi kulit sing utuh, ing wektu iku daging saya suda lan peteng. <ref name="Oxford">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JTr-ouCbL2AC&pg=PA467|title=The Oxford companion to food|last=Davidson, Jane L.|last2=Davidson, Alan|last3=Saberi, Helen|last4=Jaine, Tom|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-280681-9|location=Oxford [Oxfordshire]|pages=}}</ref> == Gladri == <gallery mode=packed heights=150px> Barkas:Lychee(লিচু).jpeg|Lèci wis diopèk Barkas:Litchi chinensis fruits.JPG||Wit lèci Barkas:荔枝 Litchi chinensis -香港西貢獅子會自然教育中心 Saikung, Hong Kong- (9237445995).jpg|Kembang léci Barkas:ARS Litchi chinensis.jpg|Léci disigar </gallery> == Rujukan == q5rs3w8vk2x6djyyrc5ty05jrn6as33 San-nakji 0 173174 1753064 1723701 2026-08-20T09:30:02Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753064 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} [[File:Sannakji - Writhe.ogv|thumb|right|San-nakji]] [[File:Korean.cuisine-Sannakji.hoe-01.jpg|thumb]] '''San-nakji''' (산낙지) yaiku macem-macem olahan mentah sing digawe saka [[gurita]] lengen dawa (gurita minor), spesies gurita cilik sing diarani nakji ing basa Korea lan kadang dijarwakake dadi "gurita bayi" amarga ukurane cukup cilik dibandhingake gurita raksasa (Enteroctopus dofleini).<ref name="SKLD">{{Cite web|url=http://stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=11991|title=san-nakji|website=[[Standard Korean Language Dictionary]]|publisher=[[National Institute of Korean Language]]|language=ko|script-title=ko:산낙지|access-date=22 February 2017|archive-date=3 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903075355/http://stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=11991|url-status=dead}}</ref> Gurita paling asring dipateni sadurunge dipotong cilik-cilik lan disajikake, kanthi aktivitas saraf ing tentakel gurita nggawe potongan-potongan kasebut obah ing piring nalika disedhiyakake.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/queens/korean-restaurant-live-octopus-dish-animal-rights-activists-squirming-article-1.444306|title=Korean restaurant's live Octopus dish has animal rights activists squirming|last=Rosen|first=Daniel Edward|date=4 May 2010|work=[[New York Daily News]]|access-date=3 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2017/05/123_65910.html|title=Clash of culture? Sannakji angers US animal activists|last=Han|first=Jane|date=14 May 2010|work=[[The Korea Times]]|access-date=4 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://munchies.vice.com/en_us/article/eating-a-live-octopus-wasnt-nearly-as-difficult-as-it-sounds|title=Eating a Live Octopus Wasn't Nearly as Difficult As It Sounds|last=Compton|first=Natalie B.|date=17 June 2016|work=Munchies|access-date=4 June 2017|publisher=[[Vice Media|VICE]]}}{{Pranala mati|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sistem saraf gurita sing kompleks banget, kanthi rong pertiga neuron sing dilokalisasi ing tali saraf ing tangane, ngidini gurita nuduhake macem-macem tumindak refleks sing tetep sanajan ora ana input saka utek.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2012|title=An Embodied View of Octopus Neurobiology|journal=Current Biology|volume=22|issue=20|pages=R887–R892|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.09.001|pmid=23098601|author=Hochner, B.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last2=Sagiv-Zohar|first2=R.|last3=Aharonov|first3=R.|last4=Engel|first4=Y.|last5=Hochner|first5=B.|last6=Flash|first6=T.|year=2005|title=Dynamic model of the octopus arm. I. Biomechanics of the octopus reaching movement|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neurophysiology_2005-08_94_2/page/1443|journal=J. Neurophysiol.|volume=94|issue=2|pages=1443–58|doi=10.1152/jn.00684.2004|pmid=15829594|first1=Y.|last1=Yekutieli}}</ref> Kurang umume, gurita langsung dipangan kabeh. Piring kasebut disiram minyak wijen lan wiji wijen panggang.<ref>{{Citation|title=Eating Live Octopus|url=https://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/skorea-liveoctopus-pp|accessdate=2018-01-13}}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} {{olah-olahan-stub}} 1yfr3zxxwdmpr5gimg4qgif8tprobq4 Panganan jiwa 0 173229 1752935 1671734 2026-08-20T05:18:56Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752935 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Soul_Food_at_Powell's_Place.jpg|jmpl|250x250px| Nedha bengi panganan jiwa tradisional sing kalebu [[Ayam gorèng|pitik goreng]] karo [[Markuni lan kèju|makaroni lan keju]], sayur-sayuran collard, lan [[Bendi|okra goreng]]]] '''Panganan jiwa''' minangka masakan etnis sing tradisional disiyapake lan dipangan dening [[Afrika-Amérika|warga Afrika Amerika]], asale saka Amerika Serikat Kidul . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aaregistry.org/story/soul-food-a-brief-history/|title="Soul Food" a brief history|website=African American Registry|language=en|access-date=2020-02-12}}</ref> Masakan kasebut diwiwiti karo panganan sing diwenehake menyang Afrika Kulon sing diperbudak ing perkebunan kidul sajrone jaman kolonial Amerika ; Nanging, pengaruh iki dipengaruhi dening praktik tradisional warga Afrika Kulon lan Pribumi Amerika wiwit didegake. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poe|first=Tracy N.|year=1999|title=The Origins of Soul Food in Black Urban Identity: Chicago, 1915-1947|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-studies-international_1999-02_37_1/page/4|journal=American Studies International|volume=37|issue=1|pages=4–33|jstor=41279638}}</ref> Amarga anané sejarah Amerika Afrika ing wilayah kasebut, panganan jiwa ana gandheng cenenge karo masakan Amerika Selatan, sanajan saiki wis dadi aspek [[Olahan Amérika Sarékat|budaya panganan Amerika sing umum]] gampang dingerteni lan dirayakake. <ref name="firstwefeast.com">{{Cite web |url=https://firstwefeast.com/eat/2015/08/an-illustrated-history-of-soul-food |title=Archive copy |access-date=2020-11-14 |archive-date=2023-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611000619/https://firstwefeast.com/eat/2015/08/an-illustrated-history-of-soul-food |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ekspresi "panganan jiwa" diwiwiti ing pertengahan taun 1960an, nalika " [[jiwa]] " minangka tembung umum sing digunakake kanggo nggambarake [[Budaya Amerika Ireng|budaya Afrika Amerika]] . [[Barkas:Hushpuppies_5stack.jpg|jmpl| [[Hushpuppy|Hushpup Puppies]]]] == Referensi == 9p0me7wy1u95x0etn5g0h6fjcdv10i3 Pathi jagung 0 173360 1752982 1732862 2026-08-20T07:09:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752982 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Cornstarch_mixed_with_water.jpg|jmpl| Bubuk pati jagung]] [[Barkas:Corn_Starch_mixture.jpg|jmpl| Pati jagung dicampur banyu]] '''Pati''' '''jagung, pati jagung''', utawa '''tepung jagung''' ( Inggris Inggris ) yaiku pati sing asale saka jagung ( [[jagung]] ) gandum. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cornstarch|title=Cornstarch &#124; Definition of Cornstarch by Merriam-Webster|publisher=Merriam-webster.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081317/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cornstarch|archive-date=2016-03-04|access-date=2016-05-14}}</ref> Pati dipikolehi saka [[endosperma]] [[Wiji|kernel]] . Pati jagung minangka bahan panganan umum, asring digunakake kanggo nglukis [[saos]] utawa [[Sop|sup]], lan kanggo nggawe sirup jagung lan [[gula]] liyane. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.education.uiowa.edu/html/eportfolio/tep/07es102folder/miniweb/usesofcorn.htm|title=Uses of Corn|website=www2.education.uiowa.edu|access-date=2018-01-11|archive-date=2020-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021152/https://www2.education.uiowa.edu/html/eportfolio/tep/07es102folder/miniweb/usesofcorn.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pati jagung serbaguna, gampang dimodifikasi, lan akeh kagunaane ing industri kayata [[Lém|perekat]], ing produk kertas, minangka agen anti-tancep, lan manufaktur [[Kain|tekstil]] . <ref>{{Cite book|title=Starch : chemistry and technology|date=1984|publisher=Academic Press|others=Whistler, Roy Lester., BeMiller, James N., Paschall, Eugene F.|isbn=978-0-12-746270-7|edition=2nd|location=Orlando|at=Chap. 6, p. 121|oclc=9155004}}</ref> Uga duwe panggunaan medis, kayata kanggo nyedhiyakake glukosa kanggo wong sing duwe penyakit panyimpenan glikogen . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gremse|first=D.A.|last2=Bucuvalas|first2=J. C.|last3=Balistreri|first3=W. F.|date=October 1990|title=Efficacy of cornstarch therapy in type III glycogen-storage disease|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_1990-10_52_4/page/671|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=52|issue=4|pages=671–674|doi=10.1093/ajcn/52.4.671|issn=0002-9165|pmid=2403059}}</ref> Kaya pirang-pirang produk ing bentuk bledug, bisa mbebayani kanthi jumlah akeh amarga gampang ngobong . Yen dicampur karo cairan, pati jagung bisa nyusun maneh dadi cairan sing dudu Newtonia . Contone, nambah banyu ngowahi pati jagung dadi bahan sing umum dikenal kanthi jeneng oobleck nalika nambah minyak ngowahi pati jagung dadi cairan elektrorheologis (ER) . Konsep kasebut bisa diandharake kanthi campuran sing diarani "slime tepung jagung". <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/0/22880407|title=How to: make a liquid that's also a solid|date=2013-08-05|publisher=bbc.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212170219/http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/0/22880407|archive-date=2016-12-12|access-date=2016-12-03}}</ref> == Rujukan == fpk2q3q75nfu3we5949n3kgkcieya1f Pakan asu 0 173399 1752889 1610728 2026-08-20T04:17:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752889 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rapèkaké}} [[Barkas:Kibbles_How_Others_See_Me.jpg|jmpl|250x250px| Cangkir kibble.]] '''Panganan asu''' minangka panganan sing dirumus khusus lan ditrapake kanggo dikonsumsi dening [[asu]] lan [[Asu|anjing]] liyane sing gegandhengan. Asu dianggep minangka [[omnivora]] kanthi bias [[karnivora]] . Dheweke duwe untu sing tajem lan runcing lan trivitas gastrointestinal karnivora, luwih cocog kanggo konsumsi daging tinimbang bahan sayuran, nanging uga duwe 10 gen sing tanggung jawab pencernaan pati lan glukosa, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dogfoodadvisor.com/canine-nutrition/dogs-carnivores-omnivores/|title=Are Dogs Carnivores - or Omnivores?|date=2009-08-08|website=Dog Food Advisor|access-date=2019-11-02}}</ref> uga nduweni kemampuan ngasilake amilase, enzim sing fungsine mbagi karbohidrat dadi gula sederhana - ana kekurangan daging karnivora. <ref name="axelssonetal20132">{{Cite journal|last=Axelsson|first=E.|last2=Ratnakumar|first2=A.|last3=Arendt|first3=M.L.|last4=Maqbool|first4=K.|last5=Webster|first5=M.T.|last6=Perloski|first6=M.|last7=Liberg|first7=O.|last8=Arnemo|first8=J.M.|last9=Hedhammar|first9=Å.|year=2013|title=The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2013-03-21_495_7441/page/360|journal=Nature|volume=495|issue=7441|pages=360–364|bibcode=2013Natur.495..360A|doi=10.1038/nature11837|pmc=|pmid=23354050}}</ref> Asu ngembangake kemampuan urip bebarengan karo manungsa ing masarakat pertanian, amarga bisa ngasilake [[Sisane|sisa sisa]] saka manungsa. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arendt|first=M|last2=Cairns|first2=K M|last3=Ballard|first3=J W O|last4=Savolainen|first4=P|last5=Axelsson|first5=E|date=13 July 2016|title=Diet adaptation in dog reflects spread of prehistoric agriculture|journal=Heredity|volume=117|issue=5|pages=301–306|doi=10.1038/hdy.2016.48|pmc=5061917|pmid=27406651}}</ref> <ref name="Pajic20192">{{Cite journal|last=Pajic|first=Petar|last2=Pavlidis|first2=Pavlos|last3=Dean|first3=Kirsten|last4=Neznanova|first4=Lubov|last5=Romano|first5=Rose-Anne|last6=Garneau|first6=Danielle|last7=Daugherity|first7=Erin|last8=Globig|first8=Anja|last9=Ruhl|first9=Stefan|date=14 May 2019|title=Independent amylase gene copy number bursts correlate with dietary preferences in mammals|journal=eLife|volume=8|doi=10.7554/eLife.44628|pmc=6516957|pmid=31084707|doi-access=free}}</ref> Umume panganan segawon sing diprodhuksi kanthi komersial digawe kanthi bahan bahan pakan kewan lan tas ''dikeringake'' (uga dikenal ing AS minangka ''kibble'' ) utawa udan kaleng. Panganan garing ngemot kelembapan 6-10% kanthi volume, tinimbang 60-90% ing panganan kalengan. Produk semi-lembab biasane mbukak 25-35%. Analisis isotopis babagan panganan asu ing pasar Brasil nemokake manawa umume digawe saka jagung lan unggas. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Galera|first=Leonardo de Aro|last2=Abdalla Filho|first2=Adibe Luiz|last3=Reis|first3=Luiza Santos|last4=Souza|first4=Janaina Leite de|last5=Hernandez|first5=Yeleine Almoza|last6=Martinelli|first6=Luiz Antonio|year=2019|title=Carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of commercial dog food in Brazil|journal=PeerJ|volume=7|pages=e5828|doi=10.7717/peerj.5828|pmc=6387582|pmid=30809425}}</ref> [[Barkas:Chatuchak_Weekend_Market_P1100759.JPG|ka|jmpl| Nambani asu minangka jinis panganan asu khusus sing diwenehake minangka hadiah, ora kanggo sumber panganan pokok.]] == Referensi == poqovu41sc1w42rs2hkgzvfzmuwvt1o Gandum 0 173433 1752969 1739006 2026-08-20T06:53:16Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752969 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Gandum | image =Triticum_aestivum_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-274.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Triticum aestivum'', jenis gandum yang paling umum ditanam. | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Poales]] | familia = [[Poaceae]] | genus = '''''Triticum''''' | genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = Spesies | subdivision = ''[[T. aestivum]]''{{br}} ''T. aethiopicum''{{br}} ''T. araraticum''{{br}} ''[[T. boeoticum]]''{{br}} ''T. carthlicum''{{br}} ''[[T. compactum]]''{{br}} ''[[T. dicoccoides]]''{{br}} ''[[T. dicoccon]]''{{br}} ''[[T. durum]]''{{br}} ''T. ispahanicum''{{br}} ''T. karamyschevii''{{br}} ''T. macha''{{br}} ''T. militinae''{{br}} ''[[T. monococcum]]''{{br}} ''T. polonicum''{{br}} ''[[T. spelta]]''{{br}} ''[[T. sphaerococcum]]''{{br}} ''T. timopheevii''{{br}} ''T. turanicum''{{br}} ''T. turgidum''{{br}} ''T. urartu''{{br}} ''T. vavilovii''{{br}} ''T. zhukovskyi''{{br}} <small>Referensi:{{br}}&nbsp;&nbsp;[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=42236 ITIS 42236] 2002-09-22</small> }} '''Gandum''' (Triticum ssp) iku pangan dhasar sing wigati dhéwé sajagat. Nomer loro iku jagung lan nomer telu lagi beras. Gandum asalé saka [[Wétan Tengah]] lan wis dibudidayakaké kurang luwih 8.000 taun kapungkur. Anging bisané urip ana ing tlatah sing iklimé moderat. Gandum iku [[Poaceae|suket sing]] akeh [[Tetanèn|ditandur]] kanggo [[Wiji|winih]], gabah [[Séréalia|sereal]] sing dadi panganan pokok ing saindenging jagad. <ref name="Shewry">{{Citation|last=Shewry|first=Peter R|title=Wheat|volume=60|issue=6|pages=1537–53|year=2009|periodical=Journal of Experimental Botany|doi=10.1093/jxb/erp058|pmid=19386614}}</ref> <ref name="Mauseth2014">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BGEs95p5EsC&pg=PA223|title=Botany|last=James D. Mauseth|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4496-4884-8|page=223|quote=Perhaps the simplest of fruits are those of grasses (all cereals such as corn and wheat)...These fruits are caryopses.}}</ref> <ref name="Belderok">{{Citation|last=Belderok|first=Robert 'Bob'|title=Bread-Making Quality of Wheat|page=3|year=2000|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7923-6383-5|last2=Mesdag|first2=Hans|last3=Donner|first3=Dingena A}}</ref> Akeh jinis gandum kalebu genus '''''Triticum''''' ; sing ditandur umume yaiku gandum umume ( ''T. estivum'' ). Cathetan arkeologi nuduhake manawa gandum pisanan dibudidayakake ing wilayah Fertile Crescent udakara taun 9600&nbsp;SM. Secara botani, kernel gandum minangka jinis [[Woh|buah sing]] diarani caryopsis. Gandum minangka sumber [[Karbohidrat|karbohidrat sing]] penting. <ref name="shewry152">{{Cite journal|last=Shewry PR, Hey SJ|year=2015|title=Review: The contribution of wheat to human diet and health|journal=Food and Energy Security|volume=4|issue=3|pages=178–202|doi=10.1002/fes3.64|pmc=4998136|pmid=27610232}}</ref> Secara global, iki minangka sumber protein nabati ing panganan manungsa, kanthi kandhungan protein udakara 13%, sing cukup dhuwur dibandhingake sereal utama liyane <ref name="CORDIS20162">{{Cite web|url=http://cordis.europa.eu/news/rcn/124823_en.html|title=Genetic markers signal increased crop productivity potential|last=European Community, [[CORDIS|Community Research and Development Information Service]] (CORDIS)|date=24 February 2016|access-date=1 June 2017}}</ref> nanging [[kualitas protein]] cukup murah kanggo nyuplai [[asam amino esensial]]. <ref name="FAOcerealsquality2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/x2184e/x2184e05.htm|title=Nutritional quality of cereals|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=1 June 2017}}</ref> <ref name="FAOproteinquality2">{{Cite book|url=http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/35978-02317b979a686a57aa4593304ffc17f06.pdf|title=Dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition|last=|first=|date=2013|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|isbn=978-92-5-107417-6|access-date=1 June 2017|archive-date=9 October 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/35978-02317b979a686a57aa4593304ffc17f06.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Yen dipangan minangka [[Whole grain|gandum]], gandum minangka sumber macem-macem [[Hara|nutrisi]] lan [[serat panganan]]. Gandum ditandur ing lahan sing luwih akeh tinimbang panen panganan liyane (220,4 yuta hektar, 2014). <ref name="fao-area2014">{{Cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor|title=Crops/World Total/Wheat/Area Harvested/2014 (pick list)|date=2014|publisher=United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567|archive-date=6 September 2015|access-date=8 December 2016}}</ref> Perdagangan gandum ing donya luwih gedhe tinimbang kabeh tanduran liyane sing digabung. <ref name="WheatBread">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4011e/y4011e00.htm|title=Bread Wheat|last=Curtis|last2=Rajaraman|year=2002|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|last3=MacPherson}}</ref> Ing 2017, produksi gandum ing donya yaiku 772 yuta ton, kanthi ramalan produksi ing taun 2019 yaiku 766 yuta ton, <ref name="WFS">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/csdb/en/|title=World food situation: FAO cereal supply and demand brief|date=10 March 2019|publisher=United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization|location=Rome, Italy|access-date=14 December 2016}}</ref> [[Séréalia|sereal]] nomer loro sing paling diproduksi sawise [[jagung]]. <ref name="fao-prod2014">{{Cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor|title=Crops/World Total/Wheat/Production Quantity/2014 (pick list)|date=2014|publisher=United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567|archive-date=6 September 2015|access-date=8 December 2016}}</ref> Wiwit taun 1960, produksi gandum lan tanduran gandum liyane global wis kaping telu lan dikarepake bakal tuwuh luwih dawa ing pertengahan abad kaping [[Abad ping 21|21]]. <ref name="godfray">{{Cite journal|last=Godfray|first=H.C.|last2=Beddington|first2=J. R.|last3=Crute|first3=I. R.|last4=Haddad|first4=L|last5=Lawrence|first5=D|last6=Muir|first6=J. F.|last7=Pretty|first7=J|last8=Robinson|first8=S|last9=Thomas|first9=S. M.|year=2010|title=Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2010-02-12_327_5967/page/812|journal=Science|volume=327|issue=5967|pages=812–8|bibcode=2010Sci...327..812G|doi=10.1126/science.1185383|pmid=20110467|doi-access=free}}</ref> Dikarepake global kanggo gandum mundak amarga unik viscoelastic lan situs adhesive saka lem protèin, kang nggampangake produksi panganan olahan, kang konsumsi iki nambah minangka asil saka proses industrialization donya lan westernization saka diet. <ref name="shewry15">{{Cite journal|last=Shewry PR, Hey SJ|year=2015|title=Review: The contribution of wheat to human diet and health|journal=Food and Energy Security|volume=4|issue=3|pages=178–202|doi=10.1002/fes3.64|pmc=4998136|pmid=27610232}}</ref> <ref name="DayAugustin2006">{{Cite journal|date=2006|title=Wheat-gluten uses and industry needs|journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology|type=Review|volume=17|issue=2|pages=82–90|doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2005.10.003}}</ref> Ing bagean cilik saka populasi umume, gluten - bagean utama protein gandum - bisa nyebabake [[penyakit celiac]], [[Sensitivitas gluten non-celiac|sensitivitas lem noncoeliac]], [[Ataksia|ataxia lem]], lan [[Dermatitis herpetiformis|herpetiformis dermatitis]]. <ref name="LudvigssonLeffler">{{Cite journal|date=January 2013|title=The Oslo definitions for coeliac disease and related terms|url=|journal=Gut|volume=62|issue=1|pages=43–52|doi=10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301346|pmc=3440559|pmid=22345659}}</ref> [[Barkas:Usdaeinkorn1_Triticum_monococcum.jpg|jmpl|Spikelets of a hulled wheat, einkorn]] <gallery> Barkas:Green wheat.jpg|Gandum ijo sewulan sadurunge panen Barkas:Young Wheat crop in a field near Solapur, Maharashtra, India.jpg|Panen gandum enom ing kebon cedhak Solapur, [[Maharashtra, India]] Barkas:Melissa Askew 2015-08-08 (Unsplash).jpg|Panen gandum cedhak Solapur, India Barkas:Wheat Farm in Behbahan, Iran.jpg|alt = Peternakan Gandum ing Behbahan, Iran | Tegal gandum ing [[Behbahan]], [[Iran]] Barkas:Unload wheat by the combine Claas Lexion 584.jpg|A [[Combine harvester|gabungan gabungan]] threshes gandum, crushes ing [[Chaff|mrambut]], banjur ngunekke mrambut tengen lapangan. Gabungan ngemot gandum sing ditumbuk menyang trailer nalika obah Barkas:Sealed_storage_method_for_wheat.jpg|Loro traktor nggunakake cara panyimpenan sing disegel kanggo gandum sing anyar. </gallery> {{Infobox nutritional value|name=Wheat, hard red winter|manganese_mg=3.985|source_usda=1|opt1v=70.7 µg|opt1n=Selenium|vitK_ug=1.9|vitE_mg=1.01|choline_mg=31.2|folate_ug=38|vitB6_mg=0.3|pantothenic_mg=0.954|niacin_mg=5.464|riboflavin_mg=0.115|thiamin_mg=0.383|zinc_mg=2.65|kJ=1368|sodium_mg=2|potassium_mg=363|phosphorus_mg=288|magnesium_mg=126|iron_mg=3.19|calcium_mg=29|sugars=0.41|fiber=12.2 g|carbs=71.18 g|fat=1.54 g|water=13.1 g|protein=12.61 g|note=[https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=20072&format=Full Link to USDA Database Entry]}} == Referensi == 8u3qplwwvh1jtge3f15vdtsi6iz1xqx Kuku kéwan 0 173501 1753034 1657264 2026-08-20T08:37:38Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753034 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Capreolus_capreolus_cloven_hoof.jpg|ka|jmpl| Kancing cengkeh saka rusa roe ( ''Capreolus capreolus'' ), kanthi embun-embun sing misuwur]] A '''kuku''' ( {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|uː|f}} utawa {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʊ|f}} ), '''hooves''' jamak ( {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|uː|v|z}} utawa {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʊ|v|z}} ) utawa '''hoofs''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʊ|f|s}}, iku tip saka [[Driji sikil|jempol]] saka ungulate [[mamalia]], dikuwati dening nglukis lan mesum Keratin panutup.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/hoof|title=the definition of hoof|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=2016-11-30}}</ref> [[Kéwan kuku genep|Artiodactyls minangka]] ungulate sing duwe driji sikil, tegese spesies kasebut duwe angka digit saben sikil. Ruminants, kanthi rong digit utama, minangka klompok paling gedhe. Tuladhane kalebu menjangan, bison, sapi, wedhus lan wedhus.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Keller|first=Anna|last2=Clauss|first2=Marcus|last3=Muggli|first3=Evelyne|last4=Nuss|first4=Karl|date=2009-07-15|title=Even-toed but uneven in length: the digits of artiodactyls|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/18798/4/Even-toed_returned.pdf|journal=Zoology|volume=112|issue=4|pages=270–278|doi=10.1016/j.zool.2008.11.001|pmid=19386479|access-date=2020-11-18|archive-date=2021-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303191239/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/18798/4/Even-toed_returned.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Kéwan kuku ganjil|Perissodactyls]] lumaku ing sawetara jempol sikil. Tuladha mamalia perissodactyl yaiku jaran, badhak lan tapir.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last=Holbrook|first=Luke T.|date=1999-09-01|title=The Phylogeny and Classification of Tapiromorph Perissodactyls (Mammalia)|url=https://archive.org/details/cladistics_1999-09_15_3/page/331|journal=Cladistics|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=331–350|doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1999.tb00270.x|issn=1096-0031}}</ref> [[Barkas:Horse_hoof_wild_bare_sagittal.jpg|jmpl|Bagean sagittal saka jaran liar.<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki> Jambon: jaringan alus;<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki> abu-abu cahya: balung;<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki> biru: tendon;<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki> abang: gedhong ;<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki> kuning: bantal digital;<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki> abu-abu peteng: kodhok;<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki> jeruk: tunggal;<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki> coklat: tembok]] Trim pemotong motong lan ngrawat kuku sapi, biasane [[Sapi perah|sapi biasa]] . Hoove bisa dipotong nganggo piso sing landhep nalika sapi dicegah lan dipanggon nganggo tali. Pemangkasan kuku profesional nggunakake grinding amba lan sawetara jinis truffing hoof supaya proses luwih cepet lan ora mbutuhake fisik ing trimmer kuku. Perapi kuku nggunakake mesin modern bisa nyukur luwih saka 10.000 sapi saben taun.{{Butuh sitiran|date=May 2011}} Perapi bentuk kuku kanggo nyedhiyakake permukaan bobot sing optimal. Kuku sing anyar sing ditata bisa diolah nganggo sulfat tembaga kanggo nyegah bosok sikil .<gallery> Barkas:Masai Giraffe right-rear foot.jpg|Sikil mburi [[Giraffe|jerapah]] (ora ana embun) Barkas:Horse rear hooves.jpg|Kancing mburi [[Horse|jaran]] Barkas:Tapir hooves.jpg|[[Malayan tapir|Kancing tapir]] malaya: ngarep nganggo jempol papat, mburi nganggo jempol telu </gallery> == Referensi == sdyj60e9hmp420idv659vtq90gv0sqj Lenga wijén 0 173678 1752921 1670959 2026-08-20T05:02:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752921 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg|ka|jmpl| Wiji wijen putih, umume ora diatasi.]] Minyak wijen minangka minyak sayur sing bisa didhahar saka wiji wijen . Kejaba digunakake minangka minyak goreng, digunakake kanggo nambah rasa ing pirang-pirang masakan, kanthi aroma lan rasa khas sing khas. Minyak kasebut minangka salah sawijining minyak adhedhasar panen sing paling misuwur. Produksi modern massa ing saindenging jagad diwatesi amarga proses panen manual sing ora efisien sing dibutuhake kanggo ngekstrak minyak kasebut. Secara historis, wijen ditanem luwih saka 5000 taun kepungkur minangka panandhang tahan kekeringan lan bisa tuwuh ing papan panen liyane gagal. <ref name="rram">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/v1-225.html|title=Sesame: New Approaches for Crop Improvement|last=Raghav Ram|last2=David Catlin|year=1990|publisher=Purdue University|last3=Juan Romero|last4=Craig Cowley}}</ref> <ref name="drl2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sesamegrowers.org/langham144-182.pdf|title=Phenology of Sesame|last=D. Ray Langham|publisher=American Sesame Growers Association|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2019-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414073038/http://www.sesamegrowers.org/langham144-182.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Wiji wijen minangka salah sawijining tanduran pertama sing diolah minyak lan uga bumbu sing paling awal. Wijen ditanem sajrone [[Kabudayan Lembah Kali Indhus|Peradaban Lembah Indus]] lan minangka panen minyak utama. Bisa uga diekspor menyang Mesopotamia udakara taun 2500 SM. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Small|first=Ernest|year=2004|title=History and Lore of Sesame in Southwest Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_economic-botany_fall-2004_58_3/page/329|journal=Economic Botany|publisher=New York Botanical Garden Press|volume=58|issue=3|pages=329–353|doi=10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0329:AR]2.0.CO;2|jstor=4256831}}</ref> [[Barkas:Sesame_oil.jpg|jmpl| Minyak wijen coklat peteng asale saka wiji wijen panggang / panggang.]] == Deleng uga == * [[Wijèn|Wijen]] * [[Tahini]] == Referensi == [[Kategori:Bahan pangan Jepang]] oj77eje26hbrioxn0756ddeye19nupx Kondisiner rambut 0 173699 1753027 1540707 2026-08-20T08:27:15Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753027 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Herbalessencebottles.jpg|jmpl| Botol kondisioner rambut modern saka Clairol (sisih tengen).]] Kondisioner rambut minangka produk perawatan rambut sing digunakake kanggo nambah roso, tampilan lan tata rambut . Tujuan utamane yaiku nyuda gesekan ing antarane helai rambut supaya sikat utawa sikat sikat sing luwih alus, bisa uga nyebabake kerusakan ing kulit kepala. Maneka manfaate liyane asring diiklanake, kayata ndandani rambut, nguatake, utawa nyuda ujung pamisah. Lapisan paling njaba folikel rambut diarani kutikula lan umume kalebu keratin . Iki sugih ing klompok sistein sing asem entheng. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dawber|first=Rodney|date=January 1996|title=Hair: Its structure and response to cosmetic preparations|journal=Clinics in Dermatology|volume=14|issue=1|pages=105–112|doi=10.1016/0738-081X(95)00117-X|pmid=8901408}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Longo|first=V. M.|last2=Monteiro|first2=V. F.|last3=Pinheiro|first3=A. S.|last4=Terci|first4=D.|last5=Vasconcelos|first5=J. S.|last6=Paskocimas|first6=C. A.|last7=Leite|first7=E. R.|last8=Longo|first8=E.|last9=Varela|first9=J. A|date=April 2006|title=Charge density alterations in human hair fibers: an investigation using electrostatic force microscopy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-cosmetic-science_2006-04_28_2/page/95|journal=International Journal of Cosmetic Science|volume=28|issue=2|pages=95–101|doi=10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00280.x|pmid=18492143}}</ref> Nalika rambut dikumbah, klompok kasebut bisa deprotonat, menehi rambut dadi negatif. == Referensi == apt5xif9vd0igfwfsqhgbfipsva5ftk Tabir surya 0 173700 1753052 1540708 2026-08-20T09:07:25Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753052 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical intervention|Name=Sunscreen|image=Sunscreen on back under normal and UV light.jpg|caption=Sunscreen on back under normal and UV light}}'''Sunscreen,''' uga dikenal minangka '''sunblock''' utawa '''lotion suntan,''' punika lotion, semprotan, gel, umpluk (kayata umpluk lotion ditambahi utawa ngalahake lotion), kelet utawa liyane topikal produk sing nyerap utawa nuduhake sawetara saka [[Srengéngé|srengenge]] 's [[ultraviolet]] (UV) radiasi lan mula mbantu nglindhungi sunar srengenge . Nggunakake sunscreen sing rajin uga bisa mbantu alon utawa nyegah sawetara kerut, bintik-bintik peteng lan kulit kendur. Gumantung saka cara tumindak, sunscreens bisa diklasifikasikake dadi sunscreens fisik (yaiku, seng oksida lan titanium dioksida, sing tetep ana ing lumahing kulit lan utamane cacat.  lampu UV) utawa sunscreens kimia (yaiku saringan organik UV, sing nyerep sinar UV). Organisasi medis kayata American Cancer Society nyaranake panggunaan tabir surya amarga bisa nyegah pencegahan karsinoma sel skuamosa . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/ped_7_1_What_You_Need_To_Know_About_Skin_Cancer.asp|title=Skin Cancer - Skin Cancer Facts - Common Skin Cancer Types|website=www.cancer.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410204247/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/ped_7_1_What_You_Need_To_Know_About_Skin_Cancer.asp|archive-date=April 10, 2008}}</ref> Panggunaan sunscreens sing rutin uga bisa nyuda resiko melanoma . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1119992-overview|title=Sunscreens and Photoprotection|last=Levy|first=Stanley B|date=April 3, 2018|website=Medscape|access-date=August 10, 2018}}</ref> Nanging, akeh sunscreens sing ora ngalangi radiasi [[Ultraviolet|UVA]] (UVA), nanging perlindungan saka UVA penting kanggo nyegah kanker kulit. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=July 2003|title=Prevention of immunosuppression by sunscreens in humans is unrelated to protection from erythema and dependent on protection from ultraviolet a in the face of constant ultraviolet B protection|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-investigative-dermatology_2003-07_121_1/page/184|journal=The Journal of Investigative Dermatology|volume=121|issue=1|pages=184–90|doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12317.x|pmid=12839580}}</ref> Kanggo menehi indikasi sing luwih apik babagan kemampuan nglindhungi kanker kulit lan penyakit liyane sing ana gandhengane karo radiasi UVA (kayata [[Phytophotodermatitis|fitofotodermatitis]] <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1119566-overview|title=Phytophotodermatitis|last=Baugh|first=William P|date=September 8, 2016|website=Medscape|access-date=August 9, 2018}}</ref> ), dianjurake panggunaan sunscreens spektrum luas ( [[Ultraviolet|UVA / UVB]] ). <ref name="fda20112">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/BuyingUsingMedicineSafely/UnderstandingOver-the-CounterMedicines/ucm258468.htm|title=Questions and Answers: FDA announces new requirements for over-the-counter (OTC) sunscreen products marketed in the U.S.|date=2011-06-23|access-date=2012-04-10}}</ref> Sunscreens dirancang kanggo tetep efektif ing kekuwatan asline nganti telung taun, lan khas regane diragukan sawise periode kasebut. Sawetara sunscreens kalebu tanggal kedaluwarsa - tanggal sing nuduhake manawa ora bisa diarepake maneh. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/expert-answers/sunscreen-expire/faq-20057957|title=Is sunscreen from last year still good? When does sunscreen expire?|last=Gibson|first=Lawrence E.|website=Mayo Clinic}}</ref> Sunscreens umume dirating lan diwenehi label karo '''faktor proteksi srengenge''' (SPF) sing ngukur bagian cilik sinar UV sing ngasilake sunburn sing tekan kulit. Contone, "SPF 15" liya sing saka radiation kobong nganggo kulit liwat kekandelan dianjurake saka sunscreen. Sistem rating liyane nuduhake tingkat perlindungan saka radiasi UVA sing ora kobong. [[Barkas:Sunburn_blisters.jpg|jmpl| Tabir surya mbantu nyegah srengenge, kayata iki, sing blister.]] [[Barkas:UV_and_Vis_Sunscreen.jpg|jmpl| Rong foto sing nuduhake efek aplikasi sunscreens ing cahya sing bisa dideleng lan ing UVA. Foto ing sisih tengen dijupuk nganggo fotografi ultraviolet sakcepete sawise aplikasi sunscreen nganti setengah pasuryan.]] [[Barkas:SPF15SunBlock.JPG|jmpl|240x240px| Tabung lotion suntingan SPF 15]] == Cathetan == nyhqa3n5jfllwj64pqy4jqub6klr50t Kamulyan kéwan 0 173737 1753076 1540790 2026-08-20T09:50:33Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753076 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:FEMA_-_3634_-_Photograph_by_Leif_Skoogfors_taken_on_07-21-2001_in_West_Virginia.jpg|al=Animal welfare|jmpl|300x300px| Anak [[kirik]] umur patang minggu, ditemokake ing pinggir dalan sawise banjir ing [[West Virginia]], Amerika Serikat, dipangan ing papan perlindungan Layanan Kewan Darurat ing Twin Falls State Park .]] '''Kesejahteraan''' [[Sato kéwan|kewan]] minangka '''kesejahteraan''' [[Sato kéwan|kewan sing]] dudu manungsa . Standar formal kesejahteraan kewan beda-beda ing antarane konteks, nanging biasane debat dening klompok kesejahteraan kewan, legislator, lan akademisi. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.humanities.uci.edu/collective/hctr/trans-scripts/2013/2013_03_10.pdf|title=Animals are not things: A view on animal welfare based on neurological complexity|last=Grandin|first=Temple|authorlink=Temple Grandin|year=2013|website=Trans-Scripts 3: An Interdisciplinary Online Journal in Humanities And Social Sciences at UC Irvine|publisher=[[UC Irvine]]|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20140819053847/http://www.humanities.uci.edu/collective/hctr/trans-scripts/2013/2013_03_10.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2014|access-date=20 December 2013}}</ref> <ref name="Hewson">{{Cite journal|last=Hewson|first=C.J.|year=2003|title=What is animal welfare? Common definitions and their practical consequences|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=44|issue=6|pages=496–99|pmc=340178|pmid=12839246}}</ref> Ilmu kesejahteraan kewan nggunakake langkah-langkah kayata umur dawa, [[Lelara|penyakit]], imunosupresi, prilaku, [[fisiologi]], lan [[Réprodhuksi|reproduksi]], <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Broom|first=D. M.|year=1991|title=Animal welfare: concepts and measurement|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-animal-science_1991-10_69_10/page/4167|journal=[[Journal of Animal Science]]|volume=69|issue=10|pages=4167–75|doi=10.2527/1991.69104167x|pmid=1778832}}</ref> sanajan ana debat babagan sing paling apik sing nuduhake kesejahteraan kewan. Ngurmati kesejahteraan kewan asring adhedhasar kapercayan manawa kewan sing [[Pengalaman|dudu manungsa]] iku [[Pengalaman|asale]] lan kudu dipikirake [[Karaharjan|kesejahteraan]] utawa [[Kasangsaran|kasengsarane]], luwih-luwih nalika dijaga manungsa. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://media.animalsmatter.org/media/resources/en/en_draft.pdf|title=Draft of the Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare|publisher=media.animalmatter.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227004725/http://media.animalsmatter.org/media/resources/en/en_draft.pdf|archive-date=2012-02-27}}</ref> Keprigelan kasebut bisa uga kalebu cara kewan [[Nyembeleh kewan|disembelih]] kanggo panganan, cara digunakake ing riset ilmiah, cara dijaga (minangka kewan kewan, ing kebon binatang, peternakan, sirkus, lan liya-liyane), lan kepiye kegiyatan manungsa mengaruhi kesejahteraan lan kaslametan spesies liar. . == Referensi == [[Kategori:Kéwan lan manungsa]] 7qlyqg7pafbsnv26irsml0ztbqiwv1f Nglangi karo lumba-lumba 0 173738 1753018 1752522 2026-08-20T08:12:33Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753018 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:US_Navy_041216-N-8774S-076_A_Sailor_assigned_to_the_aircraft_carrier_USS_Harry_S._Truman_(CVN_75),_swims_with_a_dolphin_during_a_port_visit_to_Bahrain.jpg|jmpl| Wanita nglangi karo lumba-lumba]] Popularitas '''nglangi karo lumba-lumba''' lan interaksi liyane karo lumba-lumba mundhak akeh ing taun 1980-an lan 1990-an <ref name="Orams">{{Cite journal|last=Orams|first=Mark B|date=August 1997|title=Historical accounts of human-dolphin interaction and recent developments in wild dolphin based tourism in Australasia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tourism-management_1997-08_18_5/page/317|journal=Tourism Management|volume=18|issue=5|pages=317–326|doi=10.1016/S0261-5177(96)00022-2}}</ref> amarga kepuasan lan sinau sing dialami manungsa nalika nglangi lumba-lumba. Aktivitas iki bisa mbantu ngatasi depresi ing manungsa. <ref name="Laur">{{Cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20051125/ai_n15877812|title=Swimming with dolphins 'is good for your soul'|last=Laurance|first=Jeremy|date=2005-11-25|work=[[The Independent]]}}{{Pranala mati|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ana akeh [[Dolphinarium|panyebaran dolphinarium]] duweke pribadi ing saindenging jagad sanajan ana kontroversi ing kegiatan iki, sing durung bisa dilalekake karo ukum <ref>{{Citation|title=Marine Mammal Protection Act|date=2019-07-06|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Mammal_Protection_Act&oldid=905108406|periodical=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2019-11-27}}</ref> . <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2016/06/13/inenglish/1465799621_037216.html|title=With so many dolphins in captivity, Spain is swimming against the tide|last=Salas|first=Javier|date=14 Jun 2016|access-date=6 February 2019|publisher=El Pais}}</ref> Popularitas lumba-lumba anyar ing taun 1960-an nyebabake munculé akeh lumba-lumbaarium <ref>{{Citation|title=Dolphinarium|date=2019-10-16|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dolphinarium&oldid=921614420|periodical=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2019-11-27}}</ref> ing saindenging jagad. Sanajan kritik lan undang-undang kesejahteraan kewan sing luwih ketat meksa akeh dolphinarium kanggo nutup lawang, atusan isih ana ing saindenging jagad iki sing narik akeh pengunjung. Institusi kasebut asring dadi oposisi abot saka klompok hak-hak kewan, utamane yen kahanan sing ora apik nyebabake kewan kewan ilang, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/scottsdale/2019/01/31/protest-planned-fourth-dolphin-dies-dolphinaris-arizona/2739718002/|title=Protest planned as fourth dolphin dies at Dolphinaris Arizona|last=Longhi|first=Lorraine|website=Arizona Central|access-date=6 February 2019}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://eurasianet.org/armenia-yerevans-dolphinarium-closes-amidst-controversy|title=Armenia: Yerevan's Dolphinarium Closes Amidst Controversy|last=Grigoryan|first=Marianna|date=11 Mar 2013|access-date=6 February 2019|publisher=Eurasianet}}</ref> lan nalika lumba-lumba kasebut asale saka populasi sing kejiret liar kayata perikanan lumba-lumba Taiji, Jepang. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/dying-to-make-us-happy-the-bloody-truth-behind-the-dolphinarium-1799837.html|title=Dying to make us happy: The bloody truth behind the dolphinarium|date=11 October 2009|access-date=6 February 2019|publisher=The Independent}}</ref> Risiko sing ana gandhengane karo interaksi karo lumba-lumba kalebu cilaka kanggo manungsa lan cilaka, stres lan pati kanggo lumba-lumba. <ref name="Orams"/> == Kagiyatan utama == * '''Swirl''' : sawetara lumba-lumba nglangi ing bunderan konsentris ing perenang, ngasilake akeh energi lan gerakan. * '''Cium''' : kanthi gerakan sing alus, lumba-lumba menehi moncong ing pipi utawa cangkemane nglangi. * '''Pelukan''' : tegak lan kanthi luwih saka setengah awak metu saka banyu, lumba-lumba ngrangkul sirip dada. * '''Footpush''' : lumba-lumba loro nyurung perenang saka sikil. * '''Langsung''' : lumba-lumba minangka master nalika metu saka banyu. Sajrone nglangi, dhèwèké nindakake trik ing udara. * '''Jogèd''' : nalika ngalahake, dhèwèké mindhah awake nalika nglangi nyekel sirip dada. * '''Nyanyi''' : kanthi urutan lan kaya ing paduan suara, lumba-lumba ngetokake swara khas. * '''Sinyal''' : perenang sinau sawetara rincian sing dibutuhake kanggo nangani lumba-lumba. * '''Wektu interaksi gratis''' : perenang duwe kesempatan kanggo nggawe kontak gratis lan mbukak karo lumba-lumba. == Referensi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Aktivitas pariwisata]] [[Kategori:Èksploitasi kéwan]] 01dilari4ho9f16yjoc157dvkm2m7wx Roti uyah 0 173746 1753022 1541362 2026-08-20T08:18:09Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753022 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|name=Salt-rising bread|image=Salt-Rising Bread (13905677074).jpg|caption=|alternate_name=Salt-risen bread|country=|region=[[Appalachian Mountains]]|creator=|course=|type=[[Roti]]|served=|main_ingredient=[[Glepung]], [[banyu]] utawa [[susu]]; [[jagung]], [[kenthang]], utamwa [[gandum]]), [[baktèri]] (''[[Clostridium perfringens]]'')|variations=|calories=|other=}}'''Roti sing nambah uyah (utawa uyah) minangka roti''' putih padhet sing akeh digawe dening para pendhudhuk awal ing Pegunungan Appalachian, ragi dening parfum ''Clostridium'' lan bakteri liyane sing alami tinimbang ragi . <ref name="Jucket2008">{{Cite journal|last=Juckett|first=G|last2=Bardwell|first2=G|last3=McClane|first3=B|last4=Brown|first4=S|year=2008|title=Microbiology of salt rising bread|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_west-virginia-medical-journal_july-august-2008_104_4/page/26|journal=The West Virginia Medical Journal|volume=104|issue=4|pages=26–7|pmid=18646681}}</ref> Roti sing nambah uyah digawe saka glepung gandum ; wiwitan sing kalebu [[banyu]] utawa [[susu]] lan [[jagung]], <ref name="fertig">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/prairiehomebread0000fert/page/78|title=Prairie Home Breads: 150 Splendid Recipes from America's Breadbasket|last=Fertig|first=Judith|date=2011|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=9781558321731|edition=|series=|volume=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/prairiehomebread0000fert/page/78 78–79]|doi=|mr=|zbl=|author-link=}}</ref> [[Kenthang|kentang]], <ref name="Lundy">{{Cite book|title=Shuck Beans, Stack Cakes, and Honest Fried Chicken: The Heart and Soul of Southern Country Kitchens|last=Lundy|first=Ronni|date=1994|publisher=[[Atlantic Monthly Press]]|isbn=9780871136008|edition=|series=|volume=|location=|page=251|doi=|mr=|zbl=|author-link=}}</ref> utawa [[Gandhum|gandum]] ; lan bahan-bahan suntingan kayata [[uyah]] lan [[gula]] . Uyah ing jeneng kasebut [[Misnomer|salah kaprah]] ; roti iki ora diragi nganggo uyah <ref name="fertig2">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/prairiehomebread0000fert/page/78|title=Prairie Home Breads: 150 Splendid Recipes from America's Breadbasket|last=Fertig|first=Judith|date=2011|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=9781558321731|edition=|series=|volume=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/prairiehomebread0000fert/page/78 78–79]|doi=|mr=|zbl=|author-link=}}</ref> rasane ora asin. <ref name="Clayton2">{{Cite book|title=Bernard Clayton's New Complete Book of Breads|last=Clayton|first=Bernard|date=2006|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]|isbn=9780743287098|edition=|series=|volume=|location=|page=265|doi=|mr=|zbl=|author-link=}}</ref> Salah sawijining panjelasan kanggo jeneng roti yaiku [[Pra-fermentasi|wiwitane digawe]] anget ing kasur uyah sing digawe panas. Asal-usul jeneng liya yaiku nggunakake uyah kanggo nyegah tuwuh ragi lan nyedhiyakake lingkungan sing luwih kondusif supaya mikroba bisa tuwuh, nambah rasa sing beda-beda amarga luwih saka rasa ragi sing luwih khas.   <sup>&#x5D;</sup> Dibandhingake karo [[Roti asem|pamula sing]] asem, starter roti sing nambah uyah mbutuhake wektu inkubasi sing luwih cekak 6-16 jam lan suhu inkubasi sing luwih dhuwur, wiwit {{Convert|38|-|45|C|F}} . <ref name="fertig3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/prairiehomebread0000fert/page/78|title=Prairie Home Breads: 150 Splendid Recipes from America's Breadbasket|last=Fertig|first=Judith|date=2011|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=9781558321731|edition=|series=|volume=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/prairiehomebread0000fert/page/78 78–79]|doi=|mr=|zbl=|author-link=}}</ref> Roti sing nambah uyah luwih kenthel, kanthi gandum sing luwih cedhak, tinimbang roti ragi, <ref name="Kohman19172">{{Cite journal|last=Kohman|first=H.A.|author-link=|date=6 October 1917|title=Salt-rising bread: Raising dough with newly discovered bacteria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HndFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA212&dq=salt+rising+bread&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiwvM2ykJfPAhUP5WMKHfsKDu0Q6AEISTAG#v=onepage&q=salt%20rising%20bread&f=false|journal=Scientific American Supplement|language=English|location=|publisher=|volume=84|issue=2179|pages=212–213|doi=|issn=|jfm=|jstor=|mr=|zbl=|id=|access-date=17 September 2016}}</ref> lan duwe rasa lan ambu sing khas. <ref name="Clayton3">{{Cite book|title=Bernard Clayton's New Complete Book of Breads|last=Clayton|first=Bernard|date=2006|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]|isbn=9780743287098|edition=|series=|volume=|location=|page=265|doi=|mr=|zbl=|author-link=}}</ref> Ambune sing wangi saka wiwitan fermentasi wis diterangake padha karo "keju sing mateng banget". <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" data-ve-ignore="true" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B; ''[[Wikipedia:Dudu riset asli|<span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (March 2019)">riset asli?</span>]]''</sup> == Referensi == [[Kategori:Roti]] bcdgcypz4u6gak49sbzc99z5wpglwlh Kerja Sama Ekonomi Asia Pasifik 0 173983 1753015 1747835 2026-08-20T08:10:11Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753015 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox geopolitical organisation | name = '''Kerja Sama Ekonomi Asia Pasifik''' | native_name = {{native name|en|Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}} | linking_name = | symbol_type = | image_symbol = | image_map = Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation nations.svg | map_caption = | org_type = Rapat ekonomi | membership_type = Keanggotaan | membership = 21 ekonomi {{Hidden |headerstyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;line-height:1.0em;font-weight:normal; |header = {{raise|0.35em|}} |contentstyle = padding-top:0.3em;font-size:105%; |content = {{unbulleted list | '''{{Flag|Australia}} | {{Flag|Brunei}} | {{Flag|Kanadha}} | {{Flag|Chili}} | {{Flag|China}} | {{Flag|Hong Kong|name=Hong Kong}} | {{Flag|Indonesia}} | {{Flag|Jepang}} | {{Flag|Korea Kidul}} | {{Flag|Malaysia}} | {{Flag|Meksiko}} | {{Flag|Selandia Anyar}} | {{Flag|Papua Nugini}} | {{Flag|Peru}} | {{Flag|Filipina}} | {{Flag|Ruslan}} | {{Flag|Singapura}} | {{Flag|Taiwan}} | {{Flag|Thailand}} | {{Flag|Amerika Serikat}} | {{Flag|Vietnam}}}}''' }} | admin_center_type = Kantor Pusat | admin_center = [[Queenstown, Singapura]] | leader_title1 = Ketua | leader_name1 = [[Muhyiddin Yassin]] (2020) | leader_title2 = Direktur Eksekutif | leader_name2 = Rebecca Fatima Santa Maria | established = 1989 | official_website = [http://www.apec.org/ www.apec.org] | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | today = }} '''Kerja Sama Ekonomi Asia Pasifik''' ('''APEC'''; {{IPAc-en|eɪ|p|ɛ|k}} {{respell|AY|pek}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ABWwQg-CwY|title=What is APEC?|access-date=November 26, 2020 |website=www.youtube.com |publisher=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>) minangka forum antar-pamrentah kanggo 21 negara anggota ing [[Rim Pasifik]] sing nyengkuyung [[perdagangan bebas]] ing wilayah [[Asia-Pasifik]].<ref name="apec.org">[http://www.apec.org/about-us/about-apec/member-economies.aspx Member Economies – Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709153701/https://www.apec.org/about-us/about-apec/member-economies.aspx |date=2018-07-09 }}. Apec.org. Retrieved 12 April 2014.</ref> Sawise sukses ing serangkaian konferensi pasca-menteri [[ASEAN]] sing diluncurake ing pertengahan 1980-an,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.pecc.org/resources/doc_view/601-back-to-canberra-founding-apec|title= PECC – Back to Canberra: Founding APEC|website= pecc.org|accessdate= 12 November 2017 | quote = ASEAN's series of post-ministerial consultations,launched in the mid-1980s, had demonstrated the feasibility and value of regular consultations among ministerial-level representatives of both developed and developing economies.}}</ref> APEC diwiwiti ing taun 1989,<ref name="History">{{cite web |title= History |url= https://www.apec.org/About-Us/About-APEC/History |website= apec.org |quote= The idea of APEC was firstly publicly broached by former Prime Minister of Australia Bob Hawke during a speech in Seoul, Korea, on 30 January 1969. Ten months later, 12 Asia-Pacific economies met in Canberra, Australia, to establish APEC. |access-date= 28 November 2020 |archive-date= 4 March 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190304034820/http://apec.org/About-Us/About-APEC/History |url-status= dead }}</ref> kanggo nanggepi ketergantungan ekonomi Asia-Pasifik lan tuwuh blok perdagangan regional ing bagean liyane ing donya; tujuane kanggo nggawe pasar anyar kanggo produk pertanian lan bahan baku sing ngluwihi Eropa.<ref name="pecc.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.pecc.org/resources/regional-cooperation/601-back-to-canberra-founding-apec/file|title=Back to Canberra: Founding APEC}}</ref> Kantor pusat ing Singapura,<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://www.ncapec.org/docs/what_is_apec.pdf | quote = The APEC Secretariat is based in Singapore. The Secretariat is staffed by 20 diplomats seconded from APEC member economies and by 20 local staff.|title=What is APEC and what can it do for business?}}</ref> APEC diakoni minangka salah sawijining blok multilateral tingkat paling dhuwur lan forum paling tuwa ing wilayah Asia-Pasifik,,<ref>{{cite web |last1= Chu |first1= Shulong |title= The East Asia Summit: Looking for an Identity |url= https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-east-asia-summit-looking-for-an-identity/ |website= Brookings |date=1 February 2017|quote = APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) is the oldest such forum and is generally recognized as the highest-level multilateral process in Asia-Pacific.}}</ref> lan menehi pengaruh global sing signifikan.<ref>{{cite web |title= Achievements and Benefits |url= https://www.apec.org/About-Us/About-APEC/Achievements-and-Benefits |website= apec.org }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= How Could The 2016 APEC Forum Affect The World Economy? – FXCM |url= https://www.fxcm.com/insights/2016-apec-forum-affect-world-economy/ |work= FXCM Insights |date= 9 January 2017 |access-date= 16 September 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180916201924/https://www.fxcm.com/insights/2016-apec-forum-affect-world-economy/ |archive-date= 16 September 2018 |url-status= dead |quote = The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum represents a potentially large-scale trade area that, when functioning in a concerted manner, could in the future work to shift the axis of global manufacturing and trade away from the North Atlantic–European region toward the Pacific. […] But the future of the bloc, which represents more than 50% of the world's GDP, may be in suspense.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Parreñas |first1= Julius Caesar |title= ASEAN and Asia‐Pacific economic cooperation |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_pacific-review_1998_11_2/page/233 |journal= The Pacific Review |volume= 11 |issue= 2 |pages= 233–248 |doi= 10.1080/09512749808719255 |date= January 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url= https://www.anzam.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf-manager/2336_BAMBER_GREG_AMI-13.PDF | title = What Context does the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC)Provide for Employment Relations? | quote = APEC represents the most dynamic economic region in the world, having generated nearly 70 per cent of global economic growth in its first 10 years […]. }}</ref> [[Kepala pamrentah]] kabeh anggota APEC kajaba [[Republik China]] (sing diwakili pejabat tingkat menteri kanthi jeneng [[Republik China|Cina Taipei]] minangka pimpinan ekonomi)<ref>[http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/national/national-news/2013/08/27/387427/Conditions-not.htm Conditions not right for APEC attendance: Ma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117201433/http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/national/national-news/2013/08/27/387427/Conditions-not.htm |date=2020-11-17 }}. The China Post (27 August 2013). Retrieved 12 April 2014.</ref> rawuh ing Rapat Pemimpin Ekonomi APEC tahunan. Lokasi rapat kasebut muter saben taun ing antarane para anggota ekonomi, lan sawijining tradhisi sing misuwur, sing diikuti kanggo puncak (nanging ora kabeh), kalebu pimpinan sing teka ing [[klambi nasional]] negara tuan rumah. APEC nduwe telung pengamat resmi: Asosiasi Sekretariat Negara Asia Tenggara, Dewan Kerja Sama Ekonomi Pasifik lan Sekretariat Forum Kepulauan Pasifik.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.apec.org/About-Us/How-APEC-Operates/APEC-Observers|title= Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation -|website= apec.org|accessdate= 12 November 2017|archive-date= 5 December 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201205101331/https://www.apec.org/About-Us/How-APEC-Operates/APEC-Observers|url-status= dead}}</ref> APEC's Host Economy of the Year dianggep bisa diundang ing Panggonan pisanan kanggo perwakilan geografis menyang rawuh [[G-20]] rapat-rapat ing ngisor iki pedoman G-20. <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.g20foundation.org/g20/invitees-and-international-organizations |title=Archive copy |access-date=2020-11-28 |archive-date=2022-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221231521/https://www.g20foundation.org/g20/invitees-and-international-organizations |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://vietnamembassy-usa.org/news/2017/02/deputy-pm-meets-us-state-secretary-g20-meeting-sidelines |title= Deputy PM meets US State Secretary on G20 meeting sidelines – Embassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in the United States |website= vietnamembassy-usa.org|accessdate= 12 November 2017}}</ref> == Ekonomi anggota == APEC saiki duwe 21 anggota. Nanging, kriteria kanggo anggota yaiku anggota kasebut minangka ''ekonomi'' sing beda, lan dudu negara. Asile, APEC nggunakake istilah ''ekonomi anggota'' tinimbang ''negara-negara anggota'' kanggo ngrujuk marang para anggotane. Salah sawijining kriteria kasebut yaiku keanggotaan forum kalebu Taiwan (kanthi resmi Republik China, melu jeneng "Taipei Cina") bebarengan karo Republik Rakyat China, uga [[Hong Kong]], sing lumebu APEC dadi koloni Inggris nanging saiki dadi [[Wilayah Administrasi Khusus Republik Rakyat China]]. APEC uga kalebu telung pengamat resmi: [[ASEAN]], [[Forum Kepulauan Pasifik]] lan [[Dewan Kerja Sama Ekonomi Pasifik]].<ref name="apec.org" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Ekonomi anggota ! Jeneng sing digunakake ing APEC ! Tanggal digandhengake ! GDP (PPP) ing 2017<br /> (Yuta Int$) |- | {{flag|Australia}} | Australia | November 1989 |align="right"| 1,235,297 |- | {{flag|Brunei}} | Brunei Darussalam | November 1989 |align="right"| 32,958 |- | {{flag|Kanadha}} | Canada | November 1989 |align="right"| 1,763,785 |- | {{flag|Indonesia}} | Indonesia | November 1989 |align="right"| 3,242,966 |- | {{flag|Jepang}} | Japan | November 1989 |align="right"| 5,405,072 |- | {{flag|Korea Kidul}} | Republic of Korea | November 1989 |align="right"| 2,026,651 |- | {{flag|Malaysia}} | Malaysia | November 1989 |align="right"| 926,081 |- | {{flag|Selandia Anyar}} | New Zealand | November 1989 |align="right"| 185,748 |- | {{flag|Filipina}} | The Philippines | November 1989 |align="right"| 874,518 |- | {{flag|Singapura}} | Singapore | November 1989 |align="right"| 513,744 |- | {{flag|Thailand}} | Thailand | November 1989 |align="right"| 1,228,941 |- | {{flag|Amerika Serikat}} | The United States | November 1989 |align="right"| 19,362,129 |- | {{flag|Taiwan}} | Chinese Taipei | November 1991 |align="right"| 1,175,308 |- | {{flag|Hong Kong}} | Hong Kong, Cina | November 1991 |align="right"| 453,019 |- | {{flag|Cina}} | People's Republic of China | November 1991 |align="right"| 12,150,000 |- | {{flag|Meksiko}} | Mexico | November 1993 |align="right"| 2,406,087 |- | {{flag|Papua Nugini}} | Papua New Guinea | November 1993 |align="right"| 30,839 |- | {{flag|Chili}} | Chile | November 1994 |align="right"| 452,095 |- | {{flag|Peru}} | Peru | November 1998 |align="right"| 424,639 |- | {{flag|Ruslan}} | Russia | November 1998 |align="right"| 4,000,096 |- | {{flag|Vietnam}} | Viet Nam | November 1998 |align="right"| 643,902 |- |} == Referensi == {{Reflist}} 616izpg0bjz7fkprnhlbvu0st5cmxsg Uyah jambon 0 174034 1752871 1541427 2026-08-20T03:47:03Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752871 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Prague_powder_No_1.jpg|ka|jmpl| Ngobati uyah]] '''Ngobati uyah''' digunakake kanggo ngolah daging kanggo ngasilake warna jambon lan kanggo nambah umur. <ref name="MeatScience">{{Cite journal|last=Sárraga, C.|last2=Gil, M.|last3=Arnau, J.|last4=Monfort, J. M.|last5=Cussó, R.|year=1989|title=Effect of curing salt and phosphate on the activity of porcine muscle proteases|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_meat-science_1989_25_4/page/241|journal=Meat Science|publisher=Elsevier Science|volume=25|issue=4|pages=241–249|doi=10.1016/0309-1740(89)90042-9|pmid=22054673}}</ref> Kalorone minangka agen warna lan sarana kanggo nggampangake [[Pangawetan panganan|nglestarekake panganan]] amarga bisa nyegah utawa nyuda karusakan dening [[Baktèri|bakteri]] utawa [[Fungi|jamur]] . Uyah penyembuhan umume campuran [[Uyah|uyah meja]] lan natrium nitrit lan digunakake kanggo [[Pangaseman|pickling]] daging minangka bagean saka proses kanggo nggawe [[sosis]] utawa [[Pangawétan|daging sing diobati]] kayata ham, daging babi, pastrami, daging sapi kornet, lsp. Alesan panggunaan uyah sing ngobati nitrit yaiku nyandhet tuwuhing bakteri, khusus ''Clostridium botulinum'' minangka upaya nyegah botulisme . Akeh uyah sing ngobati uga ngemot pewarna abang supaya jambon supaya ora bingung karo uyah meja sing umum. Mula, nambani uyah sok diarani " uyah jambon ". Uyah uyah ora kudu bingung karo uyah jambon Himalaya, yaiku halite kanthi unsur tilak sing menehi warna jambon. == Referensi == 8uov9um8yaaop3gokbw0jgmyknv1d8t Ombènan ènèrgi 0 174154 1753040 1558433 2026-08-20T08:45:32Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753040 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Energydrinks.jpg|jmpl|Macem-macem merek minuman energi]] '''Ombenan energi''' minangka jinis omben-omben sing ngemot senyawa [[stimulan]], biasane [[Kaféin|kafein]], sing dipasarake minangka stimulasi mental lan fisik (dipasarake minangka "energi", nanging beda karo [[energi panganan]] ). Bisa uga [[karbon]]at utawa ora uga ngemot [[gula]], pemanis liyane, [[ekstrak herbal]], [[taurine]], lan [[Asem amino|asam amino]] . Iki minangka bagean saka klompok produk energi sing luwih gedhe, sing kalebu bar lan [[Gel energi|gel]], lan beda karo [[Ombenan olahraga|omben-omben olahraga]], sing diiklanake kanggo nambah kinerja olahraga. Ana akeh merek lan varietas ing kategori minuman iki. [[Kopi]], [[Tèh|teh]] lan minuman berkafein alami liyane biasane ora dianggep minangka omben-omben energi. [[Omben-omben alus|Minuman ringan liyane]] kayata [[Kola|cola]] bisa uga ngemot kafein, nanging uga ora dianggep minangka minuman energi. Sawetara [[Ngombe alkohol kafein|omben-omben alkohol]], kayata [[Anggur Tonik Buckfast|Anggur Buckfast Tonic]], ngemot kafein lan stimulan liyane. Miturut [[Klinik Mayo|Clinic Mayo]], aman kanggo wong diwasa sing sehat bisa ngonsumsi 400&nbsp;mg kafein saben dina. Iki wis dikonfirmasi panel saka [[Otoritas Keamanan Panganan Eropa]], sing uga nyimpulake yen asupan kafein nganti 400&nbsp;mg saben dina ora nyebabake masalah keamanan kanggo wong diwasa. Miturut ESFA, iki padha karo 4 cangkir kopi (90&nbsp;saben mg) utawa 2 1/2 kaleng standar (250 ml) omben-omben energi (160&nbsp;mg saben / 80&nbsp;mg saben porsi).<ref name="energy-drinks2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/caffeine/art-20045678|title=How much is too much?|last=Preszler|first=Buss|website=mayoclinic.org|publisher=Mayo Clinic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103162809/http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/caffeine/art-20045678|archive-date=3 November 2014|access-date=5 November 2014}}</ref> <ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|date=May 2015|title=Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine|journal=EFSA Journal|volume=13|issue=5|doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4102|doi-access=free}}</ref> Minuman energi duwe efek kafein lan gula, nanging ora ana utawa ora ana bukti yen macem-macem bahan liyane duwe pengaruh.<ref name="pmid23206286">{{Cite journal|year=2012|title=Do energy drinks contain active components other than caffeine?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nutrition-reviews_2012-12_70_12/page/730|journal=Nutr Rev|volume=70|issue=12|pages=730–44|doi=10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00525.x|pmid=23206286}}</ref> Umume efek omben-omben energi ing kinerja kognitif, kayata nambah perhatian lan kacepetan reaksi, utamane amarga ana kafein.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last=Van Den Eynde|first=F|last2=Van Baelen|first2=PC|last3=Portzky|first3=M|last4=Audenaert|first4=K|year=2008|title=The effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance|journal=Tijdschrift voor Psychiatrie|volume=50|issue=5|pages=273–81|pmid=18470842}}</ref> Pariwara kanggo omben-omben energi biasane nambah kekuatan otot lan ketahanan, nanging ora ana bukti sing nyengkuyung ing literatur ilmiah.<ref name="pmid25293550">{{Cite journal|year=2014|title=Performance outcomes and unwanted side effects associated with energy drinks.|journal=Nutr Rev|volume=72 Suppl 1|pages=108–20|doi=10.1111/nure.12132|pmid=25293550}}</ref> [[File:Power_Horse_Energy_Drink336.jpg|alt=A health warning on a can of the Ostenrikn Power Horse energy drink: "Consumption of more than two cans in a day may be harmful to your health. Not to be used for pregnant women, breast feeders, children under the age of 16, people with heart disease, [[Hypertension|high blood pressure]], diabetes, allergy to caffeine, and athletes during exercise."|jmpl| Peringatan kesehatan babagan kaleng omben-omben energi Kuda Tenaga Ostenrik]] Ji'''Minuman energi''' minangka jinis omben-omben sing ngemot senyawa [[stimulan]], biasane [[Kaféin|kafein]], sing dipasarake minangka stimulasi mental lan fisik (dipasarake minangka "energi", nanging beda karo [[energi panganan]] ). Bisa uga [[karbon]]at utawa ora uga ngemot [[gula]], pemanis liyane, [[ekstrak herbal]], [[taurine]], lan [[Asem amino|asam amino]] . Iki minangka bagean saka klompok produk energi sing luwih gedhe, sing kalebu bar lan [[Gel energi|gel]], lan beda karo [[Ombenan olahraga|omben-omben olahraga]], sing diiklanake kanggo nambah kinerja olahraga. Ana akeh merek lan varietas ing kategori minuman iki. Minuman energi duwe efek kafein lan gula, nanging ora ana utawa ora ana bukti yen macem-macem bahan liyane duwe pengaruh.<ref name="pmid23206286"/> Umume efek omben-omben energi ing kinerja kognitif, kayata nambah perhatian lan kacepetan reaksi, utamane amarga ana kafein.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Pariwara kanggo omben-omben energi biasane nambah kekuatan otot lan ketahanan, nanging ora ana bukti sing nyengkuyung ing literatur ilmiah.<ref name="pmid25293550"/> [[Barkas:Red_Bull_Energy_Drink_GMC_Truck.jpg|ka|jmpl| Truk distribusi Red Bull]] == Referensi == [[Kategori:Ombèn-ombèn]] bt6rwvi6zbfky9n7d93oiud5dz77f79 Carane nggedhekake itil 0 174164 1752986 1541770 2026-08-20T07:13:08Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752986 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Metode utawa cara-cara nggedhekake itil''' minangka modifikasi awak sing duweni potensi kanggo nambah ukuran [[itil]] lan nambah rasa kasenengan seksual. Nggedeni itil bisa ditindakake kanthi macem-macem cara, saben bisa duwe efek samping lan risiko tartamtu.<ref name="Horejsí">{{cite journal |author=Horejsí J.|title=Acquired clitoral enlargement. Diagnosis and treatment. |journal=Ann N Y Acad Sci |volume=816 |issue=1 |pages=369–372 |year=1997 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb52163.x |pmid=9238289|bibcode=1997NYASA.816..369H }}</ref><ref name="Atilla">{{cite journal |author=Atilla Şenaylı|author2=Etlik Ankara |title=Controversies on clitoroplasty |journal=Therapeutic Advances in Urology |volume= 3 |issue= 6|pages=273–277|date=December 2011|pmid=22164197 |doi=10.1177/1756287211428165 |pmc=3229251}}</ref><ref name="Perovic">{{cite journal|author=S.V. Perovic|author2=M.L. Djordjevic|title=Metoidioplasty: a variant of phalloplasty in female transsexuals|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bju-international_2003-12_92_9/page/981|journal=[[BJUI]]|volume=92|issue=9 |pages=981–985|date=December 2003|pmid=14632860|doi=10.1111/j.1464-410X.2003.04524.x}}</ref><ref name="Meyer">{{cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=Walter J.|last2=Webb|first2=Alice|last3=Stuart|first3=Charles A.|last4=Finkelstein|first4=Jordan W.|last5=Lawrence|first5=Barbara|last6=Walker|first6=Paul A.|title=Physical and hormonal evaluation of transsexual patients: A longitudinal study|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_1986-04_15_2/page/121|journal=[[Archives of Sexual Behavior]]|date=April 1986|volume=15|issue=2|pages=121–138|doi=10.1007/BF01542220|pmid=3013122}}</ref> Kondisi medis kogenital utawa sing dipikolehi wiwit kahir dikenal kanthi jeneng klitoromegali utawa makroclitoris, kosok balen karo nggedhekake itil kanthi sengaja, sanajan pembesaran itil sing ora normal kadang-kadang diarani klitoromegali.<ref name="Horejsí"/><ref name="Copcu">{{cite journal |vauthors=Copcu E, Aktas A, Sivrioglu N, Copcu O, Oztan Y |title=Idiopathic isolated clitoromegaly: A report of two cases |journal=Reprod Health |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=4 |year=2004 |pmid=15461813 |pmc=523860 |doi=10.1186/1742-4755-1-4 }}</ref> == Tujuane == Motivasi kepenginan nggedhekake itil beda-beda. Wanita sing duwe itil cilik banget bisa uga ora entuk kesenengan sing cukup saka tumindak seksual sing bisa langsung ngrangsang itil, kayata teknik penyelarasan coital, mula bisa milih nggedhekake itil kanggo nambah rasa seneng. Wanita kanthi itil ukuran biasane bisa nambah ukuran kanggo nambah rasa seneng utawa supaya katon luwih apik. Pompa itil, kayata pompa penis, bisa digunakake sadurunge utawa sajrone masturbasi kanggo efek sementara. Sawetara binaragawan testosteron, binaraga wanita kanthi itil sing nggedhekake bisa nggunakake teknik kasebut. == Metode == Cara nggedhekake itil sing paling umum yaiku: * Nggunakake androgen sing ngemot krim ing itil<ref name="Copcu"/> * Nggunakake testosteron sistemik kanggo wektu sing suwe, kaya sawetara binaraga wanita * Nggunakake pompa itil Ana ora setuju babagan pendekatan sing paling apik; akeh pratelan ukuran mundhak saka pumping nalika wong liya ujar manawa testosteron minangka cara mung kanggo entuk asil sing signifikan. Kaloro cara kasebut nduwe risiko. Yen pompa ditindakake kanthi salah, bisa nyebabake kerusakan jaringan erektil itil lan pembuluh getih. Panganggone steroid kayata testosteron nyebabake risiko amarga senyawa kasebut bisa duwe efek sistemik. ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} {{stub}} af97snl9kv68t4fv9n0dm54r1yf2p65 Wong kang seneng soklat 0 174282 1753000 1668990 2026-08-20T07:42:10Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753000 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Chocolate_-_stonesoup.jpg|jmpl| Coklat peteng]] '''Chocolateic''' yaiku wong sing kepengin utawa nggunakake [[Soklat|coklat kanthi]] kompulsif. <ref name="Merriam Webster">{{Cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chocoholic|title=Chocoholic|website=Merriam-Webster|access-date=14 April 2013}}</ref> Tembung "chocoholic" pisanan digunakake ing taun 1968, miturut Merriam-Webster. Iki minangka portmanteau "coklat" lan " [[Alkoholisme|alkohol]] ". Tembung kasebut digunakake kanthi longgar utawa guyonan kanggo nggambarake wong sing seneng banget karo coklat; nanging, ana bukti medis sing ndhukung eksistensi kecanduan coklat. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hetherington|first=Marion M.|last2=MacDiarmid|first2=Jennifer I.|year=1993|title='Chocolate Addiction': A Preliminary Study of its Description and its Relationship to Problem Eating|url=https://archive.org/details/appetite_1993-12_21_3/page/233|journal=Appetite|volume=21|issue=3|pages=233–46|doi=10.1006/appe.1993.1042|pmid=8141595}}</ref> Konstituensi coklat psikoaktif sing nyebabake reaksi 'apik-apik' kanggo konsumen kalebu triptophan lan phenylethylamine, sing bisa nyebabake rasa napsu lan tanggepan kaya kecanduan, utamane kanggo wong sing duwe alel genetik tartamtu. <ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Coffee, tea, chocolate, and the brain|last=Nehlig|first=Astrid|publisher=CRC Press|year=2004|isbn=9780429211928|location=Boca Raton|pages=203–218}}</ref> Jumlah gula sing digunakake ing gula coklat uga pengaruh efek psikoaktif saka coklat. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Casperson|first=Shanon L|last2=Lanza|first2=Lisa|last3=Albajri|first3=Eram|last4=Nasser|first4=Jennifer A|date=2019-03-12|title=Increasing Chocolate's Sugar Content Enhances Its Psychoactive Effects and Intake|journal=Nutrients|volume=11|issue=3|page=596|doi=10.3390/nu11030596|pmc=6471517|pmid=30870996}}</ref> Sanajan konsep kecanduan coklat isih kontroversial ing literatur medis, coklat (utamane coklat peteng) dianggep duwe pengaruh ing swasana <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Sarah E|last2=Smith|first2=Lee|last3=Firth|first3=Joseph|display-authors=etal|date=2019|title=Is there a relationship between chocolate consumption and symptoms of depression? A cross-sectional survey of 13,626 US adults|url=https://arro.anglia.ac.uk/704507/6/Jackson_et_al_2019_5.docx|journal=Depress Anxiety|volume=36|issue=10|pages=987–995|doi=10.1002/da.22950|pmid=31356717|access-date=2020-12-13|archive-date=2020-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018162901/https://arro.anglia.ac.uk/id/eprint/704507/6/Jackson_et_al_2019_5.docx|url-status=dead}}</ref> lan gula-gula coklat meh mesthi dadi ndhuwur dhaptar panganan sing dikatutake wong-wong. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Nutrition and Health - Current topics - 3|last=Rogers|first=Peter|publisher=Garant|year=2003|isbn=978-90-441-1493-5|editor-last=Carr|editor-first=Tanya|location=Antwerpen|pages=69–76|chapter=Food cravings and addictions – fact and fallacy|editor-last2=Descheemaeker|editor-first2=Koen|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T0o-qVwwff8C&pg=PA69}}</ref> Ngidam bisa dadi kuwat banget ing sawetara kasus, para wong alkohol bisa uga ngalami gejala penarikan yen rasa idham kasebut durung kawujud. <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Bruinsma|first=Kristen|last2=Taren|first2=Douglas L.|year=1999|title=Chocolate: Food or Drug?|journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association|volume=99|issue=10|pages=1249–56|doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(99)00307-7|pmid=10524390}}</ref> Komponen penting kecanduan yaiku ngidam banget, ilang kontrol nggunakake, lan nggunakake terus sanajan ana akibat negatif. Panliten akademik nuduhake manawa masarakat bisa ngetrapake kabeh telung komponen kasebut sing ana gandhengane karo panganan, utamane panganan sing ngemot gula utawa lemak. Amarga coklat ngemot kalorone, mula asring digunakake ing pasinaon kecanduan panganan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/can-you-become-addicted-to-chocolate-201302145903|title=Can you become addicted to chocolate?|last=Miller|first=Michael Craig|date=February 14, 2013|website=Harvard Health Blog|publisher=Harvard University|access-date=14 April 2013}}</ref> [[Barkas:Chocolate_(blue_background).jpg|jmpl| Jinis coklat peteng, susu lan putih]] == Referensi == 6i8s9ryhgtow8lmfc9ib8rhsye1a17d Daging tikus 0 174561 1753032 1715825 2026-08-20T08:34:46Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753032 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Daging tikus''' minangka daging saka macem-macem jinis [[tikus]]: tikus ukurane medium, buntut dawa. Iki minangka panganan sing, sanajan tabu ing sawetara budaya, dadi panganan utama kanggo wong liya.<ref>{{cite web |author=Newvision Archive |url=http://www.newvision.co.ug/D/9/38/422540 |title=Rats for dinner, a delicacy to some, a taboo to many |publisher=Newvision.co.ug |date=2005-03-10 |accessdate=2012-09-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922012421/http://www.newvision.co.ug/D/9/38/422540 |archive-date=2012-09-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=zEtPAAAAIBAJ&pg=3541,6036159&dq=rat+meat+taboo&hl=en|title=Rat meat taboo|accessdate=2012-09-24}}</ref> Tabu iki kalebu rasa wedi karo penyakit utawa larangan agama, nanging ing pirang-pirang panggonan, tikus sing akeh nyebabake gabung karo panganan lokal. == Amerika == Rebus tikus minangka spesialisasi lokal saka Virginia Kulon sing asale saka ambruk ing industri tambang.<ref>{{cite web |last=Worrall |first=Simon |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151220-american-food-cuisine-local-state-ngbooktalk/ |title=What's Best, Worst, and Most Weird About American Food |website=News.nationalgeographic.com |date=2015-12-20 |accessdate=2016-01-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105145241/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151220-american-food-cuisine-local-state-ngbooktalk/ |archive-date=2016-01-05 |quote=Rat stew was born out of lean times as a result of the collapse of the mining industry}}</ref> Oalahan kasebut kalebu bagean saka masakan ''roadkill'' lan wis ana ing Marlington Roadkill Cook-off.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pollack |first=Hilary |url=http://munchies.vice.com/articles/americas-most-beloved-regional-dishes-have-dark-and-fascinating-histories |title=America's Most Beloved Regional Dishes Have Dark and Fascinating Histories &#124; MUNCHIES |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |date=2016-01-02 |accessdate=2016-01-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110095110/http://munchies.vice.com/articles/americas-most-beloved-regional-dishes-have-dark-and-fascinating-histories |archive-date=2016-01-10 |quote=There were other [people] who actually celebrated the eating of rat as a culinary cultural inheritance, to the point where in Marlinton, West Virginia, for instance, they hold this annual roadkill cookoff in order to celebrate the eating of roadkill in West Virginia. When I visited the annual roadkill cookoff in Marlington, there were two folks preparing rat dishes.}}</ref> == Asia == Ing sawetara budaya, tikus utawa wis diwatesi minangka panganan sing bisa ditampa ing kelas sosial utawa ekonomi tartamtu. Ing budaya Mishmi ing India, tikus penting kanggo panganan tradisional, amarga wanita Mishmi ora bisa mangan daging kajaba iwak, daging babi, manuk liar lan tikus.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mills | first1 = J. P. | year = 1952 | title = The Mishmis of the Lohit Valley, Assam | journal = The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland | volume = 82 | issue = 1| pages = 1–12 | doi=10.2307/2844036| jstor = 2844036 }}</ref> Kosok baline, komunitas Musahar ing sisih lor India wis nggawe komersialisasi tani tikus minangka panganan istimewa eksotis.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Heads_and_Tales/Rat_meat_to_be_commercialised_in_Bihar/articleshow/3351440.cms Musahar Hindus commercialise rat farming] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221223502/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Heads_and_Tales/Rat_meat_to_be_commercialised_in_Bihar/articleshow/3351440.cms |date=February 21, 2009 }}</ref> Daging tikus Ricefield (Rattus argitiventer) dipangan ing [[Basa Viètnam|basa Vietnam]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=81341 |title=Rats Back on the Menu in Vietnam |website=Abcnews.go.com |date=2006-01-06 |accessdate=2016-01-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224052742/https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=81341 |archive-date=2015-12-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_22502204/vietnamese-eat-rats-and-are-aggressive-stanford-professor |title=Vietnamese eat rats and are aggressive, Stanford professor says in article, triggering online uproar |website=Mercurynews.com |date= February 2013|accessdate=2016-01-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224000111/http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_22502204/vietnamese-eat-rats-and-are-aggressive-stanford-professor |archive-date=2015-12-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Sou Vuthy |url=http://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle/rat-meat-menu-vietnam-border |title=Rat meat on the menu at the Vietnam border, Lifestyle, Phnom Penh Post |website=Phnompenhpost.com |date=2012-09-12 |accessdate=2016-01-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224103941/http://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle/rat-meat-menu-vietnam-border |archive-date=2015-12-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.travelchannel.com/video/would-you-ever-eat-a-rat-12048 |title=Would You Ever Eat a Rat? VIDEO : Dining with Death |website=TravelChannel.com |accessdate=2016-01-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817112606/http://www.travelchannel.com/video/would-you-ever-eat-a-rat-12048 |archive-date=2014-08-17 }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=March 2019}} [sumber sing ora bisa dipercaya?] Taiwan,<ref>{{cite news |last=Jennings |first=Ralph |editor-last=Macfie |editor-first=Nick |date=28 January 2008 |title=No ratatouille on Taiwan menu, but plenty of rat |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/01/28/us-taiwan-rat-idUSPEK7973520080128 |newspaper=Reuters |location=CHIAYI, Taiwan |access-date=3 September 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209005001/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/01/28/us-taiwan-rat-idUSPEK7973520080128 |archive-date=9 February 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=HUANG |first=ANNIE |date=10 February 2002 |title=Eat, Drink, Man, Rodent |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1980&dat=20020210&id=WlEwAAAAIBAJ&pg=1119,1152405&hl=en |newspaper=The Item |volume=107|number=118 |location=CHIAYU, Taiwan |page=10A|access-date= 3 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/sketchesfromtaiw00camprich/page/131|title=Sketches from Formosa|author=William Campbell|author-link=William Campbell (missionary)|date=1915|page=131|quote=XXII BREAKFASTING ON RATS}}</ref> Masakan Filipina, Kamboja, lan Spanyol. Rat-on-a-stick minangka panganan tikus panggang sing dikonsumsi ing Vietnam lan Kamboja.<ref name="Molloy Duschinsky Jensen Shalka 2017">{{cite book | last1=Molloy | first1=M.J. | last2=Duschinsky | first2=P. | last3=Jensen | first3=K.F. | last4=Shalka | first4=R.J. | title=Running on Empty: Canada and the Indochinese Refugees, 1975-1980 | publisher=MQUP | series=McGill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History | year=2017 | isbn=978-0-7735-5063-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngJbDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA323 | access-date=July 7, 2017 | page=323}}</ref> Aborigine ing sadawane pesisir ing sisih kidul Queensland, [[Ostrali|Australia]], biasane kalebu tikus ing panganan.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hobson | first1 = Keith A. | last2 = Collier | first2 = Stephen | year = 1984 | title = Marine and Terrestrial Protein in Australian Aboriginal Diets | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_1984-04_25_2/page/238 | journal = Current Anthropology | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 238–240 | doi=10.1086/203120| s2cid = 145628640 }}</ref> Panaliten taun 2020 babagan perdagangan margasatwa ing telung provinsi [[Vietnam Kidul|Vietnam kidul]] nemokake manawa 55 persen tikus sawah sing didol ing restoran sing diuji nggawa virus corona.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/19/science/coronavirus-rats-vietnam.html</ref> == Refrensi == {{reflist}} p1b2x5vb341l6c5pl9wprx7hhzzpsu1 Kacang dara 0 175203 1753050 1724241 2026-08-20T09:05:35Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753050 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Speciesbox | name = Pigeon pea | image = Cajanus_cajan,_flowers.jpg | image_upright = 0.7 | genus = Cajanus | species = cajan | authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) Millsp. }} '''''Kacang''''' '''dara''' ( '''''Cajanus cajan''''' ), uga dikenal minangka '''pigeonpea''', '''gram abang''', '''tur''', <ref name="MoEFCC">{{Cite web|url=https://biosafety.icar.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/biology_of_cajanus_cajan_pigeon_pea_REVISED-1.pdf|title=Biology of ''Cajanus cajan'' (Pigeonpea)|date=October 2016|publisher=[[Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change]] (India)|access-date=2020-06-21|archive-date=2020-08-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806095012/https://biosafety.icar.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/biology_of_cajanus_cajan_pigeon_pea_REVISED-1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> '''pwa kongo''' ing [[Haiti]], <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://visithaiti.com/food-drink/seasonal-produce-in-haiti-december/|title=Fresh and local: delicious Haitian produce not to miss this December · Visit Haiti|date=2018-11-21|website=Visit Haiti|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-29}}</ref> '''guandú''' lan '''frijol de palo''' ing Ibero-America, utawa minangka '''kacang polong gungo''' ing Jamaika, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cooklikeajamaican.com/amp/gungo-peas/|title=Jamaican Ingredient: Gungo Peas|access-date=2020-04-24}}</ref> minangka legum saka [[Kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]] [[Fabaceae]] . Wiwit dijenengi ing bawana India paling ora 3.500 taun kepungkur, wiji kasebut dadi [[Pangan|panganan]] umum ing Asia, Afrika, lan Amerika Latin. Dikonsumsi kanthi akeh ing [[Asia Kidul]] lan minangka sumber [[Protéin|protein utama]] kanggo populasi anak bawana India. Iki minangka iringan utama kanggo beras utawa [[Roti India|roti]] (roti rata) lan status panganan pokok ing saindenging India lan India. Kacang polong ing sawetara wilayah minangka panen penting kanggo [[pupuk ijo]], nganti 90&nbsp;kg nitrogen saben hektar. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adu-Gyamfi|first=Joseph J.|last2=Myaka|first2=Fidelis A.|last3=Sakala|first3=Webster D.|last4=Odgaard|first4=Rie|last5=Vesterager|first5=Jens M.|last6=Jensen|first6=Henning Høgh|date=2007|title=Biological nitrogen fixation and nitrogen and phosphorus budgets in farmer-managed intercrops of maize-pigeonpea in semi-arid southern and eastern Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_plant-and-soil_2007-06_295_1-2/page/127|journal=Plant and Soil|volume=295|issue=1–2|pages=127–136|doi=10.1007/s11104-007-9270-0|issn=0032-079X}}</ref> Asal-Usul saka kacang polong dara uga bisa digunakake minangka kayu bakar, pagar lan gandum. [[Barkas:Pigeon_pea_flower_at_Sydney_2019.jpg|ka|jmpl|250x250px| Kembang kacang japati ing Sydney 2019]] [[Barkas:Tur_Dal.JPG|jmpl| Pisah kacang merpati, digunakake kanggo nggawe ''Daal / Pappu, panganan'' pokok saben dina ing India]] == Referensi == 2dw6uobvoe1d7bohqgpq1u3kida0oku Ngangetaké 0 175219 1753046 1545006 2026-08-20T08:58:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753046 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|name=Boil up|image=Maori boil up.jpg|image_size=250px|caption=Boil up|alternate_name=''Pork and Puha''|country=[[New Zealand]]|region=|creator=|course=|type=[[Soup]]|served=|main_ingredient=[[Stock (food)|Stock]], Meat, Starchy vegetables, Leaf vegetables, [[Dumplings]]|variations=|calories=|other=}}Ngangetake minangka salah sawijining jinis olah kang umum kalebu kombinasi daging lan balung sing seimbang (kayata [[daging babi]] ), sayuran ijo kayata puha, watercress utawa [[Kul|kubis]], lan [[Ketéla rambat|kūmara]] utawa [[Kenthang|kentang]], digodhog bebarengan, lan [[pangsit]] tepung sing dikenal kanthi jeneng "Doughboys". <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baker|first=J.|last2=Scragg|first2=R.|last3=Metcalf|first3=P.|last4=Dryson|first4=E.|date=1993|title=Diabetes Mellitus and Employment: Is there Discrimination in the Workplace?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_diabetic-medicine_1993-05_10_4/page/362|journal=Diabetic Medicine|volume=10|issue=4|pages=362–365|doi=10.1111/j.1464-5491.1993.tb00081.x|pmid=8508622}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harris|first=Aroha|date=October 2008|title=Concurrent Narratives of Maori and Integration in the 1950s and 60s|url=http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=575293969210945;res=IELNZC|journal=Journal of New Zealand Studies|language=EN|issue=6/7|pages=139}}</ref> == Referensi == 6zcxa6bcodpf45689xzuhsxlcma68vm Beras dikekelaké 0 175351 1752901 1640991 2026-08-20T04:38:32Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752901 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Riso_parboiled.jpg|jmpl|<center> Sega rebus</center>]] [[Barkas:A_woman_prepares_parboiled_rice.jpg|jmpl| Wanita sing nyiapake beras parboiled ing Nigeria]] [[Barkas:Parboiled_rice_with_chicken,_peppers,_cucurbita,_peas_and_tomato.jpg|jmpl| Sega parboiled sing wis disiyapake]] '''Nasi parboiled''' (uga diarani '''nasi sing diowahi''' lan '''nasi''' '''gampang masak''' <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/18/types-of-rice.html|title=Types of rice – Rice Association|website=www.riceassociation.org.uk|access-date=2021-01-25|archive-date=2021-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705080138/http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/18/types-of-rice.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ) yaiku salah sawijining jinis olahan arupa [[Pantun|sega]] sing wis umob [[Semi nggodhog|sebagian]] ing [[Klobot|kulit]] . Telung langkah dhasar kanggo parboiling yaiku rendhem, kukus lan pangatusan. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miah|first=M. A. Kaddus|last2=Haque|first2=Anwarul|last3=Douglass|first3=M. Paul|last4=Clarke|first4=Brian|year=2002|title=Parboiling of rice. Part II: Effect of hot soaking time on the degree of starch gelatinization|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-food-science-and-technology_2002-06_37_5/page/539|journal=International Journal of Food Science and Technology|volume=37|issue=5|pages=539–545|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2621.2002.00611.x}}</ref> Langkah-langkah kasebut nggawe nasi luwih gampang diolah kanthi tangan, uga nambah profil nutrisi, ngowahi teksture, lan nggawe luwih tahan karo weevil . <ref name="kik">{{Cite journal|last=Kik|first=M.C.|last2=Williams|first2=R.R.|date=June 1945|title=The Nutritional Improvement of White Rice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LSYrAAAAYAAJ|journal=Bulletin of the National Research Council|volume=112|pages=61–}}</ref> Pangobatan kasebut ditindakake ing pirang-pirang wilayah ing donya. <ref>Pillaiyar, P. (1981). Household parboiling of parboiled rice. Kishan World, 8, 20–21.</ref> Parboiling nyurung [[Hara|nutrisi]], utamane thiamin, saka bran nganti endosperma, mula beras putih parboiled umume padha nutrisi padha karo [[Beras soklat|beras coklat]] . <ref name="Kyritsi11">{{Cite journal|last=Kyritsi|first=A.|last2=Tzia|first2=C.|last3=Karathanos|first3=V.T.|date=January 2011|title=Vitamin fortified rice grain using spraying and soaking methods|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229193278|journal=LWT – Food Science and Technology|volume=44|issue=1|pages=312–320|doi=10.1016/j.lwt.2010.06.001}}</ref>{{Infobox nutritional value|name=Rice, brown, parboiled, dry, UNCLE BEN'S (#20042)|vitK_ug=0.9|water=9.82 g|zinc_mg=1.96|sodium_mg=6|potassium_mg=219|phosphorus_mg=275|magnesium_mg=98|iron_mg=1.16|calcium_mg=8|vitB6_mg=0.407|kcal=370|folate_ug=14|niacin_mg=4.973|riboflavin_mg=0.092|thiamin_mg=0.277|sugars=0.5 g|fiber=3.5 g|carbs=78.68 g|fat=2.75 g|protein=7.60 g|source_usda=1}}<gallery perrow="5"> Barkas:verarb parboiled 2.jpg|Raw [[Rice#Harvesting, drying and milling|pantun]] beras. Barkas:verarb parboiled 3.jpg|[[Vitamins|Vitamin]] lan [[Dietary mineral|mineral]] ing bran. Barkas:verarb parboiled 4.jpg|Lebokake [[Vacuum|vakum]], nasi ilang kabeh udara sing ana ing njero ruangan. Ing adus banyu anget ing ngisor iki, gizi dadi luwih larut lan metu saka bran. Barkas:verarb parboiled 5.jpg|Kanggo mindhah nutrisi kasebut menyang kernel, uap panas lan tekanan udhara digunakake, yen ora mbilas menyang banyu. Barkas:verarb parboiled 6.jpg|Nasi parboiled ngemot sebagian besar nutrisi saka beras coklat. (Grafik iki ora nggambarake fraksi sing ilang.) </gallery> [[Barkas:Improved_rice_cooking_approach_to_maximise_arsenic_removal_while_preserving_nutrient_elements.jpg|jmpl|300x300px| Cara masak nasi sing luwih apik kanggo nggedhekake ngilangi [[Arsènik|arsenik]] nalika ngreksa unsur nutrisi <ref name="cookingmethod">{{Cite journal|last=Menon|first=Manoj|last2=Dong|first2=Wanrong|last3=Chen|first3=Xumin|last4=Hufton|first4=Joseph|last5=Rhodes|first5=Edward J.|date=29 October 2020|title=Improved rice cooking approach to maximise arsenic removal while preserving nutrient elements|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720368728|journal=Science of the Total Environment|language=en|volume=755|issue=Pt 2|pages=143341|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143341|issn=0048-9697|pmid=33153748|access-date=10 November 2020|doi-access=free}} <small>[[File:CC BY icon.svg|50x50px]] Available under [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|CC-BY 4.0]].</small></ref>]] == Referensi == 8qg3lgc37hvub4qcdw1qctts6uvv2cz Lenga endhog 0 175540 1753001 1645648 2026-08-20T07:43:25Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753001 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Raw_egg.jpg|jmpl| Kuning utuh sing diubengi [[Putih endhog|endhog putih]]]] '''Minyak''' endhog ( CAS No. 8001–17-0, INCI : lenga endhog), uga dikenal minangka lenga [[Kuning endhog|kuning telur]] utawa lenga ovum, asale saka [[Kuning endhog|kuning]] telur endhog [[Pitik|pitik sing]] umume kalebu trigliserida kanthi jejak lecithin, [[kolesterol]], [[biotin]], xanthofil lutein & zeaxanthin lan immunoglobulin. Bebas saka protein endhog <ref>[http://jn.nutrition.org/content/82/3/311.full.pdf The Journal of Nutrition 82:64 Jane B. Walker, Gladys Emerson]</ref> lan mula bisa digunakake kanthi aman dening wong sing alergi marang endhog, kanggo aplikasi topikal kayata perawatan rambut lan kulit. Produk kasebut duwe sawetara referensi sejarah ing obat Unani (Yunani) kanggo perawatan rambut . Obat tradisional Tiongkok nggunakake minyak endhog kanggo ngobong, eczema, dermatitis, tukak tutuk, ulkus kulit, puting cekak, tinea capitis, kurap, vestibulitis irung, frostbite lan [[wasir]] . <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTOTAL-KFYZ201202007.htm |title=Xie Xinmei, Pang Xiaobin:Henan University (Medical Sciences)2012 |access-date=2021-01-29 |archive-date=2015-02-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209175116/http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTOTAL-KFYZ201202007.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ing [[Alkimiya|alkimia]], minyak iki biasane diekstrak saka kuning telur kanthi proses sing cukup sederhana,   kanthi sèket endhog ngasilake kira-kira limang ons minyak. <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/asupplementtoph00graygoog|title=A supplement to the pharmacopoeia: being a treatise on pharmacology in general|last=Samuel Frederick Gray|date=1821|publisher=Thomas and George Underwood|page=[https://archive.org/details/asupplementtoph00graygoog/page/n255 227]|quote=egg oil medicinal.|access-date=Sep 6, 2016}}</ref> Cara produksi modern kalebu [[ekstraksi cair-cair]] <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warren|first=M. W.|last2=Brown|first2=H. G.|last3=Davis|first3=D. R.|year=2014|title=Solvent extraction of lipid components from egg yolk solids|journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society|volume=65|issue=7|pages=1136|doi=10.1007/BF02660569}}</ref> nggunakake pelarut umum kayata [[Heksana|hexane]], <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://llufb.llu.lv/conference/foodbalt/2014/FoodBalt_Proceedings_2014-253-256.pdf|title=Solvent Extraction of Egg Oil of From Liquid Egg Yolk|last=Aleksandrs Kovalcuks, Mara Duma}}</ref> eter minyak bumi, kloroform lan etanol. Beda karo minyak endhog tradisional sing digawe panas, produk ekstrak pelarut uga ngemot [[Antibodi|immunoglobulin]] <ref>{{Cite journal|year=2002|title=Generation and application of chicken egg-yolk antibodies|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_comparative-biochemistry-and-physiology-part-a_2002-03_131a_3/page/569|journal=Comp. Biochem. Physiol., Part a Mol. Integr. Physiol.|volume=131|issue=3|pages=569–574|doi=10.1016/S1095-6433(01)00508-6|pmid=11867282}}</ref> sing rusak ing suhu sing luwih dhuwur. Mung ana sawetara produsen komersial sacara global. [[File:Egg_Yolk_Oil_in_a_glass_vial.jpg|jmpl| Minyak endhog sing diekstrak]] == Referensi == [[Kategori:Kosmètik]] h9k39s5h94vc22m21hvww977bk4gt0o Olahan nasional 0 175552 1752983 1559897 2026-08-20T07:10:34Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752983 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Frans_SNYDERS,_The_Pantry.JPG|ka|jmpl|400x400px| Frans Snyders, Pantry ing]] Olahan '''nasional''' iku minangka salah sawijining jinis kuliner sajian sing duwe hubungan karo negara tartamtu.<ref name="Natg">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/top-10/national-food-dishes/|title=Top Ten National Dishes|date=2011-09-13|publisher=National Geographic Magazine (Travel section)|access-date=6 March 2013}}</ref> Sajian bisa dianggep minangka sajian nasional kanthi macem-macem sebab: * Iki minangka panganan pokok, digawe saka pilihan panganan lokal sing bisa disiapake kanthi cara khas, kaya ta ''woh-wohan de mer'', sing disedhiyakake ing pesisir kulon [[Prancis]] .<ref name="Natg"/> * Isine bahan 'eksotis' tartamtu sing diproduksi sacara lokal, kaya ta [[paprika]] [[Amérikah Kidul|Amerika Selatan sing]] ditandur ing Pyrenees Eropa. * Dadi minangka tradisi kuliner perayaan sing dadi bagean saka [[warisan budaya]] &mdash; kaya ta [[Barbecue|barbeku]] ing kemah musim panas utawa [[fondue]] ing [[Pésta|pesta nedha bengi]] &mdash; utawa minangka bagean saka [[Agama|praktik agama]], kaya ta Korban Pesach utawa perayaan [[Iftar]] . * Negara iki dipromosekake minangka sajian nasional, dening negara kasebut, kaya ta promosi [[fondue]] minangka sajian nasional [[Switserlan]] dening Switserlan Cheese Union (Schweizerische Käseunion) ing taun 1930-an. Masakan nasional minangka bagean saka identitas lan citra diri bangsa. Sajrone umure kekaisaran Eropa, negara-negara bakal nggawe masakan nasional kanggo mbedakake awake dhewe saka pesainge.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Howes|first=David|last2=Lalonde|first2=Marc|date=June 1991|title=The history of sensibilities: Of the standard of taste in mid-eighteenth century England and the circulation of smells in post-revolutionary France|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_dialectical-anthropology_1991_16_2/page/125|journal=Dialectical Anthropology|volume=16|issue=2|pages=125–135|doi=10.1007/BF00250241|issn=0304-4092}}</ref> Miturut Zilkia Janer, dosen [[budaya Amerika Latin]] ing [[Universitas Hofstra]], ora bisa milih sajian nasional, sanajan ora resmi, kanggo negara kaya ta [[Mèksiko|Meksiko]], [[Républik Rakyat Cina|China]] utawa [[Indhi|India]] amarga macem-macem etnik lan budaya sing beda-beda. Masakan negara kasebut ora bisa diwakili dening sajian nasional. Salajengipun, amarga pasugatan nasional terjalin dadi rasa identitas bangsa, emosi lan konflik sing kuat bisa tuwuh nalika nyoba milih sajian nasional negara. [[Barkas:Tumpeng_Kompas_1.jpg|ka|jmpl| ''[[Tumpeng]]'', ''[[tumpeng]]'' [[nasi kuning]] diubengi karo macem-macem [[Masakan Indonésia|masakan Indonesia]] . Salah sawijining [[Masakan Indonésia|masakan nasional ing Indonesia]] .]] [[Barkas:Kräftskiva-2.jpg|jmpl|Crayfish Swèdhen diarani Kräftskiva]] [[Barkas:Tom_yam_kung_maenam.jpg|jmpl| [[Tom yam|Tom yum]], sajian nasional Thailand]] [[Barkas:Traditional.Sunday.Roast-01.jpg|jmpl| [[Olahan panggang dina Minggu|Panggang Minggu]] - ing conto iki, [[Kenthang uleg|kentang tumbuk]], [[Janganan|sayuran]] minangka sajian nasional ing [[Karajan Manunggal|Inggris]] - tambahan [[Puding Yorkshire|puding]] mini [[Puding Yorkshire|Yorkshire ing]] kene nandhani variasi iki kanthi khusus basa [[Inggris]] .]] == Gladri == <gallery mode="packed"> Barkas:Kababi alborz2.jpg|[[Chelow kabab|Chelo kabab]], sajian nasional [[Iran]] Barkas:Ćevapčići Neugilching.jpg|[[Ćevapčići]], dianggep minangka sajian nasional ing sawetara negara Balkan Barkas:Couscous of Fes.JPG|[[Couscous]], sajian nasional Maroko, Aljazair lan Tunisia Barkas:Hainanese Chicken Rice.jpg|[[Hainanese chicken rice|Nasi ayam Hainan]], sajian nasional [[Singapore|Singapura]] Barkas:Pho quay.JPG|[en→jv]Phở - Vietnamese noodle soup, considered a Vietnamese national dish Barkas:Ndolé camerounais.JPG|[en→jv]Ndolé from Cameroon Barkas:Piroshki.JPG|[en→jv]Russian [[pirozhki]] Barkas:La Banquise Poutine.jpg|[en→jv]Poutine, considered one of the national dishes of Canada Barkas:Polu.jpg|[en→jv]Pilaf (O'sh), a national dish in the [[Central Asian cuisine|cuisines of Central Asia]] Barkas:04565 Christmas dumplings with dried plums.JPG|[en→jv]Pierogi ruskie, [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] dumplings of [[Kresy]], a national dish of [[Poland]]. Barkas:Senegalese Thieboudienne.JPG|[en→jv]Thieboudienne, Senegal national meal Barkas:Borscht served.jpg|[en→jv]Ukrainian [[borscht]] </gallery> == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Olah-olahan miturut nagara]] [[Kategori:Olah-olahan]] tuyhr99os346izlnbikqin6rz6upvyo Palak paneer 0 175776 1752832 1546478 2026-08-19T16:41:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752832 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|name=Palak paneer|image=Palak Paneer (Cottage cheese in spinach gravy).jpg|image_size=300px|caption=Palak paneer, Indian cheese in a pureed spinach sauce|alternate_name=|country=[[Indian Subcontinent]]|region=[[North India]]|creator=|course=Main|served=Hot|main_ingredient=[[Spinach]], [[paneer]], onions chopped|variations=|calories=|other=}}'''Palak paneer''' ( pronounced [paːlək pəniːɾ] ) minangka [[Olahan vegetarian|panganan vegetarian]], <ref name="Palak Paneer">{{Cite web|url=http://www.geniuskitchen.com/recipe/palak-paneer-indian-fresh-spinach-with-paneer-cheese-25348|title=PALAK PANEER (INDIAN FRESH SPINACH WITH PANEER CHEESE)|last=Pastime|first=Palatable}}</ref> [[paneer]] (jinis keju pondhok) ing [[Pasta (sambel)|tempel]] kandel sing digawe saka [[Bayem kebon|bayem]] [[Puré|murni]], diarani palak ing basa Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, lan basa India liyane. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.shabdkosh.com/dictionary/english-hindi/spinach/spinach-meaning-in-hindi|title=spinach - Meaning in hindi - Shabdkosh|website=www.shabdkosh.com|access-date=2020-10-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.shabdkosh.com/dictionary/english-marathi/spinach/spinach-meaning-in-marathi|title=spinach - Meaning in marathi - Shabdkosh|website=www.shabdkosh.com|access-date=2020-10-13}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.shabdkosh.com/dictionary/english-gujarati/spinach/spinach-meaning-in-gujarati|title=spinach - Meaning in gujarati - Shabdkosh|website=www.shabdkosh.com|access-date=2020-10-13}}</ref> Istilah palak paneer lan [[Saag|saag paneer]] asring digunakake ing restoran ing Amerika Serikat lan Kanada. Nanging, paneler saag beda karo paneler palak tradisional amarga ngemot [[Janganan godhong|sayuran godhong ijo]] liyane, kayata [[sayuran sawi]], dene paneler palak mung ngemot bayem. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vegrecipesofindia.com/palak-paneer/|title=palak paneer recipe, how to make palak paneer {{!}} best palak paneer recipe|last=amit|first=dassana|date=2013-05-22|work=Veg Recipes of India|access-date=2018-11-02|language=en-US}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.palmbeachpost.com/lifestyle/20200515/summer-blend-mix-up-some-spinach-spices-for-palak-paneer|title=Summer blend: Mix up some spinach, spices for palak paneer|last=LeVaux|first=Ari|date=15 May 2020|work=The Palm Beach Post|access-date=3 February 2021|archive-date=6 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606092820/https://www.palmbeachpost.com/lifestyle/20200515/summer-blend-mix-up-some-spinach-spices-for-palak-paneer|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vegrecipesofindia.com/palak-paneer/|title=Palak Paneer {{!}} Easy Palak Paneer Recipe » Dassana's Veg Recipes|date=2013-05-22|website=Dassana's Veg Recipes|language=en-US|access-date=2020-10-13}}</ref> Restoran [[dhaba]] asring duwe spesialisasi panel palak. == Nglayani == [[Paratha|Panel panelak disedhiyakake]] panas kanthi sisih kayata [[Roti India|roti]], [[naan]], [[Paratha|paranthas]], [[makki di roti]], utawa [[Sega|nasi rebus]] . Uga bisa disedhiyakake karo bawang ing sisih kanggo pendekatan sing luwih tradisional. == Referensi == cb84is0ek9s805slm30gr21pvwfv898 Za'atar 0 175788 1753007 1652147 2026-08-20T07:54:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753007 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:ZaatarbyGassan.jpg|jmpl|300x300px| Gambar nutup za'atar, campuran hisop, sumac, wijen lan uyah]] [[Barkas:Origanum_syriacum,_March_2015.jpg|ka|jmpl| ''Origanum syriacum'', nalika musim semi]] '''Za'atar''' <ref>Also [[Romanisasi|romanized]] ''zaatar'', ''za'tar'', ''zatar''. Origanum Syriacum. Bible Hyssop {{IPAc-en|lang|pron|ˈ|z|ɑː|t|ɑr}}</ref> ( {{Lang-ar|زَعْتَر}} , {{IPA-ar|ˈzaʕtar|IPA}} ) minangka [[Herba|ramuan kuliner]] utawa kulawarga jamu. Iki uga minangka jeneng [[Bumbu campur|campuran rempah]] - [[Bumbu campur|rempah]] sing kalebu ramuan karo [[Wijèn|wiji wijen]] panggang, sumac garing, asring uyah, uga [[Bumbon crakèn|rempah]] - [[Bumbon crakèn|rempah]] liyane.<ref name="Green">{{Cite web|url=http://www.chow.com/recipes/10607|title=Za'atar|last=Aliza Green|publisher=CHOW|access-date=2008-03-09|archive-date=2008-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203094101/http://www.chow.com/recipes/10607|url-status=dead}}</ref> Minangka kulawarga herbal saka [[Wétan Tengah|Timur Tengah sing ana]] gandhengane, ngemot tanduran saka [[Gènus|genera]] ''Origanum'' ( [[Orégano|oregano]] ), ''Calamintha'' ( basil thyme ), ''Tymus'' ( ''umume'' tanduran ''Thymus vulgaris'', yaiku thyme ), lan tanduran ''Satureja'' ( gurih ).<ref name="Allenp237">Allen, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fniv9ShKmxcC&pg=PA237&dq=satureja+za%27atar&lr=#v=onepage&q=satureja%20za%27atar&f=false p. 237].</ref> Jeneng ''za'atar'' piyambak paling lumaku ditrapake kanggo ''Origanum syriacum'', dianggep ing beasiswa Alkitab dadi hyssop ( {{Lang-he|אזוב}}  [eˈzov] ) saka Alkitab Ibrani .<ref>Based on the [[Judeo-Arabic]] translation of the word in the works of Rabbi [[Saadia Gaon]] (in his ''Tafsir'', a translation of the Pentateuch, Exo. 12:22); [[David ben Abraham al-Fasi|Al-Fasi, D.]] (1936), vol. 1, s.v. אזוב; [[Jonah ibn Janah|Ibn Ǧanāḥ, Yonah]] (1896), s.v. אזב - ''aleph'', ''zayn'', ''bet''; [[Maimonides]] (1967), s.v. ''Nega'im'' 14:6; and [[Nathan ben Abraham I]] (1955), s.v. ''Uktzin'' 2:2. The problems with identification arise from Jewish oral tradition where it expressly prohibits Greek hyssop, and where the biblical plant is said to have been identical to the Arabic word, ''zaatar'' ([[Origanum syriacum]]), and which word is not to be associated with other ''ezobs'' that often bear an additional epithet, such as ''zaatar farsi'' = Persian-hyssop ([[Thymbra capitata]]) and ''zaatar rumi'' = Roman-hyssop ([[Satureja thymbra]]). See: ''[[The Mishnah]]'' (ed. [[Herbert Danby]]), Oxford University Press: Oxford 1977, s.v. ''Negai'im'' 14:6 ([[iarchive:DanbyMishnah/page/n725|p. 696]]); ''Parah'' 11:7 [10:7] ([[iarchive:DanbyMishnah/page/n740|p. 711]]).</ref> Digunakake ing masakan Levantine, campuran ramuan herbal lan rempah-rempah iki misuwur ing saindenging wilayah Mediterania ing [[Wétan Tengah|Timur Tengah]] .<ref name="Gold">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/20/garden/a-region-s-tastes-commingle-in-israel.html|title=A Region's Tastes Commingle in Israel|last=Rozanne Gold|date=July 20, 1994|work=The New York Times|access-date=September 4, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Fabricant">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/28/garden/food-notes-565392.html|title=Food Notes|last=Florence Fabricant|date=October 28, 1992|work=The New York Times|access-date=September 4, 2014}}</ref> [[Barkas:Flrs_005.jpg|jmpl|Za'atar thukul ing Yerusalem]] == Sejarah == Ing tradhisi [[Yahudi]], Saadiah (d. 942), Ibn Ezra (d. Sekitar taun 1164), Maimonides (1135-1204) lan Obadiah ben Abraham (1465–1515) ngenali ''ezov sing'' kasebut ing Alkitab [[Basa Ibrani|Ibrani]] ( [[Basa Ibrani|Ibrani]] : אזוב, Ibrani Samaria : ࠀࠉࠆࠅࠁ) kanthi tembung Arab "za'atar".<ref name="Isserp99">Isser, 1976, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aM0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA99&dq=Maimonides+sa%27tar&lr=#v=onepage&q=Maimonides%20sa%27tar&f=false p. 99].</ref> Ezov / za'atar khusus digandhengake karo upacara kemurnian ritual, kayata nyiyapake awu saka sapi abang (Nomer 19: 6) lan nangani kontaminasi awak (Imamat 14: 4, 6, 51-52; Nomer 20:18). Bani Israel uga dikatutake nggunakake gumpalan ezov / za'atar gagang kanggo nutupi getih korban Paschal ing tiang lawang omah sadurunge ninggalake budak ing Mesir (Pangentasan 12:22). Raja Daud nyebut kekuwatan sing ngresiki ramuan ing [[Masmur|Jabur]] 51: 7, "Ngresiki aku nganggo ezov / za'atar lan aku bakal diresiki." Suwe-suwe mengko, ezov / za'atar katon ing abad kaping 2 Mishnah minangka bahan panganan nalika semana ing Yudea ('Uktzin 2: 2), dene ing papan liya ing [[Talmud]] ana nyebutake ramuan herbal sing dadi minyak (persiyapan diarani ''mish'cha t'china'' ing basa Aram, basa Arab), nanging ora ditemtokake manawa iki kaya campuran za'atar sing dingerteni saiki. Ing abad kaping 12, Maimonides nggambarake panggunaan za'atar (צצתרר, heع identified he he he identified) sing dikenal ing masakan kontemporer, kanthi nyathet manawa " ''ezov sing'' disebutake ing [[Torèt|Torah]] yaiku ''ezov'' sing dipangan para ''pamilik'' omah lan ngombe panganan." ( Mishneh Torah, Parah Adumah 3: 2) Bebarengan karo uyah sing dibumbui liyane, za'atar digunakake minangka [[Masakan Levantine|panganan utama masakan Arab]] wiwit jaman [[Abad Tengahan|pertengahan]] nganti saiki. <ref name="Basanp27">Basan, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-7wnpIi3VRwC&pg=PA27&dq=zaatar+cuisine&lr=&sig=OQ6keMJ92iAzfVLdWohinsy1k3E p. 27].</ref><ref name="Bedigian">{{Cite journal|last=Dorothea Bedigian|date=September 2004|title=History and Lore of Sesame in Southwest Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_economic-botany_fall-2004_58_3/page/330|journal=Economic Botany|volume=58|issue=3|pages=330–353|doi=10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0330:HALOSI]2.0.CO;2|issn=0013-0001}}</ref> [[Barkas:Israeli_zaatar_manakeesh.jpg|jmpl|Za'atar manakeesh]] == Referensi == dh7bwg7dhqsk9ozphrke5v14zasabkm Olahan New York City 0 175884 1753062 1625037 2026-08-20T09:26:39Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753062 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:NYPizzaPie.jpg|jmpl|Pizza gaya New York]] '''Masakan ing [[New York|New York City kalebu]]''' minangka salah sawijining jinis olahan arupa masakan sing kagolong macem-macem [[Golongan ètnik|klompok etnis]] sing lumebu [[Amérika Sarékat|Amerika Serikat]] liwat kutha kasebut. Meh kabeh masakan etnik diwakili kanthi apik ing New York, ing njero lan njaba macem-macem lingkungan etnik .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zelinsky|first=W.|year=1985|title=The roving palate: North America's ethnic restaurant cuisines|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_geoforum_1985_16/page/51|journal=Geoforum|volume=16|pages=51–72|doi=10.1016/0016-7185(85)90006-5}}</ref> New York uga dadi kutha pendiri New York Restaurant Week sing wis nyebar ing saindenging jagad amarga rega diskon sing ditawakake kesepakatan kasebut.<ref>Gergely Baics, ''Feeding Gotham: The Political Economy and Geography of Food in New York, 1790–1860'' (Princeton UP, 2016)</ref> Ing New York ana luwih saka 12.000 bodegas, toko roti, lan bahan makanan, lan akeh ing antarané mbukak 24 jam saben dina, 7 dina seminggu. [[Barkas:Flickr_sekimura_2390523527--Smoked_salmon_eggs_Benedict.jpg|ka|jmpl| [[Benedict endhog|Endhog benediktus]]]] [[Barkas:BandW.jpg|ka|jmpl| [[Kukis ireng lan putih|Cookie ireng lan putih]]]] [[Barkas:Bagels'n'Lox.jpg|jmpl|Bagel lan lox]] [[Barkas:Challah_Bread_Six_Braid_1.JPG|jmpl| [[Challah]]]] [[Barkas:Matzah_balls.JPG|jmpl|Sup werni Matzo]] == Referensi == qfsz6j9ypfyw98kmwj1np9eg4hdcici Raspeball 0 175929 1752839 1746324 2026-08-19T20:25:32Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|name=Komle|image=Komlemiddag.jpg|image_size=250px|caption=Komle dinner with lamb and sausage|alternate_name=Klubb, kumle, komle, kompe, potetball|country=[[Norway]]|region=|creator=|course=|type=|served=|main_ingredient=[[Potato]]es|variations=|calories=|other=}}'''Potetball''' (uga ora dikenal kanthi jeneng '''klubb''', '''kumle''', '''komle''', '''kompe''', '''raspeball''' ) yaiku [[pangsit]] [[Kenthang|kentang]] tradisional [[Nurwègen]] .<ref name="Kulchawik 2015 p. 220">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YzBjCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT220|title=Trade Shows From One Country To The Next:|last=Kulchawik|first=L.|publisher=Page Publishing|year=2015|isbn=978-1-63417-507-4|page=220}}</ref> Masakan [[Olahan Jerman|Jerman sing]] padha diarani ''Kartoffelklöße'' .Bahan utamane yaiku kentang sing dikupas, sing parut utawa digiling lan dicampur karo glepung "umume gandum gandum" kanggo nggawe bal dadi nempel. Gumantung karo proporsi pulp kentang lan macem-macem jinis glepung, produk kasebut bakal duwe rasa lan tekstur sing beda. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.norway-hei.com/potato-dumplings.html|title=Nurwègenn Potato Dumplings|website=norway-hei.com|access-date=December 1, 2019}}</ref> == Deleng uga == * [[Kroppkaka]] - [[Kroppkaka|Pangsit]] kentang rebus Swèdhen <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kunskapskokboken.se/action/subProductCuisineGroup;jsessionid=3DD755C7D54FF763A165CAC122AB34B8?productGroupId4=21185|title=Om kroppkakor, palt och kams|website=Kunskapskokboke|access-date=March 1, 2020|archive-date=November 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124170708/http://www.kunskapskokboken.se/action/subProductCuisineGroup;jsessionid=3DD755C7D54FF763A165CAC122AB34B8?productGroupId4=21185|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Palt]] - [[Palt|Pangsit]] kentang isi daging Swèdhen <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bigoven.com/recipe/palt-swedish-potato-dumplings/655377|title=Palt - Swedish Potato Dumplings|website=bigoven.com/|access-date=March 1, 2020}}</ref> * [[Knödel]] - Pangsit kentang Jerman umume ditemokake ing masakan Eropa Tengah lan Eropa Timur <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tasteofhome.com/recipes/german-potato-dumplings/|title=German Potato Dumplings|website=tasteofhome.com|access-date=March 1, 2020}}</ref> * [[Cepelinai]] - [[Cepelinai|Pangsit]] Litowen digawe saka parut kentang lan parut <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/lithuanian-potato-meat-dumplings-recipe-cepelinai-1136766|title=Litowenn Potato-Meat Dumplings (Cepelinai)|website=thespruceeats.com|access-date=March 1, 2020}}{{Pranala mati|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * {{portal-inline|Food}}</img> == Referensi == m5spfubef47aa9x1sqyj1fias2uay6i Yogurt kedhelé 0 176046 1752947 1550728 2026-08-20T05:35:38Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752947 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|name=Soy yogurt|image=Sojade-organic-lactosefree-vegan-additive-free-soy-yogurt-from-Germany-400g-pint-1024px.jpg|image_size=250px|caption=Soy yogurt looks like regular cream yogurt|alternate_name=Soya yogurt, soygurt, yofu|country=|region=|creator=|course=|type=[[Yogurt]]|served=|main_ingredient=[[Soy milk]], yogurt culture|variations=|calories=|other=}} [[Barkas:Vegan_yogurt,_March_2012.jpg|jmpl| Yogurt kedelai disedhiyakake nganggo blueberry.]] '''yogurt dhele,''' uga diarani minangka '''Soya yogurt,''' '''Soygurt''' utawa '''Yofu''' (a portmanteau saka [[Yoghurt|'''yo''' gurt]] lan [[Tahu|kanggo '''fu''']] ), iku yogurt disiapake karo [[Susu kedhelé|susu soy]]<nowiki/>a. Yogurt kedelai digawe nggunakake susu kedele, nambah bakteri yogurt ( ''[[Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus|Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus]]'' lan ''[[Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus|Streptococcus salivarius subsp. Thermophilus]]'' ), kadhang-kadhang nambah pemanis kayata [[fruktosa]], [[glukosa]], utawa [[gula]] . <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.soya.be/soy-yogurt.php |title=Soy yogurt |access-date=2021-02-12 |archive-date=2021-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501164230/https://www.soya.be/soy-yogurt.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Referensi == ig9qlv2q485utsj08vie90hd838xr5j Ayran 0 176187 1753002 1676053 2026-08-20T07:45:02Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753002 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox food|name=Ayran|image=File:Fresh ayran.jpg|caption=|alternate_name=Ayran, Doogh, Dove, Dhallë, Tan or yogurt milk|country=|region=[[Central Asia]], [[Middle East]], [[Balkans]]|creator=|course=Beverage|type=Dairy product|served=Cold or Lukewarm (depending on preference)|main_ingredient=[[Yogurt]], water, salt|variations=|calories=|other=}}'''Ayran''', '''doogh''', '''Dhallë''', utawa '''tan''' minangka minuman berbasis [[Yoghurt|yogurt]] '''legi''' sing adhem, populer ing [[Wétan Tengah|Timur Tengah]], [[Asia Tengah]] lan [[Éropah Wétan|Eropa Wétan]] . Bahan utama yaiku yogurt, banyu lan uyah. <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKAu9IYnK2wC&pg=PA124|title=Fermented Milks|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|isbn=9781405172387|editor-last=Tamime|editor-first=A. Y.|pages=124|access-date=2016-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116042818/https://books.google.com/books?id=xKAu9IYnK2wC&pg=PA124|archive-date=2017-01-16}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/yogurtmorethan700000jaco/page/6|title=Yogurt: More Than 70 Delicious & Healthy Recipes|last=Jacobson|first=Sarina|last2=Weiner|first2=Danya|publisher=Sterling|year=2008|isbn=978-1402747595|page=6}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQ8vWih-rqwC&pg=PA58|title=Bulgaria|last=Strnadel|first=Leslie|last2=Erdley|first2=Patrick|publisher=Other Places Publishing|year=2012|isbn=9780982261996|series=Other Places Travel Guide|pages=58|access-date=2016-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221110816/https://books.google.com/books?id=fQ8vWih-rqwC&pg=PA58|archive-date=2016-12-21}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6aXloa1QsEC&pg=PA92|title=The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan|last=Nazif Shahrani, M.|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=2013|isbn=9780295803784|pages=92–93|access-date=2016-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212161632/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6aXloa1QsEC|archive-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> Herb kayata [[Lamiaceae|mint]] bisa uga ditambah kanthi opsional. Sawetara jinis [[Ombènan alus|karbonat]] . Ayran disajekake adhem lan asring minangka iringan kanggo daging panggang utawa pari, <ref name="culturesite2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,35365/turkish-buttermilk.html|title=Turkish Buttermilk|website=www.kultur.gov.tr|publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Turkey|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218150814/https://www.ktb.gov.tr/?_Dil=2|archive-date=18 December 2020|access-date=5 October 2013}}</ref> utamane nalika musim panas. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://balkon3.com/en/ayran-turkish-national-beverage/|title=Ayran – Turkish national beverage|last=Gina Husamettin|website=balkon3.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012004637/http://balkon3.com/en/ayran-turkish-national-beverage/|archive-date=12 October 2013|access-date=5 October 2013}}</ref> Iki digawe kanthi nyampur yoghurt karo banyu adhem utawa es <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=P. H.|year=1956|title=Lake Van and Turkish Kurdistan: A Botanical Journey|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_geographical-journal_1956-06_122_2/page/156|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=122|issue=2|pages=156–165|doi=10.2307/1790844|jstor=1790844}}</ref> lan kadang [[Karbon|karbonat]] lan dibumbui karo mint. <ref name="functionaldiary2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMCDLlcRaQkC&pg=PA10|title=Development and Manufacture of Yogurt and Other Functional Dairy Products|last=Yildiz Fatih|publisher=CRC Press|year=2010|isbn=9781420082081|pages=10|access-date=2016-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221135405/https://books.google.com/books?id=zMCDLlcRaQkC&pg=PA10|archive-date=2016-12-21}}</ref> Wis macem-macem diterangake minangka "yogurt sing diencerke" <ref name="gastro2">{{Cite journal|last=Halici|first=Nevin|date=27 April 2013|title=Turkish Delights|journal=Gastronomica: The Journal of Critical Food Studies|publisher=University of California Press|volume=1|issue=1|pages=92–93|doi=10.1525/gfc.2001.1.1.92}}</ref> lan "omben sing paling nyenengake sing dicampur karo campuran yogurt karo banyu es". <ref>Lake Van and Turkish Kurdistan: A Botanical Journey P. H. Davis The Geographical Journal, Vol. 122, No. 2 (Jun., 1956), pp. 156–165 Published by: The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Article {{Doi|10.2307/1790844}}</ref> == Galeri == <gallery> Barkas:Ayran - Ankara.jpg|''Ayran'' dadi cara tradisional nganggo cangkir tembaga ( ''maşrapa)'' . Barkas:Doogh in Ankara.jpg|''Doogh'' nganggo mint garing ing ''ndhuwur'' iku. Barkas:Dew (vexwarin).jpg|''Ebun'' Barkas:Tan-raffi kojian-IMG 3584.JPG|Botol saka ''tan'' karbonat ''.'' </gallery> == Referensi == o23n9pw2dll624qr922vh7l21khuf0l Cucurbita 0 176729 1752888 1723279 2026-08-20T04:14:36Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752888 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Cucurbita 2011 G1 Large.jpg|jmpl| ''C. waluh pepo''&nbsp;- loro sing oranye padhang ing sisih tengen tengah, lan squash ''C. maxima'', kabeh liyane]] [[Barkas:Kembang Waluh 1 - Cucurbita moschata flower.jpg|jmpl|kembang waluh]] '''''Cucurbita''''' ( [[basa Latin]] kanggo [[Labu|gourd]] ) <ref name="burrows2">{{Cite book|title=Toxic Plants of North America|last=Burrows|first=George E.|last2=Tyrl|first2=Ronald J.|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2013|isbn=978-0-8138-2034-7|location=Oxford|pages=389–391}}</ref> <ref name="gledhill2">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/namesplants00gled_746|title=The Names of Plants|last=Gledhill|first=David|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780521866453|location=Cambridge|page=[https://archive.org/details/namesplants00gled_746/page/n136 127]|url-access=limited}}</ref> minangka [[Gènus|jinis]] [[Terna|tanduran]] [[Wit anggur|anggur]] ing [[Kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]] labu, [[Cucurbitaceae]] (uga dikenal minangka ''cucurbits'' utawa ''cucurbi'' ) asale saka [[Andhès|Andes]] lan [[Mesoamerica]] . Lima spesies ditanam ing saindenging jagad amarga woh-wohan sing bisa dipangan, sing beda diarani '''labu''', [[waluh]], utawa labu, gumantung saka spesies, [[Varietas|macem-macem]], lan basa lokal, {{Efn|Due to wide variation in how the terms squash, pumpkin, and gourd are used, even among academics, in this article, the term squash can refer to any member of the genus ''Cucurbita''. Pumpkin and gourd are used to refer to species, varieties, and cultivars commonly referred to by those terms.<ref name="Ferriol">{{cite book |last1=Ferriol |first1=María |last2=Picó |first2=Belén |year=2007 |title=Handbook of Plant Breeding: Vegetables I |publisher=Springer |location=New York |chapter=3 |isbn=978-0-387-72291-7 |page=317 |quote=The common terms "pumpkin", "squash", "gourd", "cushaw", "ayote", "zapallo", "calabaza", etc. are often applied indiscriminately to different cultivated species of the New World genus ''Cucurbita'' L. (Cucurbitaceae): ''C.&nbsp;pepo'' L., ''C.&nbsp; maxima'' Duchesne, ''C.&nbsp;moschata'' Duchesne, ''C.&nbsp;argyrosperma'' C.&nbsp;Huber and ''C.&nbsp;ficifolia'' Bouché.}}</ref>}} lan kanggo wiji. Jenis labu liyane, uga diarani labu-botol, asale saka Afrika lan kalebu genus ''[[Lagenaria]]'', sing kalebu kulawarga lan kulawarga liya karo ''Cucurbita'', nanging ing [[Suku (biologi)|suku liyane]] . Gourds liyane digunakake kanggo piranti utawa prau, lan woh-wohan sing isih enom dipangan kaya spesies Cucurbita. == Kultivar == ''Spesies Cucurbita'' dadi rong klompok utama. Klompok kaping pisanan yaiku wit anggur perennial tahunan utawa ora suwe lan mesofitik, yaiku mbutuhake pasokan banyu sing luwih utawa kurang. Klompok nomer loro yaiku perennial sing tuwuh ing zona garing lan uga xerofitik, ngidinke kahanan garing. ''Spesies Cucurbita sing'' dibudidayakake dijupuk saka klompok pertama. Tuwuh {{Convert|5|to|15|m|ft|sp=us}} ing dhuwur utawa dawa, batang tanduran ngasilake lambung kanggo nulungi tanduran lan struktur sing jejer utawa njembarake ing sadawane lemah. Umume spesies ora gampang oyot saka simpul; istiméwa sing misuwur yaiku ''C.&nbsp;ficifolia'', lan papat mesofit budidaya liyane, nindakake iki kanthi luwih sithik. Vine saka ''Cucurbita saka saka'' bisa dadi semiwoody yen tuwuh dadi gedhe. Ana macem-macem ukuran, wujud, lan warna ing antarane ''woh-wohan Cucurbita'', lan uga ing siji spesies. ''C.&nbsp;ficifolia'' minangka istiméwa, amarga katon seragam banget. <ref name="nee">{{Cite journal|last=Nee|first=Michael|year=1990|title=The Domestication of ''Cucurbita'' (Cucurbitaceae)|journal=[[Economic Botany]]|location=New York|publisher=New York Botanical Gardens Press|volume=44|issue=3, Supplement: New Perspectives on the Origin and Evolution of New World Domesticated Plants|pages=56–68|doi=10.1007/BF02860475|jstor=4255271}}</ref> Variasi morfologis ing spesies ''C.&nbsp;pepo'' <ref name="deckerwalters">{{Cite journal|last=Decker-Walters|first=Deena S.|last2=Staub|first2=Jack E.|last3=Chung|first3=Sang-Min|last4=Nakata|first4=Eijiro|last5=Quemada|first5=Hector D.|year=2002|title=Diversity in Free-Living Populations of ''Cucurbita pepo'' (Cucurbitaceae) as Assessed by Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA|journal=[[Systematic Botany]]|publisher=American Society of Plant Taxonomists|volume=27|issue=1|pages=19–28|jstor=3093892}}</ref> lan ''C.&nbsp;maxima'' <ref name="maximadiffspecies">{{Cite journal|last=Millán|first=R.|year=1945|title=Variaciones del Zapallito Amargo ''Cucurbita andreana'' y el Origen de ''Cucurbita maxima''|journal=Revista Argentina de Agronomía|language=es|volume=12|pages=86–93}}</ref> jembar banget saengga macem-macem [[subspesies]] lan kultivar wis dingerteni minangka spesies sing beda-beda. [[File:Cucurbita_moschata_leaves.jpg|alt=Green ''Cucurbita moschata'' leaves with white spots|kiri|jmpl| Godhong ''[[Cucurbita moschata]]'' asring duwe bintik putih ing cedhak pembuluh getih.]] [[File:2006-10-18Cucurbita_pepo06.jpg|alt=Several types and colors of ''Cucurbita''|jmpl| Macem-macem woh-wohan saka ''C.&nbsp;maxima'' lan ''C.&nbsp;pepo'']] == Nandur == [[File:Cucurbita_maxima_Zapallo_Plomo_semillería_Costanzi_-_flowers_detail_(masculine)_-_male_flower,_some_petals_and_1_filament_removed.jpg|alt=Male ''Cucurbita'' flower|kiri|jmpl|146x146px| Kembang lanang, bagean saka perianth lan siji filamen dicabut]] [[Barkas:Sangkhaya_fak_thong.JPG|al=Slice of yellowish pumpkin custard with brown shell|ka|jmpl| Waduk waluh digawe saka kabocha, varian ''C. sing ditandur&nbsp;maksima'']] ''Spesies cucurbita'' digunakake minangka tanduran panganan kanthi [[larva]] saka sawetara [[Kupu|spesies Lepidoptera]], kalebu ngengat kubis ( ''Mamestra brassicae'' ), ''Hypercompe indecisa'', lan moth turnip ( ''Agrotis segetum'' ). <ref name="drugscom">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/pumpkin.html|title=Pumpkin|year=2009|publisher=Drugs.com|access-date=September 1, 2013}}</ref> ''Cucurbita'' bisa rentan karo hama ''Bemisia argentifolii'' ( whiteleaf whitefly ) <ref name="mcauslane">{{Cite journal|last=McAuslane|first=Heather J.|last2=Webb|first2=Susan E.|last3=Elmstrom|first3=Gary W.|date=June 1996|title=Resistance in Germplasm of ''Cucurbita pepo'' to Silverleaf, a Disorder Associated with ''Bemisia argentifolii'' (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)|url=http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/download/59206/56885|journal=The Florida Entomologist|location=Lutz, FL|publisher=Florida Entomological Society|volume=79|issue=2|pages=206–221|doi=10.2307/3495818|jstor=3495818|doi-access=free|access-date=2021-03-10|archive-date=2017-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921220047/http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/download/59206/56885|url-status=dead}}</ref> uga aphids ( ''Aphididae'' ), kumbang timun ( ''Acalymma vittatum'' lan ''Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi'' ), bug labu ( ''[[Anasa tristis]]'' ), petani anggur labu ( ''Melittia cucurbitae'' ), lan spidermit sing katon loro ( ''[[Tetranychus urticae]]'' ). <ref name="pestdisease">{{Cite web|url=http://urbanext.illinois.edu/hortanswers/plantdetail.cfm?PlantID=629&PlantTypeID=9|title=Vegetable Pumpkin|publisher=University of Illinois Extension|access-date=October 20, 2013|archive-date=August 20, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820013036/http://urbanext.illinois.edu/hortanswers/plantdetail.cfm?PlantID=629&PlantTypeID=9|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bug squash nyebabake kerusakan gedhe ing tanduran amarga salira beracun banget. <ref name="uflbug">{{Cite web|url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/squash_bug.htm|title=Common Name: Squash Bug|publisher=University of Florida|access-date=October 26, 2013}}</ref> Kumbang labu abang ( ''Raphidopalpa foveicollis'' ) minangka hama cucurbits sing serius, utamane waluh, sing bisa ngombe. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/pest_management/CONTENTS/pest%20cucurbits.htm|title=Pumpkin beetle|website=Pests of Cucurbits|publisher=IndiaAgroNet.com|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref> [[Cucurbitaceae|Cucurbits]] rentan kena penyakit kayata layu bakteri ( ''Erwinia tracheiphila'' ), antrasnosa ( ''Colletotrichum'' spp.), Layu fusarium ( ''[[Fusarium]]'' spp.), Penyakit fitofthora ( ''[[Phytophthora]]'' spp. [[Oomycota|Cetakan banyu]] ), lan jamur bubuk ( ''Erysiphe'' spp. ). Tanggepan pertahanan tumrap patogen godhong virus, jamur, lan bakteri ora kalebu cucurbitacin. <ref name="tallamy">{{Cite journal|last=Tallamy|first=Douglas W.|last2=Krischik|first2=Vera A.|year=1989|title=Variation and Function of Cucurbitacins in Cucurbita: An Examination of Current Hypotheses|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-naturalist_1989-06_133_6/page/766|journal=[[The American Naturalist]]|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|volume=133|issue=6|pages=766–786|doi=10.1086/284952|jstor=2462036}}</ref> == Referensi == <references /> meqjpv6qg01ux30i497tf5bvt5sqz90 Lapacho 0 177121 1752859 1554271 2026-08-20T03:26:33Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752859 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Lapachorinde_geschnitten.jpg|ka|jmpl| Lapacho]] '''Lapacho''' utawa '''taheebo''' yaiku [[Tèh hèrbal|teh herbal sing]] digawe saka kulit ing njero wit pau d'arco <ref name="red">{{Cite journal|last=Gómez Castellanos|first=J. Rubén|last2=Prieto|first2=José M.|last3=Heinrich|first3=Michael|year=2009|title=Red Lapacho (Tabebuia impetiginosa)—A global ethnopharmacological commodity?|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=121|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.004|pmid=18992801}}</ref> ''Handroanthus impetiginosus'' . Lapacho digunakake ing [[Hèrbalisme|obat-obatan herbal]] saka sawetara masarakat pribumi Amerika Selatan lan Tengah kanggo ngobati pirang-pirang penyakit kalebu infeksi, demam lan keluhan weteng. <ref name="red">{{Cite journal|last=Gómez Castellanos|first=J. Rubén|last2=Prieto|first2=José M.|last3=Heinrich|first3=Michael|year=2009|title=Red Lapacho (Tabebuia impetiginosa)—A global ethnopharmacological commodity?|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=121|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.004|pmid=18992801}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFGómez_CastellanosPrietoHeinrich2009">Gómez Castellanos, J. Rubén; Prieto, José M.; Heinrich, Michael (2009). "Red Lapacho (Tabebuia impetiginosa)—A global ethnopharmacological commodity?". ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology''. '''121''' (1): 1–13. [[Pangidhèntifikasi Obyèk Digital|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.004|10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.004]]. [[PMID (pengenal)|PMID]]&nbsp;[//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18992801 18992801].</cite></ref> Bahan-bahan aktif kayata lapachol ditemokake duwe efek keracunan abortifasil lan reproduksi kanggo tikus. <ref>{{Cite journal|year=2002|title=Fetal growth in rats treated with lapachol|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2002-10_66_4/page/289|journal=Contraception|volume=66|issue=4|pages=289–93|doi=10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00356-6|pmid=12413627}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|year=2001|title=Toxicology of Lapachol in rats: embryolethality|journal=Brazilian Journal of Biology = Revista Brasleira de Biologia|volume=61|issue=1|pages=171–4|doi=10.1590/s0034-71082001000100021|pmid=11340475|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|year=2007|title=Reproductive toxicity of lapachol in adult male Wistar rats submitted to short-term treatment|journal=Phytotherapy Research|volume=21|issue=7|pages=658–62|doi=10.1002/ptr.2141|pmid=17421057}}</ref>Taheebo minangka jeneng umum kanggo kulit njero wit lapacho abang utawa ungu. Wit iki tuwuh ing dhuwur ing alas Andes ing alas tropis Amerika Selatan. Kulit batin lapacho abang ungu minangka salah sawijining obat utama sing digunakake kanggo Inca lan wis digunakake luwih saka 1.000 taun dening Kallawaya . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.proviesupplements.com/home/products/Taheebo.html|title=Taheebo History|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331123914/http://proviesupplements.com/home/products/Taheebo.html|archive-date=2009-03-31|access-date=2008-11-26}}</ref> == Referensi == pnoa7gy0x6kbtu1bq3xsxz5v695alzr Wiji waluh 0 177154 1753041 1651905 2026-08-20T08:46:37Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753041 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Pumpkin_seeds_in_hand.jpg|jmpl| Wiji waluh nembe disedhot saka woh]] [[Barkas:Pepitas.JPG|ka|jmpl|180x180px| Wiji waluh sawise ditembak, dibakar, lan uyah]] [[Barkas:Pepita_de_calabaza.jpg|ka|jmpl|150x150px| Wiji waluh garing ing sekam]] '''Wiji''' '''waluh''', uga dikenal ing Amerika Utara minangka pepita (saka basa {{Lang-es|pepita de calabaza}} , "wiji cilik [[waluh]] [[Wiji|"), minangka sawijining wiji sing]] bisa dipangan saka waluh utawa kultivasi [[Cucurbita|labu liyane]] . Wiji sing biasane warata lan asymmetrically oval, duwe njaba putih [[Wiji|husk]], lan ijo cahya ing warna sawise husk wis dibusak. Sawetara kultivar ora duwe kulit, lan mung ditanam kanggo winih sing bisa dipangan. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Song, Y.|last2=Li, J.|last3=Hu, X.|last4=Ni, Y.|last5=Li, Q.|year=2011|title=Structural characterization of a polysaccharide isolated from Lady Godiva pumpkins (''Cucurbita pepo'' lady godiva)|journal=Macromolecular Research|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1172–1178|doi=10.1007/s13233-011-1102-7}}</ref> Wiji kasebut kalebu [[Hara|nutrisi]] - lan kalori -kaya, kandhungan [[Gajih|lemak]] (utamane asam linoleat lan asam oleat ), [[Protéin|protein]], serat panganan, lan akeh mikronutrien . ''Wiji waluh'' bisa ngrujuk menyang kernel sing ana lambung utawa wiji sing ora lara, lan umume nuduhake [[Bakar|produk panggang sing]] digunakake minangka [[Nyamikan|cemilan]] . == Ing masakan == Wiji waluh minangka bahan sing umum kanggo [[Olahan Mèksiko|masakan Meksiko]] lan uga dienggo lan dienggo cemilan. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gourmetsleuth.com/Articles/Ethnic-Unique-Foods-Ingredients-645/pepitas.aspx|title=Pepitas (Pumpkin Seeds)|publisher=GourmetSleuth.com|access-date=11 February 2013|archive-date=2 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502005532/http://www.gourmetsleuth.com/Articles/Ethnic-Unique-Foods-Ingredients-645/pepitas.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> Marino lan panggang, iki minangka cemilan musiman ing [[Amérika Sarékat|Amerika Serikat]], uga cemilan rangkep sing diprodhuksi kanthi komersial lan disebar, kaya [[Wiji kembang srengéngé|wiji kembang srengenge]], sing kasedhiya ing saindenging taun. Pepitas dikenal kanthi jeneng Spanyol (biasane dicekak), lan umume diasinake lan dibumboni sawise dipanggang (lan saiki uga kasedhiya minangka produk rangkep), ing [[Mèksiko|Meksiko]] lan negara-negara [[Amérikah Latin|Amerika Latin]] liyane, ing Amerika Selatan Kulon, lan panganan khusus lan Meksiko toko. Minangka bahan ing [[Saos molé|masakan mole]] '', umume'' diarani ing Spanyol minangka pipián. Cemilan Meksiko nggunakake pepitas kanthi cara tukang diarani ''pepitoría'' . Wiji waluh sing panggang, asin, ora karesel sing entheng disenengi ing [[Grikenlan|Yunani]] kanthi jeneng deskriptif Italia, ''passatempo'' ("pastime"). Minyak mentega wiji panggang saka ''subspes pepuc Cucurbita'' . ''pepo'' var. 'styriaca' uga digunakake ing [[Éropa Wétan|Eropa]] [[Éropah Tengah|Tengah]] lan Wétan minangka masakan. Tuladhane yaiku [[lenga wiji waluh]] . <ref name="fürnkranz">{{Cite journal|last=Fürnkranz|first=Michael|last2=Lukesch|first2=Birgit|last3=Müller|first3=Henry|last4=Huss|first4=Herbert|last5=Grube|first5=Martin|last6=Berg|first6=Gabriele|year=2012|title=Microbial Diversity Inside Pumpkins: Microhabitat-Specific Communities Display a High Antagonistic Potential Against Phytopathogens|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_microbial-ecology_2012-02_63_2/page/418|journal=Microbial Ecology|volume=63|issue=2|pages=418–428|doi=10.1007/s00248-011-9942-4|jstor=41412429|pmid=21947430}}</ref> <ref name="Košťálová">{{Cite journal|last=Košťálová|first=Zuzana|last2=Hromádková|first2=Zdenka|last3=Ebringerová|first3=Anna|date=August 2009|title=Chemical Evaluation of Seeded Fruit Biomass of Oil Pumpkin (''Cucurbita pepo'' L. var. ''Styriaca'')|journal=Chemical Papers|volume=63|issue=4|pages=406–413|doi=10.2478/s11696-009-0035-5}}</ref> Wiji waluh uga bisa digawe butter kacang . {{nutritional value|name=Pumpkin and squash seed kernels, roasted, with salt added|sodium_mg=256|source_usda=1|vitK_ug=4.5|vitE_mg=0.56|folate_ug=57|vitB6_mg=0.1|pantothenic_mg=0.57|niacin_mg=4.43|riboflavin_mg=0.15|thiamin_mg=0.07|vitC_mg=6.5|manganese_mg=4.49|zinc_mg=7.64|potassium_mg=788|kJ=2401|phosphorus_mg=1174|magnesium_mg=550|iron_mg=8.07|calcium_mg=52|sugars=1.29 g|fiber=6.5 g|carbs=14.71 g|polyfat=19.856|monofat=15.734|satfat=8.544 g|fat=49.05 g|protein=29.84 g|water=2.0 g|note=[http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=12516&format=Full Link to USDA Database entry]}} == Referensi == jayv2iz69d77prumw8u8c3jg1gwzld4 Olahan Oaxaca 0 177270 1752854 1554736 2026-08-20T03:20:21Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752854 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Mole_du_marche_de_Oaxaca.JPG|jmpl|300x300px| Toko sing adol macem-macem mol Oaxacan]] '''Masakan Oaxacan minangka masakan''' daerah ing Meksiko, pusaté ing kutha Oaxaca, ibukutha negara kanthi jeneng sing padha ing Meksiko kidul. Oaxaca minangka salah sawijining pusat gastronomis, sejarah, lan gastro-sejarah utama Meksiko sing masakane dikenal internasional. <ref name="valladares">{{Cite journal|last=Rodriguez Valladares|first=Mayra|date=March 2001|title=Oaxaca: A gourmet paradise|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_hispanic_2001-03_14_3/page/60|journal=Hispanic|volume=14|issue=3|page=60}}</ref> <ref name="tapauch">{{Cite news|title=Las mujeres guisan el mole en Oaxaca|last=Shyrley Tapuach|date=February 17, 2006|work=El Universal|location=Mexico City|page=n/a|language=es|trans-title=Women cook mole in Oaxaca}}</ref> <ref name="khursh">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/2266-the-cuisine-of-oaxaca-land-of-the-seven-moles|title=The Cuisine of Oaxaca, Land of the Seven Moles|last=Hursh Graber|first=Karen|date=January 1, 2006|publisher=Mexconnect newsletter|issn=1028-9089|access-date=October 30, 2012}}</ref> Kaya [[Olahan Mèksiko|panganan Meksiko]] liyane, panganan Oaxacan adhedhasar staples kayata jagung, kacang buncis lan [[Lombok abang|lada]], nanging ana macem-macem bahan lan persiapan panganan amarga pengaruh geografi lan budaya pribumi sing beda-beda. Jagung lan kacang buncis pisanan ditanam ing Oaxaca. Fitur uga dikenal saka masakan kalebu úa, coklat (asring tahap ing preparation panas karo rempah-rempah lan perasa liyane), keju Oaxaca, [[mezcal]] lan walang ( chapulines ) karo pasugatan kayata [[Tlayuda|tlayudas]], gaya Oaxacan [[Tamalé|tamales]] lan varieties kacathet pitu [[Saos molé|sauce mole]] . Masakan kasebut dipuji lan dipromosekake dening para ahli panganan kayata Diana Kennedy lan Rick Bayless lan minangka bagean saka daya tarik negara kanggo turis.Minangka kanggo kacang buncis, masakan Oaxacan luwih milih kacang ireng ing macem-macem jinis: dimasak nganggo aniseed lan disajikake ing bentuk sup, minangka topping kanggo panganan ing dalan, utawa nganggo endhog orak ing huevos con fries. == Rujukan == [[Barkas:TlayudaMazunte2.JPG|jmpl| Tlayuda kanthi daging, keju lan liyane sing disajikake ing Mazunte .]] [[Barkas:ChileajoOax.JPG|jmpl| Chileajo, mole regional menyang Huajuapan de León .]] [[Barkas:EnchiladasTasajoOcotlan.JPG|kiri|jmpl| Enchilada karo daging sapi tasajo]] [[Barkas:Whitebeanscoloradito.JPG|jmpl| Kacang putih lan urang ing mol coloradito ing pasar 20 de Noviembre]] b6q8w08bnxrk3dftrj1z256lwt5qknm Triklosan 0 177320 1752958 1730908 2026-08-20T05:58:18Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752958 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Triclosan.svg|jmpl|Struktur triklosan rong dhimènsi]] '''Triklosan''' (kadhangkala dicekak dadi '''TCS''' ) minangka agèn [[Antibiotik|antibaktèri]] lan [[Fungi|antijamur sing ana]] ing sawetara prodhuk konsumén, kalebu pasta untu, [[sabun]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://id.theasianparent.com/triclosan-adalah|title=Triclosan adalah bahan aktif antibakteri sabun yang berbahaya bagi kulit {{!}} theAsianparent Indonesia|last=Afifah|first=Fadhila|date=2019-01-08|website=id.theasianparent.com|language=id|access-date=2021-04-08}}</ref>, [[Déterjèn|déterjén]], bahan dolanan, lan perawatan reresik bedhah. Iki padha karo panggunaan lan mekanisme tumindak kanggo triklokarban. Èfèktivitas minangka agèn antimikroba, risiko resisténsi antimikroba, lan peran sing bisa nyebabaké pangembangan [[hormon]] keganggu tetep kontroversial. Risèt tambahan ngupayakaké ngerti pengaruh potensial ing organisme lan kesehatan lingkungan. Triklosan dikembangaké ing taun 1960an.<ref name="Boy2002">{{Cite journal|last=Boyce|first=JM|last2=Pittet|first2=D|last3=Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory|first3=Committee.|last4=HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task|first4=Force.|date=25 October 2002|title=Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings. Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America/Association for Professionals in Infection Control/Infectious Diseases Society of America|journal=MMWR. Recommendations and Reports|volume=51|issue=RR-16|pages=1–45, quiz CE1–4|pmid=12418624}}</ref> Ora nemokaké mupangat kanggo konsumén lan diwènèhi risiko resistènsi antibiotik, ing Dèsèmber 2017, FDA ngumumaké "cuci antiseptik konsumén" sing ngemot triklosan utawa 23 bahan liyané sing dipasaraké amarga antimikroba dilarang tanpa persetujuan sadurunge pasar.<ref name="FDA2019">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/5-things-know-about-triclosan|title=5 Things to Know About Triclosan|date=16 May 2019|publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref> FDA nemokaké yén triklosan ing pasta gigi ''Colgate Total'' mbantu nyegah gingivitis. Panalitèn taun 2006 nyaranaké siraman nganggo triklosan 2% minangka regimèn ing unit bedah kanggo nyingkiraké kulit pasièn saka resistèn ''methicillin Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA). == Struktur triklosan == [[Barkas:Triclosan-3D-balls.png|jmpl|Gambar triklosan]] Iki senyawa organik iki wujudé bubuk putih ambuné ora ènak. Dikategorikaké dadi ''fenoloksi fenoksi polychloro'', triklosan minangka senyawa [[Klor|arom klorinasi]] sing nduwéni gugus fungsional kanggo érther lan fènol . Phenol asring nduduhaké sifat antibaktèri. Triklosan larut ing [[Étanol|etanol]], [[Metanol|methanol]], ether diethil, lan solusi dhasar kayata larutan natrium hidroksida 1 M, nanging mung larut ing banyu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://copublications.greenfacts.org/en/triclosan/figtableboxes/table-3.htm|title=Table 3: Solubility of triclosan in selected solvents and chemicals - Figures and Tables|website=copublications.greenfacts.org|access-date=2018-12-19}}</ref> Triklosan bisa disintésis saka ''2,4-dichlorophenol.'' == Guna triklosan == Triklosan digunakaké minangka ''scrub'' rumah sakit ing taun 1970-an. Wiwit wektu iku, ditambahi iklan lan saiki bakal umum ing Sabun (0.10-1.00%), [[Sampo|s]]<nowiki/>ampo, [[déodoran]], [[Odhol|odol]], cuwéran pangumbah cangkem, reresik penyetor, lan [[pestisida]] .<ref name="pmid157659372">{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=A.|last2=Griffin|first2=P.|last3=Stuetz|first3=R.|last4=Cartmell|first4=E.|year=2005|title=The Fate and Removal of Triclosan during Wastewater Treatment|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_water-environment-research_january-february-2005_77_1/page/63|journal=Water Environment Research|volume=77|issue=1|pages=63–67|doi=10.2175/106143005X41636|jstor=25045839|pmid=15765937}}</ref> Minangka bagéan saka produk konsumén, kalebu piranti pawon, dolanan, spréi, kaos sikil, lan kanthong sampah.<ref name="pmid157659372" /><ref>{{HPD|75}}</ref> Ing kasarasan, triklosan digunakaké ing ''scrub'' operasilan sanitasi tangan.<ref name="FDA1994">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/05/briefing/2005-4098B1_02_03-FDA-TAB1.pdf|title=Federal Register Notice: Tentative Final Monograph for OTC Healthcare Antiseptic Drug Products|last=Food and Drug Administration|date=17 June 1994}}</ref> Gunakaké ing unit operasi éféktif kanthi wektu kontak minimal udakara rong menit.<ref name="pmid2255283">{{Cite journal|last=Brady|first=L.M.|last2=Thomson|first2=M|last3=Palmer|first3=M.A.|last4=Harkness|first4=J. L.|year=1990|title=Successful control of endemic MRSA in a cardiothoracic surgical unit|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_1990-03-05_152_5/page/240|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|volume=152|issue=5|pages=240–45|doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1990.tb120917.x|pmid=2255283}}</ref><ref name="pmid7677266">{{Cite journal|last=Zafar|first=A.B.|last2=Butler|first2=R.C.|last3=Reese|first3=D.J.|last4=Gaydos|first4=L.A.|last5=Mennonna|first5=P.A.|year=1995|title=Use of 0.3% triclosan (Bacti-Stat) to eradicate an outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal nursery|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-infection-control_1995-06_23_3/page/200|journal=American Journal of Infection Control|volume=23|issue=3|pages=200–08|doi=10.1016/0196-6553(95)90042-X|pmid=7677266}}</ref> Paling anyar, siraman kanthi triklosan 2% wis dadi regimén sing disaranaké ing unit bedhah kanggo dékolonisasi pasien sing kulit nggawa ''Staphylococcus aureus'' resisten methicillin (MRSA).<ref name="pmid16581155">{{Cite journal|last=Coia|first=J.E.|last2=Duckworth|first2=G.J.|last3=Edwards|first3=D.I.|last4=Farrington|first4=M.|last5=Fry|first5=C.|last6=Humphreys|first6=H.|last7=Mallaghan|first7=C.|last8=Tucker|first8=D.R.|last9=Joint Working Party of the British Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|year=2006|title=Guidelines for the control and prevention of meticillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA) in healthcare facilities|journal=Journal of Hospital Infection|volume=63|pages=S1–44|doi=10.1016/j.jhin.2006.01.001|pmid=16581155}}</ref> Rong studi kasus cilik sing ora dikontrol nglaporaké panggunaan triklosan sing ana gandhengané karo pangurangan infeksi MRSA.<ref name="pmid2255283" /><ref name="pmid7677266" /> Triklosan uga digunakaké ing lapisan kanggo jahitan bedhah .<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p9tyAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA190|title=Veterinary Surgery: Small Animal: 2-Volume Set|last=Tobias|first=Karen M.|last2=Johnston|first2=Spencer A.|date=2013-12-26|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323263375|page=190|quote=Triclosan is a commonly used antibiotic coating|access-date=26 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDLiLLhCDS4C&pg=PA95|title=Skin and Soft Tissue Injuries and Infections: A Practical Evidence Based Guide|last=Singer|first=Adam J.|last2=Hollander|first2=Judd E.|last3=Blumm|first3=Robert M.|publisher=PMPH-USA|year=2010|isbn=9781607950295|page=95|quote=Examples of antibacterial sutures that are coated with the antibacterial agent triclosan include... In many institutions these have replaced the comparable non-antibacterial sutures.|access-date=26 January 2016}}</ref> Ana bukti sing becik jahitan dilapisi triklosan iki nyuda risiko infeksi balika bedhah.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Z.X.|last2=Jiang|first2=C.P.|last3=Cao|first3=Y.|last4=Ding|first4=Y.T.|date=March 2013|title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of triclosan-coated sutures for the prevention of surgical-site infection|journal=British Journal of Surgery|volume=100|issue=4|pages=465–73|doi=10.1002/bjs.9062|pmid=23338685}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite journal|last=Renko|first=M|last2=Paalanne|first2=N|last3=Tapiainen|first3=T|last4=Hinkkainen|first4=M|last5=Pokka|first5=T|last6=Kinnula|first6=S|last7=Sinikumpu|first7=JJ|last8=Uhari|first8=M|last9=Serlo|first9=W|date=January 2017|title=Triclosan-containing sutures versus ordinary sutures for reducing surgical site infections in children: a double-blind, randomised controlled trial|journal=The Lancet. Infectious Diseases|volume=17|issue=1|pages=50–57|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30373-5|pmid=27658562}}</ref> Organisasi Kesehatan Donya, ''American College of Surgeons and the Surgical Infection Society'' nuduhaké keuntungan saka jahitan kalapis triklosan kanggo nyuda resiko infeksi ing bedah.<ref name="Ethicon">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethicon.com/na/about-us/news-events/centers-disease-control-and-prevention-updated-guideline-now-include|title=The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention updated guideline now include a recommendation for Triclosan-Coated Sutures {{!}} Ethicon|website=www.ethicon.com|publisher=Ethicon|access-date=2021-04-16|archive-date=2019-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815014332/https://www.ethicon.com/na/about-us/news-events/centers-disease-control-and-prevention-updated-guideline-now-include|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berríos-Torres|first=Sandra I.|last2=Umscheid|first2=Craig A.|last3=Bratzler|first3=Dale W.|last4=Leas|first4=Brian|last5=Stone|first5=Erin C.|last6=Kelz|first6=Rachel R.|last7=Reinke|first7=Caroline E.|last8=Morgan|first8=Sherry|last9=Solomkin|first9=Joseph S.|date=1 August 2017|title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Guideline for the Prevention of Surgical Site Infection, 2017|journal=JAMA Surgery|volume=152|issue=8|pages=784–91|doi=10.1001/jamasurg.2017.0904|pmid=28467526|doi-access=free}}</ref> Triklosan digunakaké minangka agèn selèktif ing kloning [[molekul]]. Babagan baktèri sing diowahi karo [[plasmid]] sing ''nduwé'' gen ''FabI'' mutan tahan triklosan (mFabI) minangka tandha sing bisa dipilih bisa tuwuh ing ngarsané dosis triklosan sing dhuwur ing média pertumbuhan. == Èfèk triklosan == Ing pirang-pirang panalitèn nemokaké triklosan bisa nyebabaké gangguan hormon, resistensi baktèri lan alergi kulit sing diarani dermatitis kontak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/triclosan|title=Triclosan|date=2015-12-14|website=Alodokter|access-date=2021-04-08}}</ref> Amarga masalah kasarasan sing potènsial, amarga ana kemungkinan résistènsi antimikroba, gangguan éndokrin lan masalah liyané kaya ing ngisor iki, triklosan ditetepaké minangka "kontaminan saka kuatir sing muncul (CEC)", tegesé diselidiki kanggo risiko kesehatan masyarakat. "Bahan cemar sing muncul" bisa sacara umum ditetepaké minangka bahan kimia sintetis utawa alami utawa mikroorganisme sing umumé ora dimonitor ing lingkungan nanging duwéni potènsi lumebu lingkungan lan nyebabaké èfèk èkologis utawa èfèk kesehatan manungsa sing dingerteni utawa dicurigani.<ref>United States Geological Survey. Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Environment. Retrieved October 27, 2016, from http://toxics.usgs.gov/investigations/cec/index.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029112108/http://toxics.usgs.gov/investigations/cec/index.php |date=2016-10-29 }}</ref> Triklosan dianggep nglumpukaké ing banyu limbah lan [[bali]] menyang banyu ngombè, mula nyebaraké reaksi sing bisa nyebabaké èfèk nalika nggunakaké terus-terusan. == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Kimiya]] 8sm89mp7fc2li573mge6tkozwji120g Asem bènzowat 0 177381 1752954 1695508 2026-08-20T05:51:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752954 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Benzoic_acid.png|jmpl|Struktur asem bènzowat]] {{Chembox | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 476995928 | ImageFileL1 = Benzoesäure.svg | ImageSizeL1 = 100px | ImageNameL1 = Skeletal formula | ImageFileR1 = Benzoic-acid-3D-balls.png | ImageSizeR1 = 100px | ImageNameR1 = Ball-and-stick model | ImageFile2 = Pile of benzoic acid crystals.jpg | ImageSize2 = 270px | PIN = Benzoic acid<ref name=iupac2013>{{cite book | title = Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry : IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book) | publisher = [[Royal Society of Chemistry|The Royal Society of Chemistry]] | date = 2014 | location = Cambridge | page = 745 | doi = 10.1039/9781849733069-00648 | isbn = 978-0-85404-182-4 }}</ref> | SystematicName = Benzenecarboxylic acid | OtherNames = {{ubl | Carboxybenzene | E210 | Dracylic acid | Phenylmethanoic acid | BzOH }} |Section1={{Chembox Identifiers | Abbreviations = | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 8SKN0B0MIM | InChIKey = WPYMKLBDIGXBTP-UHFFFAOYAD | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C7H6O2/c8-7(9)6-4-2-1-3-5-6/h1-5H,(H,8,9) | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = WPYMKLBDIGXBTP-UHFFFAOYSA-N | CASNo = 65-85-0 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | EINECS = 200-618-2 | PubChem = 243 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 238 | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 541 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB03793 | SMILES = O=C(O)c1ccccc1 | InChI = 1/C7H6O2/c8-7(9)6-4-2-1-3-5-6/h1-5H,(H,8,9) | RTECS = DG0875000 | MeSHName = benzoic+acid | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 30746 | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = D00038 | 3DMet = B00053 | Beilstein = 636131 | Gmelin = 2946 }} |Section2={{Chembox Properties | C=7 | H=6 | O=2 | Appearance = Colorless crystalline solid | Odor = Faint, pleasant odor | Density = 1.2659 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (15&nbsp;°C)<br> 1.0749 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (130&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | MeltingPtC = 122 | MeltingPt_ref =<ref name=GESTIS/> | BoilingPtC = 250 | BoilingPt_ref =<ref name=GESTIS>{{GESTIS|ZVG=22810}}</ref> | Solubility = 1.7 g/L (0&nbsp;°C)<br> 2.7 g/L (18&nbsp;°C)<br> 3.44 g/L (25&nbsp;°C)<br> 5.51 g/L (40&nbsp;°C)<br> 21.45 g/L (75&nbsp;°C)<br> 56.31 g/L (100&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister>{{cite web|url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=679|title=benzoic acid|website=chemister.ru|access-date=24 October 2018|archive-date=23 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140523230141/http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=679|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=sioc>{{cite book|last1 = Seidell|first1 = Atherton|last2 = Linke|first2 = William F.|year = 1952|title = Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds|publisher = Van Nostrand|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=k2e5AAAAIAAJ}}</ref> | pKa = {{ubl | 4.202 (H<sub>2</sub>O)<ref>{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Daniel|title=Quantitative Chemical Analysis|year=2010|publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company|location=New York|isbn=9781429254366|pages=AP12|edition=8}}</ref> | 11.02 (DMSO)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olmstead |first1=William N. |last2=Bordwell |first2=Frederick G. |title=Ion-pair association constants in dimethyl sulfoxide |journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry |date=1980 |volume=45 |issue=16 |pages=3299–3305 |doi=10.1021/jo01304a033}}</ref> }} | SolubleOther = soluble in [[acetone]], [[benzene]], [[carbon tetrachloride|CCl<sub>4</sub>]], [[chloroform|CHCl<sub>3</sub>]], [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[ethyl ether]], [[hexane]], [[phenyl]]s, liquid [[ammonia]], [[acetate]]s | Solubility1 = 30 g/100 g (-18&nbsp;°C)<br> 32.1 g/100 g (-13&nbsp;°C)<br> 71.5 g/100 g (23&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | Solvent1 = methanol | Solubility2 = 25.4 g/100 g (-18&nbsp;°C)<br> 47.1 g/100 g (15&nbsp;°C)<br> 52.4 g/100 g (19.2&nbsp;°C)<br> 55.9 g/100 g (23&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | Solvent2 = ethanol | Solubility3 = 54.2 g/100 g (20&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | Solvent3 = acetone | Solubility4 = 4.22 g/100 g (25&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | Solvent4 = olive oil | Solubility5 = 55.3 g/100 g (25&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | Solvent5 = 1,4-Dioxane | pKb = | IsoelectricPt = | LambdaMax = | Absorbance = | SpecRotation = | RefractIndex = 1.5397 (20&nbsp;°C)<br> 1.504 (132&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | Viscosity = 1.26 mPa (130&nbsp;°C) | VaporPressure = 0.16 Pa (25&nbsp;°C)<br> 0.19 kPa (100&nbsp;°C)<br> 22.6 kPa (200&nbsp;°C)<ref name=nist>{{nist|name=Benzoic acid| id= C65850|accessdate=2014-05-23|mask=FFFF|units=SI}}</ref> | LogP = 1.87 | MagSus = -70.28·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol }} |Section3={{Chembox Structure | CrystalStruct = [[Monoclinic]] | Coordination = | MolShape = [[Plane (geometry)|planar]] | Dipole = 1.72 [[Debye|D]] in [[dioxane]] }} |Section4={{Chembox Thermochemistry | DeltaHf = -385.2 kJ/mol<ref name=chemister /> | DeltaHc = -3228 kJ/mol<ref name=nist /> | Entropy = 167.6 J/mol·K<ref name=chemister /> | HeatCapacity = 146.7 J/mol·K<ref name=nist /> }} |Section7={{Chembox Hazards | ExternalSDS = [http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/b1356.htm JT Baker] | GHSPictograms = {{GHS05}}{{GHS07}}<ref name="sigma">{{Sigma-Aldrich| id= w213101|name=Benzoic acid|accessdate=2014-05-23}}</ref> | GHSSignalWord = Danger | HPhrases = {{H-phrases|318|335}}<ref name="sigma" /> | PPhrases = {{P-phrases|261|280|305+351+338}}<ref name="sigma" /> | MainHazards = Irritant | NFPA-H = 2 | NFPA-F = 1 | NFPA-R = 0 | NFPA-S = | FlashPtC = 121.5 | FlashPt_ref = <ref name=GESTIS/> | AutoignitionPtC = 571 | AutoignitionPt_ref = <ref name=GESTIS/> | ExploLimits = | PEL = | LD50 = 1700 mg/kg (rat, oral) }} |Section8={{Chembox Related | OtherAnions = | OtherCations = | OtherFunction = [[Hydroxybenzoic acid]]s<br />[[Aminobenzoic acid]]s,<br />[[Nitrobenzoic acid]]s,<br />[[Phenylacetic acid]] | OtherFunction_label = [[carboxylic acid]]s | OtherCompounds = [[Benzaldehyde]],<br />[[Benzyl alcohol]],<br />[[Benzoyl chloride]],<br />[[Benzylamine]],<br />[[Benzamide]] }} }} '''Asem bènzowat''' {{IPAc-en|b|ɛ|n|ˈ|z|oʊ|.|ɪ|k}} ya iku zat padhet putih (utawa tanpa warna) kanthi formula C <sub>6</sub> H <sub>5</sub> CO <sub>2</sub> H. Iki minangka asem karboksilat aromatik sing paling gampang. Jeneng kasebut asalé saka [[permèn karèt]] benzoin, sing wis suwé mung siji-sijinè. Asem bènzowat ana alami ing pirang-pirang tanduran <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2012/Q3/scientists-uncover-last-steps-for-benzoic-acid-creation-in-plants.html|title=Scientists uncover last steps for benzoic acid creation in plants|publisher=Purdue Agriculture News|access-date=2021-04-16|archive-date=2021-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125014732/https://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2012/Q3/scientists-uncover-last-steps-for-benzoic-acid-creation-in-plants.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> lan dadi penengah ing biosintèsis akèh [[Métabolit sékundèr|métabolit sekundér]]. Garam asem bènzowat digunakaké minangka pengawèt panganan. Asem bènzowat minangka prekursor penting kanggo sintèsis industri kanggo akèh zat organik liyané. Uyah lan èster saka asem bènzowat dikenal minangka '''bènzoates''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɛ|n|z|oʊ|.|eɪ|t}}. == Sejarah asem bènzowat == Asem bènzowat ditemokaké ing abad kaping nembelas. Penyulingan permen karet benzoin pisanan diterangaké dening [[Nostradamus]] (1556), lan banjur dening Alexius Pedemontanus (1560) lan Blaise de Vigenère (1596). <ref>{{Cite book|title=Römpps Chemie-Lexikon|last=Neumüller O-A|publisher=Frankh'sche Verlagshandlung|year=1988|isbn=978-3-440-04516-9|edition=6|location=Stuttgart|oclc=50969944}}</ref> Justus von Liebig lan Friedrich Wöhler nemtokaké komposisi asem bènzowat. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liebig J|author-link=Justus von Liebig|last2=Wöhler F|author-link2=Friedrich Wöhler|year=1832|title=Untersuchungen über das Radikal der Benzoesäure|journal=[[Liebigs Annalen|Annalen der Chemie]]|volume=3|issue=3|pages=249–282|doi=10.1002/jlac.18320030302}}</ref> Sing pungkasan iki uga nyelidiki babagan caranè hubungan asem ''hippuric'' karo asem bènzowat. Ing taun 1875 Salkowski nemokaké kemampuan antijamur saka asem bènzowat, sing digunakaké suwè kanggo ngreksa woh-wohan ''cloudberry'' sing ana bènzowat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Salkowski E|year=1875|title=(tulung isi paramèter title)|journal=Berl Klin Wochenschr|volume=12|pages=297–298}}</ref> == Prodhuksi asem bènzowat == === Persiapan industri === Asem bènzowat diprodhuksi kanthi komersial kanthi oksidasi parsial toluene karo [[oksigèn]] . Proses kasebut dikatalisis dening [[kobalt]] utawa naphthenates [[mangan]]. Prosés kasebut nggunakaké bahan sing akèh, lan panèn ngasilaké dhuwur. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Organic Chemistry|last=Wade|first=Leroy G.|date=2014|publisher=Pearson Education Limited|isbn=978-1-292-02165-2|edition=Pearson new international|location=Harlow|page=985|ref=OrgChem}}</ref> Proses industri kaping pisanan yaiku reaksi ''benzotrichloride'' (''trichloromethyl'' ''benzene'') karo kalsium hidroksida ing banyu, nggunakaké uyah [[wesi]] utawa zat besi minangka katalis . Kalsium bènzowat sing diasilaké diowahi dadi asem bènzowat karo [[Asem klorid|asem hidroklorat]] . Produk kasebut ngemot turunan asem bènzowat klorida sing akèh. Amarga iku, asem bènzowat kanggo konsumsi manungsa dipikolehi kanthi distilasi garing saka permen karet benzoin. Asem bènzowat tingkat panganan saiki diproduksi kanthi sintètis. [[Barkas:Benzoic_acid-chemical-synthesis-1.svg|pus]] === Sintésis laboratorium === [[Barkas:Sublimation_of_Benzoic_acid.jpg|jmpl|Sublimasi asem bènzowat]] Asem bènzowat murah lan gampang kasedhiya, mula sintèsis laboratorium asem bènzowat umume ditindakaké kanggo nilai pedagogis. Iki minangka persiapan kang umum. Asem bènzowat bisa diresiki kanthi rekristalisasi saka banyu amarga larut ing banyu [[Kalor|panas]] lan larut ing [[banyu]] adhem sing kurang. Nyingkiri pelarut organik kanggo rekristalisasi ndadekaké eksperimèn kasebut aman. Proses iki biasanè menehi asil panènan udakara 65%.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/purificationofla0000perr_n7w5|title=Purification of Laboratory Chemicals|last=D. D. Perrin|last2=W. L. F. Armarego|publisher=Pergamon Press|year=1988|isbn=978-0-08-034715-8|edition=3rd|pages=[https://archive.org/details/purificationofla0000perr_n7w5/page/94 94]|url-access=registration}}</ref> === Saka reagèn Grignard === ''Bromobenzene'' bisa diowahi dadi asem bènzowat kanthi "karboksilasi" saka ''phenylmagcium bromide'' . <ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Organic Laboratory Techniques: A Small Scale Approach|last=Donald L. Pavia|publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole|year=2004|isbn=978-0-534-40833-6|pages=312–314}}</ref> Sintèsis iki nawakaké latihan sing trep kanggo siswa nindakaké reaksi Grignard, kelas reaksi ikatan karbon-karbon sing penting ing kimia organik. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shirley|first=D. A.|year=1954|title=The Synthesis of Ketones from Acid Halides and Organometallic Compounds of Magnesium, Zinc, and Cadmium|journal=[[Org. React.]]|volume=8|pages=28–58}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|title=Comprehensive Organic Synthesis, Volume 1: Additions to C&mdash;X π-Bonds, Part 1|last=Huryn|first=D. M.|publisher=[[Elsevier Science]]|year=1991|isbn=978-0-08-052349-1|editor-last=Trost|editor-first=B. M.|editor-link=Barry Trost|pages=49–75|chapter=Carbanions of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Cations: (ii) Selectivity of Carbonyl Addition Reactions|doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-052349-1.00002-0|editor-last2=Fleming|editor-first2=I.|editor-link2=Ian Fleming (chemist)}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://spot.pcc.edu/~chandy/242/PreparationofBenzoicAcid.pdf|title=The Grignard Reaction. Preparation of Benzoic Acid|publisher=Portland Community College|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226115836/http://spot.pcc.edu/~chandy/242/PreparationofBenzoicAcid.pdf|archive-date=26 February 2015|access-date=2015-03-12}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chem.wisc.edu/courses/342/Fall2004/Experiment_9.pdf|title=Experiment 9: Synthesis of Benzoic Acid via Carbonylation of a Grignard Reagent|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202908/http://www.chem.wisc.edu/courses/342/Fall2004/Experiment_9.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2015|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pages.towson.edu/jdiscord/WWW/332_Lab_Info/332LabsIRPMR/Expt3Grignard.pdf|title=Experiment 3: Preparation of Benzoic Acid|publisher=Towson University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413011353/http://pages.towson.edu/jdiscord/www/332_lab_info/332labsirpmr/expt3grignard.pdf|archive-date=13 April 2015|access-date=2015-03-12}}</ref> === Oksidasi senyawa bènzil === Alkohol <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amakawa|first=Kazuhiko|last2=Kolen'Ko|first2=Yury V.|last3=Villa|first3=Alberto|last4=Schuster|first4=Manfred E/|last5=Csepei|first5=Lénárd-István|last6=Weinberg|first6=Gisela|last7=Wrabetz|first7=Sabine|last8=Naumann d'Alnoncourt|first8=Raoul|last9=Girgsdies|first9=Frank|year=2013|title=Multifunctionality of Crystalline MoV(TeNb) M1 Oxide Catalysts in Selective Oxidation of Propane and Benzyl Alcohol|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278196177|journal=ACS Catalysis|volume=3|issue=6|pages=1103–1113|doi=10.1021/cs400010q}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Santonastaso|first=Marco|last2=Freakley|first2=Simon J.|last3=Miedziak|first3=Peter J.|last4=Brett|first4=Gemma L.|last5=Edwards|first5=Jennifer K.|last6=Hutchings|first6=Graham J.|date=2014-11-21|title=Oxidation of Benzyl Alcohol using in Situ Generated Hydrogen Peroxide|journal=Organic Process Research & Development|volume=18|issue=11|pages=1455–1460|doi=10.1021/op500195e|issn=1083-6160}}</ref> lan benzil klorida lan sakbenere kabeh turunan benzil gampang dioksidasi dadi asem bènzowat. <section data-mw-cx-source="Google" id="cxTargetSection38" rel="cx:Section"> Asem bènzowat alami kanthi alami uga éster ing pirang-pirang spesies tanduran lan kèwan. Jumlah sing bisa ditemokaké ditemokaké ing pirang-pirang woh wohan bèri (udakara 0,05%). Woh-wohan sing mateng saka pirang-pirang ''spesies Vaccinium'' (kayata [[Kranbéri|cranberry]], ''V. vitis macrocarpon'' ; [[Bilbéri|bilberry]], ''V. myrtillus'' ) ngemot 0,03-0,13% asem bènzowat. Asem bènzowat uga dibentuk ing [[apel]] sawisé infeksi jamur ''Nectria galligena'' . Ing antaranè kéwan, asem bènzowat dikenal utamanè ing spesies omnivora utawa fitofagosa, kayata, viscera lan otot ''ptarmigan rock'' ( ''Lagopus muta'' ) uga sekresi kelenjar muskoxen lanang ( ''Ovibos moschatus'' ) utawa gajah Asia ( ''[[Gajah Asia|Elephas maximus]]'' ) . <ref name="concise">{{Cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/cicads/cicads/cicad26.htm|title=Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 26: BENZOIC ACID AND SODIUM BENZOATE}}</ref> Gum benzoin ngemot nganti 20% asem bènzowat lan 40% ester asem bènzowat. <ref>{{Cite journal|year=1972|title=Direct Colorimetric Determination of Hippuric Acid in Urine|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-chemistry_1972_18_4/page/349|journal=Clin Chem|volume=18|issue=4|pages=349–351|doi=10.1093/clinchem/18.4.349|pmid=5012256}}</ref>. Ing babagan biosintèsis, bènzowat diproduksi ing tanduran saka ''asem cinnamic.'' <ref name="Vogt">{{Cite journal|last=Vogt, T.|year=2010|title=Phenylpropanoid Biosynthesis|journal=Molecular Plant|volume=3|pages=2–20|doi=10.1093/mp/ssp106|pmid=20035037}}</ref> Jalur wis diidentifikasi saka fènol liwat ''4-hydroxybènzoate'' . <ref name="Juteau">{{Cite journal|last=Juteau|first=Pierre|last2=Valérie Côté|last3=Marie-France Duckett|last4=Réjean Beaudet|last5=François Lépine|last6=Richard Villemur|last7=Jean-Guy Bisaillon|date=January 2005|title=Cryptanaerobacter phenolicus gen. nov., sp. nov., an anaerobe that transforms phenol into benzoate via 4-hydroxybenzoate|journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|volume=55|issue=1|pages=245–250|doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02914-0|pmid=15653882|doi-access=free}}</ref> </section> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Kimiya]] lrcjnsosnsg5cf6315yq5jhq4rpja5n Lenga iwak 0 177400 1752968 1652417 2026-08-20T06:51:34Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752968 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Lachsölkapsel.jpg|jmpl| Kapsul minyak iwak]] '''Minyak iwak''' minangka [[Lenga|minyak sing]] asale saka [[Jaringan (Biologi)|jaringan]] iwak sing berminyak . Minyak iwak ngemot asam lemak omega-3 asam eicosapentaenoic (EPA) lan asam docosahexaenoic (DHA), prekursor eicosanoid tartamtu sing dikenal bisa nyuda peradangan ing awak <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moghadasian|first=Mohammed H.|year=2008|title=Advances in Dietary Enrichment with N-3 Fatty Acids|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=48|issue=5|pages=402–10|doi=10.1080/10408390701424303|pmid=18464030}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cleland|first=Leslieg|last2=James|first2=Michaelj|last3=Proudman|first3=Susannam|year=2006|title=Fish oil: What the prescriber needs to know|journal=[[Arthritis Research & Therapy]]|volume=8|issue=1|pages=679–81|doi=10.1186/ar1876|pmc=1526555|pmid=16542466}}</ref> lan ningkatake hypertriglyceridemia . Wis sawetara kontroversi ing taun-taun pungkasan babagan peran minyak iwak ing penyakit kardiovaskular, kanthi analisis meta anyar duwe kesimpulan sing beda babagan dampak potensial kasebut. Bukti sing paling janjeni ndhukung suplemen kanggo nyegah [[Gagal jantung|pati jantung]] . <ref name="half full">{{Cite journal|last=Maki|first=KC|last2=Dicklin|first2=MR|date=4 July 2018|title=Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Glass Half Full or Time to Nail the Coffin Shut?|journal=Nutrients|volume=10|issue=7|pages=864|doi=10.3390/nu10070864|pmc=6073248|pmid=29973554}}</ref> Minyak iwak lan asam lemak omega-3 uga wis ditliti ing macem-macem kahanan kayata depresi klinis, <ref name="Su2003">{{Cite journal|last=Su|first=Kuan-Pin|last2=Huang|first2=Shih-Yi|last3=Chiu|first3=Chih-Chiang|last4=Shen|first4=Winston W.|year=2003|title=Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder|journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=13|issue=4|pages=267–71|doi=10.1016/S0924-977X(03)00032-4|pmid=12888186}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Naliwaiko|first=K.|last2=Araújo|first2=R.L.F.|last3=Da Fonseca|first3=R.V.|last4=Castilho|first4=J.C.|last5=Andreatini|first5=R.|last6=Bellissimo|first6=M.I.|last7=Oliveira|first7=B.H.|last8=Martins|first8=E.F.|last9=Curi|first9=R.|year=2004|title=Effects of Fish Oil on the Central Nervous System: A New Potential Antidepressant?|journal=Nutritional Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=2|pages=91–99|doi=10.1080/10284150410001704525|pmid=15279495}}</ref> kuatir, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Pnina|last2=Hermesh|first2=Haggai|last3=Monselise|first3=Assaf|last4=Marom|first4=Sofi|last5=Presburger|first5=Gadi|last6=Weizman|first6=Abraham|year=2006|title=Red cell membrane omega-3 fatty acids are decreased in nondepressed patients with social anxiety disorder|journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=16|issue=2|pages=107–13|doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.07.005|pmid=16243493}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yehuda|first=Shlomo|last2=Rabinovitz|first2=Sharon|last3=Mostofsky|first3=David I.|year=2005|title=Mixture of essential fatty acids lowers test anxiety|journal=Nutritional Neuroscience|volume=8|issue=4|pages=265–67|doi=10.1080/10284150500445795|pmid=16491653}}</ref> <ref name="Pp">{{Cite journal|last=Nemets|first=B.|last2=Stahl|first2=Z|last3=Belmaker|first3=RH|year=2002|title=Addition of Omega-3 Fatty Acid to Maintenance Medication Treatment for Recurrent Unipolar Depressive Disorder|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2002-03_159_3/page/477|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=159|issue=3|pages=477–79|doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.477|pmid=11870016}}</ref> [[kanker]], lan degenerasi makula, nanging mupangate ing kahanan kasebut uga durung diverifikasi. <ref name="medline">{{Cite web|url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/omega3/introduction.htm#hed4|title=Omega-3 Supplements: In Depth|last=NIH Medline Plus|date=August 2015|access-date=13 October 2017}}</ref> Iwak sing digunakake minangka sumber kasebut sejatine ora ngasilake asam lemak omega-3, nanging nglumpukake kanthi nggunakake mikroalga utawa iwak mangsa sing nglumpukake asam lemak omega-3 . Iwak predator lemak kayata [[Hiyu|hiu]], iwak pedang, ubin ubin, lan tuna albacore bisa uga akeh asam lemak omega-3 nanging, amarga posisine ing ndhuwur rantai panganan, spesies kasebut uga bisa nglumpukake zat beracun liwat biomagnifikasi . Amarga alasan iki, Badan Perlindungan Lingkungan Amerika Serikat nyaranake matesi konsumsi (utamane kanggo wanita umur subur) spesies iwak (predator) tartamtu (kayata tuna albacore, [[Hiyu|hiu]], mackerel raja, ubin lan iwak pedhang ) amarga kontaminan beracun akeh merkuri . Dioksin, PCB lan chlordane, uga insektisida siklodien klorin liyane uga ana. <ref name="petsworldtoday">{{Cite web|url=https://www.petsworldtoday.in/2020/02/best-fish-to-eat.html|title=Best fish to eat|last=Venus Nandi|date=2020-02-09|access-date=9 February 2020}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Iwak kaya protein lan panganan akuakultur vitamin liyane. Luwih saka 50 persen minyak iwak ing donya sing digunakake ing pakan akuakultur diwenehake menyang salmon sing ditandur . <ref>[[FAO]]: World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008: [ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0250e/i0250e03.pdf Highlights of Special Studies]<nowiki>|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Rome.</nowiki></ref> Minyak iwak laut lan banyu tawar beda karo isi [[Asam arachidonic|asam arakidonik]], EPA lan DHA. <ref name="pmid76662442">{{Cite journal|last=Innis|first=Sheila M.|last2=Rioux|first2=France M.|last3=Auestad|first3=Nancy|last4=Ackman|first4=Robert G.|year=1995|title=Marine and freshwater fish oil varying in arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids differ in their effects on organ lipids and fatty acids in growing rats|url=http://jn.nutrition.org/content/125/9/2286.short|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=125|issue=9|pages=2286–93|doi=10.1093/jn/125.9.2286|pmid=7666244}}</ref> Macem-macem spesies mulai saka ramping nganti lemu lan isi minyak ing jaringan kabukten beda-beda gumantung saka 0,7% nganti 15,5%. <ref name="Gruger19642">{{Cite journal|last=Gruger|first=E. H.|last2=Nelson, R. W.; Stansby, M. E.|date=1 October 1964|title=Fatty acid composition of oils from 21 species of marine fish, freshwater fish and shellfish|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jaocs-journal-of-the-american-oil-chemists-society_1964-10_41_10/page/662|journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society|volume=41|issue=10|pages=662–67|doi=10.1007/BF02661403}}</ref> Dheweke uga beda karo efek ing lipid organ. Panliten ngandhakake manawa ora ana hubungane antara asupan iwak total utawa kira-kira asupan asam lemak ga 3 saka kabeh iwak, lan omega serum − 3 konsentrasi asam lemak. <ref name="pmid171584092">{{Cite journal|last=Philibert|first=A|last2=Vanier, C; Abdelouahab, N; Chan, HM; Mergler, D|date=December 2006|title=Fish intake and serum fatty acid profiles from freshwater fish|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2006-12_84_6/page/1299|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=84|issue=6|pages=1299–307|doi=10.1093/ajcn/84.6.1299|pmid=17158409}}</ref> Mung asupan iwak lemak, utamane salmonid, lan perkiraan asupan EPA + DHA saka iwak lemak sing diamati bakal ana gandheng cenenge karo paningkatan serum EPA + DHA. == Rujukan == 6lhoh2cd5uy5140civ9ry6fk13qv7rb Asem linoléat 0 177418 1753085 1640276 2026-08-20T10:06:39Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753085 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Linoleic_acid.svg|jmpl|Struktur kimiya asem linoléat]] {{chembox | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 476999843 | Name = Linoleic acid | OtherNames = ''cis'',''cis''-9,12-octadecadienoic acid<br>C18:2 ([[Fatty acid#Nomenclature|Lipid numbers]]) | ImageFile = LAnumbering.png | ImageSize = 300px | ImageFile1 = Linoleic-acid-from-xtal-1979-3D-balls.png | ImageSize1 = 300px | ImageFile2 = Linoleic-acid-from-xtal-1979-3D-vdW.png | ImageSize2 = 300px | IUPACName = (9''Z'',12''Z'')-octadeca-9,12-dienoic acid | SystematicName = | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | IUPHAR_ligand = 1052 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 4444105 | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = C01595 | Gmelin = 57557 | Beilstein = 1727101 | PubChem = 5280450 | EC_number = 200-470-9 | DrugBank = DB14104 | 3DMet = B00328 | UNII = 9KJL21T0QJ | InChI = 1/C18H32O2/c1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-16-17-18(19)20/h6-7,9-10H,2-5,8,11-17H2,1H3,(H,19,20)/b7-6-,10-9- | InChIKey = OYHQOLUKZRVURQ-HZJYTTRNBX | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 267476 | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C18H32O2/c1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-16-17-18(19)20/h6-7,9-10H,2-5,8,11-17H2,1H3,(H,19,20)/b7-6-,10-9- | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = OYHQOLUKZRVURQ-HZJYTTRNSA-N | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo = 60-33-3 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 17351 | SMILES = CCCCC/C=C\C/C=C\CCCCCCCC(=O)O }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | C=18 | H=32 | O=2 | Appearance = Colorless oil | Density = 0.9 g/cm<sup>3</sup><ref name=Merck>''The [[Merck Index]]'', 11th Edition, '''5382'''</ref> | MeltingPt = {{convert|-12|C|F}}<ref name=Merck/><br/>{{convert|-6.9|C|F}}<ref name="crc97">{{cite book | author=William M. Haynes | title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition=97th | year=2016 | publisher=CRC Press | location=Boca Raton | isbn=978-1-4987-5429-3 | pages=3–338 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVezDAAAQBAJ}}</ref><br/>{{convert|-5|C|F}}<ref name=GESTIS>{{GESTIS|ZVG=14230|CAS=60-33-3}}</ref> | BoilingPt = {{convert|229|C|F}} at 16 mmHg<ref name="crc97"/><br/>{{convert|230|C|F}} at 21 mbar<ref name=GESTIS/><br/>{{convert|230|C|F}} at 16 mmHg<ref name=Merck/> | Solubility = 0.139 mg/L<ref name=GESTIS/> | VaporPressure = 16 Torr at 229&nbsp;°C{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} }} | Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards | NFPA-H = 2 | NFPA-F = 1 | NFPA-R = 0 | MainHazards = | FlashPt = {{convert|112|C|F}}<ref name=GESTIS/> | AutoignitionPt = }} | Section4 = | Section5 = | Section6 = }} '''Asem linoléat''' minangka senyawa organik kanthi formula COOH (CH <sub>2</sub> ) <sub>7</sub> CH = CHCH <sub>2</sub> CH = CH (CH <sub>2</sub> ) <sub>4</sub> CH <sub>3</sub>. Kaloro klompok alkena yaiku ''cis'' . Iki minangka asem lemak sing asring diarani '''18: 2 (n-6)''' utawa '''18: 2 ''cis'' -9,12''' . '''Linoléat''' minangka uyah utawa ester saka asem iki. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cyberlipid.org/fa/acid0001.htm|title=Fatty Acids|publisher=Cyber Lipid|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028011853/http://www.cyberlipid.org/fa/acid0001.htm|archive-date=28 October 2018|access-date=31 July 2017}}</ref> Asem linoléat minangka asem lemak oméga-6 sing dipolietaturasi . Iki minangka lenga tanpa warna utawa putih sing méh ora larut ing [[banyu]] nanging larut ing akèh pelarut organik. Biasané kedadeyan ing alam minangka trigliserida (ester gliserin) lan ora kalebu [[asem lemak]] . <ref name="Is there a fatty acid taste">{{Cite journal|last=Mattes|first=RD|year=2009|title=Is there a fatty acid taste?|journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr.|volume=29|pages=305–27|doi=10.1146/annurev-nutr-080508-141108|pmc=2843518|pmid=19400700}}</ref> Iki minangka salah siji saka rong asem lemak penting kanggo manungsa, sing kudu ana ing pola mangan. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simopoulos, Artemis P.|year=2008|title=The importance of the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/9b03f5f0edd6694d2eb90b8ee2081d53624c36b2|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|volume=233|issue=6|pages=674–688|doi=10.3181/0711-mr-311|pmid=18408140}}</ref> Tembung "linoleic" asalé saka basa Latin "flax" + ''oleum'' ''"linum'' [[Basa Latin|Latin,]] nuduhaké kasunyatan manawa zat iki pisanan diisolasi karo lenga wiji [[rami]]. == Sejarah asem linoléat == Ing taun 1844, F. Sacc, makarya ing [[laboratorium]] Justus von Liebig, ngisolasi asem linoléat saka lenga wiji rami. <ref name="sacc1844">F. Sacc (1844) "Ueber das Leinöl, seine physicalischen und chemischen Eigenscharften und seine Oxydationsproducte".</ref> <ref name="sacc1845">F. Sacc (1845): "[https://books.google.com/books?id=pYk1AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA9-PA3&lpg=RA9-PA3 Expériences sur les propriétés physiques et chimiques de l'huile de Lin]".</ref> Ing taun 1886, K. Peters nemtokaké anané rong obligasi dobel. <ref name="mona1887">(1886), ''Monatsch''., volume 7, pages 522-</ref> Peran penting ing [[panganan]] manungsa ditemokaké dening GO Burr lan liyané ing taun 1930. <ref name="burr1930">(1930: ''J Biol Chem'', volume 86, pages 587-</ref> Struktur kimia kasebut ditemtokaké dening TP Hilditch lan liyané ing taun 1939, lan disintesis dening RA Raphael lan F. Sondheimer ing taun 1950. <ref name="raph1950">R. A. Raphael and Franz Sondheimer (1950): "The synthesis of long-chain aliphatic acids from acetylenic compounds.</ref> == Peran asem linoléat == [[Barkas:Linoleic-acid-from-xtal-1979-3D-balls.png|jmpl|Asem linoléat ing telung dhimènsi]] Konsumsi asem linoléat iku penting banget kanggo kesehatan, amarga iku asem lemak penting. <ref name="Whelan & Fritsche">{{Cite journal|last=Whelan|first=Jay|last2=Fritsche|first2=Kevin|date=May 2013|title=Linoleic Acid|journal=Advances in Nutrition|volume=4|issue=3|pages=311–312|doi=10.3945/an.113.003772|pmc=3650500|pmid=23674797}}</ref> Ing tikus, panganan sing kurang linoléat ( bentuk uyah asam) wis kabukten nggawé kulit sisik, [[Rambut brodhol|rambut rontok]], <ref name="Cunnane">{{Cite journal|date=1 April 1997|title=Pure linoleate deficiency in the rat: influence on growth, accumulation of n-6 polyunsaturates, and (1-<sup>14</sup>C) linoleate oxidation|url=http://www.jlr.org/cgi/reprint/38/4/805|journal=J Lipid Res|volume=38|issue=4|pages=805–12|pmid=9144095|access-date=2007-01-15|archive-date=2007-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228144840/http://www.jlr.org/cgi/reprint/38/4/805|url-status=dead}}</ref> lan lelara. <ref name="Ruthig">{{Cite journal|date=1 October 1999|title=Both (n-3) and (n-6) fatty acids stimulate wound healing in the rat intestinal epithelial cell line, IEC-6|journal=Journal of Nutrition|volume=129|issue=10|pages=1791–8|doi=10.1093/jn/129.10.1791|pmid=10498749|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Reaksi asem linoléat lan gunané == Asem linoléat minangka komponèn lenga sing cepet garing, sing migunani kanggo cèt lenga lan varnis . Iki kerja kanthi ngedhuk labilitas saka kurva kelompok CH (-CH = CH-C ''H'' <sub>2</sub> -CH = CH-) menyang [[Oksigèn|oksigén]] ing udhara. Tambahan oksigén nyebabaké ranté silang lan pembentukan film stabil. Pangurangan klompok asem karboksilat asem linoléat ngasilaké alkohol linoleil.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adkins|first=Homer|last2=Gillespie|first2=R. H.|year=1949|title=Oleyl Alcohol|journal=Organic Syntheses|volume=29|page=80|doi=10.15227/orgsyn.029.0080}}</ref> Asem linoléat minangka surfaktan kanthi konsentrasi misèl kritis 1,5 x 10 <sup>−4</sup> M @ pH 7,5. Asem linoléat dadi sansaya populer ing industri produk kecantikan amarga khasiat ing kulit. Panliten nuduhaké asem anti-inflamasi, ngurangi kukul, pancerah kulit lan sifat retènsi kelembapan nalika ditrapaké ing kulit. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Diezel|first=W.E.|last2=Schulz|first2=E.|last3=Skanks|first3=M.|last4=Heise|first4=H.|year=1993|title=Plant oils: Topical application and anti-inflammatory effects (croton oil test)|journal=Dermatologische Monatsschrift|volume=179|page=173}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Letawe|first=C|last2=Boone|first2=M|last3=Pierard|first3=GE|date=March 1998|title=Digital image analysis of the effect of topically applied linoleic acid on acne microcomedones|journal=Clinical and Experimental Dermatology|volume=23|issue=2|pages=56–58|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2230.1998.00315.x|pmid=9692305}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ando|first=H|last2=Ryu|first2=A|last3=Hashimoto|first3=A|last4=Oka|first4=M|last5=Ichihashi|first5=M|date=March 1998|title=Linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid lightens ultraviolet-induced hyperpigmentation of the skin.|journal=Archives of Dermatological Research|volume=290|issue=7|pages=375–381|doi=10.1007/s004030050320|pmid=9749992}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Darmstadt|first=GL|last2=Mao-Qiang|first2=M|last3=Chi|first3=E|last4=Saha|first4=SK|last5=Ziboh|first5=VA|last6=Black|first6=RE|last7=Santosham|first7=M|last8=Elias|first8=PM|year=2002|title=Impact of topical oils on the skin barrier: possible implications for neonatal health in developing countries|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_acta-paediatrica_2002_91_5/page/546|journal=Acta Paediatrica|volume=91|issue=5|pages=546–554|citeseerx=10.1.1.475.1064|doi=10.1080/080352502753711678|pmid=12113324}}</ref> == Panganan sing ngandhung asem linoléat == Asem linoléat kasedhiya ana akèh ing kembang saf, [[Lenga kembang srengéngé|lenga kwaci]], lenga [[Lenga jagung|jagung]], lan kalebu luwih saka separo komposisi kanthi bobot. Saiki kasedhiya ing jumlah sedhengan kanggo [[Lenga kedhelé|lenga kedeleé]], [[Wijèn|wijén]], lan [[Almond|almon]] . <ref name="USDA">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl|title=Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page|year=2007|website=USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414070404/http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl|archive-date=14 April 2016}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaur|first=Narinder|last2=Chugh|first2=Vishal|last3=Gupta|first3=Anil K.|date=October 2014|title=Essential fatty acids as functional components of foods- a review|journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology|volume=51|issue=10|pages=2289–2303|doi=10.1007/s13197-012-0677-0|pmc=4190204|pmid=25328170}}</ref> == Paripustaka == <references /> [[Kategori:Asem]] [[Kategori:Senyawa organik]] b63h5c26do3wfzd2wsbt68bt45x84p5 Glikolisis 0 177520 1753005 1744997 2026-08-20T07:50:50Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753005 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Glycolysis2.svg|jmpl|Jalur glikolisis]] '''Glikolisis''' minangka jalur metabolisme sing ngowahi glukosa C6H12O6, dadi piruvat, CH3COCOO−, lan ion [[hidrogen]], H +. Energi bebas sing diculaké ing prosès iki digunakaké kanggo mbentuk molekul energi tinggi ATP (adenosin trifosfat) lan NADH (rédhuksi nikotinamid adenin dinukléotida).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alfarouk|first=Khalid O.|last2=Verduzco|first2=Daniel|last3=Rauch|first3=Cyril|last4=Muddathir|first4=Abdel Khalig|last5=Bashir|first5=Adil H. H.|last6=Elhassan|first6=Gamal O.|last7=Ibrahim|first7=Muntaser E.|last8=Orozco|first8=Julian David Polo|last9=Cardone|first9=Rosa Angela|date=18 December 2014|title=Glycolysis, tumor metabolism, cancer growth and dissemination. A new pH-based etiopathogenic perspective and therapeutic approach to an old cancer question|journal=Oncoscience|volume=1|issue=12|pages=777–802|doi=10.18632/oncoscience.109|pmc=4303887|pmid=25621294|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="glycolysis_animation">[http://pharmaxchange.info/press/2011/09/glycolysis-animation-and-notes/ Glycolysis – Animation and Notes]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/a/aa082704a.htm|title=10 Steps of Glycolysis|last=Bailey|first=Regina|access-date=2021-04-24|archive-date=2013-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515102637/http://biology.about.com/od/cellularprocesses/a/aa082704a.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Glikolisis minangka urutan sepuluh réaksi sing dikatalisis ènzim. Umumé monosakarida, kayata fruktosa lan galaktosa, bisa diowahi dadi penengah. Penengah bisa uga migunani langsung tinimbang digunakake minangka langkah-langkah ing reaksi umum. Contoné: fosfat dihidroksiaseton menengah (DHAP) minangka sumber gliserol sing nggabung karo [[asem lemak]] kanggo mbentuk [[lemak]]. Glikolisis minangka jalur metabolisme oksigèn independen. Kedadéyan glikolisis sing umum nuduhaké manawa ana jalur metabolisme kuno.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Romano|first=AH|last2=Conway|first2=T|year=1996|title=Evolution of carbohydrate metabolic pathways|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_research-in-microbiology_july-september-1996_147_6-7/page/448|journal=Res Microbiol|volume=147|issue=6–7|pages=448–55|doi=10.1016/0923-2508(96)83998-2|pmid=9084754}}</ref> Pancèn, réaksi sing ngemot glikolisis lan jalur paralel, jalur pentosa [[fosfat]], kedadéyan katalis logam ing kahanan tanpa oksigèn ing samodra Archean, uga ora ana ènzim.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Keller|last2=Ralser|last3=Turchyn|date=Apr 2014|title=Non-enzymatic glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway-like reactions in a plausible Archean ocean|journal=Mol Syst Biol|volume=10|issue=4|page=725|doi=10.1002/msb.20145228|pmc=4023395|pmid=24771084}}</ref> Umumé ing organisme, glikolisis ana ing sitosol . Jinis glikolisis sing paling umum ya iku jalur ''Embden – Meyerhof – Parnas (EMP)'', sing ditemokaké dening Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, lan Jakub Karol Parnas . Glikolisis uga nuduhaké jalur liyané , kayata jalur ''Entner – Doudoroff'' lan macem-macem jalur heterofermentatif lan homofermentatif. Nanging, diskusi ing kene bakal diwatesi mung kanggo jalur Embden – Meyerhof – Parnas. <ref>Kim BH, Gadd GM. (2011) Bacterial Physiology and Metabolism, 3rd edition.</ref> == Sejarah glikolisis == [[Barkas:Aerobic_respiration_summary.jpg|jmpl|400x400px|Ringkesan rèspirasi aérobik]] Jalur glikolisis kaya sing dingerteni saiki mbutuhaké mèh 100 taun suwéné supaya teka rampung.<ref name="pmid12722184">{{Cite journal|date=April 2003|title=A history of research on yeasts 5: the fermentation pathway|journal=Yeast|volume=20|issue=6|pages=509–543|doi=10.1002/yea.986|pmid=12722184}}</ref> Asil gabungan saka akèh èksperimen sing luwih cilik dibutuhaké kanggo ngerti jalur kasebut kanthi sakabèhé. Langkah kapisan kanggo mangertèni glikolisis diwiwiti ing abad XIX ing industri anggur. Amarga alasen ekonomi, industri anggur Prancis ngupayakaké nyelidiki kena ngapa anggur kadang-kadang ora enak, nalika diombé dadi alkohol. Ilmuwan Prancis [[Louis Pasteur]] neliti masalah iki sajroné taun 1850an, lan asil èksperimèn diwiwiti dalan sing dawa kanggo njlentrehaké jalur glikolisis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pasteurbrewing.com/articles/beer-wine-fermentation.html|title=Louis Pasteur and Alcoholic Fermentation|website=www.pasteurbrewing.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113030412/http://www.pasteurbrewing.com/articles/beer-wine-fermentation.html|archive-date=2011-01-13|access-date=2016-02-23}}</ref> Èksperimen kasebut nuduhaké manawa fermentasi ditindakaké kanthi tumindak [[Mikro-organisme|mikroorganisme]] urip, ragi, lan konsumsi glukosa ragi mudhun ing kahanan fermentasi aerobik, dibandhingaké karo kondisi anaerobik ( èfèk Pasteur ).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/yeast-fermentation-and-the-making-of-beer-14372813|title=Yeast, Fermentation, Beer, Wine|website=www.nature.com|access-date=2016-02-23}}</ref> Wawasan babagan langkah-langkah komponèn glikolisis diwenehaké dening èksperimèn fermentasi non-seluler Eduard Buchner sajroné taun 1890an. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kohler|first=Robert|date=1971-03-01|title=The background to Eduard Buchner's discovery of cell-free fermentation|journal=Journal of the History of Biology|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=35–61|doi=10.1007/BF00356976|issn=0022-5010|pmid=11609437}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1907/buchner-bio.html|title=Eduard Buchner - Biographical|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-02-23}}</ref> Buchner nduduhaké manawa konversi glukosa dadi etanol bisa nggunakaké ekstrak ragi sing ora urip (amarga tumindak [[ènzim]] ing ekstrak kasebut). <ref>{{Cite book|title=New Beer in an Old Bottle: Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge|last=Cornish-Bowden|first=Athel|year=1997|location=Valencia, Spain|pages=135–148|chapter=Harden and Young's Discovery of Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate}}</ref> Èksperimèn iki ora mung nggawé [[biokimia]] sing ngrevolusi, nanging uga ngidini para ilmuwan mengko nganalisa jalur iki ing setélan laboratorium sing luwih kontrol. Ing pirang-pirang eksperimèn (1905-1911), ilmuwan Arthur Harden lan William Young nemokaké luwih akèh potongan glikolisis. <ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Bios 302|last=Palmer|first=Grahm|url=http://www.bioc.rice.edu/~graham/Bios302/chapters/|chapter=Chapter 3|access-date=2021-04-24|archive-date=2017-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126031312/http://www.bioc.rice.edu/~graham/Bios302/chapters/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dhèwèké nemokaké èfèk peraturan ATP ing konsumsi glukosa sajroné fermentasi [[alkohol]]. Dhèwèké uga menehi cahya babagan peran siji senyawa minangka penengah glikolisis: fruktosa 1,6-bisfosfat. <ref>{{Cite book|title=New Beer in an Old Bottle: Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge|last=Cornish-Bowden|first=Athel|year=1997|location=Valencia, Spain|pages=151–158|chapter=Harden and Young's Discovery of Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate|author-link=Athel Cornish-Bowden}}</ref> Panjelasan fruktosa 1,6-bisphosfat ditindakaké kanthi ngukur tingkat CO <sub>2</sub> nalika ragi diinkubasi karo glukosa. Prodhuksi CO <sub>2</sub> mundhak kanthi cepet banjur sansaya alon. Harden lan Young nyathet yèn proses iki bakal diwiwiti mané h yèn fosfat anorganik (Pi) ditambahaké ing campuran kasebut. Harden lan Young ngerti manawa proses iki ngasilaké ester fosfat organik, lan èksperimèn sabanjuré ngidini ekstrak difosfat fruktosa (F-1,6-DP). Arthur Harden lan William Young bebarengan karo Nick Sheppard nemtokaké, ing èksperimèn kaping pindho, fraksi subcellular-bobot-molekul abot-sensitif panas (ènzim) lan fraksi sitoplasma bobot molekul rendah sensitif panas (ADP, ATP lan NAD <sup>+</sup> lan kofaktor liyané ) dibutuhaké bebarengan kanggo prosès fermentasi. Èksperimèn iki diwiwiti kanthi ngerteni yèn ragi sing dialisis (dimurnikaké) ora bisa difermentasi utawa uga nggawé fosfat gula. Campuran iki ditulungi nganggo tambahan èkstrak ragi tanpa rempah-rempah sing wis digodhog. Èkstrak ragi sing digodhog ndadekaké kabèh protèin ora aktif (kaya sing ditrapakè). Kemampuan ekstrak godhogan ditambah cuwèran dialisis kanggo ngrampungaké [[Fermèntasi|fermentasi]] nuduhaké yèn kofaktor dudu karakter non-protèin.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Bios 302|last=Palmer|first=Grahm|url=http://www.bioc.rice.edu/~graham/Bios302/chapters/|chapter=Chapter 3|access-date=2021-04-24|archive-date=2017-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126031312/http://www.bioc.rice.edu/~graham/Bios302/chapters/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ing taun 1920-an Otto Meyerhof bisa nggandhengaké sawetara bagéyan glikolisis individu sing ditemokaké dening Buchner, Harden, lan Young. Meyerhof lan timé bisa ngèkstrak macem-macem ènzim glikolitik saka jaringan otot, lan nggabungaké kanggo nggawé jalur gawé saka glikogen nganti [[asem laktat]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1922/meyerhof-bio.html|title=Otto Meyerhof - Biographical|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=2016-02-23}}</ref> <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kresge|first=Nicole|last2=Simoni|first2=Robert D.|last3=Hill|first3=Robert L.|date=2005-01-28|title=Otto Fritz Meyerhof and the Elucidation of the Glycolytic Pathway|url=http://www.jbc.org/content/280/4/e3|journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry|language=en|volume=280|issue=4|pages=e3|issn=0021-9258|pmid=15665335}}</ref> Ing sawijining makalah, Meyerhof lan ilmuwan Renate Junowicz-Kockolaty nyelidiki réaksi sing mbagi fruktosa 1,6-difosfat dadi rong fosfat triose. Pakaryan sadurungé mènèhi saran yèn pamisahan kasebut kedadéyan liwat 1,3-difosfogliséraldehid lan [[ènzim]] oksidasi lan ''cozymase''. Meyerhoff lan Junowicz nemokaké manawa konstanta keseimbangan kanggo réaksi isomerase lan aldosis ora dipengaruhi fosfat anorganik utawa ènzim ''cozymase'' utawa oksidasi liyané. Banjur ngilangi difosfogliséraldehid minangka kemungkinan glikolisis penengah.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Kresge|first=Nicole|last2=Simoni|first2=Robert D.|last3=Hill|first3=Robert L.|date=2005-01-28|title=Otto Fritz Meyerhof and the Elucidation of the Glycolytic Pathway|url=http://www.jbc.org/content/280/4/e3|journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry|language=en|volume=280|issue=4|pages=e3|issn=0021-9258|pmid=15665335}}</ref> Kanthi kabèh bagéyan kasebut kasedhiya ing taun 1930-an, Gustav Embden ngusulaké garis jangkep babagan langkah-langkah saka jalur kasebut sing saiki wis dikenal minangka glikolisis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830901312.html|title=Embden, Gustav – Dictionary definition of Embden, Gustav {{!}} Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=2016-02-23}}</ref> Keangelan paling gedhé kanggo nemtokaké keruwetan jalur kasebut amarga umur sing sithik banget lan konsentrasi negara sing stabil kanggo penengah réaksi glikolitik sing cepet. Ing taun 1940-an, Meyerhof, Embden lan akèh biokimia liyané pungkasané ngrampungaké teka-teki glikolisis.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Kresge|first=Nicole|last2=Simoni|first2=Robert D.|last3=Hill|first3=Robert L.|date=2005-01-28|title=Otto Fritz Meyerhof and the Elucidation of the Glycolytic Pathway|url=http://www.jbc.org/content/280/4/e3|journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry|language=en|volume=280|issue=4|pages=e3|issn=0021-9258|pmid=15665335}}</ref> Pangertèn babagan jalur sing diisolasi wis ditambahi ing pirang-pirang dekade sabanjuré, kanggo nyakup rerincèn liyané babagan regulasi lan integrasi karo jalur [[Métabolisme|metabolisme]] liyané. == Paripustaka == <references /> [[Kategori:Biologi]] el9vt6qxr6mmbgzxbv4dl4903rxjvht Hidroksida 0 177523 1753070 1703748 2026-08-20T09:41:15Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753070 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Hydroxide-HO-2D.png|jmpl|Hidroksida]] '''Hidroksida''' minangka anion diatomik kanthi [[rumus kimia]] OH <sup>-</sup>. Iki kalebu atom [[Oksigèn|oksig]][[Hidrogèn|è]]<nowiki/>n lan [[hidrogèn]] sing diikat siji karo [[Ikatan Kovalen|ikatan kovalen]], lan ngisi daya listrik negatif. Iki minangka zat penting nanging umume kalebu konstituèn minor saka banyu. Fungsi kasebut minangka basa, ligan, nukleofil, lan katalis. Formula hidroksida ion uyah, sawétara kang berdisosiasi ing banyu solusi, mbebasaké solvan ion hidroksida. Natrium hidroksida sing korosif banget,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/14798|title=Sodium hydroxide|last=PubChem|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|language=en|access-date=2021-04-22}}</ref> minangka bahan kimia komoditas pirang -pirang yuta ton. Hidroksida sing dipasang ing pusat èlèktropositif sing kuat bisa uga ionisasi, mbebasaké kation hidrogen (H <sup>+</sup> ), nggawé senyawa induk dadi [[asem]]. Senyawa netral listrik sing cocog&nbsp;HO <sup>•</sup> minangka hidroksil radikal. Cocog ing [[Ikatan Kovalen|kovalen]] kaiket grup&nbsp;–OH atom minangka gugus hidroksi. Klompok ion hidroksida lan hidroksiid minangka nukleofil lan bisa dadi katalis ing [[kimia organik]]. Akèh zat anorganik sing ngemot tembung ''hidroksida'' ing jenengé dudu senyawa ion ion hidroksida, nanging senyawa kovalen sing ngemot klompok hidroksi. == Struktur kimia hidroksida == Ion hidroksida katon bebas muter ing kristal hidroksida logam alkali sing luwih abot ing suhu sing luwih dhuwur saengga bisa ditampilaké minangka [[ion]] bal, kanthi radius ion sing efektif udakara taun 153&nbsp;sore <ref name="wells548">Wells, p.&nbsp;548</ref> Dadi, bentuk suhu KOH lan NaOH kanthi suhu dhuwur duwe struktur natrium klorida <ref>Victoria M. Nield, David A. Keen [https://books.google.com/books?id=QDT6VQ4GRL8C&pg=PA276 Diffuse neutron scattering from crystalline materials], Oxford University Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-19-851790-4}}, p.&nbsp;276</ref> sing mboko sithik membeku ing struktur natrium klorida kleru monoklinik ing suhu ngisor udakara 300&nbsp;° C. Grup OH isih muter sanajan suhu ruangan ing sumbu simétri lan mula ora bisa dideteksi dening difraksi sinar-X . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jacobs|first=H.|last2=Kockelkorn|first2=J.|last3=Tacke|first3=Th.|year=1985|title=Hydroxide des Natriums, Kaliums und Rubidiums: Einkristallzüchtung und röntgenographische Strukturbestimmung an der bei Raumtemperatur stabilen Modifikation|journal=Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie|volume=531|issue=12|pages=119|doi=10.1002/zaac.19855311217}}</ref> Bentuk suhu kamar NaOH duwé struktur yodium thallium. Nanging LiOH duwé struktur sing dilapis, digawé saka tetrahedral Li (OH) <sub>4</sub> lan (OH) Li <sub>4</sub> unit. <ref name="wells548" /> Iki cocog karo karakter LiOH sing ringkih ing larutan, nuduhaké yèn ikatan Li – OH duweni sipat kovalen. Ion hidroksida nampilaké simétri silinder ing hidroksida logam divalen Ca, Cd, Mn, Fe, lan Co. Contoné, magnesium hidroksida Mg (OH) <sub>2</sub> ( ''brucite'') kristalisasi karo struktur lapisan cadmium iodida, kanthi saka ion [[Magnèsiyum|magnesium]] lan hidroksida. <ref name="wells5482">Wells, p.&nbsp;548</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Enoki|first=Toshiaki|last2=Tsujikawa|first2=Ikuji|year=1975|title=Magnetic Behaviours of a Random Magnet, Ni<sub>''p''</sub>Mg<sub>1−''p''</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>|url=https://archive.org/details/physical-society-of-japan-journal_1975-08_39_2/page/317|journal=Journal of the Physical Society of Japan|volume=39|issue=2|pages=317|bibcode=1975JPSJ...39..317E|doi=10.1143/JPSJ.39.317}}</ref> == Garam dhasar sing ngemot hidroksida == [[Barkas:SodiumHydroxide.jpg|jmpl|Wujud saka sodium hidroksida]] Ing sawétara kasus, produk hidrolisis parsial ion logam, sing diandharaké ing ndhuwur, bisa ditemokaké ing senyawa kristal. Conto sing apik ditemokaké karo [[Sirkon (Zirkon)|zirkonium]] (IV). Amarga kahanan oksidasi dhuwur, uyah saka Zr <sup>4+</sup> dihidrolisis kanthi akèh ing [[banyu]] sanajan ing suhu sithik. Senyawa kasebut asline diformulasi dadi ZrOCl <sub>2</sub> · 8H <sub>2</sub> O ditemokaké minangka uyah klorida kation tetramerik [Zr <sub>4</sub> (OH) <sub>8</sub> (H <sub>2</sub> O) <sub>16</sub> ] <sup>8+</sup> ing endi ana alun-alun ion Zr <sup>4+</sup> kanthi rong klompok hidroksida nyembul ing antarané atom Zr ing saben sisih alun-alun lan kanthi papat molekul banyu dipasang ing saben atom Zr. <ref name="wells561">Wells, p.&nbsp;561</ref> Malachit mineral minangka conto khas karbonat dhasar. Formula, Cu <sub>2</sub> CO <sub>3</sub> (OH) <sub>2</sub> nuduhaké manawa ana ing antarané satengahing tembaga karbonat lan tembaga hidroksida. Pancen, biyèn formula kasebut ditulis dadi CuCO <sub>3</sub> · Cu (OH) <sub>2</sub> . Struktur kristal digawé saka tembaga, karbonat lan ion hidroksida. <ref name="wells5612">Wells, p.&nbsp;561</ref> ''Atacamite'' mineral minangka conto klorida dhasar. Nduwé formula, Cu <sub>2</sub> Cl (OH) <sub>3</sub> . Ing kasus iki, komposisi luwih cedhak karo hidroksida tinimbang klorida CuCl <sub>2</sub> · 3Cu (OH) <sub>2</sub> . <ref>Wells, p.&nbsp;393</ref> Tembaga mbentuk hidroksifosfat ( libethenite ), arsenat ( olivenite ), sulfat ( brochantite ), lan senyawa nitrat. Timah putih minangka karbonat timbal dhasar, (PbCO <sub>3</sub> ) <sub>2</sub> · Pb (OH) <sub>2</sub>, sing wis digunakaké minangka pigmen putih amarga kualitas buram, sanajan panggunaané saiki diwatesi amarga bisa dadi sumber keracunan timah. <ref name="wells5612" /> == Guna hidroksida == [[Barkas:Sodium_hydroxide_solution.jpg|jmpl|Larutan sodium hiroksida]] Larutan sodium hidroksida, uga dikenal minangka lindi lan soda kaustik, digunakaké ing produksi pulp lan [[Dluwang|kertas]], [[Kain|tekstil]], banyu ombé, [[sabun]] lan [[Déterjèn|deterjen]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dbpedia.cs.ui.ac.id/page/Natrium_hidroksida|title=About: Natrium hidroksida|website=dbpedia.cs.ui.ac.id|access-date=2021-04-22|archive-date=2021-04-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424122631/http://dbpedia.cs.ui.ac.id/page/Natrium_hidroksida|url-status=dead}}</ref> Cara pangolahan utama ya iku proses kloralkali. == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Kimiya]] akhooba5mdtawyv595z6u1v4uivscat Hiyu macan 0 177531 1752892 1739052 2026-08-20T04:23:13Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752892 wikitext text/x-wiki {{speciesbox|name=Tiger shark|fossil_range={{Fossil range|23|0|}} <small>Early [[Miocene]] – present<ref>{{cite web|title=Fossilworks Galeocerdo cuvier Peron and LeSueur 1822 (tiger shark)|url=http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=83185|access-date=2021-04-25|archive-date=2020-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731143926/http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=83185|url-status=dead}}</ref></small>|image=Tiger shark.jpg|image2=Tiger shark size.svg|status=NT|status_system=IUCN3.1|status_ref=<ref name=iucn/>|genus=Galeocerdo|species=cuvier|authority=[[François Péron|Péron]] & [[Charles Alexandre Lesueur|Lesueur]], 1822|range_map=Cypron-Range Galeocerdo cuvier.svg|range_map_caption=Tiger shark range|synonyms=''Squalus cuvier''<small>[[François Péron|Peron]] and [[Charles Alexandre Lesueur|Lesueur]], 1822</small><br />''Galeocerdo tigrinus'' <small>[[Johannes Peter Müller|Müller]] and [[Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle|Henle]], 1837</small>}} '''Hiyu macan''' (''Galeocerdo cuvier'' <ref name="ITIS">{{Cite web|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=160189|title=ITIS Report – ''Galeocerdo cuvier''|website=Integrated Taxonomic Information System!|access-date=30 December 2015}}</ref>) ya iku kéwan spésies hiyu ''Requiem'' lan siji-sijiné anggota [[gènus]] '''''Galeocerdo'''''. Iki minangka makroprédator gedhé, sing bisa nggayuh dawa luwih saka {{Convert|5|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}}. Populasi ditemokaké ing pirang-pirang [[Tropika|perairan tropis]] lan sedeng, utamané ing sekitar pulau-pulau [[Samodra Pasifik|Pasifik tengah.]] Jeneng kasebut asalé saka garis-garis peteng ing awaké, sing mirip pola [[macan]], nanging sirna nalika hiyu dadi dhiwasa. Hiyu iki bisa dikenali saka karakteristik untu sing bentuké sabit sing padha ing rahang dhuwur lan ngisor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marinebio.org/species/tiger-sharks/galeocerdo-cuvier/|title=Tiger Sharks ~ MarineBio Conservation Society|language=en-US|access-date=2021-04-27}}</ref> Hiyu macan minangka pemburu sing dhèwèkan, biasané ing wayah wengi utawa nokturnal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.macaubiodiversity.org/galeocerdo-cuvier?name=galeocerdo-cuvier|title=Galeocerdo cuvier|date=2015-03-19|website=Macau Biodiversity|language=en-US|access-date=2021-04-30}}</ref> Iki misuwur amarga duwé spektrum panganan paling wiyar saka kabèh hiu, kanthi macem-macem mangsa sing kalebu [[krustaséa]], [[iwak]], [[manuk]], [[Juwi|cumi]], [[Bulus|kura-kura]], ula sagara, [[lumba-lumba]], lan hiyu liyané sing luwih cilik. Uga duwé reputasi minangka "pamangan sampah", merga ngonsumsi macem-macem barang-barang gawénan manungsa sing isih ana ing wetengé. Sanajan predator puncak, hiyu macan kadhang kala dimangsa dening klompok paus pembunuh.<ref name="killerwhales">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uqimOYOQjJ8 Video of Killer Whales killing and devouring a Tiger Shark]</ref> Iki dianggep minangka [[Spesies jroning bebaya cures|spesies sing]] mèh ngancam amarga pamburunan lan pamancingan dening manungsa. == Panjlèntrèhan hiyu macan == Hiyu macan umumé entuk dawa {{Convert|3.25|-|4.25|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}} lan boboté udakara {{Convert|385|-|635|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Dimorpik, mawa wanita sing biasané {{Convert|5|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}}, lan lanang paling gedhé {{Convert|4|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}} . Bobot hiyu macan wanita gedhé bisa ngluwihi {{Convert|900|kg|lb|abbr=on}} .<ref>Hinman, B. (2015).</ref><ref>Ramirez, F., & Davenport, T. L. (2013).</ref> Siji hiu wanita meteng sing kejiret saka Australia dilaporaké ngukur {{Convert|5.5|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}} dawa lan boboté {{Convert|1524|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Malah kena sing durung dikonfirmasi luwih gedhé wis diklaim.<ref name="Wood">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood|title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats|last=Wood|first=Gerald|year=1983|isbn=978-0-85112-235-9|url-access=registration}}</ref> Sawetara makalah nampa cathetan {{Convert|7.4|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}} dawa kanggo hiyu macan, nanging amarga iki luwih gedhé tinimbang spesimèn sing ditliti kanthi ilmiah, isih butuh verifikasi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simpfendorfer|first=C. A.|last2=Goodreid|first2=A. B.|last3=McAuley|first3=R. B.|year=2001|title=Size, sex and geographic variation in the diet of the tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvier, from Western Australian waters|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_environmental-biology-of-fishes_2001-05_61_1/page/n42|journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes|volume=61|issue=1|pages=37–46|doi=10.1023/A:1011021710183}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tobuni|first=I. M.|last2=Benabdallah|first2=B. A. R.|last3=Serena|first3=F.|last4=Shakman|first4=E. A.|year=2016|title=First documented presence of Galeocerdo cuvier (Péron & Lesueur, 1822) ({{sc|Elasmobranchii}}, {{sc|Carcharhinidae}}) in the Mediterranean basin (Libyan waters)|journal=Marine Biodiversity Records|volume=9|issue=1|pages=94|doi=10.1186/s41200-016-0089-3|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Barkas:Tigershark.JPG|jmpl|Hiu macan saka cedhak]] Hiyu ora duwé kelopak mata ndhuwur utawa ngisor sing bisa dipindhah, nanging hiyu macan ing antarané hiyu liyané, duwé membran, kelopak mata sing bening sing bisa nutupi mripat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dspace.mote.org/bitstream/2075/3090/1/MTR%20A-1970b.pdf|title=Studies on the anatomy, physiology, and behavior of sharks|last=Gilbert|first=Perry W.|date=1970|website=[[Mote Marine Laboratory]]|access-date=March 12, 2018|archive-date=March 13, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313153607/https://dspace.mote.org/bitstream/2075/3090/1/MTR%20A-1970b.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Lapisan reflektif ing mburi [[retina]] hiyu macan, sing diarani ''tapetum lucidum,'' ngidini sel sensor cahya minangka kesempatan kaping pindho kanggo njupuk [[foton]] cahya sing bisa dideleng. Iki nambah sesanti ing kahanan sithik.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Communication in Fishes|last=Hart|first=Nathan S.|last2=Lisney|first2=Thomas J.|last3=Collin|first3=Shaun P.|date=2006|publisher=Science Publishers|isbn=9781578084067|editor-last=Ladich|editor-first=Friedrich|location=Enfield, NH|pages=346–347|chapter=Visual Communication in Elasmobranchs|oclc=63187557|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37629037}}</ref> == Habitat hiyu macan == Hiyu macan asring ditemokaké cedhak karo pesisir, utamané ing [[Tropika|perairan tropis]] lan [[subtropis]] ing saindenging jagad. Tumindaké utamané nomaden, nanging dipandu arus panas, lan luwih cedhak karo khatulistiwa sajrone wulan. Cenderung tetep ana ing jero banyu sing ana karang, nanging bisa pindhah menyang saluran kanggo nggoleki mangsa ing banyu sing luwih cethek. Hiu macan nglakoni kurang luwih 36% wektuné ing pesisir sing cethék.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Galeocerdo_cuvier/|title=Galeocerdo cuvier (Leopard shark)|last=Draper|first=Kyah|website=Animal Diversity Web|language=en|access-date=2021-04-26}}</ref> [[Samodra Pasifik|Ing Samodra Pasifik]] sisih kulon, hiyu wis ditemokaké ing sisih lor [[Jepang]] lan ing sisih kidul [[Niu Sélan|Selandia Anyar]] . Uga wis direkam ing Mediterania, sapisan ing sisih Spanyol lan sawise ing Sisilia.<ref name="ciesm">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ciesm.org/atlas/Galeocerdocuvier.php|title=Galeocer''do cuvier''|website=CIESM Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea|publisher=CIESM|access-date=15 January 2017}}</ref> Hiyu macan bisa dideleng ing Teluk Meksiko, pesisir Amerika Lor, lan bagéan Amerika Selatan. Uga umumé didelok ing Laut Karibia. Lokasi liya sing katon hiyu macan kalebu ing Afrika, Tiongkok, [[Indhi|India]], [[Ostrali|Australia]], lan [[Indonésia|Indonesia]]. Hiu macan ngalami migrasi musiman. Dhèwèké pindhah menyang perairan sedhengan nganti tropis sing luwih anget pirang-pirang wulan lan bali menyang tropis nalika musim salju. Dhèwèké uga nggawé migrasi samodra dawa ing antarané pulau lan bisa lelungan jarak adoh sajroné wektu sing cendhak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/galeocerdo-cuvier/|title=Galeocerdo cuvier|date=2017-05-08|website=Florida Museum|language=en-US|access-date=2021-04-26}}</ref> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Kéwan sagara]] sawvl2hd7ucrwlxeq6o343eqonp7yqd Tèknik pangan 0 177576 1752853 1556002 2026-08-20T03:11:55Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752853 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg|jmpl|Pabrik roti ing Jerman.]] '''Tèknik pangan''' minangka bidang ilmiah, akademik, lan profesional sing nginterpresi lan ngetrapaké prinsip tèknik, èlmu pengetahuan, lan [[matematika]] kanggo manufaktur lan pangoperasi panganan, kalebu prosès, prodhuksi, penanganan, panyimpenan, konservasi, kontrol, pengepakan lan distribusi prodhuk panganan.<ref name=":04">{{Citation|last=Heldman|first=Dennis R.|title=The Beginning, Current, and Future of Food Engineering: A Perspective|date=2010|url=https://link-springer-com.libproxy1.usc.edu/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-7475-4_1|pages=3–18|periodical=Food Engineering Series|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer New York|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-7475-4_1|isbn=978-1-4419-7474-7|access-date=2020-11-01|last2=Lund|first2=Daryl B.}}</ref> <ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/food-engineering.aspx|title=EOLSS eBook - Food Engineering|website=www.eolss.net|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> Amarga katergantungan ing èlmu pangan lan disiplin tèknik sing luwih jembar kayata tèknik listrik, mekanik, sipil, kimia, indhustri lan tèknik pertanian, tèknik panganan dianggep minangka lapangan multidisiplin lan kawates.<ref name=":04" /> Amarga bahan panganan sing komplèks, rekayasa panganan uga nggabungaké panelitian konsep kimia lan fisik sing luwih spesifik kayata [[biokimia]], mikrobiologi, kimia pangan, termodinamika, fenomena transportasi, reologi, lan transfer panas <ref name=":14" /> Insinyur panganan ngetrapaké èlmu iki kanggo desain, prodhuksi, lan komersialisasi bahan lan bahan sing berkelanjutan, aman, nutrisi, sehat, becik, terjangkau lan berkualitas, uga kanggo pangembangan sistem pangan, [[mesin]], lan instrumèntasi.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Saguy|first=I. Sam|last2=Roos|first2=Yrjö H.|last3=Cohen|first3=Eli|date=2018-06-01|title=Food engineering and food science and technology: Forward-looking journey to future new horizons|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S146685641830119X|journal=Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies|language=en|volume=47|pages=326–334|doi=10.1016/j.ifset.2018.03.001|issn=1466-8564}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi-org.libproxy1.usc.edu/10.1201/9781315366258|title=Food Engineering|last=Meghwal|first=Murlidhar|date=2016-11-18|doi=10.1201/9781315366258}}</ref> == Sejarah tèknik pangan == Sanajan tèknik pangan minangka bidang studi sing relatif anyar lan berkembang, adhedhasar konsep lan kegiatan sing wis suwé. <ref name=":042">{{Citation|last=Heldman|first=Dennis R.|title=The Beginning, Current, and Future of Food Engineering: A Perspective|date=2010|url=https://link-springer-com.libproxy1.usc.edu/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-7475-4_1|pages=3–18|periodical=Food Engineering Series|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer New York|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-7475-4_1|isbn=978-1-4419-7474-7|access-date=2020-11-01|last2=Lund|first2=Daryl B.}}</ref> Fokus tradisional rekayasa panganan yaiku nglestarekaké, sing nyakup stabilisasi lan sterilisasi panganan, nyegah panganan iku rusak, lan njaga nutrisi ing panganan sajroné wektu sing suwé. <ref name=":33">{{Citation|last=Boom|first=R. M.|title=Food Engineering|date=2014-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444525123000607|pages=154–166|editor-last=Van Alfen|editor-first=Neal K.|periodical=Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems|place=Oxford|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-52512-3.00060-7|isbn=978-0-08-093139-5|access-date=2020-11-01|last2=Janssen|first2=A. E. M.}}</ref> Kegiatan tradisional sing luwih spesifik kalebu dehidrasi lan konsentrasi panganan, kemasan protèktif, pengalèngan lan pangeringan beku. Pangembangan tèknologi panganan dipengaruhi banget lan disengkuyung dening perang lan pelayaran sing dawa, kalebu misi luar angkasa, ing endi panganan awet lan [[nutrisi]] penting kanggo urip. <ref name=":142">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/food-engineering.aspx|title=EOLSS eBook - Food Engineering|website=www.eolss.net|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> Kegiatan kuno liyané kalebu prosès panggilingan, panyimpenan, lan [[fermentasi]]. <ref name=":142" /> Sanajan sawetara kegiyatan tradisional tetep dadi perhatian lan dadi dhasar tèknologi lan inovasi saiki, fokus rekayasa panganan bubar wis ganti kualitas pangan, keamanan, rasa, kesehatan lan kelangsungan. <ref name=":142" /> <ref name=":33" /> == Pendhidhikan lan palatihan == [[Barkas:Education_and_Training.jpg|jmpl|244x244px|Siswa makarya ing laboratorium ilmu pangan.]] Ing taun 1950-an, rekayasa panganan njedul minangka disiplin akademik, <ref name=":143">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/food-engineering.aspx|title=EOLSS eBook - Food Engineering|website=www.eolss.net|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> nalika sawetara universitas ing Amerika Serikat nyakup èlmu pangan lan tèknologi panganan ing kurikulum, lan karya-karya penting ing rekayasa panganan muncul. <ref name=":143" /> Saiki, institusi pendhidhikan ing saindenging jagad nawakaké gelar sarjana, master, lan gelar doktor ing tèknik pangan. Nanging, amarga karakteristik rekayasa panganan sing unik, pelatihané luwih asring ditawakaké minangka cabang program sing luwih jembar babagan èlmu pangan, tèknologi panganan, biotèknologi, utawa tèknik pertanian lan kimia. <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Roos|first=Yrjö H.|last2=Fryer|first2=Peter J.|last3=Knorr|first3=Dietrich|last4=Schuchmann|first4=Heike P.|last5=Schroën|first5=Karin|last6=Schutyser|first6=Maarten A. I.|last7=Trystram|first7=Gilles|last8=Windhab|first8=Erich J.|date=2015-06-03|title=Food Engineering at Multiple Scales: Case Studies, Challenges and the Future—A European Perspective|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12393-015-9125-z|journal=Food Engineering Reviews|volume=8|issue=2|pages=91–115|doi=10.1007/s12393-015-9125-z|issn=1866-7910}}</ref> Ing kasus liyané, institusi nawakaké pendhidhikan tèknik rekayasa liwat konsentrasilan spesialisasi. Calon rekayasa panganan nampa pelatihan multidisiplin ing bidang kayata matématika, [[kimia]], biokimia, [[Fisika|fisika,]] mikrobiologi, nutrisi, lan hukum. Rekayasa panganan isih akèh lan berkembang dadi bidang studi, lan kurikulum akademik terus berkembang. Program rekayasa panganan mbesuk bisa diganti amarga ana tantangan ing industri panganan, kalebu bio-ekonomi, keamanan pangan, tuwuhing penduduk, keamanan pangan, ngowahi prilaku mangan, [[globalisasi]], perubahan iklim, béya energi lan perubahan ilair antai, rega  fosil bahan bakar, lan kesinambungan. <ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Roos|first=Yrjö H.|last2=Fryer|first2=Peter J.|last3=Knorr|first3=Dietrich|last4=Schuchmann|first4=Heike P.|last5=Schroën|first5=Karin|last6=Schutyser|first6=Maarten A. I.|last7=Trystram|first7=Gilles|last8=Windhab|first8=Erich J.|date=2015-06-03|title=Food Engineering at Multiple Scales: Case Studies, Challenges and the Future—A European Perspective|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12393-015-9125-z|journal=Food Engineering Reviews|volume=8|issue=2|pages=91–115|doi=10.1007/s12393-015-9125-z|issn=1866-7910}}</ref> Kanggo ngatasi tantangan kasebut, sing mbutuhaké pangembangan prodhuk, layanan, lan prosès anyar, program akademik nggabungaké bentuk pelatihan sing inovatif lan praktis. <ref name=":02" /> Contoneé laboratorium inovasi, program riset, lan proyèk karo perusahaan panganan lan pabrikan peralatan diadopsi dening sawetara universitas. <ref name=":043">{{Citation|last=Heldman|first=Dennis R.|title=The Beginning, Current, and Future of Food Engineering: A Perspective|date=2010|url=https://link-springer-com.libproxy1.usc.edu/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-7475-4_1|pages=3–18|periodical=Food Engineering Series|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer New York|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-7475-4_1|isbn=978-1-4419-7474-7|access-date=2020-11-01|last2=Lund|first2=Daryl B.}}</ref> <ref name=":02" /> Kajaba iku, kompetisi lan kompetisi rekayasa panganan saka disiplin ilmiah liyané wis katon.<ref name=":02" /> Kanthi akèh panjaluk kanggo panganan sing aman, berkelanjutan, lan sehat, lan kanggo prosès lan kemasan sing ramah lingkungan, ana pasar kerja sing akèh kanggo calon karyawan tèknik pangan. Insinyur panganan umumé digunakaké dening industri panganan, akademi, lembaga pemerintah, pusat riset, perusahaan konsultasi, perusahaan farmasi, firma kesehatan, lan proyèk wirausaha. <ref name=":144">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eolss.net/ebooklib/bookinfo/food-engineering.aspx|title=EOLSS eBook - Food Engineering|website=www.eolss.net|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> <ref name=":32">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/955601763|title=Food Engineering: Emerging Issues, Modeling and Applications|last=Murlidhar|first=Meghwal|last2=Goyal|first2=Megh Raj|isbn=978-1-77188-369-6|location=Oakville, ON, Canada|oclc=955601763}}</ref> Deskripsi proyèk kalebu nanging ora diwatesi mung kanggo insinyur panganan, mikrobiologis panganan, biotèknologi, nutrisi, kemampuan lacak, keamanan pangan lan manajemen mutu. <ref name=":232">{{Cite journal|last=Saguy|first=I. Sam|last2=Roos|first2=Yrjö H.|last3=Cohen|first3=Eli|date=2018-06-01|title=Food engineering and food science and technology: Forward-looking journey to future new horizons|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S146685641830119X|journal=Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies|language=en|volume=47|pages=326–334|doi=10.1016/j.ifset.2018.03.001|issn=1466-8564}}</ref> == Tantangan tèknik pangan == === Kelestarian === Tèknik pangan nduwé pengaruh negatif marang lingkungan kayata emisi [[sampah]] sing akèh banget lan polusi banyu lan udara, sing kudu ditangani dening para insinyur panganan kanggo pengembangan prodhuksi lan prosès pamrosès mbesuk. Ilmuwan lan insinyur nyoba ing macem-macem cara kanggo nggawé prosès sing luwih apik kanggo nyuda polusi, nanging iki kudu terus ditingkataké supaya bisa entuk rantai pasokan panganan berkelanjutan. Insinyur panganan kudu ngevaluasi praktik lan tèknologi saiki kanggo fokus kanggo nambah prodhuktivitas lan efisiensi nalika nyuda konsumsi banyu lan energi, lan nyuda jumlah sampah sing diprodhuksi.<ref name=":332">{{Citation|last=Boom|first=R. M.|title=Food Engineering|date=2014-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444525123000607|pages=154–166|editor-last=Van Alfen|editor-first=Neal K.|periodical=Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems|place=Oxford|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-52512-3.00060-7|isbn=978-0-08-093139-5|access-date=2020-11-01|last2=Janssen|first2=A. E. M.}}</ref> === Tuwuh populasi === Sanajan pasokan panganan mundhak saben taun, uga ana panambahan jumlah wong sing luwé. [[Populasi]] donya samesthine bisa nggayuh 9-10 milyar wong ing taun 2050 lan masalah kekurangan gizi tetep dadi prioritas. <ref name=":333">{{Citation|last=Boom|first=R. M.|title=Food Engineering|date=2014-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444525123000607|pages=154–166|editor-last=Van Alfen|editor-first=Neal K.|periodical=Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems|place=Oxford|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-52512-3.00060-7|isbn=978-0-08-093139-5|access-date=2020-11-01|last2=Janssen|first2=A. E. M.}}</ref> Kanggo nggayuh keamanan pangan, para insinyur panganan diwajibaké ngatasi kekurangan banyu lan lahan supaya bisa tuwuh akèh lan panganan kanggo wong sing kurang gizi. <ref name=":333" /> Kajaba iku, prodhuksi panganan gumantung saka lahan lan pasokan banyu, sing ngalami stres amarga cacahing penduduk saya akèh. Ana tekanan akèh ing sumber daya lahan sing didhukung dening akèh populasi, sing nyebabaké ekspansi lahan panèn; iki biasané melu ngrusak alas lan eksploitasi lahan sing bisa ditanduri. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://toolkits.knowledgesuccess.org/toolkits/family-planning-advocacy/why-population-matters-food-security#:~:text=Almost%20one%20in%20seven%20people,healthy%20and%20lead%20active%20lives.&text=Increasing%20numbers%20of%20people%20often,of%20arable%20land%20and%20water.|title=Why Population Matters to Food Security {{!}} Toolkits|website=toolkits.knowledgesuccess.org|access-date=2020-11-02|archive-date=2020-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107111908/https://toolkits.knowledgesuccess.org/toolkits/family-planning-advocacy/why-population-matters-food-security#:~:text=Almost%20one%20in%20seven%20people,healthy%20and%20lead%20active%20lives.&text=Increasing%20numbers%20of%20people%20often,of%20arable%20land%20and%20water.|url-status=dead}}</ref> Para insinyur panganan ngadhepi tantangan kanggo nemokaké cara ngasilaké supaya bisa adaptasi karo populasi sing saya akèh. === Kesehatan manungsa === Para insinyur panganan kudu adaptasi [[tèknologi]] lan operasi panganan ing trèn konsumèn pungkasan tumrap konsumsi panganan sing sehat lan nutrisi. Kanggo nyuplai panganan kanthi kualitas kasebut, lan kanggo mupangat kesehatan manungsa, para insinyur panganan kudu kerja sama karo para profesional ing domain liyané kayata [[obat]], biokimia, kimia, lan konsumerisme. <ref name=":334">{{Citation|last=Boom|first=R. M.|title=Food Engineering|date=2014-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444525123000607|pages=154–166|editor-last=Van Alfen|editor-first=Neal K.|periodical=Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems|place=Oxford|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-52512-3.00060-7|isbn=978-0-08-093139-5|access-date=2020-11-01|last2=Janssen|first2=A. E. M.}}</ref> tèknologi lan praktik anyar kudu dikembangaké kanggo nambah prodhuksi panganan sing pengaruhé positif tumrap kesehatan manungsa. == Paripustaka == <references /> [[Kategori:Tèknik]] ga1e5v07ihzez5c9jhiaiwk1jsqpckc Sabuk astéroid 0 177577 1753030 1748542 2026-08-20T08:31:37Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753030 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|jmpl|Sabuk astéroid]] '''Sabuk astéroid''' minangka dhaèrah sing bentuké torus ing [[Tata Surya]], dunungé kira-kira ing antarané orbit planèt-planèt [[Yupiter|Jupiter]] lan [[Mars]], sing dikuwasani dening akèh objèk sing bentuké ora teratur, kanthi cacah sing akèh nanging luwih cilik tinimbang planèt, sing diarani [[Asteroid|astéroid]] utawa planèt cilik. Sabuk astéroid iki uga diarani '''sabuk astéroid utama''' utawa '''sabuk utama''' kanggo mbedakaké karo populasi astéroid liyané ing Tata Surya kayata astéroid cedhak [[Bumi]] lan astéroid trojan.<ref name="Williams2">{{Cite news|url=http://www.universetoday.com/32856/asteroid-belt/|title=What is the Asteroid Belt?|last=Matt Williams|date=2015-08-23|work=Universe Today|access-date=2016-01-30}}</ref> Udakara setengah massa sabuk ana ing patang astéroid paling gedhé: [[Ceres]], [[4 Vesta|Vesta]], [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], lan [[10 Hygiea|Hygiea]].<ref name="Williams2"/> Total massa sabuk astéroid udakara 4% saka [[Rembulan]]. Ceres, siji-sijné obyèk ing sabuk astéroid sing cukup gedhè dadi [[planèt cilik]], udakara dhiamèter 950&nbsp;km, déné Vesta, Pallas, lan Hygiea duwé dhiamèter dhiamèter kurang saka 600&nbsp;km <ref name="Krasinskyetal2002">{{Cite journal|last=Krasinsky|first=G. A.|author-link=Georgij A. Krasinsky|last2=Pitjeva, E. V.|author-link2=Elena V. Pitjeva|last3=Vasilyev, M. V.|last4=Yagudina, E. I.|date=July 2002|title=Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt|journal=Icarus|volume=158|issue=1|pages=98–105|bibcode=2002Icar..158...98K|doi=10.1006/icar.2002.6837}}</ref><ref name="Pitjeva2005">{{Cite journal|last=Pitjeva|first=E. V.|author-link=Elena V. Pitjeva|date=2005|title=High-Precision Ephemerides of Planets—EPM and Determination of Some Astronomical Constants|url=http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/EPM2004.pdf|journal=Solar System Research|volume=39|issue=3|pages=176–186|bibcode=2005SoSyR..39..176P|doi=10.1007/s11208-005-0033-2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703074335/http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/EPM2004.pdf|archive-date=July 3, 2014}}</ref><ref name="halfmass">For recent estimates of the masses of Ceres, Vesta, Pallas and Hygiea, see the references in the infoboxes of their respective articles.</ref><ref name="jplsbdb">{{Cite web|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi|title=JPL Small-Body Database Browser|last=Yeomans|first=Donald K.|date=July 13, 2006|publisher=NASA JPL|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929043420/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi|archive-date=29 September 2010|access-date=2010-09-27}}</ref> Ana uga sing ukurané cilik nganti partikel bledug. Bahan astéroid kasebut kesebar kanthi tipis nganti pirang-pirang pesawat ruang angkasa tanpa kendaraan luar angkasa sing nyebrang.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.universetoday.com/110276/why-the-asteroid-belt-doesnt-threaten-spacecraft/|title=Why the Asteroid Belt Doesn't Threaten Spacecraft|last=Brian Koberlein|date=2014-03-12|work=Universe Today|access-date=2016-01-30}}</ref> Nanging, tabrakan ing antarané astéroid gedhè bisa kedadèyan, lan iki bisa ngasilaké kulawarga astéroid sing anggotané duwé ciri lan komposisi orbit sing padha. Astéroid individu ing sabuk astéroid dikategorikaké karo [[Spektrum|spektra]], sing umumé dadi telung klompok dhasar: [[karbon]]at (tipe C), silikat (tipe S), lan kaya logam (jinis M). Sabuk astéroid dibentuk saka nebula surya primordial minangka klompok planètesimal.<ref name="CosmosUp">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cosmosup.com/how-did-the-asteroid-belt-form/|title=How Did The Asteroid Belt Form? Was There A Planet There?|date=2016-01-17|publisher=CosmosUp|access-date=2016-01-30|archive-date=2018-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206114730/http://www.cosmosup.com/how-did-the-asteroid-belt-form/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Planètesimal minangka prekursor cilik saka [[protoplanèt]] . Antarané Mars lan Yupiter, Nanging, [[gravitasi]] gangguan saka Jupiter ing protoplanèt karo ènèrgi orbit pener kanggo obah menyang planèt.<ref name="CosmosUp" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.space.com/16105-asteroid-belt.html|title=Asteroid Belt: Facts & Information|last=Nola Taylor Redd|date=2012-06-11|website=Space.com|access-date=2016-01-30}}</ref> Tabrakan kadhang dadi gedhe banget, lan ora nyawiji, planètesimal lan umumé protoplanèt pecah. Asilé, 99,9% massa asli sabuk astéroid ilang ing 100 wiwitan&nbsp;yuta taun sejarah Tata Surya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/sculpting-the-asteroid-belt/|title=Sculpting the Asteroid Belt|last=Beatty|first=Kelly|date=March 10, 2009|publisher=Sky & Telescope|access-date=2014-04-30}}</ref> Sawetara fragmen pungkasané lumebu ing Tata Surya njero, sing nyebabaké pengaruh [[meteorit]] karo planèt-planèt njero. Orbit astéroid tetep bakal ganggu nalika periode révolusi srengéngé  mbentuk résonansi orbit karo Jupiter. Ing jarak orbit kasebut, celah Kirkwood kedadéyan merga disapu ing orbit liya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Delgrande|first=J. J.|last2=Soanes|first2=S. V.|date=1943|title=Kirkwood's Gap in the Asteroid Orbits|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-royal-astronomical-society-of-canada_1943-05_37_5/page/187|journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada|volume=37|pages=187|bibcode=1943JRASC..37..187D}}</ref> Kelas tata Surya cilik ing wilayah liyané yaiku obyèk sing cedhak karo Bumi, centaurus, obyèk [[sabuk Kuiper]], obyèk disk sing nyebar, ''sednoid'', lan obyèk [[Méga Oort|mega Oort.]] Ing tanggal 22 Januari 2014, ilmuwan ESA nglaporaké deteksi, kanggo wektu definitif pertama, [[Uwab banyu|uap banyu]] ing Ceres, obyèk sing paling gedhè ing sabuk astéroid.<ref name="KüppersO’Rourke2014">{{Cite journal|last=Küppers|first=Michael|last2=O’Rourke|first2=Laurence|last3=Bockelée-Morvan|first3=Dominique|last4=Zakharov|first4=Vladimir|last5=Lee|first5=Seungwon|last6=von Allmen|first6=Paul|last7=Carry|first7=Benoît|last8=Teyssier|first8=David|last9=Marston|first9=Anthony|date=2014|title=Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres|journal=Nature|volume=505|issue=7484|pages=525–527|bibcode=2014Natur.505..525K|doi=10.1038/nature12918|issn=0028-0836|pmid=24451541}}</ref> Deteksi kasebut digawé kanthi nggunakaké kemampuan inframerah sing adoh saka ''Observatorium Herschel Space''.<ref name="NASA-20140122">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/january/herschel-telescope-detects-water-on-dwarf-planet|title=Herschel Telescope Detects Water on Dwarf Planet – Release 14-021|last=Harrington|first=J. D.|date=22 January 2014|website=[[NASA]]|access-date=22 January 2014}}</ref> Panemuan kasebut ora dikarepaké amarga [[Komèt|komet]], dudu astéroid, biasané dianggep "''jet sprout and plume''". Miturut salah sawijining ilmuwan, "Garis kasebut saya saya kabur ing antarané komet lan astéroid".<ref name="NASA-20140122" /> == Sejarah sabuk astéroid == Ing taun 1596, [[Johannes Kepler]] prédhiksi "Antarané Mars lan Jupiter, iku ana papan planèt" ing ''Mysterium Cosmographicum'' .<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/1_hist_dawn/history_discovery/Exploration/fb_jupiter_mars.pdf|title=Dawn: Between Jupiter and Mars [sic], I Place a Planet|publisher=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]}}</ref> Nalika nganalisa data [[Tycho Brahe]], Kepler mikir manawa ana celah sing gedhè banget antarané orbit Mars lan Jupiter.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TMcWJwAyFkC&pg=PA5|title=The Dawn Mission to Minor Planets 4 Vesta and 1 Ceres|date=2012|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|isbn=978-1-4614-4902-7|editor-last=Russell|editor-first=Christopher|page=5|editor-last2=Raymond|editor-first2=Carol}}</ref> Ing cathetan dhasar anonim terjemahan 1766 saka ''Contemplation de la Nature'' saka Charles Bonnet,<ref name="asteroids2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/astronomical-applications/astronomical-information-center/minor-planets|title=When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?|last=Hilton, J.|date=2001|website=US Naval Observatory (USNO)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406222551/http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/astronomical-applications/astronomical-information-center/minor-planets/|archive-date=2012-04-06|access-date=2007-10-01}}</ref> astronom Johann Daniel Titius saka [[Wittenberg]] <ref name="Dawn">{{Cite web|url=http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/dawn/background.html|title=Dawn: A Journey to the Beginning of the Solar System|date=2005|website=Space Physics Center: UCLA|archive-url=https://archive.is/20120524184638/http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/dawn/background.html|archive-date=2012-05-24|access-date=2007-11-03}}</ref><ref name="Hoskin">{{Cite web|url=http://www.astropa.unipa.it/HISTORY/hoskin.html|title=Bode's Law and the Discovery of Ceres|last=Hoskin, Michael|website=Churchill College, Cambridge|access-date=2010-07-12|archive-date=2011-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522214414/http://www.astropa.unipa.it/HISTORY/hoskin.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> nyathet pola sing jelas ing tata letak planèt-planèt, sing saiki dikenal minangka Titius -Undang Hukum. Yèn ana sing miwiti urutan angka ing 0, mula 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, lan liya-liyane, tikel kaping pindho, lan ditambahaké papat kanggo saben nomer lan dibagi 10, iki ngasilaké cedhak radiasi orbit planèt-planèt dikenal minangka diukur ing [[Satuan astronomi|Unit astronomi]] mbebasaké kanggo "planèt ilang" (padha karo kanggo 24 ing urutan) antarané orbit Mars (12) lan Yupiter (48). Ing cathetan ngisor, Titius mratelakaké "Nanging apa Arsitek Lord ngiwa ruang kasebut kosong? Ora babar pisan." <ref name="Dawn" /> Nalika [[William Herschel]] nemokaké [[Uranus]] ing taun 1781, orbit planèt iki cocog karo ukum kasebut kanthi sampurna, saengga para astronom nyimpulaké manawa ana planèt ing antara orbit Mars lan Yupiter. Ing tanggal 1 Januari 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi, ketua astronomi ing Universitas Palermo, Sisilia, nemokaké obyèk obah cilik ing orbit kanthi radius sing diprediksi pola iki. Dhèwèké diarani "Ceres", sawisé dewi Roma panen lan pelindung Sisilia. Piazzi wiwitané yakin bisa dadi komet, nanging koma ora ana tegese yaiku planèt.<ref name="police">{{Cite journal|title=Call the police! The story behind the discovery of the asteroids|journal=Astronomy Now|issue=June 2007|pages=60–61}}</ref> Mulasaka pola kasebut ing ndhuwur, prakiraan sumbu semi-utama kabeh wolung planet nalika semana (Merkurius, Venus, Bumi, Mars, Ceres, Jupiter, Saturnus lan Uranus). Miturut iku, ing taun 1802, William Herschel nyaranaké supaya dilebokaké ing kategori sing kapisah, dijenengi "astéroid", sawisé jeneng Yunani ''asteroeides'', tegese "kaya lintang".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=asteroid&searchmode=none|title=Asteroid|last=Harper|first=Douglas|date=2010|website=Online Etymology Dictionary|publisher=Etymology Online|access-date=2011-04-15}}</ref><ref name="aster-root">{{Cite web|url=http://www.msu.edu/~defores1/gre/roots/gre_rts_afx2.htm|title=Greek and Latin Roots|last=DeForest, Jessica|date=2000|publisher=Michigan State University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070812155525/http://www.msu.edu/~defores1/gre/roots/gre_rts_afx2.htm|archive-date=12 August 2007|access-date=2007-07-25}}</ref> Ing taun 1807, investigasi luwih lanjut nuduhaké rong obyèk anyar ing wilayah kasebut: Juno lan [[4 Vesta|Vesta]] .<ref name="serendipity">{{Cite web|url=http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnCommunity/flashbacks/fb_06.asp|title=Astronomical Serendipity|last=Staff|date=2002|publisher=NASA JPL|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206235537/http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnCommunity/flashbacks/fb_06.asp|archive-date=2012-02-06|access-date=2007-04-20}}</ref> Pembakaran Lilienthal ing [[Paprangan Jaman Napoleon|perang Napoleon]], ing ngendi awak kerja utama wis rampung,<ref>Linda T. Elkins-Tanton, ''Asteroids, Meteorites, and Comets'', 2010:10</ref> penemuan periode pertama iki.<ref name="serendipity" /> Sanajan koin Herschel, sajrone pirang-pirang dekade, isih praktik umum kanggo nyebut obyèk kasebut minangka planèt <ref name="asteroids2"/> lan menehi prefiks jenenge kanthi nomer sing makili urutan panemuan:&nbsp;Ceres, 2&nbsp;Pallas, 3&nbsp;Juno, 4&nbsp;Vesta. Nanging, ing taun 1845 para astronom ndeteksi obyèk kaping lima ( 5 Astraea ) lan, ora suwé sawisé iku, obyèk-obyèk anyar ditemokaké kanthi laju. Cacah ing antarané planèt dadi saya rumit. Pungkasane, dhèwèké mudhun saka dhaptar planèt (kaya sing disaranaké pisanan dening [[Alexander von Humor|Alexander von Humboldt]] ing wiwitan taun 1850-an) lan pilihan nomenklatur Herschel, "astéroid", kanthi bertahap digunakake.<ref name="asteroids2"/> Panemuan [[Neptunus]] ing taun 1846 nyebabaké diskriminasi ukum Titius – Bode ing paningalan para ilmuwan amarga orbit kasebut ora ana cedhak karo posisi sing dipredhiksi. Nganti saiki, ora ana panjelasan ilmiah babagan hukum kasebut, lan konsensus para astronom nganggep kasebut minangka kebetulan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.astronomy.com/magazine/ask-astro/2006/10/is-it-a-coincidence-that-most-of-the-planets-fall-within-the-titius-bode-laws-boundaries|title=Is it a coincidence that most of the planets fall within the Titius-Bode law's boundaries?|website=astronomy.com|access-date=2014-01-22}}</ref> Satus astéroid wis ditemokaké ing pertengahan taun 1868, lan ing taun 1891 introduksi astrofotografi dening Max Wolf nyepetaké tingkat panemuan isih luwih dawa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.open2.net/sciencetechnologynature/planetsbeyond/asteroids/history.html|title=A Brief History of Asteroid Spotting|last=Hughes|first=David W.|date=2007|publisher=BBC|access-date=2007-04-20|archive-date=2011-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611093414/http://www.open2.net/sciencetechnologynature/planetsbeyond/asteroids/history.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Gunggunge 1.000 astéroid ditemokaké ing taun 1921,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Patrick Moore's Data Book of Astronomy|last=Moore, Patrick|last2=Rees, Robin|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-89935-2|edition=2nd|page=156}}</ref> 10.000 taun 1981,<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S_d-gs0WoUw|title=Asteroid Discovery from 1980 to 2010|date=August 25, 2010|last=Manley, Scott|access-date=2011-04-15}}</ref> lan 100.000 ing taun 2000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/iau/lists/ArchiveStatistics.html|title=MPC Archive Statistics|publisher=IAU Minor Planet Center|access-date=2011-04-04}}</ref> Sistem survei astéroid modern saiki nggunakaké cara otomatis kanggo nemokaké planèt cilik anyar kanthi jumlah saya mundhak. == Paripustaka == <references /> [[Kategori:Tata Surya]] [[Kategori:Asteroid]] sk9illdsnwjvzdwbvarftwdcaxexp6o Kalium hidroksida 0 177614 1752970 1556189 2026-08-20T06:54:10Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752970 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Potassium_hydroxide.jpg|jmpl|Sampel kalium hidroksida]] '''Kalium hidroksida''' minangka senyawa anorganik kanthi rumus [[Kaliyum|K]][[Hidroksida|OH]], lan umumé diarani '''potas kaustik.''' Bebarengan karo natrium hidroksida (NaOH), padatan tanpa warna iki minangka basis prototipe sing kuat. Nduwéni akéh aplikasi indhustri lan ceruk, sing umumè nggunakaké sifat kaustik lan reaktivitas menyang [[asem]]. . Kira-kira 700.000 nganti 800.000 ton diprodhuksi ing taun 2005. KOH minangka bahan kang duwè kaluwihan kanggo [[sabun]] sing alus lan cair, uga akéh bahan kimia sing ngemot kalium. Iki minangka zat padhet putih sing mbebayani banget. Umumé conto komersial yaiku 90% murni, turahané yaiku banyu lan karbonat. <ref name="Ullmann2">{{Cite book|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|last=Schultz|first=Heinz|last2=Bauer|first2=Günter|last3=Schachl|first3=Erich|last4=Hagedorn|first4=Fritz|last5=Schmittinger|first5=Peter|publisher=Wiley-VCH|year=2005|isbn=978-3-527-30673-2|location=Weinheim, Germany|chapter=Potassium Compounds|doi=10.1002/14356007.a22_039}}</ref> == Sipat kalium hidroksida == Kalium hidroksida biasané didol minangka pelet tembus pandang, sing dadi hawa ing udara amarga KOH yaiku higroskopis. Akibate, KOH biasané ngemot [[banyu]] (uga karbonat). Kelarutan ing banyu kanthi eksotermik. Wektu ing banyu kadhangkala diceluk cairan alkali (''lye'') kalium. Sanajan suhu dhuwur, KOH padhet ora gampang dehidrasi. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Inorganic Chemistry|last=Holleman|first=A. F|last2=Wiberg|first2=E.|publisher=Academic Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-12-352651-9|location=San Diego}}</ref> [[Barkas:Hydroxyde_de_potassium.JPG|jmpl|Wujud kalium hidroksida]] == Guna kalium hidroksida == === Prekursor kanggo senyawa kalium liyané === Akéh uyah kalium disiapaké kanthi reaksi netralaké sing ana gandhengané karo KOH. Garam kalium karbonat, sianida, permanganat, fosfat, lan macem-macem silikat disiapaké kanthi ngobati oksida utawa asam karo KOH. <ref name="Ullmann">{{Cite book|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|last=Schultz|first=Heinz|last2=Bauer|first2=Günter|last3=Schachl|first3=Erich|last4=Hagedorn|first4=Fritz|last5=Schmittinger|first5=Peter|publisher=Wiley-VCH|year=2005|isbn=978-3-527-30673-2|location=Weinheim, Germany|chapter=Potassium Compounds|doi=10.1002/14356007.a22_039}}</ref> Kelarutan kalium fosfat sing dhuwur dikarepaké kanggo [[Rabuk|pupuk]] . === Indhustri sabun sing alus === Saponifikasi [[Gajih|lemak]] karo KOH digunakaké kanggo nyepakaké " [[sabun]] kalium" sing cocok, sing luwih alus tinimbang sabun sing diturunaké natrium hidroksida. Amarga kealusan lan kelarutan sing luwih gedhé, sabun kalium mbutuhaké banyu sithik kanggo dadi cair, mula bisa ngemot agén pangresik luwih akéh tinimbang sabun natrium cair. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|last=K. Schumann|last2=K. Siekmann|publisher=Wiley-VCH|year=2005|isbn=978-3527306732|location=Weinheim|chapter=Soaps|doi=10.1002/14356007.a24_247}}</ref> === Minangka èlèktrolit === Kalium hidroksida berair digunakaké minangka èlèktrolit ing baterai alkali adhedhasar [[nikel]] - [[kadmium]], [[nikel]] - [[hidrogen]], lan mangan dioksida - [[sèng]]. Kalium hidroksida luwih disenengi tinimbang natrium hidroksida amarga larutané luwih konduktif. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|last=D. Berndt|last2=D. Spahrbier|publisher=Wiley-VCH|year=2005|isbn=978-3527306732|location=Weinheim|chapter=Batteries|doi=10.1002/14356007.a03_343}}</ref> Baterai hidrida nikel-logam ing Toyota Prius nggunakaké campuran kalium hidroksida lan natrium hidroksida. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.toyota-tech.eu/HYBRID/ERG/EN/Prius%20ZVW30%20ERG.pdf|title=Toyota Prius Hybrid 2010 Model Emergency Response Guide|year=2009|publisher=Toyota Motor Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320175142/http://www.toyota-tech.eu/HYBRID/ERG/EN/Prius%20ZVW30%20ERG.pdf|archive-date=2012-03-20}}</ref> Baterai nikel-wesi uga nggunakaké èlèktrolit kalium hidroksida. === Indhustri pangan === Ing produk panganan, kalium hidroksida minangka panganan sing luwih kenthel, agén kontrol pH lan panganan sing stabil. FDA nganggep (minangka bahan panganan manungsa langsung) minangka umumé aman yen dikombinasikaké karo kondisi praktik manufaktur sing "becik". <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/potassium_hydroxide|title=Compound Summary for CID 14797 - Potassium Hydroxide|publisher=PubChem}}</ref> Dikenal ing sistem nomer E minangka '''E525'''. === Aplikasi ''Niche'' === Kaya natrium hidroksida, kalium hidroksida narik akéh aplikasi khusus, mèh kabèh gumantung karo sifat-sifat kasebut minangka basa kimia sing kuwat kanthi kemampuan ngrusak akéh bahan. Contonè, ing prosés sing umumé diarani "kremasi kimia" utawa "resomasi", kalium hidroksida nyepetaké dekomposisi jaringan alus, kéwan uga manungsa, supaya mung kari balung lan jaringan hard liyané. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Margaret|date=January 1952|title=A RAPID METHOD FOR CLEARING AND STAINING SPECIMENS FOR THE DEMONSTRATION OF BONE|url=https://archive.org/details/ohio-journal-of-science_1952-01_52_1/page/31|journal=The Ohio Journal of Science|volume=52|issue=1|pages=31–33}}</ref> [[Entomologi|Entomologis]] sing pengin sinau struktur [[anatomi]] kemangga sing apik bisa nggunakaké solusi banyu 10% KOH kanggo ngetrapaké prosés iki. <ref>{{Cite book|title=For the Love of Insects|last=Thomas Eisner|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2003|page=71}}</ref> Ing sintesis kimia, pilihan antarané panggunaan KOH lan panggunaan NaOH dipandu dening kelarutan utawa njaga kualitas uyah sing diasilaké Sifat korosif kalium hidroksida ndadekaké bahan sing migunani ing agén lan persiapan sing ngresiki lan permukaan lan bahan sing bisa nolak [[korosi]] dening KOH. <ref name="auto">Römpp Chemie-Lexikon, 9th Ed. (in German)</ref> == Paripustaka == <references /> [[Kategori:Kimiya]] sqcazekspcb3nwh7aos5dctx2vqefep Magnesium sulfat 0 177615 1752945 1630825 2026-08-20T05:32:39Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752945 wikitext text/x-wiki {{chembox | Verifiedfields = changed | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 476997098 | Name = Magnesium sulfate | ImageFile1 = Mgaq6SO4.svg | ImageCaption1 = hexahydrate | ImageFile2 = Magnesium sulfate anhydrous.jpg | ImageCaption2 = Anhydrous magnesium sulfate | ImageFile3 = Magnesium sulfate.JPG | ImageCaption3 = [[Epsomite]] (heptahydrate) | IUPACName = Magnesium sulfate | OtherNames = Epsom salt (heptahydrate)<br /> English salt<br />Bitter salts<br />Bath salts |Section1={{Chembox Identifiers | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = ML30MJ2U7I | UNII1_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII1 = E2L2TK027P | UNII1_Comment = (monohydrate) | UNII2_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII2 = SK47B8698T | UNII2_Comment = (heptahydrate) | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 1200456 | InChI = 1/Mg.H2O4S/c;1-5(2,3)4/h;(H2,1,2,3,4)/q+2;/p-2 | InChIKey = CSNNHWWHGAXBCP-NUQVWONBAQ | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB00653 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 32599 | SMILES = [Mg+2].[O-]S([O-])(=O)=O | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/Mg.H2O4S/c;1-5(2,3)4/h;(H2,1,2,3,4)/q+2;/p-2 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = CSNNHWWHGAXBCP-UHFFFAOYSA-L | CASNo = 7487-88-9 | CASNo_Comment = (anhydrous) | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo1_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} | CASNo1 = 14168-73-1 | CASNo1_Comment = (monohydrate) | CASNo2_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo2 = 24378-31-2 | CASNo2_Comment = (tetrahydrate) | CASNo3_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} | CASNo3 = 15553-21-6 | CASNo3_Comment = (pentahydrate) | CASNo4_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} | CASNo4 = 13778-97-7 | CASNo4_Comment = (hexahydrate) | CASNo5_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo5 = 10034-99-8 | CASNo5_Comment = (heptahydrate) | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 22515 | PubChem = 24083 | EINECS = | RTECS = OM4500000 }} |Section2={{Chembox Properties | Formula = MgSO<sub>4</sub> | Appearance = white crystalline solid | Odor = odorless | Density = 2.66 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (anhydrous)<br /> 2.445 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (monohydrate)<br /> 1.68 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (heptahydrate)<br /> 1.512 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (11-hydrate) | MolarMass = 120.366 g/mol (anhydrous)<br />138.38 g/mol (monohydrate)<br />174.41 g/mol (trihydrate)<br />210.44 g/mol (pentahydrate)<br />228.46 g/mol (hexahydrate)<br />246.47 g/mol (heptahydrate) | Solubility = ''anhydrous''<br /> 26.9 g/100 mL (0&nbsp;°C)<br /> 35.1 g/100 mL (20&nbsp;°C)<br /> 50.2 g/100 mL (100&nbsp;°C) <hr /> ''heptahydrate''<br /> 113 g/100 mL (20&nbsp;°C) | SolubleOther = 1.16 g/100 mL (18&nbsp;°C, [[diethyl ether|ether]])<br /> slightly soluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[glycerol]]<br /> insoluble in [[acetone]] | MeltingPt = anhydrous decomposes at&nbsp;1,124&nbsp;°C<br />monohydrate decomposes at&nbsp;200&nbsp;°C<br />heptahydrate decomposes at&nbsp;150&nbsp;°C<br />undecahydrate decomposes at&nbsp;2&nbsp;°C | RefractIndex = 1.523 (monohydrate)<br /> 1.433 (heptahydrate) | MagSus = −50·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol }} |Section3={{Chembox Structure | Coordination = | CrystalStruct = [[monoclinic]] (hydrate) }} |Section6={{Chembox Pharmacology | ATCCode_prefix = A06 | ATCCode_suffix = AD04 | ATC_Supplemental = {{ATC|A12|CC02}} {{ATC|B05|XA05}} {{ATC|D11|AX05}} {{ATC|V04|CC02}} }} |Section7={{Chembox Hazards | ExternalSDS = [http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/m0234.htm External MSDS] | NFPA-H = 1 | NFPA-F = 0 | NFPA-R = 0 }} |Section8={{Chembox Related | OtherCations = [[Beryllium sulfate]]<br />[[Calcium sulfate]]<br />[[Strontium sulfate]]<br />[[Barium sulfate]] | OtherCompounds = }} }} [[Barkas:Magnesium_sulfate.JPG|jmpl|Sampel magnesium sulfat]] '''Magnesium sulfat''' utawa '''magnesium sulphate''' (ing basa Inggris Britania) minangka [[Senyawa Kimia|senyawa kimia]], uyah kanthi rumus {{Chem|MgSO|4}}, kalebu [[Ion|kation]] [[Magnèsiyum|magnesium]] {{chem|Mg|2+}} (20,19% kanthi massa) lan [[Ion|anion]] sulfat '''{{chem|SO|4|}}<sup>2-</sup>'''. Iki minangka kristal putih padhet, larut ing banyu nanging ora ana ing [[Étanol|etanol]]. Magnesium sulfat biasané ditemoni ing wangun saka hydrate {{chem|MgSO|4|·''n''H|2|O}} ,kanggo macem-macem nilai ''n'' antara 1 lan 11. Sing paling umum yaiku {{chem|MgSO|4|·7H|2|O}}, dikenal minangka '''uyah Epsom''', sing minangka bahan kimia rumah tangga sing akéh nggunakaké tradisional, kalebu uyah adus.<ref name="wsjdXXXX2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303302504577327722133289222|title=Quick Cures/Quack Cures: Is Epsom Worth Its Salt?|date=9 April 2012|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412091100/https://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702303302504577327722133289222.html|archive-date=12 April 2012}}</ref> Panggunaan utama magnesium sulfat yaiku ing tetanén, kanggo mbeneraké lemah sing kurang magnesium (nutrisi tanduran penting). Monohidrat disenengi kanggo nggunakaké iki; ing pertengahan taun 1970-an, prodhuksi dadi 2,3 yuta ton saben taun.<ref name="buch2000">Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, Karl Heinz Büchel, Hans-Heinrich Moretto, Dietmar Werner, John Wiley & Sons, 2d edition, 2000, {{ISBN|978-3-527-61333-5}}</ref> Wangun anhidrat lan pirang-pirang hidrat ing alam minangka mineral, lan uyah minangka komponén penting banyu saka sawetara [[tuk]]. == Sipat fisik magnesium sulfat == Relaksasi magnesium sulfat minangka mekanisme utama sing nyebabaké panyerepan [[Akustik ing jero banyu|swara]] ing banyu laut kanthi frekuensi ing ndhuwur 10&nbsp;kHz <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/physics.html|title=Underlying physics and mechanisms for the absorption of sound in seawater|publisher=Resource.npl.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618070030/http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/physics.html|archive-date=18 June 2009|access-date=2009-07-06}}</ref> ( [[Uni|energi akustik]] diowahi dadi énégi termal ). Frekuensi ngisor kurang diserap uyah, saengga swara frekuensi kurang luwih adoh ing sagara. [[Asem borat|Asam borat]] lan magnesium karbonat uga nyumbang kanggo nyerap.<ref>Michael A. Ainslie, Principles of Sonar Performance Modeling, p.18</ref> == Guna magnesium sulfat == [[Barkas:Magnesium_Sulfate_(1).JPG|jmpl|Magnesium sulfat kanggo médhis]] === Médhis === Magnesium sulfat digunakaké ing njaba (minangka uyah Epsom) lan njero. Pemanfaatan eksternal utama yaiku formulasi minangka uyah adus, utamané kanggo sikil kanggo ngenthengaké sikil sing lara. Siram kaya mengkene uga nyenengaké lan nyepetaké pemulihan otot, lara, utawa cilaka. Nanging, klaim kasebut durung dikonfirmasi kanthi ilmiah. Keuntungan utama uyah yaiku kosmetik: ngalangi kerut kulit sauntara amarga dicelupaké kanthi suwe ing banyu kosong.<ref name="wsjdXXXX2"/><ref name="ingra2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.painscience.com/articles/epsom-salts.php|title=Does Epsom Salt Work? The science of Epsom salt bathing for recovery from muscle pain, soreness, or injury|last1=Ingraham|first1=Paul|website=Pain Science|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910223001/https://www.painscience.com/articles/epsom-salts.php|archive-date=10 September 2016|access-date=29 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Iki uga komponén umum saka solusi sing digunakaké ing tank isolasi. Ing [[Karajan Manunggal|Inggris]], obat sing ngemot magnesium sulfat lan fenol, sing diarani ''"drawing paste''", diklaim migunani kanggo bisul cilik utawa infeksi lokal <ref name="boots2018">{{cite web|url=https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/8327|title=Boots Magnesium Sulfate Paste B.P. - Patient Information Leaflet (PIL) - (eMC)|website=www.medicines.org.uk|language=en|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> lan ngilangi serpihan.<ref name="splinter">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tipking.co.uk/tip/5929.html|title=Removing a splinter with Magnesium Sulphate}}</ref> Secara internal, magnesium sulfat bisa uga ditrapaké kanthi rute oral, napas, utawa intravena. Panggunaan internal kalebu terapi panggantos kanggo kurang magnesium,<ref name="rxmed2009">{{cite web|url=http://www.rxmed.com/b.main/b2.pharmaceutical/b2.1.monographs/CPS-%20Monographs/CPS-%20(General%20Monographs-%20M)/MAGNESIUM%20SULFATE.html|title=Pharmaceutical Information – Magnesium Sulfate|publisher=RxMed|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403180025/http://www.rxmed.com/b.main/b2.pharmaceutical/b2.1.monographs/CPS-%20Monographs/CPS-%20(General%20Monographs-%20M)/MAGNESIUM%20SULFATE.html|archive-date=3 April 2009|access-date=2009-07-06|url-status=live}}</ref> perawatan aritmia akut lan abot,<ref name="heart2016">{{cite web|url=https://eccguidelines.heart.org/index.php/circulation/cpr-ecc-guidelines-2/part-7-adult-advanced-cardiovascular-life-support/?strue=1&id=5-3-2-1|title=CPR and First Aid: Antiarrhythmic Drugs During and Immediately After Cardiac Arrest (section)|publisher=American Heart Association|access-date=29 August 2016|quote=Previous ACLS guidelines addressed the use of magnesium in cardiac arrest with polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (ie, torsades de pointes) or suspected hypomagnesemia, and this has not been reevaluated in the 2015 Guidelines Update. These previous guidelines recommended defibrillation for termination of polymorphic VT (ie, torsades de pointes), followed by consideration of intravenous magnesium sulfate when secondary to a long QT interval.}}</ref> minangka bronkodilator ing perawatan [[Mengi|panandhang asma]],<ref name="blitz2005">{{cite journal|year=2005|title=Aerosolized magnesium sulfate for acute asthma: a systematic review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2005-07_128_1/page/337|journal=Chest|volume=128|issue=1|pages=337–344|doi=10.1378/chest.128.1.337|pmid=16002955|vauthors=Blitz M, Blitz S, Hughes R, Diner B, Beasley R, Knopp J, Rowe BH}}.</ref> lan nyegah eklampsia.<ref name="duley2010">{{cite journal|last1=Duley|first1=L|last2=Gülmezoglu|first2=AM|last3=Henderson-Smart|first3=DJ|last4=Chou|first4=D|date=10 November 2010|title=Magnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=11|pages=CD000025|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000025.pub2|pmc=7061250|pmid=21069663}}</ref> === Pertanian === Ing [[Tetanèn|tetanén]], magnesium sulfat digunakaké kanggo nambah isi magnesium utawa belerang ing [[lemah]] . Umume digunakaké kanggo tanduran pot, utawa kanggo tanduran sing lapar magnesium kayata [[Kenthang|kentang]], [[tomat]], [[Wortel jangan|wortel]], mrica, [[Lémon|jeruk nipis]], lan [[mawar]]. Keuntungan magnesium sulfat tinimbang parubahan lemah magnesium liyané (kayata jeruk  dolomit ) yaiku kelarutan sing dhuwur, sing uga ngidini pilihan panganan foliar. Solusi magnesium sulfat uga meh pH netral, dibandhingaké karo uyah alkalin magnesium kaya sing ditemokaké ing watu gamping; mula, panggunaan magnesium sulfat minangka sumber magnesium kanggo lemah ora bakal ngowahi pH lemah kanthi signifikan.<ref name="pubchem">{{cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/magnesium_sulfate#section=Chemical-and-Physical-Properties|title=Pubchem: magnesium sulfate|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018220642/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/magnesium_sulfate#section=Chemical-and-Physical-Properties|archive-date=18 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Magnesium sulfat sacara historis digunakaké minangka perawatan kanggo keracunan [[timah]] sadurungé pangembangan terapi ''chelasi'', amarga samesthiné manawa ana timbal sing dicerna bakal diencerké dening magnesium sulfat lan banjur diresiki saka sistem pencernaan.<ref name="hcwood">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjpHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA34|title=A Treatise on Therapeutics, Comprising Materia Medica and Toxicology, with Especial Reference to the Application of the Physiological Action of Drugs to Clinical Medicine|last=Wood|first=H. C.|date=1877|publisher=[[J. B. Lippincott & Co.]]|location=Philadelphia|page=34|quote=The treatment of acute lead-poisoning consists in the evacuation of the stomach, if necessary, the exhibition of the sulphate of sodium or of magnesium, and the meeting of the indications as they arrive. The Epsom and Glauber's salts act as chemical antidotes, by precipitating the insoluble sulphate of lead, and also, if in excess, empty the bowel of the compound formed.|author-link=Horatio C. Wood Jr.}}</ref> Aplikasi iki nuduhaké panggunaan nyebar ing kalangan dokter hewan sajrone wiwitan abad kaping 20 nganti pertengahan; Uyah epsom wis kasedhiya ing pirang-pirang peternakan kanggo digunakaké ing tetanén, lan asring diwènèhaké ing perawatan kéwan tani sing tanpa sengaja ngonsumsi timah.<ref name="Barker1945">{{cite journal|last=Barker|first=C. A. V.|date=January 1945|title=Experience with Lead Poisoning|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=9|issue=1|pages=6–8|pmc=1660962|pmid=17648099|quote=Udall (1) suggests sodium citrate as of some value together with Epsom salts which will bring about a precipitation of the lead in the form of an insoluble compound. Nelson (3) reported a case that survived following the use of a 20% magnesium sulphate solution intravenously, subcutaneously and orally. McIntosh (5) has suggested that purgative doses of Epsom salts may be effective in combining with the lead and overcoming the toxicity.}}</ref><ref name="herriot">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hm-St_CUgsIC&pg=PA157|title=All Creatures Great and Small|last=Herriot|first=James|date=1972|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|isbn=0-312-08498-6|location=New York|page=157|quote=The specific antidotes to metal poisoning had not been discovered and the only thing which sometimes did a bit of good was magnesium sulphate which caused the precipitation of insoluble lead sulphate. The homely term for magnesium sulphate is, of course, epsom salts.|author-link=James Herriot}}</ref> === Pangan === Magnesium sulfat digunakaké minangka uyah kanggo nggawé [[bir]].<ref name="brew2016">{{Cite web|url=https://nationalhomebrew.com.au/beer/brewing-adjuncts-and-beer-enhancers/national-home-brew-magnesium-sulphate|title=Magnesium Sulphate|website=National Home Brew|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801040013/https://nationalhomebrew.com.au/beer/brewing-adjuncts-and-beer-enhancers/national-home-brew-magnesium-sulphate|archive-date=1 August 2016|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> Iki uga bisa digunakaké minangka koagulan kanggo nggawé [[tahu]].<ref name="matsu2000">{{cite patent|inventor-last=Matsuura|inventor-first=Masaru|inventor2-last=Sasaki|inventor2-first=Masaoki|inventor3-last=Sasakib|inventor3-first=Jun|inventor4-last=Takeuchi|inventor4-first=Tomok|date=28 March 2000|title=Process for producing packed tofu|country-code=US|description=The present invention relates to a novel process for producing packed tofu, particularly a process for producing long-life packed tofu from sterilized soybean milk.|patent-number=6042851}}</ref> === Akuaria === Heptahidrat magnesium sulfat uga digunakaké kanggo njaga konsentrasi magnesium ing [[akuarium]] laut sing ngemot karang karang sing akéh banget, amarga alon-alon ilang ing proses kalsifikasi. Ing akuarium laut kekurangan magnesium, konsentrasi kalsium lan alkalinitas angel banget dikontrol amarga ora cukup magnesium kanggo stabil ion kasebut ing banyu asin lan nyegah udan spontan dadi kalsium karbonat.<ref name="aqua2006">{{cite web|url=http://reefkeeping.com/issues/2006-07/rhf/index.php|title=Do-It-Yourself Magnesium Supplements for the Reef Aquarium|year=2006|publisher=Reefkeeping|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080322114524/http://www.reefkeeping.com/issues/2006-07/rhf/index.php|archive-date=22 March 2008|access-date=2008-03-14|url-status=live}}</ref> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Kimiya]] 0r31f8f5jzpi2s0i953tqthixz5vik9 Kalium nitrat 0 177623 1753057 1644378 2026-08-20T09:14:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753057 wikitext text/x-wiki {{chembox | Verifiedfields = changed | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 476994711 | Reference = <ref name="GETIS">{{GESTIS|Name=Potassium nitrate|ZVG=3630|CAS=NYKD-54|Date=2007-03-09}}</ref> | Name = Potassium nitrate | ImageFile = Potassium nitrate.jpg | ImageName = Potassium nitrate | ImageFileL1 = potassium nitrate structure.svg | ImageFileR1 = Potassium-nitrate-unit-cell-3D-vdW.png | IUPACName = Potassium nitrate | OtherNames = Saltpeter<br />Saltpetre<br />Nitrate of potash<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gustafson|first1=A. F.|title=Handbook of Fertilizers - Their Sources, Make-Up, Effects, And Use|date=1949|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_V9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT25|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217085145/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_V9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT25|archive-date=2017-02-17|isbn=9781473384521}}</ref> |Section1={{Chembox Identifiers | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = RU45X2JN0Z | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = D02051 | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 1644029 | InChI = 1/K.NO3/c;2-1(3)4/q+1;-1 | InChIKey = FGIUAXJPYTZDNR-UHFFFAOYAM | SMILES = [K+].[O-][N+]([O-])=O | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/K.NO3/c;2-1(3)4/q+1;-1 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = FGIUAXJPYTZDNR-UHFFFAOYSA-N | CASNo = 7757-79-1 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | PubChem = 24434 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 22843 | UNNumber = 1486 | RTECS = TT3700000 | EINECS = 231-818-8 }} |Section2={{Chembox Properties | Formula = KNO<sub>3</sub> | MolarMass = 101.1032 g/mol | Appearance = white solid | Odor = odorless | Solubility = 133 g/1000 g water (0 °C)<br /> 316 g/1000 g water (20 °C)<br /> 383 g/1000 g water (25 °C)<br /> 2439 g/1000 g water (100 °C)<ref name=b1>{{cite book |pages=5–6 |chapter=2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1yJNr92-YcC&pg=PA5 |title=Pyrotechnic Chemistry |author1=B. J. Kosanke |author2=B. Sturman |author3=K. Kosanke |author4=I. von Maltitz |author5=T. Shimizu |author6=M. A. Wilson |author7=N. Kubota |author8=C. Jennings-White |author9=D. Chapman |publisher=Journal of Pyrotechnics |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-889526-15-7 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505033849/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1yJNr92-YcC&pg=PA5 |archive-date=2016-05-05 }}</ref> | SolubleOther = slightly soluble in [[ethanol]]<br /> soluble in [[glycerol]], [[ammonia]] | Density = 2.109 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (16&nbsp;°C) | MeltingPtC = 334 | BoilingPtC = 400 | BoilingPt_notes = (decomposes) | pKb = 15.3<ref>Kolthoff, Treatise on Analytical Chemistry, New York, Interscience Encyclopedia, Inc., 1959.</ref> | RefractIndex = 1.335, 1.5056, 1.5604 | MagSus = &minus;33.7·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol }} |Section3={{Chembox Structure | Coordination = | CrystalStruct = [[Orthorhombic]], [[Aragonite]] }} |Section4={{Chembox Thermochemistry | DeltaHf = -494.00 kJ/mol | HeatCapacity = 95.06 J/mol K }} |Section7={{Chembox Hazards | ExternalSDS = [http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0184.htm ICSC 0184] | GHSPictograms = {{GHS03}} {{GHS exclamation mark}} | HPhrases = {{H-phrases|272|315|319|335}} | PPhrases = {{P-phrases|102|210|220|221|280}} | MainHazards = Oxidant, harmful if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed on skin. Causes irritation to skin and eye area. | NFPA-H = 1 | NFPA-F = 0 | NFPA-R = 0 | NFPA-S = OX | FlashPt = non-flammable (oxidizer) | LD50 = 1901 mg/kg (oral, rabbit)<br/>3750 mg/kg (oral, rat)<ref>[http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/7757-79-1 chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812203740/http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/7757-79-1 |date=2014-08-12 }}</ref> }} |Section8={{Chembox Related | OtherAnions = [[Potassium nitrite]] | OtherCations = [[Lithium nitrate]]<br />[[Sodium nitrate]]<br />[[Rubidium nitrate]]<br />[[Caesium nitrate]] | OtherCompounds = [[Potassium sulfate]]<br />[[Potassium chloride]] }} }} [[Barkas:Potassium_nitrate.jpg|jmpl|Sampel kalium nitrat]] '''Kalium nitrat''' ya iku [[Senyawa Kimia|senyawa kimia]] kanthi [[rumus kimia]] {{Chem|[[Potassium|K]]|[[Nitrogen|N]]|[[Oxygen|O]]|3}} . Iki minangka uyah ion saka ion [[Kaliyum|kalium]] K<sup>+</sup> lan ion nitrat NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>, mula nitrat logam alkali. Kasedhiya ing alam minangka mineral, nitriter (utawa nitre ing Inggris). <ref name="SOED">{{Cite book|title=Shorter [[Oxford English dictionary]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2007|isbn=9780199206872|edition=6th|location=United Kingdom|pages=3804}}</ref> Iki minangka sumber [[Nitrogen|nitrogén]], lan nitrogén dijenengi miturut niter. Kalium nitrat minangka salah sawijining senyawa sing ngandung nitrogén sing sacara kolektif diarani '''saltpetre''' (utawa '''saltpeter''' ing Amerika Utara).<ref name="SOED" /> Efesus utama kalium nitrat yaiku ing [[Rabuk|pupuk]], ngilangi puntung wit , propelan roket lan [[kembang api]]. Iki minangka salah sawijining unsur utama bubuk mesiu (bubuk ireng). <ref name="auto1">{{Cite journal|last=Lauer|first=Klaus|date=1991|title=The history of nitrite in human nutrition: A contribution from German cookery books|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=44|issue=3|pages=261–264|doi=10.1016/0895-4356(91)90037-a|issn=0895-4356|pmid=1999685}}</ref> Ing [[daging olahan]], kalium nitrat ditanggepi karo [[hemoglobin]] lan myoglobin sing ngasilaké warna biru.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haldane|first=J.|date=1901|title=The Red Colour of Salted Meat|journal=The Journal of Hygiene|volume=1|issue=1|pages=115–122|doi=10.1017/S0022172400000097|issn=0022-1724|pmc=2235964|pmid=20474105}}</ref> == Ètimologi == Amarga panggunaan lan produksi awal lan global, kalium nitrat, duwé akèh jeneng. Ing tembung Ibrani lan Mesir sing diarani duwé konsonan n-t-r, nuduhaké kemungkinan ana gegayutan ing nitron Yunani, saka Latin dadi ''nitrum'' utawa ''nitrium.'' Perancis kuna, tembung ''niter'' lan tembung ''nitre'' ing Inggris Tengah. Ing abad kaping 15, wong Eropa ngarani ''saltpetre'' <ref>{{Cite book|title=Saltpeter:The Mother of Gunpowder|last=Spencer|first=Dan|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199695751|location=Oxford, UK|pages=256}}</ref> lan mengko minangka ''nitrat potash,'' amarga kimia senyawa kasebut luwih dingerteni. Ing Arab disebut iku "salju China " ( {{Lang-ar|ثلج الصين}} ''{{Transl|ar|DIN|thalj al-ṣīn}}'' ). Zat iki disebut "uyah Cina" dening Iran / Persia <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVNoJydnGAoC&pg=PA304|title=Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention, from Fire to Freud|last=Peter Watson|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2006|isbn=978-0-06-093564-1|page=304|quote=The first use of a metal tube in this context was made around 1280 in the wars between the Song and the Mongols, where a new term, chong, was invented to describe the new horror...Like paper, it reached the West via the Muslims, in this case the writings of the Andalusian botanist Ibn al-Baytar, who died in Damascus in 1248. The Arabic term for saltpetre is 'Chinese snow' while the Persian usage is 'Chinese salt'.28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017152857/https://books.google.com/books?id=CVNoJydnGAoC&pg=PA304|archive-date=2015-10-17}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1h9zzSH-NmwC&pg=PA365|title=The age of wars of religion, 1000–1650: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization|last=Cathal J. Nolan|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2006|isbn=978-0-313-33733-8|volume= 1 of Greenwood encyclopedias of modern world wars|page=365|quote=In either case, there is linguistic evidence of Chinese origins of the technology: in Damascus, Arabs called the saltpeter used in making gunpowder "Chinese snow," while in Iran it was called "Chinese salt." Whatever the migratory route|access-date=2011-11-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101045832/http://books.google.com/books?id=1h9zzSH-NmwC&pg=PA365|archive-date=2014-01-01}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uY_fAAAAMAAJ|title=Artillery: its origin, heyday, and decline|last=Oliver Frederick Gillilan Hogg|publisher=Archon Books|year=1970|isbn=9780208010407|page=123|quote=The Chinese were certainly acquainted with saltpetre, the essential ingredient of gunpowder. They called it Chinese Snow and employed it early in the Christian era in the manufacture of fireworks and rockets.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919195126/https://books.google.com/books?id=uY_fAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=2015-09-19}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aG0gAAAAMAAJ|title=English artillery, 1326–1716: being the history of artillery in this country prior to the formation of the Royal Regiment of Artillery|last=Oliver Frederick Gillilan Hogg|publisher=Royal Artillery Institution|year=1963|page=42|quote=The Chinese were certainly acquainted with saltpetre, the essential ingredient of gunpowder. They called it Chinese Snow and employed it early in the Christian era in the manufacture of fireworks and rockets.}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6DfRYDE0ViwC|title=Clubs to cannon: warfare and weapons before the introduction of gunpowder|last=Oliver Frederick Gillilan Hogg|publisher=Barnes & Noble Books|year=1993|isbn=978-1-56619-364-1|edition=reprint|page=216|quote=The Chinese were certainly acquainted with saltpetre, the essential ingredient of gunpowder. They called it Chinese snow and used it early in the Christian era in the manufacture of fireworks and rockets.|access-date=2011-11-28}}</ref> utawa "uyah saka uyah rawa-rawa China" ( {{Lang-fa|نمک شوره چينی}} ''{{Transl|fa|DIN|namak shūra chīnī}}'' ). <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNZBSqd2cToC&q=namak+shura&pg=PA335|title=A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder|last=Partington|first=J. R.|publisher=JHU Press|year=1960|isbn=978-0801859540|edition=illustrated, reprint|page=335|access-date=2014-11-21}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrNDwP0pS8sC&q=namak+shura&pg=PA194|title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts|last=Needham|first=Joseph|last2=Yu|first2=Ping-Yu|publisher=Cambridge University Press|others=Contributors Joseph Needham, Lu Gwei-Djen, Nathan Sivin|year=1980|isbn=978-0521085731|editor-last=Needham|editor-first=Joseph|edition=illustrated, reprint|volume= 5|page=194|access-date=2014-11-21|issue=Issue 4 of Science and Civilisation in China}}</ref> == Guna kalium nitrat == [[Barkas:Potassium_nitrate_crystals.jpg|jmpl|Kristal kalium nitrat]] === Oksidator === Panggunaan kalium nitrat sing paling misuwur bisa uga minangka oksidator ing bubuk ireng. Wiwit jaman kuna nganti pungkasan taun 1880-an, bubuk ireng nyedhiyakaké kekuwatan kanggo kabeh senjata api ing donya. Sawisé wektu kasebut, senjata cilik lan artileri gedhe wiwit gumantung karo bahan peledhak, bubuk tanpa asap. bubuk ireng isih digunakaké saiki ing motor roket bubuk ireng, nanging uga digabung karo bahan bakar liyané kaya gula ing "permen rokèt". Iki uga digunakaké ing kembang api kayata bom asap. <ref>[http://www.galleries.com/minerals/carbonat/niter/niter.htm Amthyst Galleries, Inc] {{Webarchive}}.</ref> Iki uga ditambahaké ing rokok kanggo njaga kobongan tembakau <ref>[http://tobaccodocuments.org/product_design/00382055-2062.html Inorganic Additives for the Improvement of Tobacco] {{Webarchive}}, TobaccoDocuments.org</ref> lan digunakaké kanggo mesthekaké kobong kartrid kertas kanggo revolver tutup lan bal. <ref name="Kirst">{{Cite book|title=Self Consuming Paper Cartridges for the Percussion Revolver|last=Kirst, W.J.|publisher=Northwest Development Co.|year=1983|location=Minneapolis, Minnesota}}</ref> iki uga bisa digawé panas nganti pirang-pirang atus derajat kanggo digunakaké kanggo ''niter bluing,'' sing kurang awét tinimbang oksidasi proteksi liyané, nanging ngidini pewarnaan bagéan-bagéan baja sing khusus lan asring apik, kayata sekrup, pin, lan bagéan cilik liyané senjata api. === Pangolahan daging === Kalium nitrat minangka bahan umum saka daging asin wiwit jaman kuna <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Binkerd|first=E. F|last2=Kolari|first2=O. E|date=1975-01-01|title=The history and use of nitrate and nitrite in the curing of meat|journal=Food and Cosmetics Toxicology|volume=13|issue=6|pages=655–661|doi=10.1016/0015-6264(75)90157-1|issn=0015-6264|pmid=1107192}}</ref> utawa [[Abad Tengahan|Abad Pertengahan]]. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20031223155710/http://www.uwex.edu/ces/flp/meatscience/sausage.html "Meat Science"], University of Wisconsin. uwex.edu.</ref> Adopsi panggunaan nitrat sing nyebar luwih anyar lan ana gandhengané karo pangolahan pangolahan daging kanthi gedhé. <ref name="auto12">{{Cite journal|last=Lauer|first=Klaus|date=1991|title=The history of nitrite in human nutrition: A contribution from German cookery books|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=44|issue=3|pages=261–264|doi=10.1016/0895-4356(91)90037-a|issn=0895-4356|pmid=1999685}}</ref> Panggunaan kalium nitrat umume dihentikan amarga asil alon lan ora konsisten dibandhingaké karo senyawa natrium nitrit kayata "bubuk Prague" utawa "[[Uyah jambon|uyah]] jambon". Sanajan mangkono, kalium nitrat isih digunakaké ing sawétara pangaplikasian panganan, kayata salami, ham sing wis garing, [[charcuterie]], lan (ing sawétara negara) ing banyu asin digunakaké kanggo nggawé [[Kornét sapi|daging sapi kornet]] (kadhang-bareng karo natrium nitrit ). <ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_36271,00.html Corned Beef] {{Webarchive}}, Food Network</ref> Nalika digunakaké minangka aditif panganan ing Uni Eropa, <ref>UK Food Standards Agency: {{Cite web|url=http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist|title=Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007124435/http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist|archive-date=2010-10-07|access-date=2011-10-27}}</ref> senyawa kasebut diarani E252 ; iki uga disétujoni kanggo digunakaké minangka aditif panganan ing Amerika Serikat <ref>US Food and Drug Administration: {{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodAdditives/ucm191033.htm#ftnT|title=Listing of Food Additives Status Part II|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108002304/https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodAdditives/ucm191033.htm#ftnT|archive-date=2011-11-08|access-date=2011-10-27}}</ref> lan Australia lan Selandia Baru <ref>Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code {{Cite web|url=http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2011C00827|title=Standard 1.2.4 – Labelling of ingredients|access-date=2011-10-27}}</ref> (sing didaftar ing nomer INS 252). === Pupuk === Kalium nitrat digunakaké ing [[Rabuk|pupuk]] minangka sumber nitrogén lan kalium - loro makronutrien kanggo [[Tetuwuhan|tanduran]]. Yèn digunakaké dhéwéan, rating NPK yaiku 13-0-44. <ref>[http://fieldcrop.msu.edu/uploads/documents/e0896.pdf Michigan State University Extension Bulletin E-896: N-P-K Fertilizers] {{Webarchive}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_PwAAAAMAAJ|title=Environmental Impact of Fertilizer on Soil and Water|last=Hall|first=William L|last2=Robarge|first2=Wayne P|last3=Meeting|first3=American Chemical Society|date=2004|isbn=9780841238114|page=40|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127195831/https://books.google.com/books?id=v_PwAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=2018-01-27}}</ref> === Farmakologi === * Digunakaké ing sawétara [[Odhol|pasta]] untu kanggo untu sensitif. <ref name="Sensodyne">{{Cite web|url=http://us.sensodyne.com/products_freshmint.aspx|title=Sensodyne Toothpaste for Sensitive Teeth|date=2008-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807010449/http://us.sensodyne.com/products_freshmint.aspx|archive-date=August 7, 2007|access-date=2008-08-03}}</ref> Bubar iki, panggunaan kalium nitrat ing pasta untu kanggo ngobati untu sensitif wis saya tambah. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Enomoto, K|display-authors=etal|year=2003|title=The Effect of Potassium Nitrate and Silica Dentifrice in the Surface of Dentin|url=http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200315/000020031503A0361500.php|journal=Japanese Journal of Conservative Dentistry|volume=46|issue=2|pages=240–247|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111220400/http://sciencelinks.jp/j-east/article/200315/000020031503A0361500.php|archive-date=2010-01-11}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=R. Orchardson|last2=D. G. Gillam|year=2006|title=Managing dentin hypersensitivity|url=http://www.ufpi.br/subsiteFiles/ppgo/arquivos/files/Orchardson_&_Gillam_2006_Manejo_da_Hipersensibilidade_Dentinaria.pdf|journal=Journal of the American Dental Association|volume=137|issue=7|pages=990–8; quiz 1028–9|doi=10.14219/jada.archive.2006.0321|pmid=16803826|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729082456/http://www.ufpi.br/subsiteFiles/ppgo/arquivos/files/Orchardson_%26_Gillam_2006_Manejo_da_Hipersensibilidade_Dentinaria.pdf|archive-date=2013-07-29}}</ref> * Digunakaké kanthi historis kanggo ngobati panandhang asma. <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/asthmapresenting00brow|title=Asthma, presenting an exposition of the nonpassive expiration theory|last=Orville Harry Brown|publisher=C.V. Mosby company|year=1917|page=[https://archive.org/details/asthmapresenting00brow/page/277 277]}}</ref> Digunakaké ing sawétara pasta untu kanggo ngatasi gejala asma. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/health/sc-health-0512-pharm-20100512-11,0,4146905.story|title='Sensitive' toothpaste may help asthma|last=Joe Graedon|date=May 15, 2010|work=The Chicago Tribune|access-date=June 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916071338/http://www.chicagotribune.com/health/sc-health-0512-pharm-20100512-11,0,4146905.story|archive-date=September 16, 2011}}</ref> * Digunakaké ing Thailand minangka bahan utama ing tablet ginjel kanggo ngatasi gejala ''cystitis'', ''pyelitis'' lan ''urethritis''. <ref>[http://www2.fda.moph.go.th/exporters/select/eng/drug/dgexp111e.asp?dgnmt=%C2%D2%E0%C1%E7%B4+%E2%AB%E2%C3%A4%D4%B4%B9%D5%E8&lcnsid=1162&lcnscd=2506&lctnmcd=2392&lctdtnmcd=&lctcd=10280266&lcntype=%BC%C21+&lcnno=5000002&rctype=2A%20&rcno=5000163&dgnmoth=ZORO+KIDNEY+TABLETS&dgtype=2&ndrug=2&typecd=1 LOCAL MANUFACTURED DRUG REGISTRATION FOR HUMAN (COMBINE)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808045035/http://www2.fda.moph.go.th/exporters/select/eng/drug/dgexp111e.asp?dgnmt=%C2%D2%E0%C1%E7%B4+%E2%AB%E2%C3%A4%D4%B4%B9%D5%E8&lcnsid=1162&lcnscd=2506&lctnmcd=2392&lctdtnmcd=&lctcd=10280266&lcntype=%BC%C21+&lcnno=5000002&rctype=2A%20&rcno=5000163&dgnmoth=ZORO+KIDNEY+TABLETS&dgtype=2&ndrug=2&typecd=1 |date=2014-08-08 }}. fda.moph.go.th</ref> * Nglawan tekanan getih dhuwur lan sapisan digunakaké minangka hipotensi. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reichert ET.|year=1880|title=On the physiological action of potassium nitrite|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-the-medical-sciences_1880-07_80_159/page/158|journal=Am. J. Med. Sci.|volume=80|pages=158–180|doi=10.1097/00000441-188007000-00011}}</ref> == Paripustaka == <references /> [[Kategori:Kimiya]] 25rwt3ocevlgob1vehs9vpmmmj5zu9s Klorofluorokarbon 0 177650 1753077 1697411 2026-08-20T09:51:31Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753077 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Chlorofluorocarbons (space-filling representation).jpg|jmpl|ilustrasi saka molekul klorofluorokarbon]] '''Klorofluorokarbon''' '''(CFC)''' lan '''hidroklorofluorokarbon''' '''(HCFC)''' minangka senyawa organik utawa sebagéyan halogénasi [[Alkana|paraffin]] hidrokarbon sing ngemot mung [[karbon]] (C), [[Hidrogen|hidrogén]] (H), [[Klor|khlor]] (Cl), lan fluorine (F), diprodhuksi minangka zat sing gampang nguap turunan saka [[metana]], etana, lan ''propane.'' Zat iki uga umumé dikenal kanthi jeneng merek DuPont '''Freon'''. Representasi sing paling umum yaiku ''dichlorodifluoromethané'' (R-12 utawa Freon-12). akéh CFC sing akéh digunakaké minangka kulkas, propelan (ing aplikasi aerosol), lan pelarut . Amarga CFC nyumbang kanggo panipisan ozon ing atmosfer ndhuwur, pabrik senyawa kasebut wis diilangi ing Protokol Montreal, lan diganti karo produk liyané kayata hidrofluorokarbon (HFC) <ref>[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/energy/climate-change "Climate Change."] The White House. 6 August 2014.</ref> kalebu R-410A lan R-134a. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mironov|first=O. G.|year=1968|title=Hydrocarbon pollution of the sea and its influence on marine organisms|journal=Helgoländer Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen|volume=17|issue=1–4|pages=335–339|bibcode=1968HWM....17..335M|doi=10.1007/BF01611234|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref>[http://www.rtcc.org/2014/07/15/ozone-layer-treaty-could-tackle-super-polluting-hfcs/#sthash.Ekk0mp1E.dpuf Ozone layer treaty could tackle super polluting HFCs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819125632/http://www.rtcc.org/2014/07/15/ozone-layer-treaty-could-tackle-super-polluting-hfcs/#sthash.Ekk0mp1E.dpuf |date=2014-08-19 }}. rtcc.org. 15 July 2014</ref> == Struktur klorofluorokarbon == Kaya ing [[alkana]] sing luwih gampang, karbon ing ikatan CFC kanthi simetri tetrahedral. Amarga atom ''fluorine'' lan klorin beda-beda ukurané lan pangisian daya èfèktif saka hidrogén lan siji liyané, CFC sing asalé saka metana nyimpang saka simetri tetrahedral sing sampurna. <ref>Siegemund, Günter ''et al.'' (2002) "Fluorine Compounds, Organic" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{Doi|10.1002/14356007.a11_349}}</ref> == Guna klorofluorokarbon == CFC lan HCFC digunakaké ing macem-macem aplikasi amarga minim keracunan, reaktivitas lan gampang kobong. Saben permutasi fluor, klorin lan hidrogén adhedhasar metana lan etana wis ditliti lan umumé dikomersialaké. Kajaba iku, akéh conto sing dingerteni amarga jumlah karbon uga senyawa sing ana gandhengané karo bromin. Panggunaan kalebu kulkas, agen niup, [[Semprot aerosol|propelan aerosol]] ing aplikasi obat, lan pelarut pangresik. Milyaran kilogram klorodifluorometana diproduksi saben taun minangka prekursor ''tetrafluoroethylene'', monomer sing diowahi dadi Teflon.<ref name="Ullmann">Rossberg, M. et al. (2006) "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{Doi|10.1002/14356007.a06_233.pub2}}</ref> == Pengaruh minangka gas omah kaca == [[Barkas:1979- Radiative forcing - climate change - global warming - EPA NOAA.svg |ka|jmpl|Pengaruh pemanasan gas omah kaca ing atmosfer tambah akéh ing taun-taun pungkasan. Anané karbon dioksida munggah saka pembakaran bahan bakar fosil minangka driver paling gedhe umumé. Pengaruh pamanasan sing luwih cilik nanging signifikan saka rilis CFC sing paling akéh diproduksi (CFC11 lan CFC12) bakal terus bertahan nganti pirang-pirang dekade nganti mbesuk. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report|page=731|chapter=Appendix 8.A|chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter08_FINAL.pdf}}</ref><ref name=NOAA_AGGI_2023>{{cite web |title=The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI) |url=https://gml.noaa.gov/aggi/aggi.html |website=NOAA.gov |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241005195609/https://gml.noaa.gov/aggi/aggi.html |archive-date=5 October 2024 |date=2024 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] CFC dibusak sacara bertahap liwat Protokol Montreal amarga bagean kasebut nyuda ozon, Nanging, pengaruh atmosfer saka CFC ora diwatesi mung minangka bahan kimia penyebaran ozon. Pita panyerepan inframerah nyegah panas ing dawa gelombang kasebut supaya ora uwal saka atmosfer [[bumi]]. CFCs duwé pita panyerepan kuat saka CF lan C-Cl obligasi ing wilayah spektrum 7.8-15.3 μm <ref name="Rothman L.S. et 42 alia, 2009">{{Cite journal|last=Rothman|first=L|last2=Gordon|first2=I.E.|last3=Barbe|first3=A.|last4=Benner|first4=D.Chris|last5=Bernath|first5=P.F.|last6=Birk|first6=M.|last7=Boudon|first7=V.|last8=Brown|first8=L.R.|last9=Campargue|first9=A.|display-authors=0|year=2009|title=The HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database|url=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/hitran/Download/HITRAN2008.pdf|journal=Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer|volume=100|issue=9–10|pages=533–572|bibcode=2009JQSRT.110..533R|doi=10.1016/j.jqsrt.2009.02.013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403015701/https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/hitran/Download/HITRAN2008.pdf|archive-date=2015-04-03}}</ref> minangka "jendela atmosfer" amarga transparan relatif saka atmosfer ing wilayah iki. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ramanathan|first=V|year=1975|title=Greenhouse Effect Due to Chlorofluorocarbons: Climatic Implications|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1975-10-03_190_4209/page/50|journal=Science|series=New Series|volume=190|issue=4209|pages=50–52|bibcode=1975Sci...190...50R|doi=10.1126/science.190.4209.50|jstor=1740877}}</ref> Kekuwatan pita panyerepan CFC lan kerentanan atmosfer sing unik ing dawa gelombang ing endi CFC (pancen kabeh senyawa fluorin kovalen) nyerep <ref name="Identifying">Bera, Partha P.; Francisco, Joseph S. and Lee, Timothy J.; ‘Identifying the Molecular Origin of Global Warming’; ''Journal of Physical Chemistry''; 113 (2009), pp. 12694-12699</ref> nggawé èfèk omah kaca "super" saka CFC lan gas-gas fluor sing ora reaktif liyané kayata perfluorokarbon, HFC, HCFC, bromofluorokarbon, SF <sub>6</sub>, lan NF <sub>3</sub> . <ref name="Ramanathan 2009 37–50">{{Cite journal|last=Ramanathan|first=V|last2=Y. Feng|year=2009|title=Air pollution, greenhouse gases and climate change: Global and regional perspectives|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=43|issue=1|pages=37–50|bibcode=2009AtmEn..43...37R|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.063}}</ref> Penyerapan "jendela atmosfer" iki dikuataké kanthi konsentrasi rendah saben CFC individu. Amarga CO<sub>2</sub> cedhak karo saturasi kanthi konsentrasi dhuwur lan sawetara pita panyerepan infra merah, anggaran radiasi lan mula èfèk omah kaca duwé sensitivitas sing kurang tumrap perubahan konsentrasi <sub>CO 2;</sub> <ref>Harnung, Sven E. and Johnson, Matthew S.; ''Chemistry and the Environment'', p. 365 {{ISBN|1107021553}}</ref> paningkatan suhu kira-kira logaritma. <ref>Röhl, C.M.; Boğlu, D.; Brtihl, C. and Moortgat, G. K.; ‘Infrared band intensities and global warming potentials of CF<sub>4</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub>, C<sub>3</sub>F<sub>8</sub>, C<sub>4</sub>F<sub>10</sub>, C<sub>5</sub>F<sub>12</sub>, and C<sub>6</sub>F<sub>14</sub>’; ''Geophysical Research Letters''; vol. 22, no. 7 (1995), pp. 815-818</ref> Kosok baline, konsentrasi CFC sing kurang bisa nambah èfèk kanthi linier kanthi massa, <ref name="Ramanathan 2009 37–50" /> saengga klorofluorokarbon dadi gas omah kaca kanthi potensial luwih dhuwur kanggo nambah èfèk omah kaca tinimbang CO<sub>2.</sub> Akèh klompok aktif mbuwang peninggalan CFC kanggo nyuda pengaruh ing atmosfer. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/04/disposing-old-cfcs-refrigerants-reduces-climate-change-greenhouse-gases-cheaply/|title=One overlooked way to fight climate change? Dispose of old CFCs.|date=2019-04-29|website=Environment|access-date=2019-04-30}}</ref> Miturut [[NASA]] ing taun 2018, bolongan lapisan ozon wis wiwit pulih minangka asil larangan CFC. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2018/nasa-study-first-direct-proof-of-ozone-hole-recovery-due-to-chemicals-ban|title=NASA Study: First Direct Proof of Ozone Hole Recovery Due to Chemicals Ban|last=Samson Reiny|date=4 Januari 2018|publisher=NASA}}</ref> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Gas]] fz3t0w5kog66koj24pxlt7q7e1eg96z Fénol 0 177666 1752992 1732628 2026-08-20T07:26:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chembox | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 477162765 | ImageFile1 = SodiumHydroxide.jpg | ImageFile1_Ref = {{Chemboximage|correct|??}} | ImageName1 = Sample of sodium hydroxide as pellets in a watchglass | Name = | ImageFile = Sodium-hydroxide-crystal-3D-vdW.png | ImageFile_Ref = {{Chemboximage|correct|??}} | ImageName = Unit cell, spacefill model of sodium hydroxide | OtherNames = Caustic soda<br/> Lye<ref name="msd"/><ref name="msd2"/><br/> Ascarite<br/> White caustic<br/> Sodium hydrate<ref name="PubChem"/> | IUPACName = Sodium hydroxide<ref name="PubChem">{{cite web | url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=14798&loc=ec_rcs | title=Sodium Hydroxide – Compound Summary | access-date=June 12, 2012}}</ref> | SystematicName = | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | CASNo = 1310-73-2 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | PubChem = 14798 | ChemSpiderID = 14114 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | UNII = 55X04QC32I | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | EINECS = 215-185-5 | UNNumber = 1824, 1823 | KEGG = D01169 | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | MeSHName = Sodium+Hydroxide | ChEBI = 32145 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | RTECS = WB4900000 | Gmelin = 68430 | SMILES = [OH-].[Na+] | StdInChI = 1S/Na.H2O/h;1H2/q+1;/p-1 | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | InChI = 1/Na.H2O/h;1H2/q+1;/p-1 | StdInChIKey = HEMHJVSKTPXQMS-UHFFFAOYSA-M | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | InChIKey = HEMHJVSKTPXQMS-REWHXWOFAM }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | Formula = {{Chem|NaOH}} | MolarMass = 39.9971 g mol<sup>−1</sup> | Appearance = White, waxy, opaque crystals | Odor = odorless | Density = 2.13 g/cm<sup>3</sup><ref name=crc>Haynes, p. 4.90</ref> | MeltingPtC = 323 | MeltingPt_ref=<ref name=crc/> | BoilingPtC = 1388 | BoilingPt_ref=<ref name=crc/> | Solubility = 418 g/L (0&nbsp;°C) <br> 1000 g/L (25&nbsp;°C)<ref name=crc/><br> 3370 g/L (100&nbsp;°C) | Solvent1 = methanol | Solubility1 = 238 g/L | Solvent2 = ethanol | Solubility2 = <<139 g/L | SolubleOther = soluble in [[glycerol]] <br> negligible in [[ammonia]] <br> insoluble in [[diethyl ether|ether]] <br> slowly soluble in [[propylene glycol]] | VaporPressure = <2.4 kPa (at 20&nbsp;°C) | pKb = 0.2 | RefractIndex = 1.3576 | MagSus = −15.8·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol (aq.)<ref>Haynes, p. 4.135</ref> }} | Section3 = {{Chembox Structure | Structure_ref =<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/zaac.19855311217|title=Hydroxide des Natriums, Kaliums und Rubidiums: Einkristallzüchtung und röntgenographische Strukturbestimmung an der bei Raumtemperatur stabilen Modifikation|author=Jacobs, H.; Kockelkorn, J. and Tacke, Th. |journal=Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem.|year=1985|volume=531|pages=119–124}}</ref> | CrystalStruct = Orthorhombic, [[Pearson symbol|oS8]] | SpaceGroup = Cmcm, No. 63 | PointGroup = | LattConst_a = 0.34013 nm | LattConst_b = 1.1378 nm | LattConst_c = 0.33984 nm | LattConst_alpha = | LattConst_beta = | LattConst_gamma = | LattConst_ref = | LattConst_Comment = | UnitCellVolume = | UnitCellFormulas = 4 | Coordination = | MolShape = | OrbitalHybridisation = | Dipole = }} | Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry | Thermochemistry_ref=<ref>Haynes, p. 5.13</ref> | DeltaHf = −425.8&nbsp;kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup> | DeltaGf = -379.7 kJ/mol | Entropy = 64.4&nbsp;J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup> | HeatCapacity = 59.5 J/mol K }} | Section5 = {{Chembox Hazards | ExternalSDS = [http://www.certified-lye.com/SDS-Lye.pdf External SDS] | GHSPictograms = {{GHS corrosion}} | GHSSignalWord = '''Danger''' | HPhrases = {{H-phrases|290|314}} | PPhrases = {{P-phrases|280|305+351+338|310}} | NFPA-H = 3 | NFPA-F = 0 | NFPA-R = 1 | NFPA-S = ALK | LD50 = 40 mg/kg (mouse, intraperitoneal)<ref>Michael Chambers. [http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/1310-73-2 "ChemIDplus – 1310-73-2 – HEMHJVSKTPXQMS-UHFFFAOYSA-M – Sodium hydroxide [NF<nowiki>]</nowiki> – Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information."]. ''nih.gov''.</ref> | PEL = TWA 2 mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0565}}</ref> | IDLH = 10 mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=PGCH/> | REL = C 2 mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=PGCH/> | LDLo = 500 mg/kg (rabbit, oral)<ref>{{IDLH|1310732|Sodium hydroxide}}</ref> }} | Section6 = | Section7 = {{Chembox Related | OtherAnions = [[Sodium hydrosulfide]]<br/>[[Sodium hydride]]<br />[[Sodium oxide]] | OtherCations = [[Lithium hydroxide]]<br />[[Potassium hydroxide]]<br />[[Rubidium hydroxide]]<br />[[Caesium hydroxide]]<br />[[Francium hydroxide]] | OtherCompounds = [[Sodium deuteroxide]] }} }} [[Barkas:Phenol (carbolic acid).jpg|jmpl|Fénol utawa asem karboik]] '''Fénol''' (uga diarani '''asem karbolik''' ) minangka senyawa organik aromatik kanthi [[Rumus kimia|formula]] molekul C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH. Iki wujude padatan [[kristal]] putih sing ora stabil. Molekul kasebut kalebu klompok fenil (−C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>) sing kaiket karo klompok hidroksi (−OH). [[Asem]] sing alus, dibutuhaké ditangani kanthi ati-ati amarga bisa nyebabaké kobongan kimia. Fénol pisanan diekstrak saka tar batubara, nanging saiki diproduksi kanthi ukuran akèh (udakara 7 milyar kg / taun) saka [[Lenga patra|bahan]] baku petroliam. Iki minangka komoditas industri penting minangka prekursor kanggo akèh bahan lan senyawa sing migunani.<ref name="Ullmann">{{Ullmann|doi=10.1002/14356007.a19_299.pub2|title=Phenol|year=2004|last1=Weber|first1=Manfred|last2=Weber|first2=Markus|last3=Kleine-Boymann|first3=Michael}}</ref> Utamané digunakaké kanggo nyintesis [[plastik]] lan bahan sing gegandhengan. Fénol lan asalé bahan kimia penting kanggo produksi polikarbonat, ''epoksi'', ''bakélite'', [[nilon]], [[Déterjèn|deterjen]], herbisida kayata herbisida fenoksi, lan akèh [[obat-obatan]] farmasi. Zat iki warna putih utawa ora berwarna lan duwé ambu khas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sehatq.com/artikel/kenali-apa-itu-senyawa-organik-fenol-dan-kegunaannya-dalam-dunia-medis|title=Mengenal Apa Itu Fenol dan Kegunaannya dalam Bidang Kesehatan|website=SehatQ|language=id|access-date=2021-04-28|archive-date=2021-04-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428164939/https://www.sehatq.com/artikel/kenali-apa-itu-senyawa-organik-fenol-dan-kegunaannya-dalam-dunia-medis|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Guna fénol == === Mèdhis === Semprotan fénol biasané ing kadar 1,4% fénol minangka bahan aktif, digunakaké kanthi medhis kanggo mbantu lara [[tenggorokan]]. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/cdi/phenol-spray.html|title=Phenol spray|publisher=[[drugs.com]]}}</ref> Iki minangka bahan aktif ing sawetara analgesik oral kayata semprot ''Chloraseptic, TCP'' lan ''Carmex'', umume digunakaké kanggo ngobati faringitis kanggo sauntara. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mycarmex.com/works|title=How Does Our Lip Balm Work|publisher=[[Carmex]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218190241/https://mycarmex.com/works|archive-date=18 February 2015|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> === Pengaplikasian ''Niche'' === Fénol larang regané supaya akèh panggunaan skala cilik. Iki minangka komponèn saka penata cat industri sing digunakaké ing industri penerbangan kanggo ngilangi lapisan epoksi, poliuretan lan lapisan kimia liyané. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.callingtonhaven.com/_assets/paint_strippers/ch207.pdf|title=CH207 Aircraft paintstripper, phenolic, acid|date=14 October 2009|publisher=Callington|access-date=25 August 2015|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195922/http://www.callingtonhaven.com/_assets/paint_strippers/ch207.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Turunan fénol wis digunakaké kanggo nyiyapaké [[Kosmètik|kosmetik]] kalebu [[tabir surya]], <ref>{{Cite journal|last=A. Svobodová|last2=J. Psotová|last3=D. Walterová|year=2003|title=Natural Phenolics in the Prevention of UV-Induced Skin Damage. A Review|journal=[[Biomed. Papers]]|volume=147|issue=2|pages=137–145|doi=10.5507/bp.2003.019|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Semir rambut|pewarna rambut]], pancerah kulit, <ref>DeSelms, R. H.; ''[http://www.para-gen.com/paragen/publications.htm UV-Active Phenol Ester Compounds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003231521/http://www.para-gen.com/paragen/publications.htm |date=2011-10-03 }}''; Enigen Science Publishing: Washington, DC, 2008.</ref> uga kanggo toner / eksfoliator kulit. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sungthong|first=Bunleu|last2=Phadungkit|first2=Methin|date=April 2015|title=Anti-Tyrosinase and DPPH Radical Scavenging Activities of Selected Thai Herbal Extracts Traditionally Used as Skin Toner|journal=Pharmacognosy Journal|volume=7, 2|issue=2|pages=97–101|doi=10.5530/pj.2015.2.3|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nanging, amarga masalah keamanan, fénol dilarang digunakaké ing produk kosmetik ing [[Uni Éropah|Uni Eropa]] <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/cosing/index.cfm?fuseaction=search.results|title=Prohibited substances in cosmetic product (Annex II, #1175, Phenol) - European Commission|website=ec.europa.eu|language=en|access-date=2018-07-06}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/cosing/index.cfm?fuseaction=search.details_v2&id=29394|title=CosIng - Cosmetics - GROWTH - European Commission|website=ec.europa.eu|language=en|access-date=2018-07-06}}</ref> lan [[Kanadhah|Kanada]]. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/consumer-product-safety/cosmetics/cosmetic-ingredient-hotlist-prohibited-restricted-ingredients/hotlist.html#t1p|title=Cosmetic Ingredient Hotlist - Canada.ca|last=Canada|first=Health|date=2004-06-18|website=www.canada.ca|language=en|access-date=2018-07-06}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/consumer-product-safety/cosmetics/cosmetic-ingredient-hotlist-prohibited-restricted-ingredients.html|title=Cosmetic Ingredient Hotlist: Prohibited and Restricted Ingredients - Canada.ca|last=Canada|first=Health|date=2004-06-18|website=www.canada.ca|language=en|access-date=2018-07-06}}</ref> == Biodegradasi == ''Cryptanaerobacter fenolicus'' minangka spesies [[Baktèri|bakteri]] sing ngasilaké [[Asem bènzowat|benzoat]] saka fénol liwat 4-hidroksibenzoat.<ref name="Juteau">{{Cite journal|last=Juteau|first=P.|last2=Côté|first2=V|last3=Duckett|first3=MF|last4=Beaudet|first4=R|last5=Lépine|first5=F|last6=Villemur|first6=R|last7=Bisaillon|first7=JG|year=2005|title=''Cryptanaerobacter phenolicus'' gen. nov., sp. nov., an anaerobe that transforms phenol into benzoate via 4-hydroxybenzoate|journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|volume=55|issue=Pt 1|pages=245–50|doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02914-0|pmid=15653882|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''Rhodococcus fenolicus'' minangka spesies bakteri sing bisa ngrusak fénol minangka sumber karbon tunggal. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rehfuss|first=Marc|last2=Urban|first2=James|year=2005|title=''Rhodococcus phenolicus'' sp. nov., a novel bioprocessor isolated actinomycete with the ability to degrade chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzene and phenol as sole carbon sources|journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology|volume=28|issue=8|pages=695–701|doi=10.1016/j.syapm.2005.05.011|pmid=16261859}}</ref> == Toksisitas == Fénol lan asepé bisa nyebabaké mata, kulit, lan saluran pernapasan. <ref name="merck">{{Cite journal|year=1996|editor-last=Budavari|editor-first=S|title=The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemical, Drugs, and Biologicals|location=Whitehouse Station, NJ|publisher=[[Merck & Co.|Merck]]}}</ref> Efèk korosif ing kulit lan membran lendhut amarga èfèk degenerasi protein. <ref name="U">{{Cite encyclopedia|pages=589–604|volume=25|publisher=Wiley-VCH|date=2003|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry}}</ref> Kontak kulit sing bola-bali utawa dawa karo fénol bisa nyebabaké dermatitis, utawa uga kobongan derajat nomer loro lan kaping telu. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=June 2006|title=Phenol burn|journal=Burns: Journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries|volume=32|issue=4|pages=517–21|doi=10.1016/j.burns.2005.12.016|pmid=16621299}}</ref> Nghirup uap fénol bisa nyebabaké edema paru-paru. <ref name="merck" /> Bahan kasebut bisa nyebabaké èfèk sing mbebayani ing sistem saraf pusat lan [[jantung]], sing nyebabaké disritmia, kejang, lan koma. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warner|first=MA|last2=Harper|first2=JV|year=1985|title=Cardiac dysrhythmias associated with chemical peeling with phenol|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_anesthesiology_1985-03_62_3/page/366|journal=Anesthesiology|volume=62|issue=3|pages=366–7|doi=10.1097/00000542-198503000-00030|pmid=2579602}}</ref> [[Ginjel]] uga kena pengaruh. Paparan jangka panjang utawa bola-bali ing bahan iki bisa uga nyebabaké èfèk sing mbebayani ing [[ati]] lan [[ginjel]]. <ref>World Health Organization/International Labour Organization: International Chemical Safety Cards, http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0070.htm</ref> Ora ana bukti yèn fénol nyebabaké [[kanker]] ing manungsa. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|title=How can phenol affect my health?|url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp115.pdf|journal=Toxicological Profile for Phenol|page=24}}</ref> Kejaba èfèk hidrofobik, mekanisme liyané kanggo keracunan fénol bisa uga dadi pembentukan radikal fenoksil. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hanscha|first=Corwin|last2=McKarns|first2=Susan C|last3=Smith|first3=Carr J|last4=Doolittle|first4=David J|date=June 15, 2000|title=Comparative QSAR evidence for a free-radical mechanism of phenol-induced toxicity|url=https://archive.org/details/chemico-biological-interactions_2000-06-15_127_1/page/61|journal=Chemico-Biological Interactions|volume=127|issue=1|pages=61–72|doi=10.1016/S0009-2797(00)00171-X|pmid=10903419}}</ref> Amarga fénol diserep liwat kulit kanthi cepet, keracunan sistemik bisa uga saliyané kanggo kobong lokal. <ref name="U2">{{Cite encyclopedia|pages=589–604|volume=25|publisher=Wiley-VCH|date=2003|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry}}</ref> Keracunan resorptive kanthi jumlah fénol sing akèh bisa uga kedadeyan sanajan mung ana sithik kulit, kanthi cepet nyebabaké kelumpuhan sistem saraf pusat lan penurunan suhu awak sing parah. LD50 kanggo keracunan oral kurang saka 500&nbsp;mg / kg kanggo segawon, terwelu, utawa tikus; dosis minimum manungsa sing mateni dikutip minangka 140&nbsp;mg / kg <ref name="U2" /> Badan Penyakit Zat Toksik lan Penyakit Penyakit (ATSDR), Departemen Kesehatan lan Layanan Manungsa AS negasaké dosis fatal kanggo konsumsi fénol yaiku 1 nganti 32 g. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MMG/MMG.asp?id=144&tid=27|title=Medical Management Guidelines for Phenol (C6H6O)|date=October 21, 2014|website=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|access-date=8 August 2015|archive-date=4 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304132048/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mhmi/mmg115.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Senyawa organik]] 4htf1dn1hy3f0pwyvi7fc9e1p2gmabw Héréditas 0 177680 1752929 1656416 2026-08-20T05:12:20Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 4 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752929 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:The physical basis of heredity (1919) (20582009808).jpg|jmpl|Héréditas ing warna kembang]] '''Héréditas''', uga diarani '''warisan''' utawa '''warisan biologis''', yaiku sipat utawa karakteristik tertentu sing diwarisaké saka wong tuwa menyang keturané<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/heredity-genetics|title=heredity {{!}} Definition & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2021-04-29}}</ref>; salah siji liwat reproduksi aseksual utawa reproduksi seksual, [[Sèl (biologi)|sel]] héréditas utawa [[organisme]] entuk informasi genetik saka wong tuwané. Liwat héréditas, variasi ing antarané individu bisa nglumpukaké lan nyebabaké [[Sepésiyes|spésies]] bisa [[Évolusi|tuwuh]] kanthi [[Selèksi alam|seleksi alam]]. Pasinaon héréditas ing [[biologi]] yaiku [[genetika]]. Genetika iku cabang ilmu biologi sing njelasaké persamaan lan pambedanan sifat sing diturunaké ing makhluk urip.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://repository.uai.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Isi-Genetika-Dasar.pdf|title=Buku Ajar Genetika Dasar|last=Effendi|first=Yunus|access-date=2021-04-05|archive-date=2021-04-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429023948/https://repository.uai.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Isi-Genetika-Dasar.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Panjelasan == [[Barkas:DNA_animation.gif|jmpl|313x313px|Struktur [[DNA|DNA.]] .]] Ing manungsa, warna mripat minangka conto karakteristik sing diwarisaké: wong bisa uga duwé "sipat mata coklat" saka salah sawijining wong tuwa. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sturm RA|last2=Frudakis TN|date=2004|title=Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-genetics_2004-08_20_8/page/n6|journal=Trends Genet.|volume=20|issue=8|pages=327–332|doi=10.1016/j.tig.2004.06.010|pmid=15262401}}</ref> Sipat keturunan dikontrol dening [[gen]] lan kabeh jinis gen ing [[genom]] organisme diarani [[genotipe]].<ref name="Pearson_2006">{{Cite journal|last=Pearson H|date=2006|title=Genetics: what is a gene?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-25_441_7092/page/398|journal=Nature|volume=441|issue=7092|pages=398–401|bibcode=2006Natur.441..398P|doi=10.1038/441398a|pmid=16724031}}</ref> Rangkaian lengkap struktur lan prilaku sing bisa diamati organisme diarani fenotipe. Sipat kasebut tuwuh saka interaksi genotipe karo lingkungan. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Visscher PM|last2=Hill WG|last3=Wray NR|date=2008|title=Heritability in the genomics era&nbsp;– concepts and misconceptions|journal=Nat. Rev. Genet.|volume=9|issue=4|pages=255–266|doi=10.1038/nrg2322|pmid=18319743}}</ref> Asile, akèh aspék fenotipe organisme ora diwarisake. Contoné, kecoklatan kulit asalé saka interaksi antarané genotip lan surya srengenge wong kang; <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shoag J|last2=Haq|first2=Rizwan|last3=Zhang|first3=Mingfeng|last4=Liu|first4=Laura|last5=Rowe|first5=Glenn C.|last6=Jiang|first6=Aihua|last7=Koulisis|first7=Nicole|last8=Farrel|first8=Caitlin|last9=Amos|first9=Christopher I.|display-authors=1|date=Jan 2013|title=PGC-1 coactivators regulate MITF and the tanning response|journal=Mol Cell|volume=49|issue=1|pages=145–157|doi=10.1016/j.molcel.2012.10.027|pmc=3753666|pmid=23201126}}</ref>, duwé kulit soklat ora diwarisaké marang anak-anake. Nanging, sawetara wong luwih gampang kulit tinimbang liyane, amarga beda genotipe: <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pho LN|last2=Leachman SA|date=Feb 2010|title=Genetics of pigmentation and melanoma predisposition|url=http://www.minervamedica.it/en/journals/dermatologia-venereologia/article.php?cod=R23Y2010N01A0037|journal=G Ital Dermatol Venereol|volume=145|issue=1|pages=37–45|pmid=20197744}}</ref> conto sing nggumunaké yaiku wong sing duwé sipat albinisme sing diwarisaké, sing ora katon tan lan sensitif banget marang sunar srengenge. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oetting WS|last2=Brilliant MH|last3=King RA|date=1996|title=The clinical spectrum of albinism in humans and by action|journal=Molecular Medicine Today|volume=2|issue=8|pages=330–335|doi=10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9|pmid=8796918}}</ref> Sipat pewarisan dikenal bisa diturunaké saka generasi menyang generasi sabanjure liwat [[DNA]], sawijining [[molekul]] sing ngemot informasi genetik. <ref name="Pearson_20062">{{Cite journal|last=Pearson H|date=2006|title=Genetics: what is a gene?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-25_441_7092/page/398|journal=Nature|volume=441|issue=7092|pages=398–401|bibcode=2006Natur.441..398P|doi=10.1038/441398a|pmid=16724031}}</ref> DNA minangka [[Polimèr|polimer]] dawa sing nggabungaké papat jinis basa, sing bisa diganti. Urutan asam Nukleat (urutan basa ing sadawané molekul DNA tartamtu) nemtokaké informasi genetik: iki bisa dibandhingaké karo urutan huruf sing nyebutaké teks.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Genetic Analysis|last=Griffiths|first=Anthony, J.F.|last2=Wessler, Susan R.|last3=Carroll, Sean B.|last4=Doebley J|date=2012|publisher=W.H. Freeman and Company|isbn=978-1-4292-2943-2|edition=10th|location=New York|page=3}}</ref> Sadurunge sel dipérang liwat mitosis, DNA disalin, saéngga saben rong sel sing diasilaké bakal nampa urutan DNA. Bagéan saka molekul DNA sing nemtokaké sawijining unit fungsional diarani [[gen]]; macem-macem gen duwé urutan basa sing beda. Ing [[Sèl (biologi)|sel]], helai dawa DNA mbentuk struktur kondensasi sing diarani [[kromosom]]. Organisme entuk warisan materi genetik saka wong tuwané kanthi bentuk kromosom homologis, ngemot kombinasi unik saka urutan DNA sing kode kanggo gen. Lokasi tartamtu saka urutan DNA ing kromosom dikenal minangka lokus. Yèn urutan DNA ing lokus tartamtu beda-beda ing antarané individu, macem-macem bentuk urutan iki diarani [[alel]]. Urutan DNA bisa diganti kanthi [[mutasi]], ngasilaké alel anyar. Yèn ana mutasi ing njero gen, alel anyar bisa mengaruhi sipat sing dikontrol gen, ngowahi fenotipe organisme. <ref name="Futuyma">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu|title=Evolution|last=Futuyma|first=Douglas J.|date=2005|publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc.|isbn=978-0-87893-187-3|location=Sunderland, Massachusetts|author-link=Douglas J. Futuyma|url-access=registration}}</ref> Nanging, nalika korespondensi sederhana ing antarané alel lan sipat bisa digunakaké ing sawetara kasus, umume sifat luwih kompleks lan dikontrol dening macem-macem gen ing njero lan ing antarané organisme. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phillips PC|date=2008|title=Epistasis – the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems|journal=Nat. Rev. Genet.|volume=9|issue=11|pages=855–867|doi=10.1038/nrg2452|pmc=2689140|pmid=18852697}}</ref> <ref name="Lin">{{Cite journal|last=Wu R|last2=Lin M|date=2006|title=Functional mapping&nbsp;– how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits|journal=Nat. Rev. Genet.|volume=7|issue=3|pages=229–237|doi=10.1038/nrg1804|pmid=16485021}}</ref> Ahli biologi pangembangan nuduhaké manawa interaksi rumit ing jaringan genetik lan komunikasi ing antarané sel bisa nyebabaké variasi turun temurun sing bisa nyebabaké sawetara mekanika ing plastisitas pangembangan lan kanalisasi. <ref name="Jablonka02">{{Cite journal|last=Jablonka|first=E.|last2=Lamb|first2=M.J.|date=2002|title=The changing concept of epigenetics|url=http://a-c-elitzur.co.il/uploads/articlesdocs/Jablonka.pdf|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=981|issue=1|pages=82–96|bibcode=2002NYASA.981...82J|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04913.x|pmid=12547675|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511122654/http://a-c-elitzur.co.il/uploads/articlesdocs/Jablonka.pdf|archive-date=2011-05-11}}</ref> Temuan anyar wis ngonfirmasi conto penting saka pangowahan warisan sing ora bisa diterangaké kanthi langsung molekul DNA. Fenomena kasebut diklasifikasikaké minangka warisan sistem epigenetik sing nyebabaké utawa sacara independen berkembang liwat gen. Panliten babagan mode lan mekanisme warisan epigenetik isih ana ing jaman ilmiah, nanging panelitian iki narik kawigatene aktivitas paling anyar amarga bisa nambah wiyar heritabilitas lan biologi evolusi umume. <ref name="Jablonk09">{{Cite journal|last=Jablonka|first=E.|last2=Raz|first2=G.|date=2009|title=Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: Prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution|url=http://compgen.unc.edu/wiki/images/d/df/JablonkaQtrRevBio2009.pdf|journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology|volume=84|issue=2|pages=131–176|citeseerx=10.1.1.617.6333|doi=10.1086/598822|pmid=19606595|access-date=2021-04-29|archive-date=2011-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715111243/http://compgen.unc.edu/wiki/images/d/df/JablonkaQtrRevBio2009.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''DNA methylation'' marking ''chromatin'', lingkar metabolisme mandhiri, nggawe gen ora aktif amarga gangguan RNA, lan konformasi protein telung dimensi (kayata [[prion]] ) minangka wilayah sing ditemokaké sistem keturunan epigenetik ing level organisme. <ref name="Bossdorf10">{{Cite journal|last=Bossdorf|first=O.|last2=Arcuri|first2=D.|last3=Richards|first3=C.L.|last4=Pigliucci|first4=M.|date=2010|title=Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in ''Arabidopsis thaliana''|url=https://boris.unibe.ch/5317/1/10682_2010_Article_9372.pdf|journal=Evolutionary Ecology|volume=24|issue=3|pages=541–553|doi=10.1007/s10682-010-9372-7}}</ref> <ref name="Jablonka05">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EaCiHFq3MWsC&printsec=frontcover|title=Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioural, and symbolic|last=Jablonka|first=E.|last2=Lamb|first2=M.|date=2005|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-10107-3}}</ref> Heritabilitas bisa uga ana ing timbangan sing luwih gedhé. Contoné, warisan ekologis liwat proses pambangunan ceruk ditetepaké kanthi kegiyatan organisme rutin lan bola-bali ing lingkungané. Héréditas entuk warisan gen plus ciri lingkungan sing digawe dening tumindak ekologis para leluhur. <ref name="Laland06">{{Cite journal|last=Laland|first=K.N.|last2=Sterelny|first2=K.|date=2006|title=Perspective: Seven reasons (not) to neglect niche construction|url=http://lalandlab.st-andrews.ac.uk/pdf/laland_Evolution_2006.pdf|journal=Evolution|volume=60|issue=8|pages=1751–1762|doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819190949/http://lalandlab.st-andrews.ac.uk/pdf/laland_Evolution_2006.pdf|archive-date=2011-08-19}}</ref> Conto héréditas liyané ing evolusi sing ora ana ing kontrol gen langsung kalebu warisan sipat kultur, héréditas kelompok, lan simbiogenesis. <ref name="Chapman98">{{Cite journal|last=Chapman|first=M.J.|last2=Margulis|first2=L.|date=1998|title=Morphogenesis by symbiogenesis|url=http://www.im.microbios.org/04december98/14%20Chapman.pdf|journal=International Microbiology|volume=1|issue=4|pages=319–326|pmid=10943381|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823062546/http://www.im.microbios.org/04december98/14%20Chapman.pdf|archive-date=2014-08-23}}</ref> <ref name="Wilson07">{{Cite journal|last=Wilson|first=D. S.|last2=Wilson|first2=E.O.|date=2007|title=Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology|url=http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Rethinking-sociobiology.pdf|journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology|volume=82|issue=4|pages=327–348|doi=10.1086/522809|pmid=18217526|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511235639/http://evolution.binghamton.edu/dswilson/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Rethinking-sociobiology.pdf|archive-date=2011-05-11}}</ref> <ref name="Bijma08">{{Cite journal|last=Bijma|first=P.|last2=Wade|first2=M.J.|date=2008|title=The joint effects of kin, multilevel selection and indirect genetic effects on response to genetic selection|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology|volume=21|issue=5|pages=1175–1188|doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01550.x|pmid=18547354}}</ref> Conto-conto heritabilitas sing makarya ing ndhuwur gen kasebut dijamin ing judhul pilihan multilevel utawa hirarkis, sing wis dadi debat intensif ing sejarah ilmu evolusi. <ref name="Wilson07" /> <ref name="Vrba86">{{Cite journal|last=Vrba|first=E.S.|last2=Gould|first2=S.J.|date=1986|title=The hierarchical expansion of sorting and selection: Sorting and selection cannot be equated|url=http://www.explorelifeonearth.org/cursos/VrbaGould1986sorting.pdf|journal=Paleobiology|volume=12|issue=2|pages=217–228|doi=10.1017/S0094837300013671|access-date=2021-04-29|archive-date=2016-08-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804063711/http://www.explorelifeonearth.org/cursos/VrbaGould1986sorting.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Hubungan karo téori revolusi == Nalika [[Charles Darwin]] ngusulaké teori [[Évolusi|evolusi]] ing taun 1859, salah sawijining masalah utama yaiku ora ana mekanisme dhasar kanggo héréditas. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Genetic Analysis|last=Griffiths|first=Anthony, J.F.|last2=Wessler, Susan R.|last3=Carroll, Sean B.|last4=Doebley, John|date=2012|publisher=W.H. Freeman and Company|isbn=978-1-4292-2943-2|edition=10th|location=New York|page=14}}</ref> Darwin percaya karo campuran warisan sing dicampur lan warisan sifat sing dipikolehi ( pangenesis). Campuran warisan bakal nyebabaké keseragaman antarané populasi mung sawetara generasi banjur ngilangi variasi saka populasi sing bisa kena seleksi alam. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Charlesworth, Brian|last2=Charlesworth, Deborah|date=November 2009|title=Darwin and Genetics|url=http://www.genetics.org/content/183/3/757.full|journal=Genetics|volume=183|issue=3|pages=757–766|doi=10.1534/genetics.109.109991|pmc=2778973|pmid=19933231}}</ref> Iki nyebabaké Darwin nggunakaké sawetara ide Lamarckian ing edhisi ''[[On the Origin of Species|On the Origin of spécies]]'' lan karya biologis. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bard, Jonathan BL|date=2011|title=The next evolutionary synthesis: from Lamarck and Darwin to genomic variation and systems biology|journal=Cell Communication and Signaling|volume=9|issue=30|pages=30|doi=10.1186/1478-811X-9-30|pmc=3215633|pmid=22053760}}</ref> Pendekatan utama Darwin kanggo héréditas yaiku nggambaraké cara kerjané (ngelingi sipat sing ora diandharaké kanthi eksplisit ing wong tuwa nalika reproduksi bisa diwarisaké, sifat tartamtu bisa uga ana hubungané karo jinis, lsp.) tinimbang menehi mekanisme. Model héréditas awal Darwin diadopsi dening, lan banjur dimodifikasi banget dening, seduluré Francis Galton, sing nggawe kerangka kanggo sekolah héréditas biometrik. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/francisgalton.aspx|title=Francis Galton (1822-1911)|publisher=[[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]]|access-date=March 26, 2013|archive-date=January 30, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130202832/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/francisgalton.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> Galton ora nemokaké bukti-bukti kanggo ndhukung aspék model pangenesis Darwin, sing gumantung karo sipat sing diduwéni. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liu Y.|date=May 2008|title=A new perspective on Darwin's Pangenesis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-reviews_2008-05_83_2/page/141|journal=Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc|volume=83|issue=2|pages=141–149|doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00036.x|pmid=18429766}}</ref> Warisan sifat sing dipikolehi ditampilaké ora duwé dhasar ing taun 1880-an nalika Agustus Weismann ngilangi buntut ing pirang-pirang generasi [[Cindhil|tikus]] lan nemokaké yen héréditase terus ngembangaké buntut. <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofbeliefu00lipt|title=The Biology of Belief: Unleashing the Power of Consciousness, Matter and Miracles|last=Lipton, Bruce H.|date=2008|publisher=Hay House, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4019-2344-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofbeliefu00lipt/page/12 12]|url-access=registration}}</ref> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Genetika]] 84dt8glkbazzuwmmqx1nymtgdxr1p25 Semikonduktor 0 177705 1753059 1748481 2026-08-20T09:23:02Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753059 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Silicon.jpg|jmpl|Kristal [[silikon]] minangka bahan semikonduktor sing paling umum digunakake ing mikroèlèktronika lan ''fotovoltaik'' .]] '''Semikonduktor''' minangka bahan sing duwé nilai konduktivitas listrik sing ana ing antarané isolator dan konduktor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sumberbelajar.belajar.kemdikbud.go.id/sumberbelajar/tampil/Sifat-Kelistrikan-Bahan-2007/konten5.html|title=SIFAT KELISTRIKAN BAHAN Semikonduktor|access-date=2021-04-29|archive-date=2021-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430043643/https://sumberbelajar.belajar.kemdikbud.go.id/sumberbelajar/tampil/Sifat-Kelistrikan-Bahan-2007/konten5.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bahan sing konduktor, kayata tembaga logam, dene bahan insulator, kayata kaca. Resistivitas mudhun nalika suhu mundhak; logam tumindak kanthi cara sing ngelawan. Nganakaké sawijining bisa ngrubah ing cara migunani dening mangerténi regedan ("''doping''") menyang struktur kristal. Nalika rong wilayah sing beda-beda ing kristal sing padha, persimpangan semikonduktor digawé. Sifat operator muatan, sing kalebu [[èlèktron]], [[ion]] lan lubang èlèktron, ing persimpangan kasebut minangka dhasar [[Dhiodha|dioda]], [[transistor]] lan [[Elektronika|èlèktronik]] sing paling modern. Sawetara conto semikonduktor yaiku [[silikon]], [[Germaniyum|germanium]], gallium, arsenide, lan unsur-unsur sing cedhak karo "[[Metaloid|metalloid]] " utawa kolom IV A ing [[Dhaptar unsur miturut lambang|tabel periodik]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/semiconductor|title=Semiconductor - The p-n junction|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2021-04-29}}</ref> Sawisé silikon, gallium arsenide minangka semikonduktor nomer loro sing paling umum lan digunakaké ing dioda laser, sèl surya, sirkuit terintegrasi frekuensi [[gelombang mikro]], lan liya-liyané. Silikon minangka elemen penting kanggo nggawé  sirkuit èlèktronik. == Sifat == === Konduktivitas listrik variabel === Semikonduktor ing kondhisi alamiah minangka konduktor sing kurang apik amarga arus mbutuhaké aliran [[èlèktron]], lan semikonduktor duwé pita valens sing diisi, nyegah kabeh aliran èlèktron anyar. Sawetara teknik sing dikembangaké ngidini bahan semikonduktor tumindak kaya nindakaké bahan, kayata ''doping'' utawa efek medan . Modifikasi iki duwé rong asil: '''tipe-n''' lan '''tipe-p''' . Iki nuduhaké keluwihan utawa kekurangan èlèktron, masing-masing. Jumlah èlèktron sing ora seimbang bakal nyebabaké arus bisa mili liwat bahan kasebut.<ref name="Neamen">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fulviofrisone.com/attachments/article/403/Semiconductor%20Physics%20And%20Devices%20-%20Donald%20Neamen.pdf|title=Semiconductor Physics and Devices|last=Neamen|first=Donald|publisher=Elizabeth A. Jones|access-date=2021-04-30|archive-date=2022-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027123709/http://www.fulviofrisone.com/attachments/article/403/Semiconductor%20Physics%20And%20Devices%20-%20Donald%20Neamen.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Heterojungsi === Heterojungsii kedadeyan nalika rong bahan semikonduktor ''dop'' beda-beda gabung. Contone, konfigurasi bisa kalebu [[germanium]] ''p-dop'' lan ''n-dop''. Iki nyebabaké pertukaran èlèktron lan bolongan ing antarané bahan semikonduktor sing beda. Germanium ''n-dop'' duwé keluwihan èlèktron, lan germanium p-doped duwé keluwihan bolongan. Transfer kasebut ditrapaké nganti keseimbangan ditindakaké kanthi proses sing diarani rekombinasi, sing nyebabaké èlèktron migrasi saka tipe n bisa kontak karo bolongan migrasi saka tipe p. Asil saka proses iki yaiku ngilangi ion-ion sing ora obah, sing nyebabaké medan listrik ing persimpangan.<ref name="Feynman">{{Cite book|title=Feynman Lectures on Physics|last=Feynman|first=Richard|date=1963|publisher=Basic Books}}</ref><ref name="Neamen2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fulviofrisone.com/attachments/article/403/Semiconductor%20Physics%20And%20Devices%20-%20Donald%20Neamen.pdf|title=Semiconductor Physics and Devices|last=Neamen|first=Donald|publisher=Elizabeth A. Jones|access-date=2021-04-30|archive-date=2022-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027123709/http://www.fulviofrisone.com/attachments/article/403/Semiconductor%20Physics%20And%20Devices%20-%20Donald%20Neamen.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Èksitasi èlèktron === Bedané potensial listrik ing materi semikonduktor bakal nyebabaké keseimbangan termal lan nggawé  kahanan sing ora seimbang. Iki ngenalaké èlèktron lan bolongan menyang sistem, sing interaksi liwat proses sing diarani difusi ambipolar . Kapan kasetimbangan termal kaganggu ing bahan semikonduktor, jumlah bolongan lan èlèktron bakal beda. Gangguan kasebut bisa kedadeyan amarga ana bedané suhu utawa [[foton]], sing bisa lumebu sistem lan nggawé  èlèktron lan bolongan. Proses sing nggawé  lan ngancuraké èlèktron lan bolongan diarani generasi lan rekombinasi .<ref name="Neamen3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fulviofrisone.com/attachments/article/403/Semiconductor%20Physics%20And%20Devices%20-%20Donald%20Neamen.pdf|title=Semiconductor Physics and Devices|last=Neamen|first=Donald|publisher=Elizabeth A. Jones|access-date=2021-04-30|archive-date=2022-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027123709/http://www.fulviofrisone.com/attachments/article/403/Semiconductor%20Physics%20And%20Devices%20-%20Donald%20Neamen.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Èmisi entheng === Ing semikonduktor tartamtu, èksitasi èlèktron sing melimpah bisa alon kanthi ngetokaké cahya lan ora ngasilaké panas.<ref>By Abdul Al-Azzawi. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iw7NBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54&lpg=PA54&dq=In+certain+semiconductors,+excited+electrons+can+relax+by+emitting+light+instead+of+producing+heat.%5C&source=bl&ots=W0PTjQvQ2L&sig=ukjN-RIXvTMjjbhYd9QRxK14sd4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjMncyJmqjLAhVBxWMKHWuiBy0Q6AEIIjAB#v=onepage&q&f=false Light and Optics: Principles and Practices]." 2007. March 4, 2016.</ref> Semikonduktor iki digunakaké ing pambangunan diode pemancar cahaya lan titik kuantum neon. === Konduktivitas termal sing dhuwur === Semikonduktor kanthi konduktivitas termal sing dhuwur bisa digunakaké kanggo disipasi [[panas]] lan ningkataké manajemen termal èlèktronik.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kang|first=Joon Sang|last2=Li|first2=Man|last3=Wu|first3=Huan|last4=Nguyen|first4=Huuduy|last5=Hu|first5=Yongjie|year=2018|title=Experimental observation of high thermal conductivity in boron arsenide|url=https://archive.org/details/science_2018-08-10_361_6402/page/575|journal=Science|volume=361|issue=6402|pages=575–78|bibcode=2018Sci...361..575K|doi=10.1126/science.aat5522|pmid=29976798|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Konversi energi termal === Semikonduktor duwé faktor daya termoèlèktrik sing gedhé sing migunani ing generator termoèlèktrik, uga duwéni keunggulan termoèlèktrik sing bisa digunakaké kanggo adhemaké termoèlèktrik .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.marlow.com/resources/general-faq/6-how-do-thermoelectric-coolers-tecs-work.html|title=How do thermoelectric coolers (TECs) work?|publisher=marlow.com|access-date=2016-05-07|archive-date=2017-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214184848/http://www.marlow.com/resources/general-faq/6-how-do-thermoelectric-coolers-tecs-work.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Fisika]] 2mbltte1vav0wbfcir0uqu2fmzdj64f Pulmonologi 0 177712 1753035 1748974 2026-08-20T08:40:19Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753035 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Respiratory_system_complete_en.svg|jmpl|266x266px|Skema sistem pernapasan wong lan fungsiné]] '''Pulmonologi''' ( {{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|ʌ|l|m|ə|ˈ|n|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i}}, {{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|ʊ|l|m|ə|ˈ|n|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i}}, saka [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ''pulmō, -ōnis'' "lung" lan [[Yunani Kuna|Yunani]] seselan {{Lang|grc|[[wiktionary:-λογία|-λογία]]}} {{Transl|el|-logía}} "sinau saka") utawa '''pneumologi''' ( {{IPAc-en|n|ʊ|ˈ|m|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i|,_|n|j|ʊ|-}}, saka basa Yunani πνεύμων {{Transl|el|pneúmōn}} "paru") minangka spesialisasi mèdhis sing ana gandhengané karo penyakit sing nglibataké saluran pernapasan. <ref name="acp">[http://www.acponline.org/patients_families/about_internal_medicine/subspecialties/pulmonology/ ACP: Pulmonology: Internal Medicine Subspecialty]. Acponline.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-30.</ref> Iki uga dikenal minangka '''respirologi''', '''obat pernapasan''', utawa '''obat dada''' ing sawetara negara lan wilayah. Pulmonologi dianggep minangka cabang [[Panyakit njero|penyakit njero]], lan ana gandhengané karo obat perawatan intensif . Pulmonologi asring kalebu ngatur pasien sing butuh dhukungan nyawa lan ventilasi mekanik . Ahli pulmonologi khusus dilatih ing penyakit lan kahanan dada, utamané radhang paru-paru, [[Mengi|panandhang asma]], [[tuberkulosis]], emfisema, lan infeksi dada sing rumit. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sengupta|first=Nandini|last2=Sahidullah, Md|last3=Saha, Goutam|date=August 2016|title=Lung sound classification using cepstral-based statistical features|journal=Computers in Biology and Medicine|volume=75|issue=1|pages=118–129|doi=10.1016/j.compbiomed.2016.05.013|pmid=27286184}}</ref> == Sejarah pulmonologi == Ana panemuan utama pisanan sing ana gandhengané karo bidang pulmonologi yaiku nemokaké sirkulasi paru  Wiwitané, dianggep ana [[getih]] sing bisa tekan sisih tengen [[jantung]] ngliwati 'pori-pori' cilik ing septum menyang sisih kiwa kanggo dioksidasi, kaya ta téori Galen ; Nanging, panemuan sirkulasi paru mbantah téori iki, sing sadurunge wis ditampa wiwit abad kaping 2. [[Anatomi]] lan [[Fisiologi|fisiologis]] abad kaping telulas [[Ibnu Nafis|Ibn Al-Nafis]] kanthi téori sejatine ora ana lorong 'langsung' ing antarané loro-lorone (ventrikel ) jantung. Dhèwèké percaya manawa getih kasebut bisa nembus arteri pulmonalis, liwat paru-paru, lan bali menyang jantung supaya bisa dipompa ing awak. Iki dipercaya akèh minangka gambaran ilmiah pertama babagan sirkulasi paru. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharif Kaf A-Ghazal|date=2002|title=The discovery of the pulmonary circulation – who should get the credit: ibn Al-Nafis or William Harvey|url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/2/09.pdf|journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine|volume=2|page=46|access-date=2021-04-30|archive-date=2010-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612141149/http://ishim.net/ishimj/2/09.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sanajan obat pulmonalis mung wiwit berkembang dadi spesialisasi mèdhis ing taun 1950-an, William Welch lan William Osler ngedegaké organisasi 'induk' ''American Thoracic Society'', <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thoracic.org/about/overview.php|title=American Thoracic Society - Overview|website=www.thoracic.org|access-date=2019-01-25}}</ref> Asosiasi Nasional kanggo Studi lan Pencegahan [[Tuberkulosis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jacobs|first=Henry Barton|date=1904-12-03|title=National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis.|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/463708|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=XLIII|issue=23|pages=1712|doi=10.1001/jama.1904.02500230042014|issn=0002-9955}}</ref> Perawatan, pasinaon, lan panaliten tuberkulosis paru-paru diakoni minangka disiplin sing cocok yaiku phthisiologi. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lauzardo|first=Michael|last2=Ashkin|first2=David|date=2000-05-01|title=Phthisiology at the Dawn of the New Century|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2000-05_117_5/page/1455|journal=Chest|volume=117|issue=5|pages=1455–1473|doi=10.1378/chest.117.5.1455|issn=0012-3692|pmid=10807837}}</ref> Nalika spesialisasine sansaya ngembang, sawetara panemuan digawe ngubungaké sistem pernapasan lan pangukuran gas getih arteri, narik luwih akèh dhokter lan peneliti ing lapangan sing lagi berkembang. <ref>[http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/pulmonary/about/history.html History of the Division] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811150722/http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/pulmonary/about/history.html |date=2017-08-11 }}. Hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved on 2011-09-30.</ref> == Pulmonologi lan gandhengané ing bidang mèdhis liyané == [[Barkas:CRIM.PULMONOLOGY2012-678249.001.jpg|jmpl|''Rontgen'' bageyan jero dada]] [[Bedhah|Operasi]] ing saluran pernapasan umume ditindakaké dening para spesialis ing operasi kardiotoraksik <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.essentiahealth.org/services/heart-vascular-services/cardiothoracic-surgery/|title=Cardiothoracic Surgery {{!}} Essentia Health {{!}} MN, WI, ND|website=www.essentiahealth.org|access-date=2019-01-25}}</ref> (utawa operasi toraks ), <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/explore-roles/doctors/roles-doctors/surgery/cardiothoracic-surgery|title=Cardiothoracic surgery|date=2015-04-07|website=Health Careers|language=en|access-date=2019-01-25}}</ref> sanajan prosedur minor bisa ditindakaké dening pulmonologis. Pulmonologi gegandhengan banget karo obat perawatan kritis <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acponline.org/about-acp/about-internal-medicine/subspecialties/pulmonary-disease|title=Pulmonary Disease {{!}} Internal Medicine Subspecialties {{!}} ACP|website=www.acponline.org|access-date=2019-01-25}}</ref> nalika urusan karo pasien sing mbutuhaké ventilasi mekanik. Akibate, akèh ahli pulmonologis sing disertifikasi kanggo nindakaké obat perawatan kritis saliyané obat paru-paru. Ana program kemitraan sing ngidini dhokter dadi sertifikat dewan ing obat perawatan paru-paru lan kritis kanthi bebarengan. Pulmonologi intervensional minangka lapangan sing relatif anyar ing obat pulmonari <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/lung/interventional-pulmonology-uses-effects|title=Interventional Pulmonology: Procedures, Uses, and Effects|website=WebMD|language=en|access-date=2019-01-25}}</ref> sing gegayutan karo panggunaan prosedur kayata bronkoskopi <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seijo|first=Luis M.|last2=Sterman|first2=Daniel H.|date=2001-03-08|title=Interventional Pulmonology|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2001-03-08_344_10/page/740|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=344|issue=10|pages=740–749|doi=10.1056/NEJM200103083441007|issn=0028-4793|pmid=11236779}}</ref> lan pleurokopi kanggo ngobati pirang-pirang penyakit paru-paru. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pamf.org/pulmonary/interventional/procedures.html|title=Interventional Pulmonology Diagnostic and Therapeutic Procedures|website=www.pamf.org|access-date=2019-01-25|archive-date=2019-01-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117162112/http://www.pamf.org/pulmonary/interventional/procedures.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pulmonologi intervensional saya dikenal minangka spesialisasi mèdhis khusus. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luis M. Seijo|last2=Daniel H. Sterman|date=2001|title=Interventional Pulmonology|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2001-03-08_344_10/page/740|journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=344|issue=10|pages=740–49|doi=10.1056/NEJM200103083441007|pmid=11236779}}</ref> == Terapi kanggo paru-paru == [[Obat]] minangka perawatan sing paling penting kanggo pirang-pirang penyakit pulmonologi, kanthi inhalasi ( bronkodilator lan [[steroid]] ) utawa kanthi bentuk lisan ( [[antibiotik]], antagonis leukotriena ). Tuladha umum yaiku panggunaan inhaler kanggo perawatan kahanan paru-paru inflamasi kayata [[Mengi|panandhang asma]] utawa penyakit paru obstruktif kronis. [[Terapi oksigén|Terapi oksigen]] <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-au/home/lung-and-airway-disorders/rehabilitation-for-lung-and-airway-disorders/oxygen-therapy|title=Oxygen Therapy - Lung and Airway Disorders|website=MSD Manual Consumer Version|language=en-AU|access-date=2019-01-25}}</ref> asring dibutuhaké kanggo penyakit pernapasan sing parah (emfisema lan fibrosis paru-paru). Yèn ora cukup, pasien bisa uga mbutuhaké ventilasi mekanik. == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Kedhokteran]] ryn46k3tdkohstue2u6u7pdw8a6f5rx Siklus karbon 0 177720 1752906 1649788 2026-08-20T04:43:27Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752906 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Carbon_cycle.jpg|ka|jmpl|Siklus karbon sing cepet nuduhaké gerak karbon ing antarané lemah, atmosfer, lan sagara karbon ing antarané lemah, atmosfer, lan samodra iki kanthi milyaran ton (gigaton) saben taun. Nomer kuning minangka fluks alami, abang minangka kontribusi manungsa, lan putih minangka karbon sing disimpen. Èfèk saka siklus karbon alon, kayata aktivitas vulkanik lan téktonik ora kalebu.<ref name="nasacc2">{{Cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-features|title=The Carbon Cycle|last=Riebeek|first=Holli|date=16 Juni 2011|website=Earth Observatory|publisher=NASA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010126/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/CarbonCycle/?src=eoa-features|archive-date=5 Maret 2016|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref>]] '''Siklus karbon''' minangka siklus [[Dhaur Biogéokimia|biogeokimia]], perputeran [[karbon]] ing wilayah [[biosfer]], pedosfer, geosfer, hidrosfer, lan [[Swasana|atmosfer Bumi]]. Karbon minangka komponén utama senyawa biologis uga komponén utama akèh mineral kayata watu gamping. Bebarengan karo [[Dhaur Nitrogén|siklus nitrogen]] lan siklus banyu, siklus karbon kalebu urutan kedadéyan sing dadi kunci supaya bumi bisa urip. Iki nggambaraké gerakan karbon amarga didaur ulang lan digunakaké manèh ing saindenging biosfer, uga prosès jangka dawa karbonisasi lan mbebasaké saka karbon kependhem. Karbon kependhem ing daratan lan samodra saiki njupuk udakara seperempat emisi karbon antropogenik saben taun. Manungsa wis ngganggu siklus karbon biologis nganti pirang-pirang atus taun kanthi modifikasi panggunaan lahan,<ref name="nasacc2"/> lan malih karo penambangan karbon fosil skala industri ([[Areng watu|batu bara]], èkstraksi minyak bumi lan [[Gas bumi|gas]], lan pabrik [[Semèn|semen]]) saka geosfer.<ref name="gcb19">Friedlingstein, P., Jones, M., O'Sullivan, M., Andrew, R., Hauck, J., Peters, G., Peters, W., Pongratz, J., Sitch, S., Le Quéré, C. and 66 others (2019) "Global carbon budget 2019". ''Earth System Science Data'', '''11'''(4): 1783–1838. {{Doi|10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019}}. [[Barkas:CC BY icon.svg|50x50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]].</ref> [[Karbon dioksida]] ing atmosfer mundhak meh 52% tinimbang level pra-industri ing taun 2020<ref name="Prentice_etal_2001">{{Cite book|title=Climate change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergouvernmental Panel on Climate Change|last=Prentice|first=I.C.|year=2001|editor-last=Houghton|editor-first=J.T.|chapter=The carbon cycle and atmospheric carbon dioxide|hdl=10067/381670151162165141}}</ref>, meksa panas lan permukaan bumi luwih gedhé dening srengéngé.<ref name="noaagi">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/aggi/|title=The NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI) - An Introduction|publisher=[[NOAA]] Global Monitoring Laboratory/Earth System Research Laboratories|access-date=2020-10-30}}</ref> Peningkatan karbon dioksida uga nambah asem ing permukaan sagara udakara 30% amarga karbon dioksida larut<ref name="scor-int">{{Cite web|url=http://www.scor-int.org/OBO2009/A&O_Report.pdf|title=Report of the Ocean Acidification and Oxygen Working Group, SCOR Biological Observatories Workshop|date=2009-09-30|website=scor-int.org/|publisher=International Council for Science's Scientific Committee on Ocean Research (SCOR)}}</ref>, asem karbonat lan senyawa liyané, lan dhasar bisa ngganti kimia laut.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/acidification.html|title=What is Ocean Acidification?|publisher=National Ocean Service, [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2020-10-30}}</ref> Mayoritas karbon fosil wis diekstrak sajroné setengah abad kepungkur, lan béya sansaya akèh kanthi cepet<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser|year=2020|title=CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: CO₂ Emissions by Fuel|url=https://ourworldindata.org/emissions-by-fuel|journal=Our World in Data|publisher=Published online at OurWorldInData.org.|access-date=2020-10-30}}</ref>, nyumbang kanggo owah-owahan iklim sing disebabaké dening manungsa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heede, R.|year=2014|title=Tracing anthropogenic carbon dioxide and methane emissions to fossil fuel and cement producers, 1854–2010|journal=Climatic Change|volume=122|issue=1–2|pages=229–241|bibcode=2014ClCh..122..229H|doi=10.1007/s10584-013-0986-y|doi-access=free}}</ref> Konsekuensi paling gedhé kanggo siklus karbon, lan biosfer sing kritis nyebabaké peradaban manungsa<ref name="Rockstrom09">{{Cite journal|last=Rockström|first=Johan|display-authors=etal|date=2009|title=Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.5751/ES-03180-140232|doi-access=free}}</ref>, isih bisa diwiwiti amarga inersia gedhé ing Bumi sing durung diwatesi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Steffen|first=W.|display-authors=etal|year=2015|title=Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet|journal=Science|volume=347|issue=6223|pages=1259855|doi=10.1126/science.1259855|pmid=25592418|doi-access=free}}</ref> Balèkné keseimbangan sistem alam iki minangka prioritas internasional, sing dijlentrehaké ing Perjanjian Iklim Paris lan Ancas Pambangunan Berkelanjutan 13. == Komponén utama siklus karbon == Siklus karbon pisanan diterangaké dening [[Antoine Lavoisier]] lan [[Joseph Priestley]], lan dipopuleraké dening Humphry Davy.<ref name="AOW">Holmes, Richard (2008). "The Age Of Wonder", Pantheon Books. {{ISBN|978-0-375-42222-5}}.</ref> Siklus karbon global saiki biasané dipérang dadi tadhah utama karbon ing ngisor iki sing gegandhengan karo jalur ijol-ijolan:<ref>{{Cite book|title=The global carbon cycle|last=Archer|first=David|date=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400837076|location=Princeton}}</ref> * Atmosfer * [[Biosfer]] terestrial * [[Samodra]] * Endhapan, * Interior bumi (mantel lan kerak). Pertukaran karbon ing antarané waduk kedadéyan amarga macem-macem prosès kimia, fisik, geologis, lan biologis. Samodra ngemot kolam aktif karbon paling gedhé cedhak lumahing Bumi.<ref name="GlobalCarbonCycle">{{Cite journal|last=Falkowski|first=P.|last2=Scholes|first2=R. J.|last3=Boyle|first3=E.|last4=Canadell|first4=J.|last5=Canfield|first5=D.|last6=Elser|first6=J.|last7=Gruber|first7=N.|last8=Hibbard|first8=K.|last9=Högberg|first9=P.|year=2000|title=The Global Carbon Cycle: A Test of Our Knowledge of Earth as a System|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2000-10-13_290_5490/page/291|journal=Science|volume=290|issue=5490|pages=291–296|bibcode=2000Sci...290..291F|doi=10.1126/science.290.5490.291|pmid=11030643}}</ref> Aliran karbon alami ing antarané atmosfer<ref name="Prentice_etal_20012">{{Cite book|title=Climate change 2001: the scientific basis: contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergouvernmental Panel on Climate Change|last=Prentice|first=I.C.|year=2001|editor-last=Houghton|editor-first=J.T.|chapter=The carbon cycle and atmospheric carbon dioxide|hdl=10067/381670151162165141}}</ref>, sagara, ekosistem darat, lan endhepan cukup imbang saéngga kadar karbon stabil kira-kira tanpa pengaruh [[manungsa]].<ref name="U">{{Cite web|url=http://globecarboncycle.unh.edu/CarbonCycleBackground.pdf|title=An Introduction to the Global Carbon Cycle|year=2009|publisher=University of New Hampshire|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008110835/http://globecarboncycle.unh.edu/CarbonCycleBackground.pdf|archive-date=8 Oktober 2016|access-date=6 Fèbruari 2016}}</ref> == Siklus karbon jero == Sanajan siklus karbon jero durung dingertèni kaya gerakan karbon liwat atmosfer, biosfer terestrial, [[samodra]], lan geosfer, nanging kalebu prosès sing penting.<ref name="Wong2019">{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Kevin|last2=Mason|first2=Emily|last3=Brune|first3=Sascha|last4=East|first4=Madison|last5=Edmonds|first5=Marie|last6=Zahirovic|first6=Sabin|year=2019|title=Deep Carbon Cycling over the Past 200 Million Years: A Review of Fluxes in Different Tectonic Settings|journal=Frontiers in Earth Science|volume=7|page=263|bibcode=2019FrEaS...7..263W|doi=10.3389/feart.2019.00263|doi-access=free}}</ref> Siklus karbon jero gegandhengan karo gerakan karbon ing permukaan lan atmosfer Bumi. Yèn prosès kasebut ora ana, [[karbon]] bakal tetep ana ing atmosfer, mula bakal saya akèh nganti suwé banget.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://deepcarbon.net/feature/deep-carbon-cycle-and-our-habitable-planet|title=The Deep Carbon Cycle and our Habitable Planet {{!}} Deep Carbon Observatory|website=deepcarbon.net|access-date=2019-02-19|archive-date=2020-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727084309/https://deepcarbon.net/feature/deep-carbon-cycle-and-our-habitable-planet|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mula kanthi ngidini karbon bali menyang Bumi, siklus karbon jero nduwèni peranan penting kanggo njaga kahanan ''terestrial'' sing dibutuhané supaya urip terus. == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Bumi]] rjwo4k05o66erj07llwlmwcpk5obfk2 Siklus asem sitrat 0 177726 1753025 1556733 2026-08-20T08:24:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753025 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Citric_acid_cycle_with_aconitate_2.svg|jmpl|Ringkesan siklus asem sitrat]] '''Siklus asem sitrat''' ( '''CAC''' )&nbsp;- uga dikenal minangka '''siklus TCA (siklus asem trikarboksilat)''' utawa '''siklus Krébs''' <ref name="isbn0-12-181870-5">{{Cite book|title=Methods in Enzymology, Volume 13: Citric Acid Cycle|last=Lowenstein JM|publisher=Academic Press|year=1969|isbn=978-0-12-181870-8|location=Boston}}</ref> <ref name="isbn0-904498-22-0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/krebscitricacidc0000unse/page/25|title=Krebs' citric acid cycle: half a century and still turning|vauthors=Kay J, Weitzman PD|publisher=Biochemical Society|year=1987|isbn=978-0-904498-22-6|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/krebscitricacidc0000unse/page/25 25]}}</ref>&nbsp;- minangka serangkaian [[reaksi kimia]] sing digunakaké dening èorganisme aerobik kanggo ngeculaké énérgi sing disimpen liwat oksidasi asetil-CoA sing asalé saka [[karbohidrat]], [[Gajih|lemak]], lan [[Protéin|protein]]. Kajaba iku, siklus kasebut nyedhiyakaké prekursor [[asem amino]] tartamtu, uga agén rédhuksi NADH, sing digunakaké ing pirang-pirang reaksi liyane. Pentinge utamané kanggo akèh jalur biokimia sing nuduhaké yen iku salah sawijining komponèn [[Métabolisme|metabolisme sing]] paling awal lan bisa uga wis ana sacara [[Sangkané kauripan|abiogenik]]. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Arrival of the Fittest|last=Wagner|first=Andreas|date=2014|publisher=PenguinYork|isbn=9781591846468|edition=first|page=100}}</ref> <ref name="isbn0-393-06596-0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeascendingten0000lane|title=Life Ascending: The Ten Great Inventions of Evolution|last=Lane, Nick|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co|year=2009|isbn=978-0-393-06596-1|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref> Sanajan kasebut minangka 'siklus', metabolit ora mung kudu ngetutaké siji rute tartamtu; paling ora telung segmén siklus asem sitrat wis dingerténi.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2013|title=Which way does the citric acid cycle turn during hypoxia? The critical role of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex|url=http://real.mtak.hu/56447/1/Which_way_does_the_citric_acid_cycle_turn_during_hypoxia_u.pdf|journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research|volume=91|issue=8|pages=1030–43|doi=10.1002/jnr.23196|pmid=23378250}}</ref> Jeneng jalur metabolisme iki asalé saka [[asem sitrat]] (asem trikarboksilat, asring diarani sitrat, amarga wujud ionisasi ndominasi ing pH biologis <ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Biochemistry|vauthors=Voet D, Voet JG|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|year=2004|edition=3rd|location=New York|page=615}}</ref>) sing dikonsumsi lan banjur direnovasi dening urutan reaksi iki kanggo ngrampungaké siklus. Siklus kasebut nganggo asetat (ing bentuk asetil-CoA ) lan [[banyu]], nyuda NAD <sup>+</sup> nganti NADH, ngeculaké karbon dioksida. NADH sing digawe dening siklus asem sitrat diwenehaké menyang jalur fosforilasi oksidatif (transportasi èlèktron). Asil bersih saka rong jalur sing ana gandhengané iki yaiku oksidasi [[Hara|nutrisi]] kanggo ngasilaké énérgi kimia sing bisa digunakaké ing bentuk [[Adenosin Triphosphate|ATP]]. Ing [[Eukariota|sèl eukariotik]], siklus asem sitrat ana ing matrik [[Mitokondria|mitokondrion]] . Ing [[Prokariota|sèl prokariotik]], kayata bakteri, sing ora duwé mitokondria, urutan reaksi siklus asem sitrat ditindakaké ing sitoskol kanthi gradien proton kanggo prodhuksi ATP sing ana ing permukaan sèl ([[Mémbran sèl|membran plasma]]) lan ora ana membran utama [[mitokondria]] . Hasil umum senyawa sing ngemot énérgi saka siklus TCA yaiku telung NADH, siji FADH <sub>2</sub>, lan siji GTP. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Marks' basic medical biochemistry : a clinical approach|last=Lieberman|first=Michael|date=2013|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|others=Marks, Allan D., Peet, Alisa.|isbn=9781608315727|edition=Fourth|location=Philadelphia|oclc=769803483}}</ref> [[Barkas:Acetyl-CoA-2D_colored.svg|jmpl|Diagram struktural asetil-CoA : Pérangan warna biru, ing sisih kiwa, yaiku klompok asetil ; perangan sing ireng yaiku koenzim A.]] == Panemuan siklus asem sitrat == Sawetara komponèn lan reaksi siklus asem sitrat digawe ing taun 1930-an kanthi risèt Albert Szent-Györgyi, sing nampa Hadiah Nobel ing Fisiologi utawa Kedokteran taun 1937 khusus kanggo panemune sing ana gandhengané karo asem fumaric, komponèn utama siklus <ref name="Nobel_Prize_1937">{{Cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1937/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1937|publisher=The Nobel Foundation|access-date=2011-10-26}}</ref> Dhèwèké nemokaké iki kanthi nyinaoni otot dada merpati. Amarga jaringan iki njaga kapasitas oksidatif kanthi apik sawisé rusak ing pabrik "Latapie" lan ngeculaké solusi berair, otot payudara dara kasebut nduweni kualifikasi kanggo panelitian reaksi oksidatif. <ref>Chandramana, Sudeep. (2014). Inclusive Growth And Youth Empowerment: Adevelopment Model For Aspirational India. Journal of Science, Technology and Management. 7. 52–62.</ref> Siklus asem sitrat dhewe pungkasané diidentifikasi ing taun 1937 dening Hans Adolf Krebs lan William Arthur Johnson nalika ana ing Universitas Sheffield, <ref>{{Cite journal|date=April 1937|title=Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal tissues|journal=The Biochemical Journal|volume=31|issue=4|pages=645–60|doi=10.1042/bj0310645|pmc=1266984|pmid=16746382}}</ref> sing saduré nampa Hadiah Nobel Fisiologi utawa Kedokteran taun 1953, lan kadang siklus kasebut dijenengi (siklus Krebs). <ref name="Nobel_Prize_1953">{{Cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1953/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1953|publisher=The Nobel Foundation|access-date=2011-10-26}}</ref> == Langkah siklus asem sitrat == Rong atom [[karbon]] dioksidasi dadi [[Karbon dioksida|CO <sub>2</sub>]], énérgi saka reaksi kasebut ditransfer menyang proses metabolisme liyané liwat GTP (utawa ATP), lan uga èlèktron ing NADH lan QH <sub>2</sub> . NADH sing digawe ing siklus asem sitrat mengko bisa dioksidasi (nyumbang èlèktron) kanggo ndorong sintesis ATP ing jinis proses sing disebut fosforilasi oksidatif . <ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=Biochemistry|vauthors=Voet D, Voet JG|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|year=2004|edition=3rd|location=New York|page=615}}</ref> FADH <sub>2</sub> ditempelaké kanthi kovalen kanggo ''succinate dehydrogenase'', enzim sing berfungsi loro ing CAC lan rantai transportasi èlèktron mitokondria ing fosforilasi oksidatif. Mula <sub>, FADH 2</sub> nggampangaké transfer èlèktron menyang koenzim Q, yaiku akseptor èlèktron pungkasan saka reaksi sing dikatalisis karo sucisinat: komplèks ubiquinone oxidoreductase, uga tumindak minangka penengah ing rantai transportasi èlèktron.<ref name="Stryer">{{Cite book|title=Biochemistry|vauthors=Stryer L, Berg J, Tymoczko JL|publisher=W. H. Freeman|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7167-4684-3|location=San Francisco}}</ref> [[Mitokondria]] ing kewan, kalebu manungsa, duwé rong ''sintetis succinyl''-''CoA'' : siji sing ngasilaké GTP saka PDB, lan liyané sing ngasilaké ATP saka ADP. <ref name="pmid9765291">{{Cite journal|date=October 1998|title=Genetic evidence for the expression of ATP- and GTP-specific succinyl-CoA synthetases in multicellular eucaryotes|journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry|volume=273|issue=42|pages=27580–6|doi=10.1074/jbc.273.42.27580|pmid=9765291|doi-access=free}}</ref> Tanduran duwé jinis sing ngasilaké sintetis ''succinyl-CoA'' sing mbentuk ADP). <ref name="Biochemistryofplants">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistrymole00buch|title=Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants|vauthors=Jones RC, Buchanan BB, Gruissem W|publisher=American Society of Plant Physiologists|year=2000|isbn=978-0-943088-39-6|edition=1st|location=Rockville, Md}}</ref> Sawetara enzim ing siklus kasebut bisa uga ana gandhengané karo komplèks protein multi-enzim ing matrik [[mitokondria]]. <ref name="pmid3086126">{{Cite journal|date=June 1986|title=Organization of citric acid cycle enzymes into a multienzyme cluster|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_febs-letters_1986-06-09_201_2/page/267|journal=FEBS Letters|volume=201|issue=2|pages=267–70|doi=10.1016/0014-5793(86)80621-4|pmid=3086126}}</ref> GTP sing digawe dening sintetis ''succinyl-CoA'' sing mbentuk GDP bisa digunakaké dening nukleosida-difosfat kinase kanggo mbentuk ATP (reaksi sing dikatalisis yaiku GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP). <ref name="Stryer2">{{Cite book|title=Biochemistry|vauthors=Stryer L, Berg J, Tymoczko JL|publisher=W. H. Freeman|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7167-4684-3|location=San Francisco}}</ref> == Prodhuk saka siklus asem sitrat == Prodhuk ing puteran kaping pisanan yaiku siji GTP (utawa [[Adenosin Triphosphate|ATP]] ), telung NADH, siji QH <sub>2</sub> lan loro [[Karbon dioksida|CO <sub>2</sub>]]. Amarga rong [[molekul]] asetil-CoA diprodhuksi saka saben molekul [[glukosa]], rong siklus dibutuhaké saben molekul glukosa. Mula, ing pungkasan rong siklus, produké yaiku: rong GTP, enem NADH, loro QH <sub>2</sub>, lan papat [[Karbon dioksida|CO <sub>2</sub>]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Biologi untuk SMA kelas XII|last=Tim|publisher=CV Willian|year=2016|location=Kartasura|pages=56}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" | width="50%" |'''Katrangan''' |'''Reaksi''' |'''Prodhuk''' |- |Jumlah réaksi ing siklus asem sitrat yaiku: |Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD <sup>+</sup> + UQ + PDB + P <sub>i</sub> + 2 H <sub>2</sub> O |→ CoA-SH + 3 NADH + UQH <sub>2</sub> + 3 H <sup>+</sup> + GTP + 2 CO <sub>2</sub> |- |Gabungan reaksi sing ana sajroné oksidasi piruvat karo reaksi asam sitrat, reaksi oksidasi piruvat ing ngisor iki dipikolehi: |Ion piruvat + 4 NAD <sup>+</sup> + UQ + PDB + P <sub>i</sub> + 2 H <sub>2</sub> O |→ 4 NADH + UQH <sub>2</sub> + 4 H <sup>+</sup> + GTP + 3 CO <sub>2</sub> |- |Gabungan réaksi ing ndhuwur karo reaksi [[glikolisis]], réaksi oksidasi glukosa (ora kalebu réaksi ing rantai respirasi): |Glukosa + 10 NAD <sup>+</sup> + 2 UQ + 2 ADP + 2 PDB + 4 P <sub>i</sub> + 2 H <sub>2</sub> O |→ 10 NADH + 2 UQH <sub>2</sub> + 10 H <sup>+</sup> + 2 ATP + 2 GTP + 6 CO <sub>2</sub> |} Jumlah total molekul ATP sing dipikoléhi sawisé oksidasi lengkap siji glukosa ing glikolisis, siklus asem sitrat, lan fosforilasi oksidatif kira-kira ana ing antarané 30 lan 38. <ref name="pmid7654171">{{Cite journal|date=September 1995|title=Mitochondrial proton conductance and H+/O ratio are independent of electron transport rate in isolated hepatocytes|journal=The Biochemical Journal|volume=310|issue=2|pages=379–82|doi=10.1042/bj3100379|pmc=1135905|pmid=7654171}}</ref> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Biologi]] q54x7c5ty1nmpq892mapn6gadtzapnd Ménstruasi lan budaya 0 178056 1753004 1646748 2026-08-20T07:49:50Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753004 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Pilbara_two.tiff|jmpl| loro wanita joged lan menstruasi. Seni rock dening Pendhudhuk Australia saka Kali Yule Ndhuwur, Pilbara, Australia Kulon.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Blood relations: Menstruation and the origins of Culture|last=Knight|first=C.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1995|location=London & New Haven|page=443}} Re-drawn after {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/rockartofpilbara0000wrig|title=Rock Art of the Pilbara Region, North-west Australia|last=Wright|first=B. J.|publisher=Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies|year=1968|location=Canberra|at=fig. 112|url-access=registration}}</ref>]] '''Budaya lan menstruasi''' yaiku babagan aspek budaya sekitar carane masarakat ndeleng [[Nggarap sari|haid]] . '''Larangan menstruasi minangka tabu''' sosial sing ana gandhengane karo menstruasi. Ing sawetara masarakat, kalebu menstruasi sing dianggep najis utawa ngisin-isini, malah nyegah menstruasi ing ngarep umum (ing media lan [[Iklan|pariwara]] ) utawa ing pribadi (ing antarane kanca, kulawarga, utawa pria). Akeh agama tradisional sing nganggep menstruasi sacara suci najis, sanajan antropolog negesake yen konsep 'suci' lan 'najis' bisa uga ana gandhengane.<ref>Durkheim, E. 1963. [1898] La prohibition de l’inceste et ses origines. ''L’Année Sociologique'' 1: 1-70. Reprinted as ''Incest. The nature and origin of the taboo'', trans. E. Sagarin. New York: Stuart.</ref> Beda budaya ndeleng menstruasi kanthi macem-macem cara. Dasar akeh tumindak norma lan komunikasi babagan menstruasi ing industri industri barat yaiku kapercayan manawa menstruasi kudu tetep didhelikake.<ref>Laws, S. (1990). ''Issues of Blood: The Politics of Menstruation''. London: Macmillan.</ref> Bentenipun, ing sawetara masarakat pamburu-pamburu, pengamalan haid dideleng kanthi positif, tanpa konotasi najis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Turnbull|first=C. M.|year=1960|title=The Elima: a premarital festival among the Bambuti Pygmies|url=|journal=Zaïre|volume=14|issue=|pages=175–92}}</ref> == Mitos == Tembung "haid" sacara etimologis ana gandhengane karo "datang bulan". Istilah "menstruasi" lan "menses" asale saka basa [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ''mensis'' (wulan), sing sabanjure gandhengane karo basa [[Basa Yunani|Yunani]] ''mene'' (rembulan) lan kanggo akar tembung Inggris ''wulan'' lan ''wulan.'' <ref name="Allen, Kevin 2007 239">{{Cite book|title=The Reluctant Hypothesis: A History of Discourse Surrounding the Lunar Phase Method of Regulating Conception|last=Allen, Kevin|publisher=Lacuna Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-9510974-2-7|page=239}}</ref> Miturut antropolog Thomas Buckley lan Alma Gottlieb, panelitian lintas budaya nuduhake yen, nalika tabu babagan menstruasi meh umum, lan sanajan akeh sing kalebu pangertene ora najis, akeh tradhisi menstruasi "mbahas beda banget, malah ngelawan, tujuan lan makna." <ref>Buckley, T., and Gottlieb, A., eds. (1988). ''Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation''. Berkeley: University of California Press. (p. 7)</ref> Ing sawetara masarakat tradisional, ritual menstruasi dialami wanita minangka protèktif lan nguatake, menehi wanita papan sing adoh saka pandangan pria lan saka tekanan lan tuntutan seksual utawa domestik sing ora dikarepake.<ref>Buckley, T. 1988. Menstruation and the power of Yurok women. In T. Buckley and A. Gottlieb (eds), ''Blood Magic. The anthropology of menstruation.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 187-209.</ref> Conto instruksional diwenehake dening antropolog Wynne Maggi, sing nggambarake ''bashali'' komunal (omah haid gedhe) wanita ing [[Lembah Kalasha|Lembah Kalasha (sisih Lor-kulon]] Pakistan) minangka 'papan sing paling suci', dihormati wong lanang, lan dadi wanita kabeh wanita pusat pengorganisasian kanggo netepake lan njaga solidaritas lan kekuwatan jender.<ref>W. Maggi, 2001. ''Our Women are Free. Gender and Ethnicity in the Hindukush.'' Michigan: University of Michigan Press</ref> Miturut salah sawijining lembaga beasiswa evolusi budaya, ide manawa getih menstruasi menehi tandha awak minangka periodik suci wiwitane digawe dening koalisi wanita kanggo kepentingane dhewe, sanajan mengko, kanthi kepemilikan sapi lan kekuwatan patriarki, kapercayan lan pantangan sing padha dimanfaatake para patriark agama kanggo nambah tekanan saka wanita.<ref>Knight, C. 1995. ''Blood Relations: Menstruation and the origins of culture.'' New Haven & London: Yale University Press.</ref> Teori Metaformis, kaya sing diusulake dening teori teori budaya Judy Grahn lan liya-liyane, nggawe menstruasi minangka ide pangorganisasi utama sajrone nggawe budaya <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.metaformia.org/articles/emergence-of-metaformic-consciousness/|title=The Emergence of Metaformic Consciousness|website=www.metaformia.org|access-date=2018-01-17}}</ref> lan pembentukan ritual wiwitane manungsa. == Pandangan agama == Ahli teori sosiologis [[Émile Durkheim|Emile Durkheim]] mratelakake manawa agama manungsa kanthi sakabehe muncul wiwitane ana hubungane karo haid. Argumentasi dheweke yaiku yen tumindak tartamtu - tumindak ritual kolektif - bisa nggawe totemisme, ukum, eksogami, lan kekerabatan bebarengan minangka basa lan pamikiran manungsa sing khas. Kabeh diwiwiti, miturut Durkheim, nalika aliran getih sacara periodik nyuda hubungan antarane jinis kelamin. 'Kabeh getih elek banget', ujare,<ref>Durkheim, E. 1963. [1898] La prohibition de l'inceste et ses origines. ''L'Année Sociologique'' 1: 1-70. Reprinted as Incest. The nature and origin of the taboo, trans. E. Sagarin. New York: Stuart.</ref> 'lan kabeh jinis taboo digawe kanggo nyegah kontak karo penyakit kasebut'. Sajrone menstruasi, wanita bakal nggunakake 'jinis tumindak nolak sing nggawe jinis kelamin adoh saka dheweke'. Getih sing padha iki bisa uga ngliwati vena wanita lan kewan, nuduhake asal mula getih ing 'totemik' - bagean-manungsa, bagean-kewan - makhluk leluhur. Sawise getih haid wis ana gandheng cenenge karo getih goleki, dadi lumebu nalar yen pamburu ngormati kewan tartamtu kaya-kaya kerabat, lan iki intine 'totemisme'. Sajrone getih klompok kasebut manggon ing 'dewa' utawa 'totem', 'mula getih kasebut minangka makhluk gaib. Nalika wis entek, dewa bakal tumpah '. === Agama Yahudi === Ing [[agama Yahudi]], wanita nalika haid diarani " niddah " lan bisa uga dilarang tumindak tartamtu. Contone, [[Torèt|Taurat]] Yahudi nglarang hubungan seksual karo wanita sing lagi menstruasi.<ref>Leviticus 15:19-30, 18:19, 20:18</ref> Pengecualian ritual "niddah" ditrapake kanggo wanita nalika haid lan udakara seminggu sawise iku, nganti dheweke lumebu mikvah (bath ritual) sing biasane kanggo wanita sing wis bebrayan. Sajrone wektu kasebut, pasangan sing bebrayan kudu ngindhari hubungan seksual lan karukunan fisik. Yudaisme Orthodok nglarang wanita lan pria ora malah nutul utawa nularake perkara kasebut sajrone periode kasebut. Nalika wong-wong Yahudi Orthodok ngetutake pengecualian iki, akeh wong-wong Yahudi ing cabang agama liyane ora. Ing Torah ( [[Kitab Kaimaman|Imamat]] 15: 19-30), wanita haid dianggep najis - "Sapa wae sing ndemek dheweke bakal najis nganti sore" ( [[Versi Internasional Anyar|New International Version]] ). Nyentuh wanita sing lagi menstruasi, ndemek obyek sing wis dilungguhi utawa diresiki, utawa hubungan seksual karo dheweke uga nggawe wong najis kanthi ritual. Suwene aturan kasebut ditindakake ing agama Yahudi modern beda-beda gumantung saka tingkat konservatisme / orthodoxi. [[Barkas:Udine_Palazzo_Patriarcale_-_Laban_1.jpg|ka|jmpl| " ''Laban golek brahala.'' " Dening Giovanni Battista Tiepolo .]] Ing Purwaning Dumadi 31: 34-35, haid dirujuk ing sawijining crita, nalika Rachel ana, utawa pura-pura nalika [[Nggarap sari|haid]] :<blockquote>''Rakhel wis njupuk terapim lan dilebokake ing sadhuwure unta lan lungguh ing sandhinge.'' ''Laban ngerteni kabeh tarub mau, nanging ora ditemokake.'' ''Lan dheweke kandha marang bapakne, 'Aja bendara aku nesu supaya aku ora bisa ngadeg ing ngarsane sampeyan; amarga '''polahe wanita ana ing aku''' . ''' ''Banjur digoleki, nanging ora ditemokake terapim.''</blockquote> === Agama Kristen === Umume agama Kristen ora ngetutake ritual utawa aturan tartamtu sing ana gandhengane karo haid. Denominasi liyane, kayata agama Kristen Ortodoksi Timur, ngetutake aturan sing padha karo sing ditemtokake ing bagean Code Holiness ing Imamat, sing meh padha karo ritual [[Yahudi]] Niddah .<ref name="Tadros2015">{{Cite book|title=Reconstruction the Origins of the Coptic Church through its Liturgy|last=Tadros|first=Emile|date=2015|publisher=[[McMaster Divinity College]]|page=16|language=en}}</ref> Paus Dionysius saka Alexandria nganggep wanita sing lagi menstruasi manawa "sanajan dheweke dhewe, sing setya lan alim, bakal wani nalika ing negara iki bisa nyedhaki Meja Suci utawa kanggo nyentuh awak lan getihe Sang Kristus." Kayane, wanita Kristen Ortodoksi Timur, kayata sing kalebu [[Gréja Ortodoks Koptik Alexandria|Greja Ortodok Koptik]], ora lumebu greja nalika lagi menstruasi. Sawetara [[Bapak-bapak Greja|Bapak Greja]] mbela pengecualian wanita saka pelayanan adhedhasar konsep najis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.womenpriests.org/traditio/unclean.asp|title=Women were considered ritually unclean|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090727022048/http://www.womenpriests.org/traditio/unclean.asp|archive-date=27 July 2009|access-date=9 August 2018}}</ref> Wong liya negesake manawa hukum kemurnian kudu dibuang minangka bagean saka Prajanjian Lawas. ''Teks Konstitusi Apostolik'' abad kaping 4 ujar: <blockquote>Amarga ora ana campuran sing sah, uga nglairake bocah, utawa pemurnian menstruasi, utawa polusi ing wayah wengi, sing bisa najisake sipat manungsa, utawa misahake Roh Suci saka dheweke. Ora liya, kajaba tumindak ala lan ora sah bisa nindakake iku.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/07156.htm|title=Book VI, section 5, paragraph xxvii}}</ref> (diwenehake miring)</blockquote>Sawetara pasamuwan-pasamuwan Kristen, kalebu akeh panguwasa saka [[Gréja Ortodhok|Gereja Ortodoks Wétan]] lan sawetara bagéan saka Oriental Gréja Ortodoks (uga dikenal minangka Rusian, Ukrainia, Yunani, Malankara Jacobite lan Malankara Ortodoks pasamuwan), béda saka [[Gréja Katulik|Katulik Roma]] Gréja, wanita maringi pitutur ora kanggo nampa komuni sajrone haid,<ref name="OCIC-Menses">{{Cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/praxis/menses.aspx|title=Menstruation, Emissions, and Holy Communion|last=Patrick Barnes|publisher=Orthodox Christian Information Center|access-date=2 April 2006}}</ref> ora amarga haid dianggep dosa, nanging kanggo persiapan sing luwih kuat kanggo nyedhak Kristus lan amarga kesulitan fisik sing diadhepi para wanita.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/874804731|title=The curse : a cultural history of menstruation|last=Janice.|first=Delaney|date=1988|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0-252-01452-9|oclc=874804731}}</ref> Iki minangka praktik sing cukup umum ing saindenging [[Grikenlan|Yunani]] lan [[Ruslan|Rusia]] lan negara-negara Kristen Orthodok sing historis liyane, uga wong Kristen Ortodok ing negara-negara sing kalebu minoritas, kalebu Mesir, Kerala lan Siria. Ing taun 735, [[Ritus Latin|Greja Latin]] mutusake manawa wanita kudu diidini teka ing liturgi lan nampa Komuni Suci nalika haid.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC&pg=PA250&lpg=PA250&dq=menstruation+Latin+735&source=bl&ots=P-4GA0OalS&sig=ACfU3U02vnTDPGtks6d9mb3duMQY8JZcIA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwixj470x6TnAhUUTcAKHRqqDrYQ6AEwCnoECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=menstruation%20Latin%20735&f=false Karl Kaser, ''The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History'' (LIT Verlag 2011), p. 250]</ref> === Islam === Sajrone menstruasi, wanita ora bisa nindakake shalat. Aturan aturan disaranake supaya para wanita ngetutake nalika haid. Kabeh mau ora pasa lan ngiwa pasa ing wulan Ramadhan kudu rampung sajrone dina liya. Sajrone ziarah mens, diidini; lan diidham- [[Ka'bah|idhamake Kaabah]] uga diidini. Dheweke diidini lumebu ing papan pandonga ing mesjid nanging ora entuk pandonga lan didhukung supaya bisa teka ing pertemuan lan festival muslim ( Idul ). Sawise periode, perlu ( [[Adus gedhé|Ghusl]] ), sing uga dibutuhake kalorone pasangan sawise seks, uga dibutuhake sadurunge shalat bisa dilanjutake. Tafsir Islam [[Kuran|Al]] -Qur'an tradisional nglarang hubungan seksual sajrone haid wanita,<ref name="Koran2.222">{{Citation|title=Koran|chapter=2.222|chapter-url=http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/ot2www-koran?specfile=/lv2/english/relig/koran/www/koran.o2w&act=surround&offset=54748&tag=Koran.002}}</ref> nanging ngidini keintiman fisik lan tumindak seksual liyane sing ora nuroni. Yen ana wong sing nindakake hubungan seksual karo garwane lan ngerti yen dheweke wis diwiwiti, dheweke kudu langsung mundur. === Agama Buddha === Ing agama Buddha ( [[Theravada]] utawa Hinayana ) menstruasi dianggep minangka " ''ekskresi fisik alami sing kudu dialami wanita saben wulan, ora luwih utawa kurang'' ". Nanging, ing cabang agama Buddha Jepang tartamtu, wanita haid dilarang lumebu ing kuil.<ref name="WBR4-Jnanavira">{{Citation|last=Dharmacari Jnanavira|title=A Mirror for Women? Reflections of the Feminine in Japanese Buddhism|url=http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/mirror_for_women.html|volume=4|postscript=.|periodical=Western Buddhist Review|access-date=28 May 2006|archive-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525020339/http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/mirror_for_women.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ing Buddhisme Nichiren (Jepang) haid ora dianggep dadi alangan spiritual tumrap praktik agama, sanajan wanita haid bisa milih ora sujud, kanggo nyenengake.<ref>Toshie Kurihara (not dated) [http://www.iop.or.jp/Documents/0313/kurihara.pdf A History of Women in Japanese Buddhism: Nichiren’s Perspectives on the Enlightenment of Women]</ref> === Agama Hindhu === Agama Hindhu, pandangan babagan menstruasi beda-beda. Menstruasi dianggep minangka periode pemurnian, lan wanita asring dipisahake saka papan pamujaan utawa obyek sing ana gandhengane, sajrone jangka wektu kasebut. Iki minangka dhasar praktik budaya lan watesan babagan menstruasi ing agama Hindu.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dunnavant|first=Nicki|date=2012|title=Restriction and Renewal, Pollution and Power, Constraint and Community: The Paradoxes of Religious Women's Experiences of Menstruation|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257663684|journal=Sex Roles|volume=68|issue=1–2|pages=121–131|doi=10.1007/s11199-012-0132-8}}</ref> Wanita sing wis diwasa wis diwatesi lumebu Sabarimala kanthi cara tradisional, kaya sing kacathet ing "Memoir Survei negara-negara Travancore lan Cochin" ing taun 1818. Ing taun 1991, Pengadilan Tinggi Kerala kanthi sah mbatesi lumebu wanita ing ndhuwur umur 10 taun lan kurang saka 50 taun saka Kuil Sabarimala amarga umure lagi menstruasi. Ing tanggal 28 September 2018, Pengadilan Tinggi India nglarang larangan lumebu wanita. Ditulis manawa diskriminasi tumrap wanita kanthi alesan apa wae, sanajan agama, ora konstitusional.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sabarimala-temple-entry-live-updates/article25066336.ece|title=Supreme Court upholds the right of women of all ages to worship at Sabarimala {{!}} Live updates|last=Desk|first=The Hindu Net|date=2018-09-28|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-09-28|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/keralas-sabarimala-temple-must-allow-women-of-all-ages-says-supreme-court-ending-restriction-1923556|title=Women of All Ages Can Enter Sabarimala Temple, Says Top Court, Ending Ban|work=NDTV.com|access-date=2018-09-28}}</ref><ref name="SC-2018-Sep-28">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2006/18956/18956_2006_Judgement_28-Sep-2018.pdf|title=Writ petition (civil) no. 373 of 2006|last=The Registrar|first=SCI|website=Supreme Court of India|publisher=Supreme Court of India|access-date=15 December 2018|archive-date=19 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019154645/https://www.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2006/18956/18956_2006_Judgement_28-Sep-2018.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kontroversi babagan iki terus ditindakake. [[Barkas:Kamakhya_aiya.jpg|jmpl|Festival Kamakhya Puja]] == Indonesia == [[Barkas:IT"S_PROHIBITED_TO_ENTER_WITHOUT_DECENT_DRESS_AND_FOR_WOMAN_HAVING_MENSTRUATION,_Bali._1979.jpg|jmpl|DILARANG KANGGO TEKA TANPA PAKAIAN DESA LAN WONG MENSTRUASI WANITA, Bali. 1979]] Ing [[Bali]], wong wadon ora diidini lumebu pawon kanggo nindakake tugas sing biasane, uga ora diidini karo bojone nalika haid. Dheweke kudu turu adoh saka kulawarga lan kudu njaga sandhangan sing diagem nalika menstruasi adoh saka sandhangan sing bisa digunakake menyang candhi. Salah sawijining peraturan sing paling penting yaiku yen wanita ora diidini lumebu kuil nalika haid.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pedersen|first=L|year=2002|title=Ambiguous Bleeding: Purity And Sacrifice in Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ethnology_fall-2002_41_4/page/n8|journal=Ethnology|volume=41|issue=4|pages=303–15|doi=10.2307/4153010|jstor=4153010}}</ref> Ing [[Pulo Sumba|Sumba]], para wanita ndhelikake siklus, sing nggawe wong lanang dianggep nipu. Wanita saka Sumba percaya manawa amarga kerahasiaane, dheweke bakal bisa ngontrol pria kasebut. "Wong ora bakal ngerti sepira sing bisa ditindakake kanggo ngontrol kabeh perkara kasebut. Kita duwe macem-macem rahasia, lan mesthine kudu yakin manawa kita bisa ngontrol luwih saka sing kita bisa ".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoskins|first=J|year=2002|title=The Menstrual Hut and the Witch's Lair in Two Eastern Indonesian Societies|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ethnology_fall-2002_41_4/page/317|journal=Ethnology|volume=41|issue=4|pages=317–33|doi=10.2307/4153011|jstor=4153011}}</ref> Wanita mestine ngindhari hubungan seksual nalika haid. Dipercaya manawa penyakit sing ditularake seksual minangka asil saka wanita sing ngapusi pria lan nindakake hubungan seksual nalika haid. Gonorrhea diterjemahake minangka "penyakit sing sampeyan alami saka wanita" ing Sumba; iku wis dadi masalah sosial. Nalika wong bakal nandhang penyakit iki, siji-sijine cara dheweke percaya yen bisa nyingkirake lara yaiku nglarani wong wadon. Alesané yaiku awak wanita bisa nyedhot infeksi lan ngresiki sajrone siklus.{{Butuh sitiran|date=March 2021}} == Referensi == [[Kategori:Artikel ngandhut tulisan abasa Cina]] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] [[Kategori:Wanita]] ipmjjby90vajqcz8dx8yap3f142mdse Kalsium nitrat 0 179041 1753023 1750869 2026-08-20T08:20:32Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753023 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chembox|Name=Kalsium nitrat|ImageFile=calcium nitrate.svg|ImageSize=150px|ImageFile2=Dusičnan vápenatý.JPG|ImageSize2=220px|IUPACName=|OtherNames=Kalksalpeter, nitrokalsit, sendawa Norwegia, kapur nitrat|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 23336 | InChI = 1/Ca.2NO3/c;2*2-1(3)4/q+2;2*-1 | SMILES = [Ca+2].[O-][N+]([O-])=O.[O-][N+]([O-])=O | InChIKey = ZCCIPPOKBCJFDN-UHFFFAOYAF | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/Ca.2NO3/c;2*2-1(3)4/q+2;2*-1 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = ZCCIPPOKBCJFDN-UHFFFAOYSA-N | CASNo = 10124-37-5 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo2_Ref = {{cascite|changed|??}} | CASNo2 = 13477-34-4 | CASNo2_Comment = (tetrahidrat) | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|changed|FDA}} | UNII = NF52F38N1N | PubChem = 24963 | RTECS = EW2985000 | UNNumber = 1454 }}|Section2={{Chembox Properties | Formula = Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> | MolarMass = 164.088 g/mol (anhidrat) <br/> 236.15 g/mol (tetrahidrat) | Appearance = padatan tak berwarna <br/> [[higroskopis]] | Density = 2.504 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (anhidrat)<br/>1.896 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (tetrahidrat) | Solubility = ''anhidrat:'' <br/> 1212 g/L (20&nbsp;°C) <br/> 2710 g/L (40&nbsp;°C) <hr/> ''tetrahidrat:'' <br/> 1050 g/L (0&nbsp;°C) <br/> 1290 g/L (20&nbsp;°C) <br/> 3630 g/L (100&nbsp;°C) | Solubility1 = 51.4 g/100 g (20&nbsp;°C)<br/> 62.9 g/100 g (40&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister>{{cite web|last = Anatolievich|first = Kiper Ruslan|url = http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=558|title = Properties of substance: calcium nitrate|accessdate = 2015-09-09|archive-date = 2015-06-24|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150624025121/http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=558|url-status = dead}}</ref> | Solvent1 = etanol | Solubility2 = 134 g/100 g (10&nbsp;°C)<br/> 144 g/100 g (40&nbsp;°C)<br/> 158 g/100 g (60&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | Solvent2 = metanol | Solubility3 = 16.8 g/kg (20&nbsp;°C)<ref name=chemister /> | Solvent3 = aseton | SolubleOther = larut dalam [[amonia]] <br/> hampir tak larut dalam [[asam nitrat]] | MeltingPtC = 561 | MeltingPt_notes = (anhidrat)<br/> 42.7&nbsp;°C (109&nbsp;°F; 316 K) (tetrahidrat) | BoilingPt = terurai (anhidrat) <br/> 132&nbsp;°C (270&nbsp;°F; 405 K) (tetrahidrat) | pKa = 6.0 | MagSus = -45.9·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol }}|Section3={{Chembox Structure | Coordination = | CrystalStruct = kubik (anhidrat)<br/>monoklinik (tetrahidrat) }}|Section7={{Chembox Hazards | ExternalSDS = [http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1037.htm ICSC 1037] | RPhrases = {{R22}}, {{R41}} | SPhrases = | NFPA-H = 2 | NFPA-F = 0 | NFPA-R = 1 | NFPA-S = OX | FlashPt = Tidak mudah terbakar | LD50 = 302 mg/kg (tikus, oral) }}|Section8={{Chembox Related | OtherAnions = [[Kalsium sulfat]]<br/>[[Kalsium klorida]] | OtherCations = [[Magnesium nitrat]]<br/>[[Stronsium nitrat]]<br/>[[Barium nitrat]] }}}}'''Kalsium nitrat''', uga dikenali kanthi ''Norgessalpeter'' ( '''sendawa Norwegia''' ), ya iku senyawa anorganik kanthi rumus kimia Ca (NO <sub>3</sub> ) <sub>2</sub> . Uyah tanpa warna iki nyerep kelembapan saka udhara lan umume ditemokake minangka ''tetrahydrate'' . Senyawa iki utamane digunakake minangka komponen ing [[Rabuk|pupuk]] nanging duwe aplikasi liyane. ''Nitrocalcite'' minangka jeneng mineral sing dihidrasi ing kalsium nitrat sing mbentuk nalika [[Rabuk kandhang|limbah kewan kena]] [[Beton|konkrit]] utawa watu gamping ing lingkungan sing garing kayata ing kandhang utawa [[guwa]] . Ana uyah sing ana gandhengane dingerteni kalebu kalsium amonium nitrat dekahidrat lan kalsium [[kalium nitrat]] dekahidrat.<ref name="Ullmann">Wolfgang Laue, Michael Thiemann, Erich Scheibler, Karl Wilhelm Wiegand "Nitrates and Nitrites" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.{{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a17_265}}. Article Online Posting Date: June 15, 2000</ref> == Guna Kalsium Nitrat == === Pertanian === Kalsium nitrat digunakake kanggo ngontrol penyakit tartamtu. Contone, [[Kalsium klorida|semprotan kalsium nitrat (lan kalsium klorida]] ) sing diencerke digunakake kanggo ngontrol pitting lan penyumbatan wit apel. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hort.uwex.edu/articles/bitter-pit-and-cork-spot/|title=Bitter Pit and Cork Spot|website=University of Wisconsin-Extension Cooperative Extension|publisher=UW-Madison, Dept of Horticulture}}</ref> === Pengolahan banyu limbah === Kalsium nitrat digunakake ing pra-kahanan banyu limbah kanggo nyegah emisi mambu. Pra-kahanan banyu limbah adhedhasar nggawe biologi ''anoxic'' ing sistem banyu limbah. Ing ngarsane nitrat, metabolisme kanggo sulfat dihentikan, mula bisa nyegah pembentukan hidrogen sulfida . <ref name="BENTZEN">{{Cite journal|last=Bentzen|first=G|last2=Smith|first2=A|last3=Bennett|first3=D|last4=Webster|first4=N|last5=Reinholt|first5=F|last6=Sletholt|first6=E|last7=Hobson|first7=J|year=1995|title=Controlled dosing of nitrate for prevention of H<sub>2</sub>S in a sewer network and the effects on the subsequent treatment process|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_water-science-and-technology_1995_31_7/page/293|journal=Water Science and Technology|volume=31|issue=7|pages=293|doi=10.1016/0273-1223(95)00346-O}}</ref> Kajaba iku, bahan organik sing gampang dikonsumsi, sing bisa nyebabake kahanan anaerob ing hilir uga emisi ambu. Konsep iki uga ditrapake kanggo perawatan sludge sing berlebihan. <ref name="EINARSEN">{{Cite journal|last=Einarsen, A.M.|last2=ÆeesØy, A.|last3=Rasmussen, A. I.|last4=Bungum, S.|last5=Sveberg, M.|year=2000|title=Biological prevention and removal of hydrogen sulphide in sludge at Lillehammer Wastewater Treatment Plant|url=https://archive.org/details/water-science-and-technology_2000_41_6/page/175|journal=Water Sci. Technol.|volume=41|issue=6|pages=175–187|doi=10.2166/wst.2000.0107}}</ref> === Beton === Kalsium nitrat digunakake ing set campuran campuran beton. Panganggone senyawa iki ing beton lan mortir adhedhasar rong efek. Ion kalsium nyepetake pembentukan [[kalsium hidroksida]] lan mulane nyebabake udan lan setting. Efek iki uga digunakake ing agen beton tahan cuaca sing adhem lan sawetara ''plastik gabungan.'' <ref name="JUSTNES2010">Justines, H. (2010) "Calcium Nitrate as a Multifunctional Concrete Admixture" Concrete Magazine, Vol 44, No. 1, p.34. {{ISSN|0010-5317}}</ref> Ion nitrat nyebabake pembentukan hidroksida besi, sing bisa nyuda korosi penguatan beton liwat lapisan protèktif. <ref name="ALMOUDI">{{Cite journal|last=Al-Amoudi|first=Omar S.Baghabra|last2=Maslehuddin|first2=Mohammed|last3=Lashari|first3=A.N|last4=Almusallam|first4=Abdullah A|year=2003|title=Effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors in contaminated concrete|journal=Cement and Concrete Composites|volume=25|issue=4–5|pages=439|doi=10.1016/S0958-9465(02)00084-7}}</ref> === Koagulan lateks === Kalsium nitrat minangka [[Koagulasi|koagulan]] [[Latèks|umum ing]] produksi lateks, utamane ing proses pewarnaan. Kalsium nitrat sing larut minangka bagean saka solusi mandi. Kalsium nitrat anget dicelupake ing cairan koagulasi lan film cairan tipis dibentuk. Nalika celup pertama digawe dadi lateks, kalsium nitrat bakal ngilangi stabilisasi larutan lateks lan lateks bakal aglomerat ing lapisan sadurunge. <ref name="DAFADER">N. C. Dafader, Y. N. Jolly, M. E. Haque, F. Akhtar & M. U. Ahmad: The Role of Coagulants on the Preparation of Dipped film from Radiation Vulcanized Natural Rubber Latex. Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering. Volume 38, Issue 2, 1999, pages 267-274. Online: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03602559909351576</ref> <ref name="RUBBERCARE">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rubbercare.com.my/process.html|title=Rubbercare - Choice Latex and Nitrile Gloves from a Trusted Manufacturer|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501235450/http://www.rubbercare.com.my/process.html|archive-date=2011-05-01|url-status=dead|access-date=2019-07-23}}</ref> === Lelehan uyah === Kalsium nitrat bisa digunakake minangka bagean saka campuran uyah cair. Campuran leleh khas kalebu campuran binar kalsium nitrat lan [[kalium nitrat]] utawa campuran ternary sing uga kalebu [[Natrium natrium|natrium nitrat]] . <ref name="SolarNovus">{{Cite web|url=http://www.solarnovus.com/potassium-calcium-nitrate-promising-for-csp-heat-storage_N6044.html|title=Potassium calcium nitrate promising for CSP heat storage – Solar Novus Today}}</ref> <ref name="EP0049761">European Patent Application EP0049761: Use of a ternary mixture of salts as a heat transmitting medium and/or as a heat storage medium. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/EP0049761A1.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707125254/http://www.freepatentsonline.com/EP0049761A1.html |date=2020-07-07 }}</ref> <ref name="WO-2014-044652">WIPO Patent Application WO/2014/044652: Use of a calcium potassium nitrate salt for the manufacture of a heat transfer fluid. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/WO2014044652A1.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706160115/http://www.freepatentsonline.com/WO2014044652A1.html |date=2020-07-06 }}</ref> == Paripustaka == 5f9xmj0ccyctqt1tr0lgymflmriwjfc Sintesis kimia 0 179779 1752977 1568213 2026-08-20T07:02:10Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752977 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:SPPS.jpg|jmpl|Conto sintesis kimia]] Ing [[kimia]], '''sintesis kimia (''' utawa '''kombinasi)''' minangka èksekusi gawéan [[Réaksi kimia|kimia sing]] migunani kanggo entuk siji utawa pirang-pirang produk . <ref name="vogel">{{Cite book|title=Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry|last=Vogel|first=A.I.|last2=Tatchell|first2=A.R.|last3=Furnis|first3=B.S.|last4=Hannaford|first4=A.J.|last5=Smith|first5=P.W.G.|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1996|isbn=0-582-46236-3|edition=5th}}</ref> Iki kedadeyan kanthi [[Fisika|manipulasi fisik]] lan kimia biasané ana reaksi siji utawa luwih. Ing [[Laboratorium|panggunaan laboratorium]] modern, proses kasebut bisa direproduksi lan bisa dipercaya. Sintesis kimia ngemot siji utawa luwih [[Senyawa Kimia|senyawa]] (sing diarani ''reagen'' utawa ''reaktan'' ) sing bakal ngalami transformasi nalika ngalami kahanan tartamtu. Manéka jinis reaksi bisa ditrapaké kanggo nyusun produk sing dikarepaké. Iki mbutuhaké nyampur senyawa ing prau reaksi, kayata reaktor kimia utawa labu bunder-bunder sing sederhana. Akeh reaksi sing mbutuhaké sawétara prosedur kerja utawa pemurnian kanggo ngisolasi produk pungkasan. <ref name="vogel2">{{Cite book|title=Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry|last=Vogel|first=A.I.|last2=Tatchell|first2=A.R.|last3=Furnis|first3=B.S.|last4=Hannaford|first4=A.J.|last5=Smith|first5=P.W.G.|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1996|isbn=0-582-46236-3|edition=5th}}</ref> Jumlah sing diprodhuksi ing sintesis kimia dikenal minangka asil ''reaksi'' . Biasané, panén ditulis minangka [[massa]] ing [[gram]] (ing papan laboratorium) utawa minangka persentase saka total jumlah teoretis sing bisa diprodhuksi adhedhasar reagen sing matesi . ''Reaksi sampingan yaiku reaksi'' kimia sing ora dikarepaké sing nyuda asil sing dikarepaké. Tembung ''sintesis'' pisanan digunakaké dening ahli kimia Hermann Kolbe . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kolbe|first=H.|year=1845|title=Beiträge zur Kenntniss der gepaarten Verbindungen|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1426998|journal=Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie|volume=54|issue=2|pages=145–188|doi=10.1002/jlac.18450540202|issn=0075-4617}}</ref> == Strategi Sintesis Kimia == Akeh strategi sing ana ing sintesis kimia sing ngluwihi konversi [[Reaksi|reaktan]] A dadi produk reaksi B ing sawijining langkah. Ing '''sintesis multistep''', senyawa kimia disintesis liwat serangkaian reaksi kimia individu, masing-masing kanthi tata cara dhewe-dhewe. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Advanced Organic Chemistry Part B: Reactions and Synthesis|last=Carey|first=Francis A.|last2=Sundberg|first2=Richard J.|publisher=Springer|year=2013}}</ref> Contone, sintesis laboratorium [[Parasétamol|paracetamol]] bisa kalebu telung langkah sintetik individu. Ing reaksi kaskade, pirang-pirang transformasi kimia ana ing siji reaktan, ing reaksi multi-komponen nganti 11 reaktan beda-beda dadi siji produk reaksi lan ing sintesis teleskopik, siji reaktan ngalami pirang-pirang transformasi tanpa isolasi intermediet. == Sintesis Organik == Sintesis organik minangka cabang khusus sintesis kimia sing ana gandhengané karo sintesis senyawa organik . Ing total sintesis produk kompleks bisa uga mbutuhaké sawétara langkah kanggo nyintesis produk sing disenéngi lan wektu sing ora suwe. Kemampuan ing sintesis organik diregani ing antarané para ahli kimia lan sintesis senyawa sing pancen terkenal utawa angel wis menang para ahli kimia kayata Robert Burns Woodward Hadiah Nobel kanggo Kimia . Yen sintesis kimia diwiwiti saka senyawa laboratorium dhasar, dianggep minangka proses sintetis murni. Yen diwiwiti saka produk sing diisolasi saka tanduran utawa kewan banjur terus dadi senyawa anyar, sintesis kasebut diarani minangka proses semisintetik. == Sintesis Anorganik == Sintesis anorganik lan sintesis organometalik digunakaké kanggo nyiyapaké senyawa kanthi isi non-organik sing signifikan. Conto ilustrasi yaiku nyiyapaké obat anti-kanker cisplatin saka kalium tetrachloroplatinate . <ref name="Alderden">{{Cite journal|last=Alderden|first=Rebecca A.|last2=Hall|first2=Matthew D.|last3=Hambley|first3=Trevor W.|date=1 May 2006|title=The Discovery and Development of Cisplatin|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-chemical-education_2006-05_83_5/page/728|journal=[[J. Chem. Educ.]]|volume=83|issue=5|page=728|bibcode=2006JChEd..83..728A|doi=10.1021/ed083p728}}</ref> == Paripustaka == ed2c8ekhxktlkyv4409ea5wbjtag27s Mineralogi 0 179784 1752966 1568220 2026-08-20T06:47:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752966 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Mineralogy_between_its_other_sciences_around.png|jmpl|Mineralogi ngetrapaké prinsip [[kimia]], [[Géologi|geologi]], [[fisika]] lan [[ilmu material]] kanggo sinau babagan mineral]] '''Mineralogi''' iku subjék [[Géologi|geologi]] sing spesialisasiné ing panélitian ilmiah [[kimia]], struktur kristal, lan sifat fisik (kalebu optik ) [[mineral]] lan [[Artéfak|artefak]] mineral. Panaliten khusus ing mineralogi kalebu prosès asal usul lan formasi mineral, klasifikasi mineral, distribusi geografis, uga pemanfaatan. == Sejarah Mineralogi == Panulisan awal babagan mineralogi, utamané ing [[Watu permata|batu permata]], asale saka [[Babilonia]] kuno, jagad Yunani-Romawi kuno, Tiongkok kuno lan abad pertengahan, lan teks [[Basa Sangsekerta|Sanskerta]] saka India kuno lan jagad Islam kuno. <ref name="Needham">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/sciencecivilisat00need_228|title=Science and civilisation in China|last=Needham|first=Joseph|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1959|isbn=978-0521058018|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sciencecivilisat00need_228/page/n749 637]–638|url-access=limited}}</ref> Buku-buku babagan topik kasebut kalebu ''Naturalis Historia'' saka Pliny the Elder, sing ora mung nggambaraké macem-macem mineral nanging uga nerangaké akèh sifat, lan Kitab al Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones) dening ilmuwan Persia [[Al-Bīrūnī|Al-Biruni]] . Spesialis Renaisans Jerman Georgius Agricola nulis karya kayata ''De re metallica'' ( ''On Metals'', 1556) lan ''De Natura Fossilium'' ( ''On the Nature of Rocks'', 1546) sing miwiti pendekatan ilmiah kanggo subjek kasebut. Panaliten ilmiah sistematik babagan mineral lan batuan dikembangaké ing Eropa [[Abad Renaisans|Renaisans.]] <ref name="Needham" /> Sinau modern mineralogi didhasaraké ing prinsip kristalografi (asal usul kristalografi geometris, bisa dideleng manéh menyang mineralogi sing ditindakaké ing abad kaping wolulas lan sangalas) lan kanggo panélitian mikroskopis babagan watu kanthi panémuan [[mikroskop]] ing abad kaping 17. <ref name="Needham" /> Nicholas Steno sepisanan ngetrapaké angger-angger saka sudhut antarmuka (uga dikenal minangka hukum kristalografi pisanan) ing kristal kuarsa ing taun 1669. <ref name="Ness">{{Cite book|title=Introduction to mineralogy|last=Nesse|first=William D.|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199827381|edition=2nd|location=New York}}</ref> {{Rp|4}} Iki banjur digawé umum lan diadegaké kanthi eksperimen dening Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Islee ing taun 1783. <ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Law of the constancy of interfacial angles|encyclopedia=Online dictionary of crystallography|date=24 August 2014|publisher=International Union of Crystallography|url=http://reference.iucr.org/dictionary/Law_of_the_constancy_of_interfacial_angles|accessdate=22 September 2015}}</ref> René Just Haüy, "bapak kristalografi modern", nuduhaké manawa kristal iku periodik lan negesaké manawa orientasi rai kristal bisa ditulis nganggo angka sing rasional, amarga mengko dienkode ing indeks Miller. <ref name="Ness" /> {{Rp|4}} Ing taun 1814, [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius|Jöns Jacob Berzelius]] ngenalaké klasifikasi mineral adhedhasar kimia tinimbang struktur kristal. <ref name="Rafferty">{{Cite book|title=Geological sciences|last=Rafferty|first=John P.|date=2012|publisher=Britannica Educational Pub. in association with Rosen Educational Services|isbn=9781615304950|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=14&ndash;15}}</ref> William Nicol nggawé prisma Nicol, sing polarisasi cahya, ing taun 1827 &#x2013; 1828 nalika sinau kayu fosil; Henry Clifton Sorby nuduhaké manawa bagean mineral sing tipis bisa diidentifikasi kanthi sifat optik kanthi nggunakaké mikroskop polarisasi . <ref name="Ness" /> {{Rp|4}} <ref name="Rafferty" /> {{Rp|15}} James D. Dana nerbitaké edisi pertama ''A System of Mineralogy'' ing taun 1837, lan ing edhisi sabanjure ngenalaké klasifikasi kimia sing isih dadi standar. <ref name="Ness" /> {{Rp|4}} <ref name="Rafferty" /> {{Rp|15}} Difaksi sinar-X dituduhaké dening Max von Laue ing taun 1912, lan dikembangaké dadi alat kanggo nganalisis struktur kristal mineral dening tim bapak / putra William Henry Bragg lan William Lawrence Bragg . <ref name="Ness" /> {{Rp|4}} Paling anyar, kanthi majune teknik eksperimen (kayata difraksi neutron ) lan kekuwatan komputasi sing kasedhiya, sing terakhir nggawé simulasi skala atom sing akurat banget tumrap prilaku kristal, ilmu kasebut nggunakaké cabang kanggo nimbang masalah sing luwih umum ing bidang kimia anorganik lan fisika negara solid . Nanging, tetep fokus ing struktur kristal sing umume ditemokaké ing mineral sing mbentuk rock (kayata perovskit, mineral lempung lan silikat ). Utamané, lapangan kasebut nggawé kemajuan gedhe ing pangerten babagan hubungan antara struktur skala atom mineral lan fungsine; ing alam, conto sing misuwur yaiku pangukuran lan prediksi sing akurat babagan sifat elastis mineral, sing nyebabaké wawasan anyar babagan prilaku seismologis batuan lan diskontinuitas sing ana gandhengané karo jero ing seismogram jubah Bumi . Kanggo tujuan kasebut, nalika fokus ing hubungan antara fenomena skala atom lan sifat makroskopik, ''ilmu mineral'' (kaya umume dingerteni) nampilaké luwih akèh tumpang tindih karo ilmu bahan tinimbang disiplin liyané. == Struktur Kristal == [[Barkas:Perovskite.jpg|jmpl|[[Struktur perovskite|Struktur kristal perovskite]] . Mineral sing paling akèh ing Bumi, [[bridgmanite]], duwe struktur iki. <ref name="Sharp">{{Cite journal|last=Sharp|first=T.|date=27 November 2014|title=Bridgmanite – named at last|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2014-11-28_346_6213/page/1057|journal=Science|volume=346|issue=6213|pages=1057–1058|doi=10.1126/science.1261887|pmid=25430755}}</ref> Formula kimia yaiku (Mg, Fe) SiO <sub>3</sub> ; bola abang yaiku oksigen, silikon bola biru lan bola magnesium ijo utawa besi.]] Struktur kristal minangka susunan atom ing kristal. Iki diwakili dening [[Kisi kristal|pola]] titik sing mbaleni pola dhasar, diarani sel unit, ing telung dimensi. Kisi kasebut bisa ditondoi kanthi simetri lan karo ukuran sel unit. Ukuran kasebut diwakili dening telung ''indeks Miller'' . <ref name="Ashcroft">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc|title=Solid state physics|last=Ashcroft|first=Neil W.|last2=Mermin|first2=N. David|date=1977|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|isbn=9780030839931|edition=27. repr.|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref> {{Rp|91&ndash;92}} Kisi kasebut tetep ora owah karo operasi simetri tartamtu babagan titik tartamtu ing kisi: refleksi, rotasi, inversi, lan inversi rotary, kombinasi rotasi lan refleksi. Bareng, dheweke nggawé obyek matematika sing diarani ''klompok titik kristalografi'' utawa ''kelas kristal'' . Ana 32 kemungkinan kelas kristal. Kajaba iku, ana operasi sing ngilangi kabeh poin: terjemahan, poros sekrup, lan pesawat glide . Kombinasi karo simetris titik, bisa dadi 230 klompok luar angkasa. <ref name="Ashcroft" /> {{Rp|125&ndash;126}} Umume departemen geologi duwe peralatan difraksi bubuk [[Sinar-X|X-ray]] kanggo nganalisis struktur kristal mineral. <ref name="Klein">{{Cite book|title=Earth materials : introduction to mineralogy and petrology|last=Klein|first=Cornelis|last2=Philpotts|first2=Anthony R.|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521145213|location=New York}}</ref> {{Rp|54&ndash;55}} Sinar X dawané dawané gelombang kanthi urutan sing padha gedhene kaya jarak antarané atom. [[Diffraction]], interferensi konstruktif lan destruktif ing antarané gelombang sing kasebar ing macem-macem atom, nyebabaké pola khas intensitas dhuwur lan kurang sing gumantung karo geometri kristal. Ing conto sing wis bubuk, sinar-X minangka sampel distribusi acak kabeh orientasi kristal. <ref name="Dinnebier">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/powderdiffractio00redi|title=Powder diffraction : theory and practice|last=Dinnebier|first=Robert E.|last2=Billinge|first2=Simon J.L.|date=2008|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=9780854042319|editor-last=Dinnebier|editor-first=Robert E.|edition=Repr.|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/powderdiffractio00redi/page/n23 1]&ndash;19|chapter=1. Principles of powder diffraction|editor-last2=Billinge|editor-first2=Simon J.L.|url-access=limited}}</ref> Difaksi bubuk bisa mbedakaké mineral sing katon padha ing sampel tangan, kayata kuarsa lan polimorfem tridimit lan cristobalite . <ref name="Klein" /> {{Rp|54}} Mineral Isomorfus kanthi komposisi sing beda duwe pola difraksi bubuk sing padha, bedané utama yaiku jarak lan intensitas garis. Contone, Na ( [[halite]] ) yaiku klompok angkasa ''Fm3m'' ; struktur iki dituduhaké dening [[sylvite]] ( K ), [[periclase]] ( Mg ), [[bunsenite]] ( Ni ), [[galena]] ( Pb ), [[alabandite]] ( Mn ), [[chlorargyrite]] ( Ag ), lan [[Titanium nitrida|osbornite]] ( Ti ). <ref name="Manual">{{Cite book|title=Manual of mineralogy : (after James D. Dana)|last=Klein|first=Cornelis|last2=Hurlbut, Jr.|first2=Cornelius S.|date=1993|publisher=Wiley|isbn=047157452X|edition=21st|location=New York}}</ref> {{Rp|150&ndash;151}} == Elemen Kimia == [[Barkas:Portable_Micro-X-ray_fluorescence_machine.jpg|jmpl|Mesin fluoresensi sinar-mikro Portabel]] Sawétara mineral minangka [[Anasir kimiah|unsur kimia]], kalebu [[Wlirang|belerang]], [[tembaga]], [[Pérak|perak]], lan [[emas]], nanging umume [[Senyawa Kimia|senyawa]] . Cara klasik kanggo ngenali komposisi yaiku ''[[Kimia udan|analisis kimia basah]]'', sing nyakup larut mineral ing asam kayata [[Asem klorid|asam hidroklorat]] ( H ). Unsur-unsur ing larutan banjur diidentifikasi nggunakaké [[Colorimetry (cara kimia)|colorimetry]], [[Titrasi|analisis volumetrik]] utawa [[analisis gravimetri]] . <ref name="Manual2">{{Cite book|title=Manual of mineralogy : (after James D. Dana)|last=Klein|first=Cornelis|last2=Hurlbut, Jr.|first2=Cornelius S.|date=1993|publisher=Wiley|isbn=047157452X|edition=21st|location=New York}}</ref> {{Rp|224&ndash;225}} Wiwit taun 1960, umume analisis kimia rampung nggunakaké instrumen. Salah sawijining [[Spektroskopi nyerep atom|spektroskopi penyerapan atom]], padha karo kimia basah amarga sampel kasebut isih kudu dibubaraké, nanging luwih cepet lan luwih murah. Solusine diuap lan spektrum penyerapané diukur ing kisaran sing katon lan ultraviolet. <ref name="Manual3">{{Cite book|title=Manual of mineralogy : (after James D. Dana)|last=Klein|first=Cornelis|last2=Hurlbut, Jr.|first2=Cornelius S.|date=1993|publisher=Wiley|isbn=047157452X|edition=21st|location=New York}}</ref> {{Rp|225&ndash;226}} Teknik liyané yaiku [[fluoresensi sinar-X]], analisis [[Mikropro elektron|elektron microproba]] tomografi [[Priksa atom|probe atom]] [[Spektroskopi emisi atom|lan spektrografi emisi optik]] . <ref name="Manual3" /> {{Rp|227&ndash;232}} == Paripustaka == l1g75i0fpx7yl49hhwhb8dgm57qrl1r Glikogen 0 180022 1752951 1730397 2026-08-20T05:42:25Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752951 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Glycogen_structure.svg|jmpl|visualisasi lintas bagean skematik glikogen: Protein inti glikogenin dikepung karo cabang-cabang unit [[glukosa]]. Kabeh granula global bisa ngemot udakara 30.000&nbsp;unit glukosa.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRptlOx7yj4C|title=Exercise physiology: Energy, nutrition, and human performance|last=McArdle|first=William D.|last2=Katch|first2=Frank I.|last3=Katch|first3=Victor L.|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7817-4990-9|edition=6th|page=12}}</ref>]] [[Barkas:Glycogen_spacefilling_model.jpg|jmpl|Tampilan [[Atom|struktur atom]] saka siji untai unit [[glukosa]] [[Molekul|ing molekul]] glikogen.]] [[Barkas:Parasite130059-fig7_Spermiogenesis_in_Pleurogenidae_(Digenea).tif|ka|jmpl|Glikogen (granula ireng) ing spermatozoa saka cacing pipih; mikroskop elektron transmisi, skala: 0,3&nbsp;m]] '''Glikogen''' ya iku [[polisakarida]] [[glukosa]] rantai akéh sing dadi salah sawijining bentuk panyimpenan energi ing [[Sato kéwan|kewan]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Life|last=Sadava|first=David E.|last2=Purves|first2=William K.|last3=Hillis|first3=David M.|last4=Orians|first4=Gordon H.|last5=Heller|first5=H. Craig|publisher=W. H. Freeman|year=2011|isbn=9781429254311|edition=9th, International}}</ref> [[Fungi|jamur]], lan bakteri.<ref name="worldcat.org2">{{Cite book|title=Biochemistry|vauthors=Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Gatto GJ, Stryer L|date=2015-04-08|publisher=W. H. Freeman|isbn=9781464126109|edition=Eighth|location=New York|oclc=913469736}}</ref> Struktur polisakarida nuduhaké wujud panyimpenan utama glukosa ing awak. Fungsi glikogen minangka salah siji saka rong bentuk cadangan energi, glikogen kanggo jangka pendek lan bentuk liyané yaiku toko trigliserida ing jaringan adipose (yaiku lemak awak) kanggo panyimpenan jangka panjang. Ing [[manungsa]], glikogen digawé lan disimpen utamané ing sel [[ati]] lan otot balung.<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2">{{Cite journal|date=January 2009|title=Four grams of glucose|journal=American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=296|issue=1|pages=E11–21|doi=10.1152/ajpendo.90563.2008|pmc=2636990|pmid=18840763|quote=Four grams of glucose circulates in the blood of a person weighing 70&nbsp;kg. This glucose is critical for normal function in many cell types. In accordance with the importance of these 4&nbsp;g of glucose, a sophisticated control system is in place to maintain blood glucose constant. Our focus has been on the mechanisms by which the flux of glucose from liver to blood and from blood to skeletal muscle is regulated. ... The brain consumes ∼60% of the blood glucose used in the sedentary, fasted person. ... The amount of glucose in the blood is preserved at the expense of glycogen reservoirs (Fig.&nbsp;2). In postabsorptive humans, there are ∼100&nbsp;g of glycogen in the liver and ∼400&nbsp;g of glycogen in muscle. Carbohydrate oxidation by the working muscle can go up by ∼10&nbsp;fold with exercise, and yet after 1&nbsp;{{sup|h}}, blood glucose is maintained at ∼4&nbsp;g.}}</ref><ref name="pmid1615908">{{Cite journal|year=1992|title=Glycogen storage: Illusions of easy weight loss, excessive weight regain, and distortions in estimates of body composition|url=http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/56/1/292S.full.pdf|journal=[[The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition]]|volume=56|issue=1, Suppl|pages=292s–293s|doi=10.1093/ajcn/56.1.292S|pmid=1615908}}</ref> Ing ati, glikogen bisa ngasilaké 5-6% bobot seger organ, lan ati saka wong diwasa, bobote 1,5&nbsp;kg, bisa disimpen udakara 100-120&nbsp;gram glikogen.<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X491kgEACAAJ|title=Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology|last=Guyton|first=Arthur C.|last2=Hall|first2=John Edward|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|year=2011|isbn=978-5-98657-013-6|location=New York, New York}}</ref> Ing otot balung, glikogen ditemokaké ing konsentrasi kurang (1-2% massa otot) lan otot balung kanggo wong diwasa kanthi bobote 70&nbsp;toko kg udakara 400&nbsp;gram glikogen.<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2"/> Jumlah glikogen sing disimpen ing awak, utamané ing otot lan ati, biasané gumantung karo latihan fisik, tingkat [[métabolisme]] basal, lan pola makan <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergström|first=Jonas|last2=Hermansen|first2=Lars|last3=Hultman|first3=Eric|last4=Saltin|first4=Bengt|date=1967|title=Diet, Muscle Glycogen and Physical Performance|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1748-1716.1967.tb03720.x|journal=Acta Physiologica Scandinavica|language=en|volume=71|issue=2–3|pages=140–150|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1716.1967.tb03720.x|issn=1365-201X|pmid=5584523}}</ref> (khusus serat tipe oksidatif 1 <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Rasmus|last2=Ørtenblad|first2=Niels|last3=Stausholm|first3=Marie-Louise Holleufer|last4=Skjærbæk|first4=Mette Carina|last5=Larsen|first5=Daniel Nykvist|last6=Hansen|first6=Mette|last7=Holmberg|first7=Hans-Christer|last8=Plomgaard|first8=Peter|last9=Nielsen|first9=Joachim|date=2020|title=Heterogeneity in subcellular muscle glycogen utilisation during exercise impacts endurance capacity in men|url=https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1113/JP280247|journal=The Journal of Physiology|language=en|volume=598|issue=19|pages=4271–4292|doi=10.1113/JP280247|issn=1469-7793|pmid=32686845}}</ref><ref name="Jensen 1272–1284">{{Cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Rasmus|last2=Ørtenblad|first2=Niels|last3=Stausholm|first3=Marie‐Louise H.|last4=Skjærbæk|first4=Mette C.|last5=Larsen|first5=Daniel N.|last6=Hansen|first6=Mette|last7=Holmberg|first7=Hans‐Christer|last8=Plomgaard|first8=Peter|last9=Nielsen|first9=Joachim|date=May 2021|title=Glycogen supercompensation is due to increased number, not size, of glycogen particles in human skeletal muscle|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/EP089317|journal=Experimental Physiology|language=en|volume=106|issue=5|pages=1272–1284|doi=10.1113/EP089317|issn=0958-0670|pmid=33675088}}</ref> ). Tingkat glikogen otot istirahat sing beda bisa digayuh kanthi ngganti jumlah partikel glikogen, tinimbang nambah ukuran partikel sing ana <ref name="Jensen 1272–1284"/> sanajan umume partikel glikogen ing istirahat luwih cilik tinimbang maksimal teoritis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marchand|first=I.|last2=Chorneyko|first2=K.|last3=Tarnopolsky|first3=M.|last4=Hamilton|first4=S.|last5=Shearer|first5=J.|last6=Potvin|first6=J.|last7=Graham|first7=T. E.|date=2002-11-01|title=Quantification of subcellular glycogen in resting human muscle: granule size, number, and location|url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/japplphysiol.00585.2001|journal=Journal of Applied Physiology|language=en|volume=93|issue=5|pages=1598–1607|doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00585.2001|issn=8750-7587|pmid=12381743}}</ref> Jumlah glikogen uga akéh ditemokaké ing jaringan lan sel liyané, kalebu [[ginjel]], [[Eritrosit|sel getih abang]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=December 1972|title=Glycogen metabolism in the normal red blood cell|journal=Blood|volume=40|issue=6|pages=836–843|doi=10.1182/blood.V40.6.836.836|pmid=5083874|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|year=1987|title=Glycogen content and release of glucose from red blood cells of the sipunculan worm themiste dyscrita|url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/129/1/141.pdf|journal=J Exp Biol|volume=129|pages=141–149|doi=10.1242/jeb.129.1.141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 2002|title=An improved quantitative assay of glycogen in erythrocytes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-clinical-biochemistry_2002-11_39_6/page/612|journal=Annals of Clinical Biochemistry|volume=39|issue=Pt 6|pages=612–13|doi=10.1258/000456302760413432|pmid=12564847}}</ref> [[Leukosit|sel getih putih]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Murray|first=Bob|date=April 2018|title=Fundamentals of glycogen metabolism for coaches and athletes|journal=Nutrition Reviews|volume=76|issue=4|pages=243–259|doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuy001|pmc=6019055|pmid=29444266}}</ref> lan sel glial [[Utek|ing otak]] .<ref>{{Cite journal|date=June 2016|title=Glycogen distribution in the microwave-fixed mouse brain reveals heterogeneous astrocytic patterns|journal=Glia|volume=64|issue=9|pages=1532–1545|doi=10.1002/glia.23020|pmc=5094520|pmid=27353480}}</ref> Rahim uga nyimpen glikogen sajrone meteng kanggo menehi nutrisi kanggo embrio.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html|title=Biology: Exploring Life|last=Campbell|first=Neil A.|last2=Williamson|first2=Brad|last3=Heyden|first3=Robin J.|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2006|isbn=978-0-13-250882-7|location=Boston, MA|access-date=2021-08-30|archive-date=2014-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kira-kira 4&nbsp;gram glukosa ana ing [[getih]] manungsa sawayah-wayah;<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2"/> ing individu sing pasa, [[Gula darah|glukosa getih]] tetep tetep ing level iki kanthi biaya nyimpen glikogen ing ati lan otot balung.<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2" /> Toko glikogen ing otot balung minangka salah sawijining panyimpenan energi kanggo otot kasebut;<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2" /> Nanging, gangguan glikogen otot ngalangi penyerapan glukosa otot saka getih, saengga nambah jumlah glukosa getih sing kasedhiya kanggo digunakaké ing jaringan liya.<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2" /> Toko glikogen ati dadi toko glukosa kanggo digunakaké ing awak, utamané [[sistem saraf pusat]] .<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2" /> Otak manungsa nganggo udakara 60% glukosa getih ing individu sing cepet lan ora aktif.<ref name="Glucose-Glycogen storage review2" /> Glikogen minangka analog [[Pathi|pati]], [[Polimèr|polimer]] glukosa sing fungsine minangka panyimpenan energi ing [[ꦠꦼꦠꦸꦮꦸꦲꦤ꧀|tanduran]] . Nduweni struktur sing padha karo ''amylopectin'' (komponen pati), nanging luwih akéh bercabang lan kompak tinimbang pati. Kalorone minangka [[bubuk]] putih ing kahanan garing. Glikogen ditemokaké ing bentuk granula ing [[Cytosol|sitoskol]] / [[sitoplasma]] ing pirang-pirang [[Sèl (biologi)|jinis sel]], lan duwe peran penting ing siklus glukosa . Glikogen dadi [[Ènergi|cadangan energi]] sing bisa cepet dikepungaké kanggo nyukupi kebutuhan glukosa, nanging glukosa sing kurang kompak tinimbang cadangan energi trigliserida ( [[Gajih|lipid]] ). Kuwi uga ditemokaké minangka cadangan panyimpenan ing akéh protokol parasit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ryley|first=J.F.|date=March 1955|title=Studies on the metabolism of the protozoa. 5:&nbsp;Metabolism of the parasitic flagellate Trichomonas foetus|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biochemical-journal_1955-03_59_3/page/361|journal=The Biochemical Journal|volume=59|issue=3|pages=361–369|doi=10.1042/bj0590361|pmc=1216250|pmid=14363101}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benchimol|first=Marlene|last2=Elias|first2=Cezar Antonio|last3=de&nbsp;Souza|first3=Wanderley|date=December 1982|title=''Tritrichomonas foetus'': Ultrastructural localization of calcium in the plasma membrane and in the hydrogenosome|journal=Experimental Parasitology|volume=54|issue=3|pages=277–284|doi=10.1016/0014-4894(82)90036-4|issn=0014-4894|pmid=7151939}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mielewczik|first=Michael|last2=Mehlhorn|first2=Heinz|last3=al&nbsp;Quraishy|first3=Saleh|last4=Grabensteiner|first4=E.|last5=Hess|first5=M.|date=1 September 2008|title=Transmission electron microscopic studies of stages of ''histomonas meleagridis'' from clonal cultures|journal=Parasitology Research|language=en|volume=103|issue=4|pages=745–750|doi=10.1007/s00436-008-1009-1|issn=0932-0113|pmid=18626664}}</ref> == Struktur saka Glikogen == [[Barkas:Glycogen2.PNG|jmpl|Hubungan 1,4-α-glycosidic ing oligomer glikogen]] [[Barkas:Glycogen.svg|jmpl|Hubungan 1,4-α-glycosidic lan 1,6-glikosidik ing oligomer glikogen]] Glikogen minangka biopolimer bercabang sing kalebu rantai linear residu [[glukosa]] kanthi dawa rantai rata-rata udakara 8-12 unit glukosa lan 2.000-60.000&nbsp;residu saben molekul glikogen.<ref name="Manners1991">{{Cite journal|last=Manners|first=David J.|year=1991|title=Recent developments in our understanding of glycogen structure|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_carbohydrate-polymers_1991_16_1/page/37|journal=Carbohydrate Polymers|volume=16|issue=1|pages=37–82|doi=10.1016/0144-8617(91)90071-J|issn=0144-8617}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Netter's Essentials Biochemistry|last=Ronner|first=Peter|publisher=Elsevier|year=2018|isbn=978-1-929007-63-9|location=USA|pages=254}}</ref> Unit glukosa digandhengaké kanthi linear kanthi ikatan glikosida α (1 → 4) saka siji glukosa menyang glukosa liyané. Cabang digandhengaké karo rantai sing diikat saka glikosidik α (1 → 6) antara glukosa pertama cabang anyar lan glukosa ing rantai batang.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistrythed00berg|title=Biochemistry|publisher=W. H. Freeman|year=2012|isbn=978-1429203142|edition=7th, International|page=[https://archive.org/details/biochemistrythed00berg/page/n375 338]|url-access=limited|authors=Berg, Tymoczko, & Stryer}}</ref> Amarga cara glikogen disintesis, saben granul glikogen duwe inti protein glikogenin.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Biochemistry|last=Berg|publisher=W. H. Freeman|year=2012|edition=7th, International|page=650|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Glikogen ing sel otot, ati, lan lemak disimpen ing bentuk hidrasi, kasusun saka telu utawa patang bagean banyu saben bagean glikogen sing ana gandhengané karo 0,45&nbsp;millimole (18&nbsp;mg) kalium saben gram glikogen.<ref name="pmid16159082">{{Cite journal|year=1992|title=Glycogen storage: Illusions of easy weight loss, excessive weight regain, and distortions in estimates of body composition|url=http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/56/1/292S.full.pdf|journal=[[The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition]]|volume=56|issue=1, Suppl|pages=292s–293s|doi=10.1093/ajcn/56.1.292S|pmid=1615908}}</ref> Glukosa minangka molekul osmosis, lan bisa mengaruhi tekanan osmosis ing konsentrasi dhuwur sing bisa nyebabaké kerusakan sel utawa mati yen disimpen ing sel tanpa dimodifikasi.<ref name="worldcat.org2"/> Glikogen minangka molekul non-osmosis, mula bisa digunakaké minangka solusi kanggo nyimpen glukosa ing sel tanpa ngganggu tekanan osmosis.<ref name="worldcat.org2" /> == Fungsine Glikogen == === Ing Ati === Ana ing panganan sing ngemot [[karbohidrat]] utawa protein sing dipangan lan dicerna, [[Gula darah|tingkat glukosa getih]] mundhak, lan [[Pankréas|pankreas]] gawé [[insulin]] . Glukosa getih saka vena portal lumebu ing sel ati ( hepatosit ). Insulin tumindak ing hepatosit kanggo ngrangsang tumindak sawétara [[Ènzim|enzim]], kalebu sintesis glikogen . Molekul glukosa ditambahaké ing rantai glikogen sajrone insulin lan glukosa isih akéh. Ing kahanan postprandial utawa "panganan" iki, ati njupuk luwih akéh glukosa saka getih tinimbang sing dibabaraké. Sawise panganan dicerna lan tingkat glukosa wiwit mudhun, sekresi insulin dikurangi, lan sintesis glikogen mandheg. Yen dibutuhaké kanggo energi, glikogen dipecah lan malih dadi glukosa. Fosforilase glikogen minangka enzim utama gangguan glikogen. Sajrone 8-12 jam sabanjure, glukosa sing asale saka glikogen ati minangka sumber utama glukosa getih sing digunakaké dening sisa awak kanggo bahan bakar. Glukagon, [[hormon]] liya sing diproduksi dening pankreas, ing pirang-pirang aspek minangka countersignal kanggo insulin. Kanggo nanggepi tingkat insulin sing kurang normal (nalika kadar glukosa getih mudhun ing kisaran normal), glukagon disekresi nambah jumlah lan ngrangsang kalorone glikogenolisis (pemecahan glikogen) lan glukoneogenesis (produksi glukosa saka sumber liyané). === Ing Otot === Glikogen sel otot bisa uga digunakaké minangka sumber glukosa sing kasedhiya kanggo sel otot. Sel liyané sing ngemot jumlah sithik nggunakaké lokal uga. Amarga sel otot ora duwe glukosa-6-fosfatase, sing dibutuhaké kanggo ngirim glukosa menyang getih, glikogen sing disimpen kasedhiya mung kanggo panggunaan internal lan ora dituduhaké karo sel liyané. Iki beda karo sel ati, sing, yen dikarepaké, gampang ngilangi glikogen sing disimpen dadi glukosa lan dikirim liwat aliran getih minangka bahan bakar kanggo organ liya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/bb450/summer09/lecture/glycogennotes.html|title=Glycogen Biosynthesis; Glycogen Breakdown|website=oregonstate.edu|access-date=2018-02-28|archive-date=2021-05-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512113448/https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/bb450/summer09/lecture/glycogennotes.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Sejarahe Glikogen == Glikogen ditemokaké dening Claude Bernard. Eksperimen kasebut nuduhaké manawa ati ngemot zat sing bisa nyebabaké nyuda gula kanthi tumindak "fermentasi" ing ati. Ing taun 1857, dheweke nerangaké isolasi zat sing diarani " ''la matière glycogène'' ", utawa "zat pembentuk gula". Ora suwe sawise ditemokaké glikogen ing ati, A.&nbsp;Sanson nemokaké manawa jaringan otot uga ngemot glikogen. Formula empiris kanggo glikogen saka ( {{Chem|C|6|H|10|O|5}} ) <sub>n</sub> diadegaké karo Kekulé ing taun 1858.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=F.G.|date=22 June 1957|title=Claude Bernard and the discovery of glycogen|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=1|issue=5033|pages=1431–1437|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.5033.1431|jstor=25382898|pmc=1973429|pmid=13436813}}</ref> == Paripustaka == 0gfkeji3ifoce9kym2mmw8ybexcq9ta Nanotèknologi 0 180306 1753078 1646803 2026-08-20T09:54:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 5 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753078 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Comparison_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg|ka|jmpl|Bandhingané Ukuran Nanomaterial]] '''Nanotèknologi''', uga dicekak dadi '''nanotèk''', yaiku panggunaan [[Zat Kimia|zat]] ing skala [[atom]], [[molekul]], lan supramolekuler kanggo keperluan industri. Deskripsi nanotèknologi sing paling awal lan nyebar diarani target tèknologi tartamtu kanthi persis manipulasi atom lan molekul kanggo nggawé produk makroskop, uga saiki diarani nanotèknologi molekuler . <ref name="Engines1">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/enginesofcreatio00drex|title=Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology|last=Drexler|first=K. Eric|publisher=Doubleday|year=1986|isbn=978-0-385-19973-5|url-access=registration}}</ref> <ref name="Nanotsystems">{{Cite book|title=Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation|last=Drexler|first=K. Eric|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=1992|isbn=978-0-471-57547-4|location=New York}}</ref> Katrangan nanotèknologi sing luwih umum banjur digawé dening Inisiatif Nanotèknologi Nasional, sing nemtokaké nanotèknologi minangka manipulasi matéri kanthi paling ora siji dimensi ukuran saka [[1 nanometer|1]] nganti 100 [[nanometer]] . Definisi iki nggambaraké kasunyatan manawa èfèk mekanik kuantum penting ing skala kuantum iki, mula definisi kasebut pindhah saka target tèknologi tartamtu menyang kategori risèt kabè jinis risèt lan tèknologi sing gegayutan karo sipat-sipat khusus matéri sing kedadéyan ing ngisor ambang ukuran sing diwenehaké. Mula umumé ndeleng bentuk jamak "nanotèknologi" uga "tèknologi skala nano" kanggo ngrujuk ing panliten lan aplikasi sing wiyar sing asipat umum yaiku ukuran. Nanotèknologi kaya sing ditegesaké kanthi ukuran umumé jembar, kalebu bidang ilmu sing beda-beda kaya ilmu permukaan, [[kimia organik]], [[Biologi molekular|biologi molekuler]], [[Semikonduktor|fisika semikonduktor]], panyimpenan énérgi, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hubler|first=A.|date=2010|title=Digital quantum batteries: Energy and information storage in nanovacuum tube arrays|journal=Complexity|volume=15|issue=5|pages=48–55|doi=10.1002/cplx.20306}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shinn|first=E.|date=2012|title=Nuclear energy conversion with stacks of graphene nanocapacitors|journal=Complexity|volume=18|issue=3|pages=24–27|bibcode=2013Cmplx..18c..24S|doi=10.1002/cplx.21427}}</ref> [[Tèknik|teknik]], <ref>Elishakoff,I., D. Pentaras, K. Dujat, C. Versaci, G. Muscolino, J. Storch, S. Bucas, N. Challamel, T. Natsuki, Y.Y. Zhang, C.M. Wang and G. Ghyselinck, Carbon Nanotubes and Nano Sensors: Vibrations, Buckling, and Ballistic Impact, ISTE-Wiley, London, 2012, XIII+pp.421; {{ISBN|978-1-84821-345-6}}.</ref> mikrofabrikasi, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lyon|first=David|last2=et.|first2=al.|date=2013|title=Gap size dependence of the dielectric strength in nano vacuum gaps|journal=IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation|volume=20|issue=4|pages=1467–1471|doi=10.1109/TDEI.2013.6571470}}</ref> lan teknik molekul . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Saini|first=Rajiv|last2=Saini, Santosh|last3=Sharma, Sugandha|year=2010|title=Nanotechnology: The Future Medicine|journal=Journal of Cutaneous and Aesthetic Surgery|volume=3|issue=1|pages=32–33|doi=10.4103/0974-2077.63301|pmc=2890134|pmid=20606992}}</ref> Riset lan aplikasi sing ana gandhengané beda-beda, wiwit saka ekstensi piranti fisika konvensional nganti pendekatan sing anyar adhedhasar pamrograman molekul, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Belkin|first=A.|last2=et.|first2=al.|date=2015|title=Self-Assembled Wiggling Nano-Structures and the Principle of Maximum Entropy Production|journal=Sci. Rep.|volume=5|pages=8323|bibcode=2015NatSR...5E8323B|doi=10.1038/srep08323|pmc=4321171|pmid=25662746}}</ref> saka ngembangaké bahan anyar kanthi dimensi ing skala nano kanggo ngontrol langsung matéri ing skala atom. Saiki para ilmuwan debat babagan implikasi nanotèknologi ing mangsa ngarep . Nanotèknologi bisa uga nggawé akéh bahan lan piranti anyar kanthi aplikasi sing akéh, kayata ing nanomedisin, nanoèlèktronik, produksi énérgi biomatérial, lan produk konsumén. Saliyané, nanotèknologi nuwuhaké akéh masalah sing padha karo tèknologi anyar, kalebu keprihatinan babagan keracunan lan pengaruh lingkungan nanomatérial, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Buzea|first=C.|last2=Pacheco|first2=I. I.|last3=Robbie|first3=K.|year=2007|title=Nanomaterials and nanoparticles: Sources and toxicity|journal=Biointerphases|volume=2|issue=4|pages=MR17–MR71|arxiv=0801.3280|doi=10.1116/1.2815690|pmid=20419892}}</ref> lan pengaruh potensial ing ekonomi global, uga spekulasi babagan macem-macem skenario kiamat. Keprihatinan kasebut nyebabaké debat ing antarané klompok advokasi lan pamrentah manawa ana peraturan khusus nanotèknologi sing dibutuhaké. == Asal-usul Nanotèknologi == Konsep-konsep sing nyebaraké nanotèknologi pisanan dibahas ing taun 1959 dening ahli fisika terkenal [[Richard Feynman]] ing ceramahé ''There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom'', ing endi dheweke nerangaké kemungkinan sintesis liwat manipulasi langsung atom. Tembung "tèknologi nano" pisanan digunakaké dening Norio Taniguchi ing taun 1974, sanajan ora dingerteni kanthi wiyar. Diilhami dening konsep Feynman, K. Eric Drexler nggunakaké istilah "nanotèknologi" ing bukune ''Engines of Creation: The Era Coming of Nanotechnology'' ing taun 1986, sing ngusulaké ide "''assembler''" skala nano sing bakal bisa nggawé salinan dhewe lan item liyané sing rumit kanthi sewenang-wenang kanthi kontrol atom. Uga ing taun 1986, Drexler dadi pendiri ''The Foresight Institute'' (sing wis ora ana gandhengané manéh) kanggo nambah kesadaran lan pangerten masarakat babagan konsep lan implikasi nanotèknologi. Munculé nanotèknologi minangka lapangan ing taun 1980-an kedadéyan liwat konvergensi karya teoretis lan publik Drexler, sing ngembangaké lan nganakaké kerangka konseptual kanggo nanotèknologi, lan kemajuan eksperimen kanthi visibilitas dhuwur sing narik kawigaten kanthi wiyar babagan prospek kontrol atom saka prekara Ing taun 1980an, rong trobosan utama nyebabaké tuwuhing nanotèknologi ing jaman modern. Kaping pisanan, panémuan mikroskop ''tunneling scanning'' ing taun 1981 sing nyedhiyakaké visualisasi atom lan ikatan individu sadurunge, lan sukses digunakaké kanggo ngapusi atom individu ing taun 1989. Pangembang mikroskop Gerd Binnig lan Heinrich Rohrer ing Laboratorium Penelitian Zurich nampa Bebungah Nobel Fisika ing taun 1986. <ref name="Binnig">{{Cite journal|last=Binnig|first=G.|last2=Rohrer|first2=H.|year=1986|title=Scanning tunneling microscopy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ibm-journal-of-research-and-development_1986-07_30_4/page/n6|journal=IBM Journal of Research and Development|volume=30|issue=4|pages=355–69}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/press.html|title=Press Release: the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physics|date=15 Oktober 1986|publisher=Nobelprize.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605005907/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/press.html|archive-date=5 Juni 2011|access-date=12 Mèi 2011}}</ref> Binnig, Quate lan Gerber uga nyipta mikroskop atom ing taun kasebut. Kapindho, ''fullerene'' ditemokaké ing taun 1985 dening Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, lan Robert Curl, sing bareng-bareng menang Hadiah Nobel Kimia taun 1996. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kroto|first=H. W.|last2=Heath|first2=J. R.|last3=O'Brien|first3=S. C.|last4=Curl|first4=R. F.|last5=Smalley|first5=R. E.|year=1985|title=C<sub>60</sub>: Buckminsterfullerene|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1985-11-14_318_6042/page/n117|journal=Nature|volume=318|issue=6042|pages=162–163|bibcode=1985Natur.318..162K|doi=10.1038/318162a0}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=W. W.|last2=Baughman|first2=R. H.|year=2005|title=RETROSPECTIVE: Richard E. Smalley (1943-2005)|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5756|page=1916|doi=10.1126/science.1122120|pmid=16373566|doi-access=free}}</ref> C <sub>60</sub> wiwitané ora kasebut minangka nanotèknologi; istilah iki digunakaké gegayutan karo karya sabanjuré karo ''nanotube'' karbon sing ana gandhengané (asring diarani tabung graphene utawa tabung Bucky) sing nyaranaké aplikasi potensial kanggo èlèktronik lan piranti skala nano. Panémuan ''nanotube'' karbon umumé disebabaké Sumio Iijima saka NEC ing taun 1991, <ref name="carbon">{{Cite journal|last=Monthioux|first=Marc|last2=Kuznetsov|first2=V|year=2006|title=Who should be given the credit for the discovery of carbon nanotubes?|url=http://www.cemes.fr/fichpdf/GuestEditorial.pdf|journal=Carbon|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1621–1623|doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2006.03.019|access-date=2021-09-30|archive-date=2009-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929073818/http://www.cemes.fr/fichpdf/GuestEditorial.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Iijima menang Bebungah Kavli 2008 ing Nanosains. Lapisan dhasar nano prapatan logam-semikonduktor (M-S prapatan) [[transistor]] wiwitanipun ngajokakén dening A. Rose ing 1960, lan difabrikasi dening L. Geppert, Mohamed Atalla lan Dawon Kahng taun 1962. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Nanophysics: Nanoelectronics and Nanophotonics|last=Pasa|first=André Avelino|date=2010|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|isbn=9781420075519|pages=13-1, 13-4|chapter=Chapter 13: Metal Nanolayer-Base Transistor|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3kJAMALo0MC&pg=SA13-PA1}}</ref> Puluhan taun mengko, kemajuan tèknologi multiguna mbisakaké skala alat transistor èfèk medhia-oksida-semikonduktor (MOSFET) nganti level skala nano luwih cilik tinimbang dawa gerbang 20 nm, diwiwiti karo FinFET (transistor èfèk lapangan fin), MOSFET gerbang dobel, ora planar, telung dimensi. Ing UC Berkeley, tim peneliti kalebu Digh Hisamoto, Chenming Hu, Tsu-Jae King Liu, Jeffrey Bokor lan liya-liyané nggawé piranti FinFET dadi 17 proses nm ing taun 1998, banjur 15 nm ing 2001, lan banjur 10 nm taun 2002. <ref name="Liu">{{Cite web|url=https://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/~tking/presentations/KingLiu_2012VLSI-Tshortcourse|title=FinFET: History, Fundamentals and Future|last=Tsu‐Jae King|first=Liu|authorlink=Tsu-Jae King Liu|date=June 11, 2012|website=[[University of California, Berkeley]]|publisher=Symposium on VLSI Technology Short Course|access-date=9 Juli 2019}}</ref> Ing wiwitan taun 2000an, lapangan kasebut nambah perhatian ilmiah, politik, lan komersial sing nyebabaké kontroversi lan kemajuan. Kontroversi muncul babagan definisi lan implikasi potensial nanotèknologi, sing conto saka laporan [[Royal Society]] babagan nanotèknologi. <ref name="royalsociety">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nanotec.org.uk/finalReport.htm|title=Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties|date=July 2004|publisher=Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526060835/http://www.nanotec.org.uk/finalReport.htm|archive-date=26 Mèi 2011|access-date=13 Mèi 2011}}</ref> Tantangan ditrapaké babagan kelayakan aplikasi sing dibayangaké dening para pendukung nanotèknologi molekuler, sing pungkasané ana debat publik antarané Drexler lan Smalley ing taun 2001 lan 2003. <ref name="counterpoint">{{Cite journal|date=1 Dhésèmber 2003|title=Nanotechnology: Drexler and Smalley make the case for and against 'molecular assemblers'|url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8148/8148counterpoint.html|journal=Chemical & Engineering News|volume=81|issue=48|pages=37–42|doi=10.1021/cen-v081n036.p037|access-date=9 Mèi 2010|doi-access=free}}</ref> Sawetara iku, komersialisasi produk adhedhasar kemajuan tèknologi skala nano wiwit berkembang. Produk kasebut diwatesi mung kanggo akéh aplikasi nanomatérial lan ora kalebu kontrol atom tumrap zat. Sawetara conto kalebu platform Silver Nano kanggo nggunakaké nanopartikel perak minangka agen antibakteri, sunscreens transparan adhedhasar nanopartikel , penguatan serat karbon nggunakaké nanopartikel silika, lan nanotube karbon kanggo tekstil tahan noda. <ref name="americanelements">{{Cite web|url=http://www.americanelements.com/nanomaterials-nanoparticles-nanotechnology.html|title=Nanotechnology Information Center: Properties, Applications, Research, and Safety Guidelines|publisher=[[American Elements]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226011154/http://www.americanelements.com/nanomaterials-nanoparticles-nanotechnology.html|archive-date=26 Dhésèmber 2014|access-date=13 Mèi 2011}}</ref> <ref name="emergingnano">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/analysis_draft/|title=Analysis: This is the first publicly available on-line inventory of nanotechnology-based consumer products|year=2008|publisher=The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505011238/http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/analysis_draft/|archive-date=5 Mèi 2011|access-date=13 Mèi 2011}}</ref> Pamrentah pindhah kanggo promosi lan dana risèt menyang nanotèknologi, kayata ing AS karo Inisiatif Nanotèknologi Nasional, sing nggawé formal definisi nanotèknologi adhedhasar ukuran lan nggawé dana kanggo risèt nanoscale, lan ing Eropa liwat Program Framework Eropa kanggo Riset lan Pangembangan Tèknologi. Ing pertengahan 2000-an, perhatian ilmiah anyar lan serius wiwit berkembang. Proyèk muncul kanggo ngasilaké roadmap nanotèknologi <ref name="PNRoadmap">{{Cite web|url=http://www.productivenanosystems.com/docs/Nanotech_Roadmap_2007_main.pdf|title=Productive Nanosystems Technology Roadmap|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908014630/http://www.productivenanosystems.com/docs/Nanotech_Roadmap_2007_main.pdf|archive-date=2013-09-08}}</ref> <ref name="NASAroadmap">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/501325main_TA10-Nanotech-DRAFT-Nov2010-A.pdf|title=NASA Draft Nanotechnology Roadmap|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122114146/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/501325main_TA10-Nanotech-DRAFT-Nov2010-A.pdf|archive-date=2013-01-22}}</ref> sing fokus ing manipulasi matéri kanthi presisi atom lan ngrembug babagan kapabilitas, target, lan aplikasi sing ana lan sing diprakiraké. Ing taun 2006, tim peneliti Korea saka Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) lan National Nano Fab Center nggawé MOSFET 3 nm, piranti nanoèlèktronika paling cilik ing donya. Iki adhedhasar tèknologi FinFET gerbang kabeh-sakiwa-sakiwa tengene (GAA). <ref>{{Citation|title=Still Room at the Bottom (nanometer transistor developed by Yang-kyu Choi from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology)|date=1 April 2006|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-145838158.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106011401/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-145838158.html|periodical=Nanoparticle News|archive-date=6 Novèmber 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{Citation|last=Lee|first=Hyunjin|title=Sub-5nm All-Around Gate FinFET for Ultimate Scaling|pages=58–59|year=2006|periodical=Symposium on VLSI Technology, 2006|doi=10.1109/VLSIT.2006.1705215|isbn=978-1-4244-0005-8|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Swara sewidak negara nggawé program pamrentah lan pengembangan nanotèknologi (R&D) ing antarané taun 2001 lan 2004. Pendanaan pamrentah ngluwihi belanja perusahaan kanggo R&D nanotèknologi, kanthi umumé dana saka perusahaan sing adhedhasar ing Amerika Serikat, Jepang lan Jerman. Lima organisasi paling dhuwur sing nduwé paten intèlèktual paling akéh babagan R&D nanotèknologi ing antarané taun 1970 lan 2011 yaiku Samsung Electronics (2.578 paten pertama), Nippon Steel (1.490 paten pertama), [[IBM]] (1.360 paten pertama), Toshiba (1.298 paten pertama) lan [[Canon]] ( 1,162 paten pisanan). Lima organisasi paling dhuwur sing nerbitaké makalah ilmiah paling akéh babagan risèt nanotèknologi antara taun 1970 lan 2012 yaiku Akademi Ilmu Pengetahuan Tiongkok, Akademi Ilmu Pengetahuan Rusia, ilmiah nasional de la recherche scientifique, Universitas Tokyo lan Universitas Osaka.<ref name="wipo">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_944_2015.pdf|title=World Intellectual Property Report: Breakthrough Innovation and Economic Growth|date=2015|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|pages=112–4|access-date=9 Juli 2019}}</ref> == Konsep Dasar Nanotèknologi == Nanotèknologi minangka teknik sistem fungsional ing skala molekul. Iki kalebu karya lan konsep saiki sing luwih maju. Ing pangertene asline, nanotèknologi nuduhaké kemampuan sing diproyèksikan kanggo nyusun barang saka ngisor nganti ndhuwur, nggunakaké teknik lan alat sing dikembangaké saiki kanggo nggawé produk kanthi performa tinggi. Siji [[nanometer]] (nm) ana samilyar, utawa 10 <sup>−9</sup>, meter. Miturut perbandingan, karbon-karbon khas, utawa let antarané iki [[atom]] ing [[molekul]], ana ing sawetara {{Nowrap|0.12–0.15 nm}} lan [[DNA]] pindho helix wis diameteripun watara 2&nbsp;nm Saliyané, wujud [[Sèl (biologi)|urip seluler]] paling cilik, bakteri saka genus ''Mycoplasma'', udakara 200&nbsp;dawané nm. Miturut konvensi, nanotèknologi dijupuk minangka skala skala {{Nowrap|1 to 100 nm}} sawise definisi sing digunakaké dening Inisiatif Nanotèknologi Nasional ing AS. Watesan ngisor ditemtokaké kanthi ukuran atom (hidrogen duwé atom paling cilik, udakara seperempat diameter kinetik nm) amarga nanotèknologi kudu nggawé piranti saka atom lan molekul. Watesan ndhuwur luwih utawa kurang sewenang-wenang, nanging ukurané ing ngisor iki yaiku fenomena sing ora diamati ing struktur sing luwih gedhé mula katon jelas lan bisa digunakaké ing piranti nano. <ref>{{Cite book|title=What is nanotechnology and why does it matter?: from science to ethics|last=Allhoff|first=Fritz|last2=Lin|first2=Patrick|last3=Moore|first3=Daniel|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7545-6|pages=3–5}}</ref> Fenomena anyar kasebut ndadékaké nanotèknologi beda karo piranti sing mung versi miniatur saka piranti makroskopik sing padha; piranti kasebut ana ing skala sing luwih gedhé lan ana ing ngisor katrangan mikrotèknologi . <ref>{{Cite book|title=Modern Concepts in Nanotechnology|last=Prasad|first=S. K.|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|year=2008|isbn=978-81-8356-296-6|pages=31–32}}</ref> Kanggo nyelehaké skala kasebut ing konteks liyané, ukuran komparasi nanometer dadi meter padha karo ukuran marmer karo ukuran bumi. <ref name="NationalG">{{Cite journal|last=Kahn|first=Jennifer|year=2006|title=Nanotechnology|journal=National Geographic|volume=2006|issue=June|pages=98–119}}</ref> Utawa cara liya kanggo nyelehaké: nanometer yaiku jumlah jenggot rata-rata manungsa nalika dheweke mundhak cukur ing pasuryan. <ref name="NationalG" /> Rong pendekatan utama digunakaké ing nanotèknologi. Ing pendekatan "ngisor", bahan lan piranti dibangun saka komponén molekul sing nglumpukaké kimia kanthi prinsip pangenalan molekul . <ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last=Kralj|first=Slavko|last2=Makovec|first2=Darko|date=27 Oktober 2015|title=Magnetic Assembly of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticle Clusters into Nanochains and Nanobundles|journal=ACS Nano|volume=9|issue=10|pages=9700–9707|doi=10.1021/acsnano.5b02328|pmid=26394039}}</ref> Ing pendekatan "top-down", obyek nano dibangun saka entitas sing luwih gedhé tanpa kontrol level atom. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rodgers, P.|year=2006|title=Nanoelectronics: Single file|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|doi=10.1038/nnano.2006.5|doi-access=free}}</ref> Wilayah fisika kayata nanoèlèktronik, nanomekanik, nanofotonik lan nanoionik wis ngalami évolusi sak sawetara dekade pungkasan kanggo nyedhiyani madegé ngelmu dhasar saka nanotekologi. == Risèt lan Pengembangan Nanotèknologi == [[Barkas:DNA_tetrahedron_white.png|ka|jmpl|Tetrahedron DNA iki <ref name="Goodman05">{{Cite journal|last=Goodman|first=R.P.|last2=Schaap, I.A.T.|last3=Tardin, C.F.|last4=Erben, C.M.|last5=Berry, R.M.|last6=Schmidt, C.F.|last7=Turberfield, A.J.|date=9 Dhésèmber 2005|title=Rapid chiral assembly of rigid DNA building blocks for molecular nanofabrication|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-12-09_310_5754/page/1661|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=310|issue=5754|pages=1661–1665|bibcode=2005Sci...310.1661G|doi=10.1126/science.1120367|pmid=16339440}}</ref> minangka nanostruktur sing dirancang kanthi artifisial saka jinis sing digawe ing bidang nanoteknologi DNA . Saben pojok tetrahedron minangka helix dobel DNA pasangan 20 basa, lan saben vertex yaiku persimpangan telung tangan.]] Amarga macem-macem aplikasi potensial (kalebu industri lan militer), pamrentah wis nandur modal miliaran dolar kanggo risèt nanotèknologi. Sadurunge 2012, AS nandur modal $ 3,7 milyar nggunakaké Inisiatif Nasional Nanotèknologi, Uni Eropa nandur modal $ 1,2 milyar, lan Jepang nandur modal $ 750 yuta. <ref>[http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=230436 Apply nanotech to up industrial, agri output] {{Webarchive}}, [[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|''The Daily Star'' (Bangladesh)]], 17 April 2012.</ref> Luwih saka sewidak negara nggawé program risèt lan pengembangan nanotèknologi (R&D) antara taun 2001 lan 2004. Ing 2012, AS lan UE masing-masing nandur modal $2.1 miliar babagan risèt nanotèknologi, banjur Jepang nganggo $1.2 miliar . Investasi global tekan $7.9 miliar ing taun 2012. Pendanaan pemerintah ngluwihi belanja R&D perusahaan kanggo risèt nanotèknologi, yaiku $10 miliar ing taun 2012. Peluang R&D perusahaan paling gedhé yaiku saka AS, Jepang lan Jerman sing nyumbang gabungan $7.1 miliar. <ref name="wipo2">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_944_2015.pdf|title=World Intellectual Property Report: Breakthrough Innovation and Economic Growth|date=2015|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|pages=112–4|access-date=9 Juli 2019}}</ref> Organisasi risèt nanotèknologi paling dhuwur miturut patèn (1970–2011) <ref name="wipo4">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_944_2015.pdf|title=World Intellectual Property Report: Breakthrough Innovation and Economic Growth|date=2015|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|pages=112–4|access-date=9 Juli 2019}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" !Organisasi !Negara !Paten pisanan |- |[[Samsung Electronics]] |Korea Selatan |2.578 |- |Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal |Jepang |1.490 |- |[[IBM]] |Amerika Serikat |1.360 |- |[[Toshiba]] |Jepang |1.298 |- |[[Canon|Canon Inc.]] |Jepang |1,162 |- |[[Hitachi]] |Jepang |1.100 |- |[[Universitas California, Berkeley]] |Amerika Serikat |1.055 |- |[[Panasonik|Panasonic]] |Jepang |1.047 |- |[[Hewlett-Packard]] |Amerika Serikat |880 |- |TDK |Jepang |839 |} Organisasi risèt nanotèknologi paling dhuwur kanthi publikasi ilmiah (1970–2012) <ref name="wipo3">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_944_2015.pdf|title=World Intellectual Property Report: Breakthrough Innovation and Economic Growth|date=2015|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|pages=112–4|access-date=9 Juli 2019}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" !Pangkat !Organisasi !Negara !Publikasi ilmiah |- |1 |[[Akademi Ilmu Pengetahuan Tionghoa]] |Cina |29.591 |- |2 |[[Akademi Ilmu Pengetahuan Rusia]] |Rusia |12.543 |- |3 |[[Pusat ilmiah ilmiah nasional]] |Prancis |8.105 |- |4 |[[Universitas Tokyo]] |Jepang |6.932 |- |6 |[[Universitas Tohoku]] |Jepang |6.266 |- |7 |[[Universitas California, Berkeley]] |Amerika Serikat |5.936 |- |8 |[[Dewan Penelitian Nasional Spanyol]] |Spanyol |5,585 |- |9 |[[Universitas Illinois]] |Amerika Serikat |5,580 |- |10 |[[MIT]] |Amerika Serikat |5,567 |} == Aplikasi Nanotèknologi == Ing tanggal 21 Agustus 2008, Proyèk Nanotèknologi ana luwih saka 800 produk nanotek sing diidentifikasi produsen kasedhiya ing publik, kanthi sing anyar tekan pasar kanthi kecepatan 3-4 saben minggu. <ref name="emergingnano2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/analysis_draft/|title=Analysis: This is the first publicly available on-line inventory of nanotechnology-based consumer products|year=2008|publisher=The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505011238/http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/analysis_draft/|archive-date=5 Mèi 2011|access-date=13 Mèi 2011}}</ref> Proyèk kasebut nyathet kabèh produk ing basis data online sing bisa diakses publik. Umumé aplikasi diwatesi nggunakaké nanomatérial pasif "generasi pertama" sing kalebu titanium dioksida ing tabir surya, kosmetik, lapisan permukaan, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurtoglu M. E.|last2=Longenbach T.|last3=Reddington P.|last4=Gogotsi Y.|year=2011|title=Effect of Calcination Temperature and Environment on Photocatalytic and Mechanical Properties of Ultrathin Sol–Gel Titanium Dioxide Films|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-ceramic-society-journal_2011-04_94_4/page/1101|journal=Journal of the American Ceramic Society|volume=94|issue=4|pages=1101–1108|doi=10.1111/j.1551-2916.2010.04218.x}}</ref> lan sawetara produk panganan; Alotrop karbon digunakaké kanggo ngasilaké tape toke; perak ing kemasan panganan, sandhangan, disinfektan lan peralatan rumah tangga; seng oksida ing tabir surya lan kosmetik, lapisan ndhuwur, cat lan perabot ruangan; lan cerium oksida minangka katalis bahan bakar. <ref name="americanelements2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.americanelements.com/nanomaterials-nanoparticles-nanotechnology.html|title=Nanotechnology Information Center: Properties, Applications, Research, and Safety Guidelines|publisher=[[American Elements]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226011154/http://www.americanelements.com/nanomaterials-nanoparticles-nanotechnology.html|archive-date=26 Dhésèmber 2014|access-date=13 Mèi 2011}}</ref> Aplikasi luwih lanjut ngidini bal tenis supaya luwih dawa, bal [[golf]] bisa mbukak luwih cepet, lan uga bola bowling dadi luwih awet lan duwé permukaan sing luwih angel. [[Clana|Celana panjang]] lan [[Kaus kaki|kaos sikil]] wis diresepaké karo nanotèknologi supaya bisa tahan luwih suwé lan nggawé wong adhem nalika musim panas. Balutan diinfus nganggo nanopartikel perak supaya luwih cepet nyuda. <ref name="nnin">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nnin.org/nnin_nanoproducts.html|title=Nanotechnology Consumer Products|year=2010|website=nnin.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119092143/http://www.nnin.org/nnin_nanoproducts.html|archive-date=January 19, 2012|access-date=November 23, 2011}}</ref> [[Konsol gim|Konsol game video]] lan komputer pribadi bisa uga luwih murah, luwih cepet, lan ngemot luwih akéh amarga nanotèknologi. <ref>[http://www.nanoandme.org/nano-products/computing-and-electronics/ ''Nano in computing and electronics''] {{Webarchive}} at NanoandMe.org</ref> Uga, kanggo mbangun struktur ing komputerisasi chip kanthi cahya, kayata pangolahan informasi kuantum optik chip, lan transmisi informasi pikosetik. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mayer|first=B.|last2=Janker|first2=L.|last3=Loitsch|first3=B.|last4=Treu|first4=J.|last5=Kostenbader|first5=T.|last6=Lichtmannecker|first6=S.|last7=Reichert|first7=T.|last8=Morkötter|first8=S.|last9=Kaniber|first9=M.|year=2015|title=Monolithically Integrated High-β Nanowire Lasers on Silicon|journal=Nano Letters|volume=16|issue=1|pages=152–156|bibcode=2016NanoL..16..152M|doi=10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03404|pmid=26618638}}</ref> Nanotèknologi bisa uga duwé katrampilan supaya aplikasi medis sing ana saiki luwih murah lan luwih gampang digunakaké ing papan kaya kantor [[Dhokter kulawarga|praktisi umum]] lan ing omah. <ref>[http://www.nanoandme.org/nano-products/medical/ ''Nano in medicine''] {{Webarchive}} at NanoandMe.org</ref> Mobil lagi diproduksi nganggo nanomatérial dadi bisa mbutuhaké [[logam]] kurang lan kurang bahan bakar kanggo mbesuk. <ref>[http://www.nanoandme.org/nano-products/transport/ ''Nano in transport''] {{Webarchive}} at NanoandMe.org</ref> Para ilmuwan saiki ngupayakaké tèknologi nanotèknologi kanggo nyoba ngembangaké mesin diesel kanthi asap knalpot sing luwih resik. Platinum saiki digunakaké minangka katalis mesin diesel ing mesin kasebut. Pemangkin bahan yaiku ngresiki partikel asap. Kaping pisanan, katalis pengurangan digunakaké kanggo njupuk atom nitrogen saka molekul NOx kanggo mbebasaké oksigen. Sabanjuré katalis oksidasi ngoksidasi hidrokarbon lan karbon monoksida dadi karbon dioksida lan banyu. <ref>[[Catalytic converter#Diesel engines|''Catalytic Converter'']] at Wikipedia.org</ref> Platinum digunakaké ing katalis pengurangan lan oksidasi. <ref>[http://auto.howstuffworks.com/catalytic-converter2.htm ''How Catalytic Converters Work''] {{Webarchive}} at howstuffworks.com</ref> Nggunakaké platinum, iku ora èfisièn yen larang lan ora berkelanjutan. Inovasi perusahaan Denmark Fonden nandur modal DKK 15 yuta kanggo nggoleki pengganti katalis anyar nggunakaké nanotèknologi. Tujuan proyèk kasebut, diluncuraké ing musim gugur 2014, yaiku nggedhekaké area permukaan lan minimalaké jumlah matéri sing dibutuhaké. Obyek cenderung nyilikaké énérgi permukaan; rong tetes banyu, contoné, bakal gabung dadi siji gulung lan nyuda area lumahing. Yen area permukaan katalis sing kena uap knalpot maksimal, èfisiènsi katalis bakal maksimal. Tim sing nggarap proyèk iki yakuwi nggawé nanopartikel sing ora bakal digabung. Saben lumahing dioptimalaké, matéri bakal disimpen. Mangkono, nggawé nanopartikel iki bakal nambah èfèktifitas katalis mesin diesel sing diasilaké - mula bakal nyebabaké asap knalpot sing luwih resik - lan bakal nyuda biaya. Yen sukses, tim ngarep-arep bisa nyuda panggunaan platinum nganti 25%. <ref>[http://www.rdmag.com/news/2014/09/nanotechnology-provide-cleaner-diesel-engines ''Nanotechnology to provide cleaner diesel engines''] {{Webarchive}}. RDmag.com. September 2014</ref> Nanotèknologi uga nduwéni peran penting ing bidang Teknik Tisu sing berkembang kanthi cepet. Nalika ngrancang scaffolds, peneliti nyoba niru fitur skala nano saka [[Sèl (biologi)|mikroen lingkungan sel]] kanggo ngarahaké diferensiasi menyang garis keturunan sing cocog. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cassidy|first=John W.|year=2014|title=Nanotechnology in the Regeneration of Complex Tissues|journal=Bone and Tissue Regeneration Insights|volume=5|pages=25–35|doi=10.4137/BTRI.S12331|pmc=4471123|pmid=26097381}}</ref> Contoné, nalika nggawé scaffolds kanggo nyengkuyung tuwuhing balung, peneliti bisa uga niru jugangan resorpsi osteoklas. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cassidy|first=J. W.|last2=Roberts|first2=J. N.|last3=Smith|first3=C. A.|last4=Robertson|first4=M.|last5=White|first5=K.|last6=Biggs|first6=M. J.|last7=Oreffo|first7=R. O. C.|last8=Dalby|first8=M. J.|author-link8=Matthew Dalby|year=2014|title=Osteogenic lineage restriction by osteoprogenitors cultured on nanometric grooved surfaces: The role of focal adhesion maturation|url=http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/367171/|journal=Acta Biomaterialia|volume=10|issue=2|pages=651–660|doi=10.1016/j.actbio.2013.11.008|pmc=3907683|pmid=24252447|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830234634/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/367171/|archive-date=2017-08-30}}</ref> Peneliti wis sukses nggunakaké nanobot adhedhasar DNA Origami sing bisa nindakaké fungsi logika kanggo nggayuh pangiriman obat sing ditargetaké ing kecoak. Ditulis manawa kekuwatan komputasional nanobot kasebut bisa ditingkataké nganti [[Commodore 64]] .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amir|first=Y.|last2=Ben-Ishay|first2=E.|last3=Levner|first3=D.|last4=Ittah|first4=S.|last5=Abu-Horowitz|first5=A.|last6=Bachelet|first6=I.|year=2014|title=Universal computing by DNA origami robots in a living animal|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:13454727|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|volume=9|issue=5|pages=353–357|bibcode=2014NatNa...9..353A|doi=10.1038/nnano.2014.58|pmc=4012984|pmid=24705510}}</ref> == Pengaruh Nanotèknologi == Area sing dadi perhatian yaiku pengaruh sing dienggo saka manufaktur industri lan panggunaan nanomatérial kanggo kesehatan manungsa lan lingkungan, kaya sing disaranaké dening risèt nanotoksikologi. Amarga alasan kasebut, sawetara klompok menehi saran supaya nanotèknologi diatur dening pamrentah. Wong liya negesaké manawa overregulasi bakal nyegah risèt ilmiah lan pangembangan inovasi sing migunani. Agensi risèt kesehatan umum , kayata Institut Nasional kanggo Keselamatan lan Kesehatan Pekerjaan aktif nindakaké risèt babagan èfèk kesehatan potensial sing diwiwiti saka eksposur nganti nanopartikel. <ref name="niosh">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nanotech/?s_cid=3ni7d2ms082915|title=CDC – Nanotechnology – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic|date=June 15, 2012|publisher=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904005250/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nanotech/?s_cid=3ni7d2ms082915|archive-date=September 4, 2015|access-date=2012-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="nioshnano">{{Cite journal|date=November 7, 2012|title=CDC – NIOSH Publications and Products – Filling the Knowledge Gaps for Safe Nanotechnology in the Workplace|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2013-101/|publisher=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|doi=10.26616/NIOSHPUB2013101|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111211819/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2013-101/|archive-date=November 11, 2012|access-date=2012-11-08|doi-access=free}}</ref> Sawetara produk nanopartikel bisa uga ana akibat sing ora dikarepaké. Peneliti nemokaké manawa nanopartikel perak bakteriostatik sing digunakaké ing kaos sikil kanggo nyuda ambune sikil lagi diluncuraké. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lubick|first=N|last2=Betts|first2=Kellyn|year=2008|title=Silver socks have cloudy lining|url=https://archive.org/details/environmental-science-technology_2008-06-01_42_11/page/3910|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=42|issue=11|page=3910|bibcode=2008EnST...42.3910L|doi=10.1021/es0871199|pmid=18589943}}</ref> Partikel kasebut banjur disiramaké menyang aliran banyu limbah lan bisa ngrusak bakteri sing dadi komponén kritis ekosistem alam, peternakan, lan proses pangolahan limbah. <ref>Murray R.G.E. (1993) ''Advances in Bacterial Paracrystalline Surface Layers''. T. J. Beveridge, S. F. Koval (Eds.). Plenum Press. {{ISBN|978-0-306-44582-8}}. pp. 3–9.</ref> Musyawarah umum babagan pemahaman risiko ing AS lan Inggris sing ditindakaké dening Pusat Nanotèknologi ing Masyarakat nemokaké manawa para peserta luwih positif babagan nanotèknologi kanggo aplikasi énérgi tinimbang aplikasi kesehatan, kanthi aplikasi kesehatan nambah dilema moral lan etika kayata biaya lan kasedhiyan. <ref name="harthorn">Harthorn, Barbara Herr (January 23, 2009) [http://nanotechnologytoday.blogspot.com/2009/01/people-in-us-and-uk-show-strong.html "People in the US and the UK show strong similarities in their attitudes toward nanotechnologies"] {{Webarchive}}. Nanotechnology Today.</ref> Para ahli, kalebu direktur Proyèk Woodrow Wilson Center babagan Nanotèknologi Muncul David Rejeski, wis menehi kesaksian <ref>[http://www.nanotechproject.org/news/archive/successful_commercialization_depends_on/ Testimony of David Rejeski for U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation] {{Webarchive}} Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies. Retrieved on 2008-3-7.</ref> manawa komersialisasi sing sukses gumantung marang pengawasan sing cukup, strategi risèt risiko, lan keterlibatan umum. Berkeley, California saiki dadi siji-sijine kutha ing Amerika Serikat sing ngatur nanotèknologi; <ref>DelVecchio, Rick (November 24, 2006) [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/11/24/MNGP9MJ4KI1.DTL Berkeley considering need for nano safety] {{Webarchive}}. sfgate.com</ref> [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] ing taun 2008 nganggep ngetrapaké undang-undang sing padha, <ref>Bray, Hiawatha (January 26, 2007) [http://boston.com/business/technology/articles/2007/01/26/cambridge_considers_nanotech_curbs/ Cambridge considers nanotech curbs – City may mimic Berkeley bylaws] {{Webarchive}}. boston.com</ref> nanging pungkasané nolak. <ref>[http://www.nanolawreport.com/Cambridge.pdf Recommendations for a Municipal Health & Safety Policy for Nanomaterials: A Report to the Cambridge City Manager] {{Webarchive}}. nanolawreport.com. July 2008.</ref> == Masalah Kesehatan lan Lingkungan == Nanofiber digunakaké ing pirang-pirang wilayah lan ing macem-macem produk, saka kabèhsayap pesawat nganti rakét tenis. Nyedhot nanopartikel udhara lan nanofiber bisa nyebabaké pirang-pirang penyakit paru -paru, kayata fibrosis . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Byrne|first=J. D.|last2=Baugh|first2=J. A.|year=2008|title=The significance of nanoparticles in particle-induced pulmonary fibrosis|journal=McGill Journal of Medicine|volume=11|issue=1|pages=43–50|pmc=2322933|pmid=18523535}}</ref> Peneliti nemokaké manawa tikus ambegan ing nanopartikel, partikel kasebut mapan ing otak lan paru-paru, sing nyebabaké peningkatan biomarker kanggo inflamasi lan reaksi stres <ref>Elder, A. (2006). [http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/pr/news/story.cfm?id=1191 Tiny Inhaled Particles Take Easy Route from Nose to Brain.] urmc.rochester.edu {{Webarchive}}</ref> lan nanopartikel nyebabaké penuaan kulit liwat stres oksidatif ing tikus tanpa rambut. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wu|first=J|last2=Liu|first2=W|last3=Xue|first3=C|last4=Zhou|first4=S|last5=Lan|first5=F|last6=Bi|first6=L|last7=Xu|first7=H|last8=Yang|first8=X|last9=Zeng|first9=FD|year=2009|title=Toxicity and penetration of TiO2 nanoparticles in hairless mice and porcine skin after subchronic dermal exposure|journal=[[Toxicology Letters]]|volume=191|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.05.020|pmid=19501137}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jonaitis|first=TS|last2=Card|first2=JW|last3=Magnuson|first3=B|year=2010|title=Concerns regarding nano-sized titanium dioxide dermal penetration and toxicity study|journal=Toxicology Letters|volume=192|issue=2|pages=268–9|doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.10.007|pmid=19836437}}</ref> Panaliten rong taun ing Sekolah Kesehatan Umum UCLA nemokaké tikus lab sing ngonsumsi nano-titanium dioxide nuduhaké kerusakan DNA lan kromosom derajat "ana gandhengané karo kabèhpembunuh manungsa, yaiku kanker, penyakit jantung, penyakit neurologis lan penuaan". <ref>Schneider, Andrew (March 24, 2010) [http://www.aolnews.com/nanotech/article/amid-nanotechs-dazzling-promise-health-risks-grow/19401235 "Amid Nanotech's Dazzling Promise, Health Risks Grow"] {{Webarchive}}. ''AOL News''</ref> Sinau utama sing diterbitaké anyar ing Nanotèknologi alam nyaranaké sawetara bentuk nanotube karbon - bocah poster kanggo "revolusi nanotèknologi" - bisa uga mbebayani kaya asbes yen dihirup kanthi jumlah cukup. Anthony Seaton saka Institut Kedokteran Pakaryan ing Edinburgh, Skotlandia, sing nyumbang kanggo artikel babagan nanotube karbon ujar manawa "Kita ngerti manawa ana sing bisa duwé mesothelioma. Dadi macem-macem bahan kasebut kudu ditangani kanthi tliti. " <ref>Weiss, R. (2008). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/20/AR2008052001331.html?hpid=sec-health&sid=ST2008052100104 Effects of Nanotubes May Lead to Cancer, Study Says.] {{Webarchive}}</ref> Tanpa anané peraturan tartamtu sing bakal teka saka pamrentah, Paull and Lyons (2008) njaluk ora kalebu nanopartikel sing direkayasa ing panganan. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paull, J.|last2=Lyons, K.|year=2008|title=Nanotechnology: The Next Challenge for Organics|url=http://orgprints.org/13569/1/13569.pdf|journal=Journal of Organic Systems|volume=3|pages=3–22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172822/http://orgprints.org/13569/1/13569.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-18}}</ref> Artikel koran nglaporaké manawa para pekerja ing pabrik cat nandhang penyakit paru-paru serius lan nanopartikel ditemokaké ing paru-parune. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/6016639/Nanoparticles-used-in-paint-could-kill-research-suggests.html|title=Nanoparticles used in paint could kill, research suggests|last=Smith|first=Rebecca|date=August 19, 2009|work=Telegraph|access-date=May 19, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315162044/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/6016639/Nanoparticles-used-in-paint-could-kill-research-suggests.html|archive-date=March 15, 2010|location=London}}</ref> <ref name="bbcfibre00">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-19355196 Nanofibres 'may pose health risk'] {{Webarchive}}. BBC. 2012-08-24</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schinwald|first=A.|last2=Murphy|first2=F. A.|last3=Prina-Mello|first3=A.|last4=Poland|first4=C. A.|last5=Byrne|first5=F.|last6=Movia|first6=D.|last7=Glass|first7=J. R.|last8=Dickerson|first8=J. C.|last9=Schultz|first9=D. A.|year=2012|title=The Threshold Length for Fiber-Induced Acute Pleural Inflammation: Shedding Light on the Early Events in Asbestos-Induced Mesothelioma|journal=Toxicological Sciences|volume=128|issue=2|pages=461–470|doi=10.1093/toxsci/kfs171|pmid=22584686|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=chronic-inflammation-cancer Is Chronic Inflammation the Key to Unlocking the Mysteries of Cancer?] {{Webarchive}} Scientific American. 2008-11-09</ref> == Paripustaka == [[Kategori:Tèknologi]] buf7wgjqxo4n0lzdufiu4c4qdrloeye ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪꦃ 0 180532 1752872 1736431 2026-08-20T03:48:08Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752872 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dwiaksara-jv|Indonésia}} {{Coord|5|S|120|E|display=title}} {{Infobox country | latd = 6 | latm = 10.5 | latNS = S | longd = 106 | longm = 49.7 | longEW = E | leader_name2 = [[Gibran Rakabuming Raka|ꦒꦶꦧꦿꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏꦧꦸꦩꦶꦁ ꦫꦏ]] | conventional_long_name = ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ<br>إندونيسيا<br>ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ | native_name = ''Republik Indonesia'' | image_flag = Flag of Indonesia.svg | image_coat = National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg | common_name = ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ | symbol_type = [[Garuda Pancasila|ꦭꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ]] | national_motto = "[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika|ꦨꦶꦤ꧀ꦤꦺꦏꦠꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀ꦆꦏ]]" {{small|([[Basa Jawa Kuna|ꦧꦱ ꦗꦮ ꦏꦸꦤ]])}}<br />{{small|"ꦱꦺꦗꦺ-ꦱꦺꦗꦺꦤꦔꦶꦁꦲꦗꦼꦒ꧀ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀"}}<br />'''[[Idhéologi|ꦆꦣꦺꦪꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦒꦶꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀]]:''' [[Pancasila|ꦥꦚ꧀ꦕꦱꦶꦭ]]<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/86.htm |publisher=US Library of Congress |title=ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦾ |edition=Country Studies}}</ref><ref name="Vickers">[[#Vickers|Vickers]], p. 117</ref> | national_anthem = ''[[Indonesia Raya|ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦫꦪ]]''<br />{{small|"ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦒꦸꦁ"}}<br /><br /><center> </center> | image_map = ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ (orthographic projection).svg | capital = [[Jakarta|ꦗꦏꦂꦠ]] | largest_city = capital | official_languages = {{plainlist| *[[Basa Indonésia|ꦧꦱ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ]] (ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀) *[[Basa Jawa|ꦧꦱ ꦗꦮ]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/162614/perda-no-2-tahun-2021|title=Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa}}</ref> (ꦣꦲꦺꦫꦃ)}} | demonym = | government_type = [[Républik|ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦠꦸꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀]] [[Sistem présidhènsial|ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦪꦭ꧀]] [[Nagara manunggal|ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀]] | leader_title1 = [[Présidhèn Indonésia|ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀]] | leader_name1 = [[Prabowo Subianto|ꦥꦿꦧꦮ ꦱꦸꦧꦶꦪꦤ꧀ꦠ]] | leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidhèn Indonésia|ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀]] | legislature = [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat|ꦩꦗꦼꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦩꦸꦱꦾꦮꦫꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀]] | upper_house = [[Dewan Perwakilan Daerah|ꦣꦺꦮꦤ꧀ ꦥꦐꦩꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦣꦲꦺꦫꦃ]] | lower_house = [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat|ꦣꦺꦮꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀]] | sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Indonésia|ꦲꦢꦼꦒ꧀]] | established_event1 = ''[[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie]]'' | established_date1 = 20 ꦩꦉꦠ꧀ 1602 | established_event2 = [[Indhiya Nèderlan|ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦤꦺꦢꦼꦂꦭꦤ꧀]] | established_date2 = 1 ꦗꦤꦸꦮꦫꦶ 1800 | established_event3 = [[Sajarah Nusantara (1942-1945)|ꦏꦗꦺꦒꦤ꧀ ꦗꦼꦥꦁ]] | established_date3 = 9 ꦩꦉꦠ꧀ 1942 | established_event4 = [[Proklamasi Mardika Indonésia|ꦧꦪꦮꦫ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ]] | established_date4 = 17 Agustus 1945 | established_event5 = [[Républik Indonésia Sarékat|ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦱꦫꦺꦏꦠ꧀]] | established_date5 = 27 ꦣꦺꦱꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ 1949 | established_event6 = RIS ꦢꦶꦧꦸꦧꦂꦫꦏꦺ | established_date6 = 17 ꦄꦒꦸꦱ꧀ꦠꦸꦱ꧀ 1950 | established_event7 = [[Ordhe Anyar|ꦎꦂꦣꦼ ꦲꦚꦂ]] | established_date7 = 12 ꦩꦉꦠ꧀ 1967 | established_event8 = ''[[Sajarah Indonésia (1998-ꦱꦲꦶꦏꦶ)|ꦫꦺꦥ꦳ꦺꦴꦂꦩꦱꦶ]]'' | established_date8 = 21 Mèi 1998 | area_km2 = 1.904.569 <!--http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf--> | area_label = [[Laladan dharat|ꦣꦫꦠ꧀]] | area_rank = ꦲꦁꦏ 15 | area_sq_mi = 735.358 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = | area_label2 = [[Laladan banyu|ꦧꦚꦸ (%)]] | area_data2 = 4,85 | population_estimate = 255.461.700<ref name="bpsest">{{cite web | title =Population Projection by Province, 2010–2035 |url =http://www.bps.go.id/linkTabelStatis/view/id/1274 | publisher =Badan Pusat Statistik|access-date = 18 Mèi 2015 }}</ref> | population_census = 237.424.363<ref name="imf2"/> | population_estimate_year = 2015 | population_census_year = 2010 | population_census_rank = ꦲꦁꦏ 4 | population_density_km2 = 124,66 | population_density_rank = ꦲꦁꦏ 84 | population_density_sq_mi = 322,87 | GDP_PPP = $3,010 triliun<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_year = 2016 | GDP_PPP_rank = ꦲꦁꦏ 8 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11.633<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ꦲꦁꦏ 102 | GDP_nominal = $936,955 miliar<ref name = "imf2">{{cite web | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=26&pr.y=7&sy=2010&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPPPSH&grp=0&a= | title = Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Indonesia | work = World Economic Outlook | publisher = International Monetary Fund | date = April 2016 | access-date = 26 Agustus 2016}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2016 | GDP_nominal_rank = ꦲꦁꦏ 16 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3.620<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ꦲꦁꦏ 117 | Gini = 35.6 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2010 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 Maret 2011}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.707 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2018<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = steady<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2015|publisher=United Nations|access-date=15 Dhésèmber 2015}}</ref> | HDI_rank = ꦲꦁꦏ 110 | currency = [[Rupiah|ꦫꦸꦥꦶꦪꦃ]] (Rp) | currency_code = IDR | time_zone = [[Zona wektu Indonésia|ꦮꦂꦤ-ꦮꦂꦤ]] | utc_offset = +7 ꦠꦼꦏꦤ꧀ +9 | utc_offset_DST = +7 ꦠꦼꦏꦤ꧀ +9 | time_zone_DST = [[Zona wektu Indonésia|ꦮꦂꦤ-ꦮꦂꦤ]] | date_format = DD/WW/TTTT | drives_on = ꦏꦶꦮ <!--Note that this refers to the side of the road used, not the seating of the driver--> | calling_code = [[+62]] | cctld = [[.id]] | footnote_a = {{note|a|a}} ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃ ꦉꦱ꧀ꦩꦶ ꦔꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦤꦶ ꦩꦸꦁ [[Agama ing Indonésia|ꦲꦼꦤꦼꦩ꧀ ꦲꦒꦩ]]: [[Islam|ꦆꦱ꧀ꦭꦩ꧀]], [[Protèstan|ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦠꦺꦱ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀]], [[Katulik Roma|ꦏꦠꦸꦭꦶꦏ꧀]], [[Hindhu|ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ]], [[Buda|ꦧꦸꦢ꧀ꦢ]], ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Konghucu|ꦏꦺꦴꦁꦲꦸꦕꦸ]].<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Heriyanto |title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia |journal=Marburg Journal of Religion |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=8 |date=August 2005 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |format=PDF|access-date=2 Oktober 2006}}</ref> | area_magnitude = 1 E+12|ꦥꦩꦺꦫꦁ ꦮꦶꦭꦪꦠ꧀ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ: [[ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] (UTC+7), [[ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦠꦼꦔꦃ]] (UTC+8), [[ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] (UTC+9) | official_website = [http://www.indonesia.go.id/ indonesia.go.id] | religion = ꦉꦱ꧀ꦩꦶ:{{ref label|a|a}}<br />[[Islam|ꦆꦱ꧀ꦭꦩ꧀]]<br />[[Protèstan|ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦠꦺꦱ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀]]<br />[[Katulik|ꦏꦠꦸꦭꦶꦏ꧀]]<br />[[Hindhu|ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ]]<br />[[Buda|ꦧꦸꦢ꧀ꦢ]]<br />[[Konghucu|ꦏꦺꦴꦁꦲꦸꦕꦸ]] }} '''ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ''' ([[aksara Latin|Latin]]: Indonésia, [[Pegon]]: إنڎَونَيسييا), ꦉꦱ꧀ꦩꦶꦤꦺ '''ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ''' ([[basa Indonésia|ꦧꦱ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ]]: ''Republik Indonesia''), ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ [[nagara berdaulat|ꦤꦒꦫ ꦧꦼꦂꦣꦲꦸꦭꦠ꧀]] [[Pratélaning nagara transkontinéntal|ꦠꦿꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦤꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦭ꧀]] ꦢꦸꦩꦸꦤꦸꦁ ꦩ꧀ꦭꦶꦒꦶ ꦲꦶꦁ [[Asia Kidul-Wétan|ꦄꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀-ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦱꦮꦠꦫ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦲꦶꦁ [[Oséania|ꦎꦱꦺꦪꦤꦶꦪ]]. ꦢꦸꦩꦸꦤꦸꦁ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦲꦤ꧀ꦠꦫꦤꦺ [[Samodra Hindia|ꦱꦩꦺꦴꦢꦿ ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦪ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Samodra Pasifik|ꦥꦱꦶꦥ꦳ꦶꦏ꧀]], ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦤꦒꦫ [[kapuloan|ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀]] ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ, ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦥꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦭ꧀ [[Pratélaning pulo ing Indonésia|ꦠꦼꦭꦸꦭꦱ꧀ ꦲꦺꦮꦸ ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ]].<ref name="NG-Indonésia-Island">{{cite news | title = Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonésia | date = 8 ꦥ꦳ꦺꦧꦿꦸꦮꦫꦶ 2012 | work = National Geographic Indonésia | url = http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2012/02/hanya-ada-13466-pulau-di-indonesia | language = Indonésia | access-date = 2021-10-16 | archive-date = 2017-12-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171228035556/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2012/02/hanya-ada-13466-pulau-di-indonesia | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>"The Naming Procedures of Indonésia's Islands", ''Tenth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names'', New York, 31 July – 9 August 2012, United Nations Economic and Social Council</ref> ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦏꦶꦫ-ꦏꦶꦫ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶ ꦭꦶꦮꦠ꧀ 258 ꦪꦸꦠ ꦮꦺꦴꦁ ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Pratélaning nagara miturut cacah jiwa|ꦤꦺꦴꦩꦼꦂ ꦥꦥꦠ꧀ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶꦤꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ]], ꦤꦒꦫ [[Bangsa Austronésia|ꦄꦈꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦾ]] ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶꦤꦺ, ꦲꦸꦒ [[Islam miturut nagara|ꦤꦒꦫ ꦩꦪꦺꦴꦫꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦩꦸꦱ꧀ꦭꦶꦩ꧀]] ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶꦤꦺ. ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦥꦣꦼꦠ꧀ ꦱ ꦢꦸꦚ [[Jawa|ꦗꦮ]] ꦔꦤ꧀ꦝꦸꦠ꧀ ꦥꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦭ꧀ ꦱꦼꦠꦼꦔꦃ ꦱꦏ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶ. ꦮꦔꦸꦤ꧀ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦊꦧꦸ [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat|ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦸꦂ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Présidhèn Indonésia|ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀]] ꦏꦥꦶꦭꦶꦃ. ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ [[Pratélan provinsi ing Indonésia|34 ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ]], ꦏꦁ ꦭꦶꦩ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦱ꧀ꦠꦠꦸꦱ꧀ ꦄꦢ꧀ꦩꦶꦤꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦩꦶꦫꦸꦁꦒꦤ꧀. ꦏꦸꦛ ꦏꦿꦗꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦏꦁ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦤꦸꦁꦔꦶ ꦪꦏꦸꦮꦶ [[Jakarta|ꦗꦏꦂꦠ]]. ꦤꦒꦫ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦠꦥꦼꦭ꧀ ꦮꦠꦼꦱ꧀ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ [[Papua Nugini|ꦥꦥꦸꦮ ꦤꦸꦒꦶꦤꦶ]], [[Timor Wétan|ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]], ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Malaysia|ꦩꦭꦪ꧀ꦱꦾ]] [[Malaysia Wétan|ꦱꦶꦱꦶꦃ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]]. ꦤꦒꦫ ꦠꦁꦒꦤꦺ ꦏꦊꦧꦸ [[Singapura|ꦱꦶꦔꦥꦸꦫ]], [[Filipina|ꦥ꦳ꦶꦭꦶꦥꦶꦤ]], [[Australia|ꦄꦈꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦭꦶꦪ]], [[Palau|ꦥꦭꦮ꧀]], ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ [[India|ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ]] [[Kapuloan Andaman lan Nicobar|ꦄꦤ꧀ꦝꦩꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦤꦶꦏꦺꦴꦧꦂ]]. ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦥꦔꦢꦼꦒ꧀ [[ASEAN|ꦄꦱꦺꦪꦤ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦱꦏ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦲꦸꦠꦩ [[G-20]]. ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Pratélaning nagara miturut PDB (nominal)|ꦥꦼꦫꦶꦁꦏꦠ꧀ 16]] PDB ꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶꦤꦭ꧀ ꦢꦸꦚ ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Pratélaning nagara miturut PDB (PPP)|ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ ꦲꦁꦭ 8]] PDB ꦲꦶꦁ [[Paritas daya tuku|PPP]]. ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦮꦶꦒꦠꦶ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦢꦒꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 7, ꦤꦭꦶꦏ [[Sriwijaya|ꦱꦿꦶꦮꦶꦗꦪ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂ ꦩꦼꦂꦏꦺꦴ [[Majapahit|ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀]] ꦢꦒꦁ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ [[Tiongkok|ꦕꦶꦤ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[India|ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ]]. ꦥꦔꦸꦮꦱ ꦭꦺꦴꦏꦭ꧀ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦩꦺꦴꦣꦺꦭ꧀ ꦧꦸꦢꦪ, ꦲꦒꦩ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦩꦚ꧀ꦕ ꦱꦏ ꦲꦮꦭ꧀ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ [[Masèhi|ꦩꦱꦺꦲꦶ]], ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀ [[Hindhu|ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Buda|ꦧꦸꦢ꧀ꦢ]] ꦔꦽꦩ꧀ꦧꦏ. [[Sajarah Indonésia|ꦱꦗꦫꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ]] ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦢꦆꦥꦿꦧꦮꦲꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱ꧀ ꦩꦚ꧀ꦕ ꦏꦼꦥꦶꦚ꧀ꦕꦸꦠ꧀ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦱꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ ꦢꦪ ꦲꦭꦩ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. ꦥꦼꦢꦒꦁ [[Muslim|ꦩꦸꦱ꧀ꦭꦶꦩ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦈꦭꦩ [[Sufi|ꦱꦸꦥ꦳ꦶ]] ꦔ꧀ꦒꦮ [[Islam ing Asia Kidul-Wétan|ꦆꦱ꧀ꦭꦩ꧀]] ꦏꦁ ꦱꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦢꦺꦴꦩꦶꦤꦤ꧀,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ma38W_8unrUC|title=Islam in Indonésia: Contrasting Images and Interpretations|first1=Jajat|last1=Burhanudin|first2=Kees van|last2=Dijk|date=31 Januari 2013|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nr3DuQKDfRYC|title=Indonésia: A Global Studies Handbook|first=Florence|last=Lamoureux|date=1 Januari 2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|via=Google Books}}</ref> ꦱꦮꦠꦫ ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤ꧀ ꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦮ [[Kristen|ꦏꦿꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦼꦤ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦱꦶꦗꦶ ꦭꦶꦪꦤꦺ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦥꦺꦴꦭꦶ ꦢꦒꦁ ꦲꦶꦁ [[Kapuloan Maluku|ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦩꦭꦸꦏꦸ]] ꦲꦶꦁ [[Jaman Penjelajahan|ꦗꦩꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦚ꧀ꦗꦗꦃꦲꦤ꧀]]. ꦱꦮꦶꦱꦺ ꦠꦼꦭꦸꦁ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦼꦠꦼꦔꦃ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ [[Indhiya Nèderlan|ꦏꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦤꦶꦪꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦩꦼ ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ]] ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ [[Pulo Ambon|ꦄꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Batavia, Indhiya Nèderlan|ꦧꦠꦥ꦳ꦶꦪ]], ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦸꦁꦏꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀ ꦏꦧꦺꦃ [[Kapuloan Indonésia|ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀]] ꦏꦊꦧꦸ [[Timor|ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Papua Kulon|ꦥꦥꦸꦮ ꦭꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]], ꦲꦶꦂ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ ꦢꦶꦱꦼꦭꦤꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤ꧀ [[Portugis|ꦥꦺꦴꦂꦠꦸꦒꦶꦱ꧀]], [[Prancis|ꦥꦿꦚ꧀ꦕꦶꦱ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Inggris|ꦆꦁꦒꦿꦶꦱ꧀]], ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ [[Révolusi Nasional Indonésia|ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ]] ꦱꦮꦶꦱꦺ [[Perang Donya II|ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ II]]. ꦱꦗꦫꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦠꦼꦤꦁ, ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦠꦤ꧀ꦠꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦧꦼꦚ꧀ꦕꦤ ꦲꦭꦩ꧀, [[Pembantaian ing Indonésia 1965-66|ꦫꦗ ꦥꦠꦶ ꦩꦱ꧀ꦱ]], [[Korupsi ing Indonésia|ꦏꦺꦴꦫꦸꦥ꧀ꦱꦶ]], [[Pratélaning gerakan separatis aktif ing Asia#Indonésia|ꦱꦼꦥꦫꦠꦶꦱ꧀ꦩꦼ]], [[Éra Pasca-Soeharto|ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦱꦺꦱ꧀ ꦢꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦠ꧀ꦠꦶꦱꦱꦶ]], ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦺꦫꦶꦪꦺꦴꦢꦼ ꦱꦏ ꦲꦺꦴꦮꦃ-ꦲꦺꦴꦮꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦫꦶꦏꦠ꧀. ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦸꦩꦢꦶ ꦱꦏ ꦲꦠꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ [[Golongan ètnis ing Indonésia|ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦌꦠ꧀ꦤꦶꦱ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Basa-basa ing Indonésia|ꦭꦶꦔꦸꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦏ꧀]] ꦲꦱ꧀ꦭꦶ. ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦌꦠ꧀ꦤꦶꦱ꧀ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ – ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦢꦺꦴꦩꦶꦤꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ – ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Wong Jawa|ꦗꦮ]]. [[Idèntitas nasional|ꦆꦢꦼꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀]] ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦢꦶꦏꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦁꦔꦏꦺ, ꦢꦶꦏꦸꦏꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ [[basa nasional|ꦧꦱ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀]], ꦏꦫꦒꦩ꧀ꦩꦤ꧀ ꦌꦠ꧀ꦤꦶꦏ꧀, ꦥ꧀ꦭꦸꦫꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦩꦼ ꦲꦒꦩ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶ ꦩꦪꦺꦴꦫꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦩꦸꦱ꧀ꦭꦶꦩ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦗꦫꦃ ꦏꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦤꦶꦪꦭ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦿꦩꦤ꧀ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ. ꦱꦼꦱꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ, ''"ꦨꦶꦤ꧀ꦤꦺꦏ ꦠꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀ ꦆꦏ"'' ("ꦱꦺꦗꦺ-ꦱꦺꦗꦺ ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦲꦗꦼꦒ꧀ ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀"), ꦤꦸꦢꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ ꦏꦫꦒꦩ꧀ꦩꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ. ꦱꦤꦗꦤ꧀ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦥꦣꦼꦠ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦤꦸꦁꦔꦶ, ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦗꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦂ ꦲꦫ-ꦲꦫ ꦱꦩꦸꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦫꦸꦁ [[karagaman hayati|ꦏꦫꦒꦩ꧀ꦩꦤ꧀ ꦲꦪꦠ꧀ꦠꦶ]] ꦠꦶꦁꦏꦠ꧀ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦣꦸꦮꦸꦂ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ ꦥꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ. ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦱꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ ꦢꦪ ꦲꦭꦩ꧀ ꦏꦭꦸꦧꦺꦂꦫꦤ꧀ ꦏꦪ [[lenga|ꦊꦔ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[gas bumi|ꦒꦱ꧀ ꦧꦸꦩꦶ]], [[timah|ꦠꦶꦩꦃ]], [[tembaga|ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[emas|ꦲꦼꦩꦱ꧀]]. ꦥꦼꦂꦠꦤꦶꦪꦤ꧀ ꦩ꧀ꦭꦶꦒꦶ ꦩꦿꦺꦴꦣꦸꦏ꧀ꦱꦶ [[beras|ꦧꦼꦫꦱ꧀]], [[tèh|ꦠꦺꦃ]], [[kopi|ꦏꦺꦴꦥꦶ]], [[bumbon crakèn|ꦧꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦕꦿꦏꦺꦤ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[karèt|ꦏꦫꦺꦠ꧀]]. ꦥꦂꦠ꧀ꦤꦼꦂ ꦢꦒꦁ ꦲꦸꦠꦩ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Jepang|ꦗꦼꦥꦁ]], [[Amérika Sarékat|ꦄꦩꦺꦫꦶꦏ ꦱꦫꦺꦏꦠ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦠꦁꦒ [[Singapura|ꦱꦶꦔꦥꦸꦫ]], [[Malaysia|ꦩꦭꦪ꧀ꦱꦾ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Australia|ꦄꦈꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦭꦶꦪ]]. ==ꦌꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦒꦶ== {|Jeneng Indonésia}} ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ''ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ'' ꦲꦱꦭ꧀ꦭꦺ ꦱꦏ ꦥꦼꦂꦠꦭꦤ꧀ ꦪꦸꦤꦤꦶ ꦱꦏ ''[[Kali Sindu|ꦏꦭꦶ ꦱꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ]]'' ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦁ ''ꦤꦺꦱꦺꦴꦱ꧀'', ꦠꦺꦒꦺꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ "ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ".<ref name = "EcoSeas1">{{cite book | last = TomascikA|author4=Moosa, MK |title = The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas&nbsp;– Part One | publisher = Periplus Editions | year = 1996 | location = Hong Kong | isbn = 962-593-078-7}}</ref> ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ꦏꦸꦮꦶ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 18, ꦲꦢꦺꦴꦃ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦢꦸꦫꦸꦁꦔꦺ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ.<ref name = "indoety">{{cite news | last=Anshory |first=Irfan |title=Asal-usul Nama Indonésia |publisher=Pikiran Rakyat |date= 16 Agustus 2004 | url = http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |access-date=5 Oktober 2006|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |archive-date = 15 Dhésèmber 2006|url-status=dead|language=id}}</ref> ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 1850, [[George Windsor Earl]], ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ [[étnologi|ꦌꦠ꧀ꦤꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦒꦶ]] ꦆꦁꦒꦿꦶꦱ꧀, ꦔꦗꦺꦴꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦲꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦭꦃ ''Indunesians / ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦸꦤꦺꦱꦾꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀''—ꦭꦤ꧀, ꦥꦶꦭꦶꦃꦲꦤꦺ, ''Malayunesians / ꦩꦼꦭꦪꦸꦤꦺꦱꦾꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀''—ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦏꦁ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦤꦸꦁꦔꦶ "ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦲꦸꦠꦮ ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦤꦸꦱꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ".<ref name="JIAEA_1">{{cite journal |last=Earl |first= George SW |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal= Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |page = 119}}</ref> ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ꦏꦱꦶ ꦏꦁ ꦥꦣ, ꦩꦸꦫꦶꦢ꧀ꦢꦺ Earl, [[James Richardson Logan]], ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ''Indonésia / ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ'' ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦱꦶꦤꦺꦴꦤꦶꦩ꧀ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ''ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ''.<ref name="JIAEA_3">{{cite journal |last=Logan |first= James Richardson | title = The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders | journal = Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=4:252–347}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George SW |title= On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal= Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages= 254, 277–8}}</ref> ꦤꦔꦶꦁ, ꦄꦏꦣꦼꦩꦶꦱꦶ ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦤꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ꦏꦱꦶ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀ ꦥꦣ ꦮꦼꦒꦃ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ''ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ''. ꦤꦔꦶꦁ, ꦥꦣ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦲꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦭꦃ ''ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦩꦭꦪꦸ'' (''Maleische Archipel''); ''ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦤꦺꦣꦼꦂꦭꦤ꧀'' (''Nederlandsch Oost Indië''), ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦝꦁ ''Indië''; ''ꦮꦠꦤ꧀'' (''de Oost''); ꦭꦤ꧀ ''Insulinde''.<ref name = "Kroef">{{cite journal |title = The Term Indonésia: Its Origin and Usage |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_july-september-1951_71_3/page/166 |journal= Journal of the American Oriental Society |author = Justus M van der Kroef | volume = 71 | issue = 3 | pages = 166–71 | year = 1951 | doi =10.2307/595186 |jstor=595186}}</ref> ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ 1900, ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ''ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ'' ꦢꦢꦶ ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦲꦸꦩꦸꦩ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦭꦶꦁꦏꦸꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦄꦏꦣꦼꦩꦶꦏ꧀ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦧ ꦤꦺꦣꦼꦂꦭꦤ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦩꦶꦲꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦏꦸꦮꦶ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦌꦏ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀.<ref name = "Kroef" /> [[Adolf Bastian]], ꦱꦏ ꦈꦤꦶꦥ꦳ꦼꦂꦱꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦧꦺꦂꦭꦶꦤ꧀, ꦩꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦺꦂꦏꦺ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ꦏꦸꦮꦶ ꦭꦶꦮꦠ꧀ ꦧꦸꦏꦸꦤꦺ ''Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894''. ꦥꦼꦭꦗꦂ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁ ꦥꦶꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦤ꧀ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|ꦱꦸꦮꦂꦢꦶ ꦱꦸꦂꦪꦢꦶꦤꦶꦁꦫꦠ꧀]] (ꦏꦶ ꦲꦗꦂ ꦢꦺꦮꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ), ꦤꦭꦶꦤ ꦔꦼꦢꦼꦒ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦂ ꦧꦼꦫꦶꦠ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦤꦺꦣꦼꦂꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁꦔꦺ ''Indonesisch Pers-bureau'' ꦲꦶꦁ 1913.<ref name="indoety"/> [[Kategori:ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦗꦮ]] == ꦱꦗꦫꦃ == ''ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦠꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ, ꦥꦶꦂꦱꦤꦶ [[Sajarah Indonésia|ꦱꦗꦫꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ]]'' ꦲꦶꦁ ꦱꦩꦢꦾꦤꦶꦁ ꦥꦿꦧꦮ ꦲꦒꦩ [[Hindhu|ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Buda|ꦧꦸꦢ꧀ꦢ]], ꦱꦮꦠꦫ [[karaton|ꦏꦫꦠꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] ꦔꦢꦼꦒ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Jawa|ꦗꦮ]] ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ [[abad kaping 7|ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 7]] ꦔꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ [[abad kaping 14|ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 14]]. ꦠꦼꦏꦤꦶꦁ ꦥꦼꦢꦒꦁ-ꦥꦼꦢꦒꦁ ꦄꦫꦧ꧀ ꦱꦏ ꦒꦸꦗꦫꦠ꧀, [[India|ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ]] ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ ꦤꦼꦥꦸꦁꦔꦏꦺ ꦲꦒꦩ [[Islam|ꦆꦱ꧀ꦭꦩ꧀]] ꦏꦁ ꦥꦸꦁꦏꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ ꦢꦢꦶ ꦲꦒꦩ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ, ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦠꦺꦪꦺꦴꦫꦶ ꦒꦸꦗꦫꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦠꦏ꧀ꦱꦶꦃ ꦒꦺꦴꦗꦒ꧀-ꦒꦗꦼꦒ꧀ (ꦢꦶꦫꦒꦸꦏꦺ). ꦮꦺꦴꦁ-ꦮꦺꦴꦁ ꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥ ꦠꦼꦏ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦮꦶꦠꦤꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 16 ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦤꦼꦩꦸ ꦤꦒꦫ-ꦤꦒꦫ ꦕꦶꦭꦶꦏ꧀. ꦤꦒꦫ-ꦤꦒꦫ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦒꦩ꧀ꦥꦁ ꦢꦶꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤꦶ ꦱꦸꦥꦪ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ ꦲꦸꦒ ꦧꦶꦱ ꦔꦸꦮꦱꦤꦶ ꦢꦺꦴꦭ꧀-ꦠꦶꦤꦸꦏꦸ ꦧꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦕꦿꦏꦺꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦏꦸꦤꦸ. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 17, ꦤꦒꦫ [[Walanda|ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ]] ꦏꦁ ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦏꦸꦮꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥ, ꦤꦼꦭꦸꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦤꦒꦫ [[Inggris|ꦆꦁꦒꦿꦶꦱ꧀]] (ꦧꦿꦶꦠꦶꦱ꧀) ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Portugal|ꦥꦺꦴꦂꦠꦸꦒꦶꦱ꧀]] (ꦏꦗꦧ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦗꦗꦃꦲꦤ꧀ [[Portugal|ꦥꦺꦴꦂꦠꦸꦒꦶꦱ꧀]] ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀). ꦧꦁꦱ [[Walanda|ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ]] ꦚ꧀ꦗꦗꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦔꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦩꦁꦱꦤꦺ [[Perang Donya II|ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ ꦏꦥꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴ]]. ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ [[Walanda|ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ]] ꦔꦢꦼꦒ꧀ꦒꦏꦺ [[VOC|ꦱꦾꦫꦶꦏꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ]], ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦲꦂꦩꦢ ꦤꦶꦪꦒ ꦧꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦕꦿꦏꦺꦤ꧀ ꦢꦸꦮꦺꦏꦺ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃ [[karajan|ꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀]] ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 19 ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦏꦼꦏꦸꦮꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦥꦿꦗꦸꦫꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦧ꧀ꦭꦏ꧀-ꦧ꧀ꦭꦏ꧀ꦏꦤ꧀ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦗꦃ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. ꦱꦩꦁꦱ [[Perang Donya II|ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ II]], [[Walanda|ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ]] (ꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ) ꦢꦶꦗꦗꦃ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ [[Jerman|ꦗꦺꦂꦩꦤ꧀]], ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Jepang|ꦗꦼꦥꦸꦤ꧀]] ꦔꦸꦮꦱꦤꦶ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦥꦶꦭꦸꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ [[1942]], ꦥꦶꦲꦏ꧀ ꦗꦼꦥꦸꦤ꧀ ꦱꦼꦱꦺꦴꦫ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ ꦥꦫ ꦥꦼꦗꦸꦮꦁ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦏꦚ꧀ꦕ ꦢꦼꦢꦒꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦏꦺꦴꦎꦥꦼꦫꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦼꦢꦾ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦼꦭꦂ ꦥꦿꦗꦸꦫꦶꦠ꧀ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ ꦢꦶꦧꦸꦠꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ. [[Soekarno|ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ]], [[Mohammad Hatta|ꦲꦠ꧀ꦠ]], [[K. H. Mas Mansur|K. H. ꦩꦱ꧀ ꦩꦤ꧀ꦱꦸꦂ]], ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|ꦏꦶ ꦲꦗꦂ ꦢꦺꦮꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ]] ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂ ꦲꦺꦴꦭꦺꦃ ꦏꦤꦸꦒꦿꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦱꦏ ꦩꦲꦫꦗ ꦗꦼꦥꦸꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ [[1943]]. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦩꦉꦠ꧀ 1945, ꦥꦶꦲꦏ꧀ ꦗꦼꦥꦁ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦮꦺ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦏꦸꦩꦶꦠꦼ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏꦏꦺ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦧꦺꦱꦾ, ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦸꦧꦂꦫꦺ [[Perang Pasifik|ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦥꦱꦶꦥ꦳ꦶꦏ꧀]] ꦫꦩ꧀ꦥꦸꦁ ꦲꦺꦴꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ. ꦏꦲꦤꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦏꦱꦸꦫꦸꦁ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦎꦂꦒꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦱꦱꦶ ꦥꦫ ꦩꦸꦣ, ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦥꦶꦩ꧀ꦥꦶꦤ꧀ꦤꦤ꧀ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦚꦺꦴꦧ ꦱꦸꦥꦪ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦧꦶꦱ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦩꦢꦾ ꦭꦶꦪ, ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦔꦶꦫꦶꦩ꧀ꦩꦏꦺ ꦥꦿꦗꦸꦫꦶꦠ꧀ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦔꦽꦧꦸꦠ꧀ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. ꦱꦩꦸꦧꦫꦁ ꦥꦿꦠꦶꦁꦏꦃ ꦏꦼꦧꦏ꧀ ꦒꦼꦠꦶꦃ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦤꦁꦒꦸꦭꦁꦔꦶ ꦥꦫ ꦥꦼꦗꦸꦮꦁ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ ꦩꦲꦸ ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦝꦁ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦱꦼꦧꦸꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ 'ꦠꦸꦩꦶꦤ꧀ꦢꦏ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦱꦶ' (''Actie Politioneel''). ꦥꦸꦁꦏꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ, ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦒꦼꦊꦩ꧀ ꦤꦩ꧀ꦥ ꦲꦏ꧀ ꦧꦁꦱ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦁ [[27 Dhésèmber|27 ꦣꦺꦱꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ]] [[1949]] ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦏꦱꦸꦫꦸꦁ-ꦱꦸꦫꦸꦁ ꦧꦁꦱ-ꦧꦁꦱ ꦭꦶꦪ, ꦩ꧀ꦭꦶꦒꦶ [[Amérika Sarékat|ꦄꦩꦺꦫꦶꦏ ꦱꦫꦺꦏꦠ꧀]]. ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦢꦢꦶ [[présidhèn|ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀]] ꦥꦶꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦩꦸꦲꦩ꧀ꦩꦢ꧀ ꦲꦠ꧀ꦠ ꦢꦢꦶ ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦮꦂꦱ [[1950-an|1950-ꦲꦤ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[1960-an|1960-ꦲꦤ꧀]], ꦥꦩꦫꦶꦤ꧀ꦠꦃ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦩꦔꦪꦸꦧꦒꦾ ꦧ꧀ꦭꦺꦴꦏ꧀ ꦱꦺꦴꦱꦶꦪꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦱ꧀, ꦏꦪꦠ [[Républik Rakyat Cina|ꦕꦶꦤ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Yugoslavia|ꦪꦸꦒꦺꦴꦱ꧀ꦭꦮꦶꦪ]]. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ [[1960-an|1960-ꦲꦤ꧀]] ꦲꦸꦒ ꦏꦼꦢꦢꦺꦤ꧀ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦥ꦳ꦿꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦱꦶ ꦲꦢꦸ ꦠꦶꦪꦱ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦠꦁꦒ, [[Malaysia|ꦩꦭꦪ꧀ꦱꦾ]], ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦔꦽꦱꦸꦭꦤꦺ ꦥꦫ ꦏꦮꦸꦭ ꦲꦩꦂꦒ ꦲꦸꦫꦶꦥ꧀ ꦏꦼꦕꦶꦁꦏꦿꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦢꦿ. ꦗꦺꦤ꧀ꦢꦿꦭ꧀ [[Soeharto|ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ]] ꦢꦢꦶ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ [[1967]] ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦲꦊꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦔꦩꦤ꧀ꦤꦏꦺ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦱꦏ ꦲꦚ꧀ꦕꦼꦩ꧀ꦩꦤ꧀ [[kuminisme|ꦏꦺꦴꦩꦸꦤꦶꦱ꧀]] ꦠꦸꦩꦿꦥ꧀ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦏꦁ ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦤ꧀ꦱꦪ ꦠꦤ꧀ꦥ ꦢꦪ. ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦚꦼꦏꦼꦭ꧀ ꦏꦸꦮꦱ, [[PKI]] ꦢꦶꦧꦸꦧꦂꦫꦏꦺ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦮꦂꦒ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦏꦶꦫ ꦕꦮꦺ-ꦕꦮꦺ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦩꦺꦭꦸ ꦏꦺꦴꦩꦸꦤꦶꦱ꧀ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦏꦁ ꦩꦠꦶ. ꦲꦶꦁ 32 ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦩꦲꦸ [[Orde Baru|ꦎꦂꦢꦼ ꦧꦫꦸ]], ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦢꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦗꦩꦤ꧀ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦏꦁ ꦩꦲꦸ ''ꦎꦂꦢꦼ ꦭꦩ''. ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦏꦱꦶꦭ꧀ ꦚꦼꦣꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ-ꦤꦒꦫ ꦩꦚ꧀ꦕ-ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦱꦶꦭ꧀ ꦤꦸꦮꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦏꦁ ꦩꦚ꧀ꦗꦶꦭ, ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦏꦺꦠꦁ ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦮꦫꦠ. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦎꦢꦼ ꦧꦫꦸ, ꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦠꦺꦒꦶ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦢꦶꦒꦮꦺ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦱꦥꦺꦫꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦲꦃꦭꦶ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦭꦸꦭꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦥ꦳ꦏꦸꦭ꧀ꦠꦱ꧀ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ''University of California at Berkeley'', ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦮꦺꦤꦺꦃꦲꦶ ꦒꦼꦭꦂ "ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ Berkeley". ꦤꦔꦶꦁ, ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦏꦚ꧀ꦕꦤꦺ ꦧꦶꦱ ꦢꦶꦭꦺꦁꦱꦺꦂꦫꦏꦺ ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦲꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦏ꧀ ꦫꦱ ꦏꦁ ꦱꦸꦩꦿꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦱꦣꦺꦔꦃ ꦥꦥꦤ꧀. ꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ, ꦤꦒꦫ ꦭꦒꦶ ꦏꦼꦧ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ꦝꦁ ꦲꦸꦠꦁ ꦲꦩꦂꦒ ꦏꦿꦶꦱꦶꦱ꧀. ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦩꦸꦣꦸꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ [[1998]]. ꦱꦏ 1998 ꦔꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ [[2001]], ꦲꦤ ꦠꦼꦭꦸꦁ (3) ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦩꦸꦁ ꦱꦼꦣꦺꦭ ꦮꦲꦺ ꦔꦿꦱꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦏꦸꦮꦱ, ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ: [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie|ꦧꦲꦂꦫꦸꦢ꧀ꦢꦶꦤ꧀ ꦪꦸꦱꦸꦥ꦳꧀ (ꦧ꧈ꦗ꧈) ꦲꦧꦶꦧ꧀ꦧꦶ]], [[Abdurrahman Wahid|ꦄꦧ꧀ꦢꦸꦂꦫꦃꦩꦤ꧀ ꦮꦲꦶꦢ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Megawati Soekarnoputri|ꦩꦺꦒꦮꦠꦶ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤꦥꦸꦠꦿꦶ]]. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ [[2004]] ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦚꦂ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono|ꦱꦸꦱꦶꦭ ꦧꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ ꦪꦸꦣꦪꦤ]]. ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦱꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦏꦫ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ, ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦱꦏ ꦣꦸꦮꦶꦠ꧀, ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀, ꦲꦒꦩ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦫꦱ ꦒꦸꦪꦸꦧ꧀. ꦄꦕꦺꦃ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦥꦸꦮ ꦚꦺꦴꦧ ꦩꦼꦠꦸ ꦱꦏ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦏꦼꦱꦠꦸꦮꦤ꧀ ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. [[Timor Wétan|ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] ꦩꦭꦃ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦔꦸꦩꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦏꦺ [[kamardikan|ꦏꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ]] ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 2002 ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ 24 ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦢꦶꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤꦶ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦭꦤ꧀ 3 ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦁꦒꦸꦭꦮꦼꦤ꧀ꦛꦲꦺ [[PBB|ꦥ꧈ꦧ꧈ꦧ꧈]]. ꦩꦱꦭꦃ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦚꦂ ꦏꦁ ꦏꦠꦶꦩ꧀ꦥ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦲꦤꦤꦺ ꦱꦩꦸꦧꦫꦁ ꦏꦫꦸꦱꦏ꧀ꦏꦤ꧀ ꦗꦭꦫꦤ꧀ ꦲꦭꦩ꧀. ꦲꦶꦁ [[26 Dhésèmber|26 ꦣꦺꦱꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ]] [[2004]], [[tsunami|ꦱꦸꦤꦩꦶ]] ꦤꦼꦂꦗꦁ ꦥꦸꦭꦸꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦲꦺꦮꦸ ꦮꦂꦒ ꦲꦶꦁ [[NAD|ꦄꦕꦺꦃ]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Pulo Nias|ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ ꦤꦶꦪꦱ꧀]], [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]]. == ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ == ''ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦠꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦥꦼꦥꦏ꧀, ꦥꦶꦂꦱꦤꦶ [[Pulitik Indonésia|ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ]]'' [[Gambar:Ruang MPR.jpg|thumb|ꦥꦼꦭꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦏꦤ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat|ꦩꦗꦼꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦩꦸꦱꦾꦮꦫꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀]] ꦲꦶꦁ [[Gedung DPR/MPR|ꦏꦺꦴꦩ꧀ꦥ꧀ꦭꦺꦏ꧀ꦱ꧀ ꦥꦂꦊꦩꦺꦤ꧀]] Jakarta, 2014.]] ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦏ ꦠꦼꦭꦸꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ ([[India|ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ]], ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ, [[Israèl|ꦆꦱꦿꦌꦭ꧀]]) ꦏꦁ ꦔꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦱꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ ꦣꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦱꦶ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦥꦱ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦧꦼꦤꦼꦂ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ, ꦮꦸꦗꦸꦢ꧀ ꦤꦒꦫ [[républik|ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦗ꧀]] [[présidhèn|ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦪꦭ꧀]] ꦩꦸꦭ꧀ꦠꦶꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦏꦁ ꦣꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦠꦶꦱ꧀. ꦏꦪꦢꦺꦤꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ-ꦤꦒꦫ ꦣꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦱꦶ ꦭꦶꦪꦤꦺ, ꦱꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦣꦱꦂꦫꦏꦺ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦠꦿꦶꦪꦱ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦏ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦥꦩꦶꦱꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤ꧀ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀, ꦌꦏ꧀ꦱꦼꦏꦸꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦪꦸꦣꦶꦏꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀. ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱ꧀ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦢꦶꦕꦼꦏꦼꦭ꧀ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦏꦁ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁꦔꦺ ꦩꦗꦼꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦩꦸꦱꦾꦮꦫꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ (ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈) ꦏꦁ ꦢꦸꦩꦢꦶ ꦱꦏ ꦫꦺꦴꦁ ꦧꦢꦤ꧀ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ-ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠꦤꦺ ꦮꦸꦗꦸꦢ꧀ ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀-ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ꧈ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ-ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠꦤꦺ ꦩꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦶ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ. ꦱꦧꦼꦤ꧀ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ ꦢꦶꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ 4 ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦥꦶꦭꦶꦃ ꦭꦁꦱꦸꦁ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ-ꦣꦺꦮꦺ. ꦩꦗꦼꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦩꦸꦱꦾꦮꦫꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ ([[MPR|ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈]]) ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦣꦸꦮꦸꦂ ꦤꦒꦫ. ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦄꦩꦤ꧀ꦝꦼꦩꦺꦤ꧀ ꦲꦁꦏ 4, ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦢꦸꦢꦸ ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦣꦸꦮꦸꦂ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ. ꦏꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠꦲꦤ꧀ ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦲꦺꦴꦮꦃ ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦄꦩꦤ꧀ꦝꦼꦩꦺꦤ꧀ ꦈ꧈ꦈ꧈ꦣ꧈ 1945 ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦺꦫꦶꦪꦺꦴꦣꦼ [[1999]]-[[2004]]. ꦏꦧꦺꦃ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈, ꦢꦶꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ [[DPD|ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ]] (ꦣꦺꦮꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀).<ref>{{cite book |title=Amandemen Ketiga Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 |url=http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_eng.pdf |format=PDF |author=Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat |authorlink=Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat |accessdate=2006-12-13 |archive-date=2006-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201025250/http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_eng.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦣ꧈ꦭ꧈ꦣ꧈ ꦢꦶꦥꦶꦭꦶꦃ ꦭꦶꦮꦠ꧀ ꦥꦼꦩꦶꦭꦸ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦢꦶꦭꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦩꦁꦱ ꦏꦭꦸꦁꦒꦸꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦭꦶꦩꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀. ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ [[2004]], ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦥꦂꦊꦩꦺꦤ꧀ ꦱꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ ꦫꦺꦴꦁ ꦏꦩꦂ (bikameral|ꦧꦶꦏꦩꦺꦫꦭ꧀), ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦏꦕꦶꦥ꧀ꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ꧈ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦏꦩꦂ ꦏꦭꦺꦴꦫꦺꦴ. ꦱꦏ꧀ꦢꦸꦫꦸꦁꦔꦺ, ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦏꦧꦺꦃ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦢꦶꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦲꦸꦠꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀. ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦢꦶꦥꦔꦗꦼꦁꦔꦶ [[Hidayat Nur Wahid|ꦲꦶꦢꦪꦠ꧀ ꦤꦸꦂ ꦮꦲꦶꦢ꧀]]. ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦲꦤ 550 ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦭ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦭꦤ꧀ 128 ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ꧈. ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦢꦶꦥꦔꦗꦼꦁꦔꦶ [[Agung Laksono|ꦄꦒꦸꦁ ꦭꦏ꧀ꦱꦤ]], ꦢꦺꦤꦺ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ꧈ ꦢꦶꦥꦔꦗꦼꦁꦔꦶ [[Ginandjar Kartasasmita|ꦒꦶꦤꦚ꧀ꦗꦂ ꦏꦂꦠꦱꦱ꧀ꦩꦶꦠ]]. ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦌꦏ꧀ꦱꦼꦏꦸꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦥꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦼꦂꦫꦺ ꦢꦸꦩꦸꦤꦸꦁ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀, ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀. ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦮꦸꦗꦸꦢ꧀ ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦲꦶꦭ꧀ ꦱꦲꦺꦁꦒ ꦥꦫ ꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦿꦶ ꦠꦁꦒꦸꦁ ꦗꦮꦧ꧀ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦩꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦶ ꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦂꦊꦩꦺꦤ꧀. ꦱꦤꦗꦤ꧀ ꦩꦁꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴ, ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono|ꦱꦸꦱꦶꦭ ꦧꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ ꦪꦸꦣꦪꦤ]] ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦲꦸꦱꦸꦁ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦣꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦠ꧀ ꦲꦸꦒ ꦤꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦏ꧀ ꦱꦮꦠꦫ ꦥꦩꦶꦩ꧀ꦥꦶꦤ꧀ ꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦱꦸꦥꦪ ꦭꦸꦁꦒꦸꦃ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ. ꦠꦸꦗꦸꦮꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦒ ꦱ꧀ꦠꦧꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦔꦺꦭꦶꦁꦔꦶ ꦏꦸꦮꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ ꦥꦺꦴꦱꦶꦱꦶ ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀. ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦥꦺꦴꦱ꧀-ꦥꦺꦴꦱ꧀ ꦮꦶꦒꦠꦶ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦠꦿꦠꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ ꦭꦸꦩꦿꦃꦲꦺ ꦢꦶꦲꦶꦱꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦿꦶ ꦲꦱꦭ꧀ ꦱꦏ ꦮꦺꦴꦁ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦲꦁꦒꦼꦥ꧀ ꦲꦃꦭꦶ ꦱꦗꦼꦫꦺꦴꦤꦶꦁ ꦧꦶꦣꦁꦔꦺ. ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦪꦸꦣꦶꦏꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦩꦁꦱ ꦫꦺꦥ꦳ꦺꦴꦂꦩꦱꦶ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦤꦤꦺ ꦄꦩꦤ꧀ꦣꦼꦩꦺꦤ꧀ [[UUD 1945|ꦈ꧈ꦈ꧈ꦣ꧈ 1945]] ꦢꦶꦲꦪꦃꦲꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ [[Mahkamah Agung Républik Indonésia|ꦩꦃꦏꦩꦃ ꦄꦒꦸꦁ]], [[Komisi Yudisial|ꦏꦺꦴꦩꦶꦱꦶ ꦪꦸꦣꦶꦱꦶꦪꦭ꧀]], ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Mahkamah Konstitusi|ꦩꦃꦏꦩꦃ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦠꦸꦱꦶ]], ꦏꦊꦧꦸ ꦥꦔꦠꦸꦂꦫꦤ꧀ ꦄꦢ꧀ꦩꦶꦤꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦱꦶ ꦥꦫ ꦲꦭꦶꦩ꧀. ꦱꦤꦗꦤ꧀ ꦩꦁꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴ [[Mantri Hukum lan Hak Asasi Manungsa Républik Indonésia|ꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦿꦶ ꦲꦸꦏꦸꦩ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦏ꧀ ꦄꦱꦱꦶ ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦱ]] ꦠꦼꦠꦼꦭ꧀ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀. == ꦮꦼꦮꦼꦁꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ == ''ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦠꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦥꦼꦥꦏ꧀, ꦥꦶꦂꦱꦤꦶ [[Pratélan Provinsi Indonésia|ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀-ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ]]'' {{ꦥꦼꦠ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦾ}} ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦗꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦂ ꦲꦶꦁ [[Asia Kidul-Wétan|ꦄꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀-ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] ꦏꦁ ꦏꦼꦠꦠ ꦱꦗꦼꦫꦺꦴꦤꦶꦁ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ-ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ, ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦢꦸꦩꦢꦶ ꦱꦏ 34 [[provinsi|ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ]], ꦭꦶꦩ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦲꦤ꧀ꦠꦫꦤꦺ ꦮꦸꦗꦸꦢ꧀ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦮ. ꦱꦧꦼꦤ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦧꦢꦤ꧀ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦸꦂ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦒꦸꦧꦼꦂꦤꦸꦂ. ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ ꦢꦶꦥꦺꦫꦁ ꦢꦢꦶ [[kabupatèn|ꦏꦧꦸꦥꦠꦺꦤ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[kutha|ꦏꦸꦛ]], ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦥꦺꦫꦁ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ ꦢꦢꦶ [[kacamatan|ꦏꦕꦩꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ ꦢꦢꦶ [[kalurahan|ꦏꦭꦸꦫꦃꦲꦤ꧀]] ꦭꦤ꧀ [[désa|ꦢꦺꦱ]]. ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ [[Acèh|ꦄꦕꦺꦃ]], [[Langsa|ꦭꦁꦱ]], [[DKI Jakarta|ꦗꦏꦂꦠ]], [[Yogyakarta|D.I. ꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ]], [[Papua|ꦥꦥꦸꦮ]], ꦭꦤ꧀ [[Papua Kulon|ꦥꦥꦸꦮ ꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦲꦏ꧀ ꦲꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦮ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦸꦂ ꦏꦁ ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦠꦶꦁꦏꦠ꧀ ꦎꦠꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩ꧀ꦩꦶ ꦏꦁ ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦣꦸꦮꦸꦂ ꦱꦏ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦥꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦼꦂ ꦠꦶꦤꦶꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ ꦭꦶꦪꦤꦺ. ꦕꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦤꦺ, ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦲꦃꦤ꧀ ꦤꦁꦒꦿꦺꦴ ꦄꦕꦺꦃ ꦢꦫꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦭꦩ꧀ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦲꦏ꧀ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦱꦶꦱꦠꦼꦩ꧀ ꦏꦸꦏꦸꦩ꧀ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ; ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 2003, ꦄꦕꦺꦃ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦔꦸꦏꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ ꦏꦸꦏꦸꦩ꧀ [[Syariah|ꦱꦾꦫꦶꦲꦃ]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michelle Ann Miller |title=The Acèh law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism? |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |year=2004 |pages=333–351 |doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789}}</ref> ꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ ꦲꦺꦴꦭꦺꦃ ꦱ꧀ꦠꦠꦸꦱ꧀ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ ꦏ꦳ꦸꦱꦸꦱ꧀ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦥꦼꦔꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦥꦼꦫꦤ꧀ ꦮꦶꦒꦠꦶ ꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ ꦱꦗꦼꦫꦺꦴꦤꦶꦁ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦫꦸꦁ ꦱꦗꦼꦫꦺꦴꦤꦶꦁ ꦫꦺꦥ꦳ꦺꦴꦭꦸꦱꦶ.<ref>[[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat|ꦣꦺꦮꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀]] (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; {{PDFlink|[http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/archive/Law5_1974.pdf Indonésia Law No. 5/1974 Concerning Basic Principles on Administration in the Region]|146&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 149884 bytes -->}} (''versi pertalan''). [[Présidhèn Indonésia|ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦾ]] (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91</ref> [[Provinsi Papua|ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ ꦥꦥꦸꦮ]], ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦱꦼꦩꦤ ꦩꦲꦸ ꦆꦫꦶꦪꦤ꧀ ꦗꦪ, ꦲꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦸꦏ꧀ ꦱ꧀ꦠꦠꦸꦱ꧀ ꦎꦠꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩ꧀ꦩꦶ ꦩꦶꦫꦸꦁꦒꦤ꧀ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 2001.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dursin |first1=Richel |last2=Yamin |first2=Kafil |title=Another Fine Mess in Papua |work=Editorial |pages= |language= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=18 Novèmber 2004 |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05}}; {{cite news |title=Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta|publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=18 Novèmber 2004 |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |access-date=5 Oktober 2006}}</ref> ꦗꦏꦂꦠ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ ꦩꦶꦫꦸꦁꦒꦤ꧀ ꦏꦸꦛ ꦏꦿꦗꦤ꧀ ꦤꦒꦫ. [[Timor Leste|ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦥꦺꦴꦂꦠꦸꦒꦶꦱ꧀]] ꦢꦶꦢꦢꦺꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ [[Timor Wétan|ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] ꦱꦱꦸꦮꦺꦤꦺ 1976–1999, ꦏꦁ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ ꦩꦶꦱꦃ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦫꦺꦥ꦳ꦺꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦝꦸꦩ꧀ ꦢꦢꦶ ꦤꦒꦫ [[Timor Leste|ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦭꦺꦱ꧀ꦠꦺ]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burr |first1=W. |last2=Evans |first2=M.L. |title=Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonésia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto |work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62 |publisher=[[National Security Archive]], [[The George Washington University]], Washington, DC |date=6 Dhésèmber 2001 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |access-date=17 Sèptèmber 2006}}</ref> ;ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦸꦛ ꦏꦿꦗꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ === ꦠꦧꦼꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 100%;" |+ Provinsi Indonésia<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.depdagri.go.id/pages/data-wilayah |title=Data Wilayah – Kementerian Dalam Negeri – Republik Indonesia<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2011-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222192208/http://www.depdagri.go.id/pages/data-wilayah |archive-date=2012-02-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Buku Induk—Kode dan Data Wilayah Administrasi Pemerintahan per Provinsi, Kabupaten/Kota dan Kecamatan Seluruh Indonesia |url=http://www.kemendagri.go.id/media/documents/2015/02/25/l/a/lampiran_i.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119071719/http://www.kemendagri.go.id/media/documents/2015/02/25/l/a/lampiran_i.pdf |publisher=Kementerian Dalam Negeri [Ministry of Home Affairs] |language=Indonesian |archive-date=2016-11-19}}</ref> |- ! [[Lambang nagara|ꦭꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ]] ! ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ ! ꦄꦏꦿꦺꦴꦤꦶꦩ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ! [[ISO 3166-2:ID|ISO]]<ref>[[ISO 3166-2:ID]] ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] [[ISO 3166-2|3166-2]] codes for the provinces of Indonesia)</ref> ! ꦏꦸꦛ ꦏꦿꦗꦤ꧀ ! ꦕꦕꦃ ꦗꦶꦮ (2015)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Badan Pusat Statistik/Statistics Indonesia |url=https://bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/Penduduk-Indonesia-hasil-SUPAS-2015_rev.pdf |title=Hasil Survei Penduduk Antas Sensus 2015/Result of the 2015 Intercensal Population Census |date=November 2015 |isbn=978-979-064-912-5 |language=Indonesian, English |access-date=10 Juni 2018}}</ref> ! ꦗꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦂ (km²) ! ꦏꦼꦥꦣꦼꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ <br />per km²<br />(2010) ! ꦈꦤꦶꦠ꧀ ꦒꦺꦪꦺꦴꦒꦿꦥ꦳ꦶꦱ꧀ ! ꦕꦕꦃꦲꦺ<br />ꦏꦸꦛ ꦭꦤ꧀ <br />ꦏꦧꦸꦥꦠꦺꦤ꧀ ! ꦕꦕꦃꦲꦺ<br />ꦏꦸꦛ ! ꦕꦕꦃꦲꦺ<br />ꦏꦧꦸꦥꦠꦺꦤ꧀ |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Aceh.svg|60px]] || align="left" | {{sort|Aceh|[[Acèh|ꦄꦕꦺꦃ]]}} || ꦄꦕꦺꦃ || ID-AC || align="left" | [[Banda Acèh|ꦧꦤ꧀ꦢꦄꦕꦺꦃ]] || align="right" | 4,993,385 || align="right" | 57,956 || align="right" | 77 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 23 || align="right" | 5 || align="right" | 18 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Bali COA.svg|64x64px]] || align="left" | [[ꦧꦭꦶ]] || ꦧꦭꦶ || ID-BA || align="left" | [[Denpasar|ꦢꦺꦤ꧀ꦥꦱꦂ]] || align="right" | 4,148,588 || align="right" | 5,780 || align="right" | 621 || align="left" | [[ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ꦤꦸꦱꦠꦼꦁꦒꦫ]] || align="right" | 9 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 8 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Bangka Belitung.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Bangka Belitung|ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ꦧꦁꦏꦧꦼꦭꦶꦠꦸꦁ]] || ꦧꦧꦼꦭ꧀ || ID-BB || align="left" | [[Kutha Pangkalpinang|ꦥꦁꦏꦭ꧀ꦥꦶꦤꦁ]] || align="right" | 1,370,331 || align="right" | 16,424 || align="right" | 64 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 7 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 6 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Banten.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Banten|ꦧꦤ꧀ꦠꦼꦤ꧀]] || ꦧꦤ꧀ꦠꦼꦤ꧀ || ID-BT || align="left" | [[Kutha Serang|ꦱꦺꦫꦁ]] || align="right" | 11,934,373 || align="right" | 9,662 || align="right" | 909 || align="left" | [[ꦗꦮ]] || align="right" | 8 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 4 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Bengkulu.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Kutha Bengkulu|ꦧꦼꦁꦏꦸꦭꦸ]] || ꦧꦼꦁꦏꦸꦭꦸ || ID-BE || align="left" | [[Kutha Bengkulu|ꦧꦼꦁꦏꦸꦭꦸ]] || align="right" | 1,872,136 || align="right" | 19,919 || align="right" | 84 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 9 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Central Java.png|73x73px]] || align="left" | [[Jawa Tengah|ꦗꦮꦠꦼꦔꦃ]] || ꦗꦠꦼꦁ || ID-JT || align="left" | [[Semarang|ꦱꦼꦩꦫꦁ]] || align="right" | 33,753,023 || align="right" | 40,800 || align="right" | 894 || align="left" | [[ꦗꦮ]] || align="right" | 35 || align="right" | 6 || align="right" | 29 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Central Kalimantan.svg|77x77px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Tengah|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦠꦼꦔꦃ]] || ꦏꦭ꧀ꦠꦼꦁ || ID-KT || align="left" | [[Kutha Palangkaraya|ꦥꦭꦁꦏꦫꦪ]] || align="right" | 2,490,178 || align="right" | 153,564 || align="right" | 14 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀]] || align="right" | 14 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 13 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Central Sulawesi.svg|82x82px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Tengah|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶꦠꦼꦔꦃ]] || ꦱꦸꦭ꧀ꦠꦼꦁ || ID-ST || align="left" | [[Palu|ꦥꦭꦸ]] || align="right" | 2,872,857 || align="right" | 61,841 || align="right" | 41 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶ]] || align="right" | 13 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 12 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of East Java.svg|79x79px]] || align="left" | [[Jawa Wétan|ꦗꦮꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] || ꦗꦠꦶꦩ꧀ || ID-JI || align="left" | [[ꦏꦸꦛꦱꦸꦫꦧꦪ|ꦱꦸꦫꦧꦪ]] || align="right" | 38,828,061 || align="right" | 47,799 || align="right" | 828 || align="left" | [[ꦗꦮ]] || align="right" | 38 || align="right" | 9 || align="right" | 29 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of East Kalimantan.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Wétan|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] || ꦏꦭ꧀ꦠꦶꦩ꧀ || ID-KI || align="left" | [[Samarinda|ꦱꦩꦫꦶꦤ꧀ꦢ]] || align="right" | 3,422,676 || align="right" | 139,462 || align="right" | 22 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀]] || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 3 || align="right" | 7 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of Arms of East Nusa Tenggara NEW.png|60px]] || align="left" | [[Nusa Tenggara Wétan|ꦤꦸꦱꦠꦼꦁꦒꦫꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] || ꦤꦠꦠ || ID-NT || align="left" | [[Kupang|ꦏꦸꦥꦁ]] || align="right" | 5,112,760 || align="right" | 48,718 || align="right" | 92 || align="left" | [[ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ꦤꦸꦱꦠꦼꦁꦒꦫ]] || align="right" | 22 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 21 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Gorontalo.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Gorontalo|ꦒꦺꦴꦫꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦭꦺꦴ]] || ꦒꦺꦴꦫꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦭꦺꦴ || ID-GO || align="left" | [[Kutha Gorontalo|ꦒꦺꦴꦫꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦭꦺꦴ]] || align="right" | 1,131,670 || align="right" | 11,257 || align="right" | 94 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶ]] || align="right" | 6 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 5 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Jakarta COA.svg|60px]] || align="left" | {{sort|Jakarta|[[Jakarta|ꦝꦌꦫꦃꦏ꦳ꦸꦱꦸꦱ꧀ꦆꦧꦸꦏꦺꦴꦠꦗꦏꦂꦠ]]}} || ꦢꦏꦆ || ID-JK || align="left" | [[Jakarta|ꦗꦏꦂꦠ]] || align="right" | 10,154,134 ||align="right" | 664 || align="right" | 12,786 || align="left" | [[ꦗꦮ]] || align="right" | 6 || align="right" | 5 || align="right" | 1 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Jambi.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Jambi|ꦗꦩ꧀ꦧꦶ]] || ꦗꦩ꧀ꦧꦶ || ID-JA || align="left" | [[Kutha Jambi|ꦗꦩ꧀ꦧꦶ]] || align="right" | 3,397,164 ||align="right" | 50,058 || align="right" | 57 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 11 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 9 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Lampung Emblem.svg|83x83px]] || align="left" | [[Lampung|ꦭꦩ꧀ꦥꦸꦁ]] || ꦭꦩ꧀ꦥꦸꦁ || ID-LA || align="left" | [[Bandar Lampung|꧞ꦤ꧀ꦢꦂꦭꦩ꧀ꦥꦸꦁ]] || align="right" | 8,109,601 ||align="right" | 34,623 || align="right" | 226 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 15 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 13 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Maluku coa.png|73x73px]] || align="left" | [[Maluku|ꦩꦭꦸꦏꦸ]] || ꦩꦭꦸꦏꦸ || ID-MA || align="left" | [[Kutha Ambon|ꦄꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] || align="right" | 1,683,856 ||align="right" | 46,914 || align="right" | 32 || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Maluku|ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ꦩꦭꦸꦏꦸ]] || align="right" | 11 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 9 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of North Kalimantan (2021 version).svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Lor|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦭꦺꦴꦂ]] || ꦏꦭ꧀ꦠꦫ || ID-KU || align="left" | [[Tanjung Selor|ꦠꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦁꦱꦺꦭꦺꦴꦂ]] || align="right" | 639,639 || align="right" | 72,275 || align="right" | 10 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀]] || align="right" | 5 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 4 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of North Maluku.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Maluku Lor|ꦩꦭꦸꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦂ]] || ꦩꦭꦸꦠ꧀ || ID-MU || align="left" | [[Kutha Sofifi|ꦱꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦥ꦳ꦶ]] || align="right" | 1,160,275 ||align="right" | 31,982 || align="right" | 31 || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Maluku|ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ꦩꦭꦸꦏꦸ]] || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 8 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:North Sulawesi Emblem.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Lor|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶꦭꦺꦴꦂ]] || ꦱꦸꦭꦸꦠ꧀ || ID-SA || align="left" | [[Kutha Manado|ꦩꦤꦢꦺꦴ]] || align="right" | 2,409,921 ||align="right" | 13,851 || align="right" | 162 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶ]] || align="right" | 15 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 11 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of North Sumatra.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sumatra Lor|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿꦭꦺꦴꦂ]] || ꦱꦸꦩꦸꦠ꧀ || ID-SU || align="left" | [[Kutha Medan|ꦩꦺꦢꦤ꧀]] || align="right" | 13,923,262 ||align="right" | 72,981 || align="right" | 188 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 33 || align="right" | 8 || align="right" | 25 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Papua 2.svg|60px]] || align="left" | {{sort|Papua|[[Papua|ꦥꦥꦸꦮ]]}} || ꦥꦥꦸꦮ || ID-PA || align="left" | [[Kutha Jayapura|ꦗꦪꦥꦸꦫ]] || align="right" | 3,143,088 ||align="right" | 319,036 || align="right" | 8 || align="left" | [[Papua|ꦥꦥꦸꦮ]] || align="right" | 29 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 28 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Riau COA.svg|77x77px]] || align="left" | [[Riau|ꦫꦶꦪꦻꦴ]] || ꦫꦶꦪꦻꦴ || ID-RI || align="left" | [[Kutha Pekanbaru|ꦥꦼꦏꦤ꧀ꦧꦫꦸ]] || align="right" | 6,330,941 ||align="right" | 87,023 || align="right" | 52 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 12 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 10 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of Riau Islands.svg|77x77px]] || align="left" | [[Kapuloan Riau|ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ꦫꦶꦪꦻꦴ]] || ꦏꦼꦥꦿꦶ || ID-KR || align="left" | [[Kutha Tanjungpinang|ꦠꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦁꦥꦶꦤꦁ]] || align="right" | 1,968,313 ||align="right" | 8,201 || align="right" | 208 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 7 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 5 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Southeast Sulawesi COA.svg|69x69px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Tenggara|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀]] || ꦱꦸꦭ꧀ꦠꦿ || ID-SG || align="left" | [[Kutha Kendari|ꦏꦼꦤ꧀ꦢꦫꦶ]] || align="right" | 2,495,248 ||align="right" | 38,067 || align="right" | 51 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶ]] || align="right" | 17 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 15 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of South Kalimantan.png|83x83px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Kidul|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀]] || ꦏꦭ꧀ꦱꦼꦭ꧀ || ID-KS || align="left" | [[Kutha Banjarmasin|ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦂꦩꦱꦶꦤ꧀]] || align="right" | 3,984,315 ||align="right" | 38,744 || align="right" | 96 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan]] || align="right" | 13 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 11 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:South Sulawesi Emblem.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Kidul|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀]] || ꦱꦸꦭ꧀ꦱꦼꦭ꧀ || ID-SN || align="left" | [[Kutha Makassar|ꦩꦏꦱ꧀ꦱꦂ]] || align="right" | 8,512,608 ||align="right" | 46,717 || align="right" | 151 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶ]] || align="right" | 24 || align="right" | 3 || align="right" | 21 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:South Sumatra COA.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sumatra Kidul|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀]] || ꦱꦸꦩ꧀ꦱꦼꦭ꧀ || ID-SS || align="left" | [[Kutha Palembang|ꦥꦭꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ]] || align="right" | 8,043,042 ||align="right" | 91,592 || align="right" | 86 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 17 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 13 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:West Java coa.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Jawa Kulon|ꦗꦮꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] || ꦗꦧꦂ || ID-JB || align="left" | [[Kutha Bandung|꧞ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦁ]] || align="right" | 46,668,214 ||align="right" | 35,377 || align="right" | 1,176 || align="left" | [[ꦗꦮ]] || align="right" | 27 || align="right" | 9 || align="right" | 18 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:West Kalimantan Emblem.svg|77x77px]] || align="left" | [[Kalimantan Kulon|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] || Kalbar || ID-KB || align="left" | [[Kutha Pontianak|ꦥꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦪꦤꦏ꧀]] || align="right" | 4,783,209 ||align="right" | 147,307 || align="right" | 30 || align="left" | [[Kalimantan|ꦏꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀]] || align="right" | 14 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 12 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:West Nusa Tenggara COA.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Nusa Tenggara Kulon|ꦤꦸꦱꦠꦼꦁꦒꦫꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]]|| ꦤꦠꦧ || ID-NB || align="left" | [[Kutha Mataram|ꦩꦠꦫꦩ꧀]] || align="right" | 4,830,118 ||align="right" | 18,572 || align="right" | 234 || align="left" | [[ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ꦤꦸꦱꦠꦼꦁꦒꦫ]] || align="right" | 10 || align="right" | 2 || align="right" | 8 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:West Papua Province Emblem.svg|81x81px]] || align="left" | [[Papua Kulon|ꦥꦥꦸꦮꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] || ꦥꦧꦂ || ID-PB || align="left" | [[Kabupatèn Manokwari|ꦩꦤꦺꦴꦏ꧀ꦮꦫꦶ]] || align="right" | 868,819 ||align="right" | 97,024 || align="right" | 8 || align="left" | [[Papua|ꦥꦥꦸꦮ]] || align="right" | 13 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 12 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of West Sulawesi.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sulawesi Kulon|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] || ꦱꦸꦭ꧀ꦧꦂ || ID-SR || align="left" | [[Kabupatèn Mamuju|ꦩꦩꦸꦗꦸ]] || align="right" | 1,279,994 ||align="right" | 16,787 || align="right" | 73 || align="left" | [[Sulawesi|ꦱꦸꦭꦮꦼꦱꦶ]] || align="right" | 6 || align="right" | 0 || align="right" | 6 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Coat of arms of West Sumatra.svg|60px]] || align="left" | [[Sumatra Kulon|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] || ꦱꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦂ || ID-SB || align="left" | [[Kutha Padang|ꦥꦢꦁ]] || align="right" | 5,190,577 ||align="right" | 42,012 || align="right" | 110 || align="left" | [[Sumatra|ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ]] || align="right" | 19 || align="right" | 7 || align="right" | 12 |- align="center" | [[Barkas:Yogyakarta COA.svg|60px]] || align="left" | {{sort|Yogyakarta|[[Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta|ꦝꦌꦫꦃꦆꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦮꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ]]}} || ꦢꦆꦪ || ID-YO || align="left" | [[ꦏꦸꦛꦔꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ|ꦪꦺꦴꦒꦾꦏꦂꦠ]] || align="right" | 3,675,768 ||align="right" | 3,133 || align="right" | 1,138 || align="left" | [[ꦗꦮ]] || align="right" | 5 || align="right" | 1 || align="right" | 4 |} shl0z31ya28zfhctv5zkjgvo7i8s68r Manason 0 181460 1752922 1577372 2026-08-20T05:03:27Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752922 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|tokoh Alkitab|panglima militer Yunani|Manason dari Fokis}} '''Manason''' ({{lang-gr|μνασωνι τινι κυπριω}}) yaiku panganut [[Kristen]] saka [[Siprus]] ing abad pertami, sing disebutkake ing [[Para Rasul 21|pasal 21]] saka [[Para Rasul]] sing dakpondhoki [[Lukas Panginjil]], [[Paulus Rasul]] lan para pangikut liyanne, nalika mereka lunga saka [[Kaisarea Maritima|Kaisarea]] menyang [[Yerusalem]]. Ayat sing nyebut Manason (Kis 21:16) nimbulake perdebatan soal apa Manason nderek para penjelajah kasebut ing lelampahanipun utawa mung nyediakake panginepan, lan apa omahe ana ing Yerusalem utawa ing kampung ing tengah dalan menyang Yerusalem. Sanadyan mung disebutake ing siji ayat, akeh wong Kristen metik pelajaran saka contoh Manason soal ketekunan jroning [[iman Kristen]] lan sikap penyantunan. == Rujukan Alkitab == Ing Kis 21:16, Manason kecathet dakpondhoki Paulus lan "Para siswa ing Kaisarea", ing endhi mereka lelungan nggawa barang-barang kanggo greja ing Yerusalem ing pungkasan lelunga misionaris katelu Paulus ing 57 Masehi. Lokasi omah Manason ora dijelaske ing teks kasebut, lan apakah omah kasebut ana ing Yerusalem utawa ing sebuah desa ing rute menyang kutha kasebut (lelunga iku dhewe nduweni jarak antawisipun 60 lan 70 mil, sakhingga ngabutuhka wektu sak orane loro dina).<ref name=NBD/> == Tafsiran == === Latar === Ora ana sumber kontemporer liyane sing menehi panjelasan biografi babagan Manason, sakhingga mung sithik sing diketahui tentangne. Dheweke yaiku wong [[Yahudi Helenistik]] saka Siprus, kayata [[rasul Barnabas]]. Jenenge nduweni teges "eling"<ref name=Holman/> lan menika jeneng Yunani umum ing masa iku.<ref name=NBD/> Jeneng kasebut muncul ing ''[[Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum]]'' minangka jeneng pribadi kaping 30 kali.<ref name=HastingsNT/> Jeneng kasebut menika ragam saka "Yason".<ref name=Holman/> Ing [[Kodeks Sinaiticus]], jenenge ditulis dadi "Yason".<ref name=HastingsNT/> [[F. F. Bruce]] menehi kamungkinan alternatif, yen jenenge menika wujud Helenisasi saka jeneng Ibrani "[[Manasye]]", mung nyatakake bahwa jeneng kuwi luwih kaya jeneng Yunani.<ref name=BruceGk/> Manason diterangke minangka "siswa lawas" utawa "awal" ({{lang-gr|ἀρχαίῳ μαθητῇ}}), mung soal wiwit nalika dheweke dadi wong pracaya ora disebutake ing teks kasebut, lan dadi subyek beberapa diskusi. J. J. Hughes nyatakake bahwa ia sampun dadi wong pracaya sawise Roh Suci mundhun ing dina [[Pentakosta]], kayata sing dikisahke ing Kis 2:1-31, lan banjur dadi anggota pangadeg greja ing Yerusalem.<ref name=HughesISBE/> Dheweke uga dianggap dadi salah sijining saka [[wong pitung puluh]] sing padha diutus karo Yesus ing [[Injil Lukas]] lan dheweke uga disebutke minangka salah sijining saka mereka ing ''[[Kitab Tawon]]'' saka abad ka-13.<ref name=Henry/><ref name=Bee/> Dheweke mungkin uga tobat nalika palayanan Barnabas lan Paulus nalika loro-lorone menyang Siprus, kayata sing dikisahke ing Kis 13.<ref name=Henry/> [[Friedrich Blass]] lan [[George Salmon]] menehi kemungkinan tambahan, adhedhasar teks [[Kodeks Bezae]] saka abad kalima, sing jelas-jelas nyebut omah Manason ana ing sawijining desa ing tengah dalan menyang Yerusalem alih-alih ing kutha iku dhewe.<ref name=Salmon/> == Referensi == {{reflist|refs= <ref name=Bee>{{cite book|title=[[The Book of the Bee]] (English translation)|year=1886|publisher=The Clarendon Press|chapter-url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/bb/bb49.htm|editor=Earnest A. Wallis Budge|chapter=Chapter XLIX - The Names of the Apostles in Order}}</ref> <ref name=BruceNICNT>{{cite book|last=Bruce|first=F. F.|title=Book of Acts (New International Commentary on the New Testament)|year=1959|publisher=William B Eerdmans|authorlink=F. F. Bruce|isbn=978-0802825056|page=403}}</ref> <ref name=BruceGk>{{cite book|last=Bruce|first=F.F.|title=The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary|url=https://archive.org/details/actsofapostlesgr0000bruc|year=1990|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=9780802809667|page=[https://archive.org/details/actsofapostlesgr0000bruc/page/443 443]}}</ref> <ref name=Couch>{{cite book|title=A Bible Handbook to the Acts of the Apostles|year=2003|publisher=Kregel Academic|isbn=9780825493942|page=372|editor=Mel Couch}}</ref> <ref name=HastingsNT>{{cite web|last=Hastings|first=James|title=Mnason|authorlink=James Hastings|url=http://www.studylight.org/dic/hdn/view.cgi?n=1715|work=Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament|accessdate=20 August 2013}}</ref> <ref name=Henry>{{cite web|last=Henry|first=Matthew|title=Commentary on the Whole Bible Volume VI (Acts to Revelation)|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/henry/mhc6.Acts.xxii.html|work=[[Christian Classics Ethereal Library]]|authorlink=Matthew Henry|accessdate=20 August 2013|year=October 1708}}</ref> <ref name=Holman>{{cite book|title=Holman Bible Dictionary|year=1991|editor=Butler, Trent C.|chapter=Entry for 'Mnason'}}</ref> <ref name=HughesISBE>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=J. J.|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=9780802837851|page=388|editor=Geoffrey W. Bromiley|chapter=Entry for 'Mnason'}}</ref> <ref name=Knott>{{cite journal|last=Knott, Jr.|first=John R.|title=Bunyan and the Holy Community|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-philology_spring-1983_80_2/page/219|journal=[[Studies in Philology]]|year=1983|volume=80|issue=2|pages=219–220|jstor=4174145}}</ref> <ref name=Lenski>{{cite book|last=Lenski|first=R. C. H.|title=The Interpretation of the Acts of the Apostles 15-28|year=2008|publisher=Augsburg Fortress|isbn=9781451409437|authorlink=R. C. H. Lenski|pages=874–875}}</ref> <ref name=MaclarenSermon>{{cite book|last=Maclaren|first=Alexander|title=Classic Sermons on Lesser-Known Bible Characters|year=2000|publisher=Kregel Academic|isbn=9780825496400|page=22|authorlink=Alexander Maclaren|editor=Warren W. Wiersbe|chapter=Mnason: An Old Disciple}}</ref> <ref name=Marshall>{{cite book|last=Marshall|first=I. Howard|title=The Acts of the Apostles: An Introduction and Commentary|url=https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles00mars|year=1980|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=9780802814234|pages=[https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles00mars/page/341 341]–342|authorlink=I. Howard Marshall}}</ref> <ref name=NBD>{{cite book|last=Walls|first=A. F.|title=New Bible Dictionary|year=1996|publisher=[[InterVarsity Press]]|isbn=9780851106595|page=775|edition=3rd|authorlink=Andrew Walls|editor=I. H. Marshall|chapter=Mnason|display-editors=etal}}</ref> <ref name=NIVAC>{{cite book|last=Fernando|first=Ajith|title=Acts (NIV Application Commentary)|url=https://archive.org/details/actsthenivapplic00fern|year=1998|publisher=Zondervan|pages=[https://archive.org/details/actsthenivapplic00fern/page/n553 552]–553|isbn=9780310494102}}</ref> <ref name=Salmon>{{cite journal|last=Salmon|first=G|title=Blass's Commentary on the Acts|journal=Hermathena|year=1895|volume=9|issue=21|pages=239–240|jstor=23036610}}</ref> }} [[Kategori:Tokoh Prajanjian Anyar]] [[Kategori:Para Rasul]] kwt5pjjyv2glo60quby9bwo3qmzun8b ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ 0 182032 1752988 1708787 2026-08-20T07:14:53Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752988 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dwiaksara-jv|Suling}} {{For|ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ ꦥꦿꦶꦁ|ꦮꦁꦱꦶ}} [[File:Shinobue and other flutes-3.jpg|thumb|320px|ꦮꦼꦂꦤ-ꦮꦼꦂꦤ ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ]] [[File:Nubian flute player.jpg|thumb|ꦮꦺꦴꦁ [[Nubia|ꦤꦸꦧꦶꦪ]] ꦩꦲꦶꦤ꧀ ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ]] '''ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ''' ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦏꦸꦭꦮꦂꦒ [[piranti musik|ꦥꦶꦫꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦩꦸꦱꦶꦏ꧀]] ꦲꦶꦁ ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦥꦶꦫꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦱꦼꦧꦸꦭ꧀ ꦏꦪꦸ. ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦏꦪ ꦥꦶꦫꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦱꦼꦧꦸꦭ꧀ ꦏꦪꦸ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦤ [[panggetar|ꦥꦁꦒꦼꦠꦼꦂꦫꦺ]], ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦥꦶꦫꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ [[aérofon|ꦄꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] ꦲꦸꦠꦮ [[instrumèn angin tanpa panggetar|ꦥꦶꦫꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦱꦼꦧꦸꦭ꧀ ꦠꦤ꧀ꦥ ꦥꦁꦒꦼꦠꦼꦂ]] ꦏꦁ ꦔꦱꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦏꦺ ꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ ꦭꦶꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦂ ꦲꦭꦶꦂꦫꦤ꧀ ꦲꦮ ꦏꦁ ꦔ꧀ꦭꦶꦮꦠ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦧꦸꦏꦏ꧀ꦏꦤ꧀. ꦩꦶꦠꦸꦫꦸꦠ꧀ ꦏ꧀ꦭꦱꦶꦥ꦳ꦶꦏꦱꦶ ꦥꦶꦫꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ [[Hornbostel-Sachs]], ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦥꦶꦫꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ [[aérofon sinwara-pinggiran|ꦄꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦱꦶꦤ꧀ꦮꦫ-ꦥꦶꦁꦒꦶꦂꦫꦤ꧀]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = edge-blown aerophone - OnMusic Dictionary|url = http://dictionary.onmusic.org/terms/1278-edge-blown_aerophone|website = OnMusic Dictionary|accessdate = 2015-09-14}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=September 2015}}<!--Cited source does not mention the Hornbostel-Sachs classification system at all. In any case, this citation belongs somewhere in the body of the text, not in the lede, which should only summarize what is in the text, not present otherwise unsupported material.--> ꦱꦸꦏꦶꦁ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Seruling paleolitik|ꦥꦶꦫꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦩꦸꦱꦶꦏ꧀]] ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦶꦱꦶꦃ ꦊꦱ꧀ꦠꦫꦶ. ꦱꦮꦺꦤꦺꦃ ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ ꦱꦏ 43.000 ꦔꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ 35.000 ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦏꦥꦸꦁꦏꦸꦂ ꦠꦶꦤꦼꦩꦸ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ [[Swabian Jura|ꦱ꧀ꦮꦧꦶꦪꦤ꧀ ꦗꦸꦫ]] ꦏꦁ ꦱꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ [[Jerman|ꦗꦺꦂꦩꦤ꧀]]. ꦠꦼꦠꦼꦩꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦩ꧀ꦧꦶꦪꦏ꧀ ꦲꦤꦤꦶꦁ ꦠꦿꦣꦶꦱꦶ ꦩꦸꦱꦶꦏ꧀ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦱ ꦩꦺꦴꦣꦺꦉꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥꦃ ꦏꦁ ꦠꦸꦩꦸꦮꦸꦃ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦺꦫꦶꦪꦺꦴꦣꦼ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀.<ref name="NYTimes">{{Cite journal| last = Wilford | first = John N.| title = Flutes Offer Clues to Stone-Age Music | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2009-05-14_459_7244/page/248 | volume =459| issue = 7244| pages = 248–52| date = 24 Juni 2009 <!-- deprecated [[en:Template:Cite web#Lay summary]] | laysummary = http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/25/science/25flute.html| lay-source = The New York Times --> | pmid = 19444215| doi = 10.1038/nature07995 |bibcode = 2009Natur.459..248C | journal = Nature }}. Citation on p. 248.</ref><ref name="jhevol">{{Cite journal| title = Τesting models for the beginnings of the Aurignacian and the advent of figurative art and music: The radiocarbon chronology of Geißenklösterle | journal = Journal of Human Evolution|year=2012 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.03.003| last1 = Higham| first1 = Thomas| last2 = Basell| first2 = Laura| last3 = Jacobi| first3 = Roger| last4 = Wood| first4 = Rachel| last5 = Ramsey| first5 = Christopher Bronk| last6 = Conard| first6 = Nicholas J.| volume = 62| issue = 6| pages = 664–76| pmid = 22575323}}</ref> ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ, ꦏꦊꦧꦪ [[Bansuri|ꦧꦤ꧀ꦱꦸꦫꦶ]] ꦏꦁ ꦩꦶꦱꦸꦮꦸꦂ, ꦢꦢꦶ ꦥꦺꦫꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦠꦼꦒꦿꦭ꧀ ꦱꦏ [[musik klasik Indhia|ꦩꦸꦱꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏ꧀ꦭꦱꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ]] ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 1500 SM.{{Citation needed|date=Mèi 2016}} ꦢꦺꦮ ꦲꦸꦠꦩ [[Hindhu|ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ]], ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ [[Kresna|ꦏꦽꦱ꧀ꦤ]], ꦠꦤ꧀ꦱꦃ ꦩꦒꦼꦥꦺꦴꦏ꧀ꦏꦤ꧀ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦱꦸꦭꦶꦁ. ==ꦫꦺꦥ꦳ꦺꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ== {{reflist}} == ꦥꦿꦤꦭꦤ꧀ꦗꦧ == {{Commons category|Flutes}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Flute}} {{Wiktionary}} <!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: Links to random pages about flutes DO NOT belong here. That's what the dmoz.org link is for. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:EL --> *Ardal Powell. "[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2241119 Flute]." ''Grove Music Online''. ''Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. (by subscription) *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jiah/hd_jiah.htm Essay on the Jiahu flutes] from the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History at [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] *A selection of historic flutes from around the world at [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/musd/ho_2006.86a-c.htm Walking Stick Flute and Oboe, Georg Henrich Scherer, Butzbach, ca. 1750–57] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/musical_instruments/transverse_flute_in_d_flat_claude_laurent/objectview.aspx?page=1&sort=0&sortdir=asc&keyword=flute*&fp=1&dd1=18&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=18&OID=180013281&vT=1 Glass flute, Claude Laurent, Paris, 1813] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/musical_instruments/transverse_flute_in_d_flat/objectview.aspx?page=2&sort=0&sortdir=asc&keyword=flute*&fp=1&dd1=18&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=18&OID=180015833&vT=1 Porcelain flute, Saxony, 1760–1790] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/musical_instruments/pair_of_transverse_flutes_johann_wilhelm_oberlender/objectview.aspx?page=5&sort=0&sortdir=asc&keyword=flute*&fp=1&dd1=18&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=18&OID=180015236&vT=1 Pair of ivory flutes by Johann Wilhelm Oberlender, mid 18th century, Nuremberg] ** [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/musical_instruments/transverse_flute_garion/objectview.aspx?page=6&sort=0&sortdir=asc&keyword=flute*&fp=1&dd1=18&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=18&OID=180016074&vT=1 Flute by Garion, Paris, ca. 1720–1740] *nature.com [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature08169.html New flutes document the earliest musical tradition in southwestern Germany] * {{dmoz|/Arts/Music/Instruments/Winds/Woodwinds/Flute}} * [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/music/flute/ Flute acoustics] Resources on flute acoustics from the University of New South Wales. * [http://ludowe.instrumenty.edu.pl/en/instruments-/categories/category/326 Folk flutes (''Polish folk musical instruments'')] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320155840/http://www.ludowe.instrumenty.edu.pl/en/instruments-/categories/category/326 |date=2023-03-20 }} <!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: Links to random pages about flutes DO NOT belong here. That's what the dmoz.org link is for. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:EL --> {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Suling| ]] [[Kategori:Piranti musik]] [[Kategori:ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦗꦮ]] rnkkejyg9mjg18ltnnyit9azj56ppex Fabre d'Églantine 0 184266 1752961 1603893 2026-08-20T06:03:30Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752961 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Fabre d'Églantine (1750—1794).jpg|thumb|Fabre d'Églantine]] '''Philippe François Nazaire Fabre d'Églantine''' ({{lahirmati||28|7|1750||5|4|1794}}), sing luwih dikenal minangka '''Fabre d'Églantine''' ({{IPA-fr|fabʁ deɡlɑ̃tin}}), yaiku pemeran, panggawe drama, penyair lan pulitikus ing wektu [[Revolusi Prancis]]. Ia dikenal amargi ngegawe jeneng-jeneng wulan ing [[pananggalan Revolusi Prancis]], lan nggawe tembang [[Il pleut, il pleut, bergère]] sing isih populer nganti saiki. ==Referensi== * {{EB1911|wstitle=Fabre d'Églantine, Philippe François Nazaire|volume=10|page=118}} The Britannica cites as its sources: **Albert Maurin, ''Galerie hist. de la Révolution française'', tome n **[[Jules Gabriel Janin|Jules Janin]], ''Histoire de la littérature dramatique'' **[[André Chénier]], ''Tableau de la littérature française''; [[François Victor Alphonse Aulard|FA Aulard]] in the ''Nouvelle Revue'' (July 1885). **Andress, David. 2006. The Terror the merciless war for freedom in revolutionary France. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux **{{cite journal|jstor=1837912|title=Making the Revolutionary Calendar|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1931-04_36_3/page/515|first=George Gordon|last=Andrews|date=1 Januari 1931|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=36|issue=3|pages=515–532|doi=10.2307/1837912}} **{{cite journal|jstor=3679069|title=François Chabot and His Plot|first=N.|last=Hampson|date=1 Januari 1976|journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society|volume=26|pages=1–14|doi=10.2307/3679069}} **Linton, Marisa. 2013. ''Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution''. Oxford: Oxford University Press **Maslan, Susan. 2005. Revolutionary acts theater, democracy, and the French revolution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press **Theirs, Adolphe. 1838 The History of the French Revolution. London: R. Bentley. ==Pranala luar== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325003730/http://www.royet.org/nea1789-1794/archives/science-art-culture/sciences_fabre_calendrier_1793_10_24.htm Fabre d’Églantine: ''Rapport sur le calendrier révolutionnaire'' (in French)] * [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033524/Philippe-Fabre-dEglantine Encyclopædia Britannica, Philippe Fabre d'Eglantine] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Fabre D'Eglantine}} [[Kategori:Tokoh saka Carcassonne]] 8etzdz3p19kssr1byn87jrdouc6t3eh Anthony Fauci 0 184268 1752919 1623516 2026-08-20T05:00:25Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 4 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752919 wikitext text/x-wiki {{for|jeneng lan wong karo jeneng kasebut|Fauci (marga)}} {{Infobox officeholder |name = Anthony Fauci |image = Anthony Fauci.jpg |caption = Fauci ing 2018 |office = Direktur [[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]] |term_start = 2 November 1984 |term_end = |deputy = Hugh Auchincloss |predecessor = [[Richard M. Krause]] |successor = |birth_name = Anthony Stephen Fauci |birth_date = {{birth date and age|1940|12|24}} |birth_place = [[New York City]], AS |education = [[College of the Holy Cross]] ([[Sarjana]])<br>[[Cornell University]] ([[Doktor]]) |spouse = {{marriage|[[Christine Grady]]|1985}} |children = 3 |awards = [[Maxwell Finland Award]] (1989)<br/>[[Ernst Jung Prize]] (1995)<br/>[[Lasker Award]] (2007)<br/>[[Presidential Medal of Freedom|Medal of Freedom]] (2008)<br/>[[Robert Koch Prize]] (Gold, 2013) |module = {{infobox scientist |embed = yes |fields = [[Imunologi]] |workplaces = [[National Institutes of Health]], [[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]]}} }} '''Anthony Stephen Fauci''' ({{IPAc-en|pron|ˈ|f|aʊ|tʃ|i|}}; {{lahirmati|[[New York City]], AS|24|12|1940}}) yaiku dokter lan pakar [[imunologi]] saka Amerika Sarekat sing ngejabat minangka direktur [[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]] (NIAID) sawise 1984. Sawise Januari 2010, ia dadi salah sijining anggota utami [[White House Coronavirus Task Force]] saka [[Kapresidhenan Donald Trump|Papréntahan Trump]] sing ditugasi kanggo nyikapi [[pageblug COVID-19]] [[pageblug COVID-19 ing Amerika Sarekat|ing Amerika Sarekat]]. Ing puncak pandemi kasebut, Fauci akeh dipandang dadi salah sijining tokoh pulitik paling dipercaya ing nagara kasebut.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/04/20/how-anthony-fauci-became-americas-doctor|title=How Anthony Fauci Became America’s Doctor|last=Specter|first=Michael|website=The New Yorker|language=en|access-date=2020-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52027201|title=The face of America's fight against Covid-19|date=2020-03-25|work=BBC News|access-date=2020-04-13|language=en-GB}}</ref> Fauci akeh diakui minangka salah sijining pakar penyakit infeksi utami ing donya.<ref name="Alba_Frenkel">{{cite web |last1=Alba |first1=Davey |last2=Frenkel |first2=Sheera |title=Medical Expert Who Corrects Trump Is Now a Target of the Far Right |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/28/technology/coronavirus-fauci-trump-conspiracy-target.html |website=The New York Times |accessdate=9 April 2020 |date=28 March 2020}}</ref><ref name=Grady>Grady, Denise, [https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/08/health/fauci-coronavirus.html?searchResultPosition=1 "Not His First Epidemic: Dr. Anthony Fauci Sticks to the Facts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327053240/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/08/health/fauci-coronavirus.html?searchResultPosition=1 |date=March 27, 2020 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'', March 8, 11, 2020.</ref> == Publikasi pilihan == * {{cite journal | pmid = 769625 | volume=84 | issue=3 | title=Glucocorticosteroid therapy: mechanisms of action and clinical considerations | date=March 1976 |vauthors=Fauci AS, Dale DC, Balow JE | journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | pages=304–15 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-84-3-304}} * {{cite journal | pmid = 31121 | volume=89 | issue=5 Pt 1 | title=The spectrum of vasculitis: clinical, pathologic, immunologic and therapeutic considerations | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1978-11_89_5/page/660 | date=November 1978 |vauthors=Fauci AS, Haynes B, Katz P | journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | pages=660–76 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-89-5-660}} * {{cite journal | pmid = 6336643 | volume=98 | issue=1 | title=Wegener's granulomatosis: prospective clinical and therapeutic experience with 85 patients for 21 years | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1983-01_98_1/page/76 | date=January 1983 |vauthors=Fauci AS, Haynes BF, Katz P, Wolff SM | journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | pages=76–85 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-98-1-76}} * {{cite journal | pmid = 6318629 | volume=100 | issue=1 | title=NIH conference. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: epidemiologic, clinical, immunologic, and therapeutic considerations | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1984-01_100_1/page/92 | date=January 1984 |author1=Fauci AS |author2=Macher AM |author3=Longo DL |display-authors=etal| journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | pages=92–106 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-100-1-92}} * {{cite journal | pmid = 3277274 | volume=239 | issue=4840 | title=The human immunodeficiency virus: infectivity and mechanisms of pathogenesis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1988-02-05_239_4840/page/617 | date=February 1988 | author=Fauci AS | journal=Science | pages=617–22 | doi=10.1126/science.3277274| bibcode=1988Sci...239..617F }} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Pantaleo G, Graziosi C, Fauci AS | date = Feb 1993 | title = New concepts in the immunopathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1993-02-04_328_5/page/327 | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 328 | issue = 5| pages = 327–35 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM199302043280508 | pmid = 8093551 }} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Fauci AS | date = December 12, 1996 | title = Host Factors and the Pathogenesis of HIV-induced Disease | journal = Nature | volume = 384 | issue = 6609| pages = 529–534 | doi = 10.1038/384529a0 | pmid = 8955267 | bibcode = 1996Natur.384..529F | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1233194 }} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Morens DM, Folkers GK, Fauci AS | date = Jul 2004 | title = The challenge of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases | journal = Nature | volume = 430 | issue = 6996| pages = 242–49 | doi = 10.1038/nature02759 | pmid = 15241422 | pmc = 7094993 | bibcode = 2004Natur.430..242M }} * {{cite journal |vauthors=Johnston MI, Fauci AS | date = Aug 2008 | title = An HIV vaccine – challenges and prospects |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2008-08-28_359_9/page/888 | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 359 | issue = 9| pages = 888–90 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMp0806162 | pmid = 18753644 }} * Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jameson JL, Loscalzo J, eds. [http://www.accessmedicine.com/resourceTOC.aspx?resourceID=4 Harrison's principles of internal medicine, 17th ed.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429231736/http://www.accessmedicine.com/resourceTOC.aspx?resourceID=4 |date=2012-04-29 }} New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-07-159991-7}} == Referensi == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Pranala jaba == {{commons category-inline}} {{wikiquote}} {{Scholia|author}} * Nicholas, Peter, [https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/03/anthony-fauci-covid-19-trump-and-staying-healthy/608554/ "Anthony Fauci’s Plan to Stay Honest"], ''[[The Atlantic]]'', March 22, 2020. Interview with Fauci. * {{C-SPAN}} * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/?term= Publications] listed on [[PubMed]] {{National Medal of Science|biological}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Fauci, Anthony S.}} [[Kategori:Ilmuwan saka Brooklyn]] 50m3q07xfng3ff1gsrn3szn4yrwlgx9 Puff jagung 0 184300 1753006 1584492 2026-08-20T07:53:24Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753006 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Puffcorn Example Frito Lay.jpg|jmpl]] '''Puffcorn''' utawa '''corn puffs''' yaiku jajanan jagung sing [[Wiji gembung|dikembangake]] utawa [[Ekstrusi panganan|diekstrusi]] sing digawe karo tepung jagung, lan dipanggang. Puffcorn minangka cemilan jagung puffed extruded sing kalebu ing produk kelompok cemilan sing digawe saka bubur jagung, beras, gandum, utawa sereal liyane. Puffcorn asring dibumbui karo [[Kéju puff|keju]], karamel, lenga, cabe, bawang, utawa bubuk bawang putih, lan akeh rempah-rempah liyane. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hashempour-Baltork|first=Fataneh|last2=Torbati|first2=Mohammadali|last3=Azadmard-Damirchi|first3=Sodeif|last4=Savage|first4=Geoffrey P.|date=2018|title=Quality properties of puffed corn snacks incorporated with sesame seed powder|journal=Food Science & Nutrition|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=85–93|doi=10.1002/fsn3.532|pmc=5778234|pmid=29387365}}</ref> Jinis puffcorn bisa beda-beda ing dawa, Kapadhetan, atose, springiness, gumminess, chewiness, lan tingkat redness lan yellowness, utamané nalika nggunakake beda persentasi saka glepung gandum. <ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Liu|first=Y.|last2=Hsieh|first2=F.|last3=Heymann|first3=H.|last4=Huff|first4=H.E.|date=2000|title=Effect of Process Conditions on the Physical and Sensory Properties of Extruded Oat-Corn Puff|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-food-science_2000-10_65_7/page/1253|journal=Journal of Food Science|language=en|volume=65|issue=7|pages=1253–1259|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb10274.x|issn=0022-1147}}</ref> Sawetara produk sing didol minangka puffcorn katon kaya [[Brondong jagung|brondong]], sanajan ora digawe saka biji-bijian kaya brondong. Puffcorn umume dikenal minangka sereal sarapan fungsional siap-dipangan utawa cemilan fungsional sing diekstrusi. <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Liu|first=Y.|last2=Hsieh|first2=F.|last3=Heymann|first3=H.|last4=Huff|first4=H.E.|date=2000|title=Effect of Process Conditions on the Physical and Sensory Properties of Extruded Oat-Corn Puff|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-food-science_2000-10_65_7/page/1253|journal=Journal of Food Science|language=en|volume=65|issue=7|pages=1253–1259|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb10274.x|issn=0022-1147}}</ref> Sawetara puffcorn digawe saka glepung oat, flaxseed lan [[Wiji chia|chia corn]] . <ref name=":2" /> Amarga mupangat kesehatan, minat ngembangake produk panganan fungsional sing ngemot chia. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wu|first=W.|last2=Huff|first2=H.E.|last3=Hsieh|first3=F.|date=2007|title=Processing and Properties of Extruded Flaxseed-Corn Puff|journal=Journal of Food Processing and Preservation|language=en|volume=31|issue=2|pages=211–226|doi=10.1111/j.1745-4549.2007.00105.x|issn=0145-8892}}</ref> Ekstrusi wis ditampilake minangka cara sing efektif kanggo nggabungake bahan fungsional liyane menyang produk panganan. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Byars|first=Jeffrey A.|last2=Singh|first2=Mukti|date=2015|title=Properties of extruded chia–corn meal puffs|journal=LWT - Food Science and Technology|language=en|volume=62|issue=1|pages=506–510|doi=10.1016/j.lwt.2014.06.036}}</ref> === Tekstur lan rasa === Atribut tekstur saka ekstrudat iki asring digandhengake karo prilaku mekanike, lan ana hubungane karo penampilan lan sifat rasa. <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lazou|first=A.|last2=Krokida|first2=M.|last3=Tzia|first3=C.|date=2010|title=Sensory Properties and Acceptability of Corn and Lentil Extruded Puffs|journal=Journal of Sensory Studies|language=en|volume=25|issue=6|pages=838–860|doi=10.1111/j.1745-459X.2010.00308.x}}</ref> Crispness lan leleh saka extrudates dipengaruhi dening suhu extrusion. Temperatur ekstrusi sing luwih dhuwur nambahake rasa garing lan leleh saka ekstrudat. Isi Kelembapan feed nyuda crunchiness lan crispness nalika nambah atose (Kapadhetan) prodhuk. Kekerasan nambah rasa mealy sing dirasakake, lan ana hubungane negatif karo rasa garing, leleh lan obaran. == Referensi == mh6q6murny3k01fqovgi0qy378rrlr4 Juche 0 184315 1752862 1623490 2026-08-20T03:28:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752862 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{Infobox Korean name|image=1730 - Nordkorea 2015 - Pjöngjang - Juche Turm (22791978320).jpg|caption=Obor sing dadi simbol ideologi ''Juche'' ing [[menara Juche]] ing kutha [[Pyongyang]]|title=''Juche''|context=north|hangul=주체사상|hanja=[[wikt:主體|主體]][[wikt:思想|思想]]|mr=Chuch'e sasang|rr=Juche sasang}} '''''Juche''''' ({{lang-ko|주체/主體|lit=[[Subyek (filsafat)|subyek]]}}; {{IPA-ko|tɕutɕʰe}}; biasane ora diterjemahke{{sfn|Myers|2015|p=14}} utawa kadhang uga diarani "[[Berdiri ing dhuwur sikil dhewe|berdikari]]") yaiku [[ideologi]] rasmi [[Korea Lor]], dijelaske dening papréntahan Korea Lor minangka "kontribusi asli, brilian, lan revolusioner saka [[Kim Il-sung]] marang pemikiran nasional lan internasional".<ref name="North Korea: State of Paranoia">{{cite book|title=North Korea: State of Paranoia|url=https://archive.org/details/northkoreastateo0000fren|author=Paul French|date=2014|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-78032-947-5}}{{page needed|date=July 2015}}</ref> == Referensi == === Kutipan === {{Reflist}} === Sumber === ==== Artikel jurnal ==== {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal|last1=Armstrong|first1=Charles K.|date=2005|title=Familism, Socialism and Political Religion in North Korea|journal=Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions|volume=6|issue=3|pages=}} * {{cite journal|last1=Helgesen|first1=Geir|date=1991|title=Political Revolution in a Cultural Continuum: Preliminary Observations on the North Korean "Juche" Ideology with its Intrinsic Cult of Personality|journal=Asian Perspectives|volume=15|issue=1|pages=}} * {{cite journal|last1=Jung|first1=Hyang Jin|date=2013|title=Jucheism as an Apotheosis of the Family: The Case of the Arirang Festival|journal=Journal of Korean Religions, North Korea and Religion|volume=4|issue=2|pages=}} * {{cite journal|last1=Lim|first1=Jae-cheon|authorlink=|date=May–June 2012|title=North Korea's Hereditary Succession Comparing Two Key Transitions in the DPRK|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_may-june-2012_52_3/page/550|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|volume=52|issue=3|pages=550–70|doi=10.1525/as.2012.52.3.550|jstor=10.1525/as.2012.52.3.550|ref=CITEREFLim2012}} {{refend}} ==== Buku ==== {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite book|title=A Capitalist in North Korea: My Seven Years in the Hermit Kingdom|url=https://archive.org/details/capitalistinnort0000abtf|author=Abt, Felix|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|year=2014|isbn=9780804844390|ref=CITEREFAbt2014}} * {{cite book|title=Building Bridges: Is There Hope for North Korea?|author1=Alton, David|author2=Chidley, Rob|publisher=[[Lion Books]]|year=2013|isbn=9780745955988|ref=CITEREFAltonChidley2013}} * {{cite book|title=Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History|url=https://archive.org/details/koreasplaceinsun00cumi|last=Cumings|first=Bruce|publisher=W W Norton and Company|year=1997|isbn=978-0393040111}} * {{cite book|title=Korea's Place in the Sun: a Modern History|url=https://archive.org/details/koreasplaceinsun0000cumi|last=Cumings|first=Bruce|publisher=W.W. Norton|year=2005|location=New York|author-mask=1}} * {{cite book|title=Why Communism Did Not Collapse: Understanding Authoritarian Regime Resilience in Asia and Europe|author=Dimitrov, Martin|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2013|isbn=978-1107035539|volume=|ref=CITEREFDimitrov2013}} * {{cite book|title=North Korea: The Politics of Regime Survival|author1=Kihl, Young|author2=Kim, Hong Nack|publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]]|year=2006|isbn=9780765616388|volume=|ref=CITEREFKihlKim2006}} * {{cite book|title=North Korea's Foreign Policy Under Kim Jong Il: New Perspectives|author=Kwak, Tae-Hwan|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0754677390|volume=|ref=CITEREFKwak2009}} * {{cite book|title=The successor theory of North Korea|last1=Lee|first1=Kyo Duk|publisher=Korean Institute for National Reunification|year=2004|isbn=978-8984792258|pages=1–52|chapter='Peaceful Utilization of the DMZ' as a National Strategy|ref=CITEREFLee2004|authorlink=|chapter-url=http://www.kinu.or.kr/eng/pub/pub_02_01.jsp?page=8&field=&text=&order=&dir=&mode=list&bid=DATA05&ses=&category=}} * {{cite book|title=When Leaders Learn and When They Don't: Mikhail Gorbachev and Kim Il Sung at the End of the Cold War|author=Malici, Akan|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0791473047|volume=|ref=CITEREFMalici2009}} * {{cite book|title=Korea Briefing: Toward Reunification|author=McCann, David|publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]]|year=1997|isbn=978-1563248863|volume=|ref=CITEREFMcCann1997}} * {{cite book|title=North Korea's Juche Myth|last=Myers|first=B. R.|publisher=Sthele Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-5087-9993-1|location=Busan}} * {{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/4478846|title=North Korea in 2012: Domestic Politics, the Economy and Social Issues|last1=Rüdiger|first1=Frank|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=2013|isbn=9789004262973|pages=41–72|ref=CITEREFRüdiger2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017111605/http://www.academia.edu/4478846/Framing_the_Globalisation_Debate_in_Korean_Higher_Education|archivedate=October 17, 2015|url-status=dead}} * {{cite book|title=Ethnic Nationalism in Korea: Genealogy, Politics, and Legacy|last=Shin|first=Gi-wook|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|year=2006|isbn=9780804754088}} {{refend}} == Pratelan pustaka == {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|title=Juche: A Christian Study of North Korea's State Religion|url=https://archive.org/details/juchechristianst0000belk|last=Belke|first=Thomas Julian|publisher=Living Sacrifice Book Company|year=1999|isbn=978-0-88264-329-8|location=Bartlesville}} * {{cite book|title=Origins of North Korea's Juche: Colonialism, War, and Development|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7391-7659-7|editor=Jae-Jung Suh|location=Lanham}} * {{cite book|title=The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It Matters|last=Myers|first=B. R.|publisher=Melville House|year=2011|isbn=978-1-935554-97-4|location=New York}} {{refend}} == Pranala jaba == {{Wiktionary|Juche}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Komunis]] {{politik-stub}} qgxhnqbye3h8prgf44hb63ywfq3jdrt Y. T. Wu 0 184488 1753017 1585361 2026-08-20T08:11:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753017 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:吳耀宗.jpg|jmpl|Y. T. Wu ing 1937]] '''Y. T. Wu''' utawa '''Wu Yao-tsung''' ({{lahirmati||4|11|1893||17|9|1979}}) yaiku pimpinan Kristen Protestan ing Tiongkok sing mainke peran penting ing pangadhegan [[Gerakan Patriotik Telung Penyiapan]].<ref name="Blackwell">{{cite book|editor-last=McGrath|editor-first=Alister E.|title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Thought|date=1995|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|location=Oxford}}</ref> Wu uga mainke peran penting ing [[teologi]] [[K. H. Ting]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last = Ng | first = Lee-ming | year = 1972 | title = A Study of Y. T. Wu | journal = Ching Feng | volume = XV | issue = 1 | pages = 5–54}}</ref> == Referensi == {{Reflist}} == Wacaan tambahan == * {{cite journal|last1=Ting|first1=K. H.|title=What We Can Learn from Y. T. Wu Today|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-bulletin-of-mission-research_1990-10_14_4/page/158|journal=International Bulletin of Missionary Research|volume=14|issue=4|year=1990|pages=158–161|issn=2396-9393|doi=10.1177/239693939001400402}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Wu, Y. T.}} [[Kategori:Protestan Tiongkok]] id72zyibnekr9w2swjonl4f9iqvg52e Si Kaddour Benghabrit 0 184506 1752864 1728399 2026-08-20T03:32:10Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752864 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = | name = <!-- use common name/article title --> | honorific_suffix = | image = Kaddour 5846748964163.jpg | image_upright = | landscape = <!-- yes, if wide image, otherwise leave blank --> | alt = <!-- descriptive text for use by speech synthesis (text-to-speech) software --> | caption = | native_name = {{lang|ar|عبد القادر بن غبريط}}<br>Abdelkader Ben Ghabrit | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name --> | birth_date = {{Birth date|1868|11|1|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Sidi Bel Abbès]], Aljazair | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{Disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = {{death date and age |1954|6|24 |1868|11|1|df=y}} | death_place = [[Paris]], Prancis | death_cause = | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | nationality = | other_names = | siglum = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = | occupation = | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = | agent = <!-- Discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works"; or by |label_name=, which produces label "Label(s)" --> | style = | net_worth = <!-- Net worth should be supported with a citation from a reliable source --> | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | title = <!-- Formal/awarded/job title. The parameter |office=may be used as an alternative when the label is better rendered as "Office" (e.g. public office or appointments) --> | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | criminal_charges = <!-- Criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- Use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = [[Nouria Benghabrit-Remaoun|Nouria Benghabrit]] (saudara simbah) | family = | callsign = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | signature = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} '''Abdelkader Ben Ghabrit''' ({{Lang-ar|عبد القادر بن غبريط}}; {{lahirmati||1|11|1868||24|6|1954}}),<ref>[http://dictionnairedesorientalistes.ehess.fr / document.php ? id = 152 Dictionary of Orientalists in French]</ref> sing umume luwih asring diarani minangka '''Si Kaddour Benghabrit''' ({{Lang|ar|سي قدور بن غبريط}}) yaiku pimpinan keagamaan, penerjemah lan ahli tafsir Prancis sing nyambut gawe kanggo Kamantrian Urusan Luar Negeri Prancis. Ia menika rektor kapisan [[Mesjid Raya Paris]]. Ing [[Perang Donya II]], ia nyelametke kira-kira 500 Yahudi lan pejuang pemberontakan saka Nazi. == Referensi == <references /> == Sumber == * Abdellali Merdaci, '' Algerian French-language authors from the colonial period : Biographical Dictionary '', L'Harmattan, 2010 *{{cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Ethan |title=Did the Paris Mosque Save Jews? A Mystery and Its Memory |url=https://archive.org/details/jewish-quarterly-review_spring-2012_102_2/page/256 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |date=Spring 2012 |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=256–286|doi=10.1353/jqr.2012.0012 |s2cid=162828322 }} * [http://www.mosquee-de-paris.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=75&Itemid=61 Biography of Si Kaddour Ben Ghabrit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920222639/http://mosquee-de-paris.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=75&Itemid=61 |date=2013-09-20 }} Official site of the Great Mosque of Paris *{{cite book |last1=Porch |first1=Douglas |title=The Conquest of Morocco A History |date=2005 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location=New York |isbn=9781429998857}} *{{cite book |last1=Satloff |first1=Robert |title=Among the Righteous |date=2006 |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |isbn=9781586485344}} ==Pranala jaba== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20100202172209/http://www.licra.org/education/outils/1348-une-resistance-oubliee-la-mosquee-de-paris-1940-44 Resistance forgotten ... the Mosque of Paris from 1940 to 1944] {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Benghabrit, Si Kaddour}} [[Category:Tokoh Islam Aljazair]] n69w5y50ez56tvx63iy8h0vtendk4ik Sirimavo Bandaranaike 0 184527 1753019 1734302 2026-08-20T08:15:19Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753019 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Prime Minister of Ceylon 1960.PNG|thumb|Bandaranaike difoto ing taun 1960]] '''Sirima Ratwatte Dias Bandaranaike''' ({{lang-si|සිරිමා රත්වත්තේ ඩයස් බණ්ඩාරනායක}}; {{lang-ta|சிறிமா ரத்வத்தே டயஸ் பண்டாரநாயக்கே}}; {{lahirmati||17|4|1916||10|10|2000}}), sing luwih asring diarani minangka '''Sirimavo Bandaranaike''', yaiku pulitikus Sri Lanka. Ia menika mahamantri wadon kapisan ing donya, nalika ia dadi [[Mahamantri Sri Lanka]] (wektu iku [[Dominion Ceylon]]) ing 1960.{{sfn|''The Economist''|2000}} Ia ngejabat ing telu masa jabatan: 1960–1965, 1970–1977 lan 1994–2000. ==Referensi== ===Kutipan=== {{reflist|30em}} ===Pratelan pustaka=== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book |last=Alexander |first=Robert Jackson |title=International Trotskyism, 1929–1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement |url=https://archive.org/details/internationaltro01alex_2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/internationaltro01alex_2/page/180 180] |date=1991 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |location=Durham, North Carolina |isbn=978-0-8223-1066-2}} *{{cite news |last1=Ashborn |first1=Francis |title=Sri Lankans braced for political violence |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25109649/the_guardian/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=14 October 1980 |page=7 |location=London, England |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite book |last=Ayivan |first=Vikṭar |title=The Queen of Deceit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTRuAAAAMAAJ |date=2007 |publisher=Ravaya Publishers |location=Maharagama, Sri Lanka |isbn=978-955-1468-04-0}} *{{cite news |last1=Balachandran |first1=P. K. |title=Significance of the abortive 1962 military coup |date=1 June 2006 |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2006/06/01/fea05.asp |access-date=1 November 2018 |newspaper=[[Daily News (Sri Lanka)|The Daily News]] |location=Colombo, Sri Lanka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829072454/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2006/06/01/fea05.asp |archive-date=29 August 2018}} *{{cite news |last1=Bandula |first1=Koggala Wellala |title=Unsuccessful Impeachments and legal arguments |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2013/01/09/fea04.asp |access-date=6 November 2018 |work=[[Daily News (Sri Lanka)|Daily News]] |date=9 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612184726/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2013/01/09/fea04.asp |archive-date=12 June 2018 |location=Colombo, Sri Lanka}} *{{cite book |last1=Bartholomeusz |first1=Tessa |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=Ian |title=Buddhism and Politics in Twentieth Century Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=81QSBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA173 |year=2010 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |location=London, England |chapter=First Among Equals: Buddhism and the Sri Lankan State |isbn=978-1-4411-6771-2 |pages=173–193}} *{{cite news |last1=Bradsher |first1=Henry |title=A Pinch in Ceylon: Free Spenders |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25024094/calgary_herald/ |access-date=1 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Calgary Herald]] |date=26 September 1962 |page=5 |location=Calgary, Alberta, Canada |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |last1=Bradsher |first1=Henry S. |title=Leftist Parties Unite, Threaten Crisis in Ceylon |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25030197/democrat_and_chronicle/ |access-date=1 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Democrat and Chronicle]] |date=18 August 1963 |page=4 |location=Rochester, New York |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Candee |editor1-first=Marjorie Dent |title=Current Biography Yearbook: 1956 |date=1957 |publisher=[[H. W. 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Jeyaratnam |title=Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3aAB9IFVdkC&pg=PA121 |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of British Columbia Press]] |location=Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada |isbn=978-0-7748-0759-3}} *{{cite news |last1=Woolacott |first1=Martin |title=Turn of the tide for Mrs. Bandaranaike |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25107413/the_guardian/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=2 September 1976 |location=London, England |page=4 |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Honolulu Star-Bulletin''|1970}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Bandaranaike Coalition Wins by Landslide |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25053818/bandaranaike_coalition_wins_by/ |access-date=2 November 2018 |newspaper=[[Honolulu Star-Bulletin|The Honolulu Star-Bulletin]] |date=28 May 1970 |page=2 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Guardian''|1977}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Bandaranaike wins |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25108790/bandaranaike_wins_reuters_the/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=15 November 1977 |page=8 |location=London, England |agency=[[Reuters]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The New York Times''|1972}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Ceylon Becomes the Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/23/archives/ceylon-becomes-the-socialist-republic-of-sri-lanka.html |access-date=4 November 2018 |agency=[[Reuters]] |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=23 May 1972 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104162907/https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/23/archives/ceylon-becomes-the-socialist-republic-of-sri-lanka.html |archive-date=4 November 2018 |location=New York City |page=3}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Tampa Bay Times''|1972}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Ceylon Becomes Sri Lanka Republic |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25851901/tampa_bay_times/ |access-date=30 November 2018 |agency=[[United Press International]] |work=[[The Tampa Bay Times]] |date=23 May 1972 |location=St. Petersburg, Florida |page=3 |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Sydney Morning Herald''|1971}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); 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no by-line.--> |title=Former Sri Lankan PM plans a comeback as rights ban is lifted |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25110587/the_age/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |agency=[[Reuters]] |newspaper=[[The Age]] |date=3 January 1986 |location=Melbourne, Victoria, Australia |page=6 |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Times''|1992}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Government charges ex-policeman, editor |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25165308/the_times/ |access-date=6 November 2018 |agency=[[Associated Press]] |newspaper=[[The Times (Shreveport)|The Times]] |date=10 April 1992 |location=Shreveport, Louisiana |page=17 |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''BBC News''|2010}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Govt. forgotten Sirimavo legacy – CBK |url=https://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2010/07/100723_women_politics.shtml |access-date=10 November 2018 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=23 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111021430/https://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2010/07/100723_women_politics.shtml |archive-date=11 November 2018}} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Parliament of Sri Lanka|2015c}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Lady Members |url=http://www.parliament.lk/en/lady-members |date=2 October 2015 |website=parliament.lk |publisher=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] |access-date=15 November 2018 |location=Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Sri Lanka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181115155331/http://www.parliament.lk/en/prime-ministers |archive-date=15 November 2018}} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Parliament of Sri Lanka|2015a}} |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Leaders of the Opposition |url=http://www.parliament.lk/en/leaders-of-the-opposition |date=8 September 2015 |website=parliament.lk |publisher=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] |access-date=15 November 2018 |location=Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Sri Lanka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504053618/http://www.parliament.lk/en/lady-members |archive-date=4 May 2018 |url-status=live }} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Evening Sun''|1969}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Mrs. Bandaranaike Plans Political Return in Ceylon |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25053474/the_evening_sun// |access-date=2 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Baltimore Sun|The Evening Sun]] |date=29 September 1969 |page=4 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Guardian''|1980}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Mrs. Bandaranaike stripped of civic rights |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25109694/the_guardian/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=17 October 1980 |page=7 |location=London, England |agency=[[Reuters]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Hartford Courant''|1962}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=New Governor General Announced by Ceylon |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25025578/hartford_courant/ |access-date=1 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Hartford Courant]] |date=27 February 1962 |page=39 |location=Hartford, Connecticut |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Times''|1960b}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=No Secret Pacts for Election |url=http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=TTDA&userGroupName=wes_ttda&tabID=T003&docPage=article&searchType=BasicSearchForm&docId=CS135618247&type=multipage&contentSet=LTO&version=1.0 |access-date=31 October 2018 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=7 June 1960 |issue=54791 |page=8 |location=London, England |id=Gale Document Number: CS135618247|url-access=subscription | via=[[Gale (publisher)|Gale]]}} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Government of Sri Lanka|2001}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Parliamentary Election – 1989 |url=http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pdf/Results_1989%20GENERAL%20ELECTION.PDF |website=slelections.gov.lk |publisher=Government of Sri Lanka |access-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090304101343/http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pdf/Results_1989%20GENERAL%20ELECTION.PDF |archive-date=4 March 2009 |location=Colombo, Sri Lanka |date=2001}} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Government of Sri Lanka|1994}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Parliamentary Election – 1994 |url=http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pdf/Results_1994%20GENERAL%20ELECTION-SM01.PDF |website=slelections.gov.lk |publisher=Government of Sri Lanka |access-date=15 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006015411/http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pdf/Results_1994%20GENERAL%20ELECTION-SM01.PDF |archive-date=6 October 2010 |location=Colombo, Sri Lanka |date=1994}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Playground Daily News''|1976}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Present Election Issue Worries Bandaranaike's Government |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25106264/playground_daily_news/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Playground Daily News]] |date=7 October 1976 |page=36 |location=Fort Walton Beach, Florida |agency=[[United Press International]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Parliament of Sri Lanka|2018}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Prime Ministers |url=http://www.parliament.lk/en/prime-ministers |date=1 November 2018 |website=parliament.lk |publisher=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] |access-date=15 November 2018 |location=Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Sri Lanka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181115155331/http://www.parliament.lk/en/prime-ministers |archive-date=15 November 2018}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Daily Spectrum''|1990}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Ranasighe decides to fight, not negotiate with Tamil rebels |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25164608/the_daily_spectrum/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |newspaper=The Daily Spectrum |date=12 July 1990 |page=15 |location=St. George, Utah |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Parliament of Sri Lanka|2015b}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sessions of Parliament|url=https://www.parliament.lk/sessions-of-parliament |date=8 September 2015 |website=parliament.lk |publisher=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] |access-date=17 May 2018 |location=Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Sri Lanka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110080102/https://www.parliament.lk/sessions-of-parliament |archive-date=10 November 2017}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Daily Telegraph''|2000}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sirimavo Bandaranaike |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1369772/Sirimavo-Bandaranaike.html |access-date=15 February 2018|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=11 October 2000 |location=London, England |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618131736/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1369772/Sirimavo-Bandaranaike.html |archive-date=18 June 2018}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Times''|2000}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sirimavo Bandaranaike |url=http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=TTDA&userGroupName=wes_ttda&tabID=T003&docPage=article&searchType=BasicSearchForm&docId=IF502370259&type=multipage&contentSet=LTO&version=1.0 |access-date=31 October 2018 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=11 October 2000 |page=23 |location=London, England |id=Gale Document Number: IF502370259|url-access=subscription | via=[[Gale (publisher)|Gale]]}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Economist''|2000}}|title=Sirimavo Bandaranaike |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=19 October 2000 |url=https://www.economist.com/obituary/2000/10/19/sirimavo-bandaranaike|access-date=21 July 2020}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''BBC''|2000b}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sirimavo Bandaranaike: First woman premier |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/964914.stm |access-date=12 February 2018 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=10 October 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029153529/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/964914.stm |archive-date=29 October 2018 |location=London, England}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Sunday Times''|2016}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sirimavo Bandaranaike: A leader in her own right |url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/160417/sunday-times-2/sirimavo-bandaranaike-a-leader-in-her-own-right-189734.html |newspaper=[[The Sunday Times (Sri Lanka)|The Sunday Times]] |date=17 April 2016 |access-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612184506/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/160417/sunday-times-2/sirimavo-bandaranaike-a-leader-in-her-own-right-189734.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |location=Colombo, Sri Lanka}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Los Angeles Times''|2000}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sirimavo Bandaranaike; World's First Female Prime Minister |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2000/oct/12/local/me-35572 |access-date=13 February 2018 |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=12 October 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310004011/http://articles.latimes.com/2000/oct/12/local/me-35572 |archive-date=10 March 2016 |location=Los Angeles, California}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Daily FT''|2016}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sirimavo—to the manor born, to lead a country |url=http://www.ft.lk/columns/sirimavo-to-the-manor-born-to-lead-a-country/4-536914 |access-date=29 October 2018 |newspaper=[[Daily FT]] |date=19 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029205200/http://www.ft.lk/columns/sirimavo-to-the-manor-born-to-lead-a-country/4-536914 |archive-date=29 October 2018 |location=Colombo, Sri Lanka}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Hartford Courant''|1980}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sri Lankan Leader Ousted for Abusing Her Power |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25109839/hartford_courant/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Hartford Courant]] |date=17 October 1980 |page=C23 |location=Hartford, Connecticut |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Gazette''|1989}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sri Lankan party leader escapes bomb attack |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25142801/the_gazette/ |access-date=5 November 2018 |newspaper=[[Montreal Gazette|The Gazette]] |date=6 February 1989 |page=2 |location=Montreal, Quebec, Canada |agency=[[Deutsche Presse-Agentur]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite journal |ref={{harvid|''Socialist India''|1974}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sri Lanka P.M.: Sirimavo Bandaranaike |journal=Socialist India |date=2 February 1974 |volume=VIII |issue=10 |pages=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z8xoJo-GQUIC&pg=PA164 |access-date=31 October 2018 |publisher=National Herald Press for the All-India Congress Committee |location=New Delhi, India}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Daily Sitka Sentinel''|1993}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sri Lanka Police Seek ID of President's Killer |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25166494/daily_sitka_sentinel/ |access-date=6 November 2018 |newspaper=[[Daily Sitka Sentinel]] |date= 3 May 1993 |page=10 |location=Sitka, Alaska |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Baltimore Sun''|1977}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sri Lanka voters oust Mrs. Bandaranaike |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/25108526/the_baltimore_sun/ |access-date=4 November 2018 |newspaper=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=23 July 1977 |page=2 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |agency=[[Associated Press]] |via = [[Newspapers.com]]}} {{open access}} *{{cite book |ref={{harvid|''Sri Lanka Year Book 1975''|1976}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Sri Lanka Year Book 1975 |date=1976 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |location=Colombo |url=http://noolaham.net/project/120/11908/11908.pdf |access-date=20 November 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180704153350/http://noolaham.net/project/120/11908/11908.pdf |archive-date=4 July 2018}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''BBC''|2000a}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Veteran Sri Lankan PM resigns |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/873829.stm |access-date=13 February 2018 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=10 August 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020012302/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/873829.stm |archive-date=20 October 2018 |location=London, England}} *{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''The Times''|1960a}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Woman Leader For Ceylon Party |url=http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=TTDA&userGroupName=wes_ttda&tabID=T003&docPage=article&searchType=BasicSearchForm&docId=CS167993001&type=multipage&contentSet=LTO&version=1.0 |access-date=31 October 2018 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=9 May 1960 |issue=54766 |page=10 |location=London, England |id=Gale Document Number: CS167993001|url-access=subscription | via=[[Gale (penerbit)|Gale]]}} {{refend}} ==Pranala jaba== *[http://www.worldgenweb.org/lkawgw/gen3060.html The Ratwatte Ancestry]{{Pranala mati|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *[http://www.worldgenweb.org/lkawgw/gen1001.html The Bandaranaike Ancestry]{{Pranala mati|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *{{cite web|title=First female Prime Minister in the world Sirimavo Bandaranaike|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/first-female-prime-minister-in-the-world-sirimavo-bandaranaike-1653592-2020-03-08|date=March 8, 2020|magazine=[[India Today]]}} *{{cite news|title=Sirimavo Bandaranaike was the world's first female prime minister, her journey|url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/education/gk-update/sirimavo-bandaranaike-history-facts-and-biography/articleshow/86479379.cms|date=Sep 24, 2021|first=Stuti|last=Goswami|newspaper=[[Navbharat Times]]}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bandaranaike, Sirimavo}} [[Category:Mahamantri Sri Lanka]] bnlbpx3x7isitbpv6273jdiasncihlr Tzav (parsyah) 0 185290 1752852 1749037 2026-08-20T03:10:04Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752852 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Tabernacle_Camp.jpg|ka|jmpl|500x500px|Ing [[Kemah Suci|Kemah suci]] (gambar abad ka-19)]] '''Tzav''', '''Tsav''', '''Zav''', '''Sav''', utawa ing basa Ibrani Alkitab '''Ṣaw''' (צַו – [[Basa Ibrani]] kanggo "dawuh," tembung kaenem, lan tembung khas kapisan, ing parsyah iki) yaiku [[Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu]] (פָּרָשָׁה, ''parashah'') ka-25 ing siklus taunan [[Pawacaan Torèt]] lan sing kapindho saka [[Kitab Kaimaman]]. Parsyah kasebut ngajarke kapiye [[Kohen|imam]] ngelakoni [[Kurban (Yahudi)|persembahan korban]] lan ngejelaske babagan pentahbisan [[Harun]] lan anak-anakne. Parsyah kasebut ngeliputi Kaimaman 6:1–8:36 (Kaimaman 6:8–8:36 ing [[Alkitab Versi Raja James|KJV]]). Kabeh parsyah kasebut kalebu 5.096 aksara Ibrani, 1.353 tembung Ibrani, ing 97 [[Pasal lan ayat ing Alkitab|ayat]], lan sampun manggoni kira-kira 170 baris ing gulungan Torèt (סֵפֶר תּוֹרָה, ''[[Gulungan Kitab Torèt|Sefer Torah]]'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/vayikra/vayikra-torah-stats/|title=Torah Stats — VaYikra|publisher=Akhlah Inc.|access-date=March 15, 2013|archive-date=September 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921225913/https://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/vayikra/vayikra-torah-stats/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Yahudi|Wong-wong Yahudi]] maca iku ing [[Sabat|dina Sabat]] ka-24 utawa ka-25 sawise [[Simchat Torah]], umume ing wulan Maret utawa wiwit April. == Referensi == {{reflist|30em}} == Wacaan tambahan == === Non-rabinik wiwit === * [[Philo]]. [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book4.html ''Allegorical Interpretation''] 3:45:129, 46:133, 50:147; [http://cornerstonepublications.org/Philo/Philo_On_The_Migration_of_Abraham.html ''On the Migration of Abraham''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220062729/http://cornerstonepublications.org/Philo/Philo_On_The_Migration_of_Abraham.html |date=2009-02-20 }} 12:67; [http://cornerstonepublications.org/Philo/Philo_Who_is_the_Heir.html ''Who Is the Heir of Divine Things?''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122073053/http://cornerstonepublications.org/Philo/Philo_Who_is_the_Heir.html |date=2010-01-22 }} 36:174; [http://cornerstonepublications.org/Philo/Philo_On_The_Life_of_Moses_II.html ''On the Life of Moses''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100804100938/http://cornerstonepublications.org/Philo/Philo_On_The_Life_of_Moses_II.html |date=2010-08-04 }} 2:29:150; [http://cornerstonepublications.org/Philo/Philo_The_Special_Laws_I.html ''The Special Laws''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223210147/http://cornerstonepublications.org/Philo/Philo_The_Special_Laws_I.html |date=2009-02-23 }} 1:41:225, 43:240, 46:254, 52:285. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st Century C.E.. Reprinted in, e.g., ''The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by [[Charles Duke Yonge]], pages 65, 67, 259, 290, 504, 555, 557–58, 561. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993. {{ISBN|0-943575-93-1}}. [[Berkas:Josephusbust.jpg|jmpl|ka|60px|Josephus]] * [[Josephus]], ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' [http://www.interhack.net/projects/library/antiquities-jews/b3c9.html 3:9:1–4,] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006194126/http://www.interhack.net/projects/library/antiquities-jews/b3c9.html |date=2018-10-06 }} [http://www.interhack.net/projects/library/antiquities-jews/b3c11.html 11:2;] [http://www.interhack.net/projects/library/antiquities-jews/b4c8.html 4:8:9,] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401091716/http://www.interhack.net/projects/library/antiquities-jews/b4c8.html |date=2014-04-01 }} [http://www.interhack.net/projects/library/antiquities-jews/b4c11.html 11:1;]{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [http://www.interhack.net/projects/library/antiquities-jews/b8c8.html 8:8:4.]{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Circa 93–94. Reprinted in, e.g., ''The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by [[William Whiston]], pages 94–95. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987. {{ISBN|0-913573-86-8}}. === Rabinik klasik === * [[Mishnah]]: [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Challah.1.6 Challah 1:6;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Orlah.2.16 Orlah 2:16–17;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Bikkurim.2.7 Bikkurim 2:7–10;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Shekalim.1.4 Shekalim 1:4,] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Shekalim.7.6 7:6;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Yoma.7.5 Yoma 7:5;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Megillah.2.6 Megillah 2:6;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Sotah.9.13 Sotah 9:12;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Zevachim Zevachim 1:1–14:10;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Menachot Menachot 1:1–13:11;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Chullin.7.1 Chullin 7:1,] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Chullin.10.1 10:1;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Keritot.1.1 Keritot 1:1;] [http://www.sefaria.org/Mishna_Tamid.2.3 Tamid 2:3;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Kinim.pdf Kinnim 1:1.] Land of Israel, circa 200 C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation''. Translated by [[Jacob Neusner]], pages 149, 164, 171, 252, 263, 277, 320, 464, 699–765, 779, 784, 836, 864–65. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. {{ISBN|0-300-05022-4}}. * [[Tosefta]]: Demai 2:7–8; Challah 2:7–8; Pisha (Pesachim) 8:9; Megillah 3:21; Sotah 13:7; Bava Kamma 10:13; Shevuot 2:10; 3:1, 6; Zevachim 1:1–13:20; Menachot 1:1–13:23; Oktzin 3:3. Land of Israel, circa 300 C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., ''The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction''. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 85–86, 339, 511, 650, 886; volume 2, pages 1012, 1227, 1229, 1231, 1307–70, 1407–68, 1925. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|1-56563-642-2}}. * [[Sifra]] 70:1–98:9. Land of Israel, 4th Century C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Sifra: An Analytical Translation''. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 1–119. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. {{ISBN|1-55540-206-2}}. * [[Jerusalem Talmud]]: Orlah 33b, 34b; Bikkurim 12b, 25a; Shabbat 18b; Pesachim 13a–14a, 36b–37a, 44a, 56b–57a, 63b, 64b, 78a; Yoma 1a, 2a, 3a–b, 6a, 11a–b, 12a, 21b, 30b–31a, 32a, 39a, 49b; Sukkah 14a; Megillah 16a–b, 18b, 26a; Moed Katan 17a; Chagigah 23a; Yevamot 1a; Sotah 24b. Land of Israel, circa 400 C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Talmud Yerushalmi''. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 12–13, 18–19, 21–22, 26–29. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2007–2015. * [[Leviticus Rabbah]] 7:1–10:9. Land of Israel, 5th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus''. Translated by [[Harry Freedman (rabbi)|Harry Freedman]] and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 89–134. London: Soncino Press, 1939. {{ISBN|0-900689-38-2}}. [[Berkas:First page of the first tractate of the Talmud (Daf Beis of Maseches Brachos).jpg|jmpl|ka|60px|Talmud]] * Babylonian [[Talmud]]: [http://www.halakhah.com/shabbath/shabbath_111.html Shabbat 111a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/shabbath/shabbath_114.html 114a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/shabbath/shabbath_132.html 132a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Pesachim.pdf Pesachim 3a, 16a–b, 19a, 23a–24b, 26a, 27b, 35a, 37a, 38b, 43b, 45a, 58a–59b, 63b, 65b, 71b, 79a, 82a–83a, 95b–96a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Yoma.pdf Yoma 2a–b, 4a, 5a–b, 7a, 12b, 20a, 21a, 23b–24a, 25a, 28a, 33a–34a, 45a–b, 46b–47a, 59b–60a, 74a–b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Sukkah.pdf Sukkah 43a, 47b, 55b–56a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Beitzah.pdf Beitzah 19b, 21a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Rosh_HaShanah.pdf Rosh Hashanah 5b–6a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Taanith.pdf Taanit 11b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Megilah.pdf Megillah 9b, 20b, 23b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Moed_Katan.pdf Moed Katan 9a, 15b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Chagigah.pdf Chagigah 7b, 10b, 24a, 26b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_7.html Yevamot 7a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_39.html#PARTb 39b–40a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_68.html#PARTb 68b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_72.html#PARTb 72b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_74.html#PARTb 74b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_81.html 81a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_82.html 82a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_87.html 87a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/yebamoth/yebamoth_100.html 100a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_5.html#PARTb Ketubot 5b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_25.html 25a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/kethuboth/kethuboth_106.html#PARTb 106b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/nedarim/nedarim_10.html#PARTb Nedarim 10b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/nedarim/nedarim_12.html 12a–b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/nedarim/nedarim_25.html 25a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/nedarim/nedarim_36.html 36a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/nazir/nazir_37.html#PARTb Nazir 37b–38a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/sotah/sotah_14.html#PARTb Sotah 14b–15a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/sotah/sotah_19.html 19a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/sotah/sotah_23.html 23a–b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/sotah/sotah_29.html 29a–b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/nashim/Kiddushin.pdf Kiddushin 29a, 30a, 36b, 51a, 53a, 55b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/babakamma/babakamma_5.html Bava Kamma 5a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/babakamma/babakamma_13.html 13a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/babakamma/babakamma_41.html 41a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/babakamma/babakamma_82.html#PARTb 82b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/babakamma/babakamma_110.html#PARTb 110b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/babakamma/babakamma_111.html 111a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_3.html#PARTb Bava Metzia 3b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/babamezia/babamezia_55.html 55a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/bababathra/bababathra_106.html#PARTb Bava Batra 106b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_34.html Sanhedrin 34a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_42.html#PARTb 42b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_61.html#PARTb 61b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Makkoth.pdf Makkot 13a, 14b, 17a–b, 18b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Shevuoth.pdf Shevuot 6b–7a, 11a, 15a–b, 29a, 38a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/zarah/zarah_34.html Avodah Zarah 34a–b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/zarah/zarah_76.html 76a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/horayoth/horayoth_3.html Horayot 3a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/horayoth/horayoth_9.html 9a,] [http://www.halakhah.com/horayoth/horayoth_11.html#PARTb 11b–12a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Zevachim.pdf Zevachim 2a–120b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Menachoth.pdf Menachot 2a–110a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Chullin.pdf Chullin 22a, 23b, 36b–37a, 39a, 45a, 74b–75a, 81b, 99a, 101a, 117a–b, 120a, 130a, 131b, 132b–33b, 134b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Bechoroth.pdf Bekhorot 15a, 30b, 33b, 39a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Arachin.pdf Arakhin 3b–4a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Tmurah.pdf Temurah 14a, 18a–b, 23a, 32b;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Krithoth.pdf Keritot 2a, 4a–b, 5a–6a, 20b–21b, 22b, 23b, 27a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Meilah.pdf Meilah 2a, 5a–6b, 9a, 10a, 11b–12a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/kodoshim/Tamid.pdf Tamid 28a–29a, 30a;] [http://www.halakhah.com/niddah/niddah_6.html#PARTb Niddah 6b,] [http://www.halakhah.com/niddah/niddah_40.html 40a–41a.] Babylonia, 6th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006. [[Barkas:Rashi woodcut cropped.jpg|jmpl|ka|60px|Rashi]] === Abad Tengahan=== * [[Rashi]]. ''Commentary''. [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=9907&showrashi=true Leviticus 6–8.] [[Troyes]], France, late 11th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Rashi. ''The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated''. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 59–92. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. {{ISBN|0-89906-028-5}}. * [[Rashbam]]. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Troyes, early 12th century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation''. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 35–46. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001. {{ISBN|1-930675-07-0}}. * [[Yehuda Halevi|Judah Halevi]]. ''[[Kuzari]]''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/khz/khz02.htm 2:80.] [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Spain, 1130–1140. Reprinted in, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. ''Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel.'' Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 133. New York: Schocken, 1964. {{ISBN|0-8052-0075-4}}. * [[Abraham ibn Ezra]]. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Mid-12th century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra)''. Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 29–55. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004. {{ISBN|0-932232-11-6}}. * [[Hezekiah ben Manoah]]. ''Hizkuni''. France, circa 1240. Reprinted in, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. ''Chizkuni: Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 679–93. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-60280-261-2}}. [[Berkas:Zohar.png|jmpl|ka|60px|The Zohar]] * [[Nahmanides|Nachmanides]]. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Jerusalem, circa 1270. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah.'' Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 59–101. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974. {{ISBN|0-88328-007-8}}. * [[Zohar]] 2:236b, 238b; 3:27a–35b, 37a, 87a, 107b, 213a. Spain, late 13th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''The Zohar''. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934. * [[Bahya ben Asher]]. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Spain, early 14th century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1528–72. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003. {{ISBN|965-7108-45-4}}. * [[Jacob ben Asher]] (Baal Ha-Turim). ''Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim''. Early 14th century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger; edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1055–77. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000. {{ISBN|1-57819-130-0}}. * Jacob ben Asher. ''Perush Al ha-Torah''. Early 14th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. ''Tur on the Torah''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 806–26. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005. {{ISBN|978-9657108765}}. * [[Isaac ben Moses Arama]]. ''Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac)''. Late 15th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. ''Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah''. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 558–67. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001. {{ISBN|965-7108-30-6}}. === Modern === * [[Isaac Abravanel]]. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Italy, between 1492–1509. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus''. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 59–80. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. {{ISBN|978-1508721338}}. Excerpted in, e.g., ''Abarbanel on the Torah: Selected Themes''. Translated by Avner Tomaschoff, pages 360–81. Jerusalem: [[Jewish Agency for Israel]], 2007. {{ISBN|965-7118-05-0}}. * [[Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno]]. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Venice, 1567. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Sforno: Commentary on the Torah''. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 514–25. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997. {{ISBN|0-89906-268-7}}. * [[Moshe Alshich]]. ''Commentary on the Torah''. [[Safed]], circa 1593. Reprinted in, e.g., Moshe Alshich. ''Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 634–43. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000. {{ISBN|965-7108-13-6}}. [[Berkas:Thomas Hobbes (portrait).jpg|jmpl|ka|60px|Hobbes]] * Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Commentaries on the Torah''. [[Kraków|Cracow]], Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as ''Chanukat HaTorah''. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrkow]], Poland, 1900. Reprinted in Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash''. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 207–10. [[Southfield, Michigan]]: [[Targum Press]]/[[Feldheim Publishers]], 2004. {{ISBN|1-56871-303-7}}. * [[Thomas Hobbes]]. ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]'', part 3, chapters [[s:Leviathan/The Third Part: Of a Christian Commonwealth#Chapter XL: Of the Rights of the Kingdom of God.2C in Abraham.2C Moses.2C the High Priests.2C and the Kings of Judah|40]], [[s:Leviathan/The Third Part: Of a Christian Commonwealth#Chapter XLII: Of Power Ecclesiastical|42.]] England, 1651. Reprint edited by [[C. B. Macpherson]], pages 503–04, 572. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. {{ISBN|0-14-043195-0}}. * [[Shabbethai Bass]]. ''Sifsei Chachamim''. Amsterdam, 1680. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros'', translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 85–139. [[Lakewood Township, New Jersey]]: Metsudah Publications, 2012. * [[Chaim ibn Attar]]. ''Ohr ha-Chaim''. Venice, 1742. Reprinted in Chayim ben Attar. ''Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah''. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 986–1019. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999. {{ISBN|965-7108-12-8}}. * Yitzchak Magriso. ''[[Me'am Lo'ez]]''. [[Istanbul|Constantinople]], 1753. Reprinted in Yitzchak Magriso. ''The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez''. Translated by [[Aryeh Kaplan]], volume 11, pages 119–86. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989. {{ISBN|094011884X}}. * [[Nachman of Breslov]]. ''Teachings''. [[Bratslav]], [[Ukraine]], before 1811. Reprinted in ''Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus''. Compiled by Chaim Kramer; edited by Y. Hall, pages 314–20. Jerusalem: [[Breslov Research Institute]], 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-928822-53-0}}. [[Berkas:Shadal.jpg|ka|jmpl|60px|Luzzatto]] * [[Samuel David Luzzatto]] (Shadal). ''Commentary on the Torah.'' [[Padova]], 1871. Reprinted in, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. ''Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 916–23. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012. {{ISBN|978-965-524-067-2}}. * [[Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter]]. ''Sefat Emet''. [[Góra Kalwaria]] (Ger), [[Poland]], before 1906. Excerpted in ''The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet''. Translated and interpreted by [[Arthur Green]], pages 153–58. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. {{ISBN|0-8276-0650-8}}. Reprinted 2012. {{ISBN|0-8276-0946-9}}. * [[Louis Ginzberg]]. ''Legends of the Jews'', [http://philologos.org/__eb-lotj/vol3/p05.htm volume 3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205023400/http://philologos.org/__eb-lotj/vol3/p05.htm |date=2012-02-05 }}, pages 179–81. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1911. * George Buchanan Gray. ''Sacrifice in the Old Testament: Its Theory and Practice''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925. Reprinted by Ktav Publishing House, 1971. * Isaac Mendelsohn. "Urim and Thummim." In ''The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible'', volume 4, pages 739–40. [[Nashville, Tennessee]]: [[Abingdon Press]], 1962. {{ISBN|0-687-19273-0}}. * [[Roland De Vaux]]. ''Studies in Old Testament Sacrifice''. University of Wales Press, 1964. {{ISBN|0-7083-0346-3}}. * [[Moshe Greenberg]]. "Urim and Thummim." In ''[[Encyclopaedia Judaica]]'', volume 16, pages 8–9. Jerusalem: [[Keter Publishing House]], 1972. {{LCCN|7290254}}. * [[Jacob Milgrom]]. "Sacrifices and Offerings, OT," and "Wave offering." In ''The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible''. Supp. volume, pages 763–71, 944–46. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1976. {{ISBN|0-687-19269-2}}. * [[Gordon Wenham|Gordon J. Wenham]]. ''The Book of Leviticus'', pages 112–45. [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]: [[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]], 1979. {{ISBN|0-8028-2522-2}}. * [[Pinchas Hacohen Peli|Pinchas H. Peli]]. ''Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture'', pages 111–14. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987. {{ISBN|0-910250-12-X}}. * David P. Wright. "The Disposal of Impurity: Elimination Rites in the Bible and in Hittite and Mesopotamian Literature." ''Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Studies''. Volume 101 (1987): pages 34–36. * [[Mark S. Smith]]. ''The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel'', page 2. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990. {{ISBN|0-06-067416-4}}. ({{Bibleverse||Leviticus|6:15–16|HE}}). * [[Harvey J. Fields]]. ''A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus'', pages 104–10. New York: UAHC Press, 1991. {{ISBN|0-8074-0334-2}}. * Victor Avigdor Hurowitz. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1486623 “Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation.”] ''[[AJS Review]]'', volume 19 (number 2) (1994): pages 213–36. * [[Walter Kaiser, Jr.|Walter C. Kaiser Jr.]], "The Book of Leviticus," in ''The New Interpreter's Bible'', volume 1, pages 1042–63. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0-687-27814-7}}. * Judith S. Antonelli. "The Priesthood." In ''In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah'', pages 247–56. [[Northvale, New Jersey]]: [[Jason Aronson]], 1995. {{ISBN|1-56821-438-3}}. [[Berkas:GuntherPlaut.jpg|jmpl|ka|60px|Plaut]] * [[Ellen Frankel]]. ''The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah'', pages 156–58. New York: [[G. P. Putnam's Sons]], 1996. {{ISBN|0-399-14195-2}}. * [[Gunther Plaut|W. Gunther Plaut]]. ''The Haftarah Commentary'', pages 244–53. New York: UAHC Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-8074-0551-5}}. * Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. ''Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities'', pages 172–76. [[Denver]]: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997. {{ISBN|0-86705-041-1}}. * [[Cornelis Van Dam]]. ''The Urim and Thummin: A Means of Revelation in Ancient Israel''. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997. {{ISBN|0-931464-83-8}}. * Jacob Milgrom. ''Leviticus 1–16'', volume 3, pages 378–569. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998. {{ISBN|0-385-11434-6}}. * [[Mary Douglas]]. ''Leviticus as Literature'', pages 20, 71, 76–77, 83–84, 113, 120, 123, 125–26, 128, 134, 150, 166, 187, 199, 203, 224, 231, 239, 244, 249–51. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-19-924419-7}}. * Susan Freeman. ''Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities'', pages 165–78. [[Springfield Township, Union County, New Jersey|Springfield, New Jersey]]: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. {{ISBN|978-0-86705-045-5}}. ({{Bibleverse||Leviticus|1–7|HE}}). * Frank H. Gorman Jr. “Leviticus.” In ''The HarperCollins Bible Commentary''. Edited by [[James Luther Mays|James L. Mays]], pages 150–54. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000. {{ISBN|0-06-065548-8}}. * Claire Magidovitch Green. "Message and Messenger." In ''The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions''. Edited by [[Elyse Goldstein]], pages 191–95. [[Woodstock, Vermont]]: [[Jewish Lights Publishing]], 2000. {{ISBN|1-58023-076-8}}. * Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. ''Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies'', pages 382–91. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002. {{ISBN|0-86705-054-3}}. * [[Michael Fishbane]]. ''The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot'', pages 155–61. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002. {{ISBN|0-8276-0691-5}}. * [[Robert Alter]]. ''The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary'', pages 564–75. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004. {{ISBN|0-393-01955-1}}. * Elaine Rose Glickman. "Haftarat Tzav: Jeremiah 7:21–8:3; 9:22–23." In ''The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot''. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 116–20. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004. {{ISBN|1-58023-133-0}}. * Jacob Milgrom. ''Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary'', pages 62–87. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8006-9514-3}}. * Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In ''The Jewish Study Bible''. Edited by [[Adele Berlin]] and [[Marc Zvi Brettler]], pages 217–24. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-19-529751-2}}. * Antony Cothey. [http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0309089205060612 “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.”] ''[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament]]'', volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51. * Bernard J. Bamberger. “Leviticus.” In ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Edited by [[Gunther Plaut|W. Gunther Plaut]]; revised edition edited by [[David E. Stern|David E.S. Stern]], pages 686–703. New York: [[Union for Reform Judaism]], 2006. {{ISBN|0-8074-0883-2}}. * Suzanne A. Brody. "A Woman's Portion." In ''Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems'', page 86. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. {{ISBN|1-60047-112-9}}. * [[James Kugel|James L. Kugel]]. ''How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now'', pages 301–03, 358. New York: Free Press, 2007. {{ISBN|0-7432-3586-X}}. * Christophe Nihan. ''From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus''. Coronet Books, 2007. {{ISBN|3161492579}}. * James W. Watts. ''Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-521-87193-8}}. * ''The Torah: A Women's Commentary''. Edited by [[Tamara Cohn Eskenazi]] and [[Andrea Weiss|Andrea L. Weiss]], pages 593–614. New York: [[Union for Reform Judaism|URJ Press]], 2008. {{ISBN|0-8074-1081-0}}. * Noach Dzmura. “HaNer Tamid, dos Pintele Yid v’ha Zohar Muzar: The Eternal Flame, the Jewish Spark, and the Flaming Queer: Parashat Tsav (Leviticus 6:1–8:36).” In ''Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible''. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by [[Judith Plaskow]], pages 129–34. New York: [[New York University Press]], 2009. {{ISBN|0-8147-2012-9}}. * [[Reuven Hammer]]. ''Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion'', pages 147–52. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009. {{ISBN|978-965-229-434-0}}. * Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In ''Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary''. Edited by [[John H. Walton]], volume 1, pages 296–98. Grand Rapids, Michigan: [[Zondervan]], 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-310-25573-4}}. * Mark Leuchter. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41062672 “The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.”] ''[[Vetus Testamentum]]'', volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 345–65. * Jeffrey Stackert. “Leviticus.” In ''The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible''. Edited by [[Michael Coogan|Michael D. Coogan]], Marc Z. Brettler, [[Carol A. Newsom]], and [[Pheme Perkins]], pages 150–54. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010. {{ISBN|0-19-528955-2}}. [[Berkas:Shmuel Herzfeld at House of Representatives cropped.jpg|jmpl|ka|60px|Herzfeld]] * [[William G. Dever]]. ''The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect'', page 244. [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]: [[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]], 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-6701-8}}. * [[Shmuel Herzfeld]]. "A Response to Catastrophe." In ''Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons'', pages 147–50. Jerusalem: [[Gefen Publishing House]], 2012. {{ISBN|978-965-229-558-3}}. [[Berkas:Sirjonathansacks.jpg|jmpl|ka|60px|Sacks]] * David Greenstein. [http://www.jpost.com/Jerusalem-Report/Jewish-World/Urged-to-remember-344849 "Urged To Remember: We must remember the heinous crimes of Amalek so that we may avoid the danger of repeating those crimes ourselves."] ''[[The Jerusalem Report]]'', volume 24 (number 25) (March 24, 2014): page 47. * Annette Yoshiko Reed. [https://www.academia.edu/4534761/_From_Sacrifice_to_the_Slaughterhouse_Ancient_and_Modern_Approaches_to_Meat_Animals_and_Civilization_ "From Sacrifice to the Slaughterhouse: Ancient and Modern Approaches to Meat, Animals, and Civilization."]{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (2015). * [[Jonathan Sacks]]. ''Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness'', pages 99–131. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015. {{ISBN|978-1-59264-022-5}}. == Pranala jaba == [[Barkas:Old book bindings.jpg|150px|ka]] === Teks === * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0306.htm Teks Masoret dan terjemahan 1917 JPS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319014015/https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0306.htm |date=2022-03-19 }} * [http://Bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displaypage&book=3&chapter=6&verse=1&portion=25 Pelafalan parsyah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515002119/http://bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displaypage&book=3&chapter=6&verse=1&portion=25 |date=2011-05-15 }} * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/ptmp3prq.htm#mp3 Pembacaan parsyah dalam bahasa Ibrani] === Tafsiran === {{col-begin}} | width="25%" align="left" valign="top" style="border:0"| * [http://ajrca.org/parsha-of-the-week/parshat-tsav-2/ Academy for Jewish Religion, California] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724231142/http://ajrca.org/parsha-of-the-week/parshat-tsav-2/ |date=2011-07-24 }} * [http://ajrsem.org/tag/tzav/ Academy for Jewish Religion, New York] * [http://www.aish.com/tp/43918967.html Aish.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317055708/http://www.aish.com/tp/43918967.html |date=2013-03-17 }} * [http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/vayikra/parashat-tzav/ Akhlah: The Jewish Children's Learning Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318043553/http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/vayikra/parashat-tzav/ |date=2013-03-18 }} * [http://ziegler.aju.edu/Default.aspx?id=6686 American Jewish University — Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222512/http://ziegler.aju.edu/Default.aspx?id=6686 |date=2017-09-30 }} * [http://www.anshe.org/parsha/tzav.htm Anshe Emes Synagogue, Los Angeles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101151419/http://www.anshe.org/parsha/tzav.htm |date=2012-11-01 }} * [http://www.arigoldwag.com/pp.html Ari Goldwag] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727073246/http://arigoldwag.com/pp.html |date=2013-07-27 }} * [http://www.ascentofsafed.com/cgi-bin/search.pl?Terms=tzav&Match=1 Ascent of Safed] * [http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/tzav/tzav.shtml Bar-Ilan University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926120342/http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/tzav/tzav.shtml |date=2012-09-26 }} * [http://www.chabad.org/parshah/default.asp?AID=15575 Chabad.org] | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [http://www.eparsha.com/#drash eparsha.com] * [http://www.g-dcast.com/tsav G-dcast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321213215/http://www.g-dcast.com/tsav |date=2012-03-21 }} * [http://www.vbm-torah.org/vayikra.htm The Israel Koschitzky Virtual Beit Midrash] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514190228/http://www.vbm-torah.org/vayikra.htm |date=2011-05-14 }} * [http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+Time/Jewish+Sources/Iyunum/Parashat+Tzav.htm Jewish Agency for Israel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913050152/http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+Time/Jewish+Sources/Iyunum/Parashat+Tzav.htm |date=2012-09-13 }} * [http://www.jtsa.edu/jts-torah-online?search=&genre=&parashah=2078 Jewish Theological Seminary] * [http://www.mechonhadar.org/web/guest/search?p_p_id=3&p_p_action=0&_3_primarySearch=com.liferay.portlet.journal.util.JournalOpenSearchImpl&p_p_state=normal&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=&p_p_col_pos=0&p_p_col_count=0&_3_struts_action=%2Fsearch%2Fsearch&_3_keywords=%22Parashat+Tzav%22 Mechon Hadar]{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.mishpacha.com/Browse/Article/841/Tzav Miriam Aflalo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406114423/http://www.mishpacha.com/Browse/Article/841/Tzav |date=2012-04-06 }} * [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/Weekly_Torah_Commentary/tzav_index.htm MyJewishLearning.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925121826/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/Weekly_Torah_Commentary/tzav_index.htm |date=2008-09-25 }} * [http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/2571 Ohr Sameach] * [http://odysseynetworks.org/on-scripture-the-torah ON Scripture — The Torah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408101118/http://odysseynetworks.org/ON-Scripture-The-Torah |date=2013-04-08 }} * [http://www.ou.org/torah/archive3.htm Orthodox Union] * [http://www.oztorah.com/category/tzav/ OzTorah, Torah from Australia] * [http://www.netivot-shalom.org.il/eparsha.php Oz Ve Shalom — Netivot Shalom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100624083451/http://www.netivot-shalom.org.il/eparsha.php |date=2010-06-24 }} | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [http://www.pardes.org.il/online_learning/parsha_quizzes/25_tzav.php Pardes from Jerusalem] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329113230/http://www.pardes.org.il/online_learning/parsha_quizzes/25_tzav.php |date=2012-03-29 }} * [http://www.jameskugel.com/weekly-torah-reading-tzav-march-26-2016/ Professor James L. Kugel] * [https://mcarasik.wordpress.com/2016/03/22/tzav-5776/ Professor Michael Carasik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517234742/https://mcarasik.wordpress.com/2016/03/22/tzav-5776/ |date=2017-05-17 }} * [http://rabbidovlinzer.blogspot.com/search/label/Parshat%20Tzav Rabbi Dov Linzer] * [http://rabbiwerbin.blogspot.com/2016/03/tzav-text-message.html Rabbi Fabian Werbin] * [http://www.rabbisacks.org/?s=tzav&.x=0&.y=0 Rabbi Jonathan Sacks] * [http://rabbishimon.com/?page_id=741 RabbiShimon.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016032111/http://rabbishimon.com/?page_id=741 |date=2013-10-16 }} * [http://www.ohrtorahstone.org.il/parsha/index.htm Rabbi Shlomo Riskin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821085057/http://www.ohrtorahstone.org.il/parsha/index.htm |date=2011-08-21 }} * [http://www.rabbishmuel.com/browse.cgi?type=torah_sermons Rabbi Shmuel Herzfeld] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311000646/http://www.rabbishmuel.com/browse.cgi?type=torah_sermons |date=2013-03-11 }} * [http://www.rabbistan.com/tzav.htm Rabbi Stan Levin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402171135/http://www.rabbistan.com/tzav.htm |date=2017-04-02 }} * [http://www4.jrf.org/recon-dt#Tzav Reconstructionist Judaism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060216223743/http://www2.jrf.org/recon-dt/#Tzav |date=2006-02-16 }} * [http://www.judaic.org/addtl_files/sav.htm Sephardic Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726212332/http://www.judaic.org/addtl_files/sav.htm |date=2011-07-26 }} * [http://www.shiur.com/index.php?category=Tzav Shiur.com] * [http://www.613.org/par-vayikra.html#v2 613.org Jewish Torah Audio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522173456/http://www.613.org/par-vayikra.html#v2 |date=2011-05-22 }} | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [http://dancinginthewhitespaces.blogspot.com/2009/04/dvar-torah-parshat-tzavhagadol.html Suzanne A. Brody] * [http://www.patheos.com/Resources/Additional-Resources/Parshat-Tzav.html Talia Davis] * [http://tanach.org/tzav.htm Tanach Study Center] * [http://www.teach613.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=46&Itemid=48 Teach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry Hill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315101801/http://www.teach613.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=46&Itemid=48 |date=2012-03-15 }} * [http://www.tfdixie.com/parshat/tzav/ Torah from Dixie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319065707/http://www.tfdixie.com/parshat/tzav/ |date=2012-03-19 }} * [http://www.torah.org/learning/parsha/parsha.html?id1=42 Torah.org] * [http://www.torahvort.com/vayikra/tzav/ TorahVort.com] * [http://www.reformjudaism.org/learning/torah-study/tzav Union for Reform Judaism] * [http://www.uscj.org/JewishLivingandLearning/WeeklyParashah/TorahSparks/Archive/Default.aspx United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814081344/http://uscj.org/JewishLivingandLearning/WeeklyParashah/TorahSparks/Archive/Default.aspx |date=2012-08-14 }} * [http://www.shemayisrael.com/parsha/bonchek/archives/archives.htm What's Bothering Rashi?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825072843/http://www.shemayisrael.com/parsha/bonchek/archives/archives.htm |date=2021-08-25 }} * [http://www.yctorah.org/index.php?option=com_search&Itemid=99999999&searchword=Parshat+Tzav&submit=Search&searchphrase=exact&ordering=newest Yeshivat Chovevei Torah] * [http://www.yutorah.org/ Yeshiva University] {{col-end}} {{Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu}} [[Kategori:Kitab Kaimaman]] [[Kategori:Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu]] lx2okdn9lpuy1ankz6mtpkdogi2nzia Metzora (parsyah) 0 185294 1752823 1749248 2026-08-19T12:44:22Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752823 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Cedrus wood.jpg|ka|jmpl|350px|Kayu cedar]] '''Metzora''', '''Metzorah''', '''M'tzora''', '''Mezora''', '''Metsora''', utawa '''M'tsora''' yaiku [[Wacaan Taurat Saben Minggu]] ({{Hebrew|פָּרָשָׁה}}, ''parashah'') ka-28 ing siklus [[wacaan Torèt]] [[Yudaisme|Yahudi]] taunan lan kalima ing [[Kitab Kaimaman]]. Parsyah kasebut ngeliputi Kaimaman 14:1–15:33. == Pranala jaba == [[Barkas:Old book bindings.jpg|150px|ka]] === Teks === * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0314.htm Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415221133/https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0314.htm |date=2022-04-15 }} * [http://Bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displaypage&book=3&chapter=14&verse=1&portion=28 Hear the parashah chanted] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515001120/http://bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displaypage&book=3&chapter=14&verse=1&portion=28 |date=2011-05-15 }} * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/ptmp3prq.htm#mp3 Hear the parashah read in Hebrew] === Tafsiran === {{col-begin}} | width="25%" align="left" valign="top" style="border:0"| * [http://ajrca.org/index.php?s=metzora&search.x=17&search.y=18 Academy for Jewish Religion, California] * [http://ajrsem.org/tag/mtzora/ Academy for Jewish Religion, New York] * [http://www.aish.com/tp/43918952.html Aish.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306111621/https://www.aish.com/tp/43918952.html |date=2019-03-06 }} * [http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/vayikra/parashot-metzorah/ Akhlah: The Jewish Children's Learning Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420022833/http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/vayikra/parashot-metzorah/ |date=2013-04-20 }} * [https://www.alephbeta.org/torah/leviticus/tazria-metzora Aleph Beta Academy]{{Pranala mati|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://ziegler.aju.edu/Default.aspx?id=6686 American Jewish University — Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222512/http://ziegler.aju.edu/Default.aspx?id=6686 |date=2017-09-30 }} * [http://www.anshe.org/parsha/tazria.htm Anshe Emes Synagogue, Los Angeles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101151629/http://www.anshe.org/parsha/tazria.htm |date=2012-11-01 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130727073246/http://arigoldwag.com/pp.html Ari Goldwag] * [http://www.ascentofsafed.com/cgi-bin/search.pl?Terms=metzora&Match=1 Ascent of Safed] * [http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/metzora/metzora.shtml Bar-Ilan University] | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [http://www.chabad.org/parshah/default.asp?AID=15579 Chabad.org] * [http://www.eparsha.com/#drash eparsha.com] * [http://www.g-dcast.com G-dcast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704060351/http://www.g-dcast.com/ |date=2017-07-04 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110514190228/http://www.vbm-torah.org/vayikra.htm The Israel Koschitzky Virtual Beit Midrash] * [http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+Time/Jewish+Sources/Iyunum/Parashat+Metzora.htm Jewish Agency for Israel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915015928/http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+Time/Jewish+Sources/Iyunum/Parashat+Metzora.htm |date=2012-09-15 }} * [http://www.jtsa.edu/jts-torah-online?search=&genre=&parashah=2075 Jewish Theological Seminary] * [http://www.mechonhadar.org/web/guest/search?p_p_id=3&p_p_action=0&p_p_state=normal&_3_primarySearch=com.liferay.portlet.journal.util.JournalOpenSearchImpl&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=&p_p_col_pos=0&p_p_col_count=0&_3_struts_action=%2Fsearch%2Fsearch&_3_keywords=metzora Mechon Hadar]{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [https://www.myjewishlearning.com/torah-portions/parashat-metzora/ MyJewishLearning.com] * [http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/2576 Ohr Sameach] * [http://odysseynetworks.org/news/onscripture-whom-do-we-send-outside-the-camp ON Scripture — The Torah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501065952/http://www.odysseynetworks.org/news/onscripture-whom-do-we-send-outside-the-camp |date=2012-05-01 }} * [http://www.ou.org/torah/archive3.htm Orthodox Union] * [http://www.oztorah.com/category/mtzora/ OzTorah — Torah from Australia] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100624083451/http://www.netivot-shalom.org.il/eparsha.php Oz Ve Shalom — Netivot Shalom] | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [https://elmad.pardes.org/topics Pardes from Jerusalem] * [http://www.jameskugel.com/torah-reading-april-18-2015/ Professor James L. Kugel] * [https://mcarasik.wordpress.com/2016/04/12/metzora-5776/ Professor Michael Carasik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518213659/https://mcarasik.wordpress.com/2016/04/12/metzora-5776/ |date=2017-05-18 }} * [http://rabbidovlinzer.blogspot.com/search/label/Parshat%20Metzorah Rabbi Dov Linzer] * [http://rabbiwerbin.blogspot.com/2016/04/metzorah-text-message.html Rabbi Fabian Werbin] * [http://www.rabbisacks.org/?s=metsorah&x=0&y=0 Rabbi Jonathan Sacks] * [http://rabbishimon.com/?p=747 RabbiShimon.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044251/http://rabbishimon.com/?p=747 |date=2019-03-06 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110821085057/http://www.ohrtorahstone.org.il/parsha/index.htm Rabbi Shlomo Riskin] * [http://www.rabbishmuel.com/browse.cgi?type=torah_sermons Rabbi Shmuel Herzfeld] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311000646/http://www.rabbishmuel.com/browse.cgi?type=torah_sermons |date=2013-03-11 }} * [http://www.rabbistan.com/metzora.htm Rabbi Stan Levin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044750/http://www.rabbistan.com/metzora.htm |date=2019-03-06 }} * [https://www.jewishrecon.org/divrei-torah#book-Leviticus Reconstructionist Judaism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227122534/https://www.jewishrecon.org/divrei-torah#book-Leviticus |date=2017-12-27 }} * [http://www.judaic.org/addtl_files/mesor'a.htm Sephardic Institute]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807154141/http://www.judaic.org/addtl_files/mesor%27a.htm |date=2008-08-07 }} * [http://www.shiur.com/index.php?category=Tazria--Metzorah Shiur.com] | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110522173456/http://www.613.org/par-vayikra.html#v5 613.org Jewish Torah Audio] * [http://tanach.org/metz.htm Tanach Study Center] * [http://www.teach613.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=48&Itemid=48 Teach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry Hill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301171631/http://www.teach613.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=48&Itemid=48 |date=2012-03-01 }} * [http://thetorah.com/leviticus/ TheTorah.com] * [http://www.tfdixie.com/parshat/tazria/ Torah from Dixie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305101554/http://www.tfdixie.com/parshat/tazria/ |date=2012-03-05 }} * [http://www.torah.org/learning/parsha/parsha.html?id1=45 Torah.org] * [http://www.torahvort.com/vayikra/metzora/ TorahVort.com] * [http://www.reformjudaism.org/learning/torah-study/mtzora Union for Reform Judaism] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120814081344/http://uscj.org/JewishLivingandLearning/WeeklyParashah/TorahSparks/Archive/Default.aspx United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism] * [http://www.shemayisrael.com/parsha/bonchek/archives/archives.htm What's Bothering Rashi?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825072843/http://www.shemayisrael.com/parsha/bonchek/archives/archives.htm |date=2021-08-25 }} * [http://www.yctorah.org/index.php?option=com_search&Itemid=99999999&searchword=metzora&submit=Search&searchphrase=exact&ordering=newest Yeshivat Chovevei Torah] * [http://www.yutorah.org/ Yeshiva University] {{col-end}} {{Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Metzora (Parsyah)}} [[Kategori:Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu wulan Nisan]] [[Kategori:Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu wulan Iyar]] jk1ja2svsspann0rzfgoqzv6l0trg9k Naso (parsyah) 0 185319 1752829 1750687 2026-08-19T15:02:06Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752829 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:PikiWiki Israel 146 Hanukka חנוכה.Jpg|thumb|340px|Menorah Hanukkah]] '''Naso''' atau '''Nasso''' ({{Hebrew|נָשֹׂא}} — [[Basa Ibrani|Ibrani]] kanggo "njupuk sensus" utawa "munggahke," tembung kaenem lan tembung distinsif kapisan (''[[incipit]]''), ing ''[[parsyah]]'' kasebut) yaiku [[Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu]] ({{Hebrew|פָּרָשָׁה}}, ''parsyah'') ka-35 ing siklus [[Wacaan Torèt]] [[Yudaisme|Yahudi]] taunan lan kapindho ing [[Kitab Wilangan]]. Wacaan kasebut ngeliputi Wilangan 4:21-7:89. == Pranala jaba == [[Barkas:Old book bindings.jpg|150px|ka]] === Teks === * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0404.htm#21 Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019001147/https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0404.htm#21 |date=2021-10-19 }} * [http://Bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displaypage&book=4&chapter=4&verse=21&portion=35 Hear the parashah chanted] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514215025/http://bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displaypage&book=4&chapter=4&verse=21&portion=35 |date=2011-05-14 }} * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/ptmp3prq.htm#mp3 Hear the parashah read in Hebrew] === Tafsiran === {{col-begin}} | width="25%" align="left" valign="top" style="border:0"| * [http://ajrca.org/index.php?s=naso Academy for Jewish Religion, California] * [http://ajrsem.org/?s=Naso Academy for Jewish Religion, New York] * [http://www.aish.com/tp/43918917.html Aish.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231517/https://www.aish.com/tp/43918917.html |date=2019-02-24 }} * [http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/bemidbar/parashot-naso/ Akhlah: The Jewish Children's Learning Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224173415/http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/bemidbar/parashot-naso/ |date=2019-02-24 }} * [https://www.alephbeta.org/torah/numbers/nasso Aleph Beta Academy]{{Pranala mati|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://ziegler.aju.edu/Default.aspx?id=6686 American Jewish University — Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222512/http://ziegler.aju.edu/Default.aspx?id=6686 |date=2017-09-30 }} * [http://www.anshe.org/parsha/nosso.htm Anshe Emes Synagogue, Los Angeles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616051925/http://www.anshe.org/parsha/nosso.htm |date=2017-06-16 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130727073246/http://arigoldwag.com/pp.html Ari Goldwag] * [http://ascentofsafed.com/cgi-bin/ascent.cgi?Name=nbao-35naso Ascent of Safed] * [http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/naso/naso.shtml Bar-Ilan University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612211413/http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/naso/naso.shtml |date=2017-06-12 }} | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [http://www.chabad.org/parshah/default.asp?AID=39589 Chabad.org] * [http://thedeserttabernacle.blogspot.com/ The Desert Tabernacle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002033819/http://thedeserttabernacle.blogspot.com/ |date=2011-10-02 }} * [http://www.eparsha.com/#drash eparsha.com] * [http://www.g-dcast.com/naso G-dcast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320215600/http://www.g-dcast.com/naso |date=2013-03-20 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609193106/http://www.vbm-torah.org/bamidbar.htm The Israel Koschitzky Virtual Beit Midrash] * [http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+Time/Jewish+Sources/Iyunum/Parashat+Nasso.htm Jewish Agency for Israel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915020246/http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+Time/Jewish+Sources/Iyunum/Parashat+Nasso.htm |date=2012-09-15 }} * [http://www.jtsa.edu/jts-torah-online?search=&genre=&parashah=2068&holiday=&theme=&series=&author= Jewish Theological Seminary] * [http://www.kabbalaonline.org/kabbalah/article_cdo/aid/399477/jewish/Naso.htm Kabbala Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224174926/https://www.kabbalaonline.org/kabbalah/article_cdo/aid/399477/jewish/Naso.htm |date=2019-02-24 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130621033032/http://www.mechonhadar.org/web/guest/parashsat-hashavua Mechon Hadar] * [http://www.mishpacha.com/Browse/Article/1116/Naso-Unique Miriam Aflalo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406114135/http://www.mishpacha.com/Browse/Article/1116/Naso-Unique |date=2012-04-06 }} * [https://www.myjewishlearning.com/torah-portions/parashat-nasso/ MyJewishLearning.com] * [http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/2628 Ohr Sameach] * [http://www.ou.org/torah/archive4.htm Orthodox Union] | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [http://www.oztorah.com/category/naso/ OzTorah, Torah from Australia] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100624083451/http://www.netivot-shalom.org.il/eparsha.php Oz Ve Shalom — Netivot Shalom] * [https://elmad.pardes.org/topics Pardes from Jerusalem] * [http://www.jameskugel.com/weekly-torah-reading-june-18-2016/ Professor James L. Kugel] * [http://en.yhb.org.il/2013/05/17/the-sweetness-of-bnei-merari/ Rabbi Eliezer Melamed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520053357/http://en.yhb.org.il/2013/05/17/the-sweetness-of-bnei-merari/ |date=2014-05-20 }} * [http://www.rabbisacks.org/?s=naso&.x=0&.y=0 Rabbi Jonathan Sacks] * [http://rabbishimon.com/?s=naso RabbiShimon.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224173556/http://rabbishimon.com/?s=naso |date=2019-02-24 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110821085057/http://www.ohrtorahstone.org.il/parsha/index.htm Rabbi Shlomo Riskin] * [http://www.rabbishmuel.com/browse.cgi?type=torah_sermons Rabbi Shmuel Herzfeld] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311000646/http://www.rabbishmuel.com/browse.cgi?type=torah_sermons |date=2013-03-11 }} * [http://www.rabbistan.com/naso.htm Rabbi Stan Levin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224115845/http://www.rabbistan.com/naso.htm |date=2019-02-24 }} * [https://www.jewishrecon.org/divrei-torah#book-Numbers Reconstructionist Judaism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227122534/https://www.jewishrecon.org/divrei-torah#book-Numbers |date=2017-12-27 }} | width="25%" align="top" style="border:0"| * [http://www.judaic.org/addtl_files/naso.htm Sephardic Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726212450/http://www.judaic.org/addtl_files/naso.htm |date=2011-07-26 }} * [http://www.shiur.com/index.php?category=Naso Shiur.com] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609194554/http://www.613.org/par-bam.html#ba2 613.org Jewish Torah Audio] * [http://www.teach613.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=56&Itemid=48 Teach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry Hill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301171644/http://www.teach613.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=56&Itemid=48 |date=2012-03-01 }} * [http://thetorah.com/numbers/ TheTorah.com] * [http://www.tfdixie.com/parshat/naso/ Torah from Dixie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224173436/http://www.tfdixie.com/parshat/naso/ |date=2019-02-24 }} * [http://www.torah.org/learning/parsha/parsha.html?id1=62 Torah.org] * [http://www.torahvort.com/bamidbar/naso/ TorahVort.com] * [http://www.reformjudaism.org/learning/torah-study/naso Union for Reform Judaism] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120814081344/http://uscj.org/JewishLivingandLearning/WeeklyParashah/TorahSparks/Archive/Default.aspx United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism] * [http://www.shemayisrael.com/parsha/bonchek/archives/archives.htm What's Bothering Rashi?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825072843/http://www.shemayisrael.com/parsha/bonchek/archives/archives.htm |date=2021-08-25 }} * [http://www.yutorah.org/ Yeshiva University] * [http://www.yctorah.org/index.php?option=com_search&Itemid=99999999&searchword=naso&submit=Search&searchphrase=any&ordering=newest Yeshivat Chovevei Torah] {{col-end}} {{Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Naso (Parsyah)}} [[Kategori:Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu wulan Sivan]] [[Kategori:Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu saka Kitab Wilangan]] fgft2aj5azw0h4u9abbfdhr78lwagli Masei 0 185354 1752821 1728778 2026-08-19T12:15:29Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752821 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Encampment of Israelites, Mount Sinai.jpg|jmpl|ka|500px|Perkempingan bangsa Israel, Gunung Sinai (cetakan intaglio taun 1836 dening [[J. M. W. Turner]] saka ''Landscape illustrations of the Bible'')]] '''Masei''', '''Mas'ei''', utawa '''Masse''' ({{Hebrew|מַסְעֵי}} — [[basa Ibrani|Ibrani]] kanggo "lelampahan," tembung kapindho, lan tembung distinsif kapisan, ing parsyah kasebut) yaiku [[Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu]] ({{Hebrew|פָּרָשָׁה}}, ''parashah'') ka-43 ing siklus [[wacaan Torèt]] [[Yudaisme|Yahudi]] taunan lan ka-10 lan pungkasan ing [[Kitab Wilangan]]. Parsyah kasebut ngeliputi Wilangan 33:1-36:13. Parsyah kasebut ngebahas [[panggonan persinggahan ing sagara wedhi]], dawuh kanggo ngerebut [[tanah Israel]], lan kutha-kutha kanggo [[suku Lewi]] lan [[hak suaka]], lan [[putri-putri Zelafehad]]. == Pranala njaba == {{Wikibooks|The Torah}} [[Barkas:Old book bindings.jpg|150px|ka]] === Teks === * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0433.htm Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712023810/https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0433.htm |date=2022-07-12 }} * [http://Bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displaypage&book=4&chapter=33&verse=1&portion=43 Hear the parashah chanted] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514220230/http://bible.ort.org/books/torahd5.asp?action=displaypage&book=4&chapter=33&verse=1&portion=43 |date=2011-05-14 }} * [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/ptmp3prq.htm#mp3 Hear the parashah read in Hebrew] === Tafsiran === {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [http://ajrsem.org/tag/massei/ Academy for Jewish Religion, New York] * [http://www.aish.com/tp/43918877.html Aish.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602040758/http://www.aish.com/tp/43918877.html |date=2012-06-02 }} * [http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/bemidbar/parashot-massey/ Akhlah: The Jewish Children's Learning Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707054922/http://www.akhlah.com/tanach/torah/bemidbar/parashot-massey/ |date=2013-07-07 }} * [https://www.alephbeta.org/torah/numbers/matot-masei Aleph Beta Academy]{{Pranala mati|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://zieglercontent.aju.edu/default18.aspx?fid=716 American Jewish University — Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies]{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.anshe.org/parsha/massei.htm Anshe Emes Synagogue, Los Angeles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616052107/http://www.anshe.org/parsha/massei.htm |date=2017-06-16 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130727073246/http://arigoldwag.com/pp.html Ari Goldwag] * [http://www.ascentofsafed.com/cgi-bin/search.pl?Terms=massey&Match=1 Ascent of Safed] * [http://www.chabad.org/parshah/default.asp?AID=52600 Chabad.org] * [http://www.eparsha.com/#drash eparsha.com] * [http://www.g-dcast.com/masei G-dcast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230112606/http://www.g-dcast.com/masei/ |date=2016-12-30 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609193106/http://www.vbm-torah.org/bamidbar.htm The Israel Koschitzky Virtual Beit Midrash] * [http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+Time/Jewish+Sources/Iyunum/49.+Parashat+Massei.htm Jewish Agency for Israel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915020840/http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+Time/Jewish+Sources/Iyunum/49.+Parashat+Massei.htm |date=2012-09-15 }} * [http://www.jtsa.edu/jts-torah-online?search=&genre=&parashah=2060&holiday=&theme=&series=&author= Jewish Theological Seminary] * [http://www.mechonhadar.org/web/guest/search?p_p_id=3&p_p_action=0&p_p_state=normal&_3_primarySearch=com.liferay.portlet.journal.util.JournalOpenSearchImpl&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=&p_p_col_pos=0&p_p_col_count=0&_3_struts_action=%2Fsearch%2Fsearch&_3_keywords=masei Mechon Hadar]{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.mishpacha.com/Browse/Article/1274/Masei-Every-Jew-Is-Important Miriam Aflalo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406113958/http://www.mishpacha.com/Browse/Article/1274/Masei-Every-Jew-Is-Important |date=2012-04-06 }} * [https://www.myjewishlearning.com/torah-portions/parashat-masei/ MyJewishLearning.com] * [http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/2687 Ohr Sameach] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130408101118/http://odysseynetworks.org/ON-Scripture-The-Torah ON Scripture — The Torah] * [http://www.ou.org/torah/archive4.htm Orthodox Union] * [http://www.oztorah.com/category/massei/ OzTorah, Torah from Australia] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100624083451/http://www.netivot-shalom.org.il/eparsha.php Oz Ve Shalom — Netivot Shalom] * [https://elmad.pardes.org/topics Pardes from Jerusalem] * [http://www.jameskugel.com/weekly-torah-reading-mattot-masei-august-6-2016/ Professor James L. Kugel] * [https://mcarasik.wordpress.com/2016/08/02/mattot-masei-5776/ Professor Michael Carasik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816195202/https://mcarasik.wordpress.com/2016/08/02/mattot-masei-5776/ |date=2017-08-16 }} * [http://rabbiwerbin.blogspot.com/2014/07/text-message-parashat-masei.html Rabbi Fabian Werbin] * [http://www.rabbisacks.org/?s=Massei&x=0&y=0 Rabbi Jonathan Sacks] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110821085057/http://www.ohrtorahstone.org.il/parsha/index.htm Rabbi Shlomo Riskin] * [http://www.rabbishmuel.com/browse.cgi?type=torah_sermons Rabbi Shmuel Herzfeld] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311000646/http://www.rabbishmuel.com/browse.cgi?type=torah_sermons |date=2013-03-11 }} * [http://www.rabbistan.com/massai.htm Rabbi Stan Levin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228192133/http://www.rabbistan.com/massai.htm |date=2019-02-28 }} * [https://www.jewishrecon.org/divrei-torah#book-Numbers Reconstructionist Judaism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227122534/https://www.jewishrecon.org/divrei-torah#book-Numbers |date=2017-12-27 }} * [http://www.judaicseminar.org/ Sephardic Institute] * [http://www.shiur.com/index.php?category=Matot--Maasei Shiur.com] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081221023727/http://www.613.org/parasha.html 613.org Jewish Torah Audio] * [http://www.tanach.org/masei.htm Tanach Study Center] * [http://www.teach613.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=60&Itemid=48 Teach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry Hill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301171647/http://www.teach613.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=60&Itemid=48 |date=2012-03-01 }} * [http://thetorah.com/numbers/ TheTorah.com] * [http://www.tfdixie.com/parshat/mattot/ Torah from Dixie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055755/http://www.tfdixie.com/parshat/mattot/ |date=2007-09-28 }} * [https://torah.org/parsha/masei/ Torah.org] * [http://www.torahvort.com/bamidbar/masei/ TorahVort.com] * [http://www.reformjudaism.org/learning/torah-study/mas-ei Union for Reform Judaism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301080023/https://reformjudaism.org/learning/torah-study/mas-ei |date=2019-03-01 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120814081344/http://uscj.org/JewishLivingandLearning/WeeklyParashah/TorahSparks/Archive/Default.aspx United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism] * [http://www.shemayisrael.com/parsha/bonchek/archives/archives.htm What's Bothering Rashi?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825072843/http://www.shemayisrael.com/parsha/bonchek/archives/archives.htm |date=2021-08-25 }} * [http://www.yctorah.org/index.php?option=com_search&Itemid=99999999&searchword=masei&submit=Search&searchphrase=exact&ordering=newest Yeshivat Chovevei Torah] * [http://www.yutorah.org/ Yeshiva University] {{div col end}} {{Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu}} [[Kategori:Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu wulan Av]] [[Kategori:Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu wulan Tammuz]] [[Kategori:Wacaan Torèt Saben Minggu saka Kitab Wilangan]] dqka8fkmrznttulia10hahzcd2tziyf Phabricator 0 188585 1752834 1747914 2026-08-19T18:20:44Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752834 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox software | name = | title = Phabricator | logo = <!-- Phacility phabricator logo.svg --> | logo caption = | logo size = 100px | logo alt = Phacility phabricator | screenshot = <!-- Wikimedia Phabricator screenshot.png --><!-- Image name is enough --> | caption = | screenshot size = | screenshot alt = | collapsible = | author = Evan Priestley<ref name=evan>{{cite journal | first1 = F. | last1 = Fagerholm | first2 = P. | last2 = Johnson | first3 = A. S. | last3 = Guinea | first4 = J. | last4 = Borenstein | first5 = J. | last5 = Münch | title = Onboarding in Open Source Software Projects: A Preliminary Analysis | journal = Global Software Engineering Workshops (ICGSEW), 2013 IEEE 8th International Conference on | year = 2013 | pages = 5–10 | doi = 10.1109/ICGSEW.2013.8 | arxiv= 1311.1334| isbn = 978-0-7695-5055-8 | s2cid = 7114963 }}</ref> / [[Facebook]] | developer = Phacility, Inc<ref name=phacility>{{cite web | url = http://www.linkedin.com/pub/evan-priestley/2a/510/b81 | title = EvanPriestley(LinkedIn) | access-date = 2013-10-24 }}</ref> | released = {{start date and age|2010}}<!-- {{Start date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|df=yes/no}} --> | discontinued = | latest release version = | latest release date = <!-- {{Start date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|df=yes/no}} --> | latest preview version = | latest preview date = <!-- {{Start date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|df=yes/no}} --> | programming language = [[PHP]]<ref name="crossfact">{{cite web | url = https://secure.phabricator.com/book/phabricator/article/installation_guide/ | title = Installation Guide | publisher = Phacility | access-date = 2022-06-27 | archive-date = 2019-09-21 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190921193758/https://secure.phabricator.com/book/phabricator/article/installation_guide/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> | operating system = [[Mèmper Unix]] | platform = [[Lintas platform]]<ref name="crossfact" /> | size = | language = [[Basa Inggris|Inggris]] | language count = <!-- Number only --> | language footnote = | genre = [[Paninjo kodhe]], [[Panglacak bug|panglacak ''bug'']] | license = [[Apache License 2.0]]<ref>{{cite web | url = https://github.com/facebook/phabricator/blob/master/LICENSE | title = phabricator/LICENSE at master · phacility/phabricator · GitHub | work = GitHub }}</ref> | alexa = | website = {{URL|https://phacility.com/phabricator/}} | standard = | AsOf = }} '''Phabricator''' yaiku sasetèl piranti tembayatan pangrembakan [[piranti alus]] dhedhasar wèb kang dumadi saka piranti paninjo kodhe ''Differential'', pangluru répositori ''Diffusion'', piranti pamawang pangowahan ''Herald'',<ref>{{cite journal | first1 = C. | last1 = Dentel | first2 = M. | last2 = Nordio | first3 = B. | last3 = Meyer | year = 2012 | title = Monitors: Keeping Informed on Code Changes | journal = Independent Research | publisher = ETH Zürich }}</ref> panglacak ''bug Maniphest'', lan [[wiki]] ''Phriction''.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.phabricator.com/docs/phabricator/article/Introduction.html#what-is-phabricator | title = What is Phabricator? | access-date = 2013-10-24 | archive-date = 2013-10-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131029195917/http://www.phabricator.com/docs/phabricator/article/Introduction.html#what-is-phabricator | url-status = dead }}</ref> Phabricator sinambungan karo [[Git]], [[Mercurial]], lan [[Subversion]]. Piranti alus iki cumepak minangka piranti alus mardika mawa Lisènsi Apache 2.0. Phabricator wiwitané dirembakakaké minangka piranti internal ing [[Facebook]].<ref name="phabricator">{{cite web | url = https://secure.phabricator.com/book/phabflavor/article/project_history | title = Phabricator Project History | access-date = 2013-10-24 | archive-date = 2015-07-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150722122241/https://secure.phabricator.com/book/phabflavor/article/project_history | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="Meet Phabricator">{{cite web | url = https://techcrunch.com/2011/08/07/oh-what-noble-scribe-hath-penned-these-words/ | title = Meet Phabricator, the Witty Code Review Tool Built Inside Facebook | access-date = 2013-10-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171001075231/https://techcrunch.com/2011/08/07/oh-what-noble-scribe-hath-penned-these-words/ | archive-date = 2017-10-01 | url-status = dead | publisher = TechCrunch | date = 2011-08-07 | first = Alexia | last = Tsotsis }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://readwrite.com/2011/09/28/a-look-at-phabricator-facebook#awesm=~olc3GsPA9t1BIk | title = A Look at Phabricator: Facebook's Web-Based Open Source Code Collaboration Tool | access-date = 2013-10-24 }}</ref> Juru rembaka pokok Phabricator aran [[Evan Priestley]] ninggal Facebook supaya bisa nerusaké pangrembakan Phabricator ing perusahaan anyar aran Phacility.<ref name=evan /><ref name=phacility /> Ing tanggal 29 Mèi 2021, Phacility mbabar wara-wara yèn dhèwèké padha bakal ngendheg sengkuyungan lan ora ngrembakakaké Phabricator manèh.<ref name="J11">{{cite web|url=https://admin.phacility.com/phame/post/view/11/phacility_is_winding_down_operations/|title=Phacility is Winding Down Operations|date=2021-05-29}}</ref> Sawiji paguyuban nggawé ''fork-fork''-an Phabricator aran Phorge, mbabar wara-wara rilis stabil kapisan menyang publik ing tanggal 7 Sèptember 2022.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eyal |first=Aviv |date=2022-09-07 |title=Going Public |work=Phorge |url=https://we.phorge.it/phame/post/view/1/going_public/ |access-date=2022-09-27}}</ref> == Panganggo == <!-- PLEASE RESPECT ALPHABETICAL ORDER --> {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[AngularJS]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesproductgroup/2016/10/07/the-forbes-front-end-epochalypse/#16a6d2666ef9|title=The Forbes Front End Epochalypse|last=McCampbell|first=Johnny|date=2016-10-07|work=Forbes|access-date=2018-10-03}}</ref> * [[Asana (piranti alus)|Asana]]<ref name="Meet Phabricator" /> * [[Blender (piranti alus)|Blender]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.blender.org/wiki/Tools/Phabricator|title=Tools/Phabricator|publisher=Blender|website=wiki.blender.org|access-date=2022-06-27|archive-date=2021-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603090702/https://wiki.blender.org/wiki/Tools/Phabricator|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Discord (piranti alus)|Discord]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Discord's Phabricator|url=https://bugs.discord.com/|website=bugs.discord.com|access-date=2021-07-17|archive-date=2021-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115231447/https://bugs.discord.com/|url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Dropbox (layanan)|Dropbox]]<ref name="Meet Phabricator" /> * [[Facebook]]<ref name="Meet Phabricator" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infoq.com/news/2017/09/facebook-release-scale|title=How Facebook Achieves Rapid Release at Massive Scale|last=Barua|first=Hrishikesh|date=2017-09-07|access-date=2018-10-03}}</ref> * [[FreeBSD]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Phabricator|url=https://reviews.freebsd.org/|website=reviews.freebsd.org|access-date=2019-01-24}}</ref> * [[GnuPG]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dev.gnupg.org/|title=GnuPG Development Hub|access-date=2021-04-28|archive-date=2022-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501133035/https://dev.gnupg.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[KDE]]<ref>{{cite web|title=KDE's Phabricator|url=https://phabricator.kde.org/|website=phabricator.kde.org}}</ref> * [[Mozilla]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://phabricator.services.mozilla.com/|title=Mozilla Phabricator|date=2021-06-11|publisher=Mozilla}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Phabricator|title=Phabricator code review - Mozilla wiki|access-date=2021-06-11}}</ref> * [[LLVM]]/[[Clang]]/[[LLDB (debugger)]]/LLD (linker)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://llvm.org/docs/Phabricator.html|title=Code Reviews with Phabricator - LLVM 8 Documentation|access-date=2018-11-11|archive-date=2023-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817151244/https://llvm.org/docs/Phabricator.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Lubuntu]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-12-05|title=Join Phabricator|url=https://lubuntu.me/2658-2/|access-date=2021-06-05|website=lubuntu.me|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lubuntu Phabricator|url=https://phab.lubuntu.me/|access-date=2021-06-05|archive-date=2023-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610051756/https://phab.lubuntu.me/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[MemSQL]]<ref name="Meet Phabricator" /> * [[Pinterest]]<ref>{{Cite web|work=Pinterest Engineering blog|date=2019-05-10|title=Pinterest + ktlint = ❤|url=https://medium.com/pinterest-engineering/pinterest-ktlint-35391a1a162f|access-date=2021-06-05|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=pinterest/arcanist-linters|date=2021-06-05|url=https://github.com/pinterest/arcanist-linters|publisher=Pinterest|access-date=2021-06-05}}</ref> * [[Quora]]<ref name="Meet Phabricator" /> * [[Twitter]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://secure.phabricator.com/w/usage/companies/|title=Organizations Using Phabricator|access-date=2021-07-14|archive-date=2023-03-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315065352/https://secure.phabricator.com/w/usage/companies/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Uber]]<ref name="Meet Phabricator" /> * [[Wildfire Games]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Wildfire Games Phabricator| url=https://code.wildfiregames.com/|access-date=2021-06-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://trac.wildfiregames.com/wiki/Phabricator|title=Phabricator documentation|access-date=2021-06-05|website=Wildfire Games|archive-date=2023-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321120336/https://trac.wildfiregames.com/wiki/Phabricator|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Wikimedia]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Wikimedia Phabricator|url=https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/|website=phabricator.wikimedia.org|access-date=2019-01-19}}</ref> {{div col end}} == Gladri == <gallery> Barkas:Serlo Phabricator Tasks erstellen 2018-11-22 Schritt 2.png|''Workboard'' Phabricator Barkas:Phabricator homepage overview with top Favorites menu opened.png|Pendhapaning Phabricator Barkas:Serlo Phabricator Tasks erstellen 2018-11-22 Schritt 3.png|Tuladha panggawèan tugas Barkas:Phabricator history screenshot with Harbormaster passes.png|''Continuous integration'' ing Phabricator Barkas:Phabricator project labels 4.png|Labèl proyèk ing Phabricator </gallery> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|30em}} == Pranala jaba == * {{Official website|https://phacility.com/phabricator/}} * {{Commons category-inline|Phabricator}} * [https://github.com/phacility/phabricator Phabricator] ing [[GitHub]] * [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/ Wikimedia Phabricator], dianggo kanggo nglacak tugas-tugas Wikimédia lan MédiaWiki ([[palapuran bug|palapuran ''bug'']] lan [[panjalukan fitur]]). * [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Phabricator Kaca MédiaWiki babagan Phabricator] [[Kategori:Piranti alus sumber binuka]] [[Kategori:Piranti alus paninjo]] 711liefdmmyy7at3xmtkiqr3xy97qv4 Bernike 0 190696 1753054 1596452 2026-08-20T09:10:28Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753054 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Berenike saking Kilikia''', uga diarani minangka '''Yulia Berenike''' lan kadhangkala diarani '''Bernike''' ({{Lang-el|Βερενίκη}}, ''Bereníkē''; 28 M – sawise 81), yaiku [[nagara klien|ratu klien]] Yahudi saka [[Kakaisaran Romawi]] ing paruh kapindho abad kaping 1. Bernike menika anggota [[Dinasti Herodian]] sing mrentah provinsi [[Provinsi Yudea|Yudea]] antarane 39 SM lan 92 M. Ia menika putri saka Raja [[Agripa I|Herodes Agripa I]] lan saudari saka Raja [[Agripa II|Herodes Agripa II]]. Informasi babagan kauripan lan latar mburine sing sithik sabagean gedhe asale saka sajarawan wiwitan [[Flavius Josephus]], sing nyritani sajarah wong [[Yahudi]] lan nulis cathetan [[Perang Yahudi-Romawi Kapisan|Pamberontakan Yahudi]] taun 67. [[Suetonius]], [[Tacitus]], [[Dio Cassius]], [[Aurelius Victor]] lan [[Juvenal]], uga nyritanine. Ia uga diarani ing Kisah Para Rasul 25:13; 23; 26:30. == Referensi == * {{cite journal | last = Ilan | first = Tal | title = Julia Crispina, Daughter of Berenicianus, a Herodian Princess in the Babatha Archive: A Case Study in Historical Identification. | url = https://archive.org/details/jewish-quarterly-review_january-april-1992_82_3-4/page/361 | journal = The Jewish Quarterly Review | volume = 82 | pages = 361–381 | issue = 3/4| year = 1992 | doi = 10.2307/1454863 | jstor = 1454863 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press }} * {{cite journal | last = Macurdy | first = Grace H. | title = Julia Berenice | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_1935_56_3/page/246 | journal = The American Journal of Philology | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 246–253 | year = 1935 | doi = 10.2307/289676 | jstor = 289676 | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press}} * {{cite journal | last = Crook | first = John A. | title = Titus and Berenice | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_1951-04_72_2/page/162 | journal = The American Journal of Philology | volume = 72 | issue = 2 | pages = 162–175 | year = 1951 | doi = 10.2307/292544 | jstor = 292544 | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press}} == Pranala jaba == {{Commons category|Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa I)}} === Sumber primer === * [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews|Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'']], English translation * [[s:The War of the Jews/Book II|Josephus, ''The War of the Jews'', Book II]], English translation * [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2|Tacitus, ''Histories'', Book 2]], English translation * [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#15 Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 65, Chapter 15], English translation * [http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=1&ArticleID=26 "The 'New Cleopatra' and the Jewish Tax"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091226162247/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=1&ArticleID=26 |date=2009-12-26 }} Biblical Archaeology Society === Gambar === * [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/judaea/berenice/i.html Coinage of Berenice at Wildwinds.com] {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Julii]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Prajanjian Anyar]] [[Kategori:Kisah Para Rasul]] bjmeh3iwhbpb4cgqjcdw6x7dy8ea7pc Wong wadon Samaria ing sumur Yakub 0 190697 1752978 1652025 2026-08-20T07:03:13Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752978 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Angelika Kauffmann - Christus und die Samariterin am Brunnen -1796.jpeg|jmpl|300px|''[[Amanat Banyu Urip]]'' antarane Yesus lan ''Wong Wadon Samaria ing Sumur'' dening [[Angelika Kauffmann]], abad kaping 17–18]] [[Barkas:St Photina.jpg|jmpl|170px|Photine, wadon Samaria, tekani Yesus (ikon Wetan)]] '''Wong wadon Samaria ing sumur Yakub''' yaiku figur saka [[Injil Yohanes]], ing Yohanes 4:4–26. Ing tradisi Greja Ortodoks Wetan, ia dianggep minangka wong suci, sing dijenengi Photine utawa Photini/Photina (saka tembung φως sing artine "padhang"). == Cathetan Alkitab == Miturut [[Yohanes 4]]:4-26: <blockquote> Anadene tindake mau kudu miyos ing tanah Samaria. Banjur rawuh ing sawijining kutha ing tanah Samaria kang aran Sikhar, cedhak karo palemahan kang biyen diparingake dening Rama Yakub marang kang putra Yusuf. Ing kono ana sumure Rama Yakub. Gusti Yesus sarehne kraos sayah saka anggone tindak, banjur lenggah ana pinggiring sumur kono. Nalika samana kira-kira wayah jam rolas. Tumuli ana wong wadon Samaria teka arep ngangsu. Gusti Yesus ngandika marang wong mau: “Aku wenehana ngombe!” Awit para sakabate lagi padha menyang kutha tuku pangan. Wong wadon mau banjur munjuk: “Kadospundi dene Panjenengane tiyang Yahudi kok mundhut ngunjuk dhateng kula tiyang Samaria?” (Awit wong Yahudi ora srawung karo wong Samaria.) Gusti Yesus mangsuli, pangandikane: “Manawa kowe sumurup ing peparinge Allah, lan sapa wonge kang tutur ing kowe: Aku wenehana ngombe, mesthi kowe kang njaluk marang wong iku, tumuli kowe diwenehi banyu urip.” Unjuke wong wadon mau: “Bendara, Panjenengan boten kagungan timba, mangka sumuripun lebet, dados saking pundi anggen Panjenengan angsal toya gesang punika? Panjenengan mesthi boten nglangkungi leluhur kula Yakub ingkang maringaken sumur punika dhateng bangsa kula. Dene panjenenganipun ugi ngunjuk saking sumur punika, samanten ugi para putra lan kewanipun.” Gusti Yesus mangsuli pangandikane: “Sapa wong kang ngombe banyu iki bakal ngelak maneh, nanging sing sapa ngombe banyu pawewehKu, bakal ora ngelak ing salawas-lawase. Malah banyu pawewehKu mau ana ing jerone wong iku bakal dadi sumber, kang mancur terus tumeka ing urip, langgeng.” Unjuke wong wadon mau: “Bendara, kula Panjenengan paringi toya punika, supados sampun ngantos ngelak, sarta boten sisah ngangsu mriki malih!” Pangandikane Gusti Yesus: “Lungaa, undangen bojomu, tumuli balia mrene!” Unjuke wong wadon: “Kula boten gadhah semah.” Pangandikane Gusti Yesus: “Bener kandhamu, yen kowe ora duwe bojo iku. Sabab anggonmu bebojoan wus ambal kaping lima, mangka kang saiki iku dudu bojomu. Pancen bener ujarmu kang mangkono iku.” Unjuke wong wadon: “Gusti, sapunika tumrap kawula sampun cetha, bilih Paduka punika nabi. Para leluhur kawula anggenipun sujud wonten ing redi punika, mangka bangsa Paduka criyos bilih panggenanipun tiyang nglampahi sujud punika ing Yerusalem.” Pangandikane Gusti Yesus: “He, wong wadon, ngandela marang Aku, bakal tumeka ing wektune anggonmu padha sujud marang Gusti Allah ora ana ing gunung iki, lan iya ora ana ing kutha Yerusalem. Kowe iku padha sujud marang kang ora padha kokweruhi. Aku iki padha sujud marang kang padha Dakweruhi. Awit mungguh wijiling karahayon iku saka bangsa Yahudi. Nanging bakal tumeka ing wektune, malah saiki wus tumeka ing wektune para wong sujud kang sajati iku anggone padha sujud marang Sang Rama sajroning Roh lan kayekten, awit wong sujud kang kaya mangkono iku kang dikarsakake dening Sang Rama. Gusti Allah iku Roh, mulane kang padha sujud marang Gusti Allah, anggone sujud iku kudu ing sajroning roh lan kayekten.” Unjuke wong wadon: “Kawula sumerep bilih Sang Mesih badhe rawuh, ingkang ugi kasebat Sang Kristus; punika sarawuhipun badhe nyumerepaken samukawis dhateng kawula sadaya.” Pangandikane Gusti Yesus: “Iya Aku iki Panjenengane kang lagi ngandikan karo kowe iki.” </blockquote> ==Referensi== ===Cathetan=== {{notelist}} ===Kutipan=== {{Reflist}} ===Sumber=== {{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} *{{cite book|last=Barrett|first=C. K. |author-link=C. K. Barrett |title=The Gospel According to St. John: An Introduction with Commentary and Notes on the Greek Text|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWR8DJ6C8KsC&pg=PA12|edition=2nd|year=1978|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22180-5}} *{{cite journal|last1=Bourgel|first1=Jonathan|title=John 4:4–42: Defining A Modus Vivendi Between Jews And The Samaritans|journal=The Journal of Theological Studies|volume=69|issue=1|year=2018|pages=39–65|issn=0022-5185|doi=10.1093/jts/flx215|url=https://www.academia.edu/37029909}} *{{cite journal|last1=Brant|first1=Jo-Ann A.|title=Husband Hunting: Characterization and Narrative Art in the Gospel of John|url=https://archive.org/details/biblical-interpretation_1996-06_4_2/page/205|journal=Biblical Interpretation|volume=4|issue=2|year=1996|pages=205–223|issn=0927-2569|doi=10.1163/156851596X00194}} *{{citation|editor1-last=Crown|editor1-first= Alan David|editor2-first= Lucy |editor2-last=Davey|editor3-first= Guy Dominique |editor3-last=Sixdenier|title= Essays in honour of GD Sexdenier: New Samaritan studies of the Société d'études samaritaines|work=Studies in Judaica 5|location= Sydney|publisher= Mandelbaum / University of Sydney|date= 1995}} *{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Everett |title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC&pg=PA534|year=2003|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2221-5}} *{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Dorothy A. |title=The Symbolic Narratives of the Fourth Gospel: The Interplay of Form and Meaning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=juDUAwAAQBAJ|year=1994|publisher=Sheffield Academic Press|location=Sheffield |isbn=978-1-85075-468-8}} *{{cite book|last=Lincoln|first=Andrew T.|title=The Gospel According to Saint John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a_3RnkcJ3EgC&pg=PA171|year=2005|publisher=Hendrickson Publishers|isbn=978-1-56563-401-5|oclc=61129929}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *{{cite book|last=Okure|first=Teresa |title=The Johannine approach to mission: a contextual study of John 4:1-42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYKI5Udz3_kC|year=1988|publisher=J. C. B. Mohr.|location=Tübingen|isbn=978-3-16-145049-5}} *{{cite book|last=Quast|first=Kevin |title=Reading the Gospel of John: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uhjJ8DNhQFAC&pg=PA29|year=1991|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-3297-3}} *{{cite book|last=Samkutty|first=V. J. |title=The Samaritan Mission in Acts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g_VSm2aOm4UC&pg=PA81|year=2006|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-04464-8}} {{refend}} ===Wacaan tambahan=== {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|chapter=[[s:A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture/XVI. Jesus at the Well of Jacob|Jesus at the Well of Jacob]]|title=A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture|year=1910|publisher=B. Herder|author=Friedrich Justus Knecht}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Injil Yohanes]] co7p89epuea7shc1kmwls49nojo8vlt Tablet resula marang Ea-nāṣir 0 193279 1753013 1695321 2026-08-20T08:07:41Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753013 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Complaint tablet to Ea-Nasir 2020.jpg|thumb|Tablet resula kang kapacak ing British Museum.|alt=Tablet pesagi dawa saka lempung werna soga kang sawutuhé tinulis mawa aksara paku.]] '''Tablet resula marang Ea-nāṣir''' ({{abbr|UET V|Ur Excavations: Texts (deleng cathetan suku)}} 81)<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Figulla |editor1-first=H.H. |editor2-last=Martin |editor2-first=W.J. |year=1953 |title=Letters and Business Documents of the Old Babylonian Period |publisher=British Museum Press |place=London, Inggris |series=Ur Excavations: Texts |volume=V |page=5, Pl.&nbsp;XIV}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=E Frahm |title=Commentary on Uncertain (CCP 7.2.u18) |url=https://ccp.yale.edu/P461148 |hdl=10079/7wm382r}}</ref> yaiku [[tablet lempung]] kang tinulis rikala taun 1750 SM lan kinirim marang wong [[Ur]] kuna. Tablet iki ngamot resulaning kang langganan aran Nanni marang sudagar aran Ea-nasir. Tableté tinulis mawa [[Cuneiform|aksara paku]] Akkadia lan dianggep minangka resula katulis paling lawas. Sapréné tablet iki sinimpen ing [[British Museum]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Hyken |first=Shep |date=23 April 2015 |title=Oldest customer service complaint discovered: A lesson from ancient Babylon |magazine=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/shephyken/2015/04/23/oldest-customer-service-complaint-discovered-a-lesson-from-ancient-babylon/?sh=3fcc02fa66f1 |access-date=7 Fèbruari 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ea-nasir lelana menyang [[Dilmun]] saperlu tuku [[tembaga]], banjur tembagané mau didol ing [[Mesopotamia|Mésopotamia]]. Ing wusana tinamtu, dhèwèké ngedol ''ingot'' tembaga menyang Nanni. Nanni ngirim abdiné kang nggawa dhuwit kanggo nglunasi pambayarané.<ref>{{cite web |first=Harriet |last=Crawford |author-link= |date=Juli 2015 |title=Sir Leonard Woolley and Ur of the Chaldees |website=The Bible and Interpretation |publisher=University of Arizona |url=https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/2015/07/cra398015}}</ref> Nani nganggep tembaga kang dituku mau kuwalitasé ala (ing isoré standar){{sfnp|Oppenheim|1967|pp=82–83}} lan wegah nampa barangé. Tanggepané Nanni yaiku nggawé layang resula mawa aksara paku marang Ea-nasir. Ing tablet katulis resulaning Nanni marang Ea-nasir babagan pangiriman tembaga mawa kuwalitas kang salah lan prakara-prakara liya nalika pangiriman.<ref name="British Museum - tablet">{{cite web |title=tablet |id=object W&nbsp;1953-0411-71 |website=British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1953-0411-71}}</ref> Nanni uga ngresula ngenani solah ala Ea-nasir tumrap abdiné (kang dikongkon mbayar). Nalika nulis layang, Nanni kandha yèn dhèwèké wegah nampa tembagané, ananging kudu mbayar barangé. == Andharan == Tablet iki ndarbèni dhuwur 116 milimèter, amba 50 mm, kandel 26 mm, lan tableté rada rusak.<ref name="British Museum - tablet"/> == Patemon == [[Barkas:Ur 1 old street.svg|thumb|Ilustrasi jero omah Babilonia kuna ing mbruk-mbrukan Ur, kang kamungkinan papan padunungané Ea-nasir.]] Tablet iki tinemu lan didarbèni [[Leonard Woolley|Sir Leonard Woolley]] kang mangarsani èkspedisi gabungan [[Universitas Pennsylvania]] lan [[British Museum]] rikala 1922 teka 1934 ing kutha Sumeria [[Ur]].<ref name="British Museum - tablet" /><ref name="woolley-bio">{{cite web |title = Sir Leonard Woolley |department = Biography |series = Collections online |website = British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG63157}}</ref> == Tablet liya == Tablet liya uga tinemu ing mbruk-mbrukan kang pinercaya dadi papan padunungané Ea-nasir. Ing kana ana layang saka wong aran Arbituram kang ngresula yèn dhèwèké durung nampa tembagané, déné sing liya kandha yèn dhèwèké walèh nampa tembaga ala.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Killgrove |first=Kristina |date=11 Mèi 2018 |df=dmy-all |title=Meet the worst businessman of the 18th century&nbsp;BCE |magazine=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2018/05/11/meet-the-worst-businessman-of-the-18th-century/#c1875012d5de |access-date=22 Juli 2020}}</ref>{{sfnp|Leemans|1960|pp=48–54}} == Rujukan == {{reflist|25em}} === Wacan bacutan === {{div col begin |colwidth=25em}} {{refbegin}} * {{cite magazine |first=Chris |last=Baraniuk |date=2 Maret 2015 |title=Ancient customer-feedback technology lasts millennia |magazine=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn27063-ancient-customer-feedback-technology-lasts-millennia/ }} * {{cite book |last1=Diakonoff |first1=I. M. |title=|trans-title=People of the City of Ur |script-title=ru:Люди города Ура |date=1990 |publisher=Akademija Nauk |location=Moscow |isbn=5-02-016568-9 |pages=97–125 |language=ru |chapter=|trans-chapter=A Merchant, Seafarer, and Copper Founder |script-chapter=ru: Купец, мореплаватель, литейных дел мастер}} * {{cite book |last1=Garfinkle |first1=Steven J. |editor1-last=Melville |editor1-first=Sarah |editor2-last=Slotsky |editor2-first=Alice |title=Opening the Tablet Box: Near Eastern Studies in Honor of Benjamin R. Foster |series=Culture and History of the Ancient Near East |volume=42 |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-18652-1 |pages=197–199 |doi=10.1163/9789004186569_012 |chapter=Merchants and State Formation in Early Mesopotamia}} * {{cite web |first=K.S. |last=Kruszelnicki |author-link= |date=24 Maret 2015 |title=The oldest known complaint letter |website=abc.net.au |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/03/24/4200708.htm }} * {{cite web |first=Nadine |last=Kalinauskas |date=10 Maret 2015 |title=Clay tablet with oldest recorded customer-service complaint on display at the British Museum |website=Yahoo News |series=Canada |url=https://ca.news.yahoo.com/blogs/daily-buzz/at-the-british-museum-oldest-recorded-184633671.html }} * {{cite web |first=Victoria |last=McNally |date=27 Fèbruari 2015 |title=Ancient Babylonians were just like us: Complained about poor service from retailers |website=The Mary Sue |url=https://www.themarysue.com/ancient-babylonians-were-just-like-us/ }} * {{cite book |last=Leemans |first=W.F. |year=1960 |title=Foreign trade in the old Babylonian period as revealed by texts from southern Mesopotamia |series=Studia et Documenta ad Iura Orientis Antiqui Pertinentia |volume=6 |publisher=E.J. Brill |place=Leiden, NL |pages=36–55 |chapter=Ur: Time of Rim-Sin |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/foreigntradeinol0000leem/page/36/mode/1up |chapter-url-access=registration }} * {{cite journal |last1=Oppenheim |first1=A. L. |title=The Seafaring Merchants of Ur |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_january-march-1954_74_1/page/10 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1954 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=10–11 |doi=10.2307/595475}} * {{cite book |editor-first=A. Leo |editor-last=Oppenheim |year=1967 |title=Letters From Mesopotamia: Official, Business and Private Letters on Clay Tablets from Two Millennia |series=The Oriental Institute |place=Chicago, IL |publisher=University of Chicago Press |url=https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/misc/letters-mesopotamia-official-business-and-private-letters-clay-tablets | pages=82–84 | chapter=Old Babylonian Letters: Trade }} * {{cite book |last=Rice |first=Michael |date=1994 |title=The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf |page=276–280 |isbn=0-415-032687 |doi=10.4324/9780203037263 |chapter=The Merchants of Dilmun: Ea-Nasir, the Dilmun Merchant}} * {{cite web |first=Oliver |last=Wheaton |date=5 Maret 2015 |title=Believe it or not, this carving is actually a 3,750&nbsp;year-old customer service complaint |website=Metro |place=UK |url=https://metro.co.uk/2015/03/05/believe-it-or-not-this-carving-is-actually-a-3750-year-old-customer-service-complaint-5090917/ }} * {{cite book |last1=Woolley |first1=Leonard |last2=Mallowan |first2=Max |title=The Old Babylonian Period |series=Ur Excavations |volume=VII |date=1976 |publisher=British Museum Publications |location=London |isbn=0-7141-1087-6 |pages=123-125 |chapter=Detailed Description of the Private Houses: The AH Site: Old Street |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ur-excavations-vii.-the-old-babylonian-period/page/n140/mode/1up}} {{refend}} {{div col end}} == Pranala njaba == * {{cite web |title=UET 5, 0081 |url=https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/search_results.php?SearchMode=Text&ObjectID=P414985 |website=Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative |id=CDLI no. P414985 |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |access-date=28 Sèptèmber 2022}} * {{cite web |title=16814A {{!}} 1953,0411.71 |url=http://www.ur-online.org/subject/17625/ |website=UrOnline - The Digital Resource for the Excavation of Ur |publisher=The British Museum |access-date=28 Sèptèmber 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930204340/http://www.ur-online.org/subject/17625/ |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web |title=UET 5 81 [BM 131236 = 1953-04-11, 71 = U.16814a] |url=https://www.archibab.fr/T12972 |website=Archibab |publisher=Collège de France |access-date=28 Sèptèmber 2022}} [[Kategori:Tablet lempung]] [[Kategori:Sastra Mésopotamia]] [[Kategori:Industri tembaga]] tthttjq8bcero6wvzv0kq85cviow2ns AI néuro-simbolik 0 194416 1752914 1654760 2026-08-20T04:53:22Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752914 wikitext text/x-wiki '''AI néuro-simbolik''' iku sawiji mètodhe kanggo nggathukaké arsitèktur néural lan [[kacerdhasan gawéyan|kacerdhasan gawéan]] simbolik kanggo ngadhepi tur njangkepi daya lan nirdayané. Bab iki bakal ngasilaké AI kuwat kang bisa nindakaké panalaran, pasinaonan, lan pamodhèlan kognitif. AI néuro-simbolik wis tau dirembug déning [[Leslie Valiant|Valiant]]{{sfn|Valiant|2008}} lan wong akèh liyané,{{sfn|Garcez|Besold|De Raedt|Földiák|2015}} panggawéan modhèl kognitif pakomputeran kang apik mbutuhaké gabungan antarané panalaran simbolik lan modhèl pasinaonan mesin kang trep. [[Gary Marcus]] awèh panemu, "Awaké dhéwé ora bisa nggawé modhèl kognitif kang apik kanthi cara otomatis tanpa arsitèktur hibrid ''triumvirate'', kawruh-kawruh kang wis cumepak, lan tèhnik canggih kanggo panalarané."{{sfn|Marcus|2020|p=44}} Wacan candhaké, "Nalika mbangun AI kang kuwat lan dhedhasar saka kawruh, awaké dhéwé kudu ndarbèni mesin manipulasi simbol ing pirantiné awaké dhéwé. Kakèhan kawruh iku malah njalari ''abstrak'' pambangunané yèn tanpa piranti kang bisa makili lan manipulasi abstraksi. Tekan sapréné, siji-sijiné mesin kang bisa manipulasi kawruh abstrak kanthi pener iku piranti kanggo manipulasi simbol."{{sfn|Marcus|Davis|2019|p=17}} [[Henry Kautz]],{{sfn|Kautz|2020}} [[Francesca Rossi]],{{sfn|Rossi|2022}} lan [[Bart Selman]]{{sfn|Selman|2022}} uga ngandharaké panemuné. Panemuné dhèwèké padha ya iku dhedhasar ing rong jinis cara mikir. Tuladhané kaya ta kang dirembug ing buku anggitané [[Daniel Kahneman]] asesirah ''[[Thinking, Fast and Slow]]''. Cara mikiré manungsa iku ana rong jinis: Sistem 1 kang cepet, otomatis, intuitif, lan ora sadar. Sistem 2 kang alon, mlaku sajangkah saben jangkah, lan gamblang. Sistem 1 dianggo kanggo pangenalan pola. Sistem 2 dianggo kanggo ngurusi parencanaan, pamikiran déduksi, lan déliberatif. Dhedhasar panemu iku, [[pasinaonan jeru]] paling apik ngurusi jinis kapisan, wondéné panalaran simbolik paling apik ngurusi jinis kapindho. Kekaroné dibutuhaké kanggo pambangunan AI kuwat lan mitayani kang bisa nyinaoni, nalar, lan sesambungan karo manungsa saperlu nampa pitutur lan mangsuli pitakonané manungsa. Modhèl dwiprosès mawa rujukan rong sistem mau wis digawé wiwit taun 1990-an déning sawenèh panaliti ing babagan AI lan ngèlmu kognitif.{{sfn|Sun|1995}} == Sajarah == Garcez lan Lamb ngandharaké yèn panalitèn ing aréa iki isih dilakoni ing rong puluh taun kapungkur{{sfn|Garcez|Lamb|2020|p=2}}{{sfn|Garcez|Broda|Gabbay|Gabbay|2002}} (satemené tekan saiki wis punjul telung puluh taun). Rerangkèn lokakarya babagan AI néuro-simbolik bola-bali dianakaké saben tauné wiwit taun 2005 [https://people.cs.ksu.edu/~hitzler/nesy/]. Ing wiwitan 1990-an, rerangkèn lokakarya wiwitan babagan AI néuro-simbolik diselenggarakaké.{{sfn|Sun|Bookman|1994}} == Pitakonan panalitèn binuka == Akèh pitakonan panalitèn kang isih panggah padha wiwit 1990-an,{{sfn|Sun|2001}} kaya ta: * Apa cara kang paling trep kanggo nggathukaké arsitèktur néural lan simbolik? * Kepriyé kuduné struktur simbolik kawakili ing sajroning jaringan néural lan pangèkstrakan saka jaringané? * Kepriyé kuduné kawruh kang lumrah ing padinan disinaoni lan dipikiraké? * Kepriyé ngurusi kawruh abstrak kang angèl diénkodhe kanthi logis? == Uga delengen == * [[AI simbolik]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Wacan bacutan == * {{cite arXiv | last1 = Bader| first1 = Sebastian| last2 = Hitzler| first2 = Pascal| title = Dimensions of Neural-symbolic Integration - A Structured Survey | date = 2005-11-10| eprint = cs/0511042}} * {{Cite book |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-85233-512-0 |last1=Garcez |first1=Artur S. d'Avila |last2=Broda |first2=Krysia |last3=Gabbay |first3=Dov M. |last4=Gabbay |title=Neural-Symbolic Learning Systems: Foundations and Applications |date=2002}} * {{Cite conference| doi = 10.13140/2.1.1779.4243| conference = AAAI Spring Symposium - Knowledge Representation and Reasoning: Integrating Symbolic and Neural Approaches| last1 = Garcez| first1 = Artur| last2 = Besold| first2 = Tarek| last3 = De Raedt| first3 = Luc| last4 = Földiák| first4 = Peter| last5 = Hitzler| first5 = Pascal| last6 = Icard| first6 = Thomas| last7 = Kühnberger| first7 = Kai-Uwe| last8 = Lamb| first8 = Luís| last9 = Miikkulainen| first9 = Risto| last10 = Silver| first10 = Daniel| title = Neural-Symbolic Learning and Reasoning: Contributions and Challenges| location = Stanford, CA| url = https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SSS/SSS15/paper/viewFile/10281/10029| date = 2015| access-date = 2023-05-30| archive-date = 2022-09-07| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220907013247/https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SSS/SSS15/paper/viewFile/10281/10029| url-status = dead}} * {{cite arXiv | last1 = Garcez| first1 = Artur d'Avila| last2 = Gori| first2 = Marco| last3 = Lamb| first3 = Luis C.| last4 = Serafini| first4 = Luciano| last5 = Spranger| first5 = Michael| last6 = Tran| first6 = Son N.| title = Neural-Symbolic Computing: An Effective Methodology for Principled Integration of Machine Learning and Reasoning| date = 2019| class = cs.AI| eprint = 1905.06088}} * {{cite arXiv | eprint = 2012.05876| last1 = Garcez| first1 = Artur d'Avila| last2 = Lamb| first2 = Luis C.| title = Neurosymbolic AI: The 3rd Wave| date = 2020| class = cs.AI}} * Hochreiter, Sepp. "Toward a Broad AI." Commun. ACM 65(4): 56-57 (2022). https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3512715 * {{cite conference | last = Honavar | first = Vasant | year = 1995 | title=Symbolic Artificial Intelligence and Numeric Artificial Neural Networks: Towards a Resolution of the Dichotomy |conference=The Springer International Series In Engineering and Computer Science |publisher=Springer US |pages=351–388 |doi=10.1007/978-0-585-29599-2_11 }} * {{Cite AV media| last = Kautz |first=Henry | title = The Third AI Summer, Henry Kautz, AAAI 2020 Robert S. Engelmore Memorial Award Lecture| accessdate = 2022-07-06| date = 2020-02-11| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_cQITY0SPiw}} * {{Cite journal| doi = 10.1609/aimag.v43i1.19122| issn = 2371-9621| volume = 43| issue = 1| pages = 93–104| last = Kautz| first = Henry| title = The Third AI Summer: AAAI Robert S. Engelmore Memorial Lecture| journal = AI Magazine| accessdate = 2022-07-12| date = 2022| s2cid = 248213051| url = https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/19122}} * {{cite arXiv| last1 = Mao| first1 = Jiayuan| last2 = Gan| first2 = Chuang| last3 = Kohli| first3 = Pushmeet| last4 = Tenenbaum| first4 = Joshua B.| last5 = Wu| first5 = Jiajun| title = The Neuro-Symbolic Concept Learner: Interpreting Scenes, Words, and Sentences From Natural Supervision| date = 2019| class = cs.CV| eprint = 1904.12584}} * {{Cite book| publisher = Vintage| last1 = Marcus| first1 = Gary| last2 = Davis| first2 = Ernest| title = Rebooting AI: Building Artificial Intelligence We Can Trust| date = 2019}} * {{cite arXiv| last = Marcus| first = Gary| title = The Next Decade in AI: Four Steps Towards Robust Artificial Intelligence| date = 2020| class = cs.AI| eprint = 2002.06177}} * {{Cite web| last = Rossi| first = Francesca| title = AAAI2022: Thinking Fast and Slow in AI (AAAI 2022 Invited Talk)| accessdate = 2022-07-06| date = 2022-07-06| url = https://aaai-2022.virtualchair.net/plenary_13.html}} * {{Cite web| last = Selman| first = Bart| title = AAAI2022: Presidential Address: The State of AI| accessdate = 2022-07-06| date = 2022-07-06| url = https://aaai-2022.virtualchair.net/plenary_2.html}} * {{cite arXiv | eprint = 1606.04422| last1 = Serafini| first1 = Luciano| last2 = Garcez| first2 = Artur d'Avila| title = Logic Tensor Networks: Deep Learning and Logical Reasoning from Data and Knowledge| date = 2016-07-07| class = cs.AI}} * {{Cite journal| volume = 75| issue = 2| pages = 241–296| last = Sun| first = Ron| title = Robust reasoning: Integrating rule-based and similarity-based reasoning| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_artificial-intelligence_1995-06_75_2/page/241| journal = Artificial Intelligence| date = 1995| doi = 10.1016/0004-3702(94)00028-Y}} * {{Cite book| publisher = Kluwer| last1 = Sun| first1 = Ron| last2 = Bookman| first2 = Lawrence| title = Computational Architectures Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes| date = 1994}} * Sun, Ron; Alexandre, Frederic (1997). ''Connectionist Symbolic Integration''. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. * {{Cite journal |pages= |last=Sun |first=R |title=Hybrid systems and connectionist implementationalism |journal=Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science (MacMillan Publishing Company, 2001) |date=2001}} * {{Cite journal |pages= |last=Valiant |first=Leslie G |title=Knowledge Infusion: In Pursuit of Robustness in Artificial Intelligence |journal= |date=2008}} == Pranala jaba == * [https://people.cs.ksu.edu/~hitzler/nesy Artificial Intelligence: Workshop series on Neural-Symbolic Learning and Reasoning] [[Kategori:Kacerdhasan gawéan]] pkfcjml6fig60t7xaj7z93bov3hsuy7 Mikir kritis 0 194419 1752920 1748933 2026-08-20T05:01:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752920 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mikir kritis''' ya iku cara mikir manungsa nalika nanggepi wong<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ARGFGTHqGlYC&pg=PT207&lpg=PT207&dq=berpikir+kritis&source=bl&ots=Vcdm9qJ8hD&sig=jCouIJ-puTzZVXD8uWYp1RHgYRE&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwitvteC2cDaAhWLq48KHQY8Cn04ChDoAQhBMAc#v=onepage&q=berpikir%20kritis&f=false|title=Revolusi Beripikir|publisher=PT Mizan Publika|isbn=9789791284011|language=id}}</ref> kanthi cara nganalisis kasunyatan saperlu nggawé pambijèn.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766|title=Defining Critical Thinking|publisher=The International Center for the Assessment of Higher Order Thinking (ICAT, AS)/Critical Thinking Community|access-date=2017-03-22|author=Edward M. Glaser}}</ref> Subjèké komplèks, lan ana sawenèh dèfinisi kang béda babagan konsèp iki, kang lumrahé ngrakup analisis rasional, skèptis, ora bias, utawa évaluasi bukti kang sunyata. Pokok isiné wujud mikir kritis iku pamikiran mandhiri, pandhisiplinan, pawawangan, lan korèksi awaké dhéwé.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Clarke|first=John|title=Critical Dialogues: Thinking Together in Turbulent Times|date=2019|publisher=Policy Press|isbn=978-1-4473-5097-2|location=Bristol|pages=6}}</ref> Mikir kritis ancasé kanggo nggolèki pasarujukan marang standar unggul kang ketat lan panganggo kang bener. Bab iki mbutuhaké sesambungan kang éfèktif lan kabisan parampungan prakara sarta kanggo ngadhepi [[égoséntrisme]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/stages.htm|title=Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development|website=www.telacommunications.com|access-date=2018-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509060129/http://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/stages.htm|archive-date=9 Mèi 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201204/it-s-fine-line-between-narcissism-and-egocentrism|title=It's a Fine Line Between Narcissism and Egocentrism|website=Psychology Today|access-date=2018-04-03}}</ref> lan [[étnoséntrisme]]. == Sajarah == [[Barkas:Head of Socrates in Palazzo Massimo alle Terme (Rome).JPG|thumb|Reca [[Sokratès]]]] Cathetan paling dhisik babagan pamikiran kritis iku piwulangé [[Sokratès]] kang dicathet déning [[Plato]]. Cathetané ngemu pérangan pacelathoné Plato. Pacelathoné iku isiné ngenani Sokratès caturan karo siji utawa luwih lawan wicara babagan prakara [[étika]] kaya déné pitakonan: apa becik Sokratès mlayu saka pakunjaran.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Visser|first1=Jan|title=Seeking Understanding: The Lifelong Pursuit to Build the Scientific Mind|last2=Visser|first2=Muriel|date=2019|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-41680-2|location=Leiden|pages=233}}</ref> Para filsuf nimbang-nimbang lan mikir pitakonan iki lan olèh dudutan yèn "mlayu saka pakunjaran" bakal nglanggar sakabèhing bab kang dhèwèké ugemi marang bab kang luwih luhur saka dhèwèké dhéwé: ya iku ukum [[Aténa]], lan Sokratès ndhaku kaprungu swara panuntun (wangsit).<ref name=":0" /> Sokratès netepaké kasunyatan yèn sawijining wong ora bisa gegondhèlan karo wong kang "wenang" kanggo ndarbèni kawruh lan wawasan kang becik. Dhèwèké nuduhaké yèn wong bisa nduwé kuwasa lan pangkat dhuwur, nanging bingung lan irasional banget. Sokratès awèh panemu yèn wong kang kapéngin nduwé kauripan kang apik lan patut dilakoni, dhèwèké kudu dadi tukang takon mawa sipat kritis lan jiwa interogatif.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Stanlick|first1=Nancy A.|title=Asking Good Questions: Case Studies in Ethics and Critical Thinking|last2=Strawser|first2=Michael J.|date=2015|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=978-1-58510-755-1|location=Indianapolis|pages=6}}</ref> Dhèwèké netepaké kaya apa wigatiné ngajokaké pitakonan kang jeru menyang pamikiran sadurungé awaké dhéwé nampa gagasan minangka kaanan kang patut dipitayani. Sokratès netepaké kaya apa wigatiné "nggolèki bukti, mriksa panalaran lan asumsi kanthi ngati-ati, nganalisis konsèp dhasar, lan nlusuri implikasi ora mung saka apa kang diujaraké, nanging uga saka apa kang ditindakaké".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Chiarini|first1=Andrea|title=Understanding the Lean Enterprise: Strategies, Methodologies, and Principles for a More Responsive Organization|last2=Found|first2=Pauline|last3=Rich|first3=Nicholas|date=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-19994-8|location=Cham|pages=132}}</ref> Mètodhe pitakonan iki sapréné aran "[[Pitakonan Sokratès]]" lan minangka strategi pamulangan mikir kritis kang paling kawentar. Ing sajroning modhe pitakonané, Sokratès miterang preluné mikir kanggo pawedharan lan konsistènsi logis. Dhèwèké ngajokaké pitakonan marang wong-wong kang ngudhar pamikiran irasional utawa kurangé kawruh kang bisa diandelaké. Sokratès nuduhaké yèn ndarbèni wenang ora njamin kawruh kang akurat. Dhèwèké netepaké mètodhe mitakoni kapitayan, mriksa asumsi kanthi ngati-ati lan ngandelaké bukti lan alesan kang kena ing nalar. Plato nyathet piwulangé Sokratès lan mbacutaké tradhisi mikir kritis. [[Aristotélès]] lan skèptis Yunani sabanjuré nyampurnakaké piwulangé Sokratès, nganggo pamikiran sistematis lan ngajokaké pitakonan kanggo mesthèkaké sipat satemené saka babagan kang nyata ing jaba cara bab-bab saka pasawangan saklébatan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/a-brief-history-of-the-idea-of-critical-thinking/408|title=A Brief History of the Idea of Critical Thinking|website=www.criticalthinking.org|access-date=2018-03-14}}</ref> Sokratès netepaké agènda tradhisi mikir kritis, ya iku kanthi cara réflèktif mitakonaké kapitayan lan wedharan umum kanthi ngati-ati mbédakaké kapitayan kang kena ing nalar lan logis karo kurangé bukti kang cukup utawa landhesan rasional kanggo njamin kapitayan. Mikir kritis diandharaké déning Richard W. Paul minangka obahan (''movement'') kang dumadi saka rong gelombang (1994).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Re-Thinking Reason|last=Walters|first=Kerry|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1994|location=Albany|pages=181–98}}</ref> "Gelombang kapisan" mikir kritis kerep ingaran 'analisis kritis' kang cetha, ya iku pamikiran rasional kang nglebokaké kritik. Rerincèné akèh jinisé manut wong-wong kang mènèhi surasa. Miturut Barry K. Beyer (1995), mikir kritis tegesé nggawé pambijèn kang cetha lan nduwé alesan. Sasuwéné prosès mikir kritis, idé-idé kudu nduwé alesan, dipikir kanthi trep, lan dibiji.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://myweb.wvnet.edu/~jelkins/critproj/overview.html|title = The Critical Thinking Movement: Alternating Currents in One Teacher's Thinking|first = James R.|last = Elkins|access-date = 23 Maret 2014|website = myweb.wvnet.edu|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084853/http://myweb.wvnet.edu/~jelkins/critproj/overview.html|archive-date = 13 Juni 2018|url-status = dead}}</ref> Dhéwan Nasional AS kanggo Kaunggulan sajroning Mikir Kritis<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.criticalthinking.org//|title=Critical Thinking Index Page}}</ref> nyurasani yèn mikir kritis minangka "prosès dhisiplin intelèktual kanthi giyat lan prigel ngonsèptualisasiaké, nrapaké, nganalisis, nyintèsis, utawa mbiji katrangan kang diklumpukaké saka–utawa diasilaké déning–pangamatan, pangalaman, réflèksi, panalaran, utawa sesambungan, minangka panuntun kanggo kapitayan lan tindak tanduk."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766|title=Defining Critical Thinking}}</ref> == Dèfinisi == === Sacara padatan === Sacara padatan, mikir kritis nduwé manéka dèfinisi kaya ta: * "Prosès ngonsèptualisasiaké, nrapaké, nganalisis, nyintèsis, lan mbiji katrangan kanthi giyat lan prigel saperlu nggayuh pawangsulan utawa dudutan"<ref name="reference.com">{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/critical|title=Critical – Define Critical at Dictionary.com|work=Dictionary.com|access-date=2016-02-24}}</ref> * "Pamikiran dhisiplin kang cetha, rasional, mawa pikiran binuka, lan katerangaké karo bukti"<ref name="reference.com"/> * "Pambijèn kanggo tujuan lan nata dhèwèké dhéwé kang ngasilaké interpretasi, analisis, évaluasi, lan dudutan, sarta wedharan babagan pratimbangan bukti, konsèptual, mètodhologis, kriteriaologis, utawa kontèkstual kang dadi dhasaring pambijèn iku."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insightassessment.com/CT-Resources/Teaching-For-and-About-Critical-Thinking/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts-PDF|last=Facione|first=Peter A.|title=Critical Thinking: What It is and Why It Counts|publisher=insightassessment.com|year=2011|page=26|access-date=4 Agustus 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729185619/http://www.insightassessment.com/CT-Resources/Teaching-For-and-About-Critical-Thinking/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts-PDF|archive-date=29 Juli 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> * "Kalebu komitmen kanggo migunakaké akal sajroning parumusan kapitayaning awaké dhéwé"<ref name=mulnix>{{cite journal | last1 = Mulnix | first1 = J. W. | year = 2010 | title = Thinking critically about critical thinking | journal = Educational Philosophy and Theory | volume = 44| issue = 5| page = 471 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x | s2cid = 145168346 }}</ref> * "Kaprigelan lan kaluwihan kanggo mèlu kagiyatan mawa skèptisisme réflèktif" (McPeck, [[1981]])<ref>{{Cite document|title=Critical Thinking: A Question of Aptitude and Attitude?|s2cid=37573705|doi=10.5840/inquiryctnews20102524}}</ref> * Mikir babagan pamikiraning wong liya kanthi cara nata lan klarifikasi, mundhakaké éfisiènsi, lan nepungi kasalahan lan bias sajroning pamikirané dhéwé. Mikir kritis dudu mikir 'abot', lan uga ora nduwé piguna kanggo ngrampungaké prakara (kajaba 'mundhakaké' pamikirané dhéwé). Mikir kritis karepé kanggo maksimalaké rasionalitas wong kang mikir. Wong ora nganggo pamikiran kritis kanggo ngrampungaké prakara, nanging kanggo mundhakaké prosès mikiré.<ref>Carmichael, Kirby; letter to Olivetti, Laguna Salada Union School District, Mei 1997.</ref> * "Pambijèné dhedhasar évaluasi analitis kang ngati-ati"<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/critical+analysis|title=critical analysis|newspaper=TheFreeDictionary.com|access-date=2016-11-30}}</ref> * "Mikir kritis iku jinis pola pikir kang mbutuhaké sawiji wong supaya luwih réflèktif, lan nggatèkaké panjupukan kaputusan kang bakal nuntun menyang kapitayan lan tindak tanduké. Mikir kritis nggawé wong ngimpun dudutan mawa luwih akèh logika, mrosès informasi kang canggih lan ndeleng saka sawetara sisih prakara, mula dhèwèké padha bisa ngasilaké dudutan kang luwih solid."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=Fèbruari 1988|title=Book Reviews and Notes : Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice. Joan Baron and Robert Sternberg. 1987. W.H. Freeman, & Co., New York. 275 pages. Index. ISBN 0-7167-1791-3. Paperback|url=https://archive.org/details/bulletin-of-science-technology-society_1988_8_1/page/101|journal=Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society|volume=8|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1177/0270467688008001113|s2cid=220913799|issn=0270-4676}}</ref> * Mikir kritis ndarbèni 7 titikan kritis: péngin ngerti lan péngin weruh, mikir binuka saka sisih kang béda, bisa mikir sistematis, analitis, gigih marang kaleresan, pracaya dhiri bab pamikiran kritisé dhéwé, lan pungkasané, dadi diwasa.<ref name="Facione 1–4">{{Cite journal|last1=Facione|first1=Peter A.|last2=Facione|first2=Noreen C.|date=March 1993|title=Profiling critical thinking dispositions|journal=Assessment Update|volume=5|issue=2|pages=1–4|doi=10.1002/au.3650050202|issn=1041-6099}}</ref> * Senajan ta mikir kritis bisa didèfinisikaké ing sawetara cara kang béda, ana pasarujukan umum ing komponèn pokoké — kapénginan kanggo nggayuh asil kang maremaké, lan iki kudu digayuh karo pamikiran rasional lan cara kang bisa ngolèhaké asil. Halpern mikir yèn mikir kritis nyampuraké kabisan kang disinaoni kaya ta parampungan prakara, pétungan, lan patrapan probabilitas kang kasil. Bab iki uga kalebu kacondhongan kanggo nyampuraké prosès mikir. Kang paling anyar, Stanovich mitayani yèn tès IQ modhèren mèh ora bisa ngukur kabisaning mikir kritis.<ref>{{Citation|last=Halpern|first=Diane F.|editor3-first=Diane F|editor3-last=Halpern|editor2-first=Henry L|editor2-last=Roediger Iii|editor1-first=Robert J|editor1-last=Sternberg|chapter=The Nature and Nurture of Critical Thinking|pages=1–14|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511804632|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511804632.002|title=Critical Thinking in Psychology|year=2006}}</ref> *"Mikir kritis satemené ya iku mitakoni, nantang kawruh lan kawicaksanan kang dirasakaké. Bab iki nganggo idé-idé lan informasi saka posisi objèktif lan tumuli mitakonaké katrangan iki sajroning pangaji-aji awaké dhéwé, solah lan filosofi pribadi."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Judge |first1=Brenda |last2=McCreery |first2=Elaine |last3=Jones |first3=Patrick |title=Critical Thinking Skills for Education Students |date=2009 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-84445-556-0 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGho4-SsPWEC&pg=PT8 |language=en}}</ref> === Sacara panalitèn === Para sarjana pamikir kritis kontèmporèr njembaraké mikir kritis ing sajroning dèfinisi padatan. Bab iki kalebu kuwalitas, konsèp, lan prosès kaya déné kréativitas, angen-angen, panemon, réflèksi, empati, kawruh panghubung, téori fèminis, subjèktivitas, ambiguitas, lan kaora-cethaan. Sawenèh dèfinisi mikir kritis ora nglebokaké praktik subjèktif iki.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Re-Thinking Reason|last=Walters|first=Kerry|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1994|location=Albany}}</ref><ref name="reference.com" /> ==== Déning Ennis ==== # Miturut Ennis, “Mikir kritis iku prosès pandhisiplinan intelèktual kanggo ngonsèptualisasiaké, nrapaké, nganalisis, nyintèsis, lan/utawa mbiji katrangan kang diklumpukaké saka–utawa diasilaké déning–pangamatan, pangalaman, réflèksi, panalaran, utawa sesambungan, minangka panuntun kanggo kapitayan lan tindak tanduk."<ref>{{Citation|last=Ennis|first=Robert H.|chapter=Critical Thinking|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9781137378057|doi=10.1057/9781137378057.0005|title=The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education|year=2015}}</ref> Dèfinisi Ennis iki disarujuki banget déning Harvey Siegel,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Siegel|first=Harvey|date=27 September 2013|title=Educating Reason|doi=10.4324/9781315001722|isbn=9781315001722|edition=1}}</ref> Peter Facione,<ref name="Facione 1–4"/> lan Deanna Kuhn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuhn|first=Deanna|date=January 2015|title=Thinking Together and Alone|journal=Educational Researcher|volume=44|issue=1|pages=46–53|doi=10.3102/0013189x15569530|s2cid=145335117|issn=0013-189X}}</ref> # Miturut dèfinisi Ennis, mikir kritis mbutuhaké akèh kawigatèn lan fungsi utek. Yèn mikir kritis dianggo ing pawiyatan, bab iki bakal mbiyantu uteké para siswa nduwé fungsi luwih apik lan mangertèni tèks kanthi béda. # Bidang piwulang kang béda bokmenawa mbutuhaké jinis pamikiran kritis kang béda. Mikir kritis mènèhi luwih akèh perspèktif ing materi kang padha. ==== Déning ''National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking'' ==== Ing taun [[1987]], ing sajroning prèsentasi ing ''Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform ka-8'', [[Michael Scriven]] lan Richard Paul medharaké yèn mikir kritis nglebokaké prosès kang giyat lan kebak kabisan saperlu nggawé konsèp, nrapaké, nganalisis, nyintèsis, lan mawang sawiji prakara kang diolèhaké apadéné diripta saka pangamatan, pangalaman, sesambungan, lan sapanunggalané.<ref name="criticalthinking">{{Cite web|url=https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766|title=Defining Critical Thinking|website=www.criticalthinking.org|language=en|access-date=2018-04-29}}</ref> Ana 2 komponèn kang mujudaké kabisan mikir kritis, ya iku: # Kabisan kanggo ngasilaké lan mrosès informasi utawa kapitayan. # Kalumrahan, mawa landhesan komitmen intelèktual. ==== Déning Edward Glaser ==== Ing seminar pawiyatan lan pamikiran kritis ing taun [[1941]], Edward Glaser medhar 3 bab kang mujudaké kabisan mikir kritis.<ref name="criticalthinking" /> # Pangertèn mikir mawa sipat grapyak ing saben prakara kang bakal teka # Kawruh lan péngin weruh # Kabisan liya kanggo nrapaké kabisan mikir == Uga delengen == * [[Indoktrinasi]] * [[Kritik]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Wacan bacutan == === Buku === * {{cite book |title=Critical Reasoning: Understanding and Criticizing Arguments and Theories |url=https://archive.org/details/criticalreasonin0000cede_g8g8 |first1=J B. |last1=Cederblom |first2=David |last2=Paulsen |edition=7 |isbn=978-0495808787 |year=2012 |publisher=Cengage Learning |location=Andover, Hampshire, UK}} * Damer, T. Edward. (2005) [[Attacking Faulty Reasoning]], Edisi ke-6, Wadsworth. {{ISBN|0-534-60516-8}} * Dauer, Francis Watanabe. ''Critical Thinking: An Introduction to Reasoning'', 1989, {{ISBN|978-0-19-504884-1}} * Fisher, Alec and Scriven, Michael. (1997) ''Critical Thinking: Its Definition and Assessment'', Center for Research in Critical Thinking (Inggris)/Edgepress (AS). {{ISBN|0-9531796-0-5}} * Hamby, B.W. (2007) ''The Philosophy of Anything: Critical Thinking in Context.'' Kendall Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque Iowa. {{ISBN|978-0-7575-4724-9}} * [[Vincent F. Hendricks]]. (2005) ''Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression'', New York: [[Automatic Press / VIP]]. {{ISBN|87-991013-7-8}} * {{cite book |title=A Field Guide to Lies and Statistics |year=2017 |first=Daniel |last=Levitin |author-link=Daniel Levitin |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0241239995}} (alias ''Weaponized Lies: How to Think Critically in the Post-Truth Era'') * Moore, Brooke Noel and Parker, Richard. (2012) ''Critical Thinking''. Edisi ke-10. Diterbitkan oleh McGraw-Hill. {{ISBN|0-07-803828-6}}. * Paul, Richard. (1995) ''Critical Thinking: How to Prepare Students for a Rapidly Changing World''. edisi ke-4. Foundation for Critical Thinking. {{ISBN|0-944583-09-1}}. * Paul, Richard and Elder, Linda. (2006) ''Critical Thinking Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life'', [[New Jersey]]: Prentice Hall Publishing. {{ISBN|0-13-114962-8}}. * Sagan, Carl. (1995) ''[[The Demon-Haunted World: Science As a Candle in the Dark]]''. Ballantine Books. {{ISBN|0-345-40946-9}} * [[Theodore Schick]] & Lewis Vaughn "How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age" (2010) {{ISBN|0-7674-2048-9}} * van den Brink-Budgen, R (2010) 'Critical Thinking for Students', How To Books. {{ISBN|978-1-84528-386-5}} * Whyte, J. (2003) ''Bad Thoughts – A Guide to Clear Thinking'', Corvo. {{ISBN|0-9543255-3-2}}. *David Carl Wilson (2020) ''A Guide to Good Reasoning: Cultivating Intellectual Virtues'' (2nd edition) University of Minnesota Libraries Ebook {{ISBN|978-1-946135-66-7}} Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0 International License, at https://open.lib.umn.edu/goodreasoning/ * Zeigarnik, B.V. (1927). Pada tugas yang sudah selesai dan yang belum selesai. Dalam terjemahan [[Basa Inggris|bahasa Inggris]]. Disunting oleh Willis D. Ellis; dengan pengantar oleh Kurt Koffka. (1997). Sebuah buku sumber psikologi gestalt xiv, hlm. 403: ill.; 22&nbsp;cm Highland, N.Y: Gestalt Journal Press. "Edisi Gestalt Journal Press ini adalah cetak ulang kata demi kata dari buku yang aslinya diterbitkan pada tahun 1938" – T.p. verso. {{ISBN|9780939266302}}. {{OCLC|38755142}} === Pasal === * {{cite journal|author=Butler, Heather|author2=Christopher Pentoney|author3=Mabelle P. Bong|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1871187116300384|title=Predicting real-world outcomes: Critical thinking ability is a better predictor of life decisions than intelligence|journal=[[Thinking Skills and Creativity]]|volume=25|date=September 2017|pages=38–46|doi=10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.005}} - [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318097450_Predicting_Real-World_Outcomes_Critical_Thinking_Ability_is_a_Better_Predictor_of_Life_Decisions_than_Intelligence See at] [[ResearchGate]] * Facione, P. 2007. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20071215112052/http://www.insightassessment.com/articles.html Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts – 2007 Update]'' * Kompf, M., & Bond, R. (2001). Critical reflection in adult education. In T. Barer-Stein & M. Kompf(Eds.), ''The craft of teaching adults'' (hlm.&nbsp;21–38). Toronto, ON: Irwin. * McPeck, J. (1992). Thoughts on subject specificity. In S. Norris (Ed.), ''The generalizability of critical thinking'' (hlm.&nbsp;198–205). New York: Teachers College Press. * {{cite journal | last1 = Mulnix | first1 = J. W. | year = 2010 | title = Thinking critically about critical thinking | journal = Educational Philosophy and Theory | volume = 44| issue = 5| pages = 464–479| doi = 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x | s2cid = 145168346 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Paul | first1 = R | year = 1982 | title = Teaching critical thinking in the strong sense: A focus on self-deception, world views and a dialectical mode of analysis | journal = Informal Logic Newsletter | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 2–7 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Pavlidis | first1 = Periklis | year = 2010 | title = Critical Thinking as Dialectics: a Hegelian–Marxist Approach | url = http://www.jceps.com/index.php?pageID=article&articleID=194 | journal = Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | access-date = 2023-05-31 | archive-date = 2013-05-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130511175223/http://www.jceps.com/index.php?pageID=article&articleID=194 | url-status = dead }} * Twardy, Charles R. (2003) [http://cogprints.org/3008/ Argument Maps Improve Critical Thinking]. ''[[Teaching Philosophy]]'' 27:2 Juni 2004. == Pranala jaba == * [https://iep.utm.edu/crit-thi/ Mikir Kritis]. ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-thinking/ "Critical Thinking"] ing Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-informal/ "Informal logic"] ing Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy * [https://philpapers.org/browse/critical-thinking Mikir kritis] ing PhilPapers * [https://www.inphoproject.org/taxonomy/2410 Mikir kritis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009090545/https://www.inphoproject.org/taxonomy/2410 |date=2023-10-09 }} ing Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project * {{curlie|Science/Science_in_Society/Skeptical_Inquiry/Critical_Thinking}} * [http://www.csicop.org/si/2006-02/thinking.html Mikir Kritis: Apa Pigunané? (Kasunyatané, Apa Iku?)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815022456/http://www.csicop.org/si/2006-02/thinking.html |date=2009-08-15 }} déning Howard Gabennesch, kalawarta ''Skeptical Inquirer''. * [http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/glossary-of-critical-thinking-terms/496 Glosarium Tetembungan Mikir Kritis] * [http://philosophy.hku.hk/think Wèb Mikir Kritis] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Fix7kFXysY Chris Sowton - Ékosistem mikir kritis–Kenapa tanggung jawab sakabèhé wong?] Dibabar déning Cambridge University Press English Language Teaching * [https://www.thecriticalthinkinginitiative.org/ Initatif Mikir Kritis]{{Pranala mati|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} diripta déning Steven J. Pearlman lan David Carillo. {{DEFAULTSORT:Mikir, Kritis}} [[Kategori:Pikiran]] [[Kategori:Psikologi]] [[Kategori:Pawiyatan]] 3s2b0zb0ltnebgkufxdbf6taobir9ry Nutella 0 194546 1752830 1751113 2026-08-19T15:32:47Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752830 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Nutella for breakfast - Flickr - love.jsc.jpg|thumb|Nutella]] '''Nutella''' ( {{IPAc-en|US||n|uː|ˈ|t|ɛ|l|ə}} {{Respell|noo|TEL|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|UK||n|ʌ|ˈ|t|ɛ|l|ə}} {{Respell|nuh|TEL|ə}}, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/the-correct-way-to-pronounce-nutella-in-the-uk-is-nutella-newtelluh-is-just-for-america-10511650.html|title=The correct way to pronounce Nutella in the UK is 'nut-ella', 'new-tell-uh' is just for America|last=Eleftheriou-Smith|first=Loulla-Mae|date=21 September 2015|publisher=[[The Independent]]}}</ref> {{IPA-it|nuˈtɛlla|lang}} ) iku sawijiné mèrek pasta kanggo nyemir roti sing digawé saka kacang hazel.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ayto|first=John|title=Nutella|date=2013|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199640249.001.0001/acref-9780199640249-e-2087|periodical=The Diner’s Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780199640249.001.0001|isbn=9780199640249|access-date=2019-03-17}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Michele-Ferrero|title=Michele Ferrero {{!}} Italian industrialist|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-03-17}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.brandrepublic.com/News/732842/Nutella-hands-4m-job-Krow-ahead-relaunch/|title=Nutella hands £4m job to Krow ahead of relaunch|date=August 22, 2007|work=Brand Republic News|access-date=March 18, 2011}}</ref> Nutella diprodhuksi déning perusahaan Italia Ferrero lan pisanan ditepungaké ing taun 1964, senadyan iterasi pisanan wis taun 1963. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27438001|title=Nutella: How the world went nuts for a hazelnut spread|last=Mitzman|first=Dany|date=17 May 2014|work=[[BBC News Magazine]]|access-date=18 May 2014}}</ref> == Sajarah == Pietro Ferrero nduwé toko roti ing Alba, sawijining kutha Italia sing ditepungi kanthi prodhuksi kacang hazel. Ing taun 1946, dhèwèké ngedol wiwitan {{Convert|300|kg|lb|adj=on}} ''Pasta Gianduja'', asalé saka Gianduja . Originally didol minangka blok ngalangi, Ferrero wiwit ngedol versi krim ing 1951 minangka ''Supercrema gianduja'' . <ref name="history3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutellausa.com/history3.htm|title=The History of Nutella (3)|last=Carridice|first=Adriel|website=NutellaUSA.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518022437/http://www.nutellausa.com/history3.htm|archive-date=18 May 2015|access-date=2013-01-28}}</ref> Ing taun 1963, anaké Ferrero, Michele Ferrero, ngowahi ''Supercrema gianduja'' kanthi tujuan kanggo marketing ing saindhenging Eropah. Komposisi kasebut diowahi, lan diarani "Nutella". Guci Nutella pisanan ninggalake pabrik ing Alba tanggal 20 April 1964. Produk kasebut sukses kanthi cepet lan tetep populer. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutellausa.com/history2.htm|title=The History of Nutella (2)|last=Carridice|first=Adriel|website=NutellaUSA.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021173432/http://www.nutellausa.com/history2.htm|archive-date=21 October 2015|access-date=2013-01-28}}</ref> Ing taun 2012, sénator Prancis Yves Daudigny ngusulaké unggahan pajeg [[lenga sawit]] saka €100 dadi €400 saben ton. Déné Nutella iku 20 persèn ngandhut lenga sawit, minangka salah sawijining bahan utama Nutella, banjur pajeg iku diparabi "pajeg Nutella" ing médhia massa. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/12/france-nutella-amendment-international-row|title=France's 'Nutella amendment' causes big fat international row|last=Willsher|first=Kim|date=2012-11-12|work=The Guardian|access-date=22 November 2012}}</ref> Ing surya 14 Mei 2014, Poste Italiana mbabaraké prangko pèngetan Nutella sing kaping 50. <ref name="YF">{{Cite news|url=https://it.finance.yahoo.com/notizie/50-anni-di-nutella-francobollo-181916686.html|title=Nutella diventa un francobollo|date=14 May 2014|work=Yahoo! Finance|access-date=18 May 2014|language=it|trans-title=Nutella becomes a stamp}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lastampa.it/2014/05/15/societa/i-nostri-primi-anni-con-la-nutella-HfvXniD9XvQCJmCl2Vp7OL/pagina.html|title=I nostri primi 50 anni con la Nutella|last=Amabile|first=Flavia|date=15 May 2014|work=[[La Stampa]]|access-date=18 May 2014|language=it|trans-title=Our first 50 years with Nutella|archive-date=28 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328203350/https://www.lastampa.it/2014/05/15/societa/i-nostri-primi-anni-con-la-nutella-HfvXniD9XvQCJmCl2Vp7OL/pagina.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Perangko 70 [[Euro]] sen dirancang dening Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato lan nduweni jar Nutella ing latar mburi emas. <ref name="YF" /> Ferrero nganakake Dina Nutella tanggal 17 lan 18 Mei kanggo ngrayakake ulang taun kasebut. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/economia/2014/05/13/nutella-ha-50-anni-arriva-anche-un-francobollo_ae13ce83-9b42-444f-949c-1517fd7f30da.html|title=Nutella ha 50 anni, arriva anche un francobollo|date=17 May 2014|work=ansa.it|access-date=18 May 2014|publisher=Agenzia ANSA Società Cooperativa|language=it|trans-title=Nutella is 50 years old, a stamp is introduced}}</ref> == Bahan == [[Barkas:Nutella_ak.jpg|jmpl| Nutella kerep diiklanaké bebarengan karo susu lan kacang hazel, senadyan bahan iku bagéan cilik saka resèpé. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/health-and-wellness/how-nutella-plans-to-trick-you-into-thinking-its-healthier-than-it-is-20170110-gtom2j.html|title=How Nutella plans to 'trick' you into thinking it's healthier than it is|last=Dewey, Caitlin|date=16 January 2017|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|access-date=21 February 2023|quote=Unlike most peanut or almond butters, Nutella is composed largely of sugar and palm oil; hazelnuts are its distant third ingredient.}}</ref>]] Bahan utama Nutella yaiku gula lan lenga sawit (luwih saka 50%). Uga ngandhut hazelnut 13%, <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/features/nutella-football-ferrero-280508/|title=Nutella – Breakfast for Champions?|date=May 28, 2008|website=Greenpeace.org|access-date=March 18, 2011}}</ref> coklat padhet, lan krim susu. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://foodwatch.com.au/images/stories/p-labelling/nutella_jar_ingredients.jpg|title=Nutella Jar Ingredients|website=FoodWatch|access-date=2022-03-21|archive-date=2020-03-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313144915/https://foodwatch.com.au/images/stories/p-labelling/nutella_jar_ingredients.jpg|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ing Amérika Sarékat lan Inggris, Nutella ngandhut prodhuk kedhelé. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutellausa.com/ingredients.htm|title=Nutella and Nutrition: Food Pyramid and Guidelines|website=NutellaUSA.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820044001/http://www.nutellausa.com/ingredients.htm|archive-date=2015-08-20|access-date=2013-01-28}}</ref> Nutella dipasaraké minangka "krim hazelnut" ing sawetara nagara. Miturut kukum Itali, Nutella ora bisa dilabeli minangka "krim coklat", amarga ora nyukupi kritéria konsentrasi padhetan coklat minimal. Ferrero nganggo 25 persèn saka pasokan hazelnut global, senadyan ora kabèh iki dienggo kusus kanggo nggawé Nutella. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://qz.com/248973/there-might-not-be-enough-nutella-to-go-around-this-year/|title=A frost in Turkey may drive up the price of your Nutella|last=Narula|first=Svati Kirsten|website=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|publisher=[[Atlantic Media]]|access-date=14 August 2014}}</ref> Ing sasi Novèmber 2017, perusahaan Ferreo rada ngowahi resèp Nutella, nambahi gula lan isi susu bubuk skim. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/08/nutellas-new-recipe-sparks-nutellagate-twitter-backlash.html|title=Nutella's new recipe sparks #NutellaGate Twitter backlash|last=LaVito|first=Angelica|date=November 8, 2017|work=CNBC}}</ref> Amarga warna prodhuk iki luwih terang, Punjer Pangreksan Konsumèn Hamburg ngira yèn isi coklat uga suda. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/07/nutella-fans-go-nuts-changes-recipe-beloved-chocolate-spread/|title=Nutella fans go nuts over changes to recipe of beloved chocolate spread|last=Squires|first=Nick|date=November 7, 2017|work=The Telegraph|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/07/nutella-fans-go-nuts-changes-recipe-beloved-chocolate-spread/|archive-date=2022-01-12}}</ref> Sawetara toko warta nyatakaké yèn modifikasi resèp iku marai para konsumèn "ngamuk" utawa "dadi kacang (''going nuts'')". <ref name="guardian-2017-11-07">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/nov/07/choc-horror-fans-outraged-by-nutellas-secret-recipe-change|title=Choc horror: fans outraged by Nutella's secret recipe change|last=Smithers|first=Rebecca|date=November 7, 2017|work=The Guardian}}</ref> Resèp Piedmont tradisional, gianduja, yaiku campuran ngandhut kira-kira 71,5% pasta hazelnut lan 19,5% coklat. Resèp iki dikembangaké ing [[Piemonte|Piedmont]], Itali, amarga kekurangan biji kakao sawisé jatah ransun pasca perang nyuda kasedhiyan bahan mentah. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutellausa.com/history.htm|title=The History of Nutella (1)|last=Carridice|first=Adriel|website=NutellaUSA.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912093454/http://www.nutellausa.com/history.htm|archive-date=12 September 2015|access-date=2013-01-28}}</ref> === Bahan miturut negara === Akèh nagara nduwé bahan sing (rada) séjé-séjé kanggo formula Nutella. ==== Ostrali ==== Gula, lenga sawit, hazelnut (13%), susu bubuk skim (8,7%) bubuk coklat (7,4%), padhatan susu tanpa gajih, pangèmulsi (lecithin kedhelé), rasa (vanillin). <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sumo.ly/HWcs|title=Nutella. The full (correct) list of ingredients - Catherine Saxelby's Foodwatch|last=Saxelby|first=Catherine}}</ref> ==== Kanadha ==== [[Barkas:Huile_de_palme_biologique_350g.jpg|jmpl| [[Lenga sawit|Minyak sawit]] minangka bahan utama nomer loro Nutella miturut bobot ing Kanada lan Amerika; sing pisanan yaiku [[gula]] .{{Butuh sitiran|date=May 2023}}<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" data-ve-ignore="true" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#x5B; ''<nowiki><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">kutipan dibutuhake</span></nowiki>'' &#x5D;</sup>]] Gula, lenga sawit sing wis dimodifikasi, hazelnut, coklat, bubuk susu skim, bubuk whey, lesitin, vanillin. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nutella.com/ca/en/inside-nutella/quality-and-ingredients/|title=Our quality and ingredients|publisher=Ferrero USA, Inc.|access-date=2023-06-30|archive-date=2023-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321070325/https://www.nutella.com/ca/en/inside-nutella/quality-and-ingredients|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==== Jerman ==== Ferrero wis konfirmasi manawa wis ngganti resèp jèm coklat lan hazelnut - sing marai réaksi gedhé antarané para fans merèk iku. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/3849914/nutella-quietly-changes-its-recipe-in-europe-canada/|title=Nutella quietly changes its recipe in Europe, Canada, fans react|date=November 8, 2017|website=Global News|publisher=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> ==== Indhia ==== Gula, minyak sawit, hazelnut (13%), bubuk skim susu sapi (8,7%), bubuk coklat sing ngandhut gajih asor (7,4%), pengemulsi (Lecithin - INS 322), ngandhut rasa tambahan (dat pangrasa sing mèmper karo - vanillin).{{Butuh sitiran|date=May 2023}} ==== Itali ==== Gula, lenga sawit, hazelnut (13%), bubuk coklat sing dikurangi gajihé (7,4%), susu bubuk skim (5%), bubuk whey, pengemulsi (lecithin) (kedhelé), pangrasa (vanillin). <ref name="wordpress.com">{{Cite web|url=https://knitstamatic.wordpress.com/2012/08/26/taleoftwonutellas/|title=A Tale of Two Nutellas|last=Knitstamatic|date=26 August 2012|website=Workpress.com}}</ref> ==== Inggris ==== Gula, lenga sawit, hazelnut (13%), susu bubuk skim (8,7%), coklat sing dikurangi lemak (7,4%), pengemulsi: lesitin (soya), vanillin. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ferrero.co.uk/Nutella|title=NUTELLA®|website=www.ferrero.co.uk|access-date=2020-11-12}}</ref> ==== Amérika Sarékat ==== Gula, lenga sawit, hazelnut, coklat, susu skim, whey mineral suda (susu), lesitin minangka pengemulsi (kedelai), vanillin: rasa artifisial. <ref name="wordpress.com"/> == Nutrisi ==   [[Category:Pages using infobox food with unknown parameters|introduced]] Nutella ngandhut 10,4 persen lemak jenuh lan 58 persen gula olahan miturut bobot. Nutella rong sendok teh (37 gram) ngandhut 200 kalori, kalebu 99 kalori saka 11 gram lemak (3,5).&nbsp;g sing jenuh) lan 80 kalori saka 21 gram gula. Panyebaran uga ngemot 15&nbsp;mg [[Natriyum|sodium]] lan 2&nbsp;g [[Protéin|protein]] saben porsi (kanggo referensi ukuran porsi Kanada 1 tablespoon utawa 19 gram). <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/nutella-settles-lawsuit-from-angry-mom-drops-health-claims-1.802299#.T5sMHSwf-ZY|title=Nutella settles lawsuit from angry mom, drops health claims|date=27 April 2012|access-date=2013-08-29|publisher=[[CTV News]]|archive-date=2020-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112042828/https://www.ctvnews.ca/nutella-settles-lawsuit-from-angry-mom-drops-health-claims-1.802299#.T5sMHSwf-ZY|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c21Pe.html|title=Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Chocolate-flavored hazelnut spread|publisher=NutritionaData|access-date=2008-11-09}}</ref> == Prodhuksi == [[Barkas:NutellaCafe.jpg|kiri|jmpl| "Kafé Nutella" ing Ontario, 2016]] [[Barkas:Nutella_Ferrero_Buiobuione.jpg|kiri|jmpl| Nutella B-Ready ing Ilulissat ([[Grunlan]])]] Nutella diprodhuksi ing akèh pabrik. Ing pasar Amérika Lor, diprodhuksi ing pabrik ing Brantford, Ontario, Kanada <ref name="NAprod">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutella.ca/english/faq|title=Frequently Asked Questions|website=Nutella.ca|publisher=Ferrero Canada Limited|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125234345/http://www.nutella.ca/english/faq|archive-date=2013-11-25|access-date=2012-11-26}}</ref> lan luwih anyar ing San José Iturbide, Guanajuato, Meksiko. <ref name="MXprod">{{Cite web|url=http://www.reforma.com/aplicacioneslibre/articulo/default.aspx?id=128185&md5=ce010b06edc44522e24ed077e0405a23&ta=0dfdbac11765226904c16cb9ad1b2efe&po=4|title=Abre Ferrero primera planta en México|website=Reforma|access-date=2015-06-07}}</ref> Kanggo Australia lan Selandia Anyar, Nutella wis diprodhuksi ing Lithgow, New South Wales, wiwit pungkasan taun 1970-an. <ref name="Oceaniaprod">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ferrero.com.au/the-group/ferrero-australia/history/|title=Ferrero Australia History|website=Ferrero Australia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027060452/http://www.ferrero.com.au/the-group/ferrero-australia/history/|archive-date=2012-10-27|access-date=2012-11-26}}</ref> Loro saka papat pabrik Ferrero ing Italia ngasilaké Nutella, ing Alba, Piedmont, lan ing Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi ing Campania. <ref name="Italyprod">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ferrero.it/azienda/azienda-italia/stabilimenti/i-poli-produttivi/|title=Stabilitmenti|website=Ferrero Italia SpA|access-date=2012-11-26|archive-date=2018-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306023229/https://www.ferrero.it/azienda/azienda-italia/stabilimenti/i-poli-produttivi/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ing Prancis, fasilitas produksi dumunung ing Villers-Écalles . <ref name="Franceprod">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ferrero.fr/notre_entreprise/nous_trouver/|title=Où nous trouver|website=Ferrero France|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224011635/http://www.ferrero.fr/notre_entreprise/nous_trouver/|archive-date=2012-12-24|access-date=2012-11-26}}</ref> Kanggo Eropah Wétan (kalebu Eropah Tenggara, Polandia, Turki, Republik Ceko lan Slowakia) lan Afrika Kidul, diprodhuksi ing [[Warschau]] lan Manisa . Kanggo Jerman lan Eropah lor, Nutella diprodhuksi ing pabrik Ferrero ing Stadtallendorf, sing wis ana wiwit taun 1956. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ferrero.de/ferrero2.aspx?pageurl=unternehmen/ferrero_fakten/produktion.aspx|title=produktion|website=offizielle Website von Ferrero Deutschland|access-date=2023-06-30|archive-date=2014-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521235903/http://www.ferrero.de/ferrero2.aspx?pageurl=unternehmen%2fferrero_fakten%2fproduktion.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nutella mlebu pasar Ruslan lan uga duwe pabrik produksi ing Vladimir. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.confectioneryproduction.com/news/24336/ferrero-prepares-for-major-multi-million-expansion-in-russian-market/|title=Ferrero prepares for major multi-million expansion in Russian markets|date=22 October 2018|work=Confectionery Production|access-date=15 April 2019}}</ref> Ferrero uga nduwé pabrik ing Poços de Caldas, Brasil, sing nyedhiyani pasar Brasil, kanthi bagéan produksi diekspor menyang luar negeri. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ferrero.com.br/ferrero-do-brasil|title=A história|website=Ferrero do Brasil|access-date=2023-06-30|archive-date=2020-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223130401/https://www.ferrero.com.br/ferrero-do-brasil|url-status=dead}}</ref> Iki uga diprodhuksi ing Turki lan dièkspor menyang negara kaya Indhia. Prodhuksi global ing 2013 kira-kira 350.000 ton. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.repubblica.it/economia/2014/05/14/news/nutella_50_anni-86134560/|title=Nutella festeggia i suoi primi 50 anni e chiude le porte di Piazza Affari|last=Amoroso|first=Ludovico|date=14 May 2014|work=[[La Repubblica]]|access-date=30 November 2016}}</ref> == Ngolah == Nutella digambaraké minangka jèm coklat lan hazelnut, <ref name="guardian-2017-11-07"/> <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ontario-hazelnut-industry-grows-nutella-1.4054625|title=Hard nut to crack: The quest to make Nutella a bit more Canadian|last=Akhtar|first=Khalil|date=April 4, 2017|work=CBC News}}</ref> senadyan umumé digawé saka gula lan lenga sawit. Proses manufaktur kanggo panganan iki mèh padha karo prodhuksi pasta coklat umum. Nutella digawé saka gula, [[lenga sawit]] modifikasi, [[kacang hazel]], [[Woh Kakao|bubuk coklat]], bubuk [[susu skim]], bubuk whey, lesitin soya, lan vanillin . <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2017/jan/20/is-nutella-really-that-bad-for-you|title=Deconstructed Nutella: nuts, cocoa – and 58&nbsp;% sugar|last=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=January 20, 2017|work=The Guardian}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/nutella-is-under-fire-for-harmful-ingredients-2016-2?r=US&IR=T&IR=T|title=Many parents are terrified to feed their kids Nutella|last=Peterson|first=Hayley|date=February 17, 2016|work=Business Insider}}</ref> Proses nggawé pasta coklat iki diwiwiti kanthi ekstraksi bubuk coklat saka biji kakao. Biji kakao iki dipanen saka wit kakao lan ditinggal nganti garing watara sepuluh dina sadurunge dikirim kanggo diolah. <ref name="wanttoknowit.com">{{Cite web|url=http://wanttoknowit.com/how-is-nutella-made/|title=How is Nutella Made|date=28 December 2011|website=Wanttoknowit.com}}</ref> Biasane, biji kakao ngemot kira-kira 50 persen saka mentega coklat; mulane kudu dipanggang kanggo ngurangi biji kakao dadi wujud cair. <ref name="wanttoknowit.com" /> Langkah iki ora cukup kanggo ngowahi biji kakao dadi tempel coklat amarga ngalangi ing suhu kamar lan ora bisa disebar. Sawise panggang awal, tempel cair dikirim menyang penet, sing digunakake kanggo squeeze butter metu saka biji coklat. Produk pungkasan yaiku cakram coklat sing digawe saka coklat murni sing dikompres. Lenga kakao ditransfer menyang papan liya supaya bisa digunakaké ing produk liyané. Proses kapindho kalebu kacang hazel. Sawisé hazelnut wis teka ing pabrik pangolahan, kontrol kualitas ditanggepi kanggo mriksa kacang supaya bisa diproses. Sawijiné [[guillotine]] ditrapaké kanggo nyacah kacang kanggo mriksa interior. <ref name="youtube.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dwbgruOt6g|title=Chocolate Spread : How Its Made|last=Triwood1973|date=25 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630211232/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dwbgruOt6g|archive-date=2023-06-30|access-date=2023-06-30|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> Sawise proses iki, hazelnut di resiki lan dipanggang. Kontrol kualitas kapindho ditanggepi dening jeblugan udara sing dikontrol komputer, sing mbusak kacang ala saka batch. <ref name="youtube.com" /> Iki njamin saben jar Nutella seragam ing tampilan lan rasa. Kira-kira 50 hazelnut bisa ditemokake ing saben jar Nutella, kaya sing diklaim perusahaan. <ref name="nutella.com.au">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutella.com.au|title=Nutella Australia}}</ref> Bubuk kakao banjur dicampur karo hazelnut bebarengan karo gula, vanillin lan susu skim ing wadhah gedhe, nganti dadi nyebar kaya pasta. <ref name="wanttoknowit.com"/> Lenga sawit sing diowahi banjur ditambahaké kanggo mbantu nahan fase padhet Nutella ing suhu kamar, sing ngganti mentega sing ditemokake ing biji kakao. Whey bubuk banjur ditambahake menyang campuran kanggo tumindak minangka binder kanggo tempel. Whey bubuk minangka aditif sing umum digunakaké ing panyebaran kanggo nyegah koagulasi prodhuk, amarga nyetabilake emulsi lemak. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.milkingredients.ca/index-eng.php?id=194|title=Whey Powder|website=Milkingredients.ca|access-date=2023-06-30|archive-date=2022-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626150809/http://www.milkingredients.ca/index-eng.php?id=194|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kajaba iku, lecithin, minangka wujud dat gajih sing ditemokaké ing jaringan kewan lan tanduran, ditambahake kanggo mbantu ngemulsi tempel, amarga ningkatake campuran homogen saka bahan-bahan sing beda-beda, saéngga pasta bisa disebarake. Uga mbantu sifat lipofilik bubuk coklat, sing, maneh, nyegah produk kasebut ora bisa dipisahake. <ref name="nutella.com.au"/> Vanillin ditambahaké kanggo nambah rasa manis coklat. Produk sing wis rampung banjur dibungkus. == Panyimpenan == Label prodhuk nyatakaké yèn Nutella ora perlu diademaké. Iki amarga cacahé gula sing akèh ing prodhuk iku minangka pengawèt kanggo menggak thukulé mikroorganisme. Luwih khusus, gula minangka pengawet kanthi ngiket banyu ing prodhuk, sing nyegah mikroorganisme tuwuh. <ref name="ubcwiki">{{Cite web|url=http://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lesson_02|title=Chemical and Physical Properties of Food|website=wiki.UBC.ca|access-date=1 February 2018}}</ref> Kulkas njalari Nutella atos, amarga ngandhut gajih saka kacang hazel. Nalika gajih kacang disèlèhaké ing suhu sing adhem, dadi angel banget nyebar. Kacang hazel ngandhut meh 91 persen lemak monounsaturated, sing dikenal minangka cairan ing suhu kamar lan ngalangi ing suhu kulkas. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kjhazelnuts.com/about/health-benefits-of-hazelnuts.html|title=Health Benefits of Hazelnuts|website=Kjhazelnuts.com|publisher=The Hazelnut Council|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404165410/http://www.kjhazelnuts.com/about/health-benefits-of-hazelnuts.html|archive-date=4 April 2017}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://extension.illinois.edu/diabetes2/subsection.cfm?SubSectionID=46|title=What are Polyunsaturated and Monounsaturated Fats? - Your Guide to Diet and Diabetes|publisher=University of Illinois Extension|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107164641/http://extension.illinois.edu/diabetes2/subsection.cfm?SubSectionID=46|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> Suhu kamar ngidini produk duwe konsistensi sing lancar lan bisa disebar, amarga lenga monounsaturated saka hazelnut cair ing negara iki. <ref name="ubcwiki" /> Kajaba iku, lenga sawit sing digunakake ing Nutella ora mbutuhake kulkas, amarga ngemot lemak jenuh sing akeh lan tahan dadi tengik. <ref>[https://www.ferrerofoodservice.com/int/en/how-to-store-nutella How to store Nutella] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028162337/https://www.ferrerofoodservice.com/int/en/how-to-store-nutella |date=2022-10-28 }}, Manufacturer's website</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.recipetips.com/kitchen-tips/t--1193/oils-and-fats-handlingsafetystorage.asp|title=Oils and Fats Handling/Safety/Storage|website=Recipetips.com}}</ref> Bahan-bahan sing isih ana ing Nutella, kayata coklat, susu bubuk skim, lesitin soya, lan vanillin, uga ora mbutuhake kulkas. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutella.com/en/ca/the-7-ingredients|title=Our ingredients|publisher=Nutella}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://food.manoramaonline.com/food/in-season/2017/05/27/nutella-swiss-roll-classic-sponge-cake.html|title=Kids' Cooking - Nutella Swiss Roll|website=ManoramaOnline.com|access-date=1 February 2018}}</ref> == Tuntutan kukum == Ing Amérika Sarékat, Ferrero digugat ing pangadilan amarga iklan palsu sing marai konsumèn nduwé panemu yèn Nutella nduwèni kagunan nutrisi lan kaséhatan (saka iklan sing nyatakaké yèn Nutella minangka "bagéan saka sarapan bergizi"). Ing April 2012, Ferrero sarujuk kanggo mbayar $3 yuta ganti rugi (nganti $4 saben toples nganti limang toples saben pelanggan). Ganti rugi kuwi uga ngwajibaké Ferrero kanggo ngganti label lan pemasaran Nutella, kalebu iklan televisi lan situs wèb. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/26/nutella-lawsuit_n_1457183.html?ref=food|title=Nutella Lawsuit: Ferrero Settles Class-Action Suit Over Health Claims For $3 Million|last=Tepper|first=Rachel|date=2012-04-26|work=Huffington Post|access-date=27 April 2012}}</ref> == Gladri foto == <gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Classic Waffles with Chocolate Fudge Sauce - Home - Goa - IMG-20201027-WA0001.jpg|Wafel karo Nutella File:Crêpes con la Nutella.JPG|Crêpes karo Nutella File:Nutella sandwich.jpg|Roti bakar isi Nuttela File:Nutellabiscotti.JPG|Biscotti isi Nutella File:State Fair of Texas September 2019 11 (Deep Fried Nutella Custard Stuffed French Toast).jpg|Nutella custard File:Tarta de Nutella con galletas.jpg|Kèik Nutella File:Zeppole con la nutella.jpg|[[Zeppole]] isi Nutella </gallery> == Delengen uga == {{Portal|Food|Companies|Italy}} == Réferènsi == {{Reflist}} == Pranala njaba == {{Commons category}} * {{Situs web rasmi}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Olah-olahan Itali]] [[Kategori:Kaca mawa pertalan kang durung kapriksa]] eo7rwclvb2l2o971xs5eptkn19eu30o Polimer 0 195332 1752885 1668308 2026-08-20T04:09:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752885 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Single_Polymer_Chains_AFM.jpg|jmpl|Panampinipun ranté polimer linear ingkang asli, nalika dipun rekam kanthi ngginakaken mikroskop gaya atom ing dalem permukaan, ing ngandhap wadhah cairan. Dawa kontur ranté polimer punika kirang langkung 204 nm; tebalipun kirang langkung 0.4 nm.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Roiter|first1=Y.|last2=Minko|first2=S.|year=2005|title=AFM Single Molecule Experiments at the Solid-Liquid Interface: In Situ Conformation of Adsorbed Flexible Polyelectrolyte Chains|url=https://archive.org/details/american-chemical-society-journal_2005-11-16_127_45/page/15688|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=127|issue=45|pages=15688–15689|doi=10.1021/ja0558239|pmid=16277495}}</ref>]] '''Polimer''' punika [[Zat kimia|zat]] utawi [[bahan]] ingkang kaanggep saking molekul ageng sanget ingkang dipunsebat [[makromolekul]], kawangun saking akeh satuan ulang.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/polymer|title=Polymer on Britannica|date=25 December 2023}}</ref> Amargi gadhah macem-macem sifat,<ref name="PC1">{{cite book|title=Fundamentals of polymer science: an introductory text|last1=Painter|first1=Paul C.|last2=Coleman|first2=Michael M.|publisher=Technomic Pub. Co.|year=1997|isbn=978-1-56676-559-6|location=Lancaster, Pa.|page=1}}</ref> polimer sintetis lan alam dados penting lan sumebar ing gesang saben dinten.<ref name="MBB1">{{cite book|title=Principles of polymer engineering|last1=McCrum|first1=N. G.|last2=Buckley|first2=C. P.|last3=Bucknall|first3=C. B.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-856526-0|location=Oxford; New York|page=1}}</ref> Polimer punika wiwit saking plastik sintetis ingkang kawentar kados ta [[polistirena]] ngantos dhateng biopolimer alam kados ta [[DNA]] lan [[protéin]] ingkang penting tumrap struktur lan fungsi biologis. Polimer, sintetis lan alam, dipunwujudaken liwat [[polimerisasi]] saking molekul cilik, ingkang dipunsebat [[monomer]]. Massa molekul agengipun, ingkang padhet kaliyan senyawa [[molekul cilik]] [[Senyawa (kimia)|senyawa]], ndadekaken sifat fisik unik kalebet [[ketangguhan]], elastisitas dhuwur, [[viskoelastisitas]], lan kemiringan kangge mbentuk struktur [[Kaca|amorf]] lan [[Kristalisasi polimer|semikristalin]] sanes [[kristal]]. Istilah "polimer" asalé saking basa [[Grikenlan|Yunani]] πολύς (polus) ingkang tegesipun 'akeh, kathah', lan μέρος (meros) ingkang ateges 'bègian'. Istilah punika dipun-gawé déning [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]] ing taun 1833, sanadyan [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius#New chemical terms|kanthi définisi]] kang béda karo définisi modhèrn miturut [[IUPAC]].<ref>Yèn wonten satunggalé zat gadhah rumus molekul kang satunggal dados panglipat saking sanèsipun – kayata acetylene ({{chem2|C2H2}}) lan benzene ({{chem2|C6H6}}) – Berzelius nyebataken rumus panglipat punika "polimerik". Delengen: Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1833) "''Isomerie'', Unterscheidung von damit analogen Verhältnissen" (''Isomeric'', distingsi saking hubungan kang analoga kados punika), ''Jahres-Bericht über die Fortschitte der physischen Wissenschaften …'', '''12''': 63–67. [https://books.google.com/books?id=1vs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA64 Saking kaca 64]: "Um diese Art von Gleichheit in der Zusammensetzung, bei Ungleichheit in den Eigenschaften, bezeichnen zu können, möchte ich für diese Körper die Benennung ''polymerische'' (von ''πολυς'' mehrere) vorschlagen." (Kanggé bisa mènèhi tandha jinis katentreman punika ing komposisi [kang diiringi] kanthi bèda ing sipat-sipat, kula badhé nyaranaké penjenengan "polimerik" (saking ''πολυς'', akèh) kanggé zat-zat punika.) Aslinipun dipun-terbitaké ing taun 1832 ing basa Swèdi minangka: Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1832) "Isomeri, dess distinktion från dermed analoga förhållanden," ''Årsberättelse om Framstegen i Fysik och Kemi'', kaca-kaca 65–70; tembung "polymeriska" wonten ing [https://books.google.com/books?id=PZUHAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA66 kaca 66].</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Jensen, William B.|title=Ask the Historian: The origin of the polymer concept|url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/141.%20Polymer.pdf|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|volume=85|issue=5|bibcode=2008JChEd..85..624J|doi=10.1021/ed085p624|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618125718/http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/141.%20Polymer.pdf|archive-date=18 Juni 2018|access-date=4 Maret 2013|author1-link=William B. Jensen|taun=2008|kaca-kaca=624–625|url-status=mati}}</ref> Konsep modhèrn polimer minangka struktur makromolekul kang terikat kovalen dipun-usulaké ing taun 1920 déning [[Hermann Staudinger]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Staudinger|first1=H|year=1920|title=Über Polymerisation|trans-title=Babagan Polimerisasi|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3481298;view=1up;seq=1283|journal=Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft|language=de|volume=53|issue=6|doi=10.1002/cber.19200530627|kaca-kaca=1073–1085}}</ref> piyambakipun ngupados bukti eksperimen kanggo hipotesis punika salami dasawarsa sabanjuré.<ref>{{cite book|title=Contemporary Polymer Chemistry|last1=All cock|first1=Harry R.|last2=Lampe|first2=Frederick W.|last3=Mark|first3=James E.|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2003|isbn=978-0-13-065056-6|edition=3|kaca=21}}</ref> == Struktur == === Monomer lan satuan ulang=== Kawontenanipun satunggaling polimer ingkang pisanan lan paling wigati punika identitas saking satuan ulang (residu monomer, ingkang ugi dipunsebat "mers") ingkang nyusun polimer kasebut. Nomenklatur polimer umumé dipunadharaken dhumateng jinis residu monomer ingkang nyusun polimer. Polimer ingkang namung ngandhut satunggaling jinis satuan ulang dipunsebat minangka homopolimer, dene polimer ingkang ngandhut kalih utawi langkung jinis [[satuan ulang]] dipunsebat minangka [[kopolimer]]. Terpolimer punika kopolimer ingkang ngandhut tigang jinis satuan ulang. === Mikrostruktur === Mikrostruktur saking polimer (kadhangkala dipunsebat konfigurasi) gegayutan kaliyan susunan fisik residu monomer ing dhateng rangka rantai. Punika ingkang dados unsur struktur polimer ingkang dipunbetahaken pambukaan ikatan kovalen supados saged dipungantos. Struktur polimer ingkang bermacam-macam saged dipundamel gumantung kaliyan monomer lan kondisi reaksi: Satunggaling polimer saged ngandhut makromolekul linear ingkang sabenipun mung ngandhut satunggaling rantai tanpa percabangan. Ing kasus polietilena tanpa percabangan, rantai punika dawa rantai ''n''-alkana. Ugi wonten makromolekul ingkang bercabang kanthi rantai utama lan rantai sisi, ing kasus [[polietilena]] rantai sisi punika [[Alkalin|kelompok alkil]]. :{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" width="60%" |- class="hintergrundfarbe2" |[[File:Polymerstruktur-linear.svg|130px]]<br /> Makromolekul linear, tanpa percabangan |[[File:Polymerstruktur-verzweigt.svg|130px]]<br /> Makromolekul ingkang bercabang |[[File:Polymerstruktur-teilkristallin.svg|150px]]<br /> Struktur semi-kristalin saking polimer tanpa percabangan |[[File:Polymerstruktur-weitmaschig vernetzt.svg|130px]]<br /> Polimer ingkang alit cross-linking ([[elastomer]]) |[[File:Polymerstruktur-engmaschig vernetzt.svg|130px]]<br /> Polimer ingkang langkung cross-linking ([[Thermosetting polymer|thermoset]]) |} == Sitiran == rs6rd9us4k8v1abql0b5p778v005iq5 Tlaga Laacher 0 195372 1753014 1669627 2026-08-20T08:09:05Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753014 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox lake |name = Tlaga Laacher |image = Laacher_See_-_Luftaufnahme.jpg |caption = Pemandhangan kaldera gunung geni |coords = {{coord|50|24|45|N|07|16|12|E|region:DE_type:waterbody|display=inline,title}} |type = [[Tlaga kawah|Tlaga kaldera]] [[gunung geni|vulkanis]] |inflow = |outflow = Fulbert-Stollen ([[kanal]]) |catchment = |basin_countries = [[Jerman]] |length = |width = |area = 3.3 km<sup>2</sup> |depth = |max-depth = 53 m |volume = |residence_time = |shore = |elevation = 275 m |islands = }} '''Tlaga Laacher''' ([[basa Jerman]]: ''Laacher See''), punika [[tlaga]] [[kaldera]] [[gunung geni|vulkanik]] ingkang amba 2 km ingkang mapan wonten ing [[Rheinland-Pfalz]], [[Jerman]], kinten-kinten 24 km sisih lor-kulonipun [[Koblenz]], 37 km sisih kidulipun [[Bonn]], lan 8 km sisih kulonipun [[Andernach]]. Tlaga punika mapan wonten ing jajaran [[gunung Eifel]] lan minangka bagéyan saking [[lapangan vulkanik Eifel Wétan]], ingkang mapan wonten ing wilayah [[Vulkaneifel]] ingkang langkung ageng. Tlaga Laacher kawangun kira-kira 13,000 taun kapungkur saking letusan [[Plinian]] kanthi [[Indeks Explosivitas Vulkanik]] 6, ingkang padha karo letusan [[Pinatubo]] ing [[taun 1991]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/eruptionsthatsho00oppe|title=Eruptions that Shook the World|last=Oppenheimer|first=Clive|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-521-64112-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/eruptionsthatsho00oppe/page/n232 216]–217|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Klerk">{{cite journal|last=de Klerk|first=Pim|display-authors=etal|year=2008|title=Environmental impact of the Laacher See eruption at a large distance from the volcano: Integrated palaeoecological studies from Vorpommern (NE Germany)|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=270|issue=1–2|pages=196–214|bibcode=2008PPP...270..196D|doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.09.013}}</ref><ref name="Bogaard">{{cite journal|last=Bogaard|first=Paul van den|year=1995|title=<sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar ages of sanidine phenocrysts from Laacher See Tephra (12,900 yr BP): Chronostratigraphic and petrological significance|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|volume=133|issue=1–2|pages=163–174|bibcode=1995E&PSL.133..163V|doi=10.1016/0012-821X(95)00066-L}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://geosociety.org/meetings/2011munich/fieldTrips/e19a.htm|title=Geo-Education and Geopark Implementation in the Vulkaneifel European Geopark/Vulkanland Eifel National Geopark|year=2011|publisher=The Geological Society of America|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113232457/http://geosociety.org/meetings/2011munich/fieldTrips/e19a.htm|archive-date=13 January 2019|access-date=8 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Mofetta]] ing sisih tenggara tlaga nuduhaken aktivitas vulkanik ingkang dormant. Tlaga punika gadhah wujud oval lan dipun-kelilingi dening pesisir ingkang dhuwur. Ing sisih kulon tlaga, wonten [[Biara Benediktin Maria Laach]] ingkang dipun-dhirikaken ing warsa 1093 dening [[Henry II]] saking Laach saking [[Haus von Luxemburg]], ingkang minangka [[Pfalzgraf]] sepisanan saking [[Kali Rhein|Rhein]], kanthi kastilipun mapan ing ngajeng biara ing sisih wetan tlaga. Tlaga punika, ingkang boten gadhah muara alami, drainasenipun ngeliwati terowongan ingkang sepisanan dipun-gali sadèrèngipun warsa 1170 lan sampun dipun-rekonstruksi kaping-kaping. Terowongan punika dipun-wastani miturut jeneng [[Fulbert]], abbot saking biara wiwit taun 1152 dumugi 1177, ingkang dipun-pikiraken minangka ingkang ndamel terowongan punika. == Kedaden Bledhusan == [[Barkas:Panorama_Laacher_See_2010.jpg|thumb|400x400px| Panorama Tlaga Laacher]] [[Barkas:Map Laacher See.jpg|thumb|[[Peta topografi]] wilayah ing sekitar Tlaga Laacher]] [[Barkas:Mayen_Koblenz.jpg|thumb|Peta wilayah ing sekitar Tlaga Laacher]] [[Volkanisme]] ing Jerman, ingkang sampun wiwit pirang-pirang yuta taun kepengker, wonten gandheng cenengipun kaliyan pembentukan [[Sistem Retakan Cenozoic Eropa]] amargi tabrakan antawisipun [[lempeng Afrika]] lan [[Eurasia]]. Nanging, volkanisme ing Eifel, ingkang wiwit ing lapangan gunung geni Wetan Eifel wonten ing sekitar 450,000 SM, punika amargi saking wontenipun [[hotspot]]. Kinten-kinten ing taun 11,000 SM, letusan wiwitan ing Tlaga Laacher kedadosan ing pungkasan musim semi utawi wiwitan musim panas, ingkang ngrembaka wit-witan ngantos jarak ngantos 4 km. Magma nggadhahi margi dhateng lumahing bumi, mbledhos ngantos sedasa jam lan kemungkinan nggayuh dhuwuring 35 km. Letusan wau teras lumampah ngantos minggu utawi sasi, ngasilaken [[aliran pirosklastik]] ingkang medalaken [[tephra]] lengket ngantos 10 km adohipun. Endhapan caket kawah ngantos setunggal meter kandelipun, lan malih kandelipun sepuluh meter sanajan wonten ing jarak gangsal kilometer adohipun. Letusan menika kemungkinan ngilangaken kabeh tetuwuhan lan satwa ing radius kinten-kinten 60 km dhateng sisih lor-wétan lan 40 km dhateng sisih kidul-wétan.<ref>Oppenheimer, pp. 216–218</ref> Dipunperkirakaken wonten 6 km³ magma ingkang mbledhos ngasilaken kinten-kinten 16 km³ tephra.<ref>P.v.d. Bogaard, H.-U. Schmincke, A. Freundt and C. Park (1989). [http://www.therafoundation.org/articles/volcanology/evolutionofcomplexplinianeruptionsthelatequaternarylaacherseecasehistory Evolution of Complex Plinian Eruptions: the Late Quarternary (sic) Laacher See Case History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719060315/http://www.therafoundation.org/articles/volcanology/evolutionofcomplexplinianeruptionsthelatequaternarylaacherseecasehistory|date=19 July 2011}}, "Thera and the Aegean World III", Volume Two: "Earth Sciences", Proceedings of the Third International Congress, Santorini, Greece, 3–9 September 1989. pp. 463–485.</ref> Letusan ageng Plinian menika gadhah Indeks Eksplosivitas Volkanik (VEI) 6. Kawitipun letusan pisanan ing Tlaga Laacher kedadosan ing pungkasan musim semi utawi wiwitan musim panas, ngrembaka wit-witan ngantos tigang kilometer adohipun. Magma lumampah dhateng lumahing bumi lan letusan dumugi sepuluh jam, kamungkinan ngirim asap ingkang dhuwuripun ngantos tigang puluh lima kilometer. Kegiatan letusan ingkang sporadis teras-terasan dumugi minggu utawi sasi, ngasilaken mega panas ingkang nutupi lembah ngantos sepuluh kilometer kanthi tephra ingkang lengket. Caket kawah, endhapan ngantos kandelipun langkung saking limang puluh meter, lan sanajan adoh limang kilometer saking letusan, kandelipun endhapan isih 10 m. Sedaya tetuwuhan lan satwa ing jarak kira-kira 60 km dhateng sisih lor-wétan lan 40 km dhateng sisih kidul-wétan kemungkinan musnah lan pala. Volume magma ingkang dipunestimasi letusanipun 6 km³, ngasilaken tephra kira-kira 16 km³. Mula, letusan Plinian ageng menika gadhah [[Indeks Explosivitas Vulkanik]] 6. == Sasampunipun Mbledhus == Ingkang kawiwitan, wonten lelampahan alam ingkang ageng sanget, inggih punika letusan gunung geni ingkang nyebabaken damelipun tephra ingkang nyegah kali Rhein, nggadhahi wujud Tlaga ingkang ngambah wilayah ngantos 140 km². Wontenipun pambengkasan bendungan punika ngasilaken banjir ingkang nggadhahi kakuwatan ageng sanget, nggawa tephra ngantos wilayah ingkang adoh sanget, kados ta Bonn. Salajengipun, abu letusan punika nyebar ngantos wilayah ingkang amba sanget, ngambah luwih saking 300,000 km², wiwit saking tengah [[Prancis]] ngantos lor Italia lan saking kidul Swedia ngantos Polandia. Punika dados alat penting kanggé nglacak lan ngetang tanggal lapisan arkeologi lan lingkungan ing sakwilayah punika. Kajawi punika, kejadian alam punika ugi dados bukti sejarah ingkang penting kanggé ngerti babagan interaksi antawisipun manungsa lan lingkunganipun ing jaman biyèn. Felix Riede percaya bilih penurunan kasebat amargi gangguan saking gunung berapi Telaga Laacher.<ref>Oppenheimer, pp. 217–222</ref> Jeblugan ngasilaken pengaruh ingkang ageng dhateng lingkungan lan budaya manungsa. Sadèrèngipun letusan, [[kabudayan Federmesser]], ingkang gesang kanthi nyuda lan gumantung dhateng ngumpulaken pangan lan berburu ngangge tombak, busur, lan panah, sampun wonten lan manggen ing wilayah kasebut. Nanging, sawise letusan kasebut, wilayah [[Thuringian Basin]], papan panggenan kabudayan Federmesser, kathah ingkang dados sepi penduduk, kados ingkang dipun catet dening Feliex Riede. Minangka akibat saking letusan kasebut, muncul budaya anyar ingkang kalebet [[Bromme]] ing Skandinavia kidul lan Perstunian ing Eropa wétan-lor. Budaya-budaya anyar menika, utamanipun Bromme, gadhah kawruh ing babagan damel perkakas ingkang kirang maju lan ilang teknologi busur lan panah ingkang dipun gadhahi dening kabudayan Federmesser sadèrèngipun. <ref>Oppenheimer, pp. 217–222</ref> Jeblugan kasebut ugi dipunanggep minangka salah satunggaling sebab saking periode [[Dryas Nom]], satunggaling periode [[glacial maximum]] ingkang kacocogaken kaliyan wekdal letusan.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baales|first1=Michael|last2=Jöris|first2=Olaf|last3=Street|first3=Martin|last4=Bittmann|first4=Felix|last5=Weninger|first5=Bernhard|last6=Wiethold|first6=Julian|display-authors=4|date=November 2002|title=Impact of the Late Glacial Eruption of the Laacher See Volcano, Central Rhineland, Germany|url=https://archive.org/details/quaternary-research_2002-11_58_3/page/273|journal=Quaternary Research|volume=58|issue=3|pages=273–288|bibcode=2002QuRes..58..273B|doi=10.1006/qres.2002.2379|issn=0033-5894|s2cid=53973827}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baldini|first1=James U. L.|last2=Brown|first2=Richard J.|last3=Mawdsley|first3=Natasha|date=2018-07-04|title=Evaluating the link between the sulfur-rich Laacher See volcanic eruption and the Younger Dryas climate anomaly|url=https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/14/969/2018/|journal=Climate of the Past|language=en|volume=14|issue=7|pages=969–990|doi=10.5194/cp-14-969-2018|issn=1814-9332|doi-access=free}}</ref> Tanggal radiokarbon taun 2021 nyaranaken bilih Dryas Nom wiwit kira-kira 130 taun sasampunipun letusan, nanging tanggal kasebut bisa uga ketinggalan amargi ora kalebetaken karbon mati magmatis ing perhitungan. Estimasi paling sae kangge umur letusan Tlaga Laacher punika 12,880 ± 40 taun BP<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brauer|first1=Achim|last2=Endres|first2=Christoph|last3=Günter|first3=Christina|last4=Litt|first4=Thomas|last5=Stebich|first5=Martina|last6=Negendank|first6=Jörg F.W.|date=March 1999|title=High resolution sediment and vegetation responses to Younger Dryas climate change in varved lake sediments from Meerfelder Maar, Germany|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0277-3791(98)00084-5|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=18|issue=3|pages=321–329|doi=10.1016/s0277-3791(98)00084-5|issn=0277-3791}}</ref> utawi 13,006 ± 9 taun kalibrasi sadurunge sakemnika, gumantung dhateng pengaruh karbon dioksida magmatis dhateng tanggal radiokarbon. Manawi karbon dioksida magmatis mangaruhi tanggal kasebut, jeblugan saged ugi langsung sadurunge peristiwa Dryas Nom, potensial minangka pemicu. Nanging, manawi tanggal 13,006 taun kalibrasi sadurunge saiki punika akurat, letusan bisa uga isih mangaruhi iklim minangka bagéan saking klompok gedhe peristiwa vulkanik ingkang kedadosan sadurunge Dryas Nom, nanging boten langsung sadurunge peristiwa kasebut.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abbott|first1=P.M.|last2=Niemeier|first2=U.|last3=Timmreck|first3=C.|last4=Riede|first4=F.|last5=McConnell|first5=J.R.|last6=Severi|first6=M.|last7=Fischer|first7=H.|last8=Svensson|first8=A.|last9=Toohey|first9=M.|date=December 2021|title=Volcanic climate forcing preceding the inception of the Younger Dryas: Implications for tracing the Laacher See eruption|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=274|pages=107260|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107260|issn=0277-3791|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free|last10=Reinig|first10=F.|last11=Sigl|first11=M.|hdl=2158/1256642}}</ref> == Sitiran == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == {{Commonscat|Laacher See}} [[Kategori:Tlaga]] [[Kategori:Gunung geni]] [[Kategori:Jerman]] mcf68kovhh6rk81vfnv6lpe6ol21bov Bias kognitif 0 195502 1753060 1671234 2026-08-20T09:24:21Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753060 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Cognitive_Bias_Codex_-_180+_biases,_designed_by_John_Manoogian_III_(jm3).jpg|jmpl|300x300px|The Cognitive Bias Codex]] '''Bias kognitif''' inggih punika pola sistematis ingkang miringaken saking norma utawi rasionalitas ing penjujengan.<ref name="Haselton_2005">{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology|vauthors=Haselton MG, Nettle D, Andrews PW|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc|year=2005|veditors=Buss DM|location=Hoboken, NJ, US|pages=724–746|chapter=The evolution of cognitive bias.}}</ref> Tiyang-tiyang ndamel "[[Subjektivitas|kanyatan subjektif]]" piyambak saking persepsipun dhateng input. Konstruksi kanyatan tiyang ingkang boten input [[objektif]] badhe nemtokaken solah bawanipun ing dunya. Milanipun, bias kognitif saged njalari penyimpangan [[persepsi]], penjujengan kirang leres, interpretasi kirang [[Logika|logis]], sarta [[Rasionalitas|irasionalitas]].<ref>{{cite journal|year=1972|title=Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness|url=http://datacolada.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Kahneman-Tversky-1972.pdf|journal=Cognitive Psychology|volume=3|issue=3|pages=430–454|doi=10.1016/0010-0285(72)90016-3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214120047/http://datacolada.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Kahneman-Tversky-1972.pdf|archive-date=2019-12-14|access-date=2017-04-01|vauthors=Kahneman D, Tversky A|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Thinking and Deciding|vauthors=Baron J|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|edition=4th|location=New York, NY}}</ref><ref name="Ariely.2008">{{cite book|title=Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions|title-link=Predictably Irrational|last=Ariely|first=Dan|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-06-135323-9|location=New York, NY|author-link=Dan Ariely|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Sinaosa bias kognitif katingal awon, sawatawis saged adaptif. Piyambakipun saged nglantaraken tumindak ingkang langkung efektif ing konteks tartamtu.<ref>For instance: {{cite journal|date=October 1996|title=Reasoning the fast and frugal way: models of bounded rationality|url=http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/ft/gg/gg_reasoning_1996.pdf|journal=Psychological Review|volume=103|issue=4|pages=650–69|citeseerx=10.1.1.174.4404|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.650|pmid=8888650|vauthors=Gigerenzer G, Goldstein DG|hdl=21.11116/0000-0000-B771-2}}</ref> Salajengipun, ngeparengaken bias kognitif saged nglajengaken keputusan ingkang enggal ingkang saged dipunkerendeli nalika ketepatan kirang wigati tinimbang kacepetan, kadosboten ingkang katingal ing heuristik.<ref name="h_and_b">{{cite journal|date=September 1974|title=Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1974-09-27_185_4157/page/1124|journal=Science|volume=185|issue=4157|pages=1124–31|bibcode=1974Sci...185.1124T|doi=10.1126/science.185.4157.1124|pmid=17835457|vauthors=Tversky A, Kahneman D|s2cid=143452957}}</ref> Bias kognitif sanes inggih punika "asil sampingan" saking watesan pemrosesan manungsa,<ref name="Haselton_2005" /> ingkang dipunjalari kirangipun mekanisme mental ingkang trep (''bounded rationality''), dampak saking konstitusi lan kahanan biologis tiyang ingkang baku (''embodied cognition''), utawi namung kirangipun kapasitas kangge [[pemrosesan informasi]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality.|vauthors=Bless H, Fiedler K, Strack F|publisher=Hove and New York: Psychology Press.|year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=October 2010|title=Associative processes in intuitive judgment|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14|issue=10|pages=435–40|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.07.004|pmc=5378157|pmid=20696611|vauthors=Morewedge CK, Kahneman D}}</ref> Gagasan babagan bias kognitif dipunwiwiti dening [[Amos Tversky]] lan [[Daniel Kahneman]] ing warsa 1972.<ref>{{cite book|title=Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment|vauthors=Kahneman D, Frederick S|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-521-79679-8|veditors=Gilovich T, Griffin DW, Kahneman D|location=Cambridge|pages=51–52|chapter=Representativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive Judgment}}</ref> Menika tuwuh saking pengalaman panjenenganipun babagan ''innumeracy'' tiyang, utawi kirang sagedipun tiyang ngendikakaken intuisi kalihan urutan-urutan ingkang ageng. Tversky, Kahneman, lan rekan-rekanipun nedahaken mapinten-pinten cara ingkang saged dipunambali kanthi mekaten ingkang penjujengan lan pendametan keputusan manungsa beda saking teori pilihan rasional. Tversky lan Kahneman ngandharaken bedanipun manungsa ing penjujengan lan pendametan keputusan kanthi ngginakaken heuristik. Heuristik ngemot jalur cepet mental ingkang paring estimasi enggal babagan kemungkinan prastawa ingkang boten mesti.<ref name="Baumeister2">{{cite book|title=Social psychology and human nature: International Edition|vauthors=Baumeister RF, Bushman BJ|publisher=Wadsworth|year=2010|location=Belmont, US|pages=141}}</ref> Heuristik gampil dipunlampahi dening otak ananging kadangkala nglantaraken "kekirangan lan kesalahan sistematis."<ref>{{cite book|title=Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment|vauthors=Kahneman D, Frederick S|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-521-79679-8|veditors=Gilovich T, Griffin DW, Kahneman D|location=Cambridge|pages=51–52|chapter=Representativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive Judgment}}</ref> Tuladhanipun, heuristik representativitas dipuntemtokaken minangka "tendensi njujengi kacahing utawi kemungkinan" prastawa kanthi ukuran ingkang "mliripun kasus tipikal."<ref name="Baumeister22">{{cite book|title=Social psychology and human nature: International Edition|vauthors=Baumeister RF, Bushman BJ|publisher=Wadsworth|year=2010|location=Belmont, US|pages=141}}</ref> Daftar bias kognitif ingkang ngrembaka terus sampun dipunidentifikasi ing enem dekade panaliten babagan penjujengan lan pendametan keputusan manungsa ing [[Ilmu kognitif|sains kognitif]], [[psikologi sosial]], lan [[ekonomi perilaku]]. Kajian bias kognitif gadhah implikasi praktis kangge bidang-bidang kadosta penjujengan klinis, [[kewiraswastaan]], [[keuangan]], lan [[Ilmu manajemen|manajemen]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=July 1996|title=On the reality of cognitive illusions|url=http://psy.ucsd.edu/%7Emckenzie/KahnemanTversky1996PsychRev.pdf|journal=Psychological Review|volume=103|issue=3|pages=582–91; discussion 592–6|citeseerx=10.1.1.174.5117|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.582|pmid=8759048|vauthors=Kahneman D, Tversky A}}</ref><ref name="S.X. Zhang and J. Cueto 2015">{{cite journal|year=2015|title=The Study of Bias in Entrepreneurship|url=http://psyarxiv.com/76rkv/|journal=Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice|volume=41|issue=3|pages=419–454|doi=10.1111/etap.12212|vauthors=Zhang SX, Cueto J|s2cid=146617323}}</ref> == Sitiran == 8mbv9bjniin6u3vg8yof1tfwoceu09l Filsafat analitik 0 195570 1753003 1671796 2026-08-20T07:45:38Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753003 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Principia Mathematica 54-43.png|jmpl|400x400px|Pambuktian yen 1 + 1 = 2, dening [[Bertrand Russell]] lan [[A. N. Whitehead]] saking Principia Mathematica, buku ingkang misuwur ing wiwitipun aliran filsafat analitik modheren.]] '''Filsafat analitik''' punika aliran utawi tradisi jangkep wonten ing filsafat ingkang gefokus dhateng analisis, ingkang sampun dominan wonten ing filsafat Kulon wiwit setengah kaping kalih abad kaping 20.<ref name="Vienne 1997 p. 140">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVXgT6lo6cwC&pg=PA140|title=Philosophie analytique et histoire de la philosophie: actes du colloque (Université de Nantes, 1991)|last=Vienne|first=J.M.|publisher=J. Vrin|year=1997|isbn=978-2-7116-1312-0|series=Problèmes et controverses|page=140|language=fr|access-date=2023-08-28}}</ref><ref name="Luft 2019 p. 258">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mCu6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT258|title=Philosophie lehren: Ein Buch zur philosophischen Hochschuldidaktik|last=Luft|first=S.|publisher=Felix Meiner Verlag|year=2019|isbn=978-3-7873-3766-8|page=258|language=de|access-date=2023-08-28}}</ref><ref name="Glock 2008 p. 1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WnvhtAEACAAJ|title=What is Analytic Philosophy?|last=Glock|first=H.J.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-87267-6|page=1|access-date=2023-08-28}}</ref> Filsafat analitik dipuntandaaken kalihan kemengan prosa saha kerigorusan wonten ing argumen-argumen, ngginakaken logika formal saha matematika, saha kanthi derajat ingkang langkung alit, sains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Glock|first1=H.J.|year=2004|title=Was Wittgenstein an Analytic Philosopher?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_metaphilosophy_2004-07_35_4/page/419|journal=Metaphilosophy|volume=35|issue=4|pages=419–444|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9973.2004.00329.x}}</ref><ref>Colin McGinn, ''The Making of a Philosopher: My Journey through Twentieth-Century Philosophy'' (HarperCollins, 2002), p. xi.: "analytical philosophy [is] too narrow a label, since [it] is not generally a matter of taking a word or concept and analyzing it (whatever exactly that might be). [...] This tradition emphasizes clarity, rigor, argument, theory, truth. It is not a tradition that aims primarily for inspiration or consolation or ideology. Nor is it particularly concerned with 'philosophy of life', though parts of it are. This kind of philosophy is more like science than religion, more like mathematics than poetry—though it is neither science nor mathematics."</ref> Filsafat analitik asring dipun kontrasaken kaliyan filsafat kontinental, dipun reyang minangka istilah kangge ngumpulaken metode sanes, ingkang mekar wonten ing Eropa daratan, ingkang paling misuwur inggih punika [[eksistensialisme]], [[fenomenologi]], saha [[Hegelianisme]].<ref>[[A.C. Grayling]] (ed.), ''Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject'' (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 2: "Analytic philosophy is mainly associated with the contemporary English-speaking world, but it is by no means the only important philosophical tradition. In this volume two other immensely rich and important such traditions are introduced: Indian philosophy, and philosophical thought in Europe from the time of Hegel." L.J. Cohen, ''The Dialogue of Reason: An Analysis of Analytical Philosophy'' (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 5: "So, despite a few overlaps, analytical philosophy is not difficult to distinguish broadly [...] from other modern movements, like phenomenology, say, or existentialism, or from the large amount of philosophizing that has also gone on in the present century within frameworks deriving from other influential thinkers like Aquinas, Hegel, or Marx." H.-J. Glock, ''What Is Analytic Philosophy?'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 86: "Most non-analytic philosophers of the twentieth century do not belong to continental philosophy."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1200924441|title=Continental philosophy a very short introduction|last=Critchley|first=Simon|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|oclc=1200924441|quote=[...]the distinction rests upon a confusion of geographical and methodological terms, as if one were to classify cars into front-wheel drive and Japanese. [...] the distinction between analytic and Continental philosophy rests upon a confused comparison of methodological and geographical categories.}}</ref> Tradisi punika dipunkritik amargi formalisme ingkang kedalon, ahistorismenya, saha jarak-ipun saking disiplin saha pihak sanes.<ref name="Glock 2008 p. 231">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WnvhtAEACAAJ|title=What is Analytic Philosophy?|last=Glock|first=H.J.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-87267-6|page=231|access-date=2023-08-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Akehurst|first=Thomas L.|date=2009-03-01|title=Writing history for the ahistorical: Analytic philosophy and its past|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.histeuroideas.2008.09.002|journal=History of European Ideas|volume=35|issue=1|pages=116–121|doi=10.1016/j.histeuroideas.2008.09.002|issn=0191-6599|s2cid=143566283}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199238842.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199238842-e-029|title=The Historiography of Analytic Philosophy|last=Beaney|first=Michael|date=2013-06-20|editor1-last=Beaney|editor1-first=Michael|website=The Oxford Handbook of The History of Analytic Philosophy|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199238842.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-923884-2|access-date=2022-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/pub/2010rev-metaP_williams_hist_phil-final.pdf|title=Bernard Williams on Philosophy's Need for History|last=Koopman|first=Colin|date=|website=pages.uoregon.edu|access-date=2022-03-01}}</ref> Kathahipun analisis wonten ing filsafat dipunwiwiti kirang langkung wiwit gansal abad kaping 20 wonten ing jaman kontemporer ing [[Jerman]], [[Karajan Manunggal|Karajan Inggris]], [[Amerika Serikat]], [[Kanada]], [[Australia]], [[Selandia Anyar]], saha [[Skandinavia]]. Punika asring dipunwastani minangka "putaran basa" (''linguistic turn''), amargi fokus ingkang lengkah dhateng semantik, analisis konseptual, saha representasi formal basa alamiah, ingkang ngrembaka dados pinten-pinten cabang enggal filsafat, ingkang paling wigati inggih logika predikat Modern, filsafat matematika saha [[logika matematika]], saha [[filsafat sains]].<ref>See, e.g., Avrum Stroll, ''Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy'' (Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 5: "[I]t is difficult to give a precise definition of 'analytic philosophy' since it is not so much a specific doctrine as a loose concatenation of approaches to problems." Also, see Stroll (2000), p. 7: "I think [[Hans Sluga|Sluga]] is right in saying 'it may be hopeless to try to determine the essence of analytic philosophy.' Nearly every proposed definition has been challenged by some scholar. [...] [W]e are dealing with a family resemblance concept."</ref><ref>See [[Hans-Johann Glock]], ''What Is Analytic Philosophy?'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 205: "The answer to the title question, then, is that analytic philosophy is a tradition held together ''both'' by ties of mutual influence ''and'' by family resemblances."</ref> Tokoh sentral wonten ing perwadahan historisipun inggih [[Gottlob Frege]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[G. E. Moore]], saha [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Tokoh sanes ingkang wigati wonten ing sejarahipun kalebet positivis logis (mliginipun [[Rudolf Carnap]]), [[W. V. O. Quine]], [[Karl Popper]], saha filsafat basa padintenan (kadosdene [[Gilbert Ryle]] utawi [[J. L. Austin]]). Sasampunipun kemunduran positivisme logis, [[Saul Kripke]], [[David Lewis]], saha tiyang sanes nglajengaken renaisans wonten ing metafisika. [[Alvin Plantinga]] nglajengaken renaisans wonten ing filsafat Kristen. [[Elizabeth Anscombe]], [[Peter Geach]], [[Anthony Kenny]], saha tiyang sanes ngembangaken pendekatan analitik dhateng [[Thomisme]]. == Sitiran == 0n5sl45mkm2jo4y9w90bokgff04naz4 Nekrosis 0 196306 1752895 1677157 2026-08-20T04:28:06Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752895 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Barkas:Structural_changes_of_cells_undergoing_necrosis_or_apoptosis.png|jmpl|Owahan struktural ing sel nalika nekrosis lan [[apoptosis]]|350x350px]] '''Nekrosis''' inggih punika satunggaling wujud cidera sel ingkang nyebabaken [[pejahipun sel]] kanthi prematur wonten ing jaringan urip amargi [[autolisis]].<ref name="Proskuryakov">{{cite journal|date=February 2003|title=Necrosis: a specific form of programmed cell death?|url=https://archive.org/details/experimental-cell-research_2003-02-01_283_1/page/1|journal=Experimental Cell Research|volume=283|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1016/S0014-4827(02)00027-7|pmid=12565815|vauthors=Proskuryakov SY, Konoplyannikov AG, Gabai VL}}</ref> Istilah "nekrosis" dipunwiwiti wonten ing pertengahan abad kaping-19 lan asring dipunhubungaken kaliyan ahli patologi Jerman [[Rudolf Virchow]], ingkang asring dipunanggep minangka salah satunggaling pendiri [[patologi]] modern.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gerschenson|first1=L.E.|last2=Geske|first2=F. Jon|date=April 2001|title=Virchow and Apoptosis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-pathology_2001-04_158_4/page/1543|journal=The American Journal of Pathology|language=en|volume=158|issue=4|pages=1543|doi=10.1016/S0002-9440(10)64105-3|pmc=1891904|pmid=11290572}}</ref> Nekrosis dipunsebabaken dening faktor-faktor eksternal tumrap sel utawi jaringan, kadosta [[infeksi]], utawi trauma ingkang nyebabaken pencernaan komponen sel ingkang boten diatur. Kosokwangsulipun, apoptosis inggih punika penyebab kematian sel ingkang dipunprogram lan dipuntargetaken kanthi alami. Sinaosa [[apoptosis]] asring maringi efek ingkang migunani tumrap organisme, nekrosis meh tansah mbebayani lan saged mbebayani jiwa.<ref name="Kasper">{{cite book|title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine self-assessment and board review|vauthors=Kasper DL, Zaleznik DF|publisher=McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division|year=2001|isbn=978-0071386784|editor=Stone RM|edition=15th|location=New York|pages=922–927|chapter=Gas gangrene, antibiotic associated colitis, and other Clostridial infections}}</ref> Pejahipun sel amargi nekrosis boten nderek poros transduksi sinyal apoptotik, nanging maneka warni reseptor dipunaktifaken lan nyebabaken risaking integritas [[membran sel]]<ref>{{cite journal|date=April 2020|title=Cell death mechanisms in eukaryotes|journal=Cell Biology and Toxicology|volume=36|issue=2|pages=145–164|doi=10.1007/s10565-019-09496-2|pmid=31820165|vauthors=Nirmala JG, Lopus M|s2cid=208869679}}</ref> lan medalipun produk kematian sel ingkang boten dipunkontrol dhateng [[ruang ekstrasellular]].<ref name="Proskuryakov" /> Punika miwiti respons [[peradangan]] ing jaringan sakiwa tengenipun, ingkang narik [[leukosit]] lan [[fagosit]] ingkang celak ingkang ngicali sel-sel ingkang pejah kanthi [[fagositosis]]. Nanging, zat ingkang ngrusak mikroba ingkang dipunbebas dening leukosit saged ndamel kerusakan kolateral dhateng jaringan sakiwa tengenipun.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2008|title=The inflammatory response to cell death|journal=Annual Review of Pathology|volume=3|pages=99–126|doi=10.1146/annurev.pathmechdis.3.121806.151456|pmc=3094097|pmid=18039143|vauthors=Rock KL, Kono H}}</ref> Kerusakan kolateral ingkang ageng punika ngalang-alangi proses panyembuhan. Kanthi mekaten, nekrosis ingkang boten dipunobati nyebabaken akumulasi jaringan pejah ingkang sami rusak lan reruntuhan sel wonten ing utawi celak papan kematian sel. Satunggaling tuladha klasik inggih punika gangren. Amargi alesan punika, asring kersa ngicali jaringan nekrotik kanthi operasi, prosedur ingkang dipunsebat ''debridement''. == Sitiran == 2nje22d3ptsvl886x5xy2731fykkkdh Kopi Arabika 0 196353 1753024 1682803 2026-08-20T08:22:45Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753024 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Speciesbox|image=Coffee Flowers.JPG|image_caption=Bunga ''Coffea arabica''|image2=Starr 070308-5472 Coffea arabica.jpg|image2_caption=Buah ''Coffea arabica''|genus=Coffea|species=arabica|authority=[[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]}}'''Kopi Arabika''' ('''''Coffea arabica'''''), uga dikenal minangka '''kopi Arab''', '''kopi semak Arab''', utawa '''kopi gunung''', iku spesies saka [[Gènus|genus]] [[Coffea]]. Spesies iki diyakini minangka spesies [[kopi]] pisanan sing dibudidayakake, lan minangka kultivar dominan, sing makili kira-kira 60% saka produksi kopi global.<ref name="CoffeeProduction">{{Cite web|url=http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/fas/tropprod//2010s/2017/tropprod-06-16-2017.pdf|title=Coffee: World Markets and Trade|date=16 June 2017|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] – [[Foreign Agricultural Service]]|access-date=8 December 2017}}</ref> Jinis kopi liyane sing akeh dibudidayakake yaiku [[Kopi Robusta|kopi robusta]] (''C. canephora'') (kurang asam, luwih pait, lan luwih akeh kafein tinimbang kopi arabika). Kopi Arabika asale saka [[Éthiopia|Ethiopia]]. Kopi iki pisanan dicathet minangka budidaya ing [[Yaman]], lan didokumentasikan ing abad kaping 12.<ref>Meyer, Frederick G. 1965. Notes on wild ''Coffea arabica'' from Southwestern Ethiopia, with some historical considerations. Economic Botany 19: 136–151.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Espresso Coffee: The Science of Quality|last=Söndahl|first=M. R.|last2=van der Vossen|first2=H. A. M.|date=2005|publisher=Elsevier Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-370371-2|editor-last=Illy|editor-first=Andrea|edition=Second|page=21|chapter=The plant: Origin, production and botany|editor-last2=Viani|editor-first2=Rinantonio|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJdlfSFCmVIC&pg=PA21}}</ref> ''Kopi arabica'' diarani ‏(''{{Lang|ar-Latn|būnn}}'') ing [[basa Arab]], sing dijupuk saka tembung Oromo "Buna". == Taksonomi == ''Coffea arabica'' pisanan diterangake kanthi ilmiah dening [[Antoine de Jussieu]], sing menehi jeneng ''Jasminum arabicum'' sawise nyinaoni spesimen saka [[Kebun Raya Amsterdam|Kebon Raya Amsterdam]]. Linnaeus dilebokake ing genus [[Coffea]] dhewe ing taun 1737.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/coffeebotanybioc0000mncl|title=Coffee: Botany, Biochemistry and Production of Beans and Beverage|last=Charrier|first=A.|last2=Berthaud|first2=J.|publisher=AVI Publishing|year=1985|isbn=978-0-7099-0787-9|editor-last=Clifford|editor-first=M. H.|location=Westport, Connecticut|page=[https://archive.org/details/coffeebotanybioc0000mncl/page/14 14]|chapter=Botanical Classification of Coffee|editor-last2=Wilson|editor-first2=K. C.}}</ref> == Karakteristik fisik == Tanduran ''Coffea arabica'' liar tuwuh nganti dhuwuré 9 nganti 12 m (30 lan 39 kaki), lan duwé sistem percabangan sing mbukak; Godhongé ngelawan, elips-elips nganti oval prasaja, dawane 6–12.&nbsp;cm (2.5–4.5 in) lan ambane 4–8&nbsp;cm (1,5–3 in), ijo peteng nggilap. Kembang kasebut putih, kanthi diameter 10-15&nbsp;mm, lan tuwuh ing axils rwaning. Wiji kasebut ana ing drupe (biasa disebut "cherry") kanthi diameter 10-15.&nbsp;mm, werna abang padhang nganti ungu lan biasane ngemot rong wiji, sing asring diarani [[Wiji kopi|biji kopi]]. == Varietas ing Indonesia == Ing Indonesia, kebon kopi Arabika asring ditemokake ing wilayah pegunungan Toraja, Sumatera Utara, Aceh lan ing sawetara wilayah ing pulo Jawa. Sawetara varietas kopi arabika sing dikembangake ing Indonesia kalebu kopi abesinia arabica, Pasumah, Marago, kopi arabika Typica lan kopi arabika Congensis.{{Fact}}<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title="Kalimat yang diikuti tag ini membutuhkan rujukan.">&#x5B; ''[[Wikipédia:Nyuplik sumber|butuh referensi]]'' &#x5D;</span></sup> [[Kategori:Artikel dengan pernyataan yang tidak disertai rujukan Mei 2024|Kopi arabika]] === Tipikal === Varietas kopi Arabika jinis Typica iki minangka varietas pisanan sing mlebu ing Indonesia. Sepisanan digawa Walanda nalika teka ing Indonesia. Nanging, macem-macem Typica asli sing digawa Walanda banjur punah nalika Karat Daun Kopi nyerang Indonesia. Untunge, ora kabeh padha punah, amarga isih ana varietas Typica lokal, yaiku Bergendal lan Sidikalang, sing asring ditemokake ing dataran tinggi kayata Sumatra, Sulawesi lan Flores. Biasane gotong royong ing perkebunan ing dhaerah terpencil. Ing Papua, varietas Typica iki isih ditemokake ing Desa Modio, Kecamatan Mapiha Tengah, Kabupaten Dogiyai, Papua, sing digawa dening misionaris Walanda. === Hibrido de Timor (HDT) === Varietas Hybrido de Timor ing Indonesia uga umum diarani varietas "Tim Tim", tembung kasebut asale saka Timor Timur. Varietas iki minangka asil saka persilangan alami antarane Arabica lan Robusta. Varietas Tim Tim pisanan ngalami panen ing panggonan asale, yaiku Timor Timur, ing taun 1978. Amarga kualitase apik, varietas iki dicoba ditandur ing wilayah liyane kayata Aceh lan Flores ing taun 1980. Saiki varietas Tim Tim uga dikenal kanthi jeneng liya, yaiku Varietas Churia. === Linie S === Linie S yaiku kopi arabika sing asale saka India. Varietas Linie S banjur dikembangake nggunakake kultivar Bourbon. Jinis umum sing paling misuwur minangka asil pangembangan Linie S yaiku S-288 lan S-795. Varietas iki asring ditemokake ing wilayah dataran tinggi kayata Aceh, Lintong, Jawa, Bali, Sulawesi, Flores lan Papua (ing Papua nyebar ing Jayawijaya, Lanny Jaya, Kurima, Tangma). === Linie Ethiopian === Varietas kopi Arabika jinis Linie Ethiopia iki pisanan mlebu ing Indonesia nalika taun 1928, nalika pisanan digawa menyang pulo Jawa. Wilayah pisanan sing ngembangake varietas iki yaiku Aceh. Varietas liyane sing kalebu keturunan Ethiopia yaiku Rambung lan Abyssinia. Varietas Ethiopian Linie banjur uga dikembangake ing Sumatra lan Flores, ing kono dikenal minangka "USDA", ing ngendi jeneng iki dijupuk saka proyek pemerintah Amerika Serikat nalika iku ing taun 1950 nalika kedadeyan ing Indonesia. [[Barkas:Girls_cleaning_coffee.JPG|jmpl| wanita nyortir kopi ing pasar Ethiopia]] === Catura Cultivars === Varietas kopi Arabika jinis iki minangka asil persilangan saka Kopi Bourbon sing asale saka Brazil. === Lini Catimor === Varietas garis Catimor uga padha karo Tim Tim, loro-lorone minangka asil persilangan antara Arabica lan Robusta. Nanging, varietas iki dikenal minangka varietas sing ora apik, amarga nduweni aroma lan rasa sing ora enak kaya kopi liyane. Ananging sakmenika dipuntindakaken panaliten salajengipun babagan varietas menika, amargi ing tlatah Aceh varietas menika gadhah ambu saha rasa ingkang sae, para petani kopi Aceh biasanipun nyebat varietas "''Ateng Jaluk''". [[Barkas:Petani_Arabika.jpg|jmpl| Petani Arabika Sulawesi Selatan]] [[Barkas:Arabica.jpg|jmpl| Buah Kopi Arabika Kab]] == Deloken sisan == * [[Kopi Robusta|Robusta]] == Referensi == {{Reflist}} == Wacan liyane == * {{Cite journal|last=Silvarolla|first=Maria B.|author-link=|authorlink=Mazzafera, Paulo; Fazuoli, Luiz C.|year=2004|title=A naturally decaffeinated arabica coffee|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2004-06-24_429_6994/page/826|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=429|issue=6994|pages=826|doi=10.1038/429826a|pmid=15215853|access-date=|quote=}} * {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/worldofcaffeines0024wein|title=The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug|last=Weinberg|first=Bennet Alan|publisher=Routledge|year=2001|isbn=0-415-92722-6|location=New York|page=|pages=|author-link=|coauthors=}} == Pranala njaba ==   * [http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/rubiaceae/ Daftar Priksa Dunia Rubiaceae] * [https://www.coffeeb.net/arabica-vs-robusta/ Ngerteni prabédan antarane Arabica lan Robusta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820053209/https://www.coffeeb.net/arabica-vs-robusta/ |date=2016-08-20 }} * [http://www.coffeeresearch.org/agriculture/coffeeplant.htm CoffeeResearch.org] {{Taxonbar|from=Q47685}}{{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Kopi]] 1nvfdh9p49fyu9l2rpjgkhuvrlxrw68 Panlitèn 0 197111 1753008 1731845 2026-08-20T07:55:23Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753008 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Pasinaon sistèmatis kang ditindakaké kanggo amundhakaké kawruh}} [[Barkas:Gedung Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional (BRIN, 2022).webp|jmpl|Kantor pusaté BRIN ing [[Jakarta]]]] {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}} '''Panlitèn''' utawa '''riset''' yaiku karya [[Daya ripta|kréatip]] lan [[Paricara èlmiah|sistèmatis]] kang ditindakaké kanggo amundhakaké [[kawruh]].<ref>{{Cite book|doi = 10.1787/9789264239012-en|title = Frascati Manual|series = The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities|year = 2015|isbn = 978-9264238800|last1 = OECD|hdl = 20.500.12749/13290|url = https://eduq.info/xmlui/handle/11515/35750|author1-link = OECD|access-date = 4 April 2020|archive-date = 5 Juni 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200605123738/https://eduq.info/xmlui/handle/11515/35750|url-status = live}}</ref> Iki anggubedaké pangumpulan, panyungsunan, lan [[analisis]] [[bukti]] kanggo amundhakaké panampa babagan rembug, kang ditengeri kanthi panggati kusus kanggo angendhalèkaké sumber [[bias]] lan kaluputan. Kamempengan iki ditengeri kanthi anyathet lan angendhalèkaké bias. Proyèk panlitèn bisa uga minangka pajembaring karya kapungkur ing papan jembar. Kanggo anglèlèr kaabsahan instrumèn, prosedur, utawa pacoban, panlitèn bisa uga angréplikasi unsur-unsur proyèk sadurungé utawa proyèk kanthi sakabèhé. Ancas utama [[panlitèn dhasar]] (beda karo [[panlitèn trapan]]) yaiku [[dhokumèntasi]], [[panemon]], [[Panapsiran (filsafat)|panapsiran]], lan [[panlitèn lan pangembangan]] (R&D) methodé lan sistèm kanggo ajuning kawruh manungsa. Panyedhakan panlitèn gumantung ing [[épistèmologi]], kang beda-beda banget sanadyana ing jeroné éwadéné ing antarané humaniora lan èlmu. Ana sawatara wujud panlitèn: [[Èlmu|èlmiah]], [[humaniora]], [[kagunan]], ékonomi, [[Panlitèn sosial|sosial]], bisnis, [[Panlitèn pamasaran|pamasaran]], [[panlitèn praktisi]], kauripan, [[tèknologi]], lsp. Pasinaon èlmiah babagan praktèk panlitèn diweruhi minangka [[Èlmu méta|panlitèn méta]]. '''Panliti''' yaiku wong kang kagubed ing anindakaké panlitèn, bisa uga diweruhi minangka [[Nyambut gawé|pagawéan]] kanthi [[Panggolongan Pagawéan Baku Nagarantara|jabatan]] formal. Supaya bisa dadi panliti sosial utawa [[èlmuwan sosial]], wong kudu duwé kawruh kang jembar babagan jejer kang gagayutan karo èlmu sosial kang dadi kamligené. Samana uga, supaya bisa dadi panliti èlmu alam, wong kasebut kudu duwé kawruh babagan bendheng-bendheng kang gagayutan karo èlmu alam ([[fisika]], [[kimia]], [[biologi]], [[astronomi]], [[zoologi]], lan liya-liyané). [[Paimpunan profésional]] anyadhiyakaké siji galer kanggo mateng ing profési panliti.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sha |first=Mandy |date=14-5-2019 |title=Professional Association and Pathways to Leadership in Our Profession |url=https://www.surveypractice.org/article/8192-professional-association-and-pathways-to-leadership-in-our-profession |journal=Survey Practice |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.29115/SP-2018-0039 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Wacan saterusé == * {{cite book |title=Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts|last=Groh |first=Arnold |year=2018 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-3-319-72774-5 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = N. | last2 = Arieli | first2 = T. | year = 2011 | title = Field research in conflict environments: Methodological challenges and snowball sampling | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-peace-research_2011-07_48_4/page/n4 | journal = Journal of Peace Research | volume = 48 | issue = 4| pages = 423–436 | doi=10.1177/0022343311405698| s2cid = 145328311 }} * Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT23 Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies] New York: Routledge. * Talja, Sanna and Pamela J. Mckenzie (2007). Editor's Introduction: Special Issue on Discursive Approaches to Information Seeking in Context, The University of Chicago Press. == Pranala njaba == {{Wikiversity}} {{Kothak sumber daya pustaka}} * {{Wiktionary-inline}} * {{Wikiquote-inline}} * {{Commons category-inline}} {{Pasinaon èlmu lan tèknologi}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Panlitèn| ]] [[Kategori:Methodologi]] [[Kategori:Paricara èlmiah]] pcwi9yyxi8theppqc8ihfd7x0tudxsc Galaktorea 0 197480 1753042 1707698 2026-08-20T08:47:45Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753042 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dwiaksara}} [[Barkas:Lactation.jpg|jmpl|Susu nètès saka payudarané wong wadon]] '''Galaktorea''' (uga diwaca '''Galactorrhoea''' ) yaiku munculé ASI sing ujuk-ujuk saka [[payudara]] wanita, lan acara iki ora ana hubungané karo meteng, [[babaran]] utawa prosès nyusoni. Galaktorea kacathet minangka kedadéyan ing 5-32% wanita. Akeh kedadéyan galaktorea sing dilapuraké nyebabaké definisi galaktorea sing beda.<ref name="Sakiyama_1983">{{Cite journal|last=Sakiyama|first=R.|last2=Quan|first2=M.|year=1983|title=Galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia|journal=Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey|volume=38|issue=12|pages=689–700|doi=10.1097/00006254-198312000-00001|pmid=6361641}}</ref> Sanajan kondisi iki ora mbebayani, bisa dadi tandha saka kondisi serius sing kudu ditanggapi kanthi tepat lan ditliti kanthi teliti.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Whitman-Elia|first=G. F.|last2=Windham|first2=N. Q.|year=2000|title=Galactorrhea may be clue to serious problems. Patients deserve a thorough workup|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_postgraduate-medicine_2000-06_107_7/page/165|journal=Postgraduate Medicine|volume=107|issue=7|pages=165–168, 171|doi=10.3810/pgm.2000.06.1129|pmid=10887453}}</ref> Kondisi galaktorea uga bisa katon ing kabèh jender, nanging bisa uga ana ing wong lanang, utawa bayi sing anyar, lan ing remaja.<ref name="Rohn_1984">{{Cite journal|last=Rohn|first=R. D.|year=1984|title=Galactorrhea in the adolescent|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-adolescent-health_1984-01_5_1/page/37|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=5|issue=1|pages=37–49|doi=10.1016/s0197-0070(84)80244-2|pmid=6420385}}</ref> == Penyebab == Penyebab galaktorea bisa kedadéyan amarga disregulasi [[hormon]] tartamtu. Penyebab kondisi hormonal sing paling kerep digandhengake karo kondisi galaktorea yaiku hiperprolaktinemia lan kondisi [[kelenjar tiroid|tiroid]] kanthi {{Efn|sing bisa uga nyaranake [[penyakit pituitari]]}} tingkat [[hormon perangsang tiroid]] (TSH) utawa [[thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] (TRH) [[lower-alpha 1]]. Ing mèh 50% kasus, sababé mèh ora jelas.<ref name="Sakiyama_1983">{{Cite journal|last=Sakiyama|first=R.|last2=Quan|first2=M.|year=1983|title=Galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia|journal=Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey|volume=38|issue=12|pages=689–700|doi=10.1097/00006254-198312000-00001|pmid=6361641}}</ref> Proses laktasi mbutuhaké anané hormon [[Lactogen|prolaktin]], lan prosès evaluasi kanggo galaktorea kalebu riwayat macem-macem obat kayata, opioid, [[antipsikotik]], [[methyldopa]] penghambat reuptake serotonin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karimi|first=H|last2=Nourizad|first2=S|last3=Momeni|first3=M|last4=Rahbar|first4=H|last5=Momeni|first5=M|last6=Farhadi|first6=K|year=2013|title=Burns, hypertrophic scar and galactorrhea|journal=Journal of Injury and Violence Research|volume=5|issue=2|pages=117–9|doi=10.5249/jivr.v5i2.314|pmc=3683415|pmid=23456048}}</ref> utawa saka pangan, lan prilaku kayata, kaku. Uga evaluasi meteng, adenoma hipofisis kanthi produksi [[Lactogen|prolaktin]] sing berlebihan utawa kompresi batang [[pituitari]], lan [[hipotiroidisme]]. Kondisi adenoma hipofisis anterior paling asring prolaktinoma. Kahanan hormon prolaktin sing berlebihan nyebabaké mandheg saka fase menstruasi lan [[Infertilitas|infertilitas]], sing bisa dadi pitunjuk kanggo konfirmasi diagnostik. Galaktorea uga bisa disebabake ketidakseimbangan hormon amarga pil kontrasepsi. Kadadéyan galaktorea uga minangka salah sawijining efek samping sing ana gandhengané karo panggunaan antagonis reseptor [[cimetidine]] [[antagonis H2|<sub>H2</sub>]] generasi kapindho. Kadadéyan galaktorea uga bisa dipengaruhi dening panggunaan obat antipsikotik sing nyebabake hiperprolaktinemia amarga mblokir reseptor dopamin sing tanggung jawab kanggo ngontrol pelepasan hormon prolaktin. Kerep nggunakake obat kayata [[Risperidone|risperidone]] dikenal nyebabaké komplikasi iki.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Popli|first=A|date=March 1998|title=Risperidone-induced galactorrhea associated with a prolactin elevation.|journal=Ann Clin Psychiatry|volume=10|issue=1|pages=31–3|doi=10.3109/10401239809148815|pmid=9622047}}</ref> Golongan [[penghambat pompa proton]] kebukti nyebabaké galaktorea.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Potts|first=Malcolm|year=1999|url=https://archive.org/details/eversinceadameve00pott|title=Ever Since Adam and Eve: The Evolution of Human Sexuality|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-64404-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/eversinceadameve00pott/page/145 145]|author-link=Malcolm Potts|url-access=registration}}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} 9uhgtrry98psqyo7gkwgxtn53cj1u61 Luwang ireng mahaagung 0 197482 1752876 1749848 2026-08-20T03:56:26Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 3 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752876 wikitext text/x-wiki Bolongan ireng gedhe pol ing inti galaksi elips [[Galaksi tipe cD|raksasa]] Messier 87 ing rasi [[Virgo]] . Massané kira-kira milyaran massané Srengéngé ( {{Val|7.22|0.34|0.40}}<nowiki></br></nowiki> {{Val|7.22|0.34|0.40}} M ) ing taun 2016. <ref> {{Cite journal|last=Oldham, L. J.|last2=Auger, M. W.|date=March 2016|title=Galaxy structure from multiple tracers - II. M87 from parsec to megaparsec scales|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=457|issue=1|pages=421–439|arxiv=1601.01323|bibcode=2016MNRAS.457..421O|doi=10.1093/mnras/stv2982}} </ref> Gambar iki dirilis déning proyèk Event Horizon Telescope ing April 2019. '''Bolongan Ireng Gedhe Pol''' (ing basa Inggris: '''''Supermassive black holes''''' ) iku jinis [[luwang ireng|bolongan ireng]] paling gedhé, kanthi massa saka atusan èwu nganti milyaran massané srengéngé. Umume utawa malah kabèh [[galaksi]] dianggep duwé bolongan Ireng gedhe pol ing tengahé. Ing tengah [[Punjering Galaksi|galaksi]] [[Bimasekti]] dipitayani ana luwang ireng mahaagung Sagittarius A* . == Sajarah panemon == Luwang ireng mahaagung awalé dihipotesisaké déning [[Donald Lynden-Bell]] lan Martin Rees ing taun 1971 sing ngira yen pusat galaksi Bimasakti nduwèni luwang ireng mahaagung. Luwang ireng mahaagung tengah Bima Sakti ditemokaké tanggal 13 lan 15 Februari 1974, dening astronom Bruce Balick lan interferometer garis dhasar Robert Brown saka Observatorium Astronomi Radio Nasional lan dijenengi Sagittarius A*. Dheweke nemokaké sumber radio sing ngetokaké radiasi sinkroton, sing ditemokaké kandhel lan ora obah amarga gravitasi. Mulane, iki minangka indikasi pisanan yèn ana luwang ireng mahaagung ing inti Bima Sakti. == Proses pambentukan == [[Barkas:Supermassiveblackhole_nasajpl.jpg|ka|jmpl| Gambaran luwang ireng mahaagung lan cakra akresi.]] == Luwang ireng ing tengah Bima Sakti == Para astronom pitaya yèn Galaksi [[Bimasekti|Bima Sakti]] duwé luwang ireng mahaagung ing tengahé, 26.000 [[taun cahya]] saka [[Tata Surya]], ing wilayah sing diarani Sagittarius A* <ref name="Henderson">{{Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/science/article5316001.ece|title=Astronomers confirm black hole at the heart of the Milky Way|last=Henderson|first=Mark|date=December 9, 2008|access-date=2009-05-17|publisher=Times Online|location=London|archive-date=2008-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216235509/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/science/article5316001.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref> amarga: * Lintang [[S2 (bintang)|S2]] ngetutaké ideran lonjong kanthi periode orbit 15,2 taun. Jarak paling cedhak 17 [[Jam cahaya|jam cahya]] ( {{Val|1.8}} utawa 120 AU) saka obyèk tengah. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schödel|first=R.|last2=et al.|date=17 October 2002|title=A star in a 15.2-year orbit around the supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-10-17_419_6908/page/694|journal=Nature|volume=419|issue=6908|pages=694–696|arxiv=astro-ph/0210426|bibcode=2002Natur.419..694S|doi=10.1038/nature01121|pmid=12384690}} </ref> * Saka pengamatan obahé lintang S2, massa obyèk kasebut bisa dikira-kira 4,1 yuta massané surya, <ref name="Ghez08">{{Cite journal|last=Ghez, A. M.|last2=et al.|year=December 2008|title=Measuring Distance and Properties of the Milky Way's Central Supermassive Black Hole with Stellar Orbits|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2008-12-20_689_2/page/1044|journal=Astrophysical Journal|volume=689|issue=2|pages=1044–1062|arxiv=0808.2870|bibcode=2008ApJ...689.1044G|doi=10.1086/592738}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/news/27621359.html|title=Milky Way's Central Monster Measured|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910010925/www.skyandtelescope.com/news/27621359.html|archive-date=2012-09-10|dead-url=yes|access-date=2014-09-25}}</ref> utawa kira-kira {{Val|8.2}} . * Radius obyek tengah ora luwih saka 17 jam cahya, yen luwih gedhé, S2 bakal tabrakan karo. Nyatane, pengamatan anyar <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ghez|first=A. M.|author-link=Andrea Ghez|last2=Salim, S.|last3=Hornstein, S. D.|last4=Tanner, A.|last5=Lu, J. R.|last6=Morris, M.|last7=Becklin, E. E.|last8=Duchêne, G.|date=May 2005|title=Stellar Orbits around the Galactic Center Black Hole|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2005-02-20_620_2/page/744|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=620|issue=2|pages=744–757|arxiv=astro-ph/0306130|bibcode=2005ApJ...620..744G|doi=10.1086/427175}}</ref> nuduhaké radius awak tengah ora luwih saka 6,25 jam cahya, kira-kira padha karo ideran planit [[Uranus]] . == Luwang ireng mahaagung ing njaba Bima Sakti == [[Barkas:Double_Nucleus_of_the_Andromeda_Galaxy_(M31).tif|ka|jmpl| Inti Galaksi Andromeda, panggonan kang para astronom pitaya ana luwang ireng mahaagung ing njeroné. Gambar dijupuk déning [[Teleskop Hubble|Teleskop Angkasa Hubble]] . ''[[NASA]] / ESA .'']] Galaksi Andromeda (M31), adohe 2,5 yuta taun cahya, ana luwang ireng mahaagung ing tengahé kanthi (1,1–2,3) × <sup>108</sup> (110–230 yuta) massané surya, ingkang luwih gedhé tinimbang Bimasekti. <ref name="Bender"> {{Cite journal|last=Bender|first=Ralf|last2=et al.|date=2005-09-20|title=HST STIS Spectroscopy of the Triple Nucleus of M31: Two Nested Disks in Keplerian Rotation around a Supermassive Black Hole|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2005-09-20_631_1/page/280|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=631|issue=1|pages=280–300|arxiv=astro-ph/0509839|bibcode=2005ApJ...631..280B|doi=10.1086/432434}}</ref> == Deleng uga == * Dhaftar uwangireng paling gedhé * Lintang neutron * [[Luwang ireng]] * [[Galaksi]] * [[Punjering Galaksi|Pusat galaksi]] * Kuasar * Semburan sinar gamma == Referensi == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} qxqrsppl6jo41j9cwb64l9l5pv4cp34 ꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪ 0 197550 1752942 1707699 2026-08-20T05:27:36Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 2 books for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752942 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dwiaksara-jv|Galaktorea}} [[Barkas:Lactation.jpg|jmpl|ꦱꦸꦱꦸꦤꦺꦠꦺꦱ꧀ꦱꦏꦥꦪꦸꦢꦫꦤꦺꦮꦺꦴꦁꦮꦢꦺꦴꦤ꧀]] ꧋'''ꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪ'''ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸꦩꦸꦚ꧀ꦕꦸꦭ꧀ꦭꦺꦄꦱꦶꦱꦶꦁꦲꦸꦗꦸꦏ꧀ꦲꦸꦗꦸꦏ꧀ꦱꦏ[[ꦥꦪꦸꦢꦫ]]ꦮꦤꦶꦠ꧈ꦭꦤ꧀ꦲꦕꦫꦲꦶꦏꦶꦲꦺꦴꦫꦲꦤꦲꦸꦧꦸꦔꦤ꧀ꦤꦺꦏꦫꦺꦴꦩꦼꦠꦼꦁ꧈[[ꦧꦧꦫꦤ꧀]]ꦲꦸꦠꦮꦥꦿꦺꦴꦱꦺꦱ꧀ꦚꦸꦱꦺꦴꦤꦶ꧉ ꧋ꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦏꦕꦛꦼꦠ꧀ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏꦏꦢꦢꦺꦪꦤ꧀ꦲꦶꦁ꧇꧕꧇-꧇꧓꧒꧇%ꦮꦤꦶꦠ꧉ꦲꦏꦺꦃꦏꦢꦢꦺꦪꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦁꦢꦶꦭꦥꦸꦂꦫꦏꦺꦪꦼꦧ꧀ꦧꦏꦺꦢꦺꦥ꦳ꦶꦤꦶꦱꦶꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦱꦶꦁꦧꦺꦢ꧉<ref name="Sakiyama_1983">{{Cite journal|last=Sakiyama|first=R.|last2=Quan|first2=M.|year=1983|title=Galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia|journal=Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey|volume=38|issue=12|pages=689–700|doi=10.1097/00006254-198312000-00001|pmid=6361641}}</ref>ꦱꦤꦗꦤ꧀ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦱꦶꦲꦶꦏꦶꦲꦺꦴꦫꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦧꦪꦤꦶ꧈ꦧꦶꦱꦢꦝꦶꦠꦤ꧀ꦝꦱꦏꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦱꦶꦱꦼꦫꦶꦪꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦶꦁꦏꦸꦢꦸꦢꦶꦠꦁꦒꦥ꧀ꦥꦶꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶꦠꦼꦥꦠ꧀ꦥꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦠ꧀ꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶꦠꦼꦭꦶꦠꦶ꧉<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Whitman-Elia|first=G. F.|last2=Windham|first2=N. Q.|year=2000|title=Galactorrhea may be clue to serious problems. Patients deserve a thorough workup|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_postgraduate-medicine_2000-06_107_7/page/165|journal=Postgraduate Medicine|volume=107|issue=7|pages=165–168, 171|doi=10.3810/pgm.2000.06.1129|pmid=10887453}}</ref>ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦱꦶꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦲꦸꦒꦧꦶꦱꦏꦠꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦲꦶꦁꦏꦧꦺꦃꦗꦺꦤ꧀ꦢꦼꦂ꧈ꦤꦔꦶꦁꦲꦸꦒꦲꦤꦲꦶꦁꦮꦺꦴꦁꦭꦤꦁ꧈ꦲꦸꦠꦮꦧꦪꦶꦱꦶꦁꦲꦚꦂ꧈ꦭꦤ꧀ꦲꦶꦁꦉꦩꦗ꧉<ref name="Rohn_1984">{{Cite journal|last=Rohn|first=R. D.|year=1984|title=Galactorrhea in the adolescent|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-adolescent-health_1984-01_5_1/page/37|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=5|issue=1|pages=37–49|doi=10.1016/s0197-0070(84)80244-2|pmid=6420385}}</ref> == ꦥꦼꦚꦼꦧꦧ꧀ == ꧋ꦥꦼꦚꦼꦧꦧ꧀ꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦧꦱꦏꦢꦢꦺꦪꦤ꧀ꦲꦩꦂꦒꦢꦶꦱ꧀ꦫꦺꦒꦸꦭꦱꦶ[[hormon|ꦲꦺꦴꦂꦩꦺꦴꦤ꧀]]ꦠꦼꦂꦠꦼꦤ꧀ꦠꦸ꧉ꦥꦼꦚꦼꦧꦧ꧀ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦱꦶꦲꦺꦴꦂꦩꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀ꦱꦶꦁꦔꦭꦶꦁꦏꦼꦉꦥ꧀ꦢꦶꦒꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦁꦔꦏꦺꦏꦫꦺꦴꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸꦲꦶꦥꦼꦂꦥꦿꦺꦴꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦶꦤꦺꦩꦶꦪꦭꦤ꧀ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦱꦶ[[kelenjar tiroid|ꦠꦶꦫꦺꦴꦲꦶꦢ꧀]]ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ{{Efn|sing bisa uga nyaranake [[penyakit pituitari]]}}ꦠꦶꦁꦏꦠ꧀[[hormon perangsang tiroid|ꦲꦺꦴꦂꦩꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦥꦼꦫꦁꦱꦁꦠꦶꦫꦺꦴꦲꦶꦢ꧀]](TSH)ꦲꦸꦠꦮ[[thyrotropin-releasing hormone|ꦛꦶꦫꦺꦴꦠꦿꦺꦴꦥꦶꦤ꧀-ꦫꦶꦭꦶꦱꦶꦁꦲꦺꦴꦂꦩꦺꦴꦤ꧀]](TRH)[[lower-alpha 1|ꦭꦺꦴꦮꦼꦂꦄꦭ꧀ꦦ꧇꧑꧇]]꧉ꦲꦶꦁꦩꦺꦃ꧇꧕꧐꧇%ꦏꦱꦸꦱ꧀꧈ꦱꦼꦧꦧ꧀ꦧꦺꦩꦺꦃꦲꦺꦴꦫꦗꦼꦭꦱ꧀꧉<ref name="Sakiyama_1983">{{Cite journal|last=Sakiyama|first=R.|last2=Quan|first2=M.|year=1983|title=Galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia|journal=Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey|volume=38|issue=12|pages=689–700|doi=10.1097/00006254-198312000-00001|pmid=6361641}}</ref> ꧋ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦱꦺꦱ꧀ꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦱꦶꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦠꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺꦲꦤꦤꦺꦲꦺꦴꦂꦩꦺꦴꦤ꧀[[Lactogen|ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦶꦤ꧀]]꧈ꦭꦤ꧀ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦱꦺꦱ꧀ꦌꦮ꦳ꦭꦸꦮꦱꦶꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦏꦊꦧꦸꦫꦶꦮꦪꦠ꧀ꦩꦕꦼꦩ꧀ꦩꦕꦼꦩ꧀ꦲꦺꦴꦧꦠ꧀ꦏꦪꦠ꧈ꦎꦥ꧀ꦭꦺꦴꦲꦶꦢ꧀꧈[[antipsikotik|ꦄꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦥ꧀ꦱꦶꦏꦺꦴꦠꦶꦏ꧀]]꧈[[methyldopa|ꦩꦺꦛꦶꦭ꧀ꦢꦺꦴꦥ]]ꦥꦼꦁꦲꦩ꧀ꦧꦠ꧀ꦫꦺꦈꦥ꧀ꦠꦏꦼꦱꦺꦫꦺꦴꦠꦺꦴꦤꦶꦤ꧀꧉<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karimi|first=H|last2=Nourizad|first2=S|last3=Momeni|first3=M|last4=Rahbar|first4=H|last5=Momeni|first5=M|last6=Farhadi|first6=K|year=2013|title=Burns, hypertrophic scar and galactorrhea|journal=Journal of Injury and Violence Research|volume=5|issue=2|pages=117–9|doi=10.5249/jivr.v5i2.314|pmc=3683415|pmid=23456048}}</ref>ꦲꦸꦠꦮꦱꦏꦥꦔꦤ꧀꧈ꦭꦤ꧀ꦥꦿꦶꦭꦏꦸꦏꦪꦠ꧈ꦏꦏꦸ꧉ꦲꦸꦒꦌꦮ꦳ꦭꦸꦮꦱꦶꦩꦼꦠꦼꦁ꧈ꦄꦢꦺꦤꦺꦴꦩꦲꦶꦥꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦱꦶꦱ꧀ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶꦥꦿꦺꦴꦝꦸꦏ꧀ꦱꦶ[[Lactogen|ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦶꦤ꧀]]ꦱꦶꦁꦧꦼꦂꦊꦧꦶꦃꦲꦤ꧀ꦲꦸꦠꦮꦏꦺꦴꦩ꧀ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦧꦠꦁ[[pituitari|ꦥꦶꦠꦸꦮꦶꦠꦫꦶ]]꧈ꦭꦤ꧀[[hipotiroidisme|ꦲꦶꦥꦺꦴꦠꦶꦫꦺꦴꦲꦶꦢꦶꦱ꧀ꦩꦼ]]꧉ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦱꦶꦄꦢꦺꦤꦺꦴꦩꦲꦶꦥꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦱꦶꦱ꧀ꦄꦤ꧀ꦠꦺꦫꦶꦪꦺꦴꦂꦥꦭꦶꦁꦲꦱꦿꦶꦁꦥꦿꦺꦴꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦶꦤꦺꦴꦩ꧉ꦏꦲꦤꦤ꧀ꦥꦺꦴꦂꦩꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦁꦩꦤ꧀ꦝꦼꦒ꧀ꦱꦏꦥ꦳ꦱꦼꦩꦺꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦸꦮꦱꦶꦭꦤ꧀[[Infertilitas|ꦆꦤ꧀ꦥ꦳ꦺꦂꦠꦶꦭꦶꦠꦱ꧀]]꧈ꦱꦶꦁꦧꦶꦱꦢꦝꦶꦥꦶꦠꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦏ꧀ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦥ꦳ꦶꦂꦩꦱꦶꦢꦶꦪꦒ꧀ꦤꦺꦴꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦏ꧀꧉ꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦲꦸꦒꦧꦶꦱꦢꦶꦱꦼꦧꦧ꧀ꦧꦏꦺꦏꦼꦲꦺꦴꦫꦱꦼꦲꦶꦩ꧀ꦧꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦲꦺꦴꦂꦩꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦲꦩꦂꦒꦥꦶꦭ꧀ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦿꦱꦺꦥ꧀ꦱꦶ꧉ ꧋ꦏꦢꦢꦺꦪꦤ꧀ꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦲꦸꦒꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏꦱꦭꦃꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁꦌꦥ꦳ꦺꦏ꧀ꦱꦩ꧀ꦥꦶꦁꦱꦶꦁꦲꦤꦏꦫꦺꦴꦒꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦤꦺꦏꦫꦺꦴꦥꦁꦒꦸꦤꦲꦤ꧀ꦄꦤ꧀ꦠꦒꦺꦴꦤꦶꦱ꧀ꦉꦱꦺꦥ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦂ[[cimetidine|ꦕꦶꦩꦺꦠꦶꦢꦶꦤꦼ]][[antagonis H2|<sub>H2</sub>]]ꦒꦼꦤꦼꦫꦱꦶꦏꦥꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴ꧉ꦏꦢꦢꦺꦪꦤ꧀ꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪꦲꦸꦒꦧꦶꦱꦢꦶꦥꦼꦔꦫꦸꦃꦲꦶꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁꦲꦺꦴꦧꦠ꧀ꦄꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦥ꧀ꦱꦶꦏꦺꦴꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦱꦶꦁꦚꦼꦧꦧ꧀ꦧꦏꦺꦲꦶꦥꦼꦂꦥꦿꦺꦴꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦶꦤꦺꦩꦶꦪꦲꦩꦂꦒꦩ꧀ꦭꦺꦴꦏꦶꦂꦉꦱꦺꦥ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦂꦢꦺꦴꦥꦩꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦁꦠꦁꦒꦸꦁꦗꦮꦧ꧀ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴꦔꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦿꦺꦴꦭ꧀ꦥꦼꦊꦥꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ꦲꦺꦴꦂꦩꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦶꦤ꧀꧉ꦏꦼꦉꦥ꧀ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏꦏꦺꦲꦺꦴꦧꦠ꧀ꦏꦪꦠ[[Risperidone|ꦫꦶꦱ꧀ꦥꦺꦫꦶꦢꦺꦴꦤꦼ]]ꦢꦶꦏꦼꦤꦭ꧀ꦚꦼꦧꦧ꧀ꦧꦏꦺꦏꦺꦴꦩ꧀ꦥꦶꦏꦱꦺꦴꦲꦶꦏꦶ꧉<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Popli|first=A|date=March 1998|title=Risperidone-induced galactorrhea associated with a prolactin elevation.|journal=Ann Clin Psychiatry|volume=10|issue=1|pages=31–3|doi=10.3109/10401239809148815|pmid=9622047}}</ref>ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀[[penghambat pompa proton|ꦥꦼꦁꦲꦩ꧀ꦧꦠ꧀ꦥꦺꦴꦩ꧀ꦥꦥꦿꦺꦴ]]ꦏꦼꦧꦸꦏ꧀ꦠꦶꦚꦼꦧꦧ꧀ꦧꦏꦺꦒꦭꦏ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦫꦺꦪ꧉<ref>{{Cite book|last=Potts|first=Malcolm|year=1999|url=https://archive.org/details/eversinceadameve00pott|title=Ever Since Adam and Eve: The Evolution of Human Sexuality|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-64404-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/eversinceadameve00pott/page/145 145]|author-link=Malcolm Potts|url-access=registration}}</ref> ==ꦫꦸꦗꦸꦏꦤ꧀== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦗꦮ]] 32nlc9wmrt4v0kt5og3whai4rfv4qv4 Kamongkogan 0 198764 1752955 1730526 2026-08-20T05:52:18Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752955 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Pangaribawa positif saka aji sing dirasakaké sasawong}} {{multiscript|aksara=ꦏꦩꦺꦴꦁꦏꦺꦴꦒꦤ꧀}} '''Kamongkogan''' (ꦏꦩꦺꦴꦁꦏꦺꦴꦒꦤ꧀) utawa '''mongkog''' (ꦩꦺꦴꦁꦏꦺꦴꦒ꧀) ya iku [[Émosi|émosi sekundhèr]] manungsa sing ditandhani déning rasa marem kambi [[Idhèntitas (filsafat)|idhèntitas]], panggawéan, utawa gegayuhané sasawong. Kamongkogan asring dianggep minangka kawalikané rasa [[isin]] utawa [[andhap asor]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/pride |title=PRIDE synonyms |website=Merriam-Webster |access-date=1-12-2023}}</ref> lan bisa dipandeng minangka [[kabecikan]] utawa [[piala]] gumantung kontèksé. ''Kamongkogan'' bisa uga ngrujuk ing pangrasa marem sing dipikolèh saka pilihan lan tumindaké dhèwèk utawa wong liya utawa amarga dadi bagéané saklumpuk wong. Kamongkogan iku byasané minangka asil [[pangalem]], [[ngilo dhiri]] sing mandhiri, utawa pangrasa katurutan amarga dadi [[Rasa ndarbèni|bagéané]] sawijining klumpuk. Tembung ''kamongkogan'' bisa uga ngrujuk ing pawujudan idhèntitas klumpuk, kalebu [[Ras manungsa|ètnis]] sasawong—utamané [[Kamongkogan Ireng]] sing entuk momentum sajarah sasuwéné [[Obahan Hak Sipil Amérika Sarékat]] lan gegelutan kamardikan sadurungé—[[Obahan féminis|Kamongkogan Féminis]] sing ngoyod ing obahan hak-hak wanita lan gegelutan kasajèjèran gèndher—lan [[idhèntitas sèksual]] (tuladhané, [[Kamongkogan Gay]] utawa [[Kamongkogan LGBT|LGBT]] sing saya diwanuhi sawisé [[Haruhara Stonewall]]). Ing kontèks klumpuk minoritas iki, nuduhaké kamongkogan minangka tumindak sing nyuwawa wong-wong ing njaba klumpuk minoritas mau sing njajal nandhuraké rasa isin marang dhèwèké kabèh. Ana uga rasa mongkog sing bisa mbarengi idhèntitas [[bangsa]] ([[patriotisme]]), idhèntitas wewengkon, utawa sesambungan liyané (tuladhané, mongkog dadi [[alumnus]] [[universitas]]). Ing kontèks iki, kamongkogan luwih asifat harfiyah. == Deleng uga == {{Portal|Filsafat|Psikologi}} * [[Kapracayan dhiri]] * [[Martabat]] * [[Éfèk Dunning–Kruger]] * [[Waham kagungan]] * [[Pamikiran klumpuk]] * [[Kaumukan]] * [[Hubris]] * [[Komplèks Ikaros]] * [[Narsisme]] * [[Éfèk kaliwat pracaya dhiri]] * [[Kakolonan]] * [[Bias ladi dhiri]] * [[Pitung Dosa Matèni lan Patang Prakara Pungkasan]] * [[Pitung kabecikan]] * [[Dhuwur dhiri]] * [[Gladri dhuwur dhiri]] * [[Lelara kamenangan]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist|30em}} == Kapustakan == * {{cite journal | last1 = Cairns | first1 = Douglas L | year = 1996 | title = ''Hybris'', Dishonour, and Thinking Big | url = https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11874467/Hybris_Dishonour_and_Thinking_Big.pdf| journal = Journal of Hellenic Studies | volume = 116 | pages = 1–32 | doi=10.2307/631953| jstor = 631953 | hdl = 20.500.11820/d7c5e485-cef7-490a-b67d-1b1eb4a200ef | s2cid = 59361502 | hdl-access = free }} * {{cite journal | last1 = MacDowell | first1 = Douglas | year = 1976 | title = ''Hybris'' in Athens | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_greece-rome_1976-04_23_1/page/14 | journal = Greece and Rome | volume = 23 | pages = 14–31 | doi=10.1017/s0017383500018210| s2cid = 163033169 }} * Owen, David (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20071214025850/http://www.politicospublishing.co.uk/titles.php/itemcode/178 ''The Hubris Syndrome: Bush, Blair and the Intoxication of Power'']. Politico's, Methuen Publishing Ltd. == Wacan sabanjuré == * {{cite book |author=Jessica Tracy |year=2016 |title=Take Pride: Why the Deadliest Sin Holds the Secret to Human Success |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_BVfjwEACAAJ |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0544273177}} {{Kabecikan}} {{Subject bar |commons=yes |commons-search=Category:Pride |wikt=yes |wikt-search=pride |q=yes |d=yes }} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Kamongkogan| ]] [[Kategori:Émosi]] [[Kategori:Piadeg psikologis]] 1ac5zrktrzutc60sgtbqqyaaybec22a Rumaja 0 198767 1752860 1730616 2026-08-20T03:27:31Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752860 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Pralihan manungsa saka balèg menyang diwasa}} {{multiscript|aksara=ꦫꦸꦩꦗ}} {{Use mdy dates|date=Maret 2020}} [[Barkas:Teens sharing a song.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Rong rumaja nilingaké musik nganggo panywara kuping]] '''Rumaja''' (ꦫꦸꦩꦗ) minangka tahap pralihan [[Pakembangan awak manungsa|pakembangan]] [[Biologi pakembangan|raga]] lan [[Psikologis|jiwa]] manungsa sing lumrahé dumadi sajeroné wayah [[balèg]] menyang [[diwasa]] (byasané cocog kambi [[umur diwasa]]).<!--NOTE: The definition has been thoroughly discussed on the talk page. It's a complex issue. So please discuss it on the talk page first before changing it.--><ref name="Stehlik">{{Cite book|last=Stehlik|first=Thomas|title=Educational Philosophy for 21st Century Teachers|date=2018|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3319759692|page=131|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rqZWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA131}}</ref><ref name="Hu">{{Cite book|last1=Hu|first1=Julie Xuemei|last2=Nash|first2=Shondrah Tarrezz|title=Marriage and the Family: Mirror of a Diverse Global Society|date=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317279846|page=302|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVKWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT302}}</ref> Rumaja byasané digayutaké kambi taun [[Teenager (tembung)|rumaja]],<ref name="MedlinePlus archive 001950 Puberty and adolescence">{{cite web|title=Puberty and adolescence|website=[[MedlinePlus]]|access-date=22 Juli 2014|archive-date=3 April 2013|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001950.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403080324/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001950.htm}}</ref><ref name="psychtoday">{{cite magazine|title=Adolescence|magazine=[[Psychology Today]]|access-date=7 April 2012|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/adolescence}}</ref> nanging ungkaban raga, jiwa, utawa budayané bisa uga diwiwiti luwih dhisik utawa mungkas sabanjuré. Balèg byasané diwiwiti sajeroné wayah [[prarumaja]], utamané ing wong wadon.<ref name="psychtoday"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dorn L. D. |author2=Biro F. M. | year = 2011| title = Puberty and Its Measurement: A Decade in Review. [Review] |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-research-on-adolescence_2011_21_1/page/180 | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 21 | issue = 1| pages = 180–195 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00722.x |issn=1050-8392 }}</ref> Patuwuhan raga (utamané ing wong lanang) lan pakembangan kognitif bisa tumuli nganti ngliwati wayah rumaja. Umur mung ngwèhi tetenger kasar wayah rumaja lan para ahli durung sarujuk kambi teges sing patitis. Sawatara teges diwiwiti kawit umur 10 taun lan mungkas nganti umur 30 taun.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jaworska |first1=Natalia |last2=MacQueen |first2=Glenda |title=Adolescence as a unique developmental period |journal=Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience |date=September 2015 |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=291–293 |doi=10.1503/jpn.150268 |pmid=26290063 |pmc=4543091 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.04.25.489387v1.full.pdf | doi=10.1101/2022.04.25.489387 | title=Changes in prefrontal GABA and glutamate through adolescence supports excitation/Inhibition balance | date=2022 | last1=Perica | first1=Maria I. | last2=Calabro | first2=Finnegan J. | last3=Larsen | first3=Bart | last4=Foran | first4=Will | last5=Yushmanov | first5=Victor E. | last6=Hetherington | first6=Hoby | last7=Tervo-Clemmens | first7=Brenden | last8=Moon | first8=Chan-Hong | last9=Luna | first9=Beatriz | s2cid=248421494 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmc=6473801 | date=2017 | last1=Steinberg | first1=L. | last2=Icenogle | first2=G. | last3=Shulman | first3=E. P. | last4=Breiner | first4=K. | last5=Chein | first5=J. | last6=Bacchini | first6=D. | last7=Chang | first7=L. | last8=Chaudhary | first8=N. | last9=Di Giunta | first9=L. | last10=Dodge | first10=K. A. | last11=Fanti | first11=K. A. | last12=Lansford | first12=J. E. | last13=Malone | first13=P. S. | last14=Oburu | first14=P. | last15=Pastorelli | first15=C. | last16=Skinner | first16=A. T. | last17=Sorbring | first17=E. | last18=Tapanya | first18=S. | last19=Tirado | first19=L. M. | last20=Alampay | first20=L. P. | last21=Al-Hassan | first21=S. M. | last22=Takash | first22=H. M. | title=Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation | journal=Developmental Science | volume=21 | issue=2 | pages=10.1111/desc.12532 | doi=10.1111/desc.12532 | pmid=28150391 }}</ref> Teges [[Paheman Kawarasan Donya|Patunggalan Kabagasan Sadonya]] kanthi resmi netepaké wayah rumaja minangka onjotan kauripan saka umur 10 nganti 19 taun.<ref name="WHO1">{{cite web |title=Adolescent health |url=https://www.who.int/health-topics/adolescent-health#tab=tab_1 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> ==Deleng uga== {{Portal|Masarakat}} * [[Kadhokteran rumaja]] * [[Turu rumaja]] * [[Lekeran (sosial)]] * [[Wayah diwasa ngaton lan wayah diwasa wiwitan]] * [[Éfébofilia]] – kaluwihsenengan sèksual nalika wong diwasa sacara utama utawa miluluné kasengsem sacara seksual marang wong rumaja patengahan nganti pungkasan * [[Éfébifobia|Wedi rumaja]] * [[Swara piniajar]] * [[Umur lan bebudèn wicara sing cocog]] * [[Carkan rumaja|Carkan diwasa nom]] * [[Diwasa nom]] * [[Kaslametan lan kabagasan karyawan nom]] * [[Wayah nom]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Pranala njaba== {{Wikinews|New American Psychological Association guidelines: Parents should advise teenagers on social media use, impose restrictions}} {{S-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Prarumaja]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Pakembangan awak manungsa|Tahap pakembangan manungsa]]|years='''Rumaja'''}} {{s-aft|after=[[Diwasa nom]]}} {{S-end}} {{Pakembangan manungsa}} {{Subject bar|commons=yes|commons-search=Kategori:Rumaja|wikt=yes|b=yes|q=yes|q-search=Wong rumaja|s=yes|d=Q131774}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Rumaja| ]] [[Kategori:Balèg]] 8mv0yt4mude3hmfvnhoos0bpoqefn0a Sahmura 0 199073 1752930 1752261 2026-08-20T05:13:28Z ~2026-38892-59 73578 /* Dhaptar lagu */ 1752930 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Sahmura''''' minangka [[album studio]] kaping enem [[Siti Nurhaliza]]. Album iki diluncurake persis jam 00:00, [[1 Januari]] [[2000]]. == Dhaptar lagu == # '''Balqis'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # '''Joget Kasih Tak Sudah'''<br>Senilagu: S. Atan<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Zapin Cinta Asmara'''<br>Senilagu: To'Ki<br>Senikata: Rozek # '''Keroncong Si Endang Endong'''<br>Senilagu & Senikata: Raja Kobat # '''Canggai'''<br>Senilagu: Rosli Selasih<br>Senikata: Tok Wan # '''Mahligai Permata'''<br>Senilagu: [[Khir Rahman]]<br>Senikata: Megamutiara # '''Pawana Sampaikanlah Salam'''<br>Senilagu: Arid<br>Senikata: Lokgha # '''Ya Maulai'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # '''Masri Manis'''<br>Senilagu & Senikata: [[Khir Rahman]] # '''Berpantun Kasih'''<br>Senilagu: S. Atan<br>Senikata: Siso Kopratasa == Produksi == * Penerbit Eksekutif: '''Tan Su Loke''' * Penerbit: '''Pak Ngah, S. Atan, To'Ki & Rosli Selasih''' * Penyelaras Produksi: '''Jason Foo''' * Pengurus A&R: '''Sham Amir Hussain''' * A&R Coordinator: '''Zulkefli Majid''' * Pengurus Promosi: '''Bard''' * Unit Promosi: '''Ariffin, Azhar, Lynn & Rahayu''' * Juruadun: '''Wong, Vincent & Koh''' * Studio Rakaman: '''Pro Recording Studio (Cheras Perdana)''' * Jurusolek: '''Nurul''' * Fotografi: '''Jen Studio''' * Mastering: '''Genesis Mastering Lab Sdn. Bhd.''' * Konsep Cover: '''As Design & Print''' {{musik-stub}} [[Kategori:Album]] [[Kategori:Siti Nurhaliza]] {{Authority control}} hhrfvt6dxpxoniqepmrrldqbbcuo6jh Sanggar Mustika 0 199198 1752931 1752263 2026-08-20T05:13:59Z ~2026-38892-59 73578 1752931 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Sanggar Mustika''''' minangka [[album studio]] [[Siti Nurhaliza]] kang kaping wolu. Album iki dirilis ing taun [[2002]]. == Dhaptar lagu == # '''Nirmala'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Ce'Kem # '''Joget Senyum Memikat'''<br>Senilagu: S. Atan<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Panas Berteduh Gelap Bersuluh'''<br>Senilagu: [[Khir Rahman]]<br>Senikata: [[Siti Nurhalizah]] # '''Kurik Kundi'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Bisikan Hati'''<br>Senilagu & Senikata: Haimon Abdul Rahman # '''Badarsila'''<br>Senilagu: Suflan Faidzal<br>Senikata: Lokgha # '''Syair Kamelia'''<br>Senilagu: S. Atan<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Di Batas Masa'''<br>Senilagu: Naim<br>Senikata: Habsah Hassan # '''Sulam Sembilan'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Lokgha # '''Bunga Melor'''<br>Senilagu: [[P. Ramlee]]<br>Senikata: S. Sudarmaji == Produksi == * Penerbit Eksekutif: '''Tan Su Loke''' * Penerbit: '''Pak Ngah, Ramli MS & S. Atan''' * Penyelaras Produksi: '''Jason Foo''' * Pengurus A&R: '''Sham Amir Hussain''' * A&R Coordinator: '''Zulkefli Majid''' * Pengurus Promosi: '''Bard''' * Unit Promosi: '''Ariffin, Mie, Rahayu & Sabariah ([[Singapore]])''' * Juru Adun: '''Wong, Vincent, Koh & Ramli MS''' * Studio Rakaman: '''Pro Recording Studio (Cheras Perdana)''' * Juru Solek: '''Nurul''' * Fotografi: '''Bustamam Mokhtar''' * Konsep Cover: '''Rauna Jud''' * Mastering: '''Genesis Mastering Lab Sdn. Bhd.''' {{musik-stub}} [[Kategori:Album]] [[Kategori:Siti Nurhaliza]] {{Authority control}} hc5iw715dila874uvpckgzuz7lrzfla Anugerah Aidilfitri 0 199213 1752932 1752265 2026-08-20T05:14:54Z ~2026-38892-59 73578 /* Dhaptar lagu */ 1752932 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Anugerah Aidilfitri''''' minangka [[album studio]] kasepuluh [[Siti Nurhaliza]]. Album iki dirilis ing taun [[2003]], tiba ing dina [[Idul Fitri]]. == Dhaptar lagu == # '''Anugerah Aidilfitri'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Ce'Kem # '''Mekar Hari Raya'''<br>Senilagu: Azmeer<br>Senikata: Senibayan # '''Meriah Suasana Hari Raya'''<br>Senilagu: [[Khir Rahman]]<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # '''Bila Hari Raya Menjelma'''<br>Senilagu: S. Atan<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Sesuci Lebaran'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # '''Suara Takbir'''<br>Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Nazam Lebaran'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Air Mata Syawal'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Anugerah Aidilfitri (Instrumental)''' # '''Sesuci Lebaran (Instrumental)''' === VCD & DVD === # '''Introduksi''' # '''Anugerah Aidilfitri'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Ce'Kem # '''Mekar Hari Raya'''<br>Senilagu: Azmeer<br>Senikata: Senibayan # '''Meriah Suasana Hari Raya'''<br>Senilagu: [[Khir Rahman]]<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # '''Bila Hari Raya Menjelma'''<br>Senilagu: S. Atan<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Sesuci Lebaran'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # '''Suara Takbir'''<br>Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Nazam Lebaran'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Air Mata Syawal'''<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Nurul Asyiqin # '''Nikmat Hari Raya''' (karo [[Noraniza Idris]], New Boyz & Aqasha)<br>Senilagu: Murad<br>Senikata: Razak / Yaakob / Zainal / September 5 # '''Aidilfitri di Alaf Baru''' (karo [[Noraniza Idris]], [[Liza Hanim]] & Anis Suraya)<br>Senilagu: Khalil Shariff<br>Senikata: Asmah Ismail == Produksi == * Penerbit Eksekutif: '''Tan Su Loke''' * Penolong Penerbit Eksekutif: '''Edwin Tan''' * Penerbit: '''Pak Ngah, Azmeer, Khir Rahman & S. Atan''' * Penyelaras Produksi: '''Jason Foo''' * A&R Coordinator: '''Zulkefli Majid''' * Pengurus Promosi: '''Bard''' * Unit Promosi: '''Ariffin, Riz, Rahayu & Sabariah ([[Singapore]])''' * Jururakam: '''Wong, Vincent & Koh''' * Studio Rakaman: '''Pro Recording Studio (Cheras Perdana)''' * Jurusolek: '''Nurul''' * Fotografi: '''Bustamam Mokhtar''' * Mastering: '''Genesis Mastering Lab Sdn. Bhd.''' * Konsep Cover: '''As Design & Print''' * Penaja Pakaian: '''Siti Nurhaliza Collections''' {{musik-stub}} [[Kategori:Album]] [[Kategori:Siti Nurhaliza]] 38brvqtauv1txsnttaqq4x3fm1jugci Montor swasetir 0 199282 1752908 1737910 2026-08-20T04:47:25Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752908 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Montor swasetir''', '''montor nirsopir''', '''montor tanpa sopir''', utawa '''montor otonom''', <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Taeihagh|first=Araz|last2=Lim|first2=Hazel Si Min|date=2 January 2019|title=Governing autonomous vehicles: emerging responses for safety, liability, privacy, cybersecurity, and people risk|journal=Transport Reviews|volume=39|issue=1|pages=103–128|arxiv=1807.05720|doi=10.1080/01441647.2018.1494640|issn=0144-1647}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autos-selfdriving-uber/self-driving-uber-car-kills-arizona-woman-crossing-street-idUSKBN1GV296|title=Self-driving Uber car kills Arizona woman crossing street|last=Maki|first=Sydney|date=19 March 2018|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=14 April 2019|last2=Sage|first2=Alexandria}}</ref> <ref name="thrun2010toward">{{Cite journal|last=Thrun|first=Sebastian|year=2010|title=Toward Robotic Cars|url=https://archive.org/details/association-for-computing-machinery-communications_2010-04_53_4/page/99|journal=Communications of the ACM|volume=53|issue=4|pages=99–106|doi=10.1145/1721654.1721679}}</ref> yaiku [[montor]] sing bisa lumaku kanti namung sithik utawa blas ora piguna [[Lebon naraguna|lebon manungsa]] (''human input'').<ref name="tits">{{Cite journal|last=Xie|first=S.|last2=Hu|first2=J.|last3=Bhowmick|first3=P.|last4=Ding, Z.; Arvin, F.|year=2022|title=Distributed Motion Planning for Safe Autonomous Vehicle Overtaking via Artificial Potential Field|url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1196977|journal=IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems|volume=23|issue=11|pages=21531–21547|bibcode=2022ITITr..2321531X|doi=10.1109/TITS.2022.3189741}}</ref> Kadhangkala karan '''[[taksi robot]]''', sanajan tetembungan iki mligi kanggo montor swasetir sing dikemunah dening [[parusahan pandum tumpak]] (''ridesharing company''). Montor swasetir kajibah kanggo kabèh tumindak nyetir in dalan. Kayata ngertèni kahanan kupengan, ngemonitor sistem-sistem wigati, saha ngendhalèkaké wahana, kalebu navigasiné saka asal menyang papan tujuan.<ref name="tvt">{{Cite journal|last=Xie|first=S.|last2=Hu|first2=J.|last3=Ding|first3=Z.|last4=Arvin|first4=F.|year=2023|title=Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control for Connected Autonomous Vehicles Using Spring Damping Energy Model|url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1189618|journal=IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology|volume=72|issue=3|pages=2974–2987|bibcode=2023ITVT...72.2974X|doi=10.1109/TVT.2022.3218575}}</ref> [[File:Waymo_Jaguar_I-Pace_in_San_Francisco_2023_dllu.jpg|jmpl|Jaguar I-Pace sing dikemunah dening Waymo ing San Francisco, 2023. Modhèl iki dibalèkaké sawisé nyruduk cagak ing dalan.<ref name=":20" />]] [[File:Roborace_NYC_ePrix.jpg|jmpl|Montor balap swasetir Roborace dipameraké ing ePrix New York City 2017]] [[File:Baidu_self-driving_car_in_Wuhan,_China.webm|jmpl|Montor swasetir Baidu]] {{TOC limit}} 339j1upyne9ibbnxp36371id3kib0kb Lagak 0 199314 1752893 1738397 2026-08-20T04:24:04Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1752893 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lagak''', '''génré''', utawa '''ragam''' yaiku samubarang gaya utawa wujuding [[pariwicara]] ing manéka rupa (tulisan, caturan, dhigital, [[kagunan]], lsp) kanthi mawa sarujukan dening masarakat sing kawangun salawas mangsa.<ref>{{Citation|last=Devitt|first=Amy J.|title=Genre|date=2015|url=http://www.upcolorado.com/utah-state-university-press/item/2711-keywords-in-writing-studies|pages=82–87|editor-last=Heilker|editor-first=Paul|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130021352/https://upcolorado.com/utah-state-university-press/item/2711-keywords-in-writing-studies|periodical=Keywords in Writing Studies|publisher=Utah State University Press|doi=10.7330/9780874219746.c017|isbn=978-0-87421-974-6|access-date=2021-02-04|archive-date=2020-11-30|editor2-last=Vandenberg|editor2-first=Peter}}</ref> Ing piguna kondhang, lagak umumé medhar [[Pepanthan|pepanthaning]] [[sastra]], [[musik]], utawa wujud [[kagunan]] lan [[Hiburan|klangenan]] liya birid sawetara pathokan gaya, kaya ing [[Génre sastra|lagak sastra]], [[lagak filèm]], [[Génré musik|lagak musik]], [[lagak komik]], lan sapanunggalané.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=Carolyn R.|date=1984|title="Genre as Social Action"|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_quarterly-journal-of-speech_1984-05_70_2/page/151|journal=Quarterly Journal of Speech|volume=70|issue=2|pages=151–167|doi=10.1080/00335638409383686}}</ref> Asringé, sawijiné karya lumebu ing pirang-pirang lagak amarga piguna lan nggabungaké lagak-lagak sing ana. Karya-karya saben wong wis mesthi ndarbé gaya déwé-déwé. Nanging lagak yaiku gaya saka gamblokaning karya-karya kasebut birid sarujuké masarakat akeh. Sawetara lagak bisa ndarbé pakem sing kaku, déné lagak liya bisa ndarbé pakem luwih luwes. Piguna lagak sing trep lan bener wigati murih [[desana]] ing sawijiné karya bisa kasil katur marang pamirsa, pamaca, parungu, lsp. Rerembugan wigati babagan lagak menawa diwiwiti saka anané tata pepanthan kanggo sastra Yunani kuna, kaya sing kapacak ing ''Poetics'' karya Aristoteles. <ref>{{Citation|last=Aristotle|title=Poetics|date=2000|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html|editor-last=Butcher|editor-first=S. H.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229090601/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html|publisher=Internet Classics Archive|access-date=2021-04-27|archive-date=2014-12-29}}</ref> Kanggo Aristoteles, [[geguritan]] (ode, [[wiracarita]], lsp), [[gancaran]], lan pagelaran, saben karya kuwi ndarbè sipat tartamtu sing cocog sajeroné sawijiné lagak. Tuladhané, lakon-lakon ing crita banyolan mesthi ora cocog kanggo crita tragedi. Malah, ing jaman biyen para juru paraga diwatesi mung kanggo dadi paraga ing lagak tartamtu amarga anané anggepan wong tartamtu paling cocog kanggo jinis crita tartamtu.[[Kawruh]] sing nyinaoni babagan lagak diarani ''[[kaji génré]]'' (utawa ''téyori génré''). Lagak-lagak iki banjur sumebar lan ngrembaka ngluwihi pepanthaning Aristoteles, amarga malihé apa sing didemeni pamirsa lan apa sing dipingini pangarya.<ref>{{Citation|last=Todorov|first=Tzvetan|title="The Origins of Genre"|date=1976|volume=8|issue=1|pages=159–170|periodical=New Literary History|doi=10.2307/468619|jstor=468619}}</ref> Lagak wis dadi piranti kanggo masarakat nyumurupi apa karep saka sawijiné karya. Amarga kagunan asringé minangka tanggapan saka kahanan masarakat, ing ngendi wong sing nulis, nyungging, nembang, mbeksa, lan liya-liyané ngasilaké kagunan marang apa sing dimangertèni, lagak minangka piranti kudu tansah bisa cocog marang owah-owahing makna lan karepé manungsa. 4to4uxyijdju6kqb70il6kspkjfpp4f Keiko Fujimori 0 200570 1753079 1751143 2026-08-20T09:56:21Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Add 1 book for (20260819sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1753079 wikitext text/x-wiki {{inuse}} [[File:KeikoFujimori-Declaraciones (cropped 2).jpg|thumb|Keiko Fujimori (2026)]] '''Keiko Sofía Fujimori Higuchi''' (lair 25 Mèi 1975) iku pulitikus Peru lan [[Présidhèn Peru|présidhèn kapilih Peru]]. Minangka putri pambarep manten présidhèn [[Alberto Fujimori]], dhèwèké dadi paraga utama [[Fujimorisme]], sawijining owahan pulitik konservatif sing magepokan karo bapaké, lan wiwit taun 2010 mimpin parténé, [[Popular Force]]. Fujimori njabat minangka [[Ibu lan Bapak Nagara Peru|Ibu Nagara Peru]] saka taun 1994 nganti 2000 lan minangka [[Kongrès Républik Peru|anggota Kongrès]] kanggo Kutha Lima saka taun 2006 nganti 2011. Sawisé mlebu puteran final nanging kalah ing pemilihan présidhèn [[Pemilihan umum Peru 2011|2011]], [[Pemilihan umum Peru 2016|2016]], lan [[Pemilihan umum Peru 2021|2021]], dhèwèké menangaké kalungguhan présidhèn ing upayané sing kaping papat ing [[Pemilihan umum Peru 2026|2026]] lan dijadwalaké miwiti mangku jabatan tanggal 28 Juli 2026. Fujimori minangka wanita pisanan sing kapilih dadi [[Présidhèn Peru]]. Lair ing Lima saka Alberto Fujimori lan [[Susana Higuchi]], dhèwèké dadi Ibu Nagara nalika umur 19 taun ing taun 1994, sawisé bapaké nyopot ibuné saka kalungguhan kuwi nalika pasangan mau pisahan; dhèwèké nyekel jabatan kasebut nganti runtuhé pamaréntahan bapaké ing taun 2000. Dhèwèké sinau [[administrasi bisnis]] ing [[Amérika Sarékat]], ing [[Stony Brook University|Universitas Stony Brook]] lan [[Boston University|Universitas Boston]], banjur ing [[Columbia University|Universitas Columbia]]. Fujimori mlebu pulitik elektoral ing [[Pemilihan umum Peru 2006|2006]], kanthi menang kursi kongrès kanthi cacah swara sing nyathet rékor, lan ing taun 2010 dhèwèké njupuk alih partai sing dipimpiné nganti saiki, sing mengko diganti jeneng dadi Popular Force. Fujimori kalah ing telung upaya kapisané dadi présidhèn, kabèh ing puteran final sing tipis lan nyebabaké polarisasi, saka [[Ollanta Humala]] ing 2011, [[Pedro Pablo Kuczynski]] ing 2016, lan [[Pedro Castillo]] ing 2021. Wiwit taun 2018, dhèwèké dituntut gegayutan karo [[Skandal korupsi Odebrecht|skandal korupsi Odebrecht]], kanthi tudhuhan ngumbah dana ilegal menyang kampanyené; dhèwèké ngentèkaké luwih saka setaun ing tahanan sadurungé sidang sadurungé dibébasaké ing taun 2020. Sawisé kalah tipis ing puteran final 2021, dhèwèké ngajokaké klaim penipuan pemilu tanpa bukti sing ditolak déning para pengamat internasional, lan déning para komentator dibandhingaké karo upaya [[Donald Trump]] kanggo [[Upaya mbatalaké pemilihan présidhèn Amérika Sarékat 2020|mbatalaké pemilihan présidhèn Amérika Sarékat 2020]]. Perkara korupsi kapindho dibatalaké sakdurungé dhèwèké miwiti kampanye 2026 sing kasil, nalika dhèwèké ngalahaké [[Roberto Sánchez (pulitikus)|Roberto Sánchez]]. ==Urip awal lan pawiyatan== Keiko Sofía Fujimori Higuchi lair tanggal 25 Mèi 1975 ing [[Distrik Jesús María, Lima|distrik Jesús María]] ing Lima.<ref name="DiáriodeNotícias">{{cite web |url=http://www.dn.pt/mundo/interior/keiko-quer-afastar-a-sombra-do-apelido-fujimori-e-chegar-a-presidencia-5002580.html |title=Keiko quer afastar a sombra do apelido Fujimori e chegar à presidência |website=dn.pt |publisher=[[Diário de Notícias]] |last=Salvador |first=Susana |date=28 January 2016 |access-date=20 September 2020 |language=Portuguese |archive-date=29 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129075440/http://www.dn.pt/mundo/interior/keiko-quer-afastar-a-sombra-do-apelido-fujimori-e-chegar-a-presidencia-5002580.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hojadevida2016">{{Cite web |url=https://infogob.jne.gob.pe/Politico/FichaPolitico/keiko-sofia-fujimori-higuchi_historial-partidario_Q43AyhFWlVg=3h |title=Keiko Sofía Fujimori Higuchi |website=Jurado Nacional de Elecciones (Perú) |publisher=Infogob |access-date=20 September 2020 |language=es |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004064046/https://infogob.jne.gob.pe/Politico/FichaPolitico/keiko-sofia-fujimori-higuchi_historial-partidario_Q43AyhFWlVg=3h |url-status=live }}</ref> Minangka anak pambarep saka papat anaké [[Alberto Fujimori]] lan [[Susana Higuchi]], dhèwèké duwé telung adhi, kalebu [[Kenji Fujimori|Kenji]], sing mengko dadi anggota kongrès.<ref name="af">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-16097439 |title=Alberto Fujimori profile: Deeply divisive Peruvian leader |work=[[BBC News]] |date=20 February 2020 |access-date=11 February 2021 |language=en-GB |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125225628/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-16097439 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Memorias de una Recoletana">{{Cite web |url=http://www2.caretas.pe/Main.asp?T=3082&S=&id=12&idE=1255&idSTo=0&idA=75179 |title=Memorias de una Recoletana |work=[[Caretas]] |last=Crespo |first=Silvia |date=14 April 2016 |access-date=23 December 2017 |language=es |archive-date=21 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421224455/http://caretas.pe/Main.asp?T=3082&S=&id=12&idE=1255&idSTo=0&idA=75179 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Palakrama wong tuwané kebak masalah, lan minangka anak pambarep dhèwèké kerep dadi panengah ing antarané wong tuwané.{{sfn|Vásquez de Velasco|Lira|Llanos|Huertas|2020|p=21}} Dhèwèké lan para adhiné sekolah ing sekolah Katulik [[Colegio Sagrados Corazones Recoleta]] ing Lima.<ref name="Memorias de una Recoletana"/>{{sfn|Vásquez de Velasco|Lira|Llanos|Huertas|2020|p=15}} Miturut para panulis biografiné, nalika isih remaja dhèwèké krasa oleh tekanan kanggo nyenengaké bapaké lan migunakaké kendaraan présidhèn sing dibiayai dana umum, kalebu pesawat présidhèn, kanggo acara pribadi.{{sfn|Vásquez de Velasco|Lira|Llanos|Huertas|2020|pp=29–31}} Bapaké Fujimori [[Pemilihan umum Peru 1990|kapilih dadi présidhèn Peru ing taun 1990]] lan mrintah nganti taun 2000. Pamaréntahané ngawasi pamulihan ékonomi lan kalahé para mbaléla [[Sendero Luminoso]], nanging saya suwé saya otoritèr, nganti mbubaraké Kongrès ing [[Kudeta Peru 1992|kudeta-dhiri taun 1992]]; pamaréntahané uga diwarnai korupsi lan pelanggaran hak asasi manungsa sajroning [[konflik internal ing Peru]], kayata rajapati tanpa proses hukum lan [[Sterilisasi paksa ing Peru|sterilisasi paksa]] marang éwonan wanita sing akèh-akèhé miskin, saka désa, lan pribumi. Warisané ing Peru nganti saiki tetep banget mecah panemu.<ref name="af"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burt |first=Jo-Marie |date=September–October 1998 |title=Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nacla-report-on-the-americas_september-october-1998_32_2/page/35 |journal=[[NACLA|NACLA Report on the Americas]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=35–41 |doi=10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657}}</ref><ref name="Sterilization">{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2148793.stm |title=Mass sterilization scandal shocks Peru |work=[[BBC News]] |date=24 July 2002 |access-date=30 April 2006 |archive-date=10 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410103431/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2148793.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/06/peru-human-rights-fujimori |title=Victims of Alberto Fujimori's death squads unearthed in Peru |work=[[The Guardian]] |last=Barbier |first=Chrystelle |date=6 July 2011 |access-date=8 January 2018}}</ref> Ing taun 1993, sawisé kudeta-dhiri bapaké, Fujimori ngrampungaké sekolah menengah lan pindhah menyang Amérika Sarékat, mlebu [[Stony Brook University]] kanggo sinau administrasi bisnis.<ref name="cash">{{Cite web |url=http://larepublica.pe/30-05-2009/keiko-fujimori-pagaba-estudios-al-cash |title=Keiko Fujimori pagaba estudios al "cash" |publisher=[[La República (Peru)|La República]] |date=30 May 2009 |access-date=22 February 2021 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412140205/http://larepublica.pe/politica/401070-keiko-fujimori-pagaba-estudios-al-cash |archive-date=12 April 2018}}</ref> Para panliti mengko nudhuh yèn biaya sekolahé dhèwèké lan para adhiné, watara $918.000, dibayar déning kepala intelijèn bapaké, [[Vladimiro Montesinos]], saka dana [[Dinas Intelijèn Nasional (Peru)|intelijèn nagara]] — tilas sekretarisé kandha yèn Keiko nampa sapérangan dhuwit kuwi kanthi langsung — lan, miturut ''[[La Prensa (Panama City)|La Prensa]]'', sawijining yayasan ing Panama mbiayai pasinaoné ing [[Boston University]].{{sfn|Vásquez de Velasco|Lira|Llanos|Huertas|2020|pp=45–46}} Dhèwèké lulus saka Boston University ing Mèi 1997.<ref name="Hojadevida2016"/> == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Lair 1975]] [[Kategori:Wong urip]] qzw2flr1losodap5tdjan1v5t3evuar Naraguna:Danielrayyan09 2 200607 1752985 1751563 2026-08-20T07:12:25Z Danielrayyan09 73688 1752985 wikitext text/x-wiki Hai, jenengku '''Daniel Rayyan''', aku saka [[Kluang]], [[Johor]], [[Malaysia]]. Nalika aku bosen, aku bisa mrene kanggo nambah artikel. Aku wis suwé dadi kontributor ing '''Wikipedia basa Melayu''' lan '''Wikipedia basa Inggris'''. Aku ngarep-arep bisa mbantu Wikipedia basa Jawa supaya luwih ngrembaka, senajan sejatine pancen rada angel banget. ''Matur nuwun''. [[en:User:Danielrayyan09]] [[ms:Pengguna:Danielrayyan09]] [[ja:利用者:Danielrayyan09]] [[ko:사용자:Danielrayyan09]] py8p4qh2lfqjgmrp6tqia16izokn404 Lindhu Venezuela 2026 0 200742 1752820 1752697 2026-08-19T12:12:38Z Meursault2004 3 /* Réferènsi*/ 1752820 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Earthquake|magnitude={{M|w|link=y|7.2}} and {{M|w|link=y|7.5}} {{small|(USGS)}}<br />{{M|w|link=y|7.6–7.8}} {{small|(INGV and GEOSCOPE)}}{{efn|name=a}}|tsunami={{cvt|4|cm|in}}|depth={{cvt|10|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}|casualties=>{{val|{{rounddown|6301|-2}}||fmt=commas}} dead, ~{{val|{{rounddown|73356|-2}}||fmt=commas}} injured, {{circa}}18,100–50,000 missing{{efn|name=missing}}|title=Lindhu Venezuela 2026|date=24 Juni 2026|location=10.435°N 68.472°W|countries affected=Venezuela}} Ing 24 Juni 2026, rong lindhu gedhé jinis [[rengkan malang]] (''patahan mendatar'') {{Efn|According to the [[United States Geological Survey]]'s analysis, there were two separate earthquakes, separated by about 40 seconds. Others, like the [[GEOSCOPE Observatory]] and the [[National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology|INGV]], have analyzed the event as a single earthquake with complex seismology, lasting for about two minutes.|name=a}} [[Punjer lindhu|Punjeré lindhu]] kapisan ana ing [[munisipalitas Veroes]], kuloné [[San Felipe (Venezuela)|San Felipe]], kutha krajan praja [[Yaracuy]]. Lindhu kanthi gedhé {{M|w|7.2|link=y}} iki wiwit ing 18.04 [[Wektu ing Venezuela|VET]] lan kalebu [[lindhu wiwitan]] (''gempa permulaan''). Lindhu iki banjur ditut lindhu utama gedhéné Mw 7,5 30 detik sawisé, sing punjeré ana pasisir [[La Guaira]], kuloné [[Catia La Mar]]. Rong lindhu iki marakaké karusakan ing saindhengé nagara, utamané ing kutha krajan [[Caracas]] lan praja La Guaira. Ing rong papan iki wewangunan 80% ajur mumur.<ref name="orinoco">{{Cite news|url=https://orinocotribune.com/venezuela-sets-up-82-temporary-camps-for-earthquake-survivors/|title=Venezuela Sets Up 82 Temporary Camps for Earthquake Survivors|date=8 July 2026|work=Orinoco Tribune|access-date=8 July 2026}}</ref>Ing Augustus 2026, 6.300 wong punjul dilapuraké pati, wetara 73,300 dirumat ing griya sakit, lan 10.000 isih ilang. Tata piranti [[Prompt Assessment of Global Earthquakes for Response]] (PAGER) duwèké [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) nitikira gunggungé korban pati bisa munjuli lapuran wiwitan, bisa waé ngeluwihi 10.000 wong. [[Lindhu utama]] sing nerak iki minangka lindhu paling banter ing Vènezuéla kawit [[Lindhu San Narcisco taun 1900|lindhu San Narcisco ing 1900]]. == Réferènsi== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:2026]] ihi3bhg23xx8qdofyrwbnytvmwzttjf Suroboyo Bus 0 200745 1752847 1752710 2026-08-20T00:57:59Z InternetArchiveBot 48188 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1752847 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bus company|name=Suroboyo Bus|logo=Suroboyo bus (vector).svg|logo_size=50px|image=Armada Suroboyo Bus Koridor R5 di Halte Puri City.jpg|image_size=300px|image_caption=Sawijiné bus koridor R5/R6 Suroboyo Bus|founded=7 April 2018|headquarters='''Gedung PNR Mayjen Sungkono,'''<br>Jalan Mayjen Sungkono Nomor 122, [[Gunung Sari, Dukuh Pakis, Surabaya|Kelurahan Gunungsari]], [[Dukuh Pakis, Surabaya|Kecamatan Dukuh Pakis]], [[Kota Surabaya]], [[Jawa Timur|Provinsi Jawa Timur]], Kodepos 60224|service_area=[[Surabaya]]|service_type=Bus perkotaan modern|operator=UPT Pengelolaan Transportasi Umum Surabaya|routes=4 rute|map_name=Peta jaringan|map=[[File:Map Transport of Surabaya.png|300px]]}} '''Suroboyo Bus''' yaiku [[Leladi (ékonomi)|leladi]] '''angkudan pakuthan modhèren''' duwèké ''[[Pemerintah Kota Surabaya]]'' sing wiwit lumaku kawit taun 2018, lan dikemunah dening ''Dinas Perhubungan Kota Surabaya'' lumantar ''UPTD Pengelolaan Transportasi Umum.'' '''Suroboyo Bus''' ndarbé 4 rute leladi, rute kapisan ana [[Rute 1 Suroboyo Bus|Rute 1]] jurusan [[Terminal Purabaya]]–[[Plabuhan Tanjung Pérak]] sing dibukak ing tanggal 7 April 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kusuma|first=Brawijaya B|date=2020|title=Suroboyo Bus Sebagai Angkutan Umum Di Surabaya Berdasarkan Undang-Undang No. 22 Tahun 2009 Tentang Lalu Lintas Dan Angkutan Jalan|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342554890_Suroboyo_Bus_Sebagai_Angkutan_Umum_Di_Surabaya_Berdasarkan_Undang-Undang_No_22_Tahun_2009_Tentang_Lalu_Lintas_Dan_Angkutan_Jalan|website=Research Gate|access-date=2021-06-13}}</ref> Kanthi tarif Rp5.000,00 leladi iki lumaku kawit gebug 05.30 nganti 21.00.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dishub Surabaya|first=|date=2019|title=Peraturan Wali kota Nomor 07 Tahun 2019 Tentang Pembentukan dan Susunan Organisasi Unit Pelaksana Teknis Dinas Pengelolaan Transportasi Umum Pada Dinas Perhubungan Kota Surabaya|url=https://jdih.surabaya.go.id/t_detail?prokum=3525|website=JDIH Surabaya|access-date=2021-06-13|archive-date=2023-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614191350/https://jdih.surabaya.go.id/t_detail?prokum=3525|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Putri|first=Firda Aprilian|date=2020|title=Evaluasi Pelaksanaan Suroboyo Bus di Dinas Perhubungan Kota Surabaya|url=https://jurnalmahasiswa.unesa.ac.id/index.php/publika/article/view/35604|website=Jurnal Mahasiswa Unesa|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613123024/https://jurnalmahasiswa.unesa.ac.id/index.php/publika/article/view/35604|archive-date=2021-06-13|dead-url=yes|access-date=2021-06-13}}</ref> Suroboyo Bus dirantam minangka tata tetumpakan umum sing kepenak lan nyengkuyung kapreluan warga kutha Surabaya. Nanging, sanadyan karan [[Bis raya tumunggal|BRT]], Suroboyo Bus ora kalebu bis raya tumunggal (BRT), amarga didurung cocog karo wetara bebakon kang dipatrap dening ''[[Institute for Transportation and Development Policy]]'' (ITDP).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tim ITDP|first=|date=2021|title=Bus Rapid Transit|url=https://www.itdp-indonesia.org/bus-rapid-transit/|website=ITDP Indonesia|access-date=2021-06-14}}</ref> Suroboyo Bus uga ndarbè leladi pangumpan yaiku [[Wirawiri Suroboyo]]. Suroboyo bus beda karo angkudan pakuthan liya. Amarga panumpang uga bisa mbayar karcis kanthi cara ngijolaké uwuh botol plastik.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://mediaindonesia.com/read/detail/153977-naik-suroboyo-bus-berbayar-sampah-plastik|title=Naik Suroboyo Bus Berbayar Sampah Plastik|last=Taselan|first=Faishol|date=2018-04-09|newspaper=[[Media Indonesia]]|publisher=[[Media Group]]|location=[[Surabaya]]|language=id|access-date=2020-04-18}}</ref> 17nkvlaei4yo7bijc3qhytladsp62du Bruce Horak 0 200754 1752817 1752813 2026-08-19T11:59:51Z Meursault2004 3 Mbenakaké sawetara 1752817 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bruce Horak''' (lair 5 Agustus 1974) yaiku aktor télévisi lan panggung<ref name="ctv-richard3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/calgary/article/shakespeare-company-takes-on-the-tale-of-richard-iii/|title=Shakespeare Company njupuk crita Richard III|tanggal=20 April 2023|website=Calgary|tanggal-akses=12 Juli 2026}}</ref> Kanada<ref name="calgaryjournal">{{Cite web|url=https://calgaryjournal.ca/2019/04/02/painting-without-eyesight-how-one-calgary-artist-made-the-best-of-a-cancer-diagnosis/|title=Lukisan tanpa penglihatan: kepiye salah sawijining seniman Calgary nggawe diagnosis kanker sing paling apik|tanggal=2 April 2019|website=Jurnal Calgary|tanggal-akses=5 Agustus 2023|tanggal-arsip=5 Agustus, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805011156/https://calgaryjournal.ca/2019/04/02/painting-without-eyesight-how-one-calgary-artist-made-the-best-of-a-cancer-diagnosis/|url-status=live}}</ref> , dhèwèké kawentar olèhé maragakaké [[Daftar Star Trek: Strange New Worlds karakter#Hemmer|Hemmer]] ing ''[[Star Trek: Strange New Worlds]]''. Horak iku aktor [[wuta|wuta légal]] kapisan sing maragakaké karakter ing waralaba ''[[Star Trek]]''.<ref name="CBCarts">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/arts/meet-bruce-horak-star-trek-s-first-blind-actor-playing-hemmer-on-strange-new-worlds-1.6455017|title=Ketemu Bruce Horak, aktor wuta pisanan Star Trek, sing meranake Hemmer ing Strange New Worlds|website=CBC|tanggal=16 Mei 2022|tanggal-akses=4 Agustus 2023|tanggal-arsip=4 Agustus, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804214326/https://www.cbc.ca/arts/meet-bruce-horak-star-trek-s-first-blind-actor-playing-hemmer-on-strange-new-worlds-1.6455017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="screenrantSNW">{{Cite web|url=https://screenrant.com/star-trek-strange-new-worlds-confirmed-characters/|title=10 Karakter Dikonfirmasi Bakal Muncul ing Star Trek: Strange New Worlds|tanggal=4 Mei 2022|website=ScreenRant|tanggal-akses=5 Agustus 2023|tanggal-arsip=5 Agustus, 2023|arsip-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805021147/https://screenrant.com/star-trek-strange-new-worlds-confirmed-characters/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} 1ruqr4ka9ruacw9doe48qq2srdu64su Khir Rahman 0 200756 1752928 2026-08-20T05:11:31Z ~2026-38892-59 73578 Kaca anyar: {{Infobox wong}} '''Khairulizam Abdul Rahman''' ({{lahirmati|[[Johor Bahru]], [[Johor]], [[Malaysia]]|12|03|1973}}), sing dikenal kanthi jeneng '''Khir Rahman''', yaiku [[aktor]], [[sutradhara]], [[musisi]], [[komposer]], penulis skenario lan [[pranatacara|host]] [[Malaysia]]. Dhèwèké putra saka pasangan penyanyi pop Yeh Yeh sing misuwur, almarhum Dato' A. Rahman Hassan lan almarhumah Datin Azizah Mohamad. == Urip awal == Dheweke lair kanthi jeneng Khairulizam bin Abdul Rah... 1752928 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox wong}} '''Khairulizam Abdul Rahman''' ({{lahirmati|[[Johor Bahru]], [[Johor]], [[Malaysia]]|12|03|1973}}), sing dikenal kanthi jeneng '''Khir Rahman''', yaiku [[aktor]], [[sutradhara]], [[musisi]], [[komposer]], penulis skenario lan [[pranatacara|host]] [[Malaysia]]. Dhèwèké putra saka pasangan penyanyi pop Yeh Yeh sing misuwur, almarhum Dato' A. Rahman Hassan lan almarhumah Datin Azizah Mohamad. == Urip awal == Dheweke lair kanthi jeneng Khairulizam bin Abdul Rahman tanggal 12 Maret 1973 lan putrane penyanyi pop Yeh-Yeh, yaiku Datuk A. Rahman Hassan lan Datin Azizah Mohamad. Gedhe ing Johor, getih seni mili banget ing awake nganti saiki. == Karir == === Teater === Dhèwèké miwiti kariré ing seni liwat teater ing Akademi Seni lan Warisan Kebangsaan (ASWARA). Antarane kanca-kancane yaiku Zul Huzaimy, Adlin Aman Ramlie lan putri artis Mariani, Melissa Saila. Dhèwèké bali manèh menyang panggung teater nalika éntuk tawaran kanggo meranaké karakter Aduka ing teater ''Semerah Padi''. Dhèwèké dipasangake karo Fauzi Nawawi lan Jue Aziz.<ref>http://www.kosmo.com.my/kosmo/content.asp?y=2011&dt=1206&pub=Kosmo&sec=Hiburan&pg=hi_01.htm</ref> === Musik === Khir Rahman uga misuwur minangka komposer lagu-lagu etnik sing kreatif. Lagu sing paling populer yaiku ''Mahligai Permata'' sing dinyanyekake dening [[Siti Nurhaliza]] sing dijupuk saka album ''[[Sahmura]]'' taun 2000. Khir uga ngrekam album solo ing taun 2004 ing sangisore label MIG Music kanthi irah-irahan ''Filsafat''. Khir Rahman uga dadi vokalis grup Iklim, ngganteni Saleem lan Azmani, lan ngrekam lagu 'Pergimu Satu Tanda'.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ww1.utusan.com.my/utusan/Hiburan/20140914/hi_10/Mat-Romeo-penyanyi-Iklim |title=salinan arkib |access-date=20 Agustus 2026 |archive-date=1 Dhésèmber 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032934/http://ww1.utusan.com.my/utusan/Hiburan/20140914/hi_10/Mat-Romeo-penyanyi-Iklim }}</ref> === Film === Dhèwèké pungkasane ditawani main ing film ''Puteri Gunung Ledang'' kanthi peran minangka Tun Mamat. Dampak saka aktingé ing film kasebut ndadèkaké dhèwèké nampa tawaran ing taun candhake, kanthi 3 film dirilis ing taun 2005. Dhèwèké kerep nampa tawaran akting saka sutradara Mamat Khalid lan Afdlin Shauki. Jenengé wiwit disebut sawisé penampilané sing sukses ing film ''Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa'' minangka Kemawas. == Referensi == {{reflist}} == Pranala njaba == * {{Instagram|kei_ramoss}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rahman, Khir}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Islam]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Melayu]] [[Kategori:Aktor Malaysia]] 4gou6msjyjepsa52jee4koksyd9esbx Ada Maris 0 200757 1752971 2026-08-20T06:55:23Z Meursault2004 3 Rintisan saka [[:en:Ada Maris|]] 1752971 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ada Maris''' (lair minangka Ada Marentes, 13 Juni 1957)[3][4] iku aktris Amérika Sarékat sing kawentar olèhé main ing sitkom ''Nurses''[5] lan ''The Brothers Garcia''.[2] Maris lair ing Los Angeles Wétan lan gedhé ing kana. Dhèwèké kuliah ing Universitas Boston lan UCLA.[6] Ing taun 1986–1987, Maris maragakaké Maria Conchita Lopez ing kumidhi televisi ''What a Country!''.[7] Saka taun 1991 nganti 1994, dhèwèké misuwur olèhé maragakaké karakter ing sitkom Nurses NBC. Maris bangga karo perkembangan karakteré, Gina, amarga dhèwèké kandha yèn Gina "berkembang dadi wong nyata."[8] Dhèwèké uga tampil ing akèh acara liyané kalebu ''The Cosby Show, Hill Street Blues, Hunter, Home Improvement'', lan ''The District''. Maris uga wis akting ing panggung.[8] Saka taun 2000 nganti 2004, Maris mbintangi acara Nickelodeon ''The Brothers Garcia''. Ing taun 2004-2005, dhèwèké tampil minangka Kapten Starfleet Erika Hernandez ing sawetara episode ''Star Trek: Enterprise''. Maris ana ing seri NBC, ''Deception'' ing taun 2013.[2] Maris uga wis dadi paraga ing sawetara pagelaran teater. == Réferènsi == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Lair 1957]] 05ibbw7vpbhlyllv6cyt6ujmz0vkx5j Ala Dondang 0 200758 1753086 2026-08-20T10:54:37Z ~2026-38892-59 73578 /* */ 1753086 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Ala Dondang''''' iku [[album studio]] kaping pitu saka [[penyanyi]] lan [[aktris]] [[Malaysia]], [[Noraniza Idris]]. Album iki dirilis tanggal [[28 Juli]] [[1997]]. == Dhaptar lagu == # "'''Awallah Dondang'''"<br>Senilagu: Anak Sarawak<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # "'''Semalu Rimba'''"<br>Senilagu: Khalil Shariff<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # "'''Joget Orang Berkasih'''"<br>Senilagu: S. Atan<br>Senikata: Siso Kopratasa # "'''Rindu'''"<br>Senilagu: Fandi<br>Senikata: Siso Kopratasa # "'''Mustika Hati'''"<br>Senilagu & Senikata: Atan Ahmad # "'''Purnama'''"<br>Senilagu & Senikata: Rahim Jantan # "'''Mahligai Asli'''"<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Lokgha # "'''Padamu Jua'''"<br>Senilagu: Jamal Abdillah<br>Senikata: Habsah Hassan # "'''Embun Setitik'''"<br>Senilagu: Arid<br>Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # "'''Inang Merindu'''"<br>Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]<br>Senikata: Lokgha {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Album]] hkpt9ovny9flyo3zbiogj6ehboviyxq