Ifker

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'''Ifker''' ([[isem ussnan]]: '''Testudines''') d tagrawt n [[aɣersiw|iɣersiwen]] i d-issiliɣen yiwet n [[tafesna (tasnudert)|tafesna]] n [[timsuṭad|tsuḍaḍ]] [[tikuẓdarin]]

== Tiwaculin == 
* [[Ifekren iwlalen]]

[[Category:aiɣersiwen]]
[[Category:iɣersiwen iwlalen]]
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    <title>Ruma n zik</title>
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      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tucdiwin</comment>
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      <text bytes="24246" sha1="pig2ymdk7ljsm6u41hvar8yjvjqrzic" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:20190406-DSC5193 Panteon.jpg|vignette|Afakan n Panteon, di Ruma, yebna-d deg tallit n tgelda n Hadrianus, yerna mazal-it deg-s afakan ameqran akk deg umaḍal]]
Deg umezruy amaynut, '''Ṛuma n zik''', neɣ '''Ṛuma taqburt''', d tamedyazt tarumiyt seg wasmi i d-tbedd temdint n [[Roma|Ṛuma/Roma]] di Ṭṭelyan deg lqern wis 8 uqbel n tallit-nneɣ (UT) alamma d tagrawla n Tgelda Taṛomit n Umalu neɣ Tagelda n Ṛuman n Umalu, deg lqern wis 5 n tallit-nneɣ (T). Tettawi-d tagelda n Ṛuman (753 - 509 UT), tagduda n Ṛuman (509 - 27 UT), d tageldit n Ṛuman (27 UT - 476 UT) alamma d taggara n tageldit n umalu.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome ancient Rome | Facts, Maps, &amp; History]&quot;. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 September 2017.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;a. Ussan-nni n tidett mxallafen, ɣef wakken ma yella yiwen yeṭṭafar anagraw arumi, tasnakt tatrart, neɣ tiktiwin yemgaraden ɣef wacu n tegnatin i d-yesskanen taggara.&lt;/ref&gt;

Ṛuma n zik tebda s yiwet n tɣiwant, i d-yettwassen s umezruy ɣer 753 UT, tama n wasif Tiber deg Tmenṭawt n Ṭṭelyan. Taɣremt-nni tuɣal d tamdint d tmetti n Ṛuma, dɣa teṭṭef-d lḥekma ɣef lǧiran-is s umennuɣ n tdukliwin d tezmert taserdasit. Deg taggara, teṭṭef-d azref n Ṭṭelyan, tesdukkel-d idles agrik n wenẓul n Ṭṭelyan (''Magna Grecia'') d yidles n Itruskiyen, dɣa tuɣal d tazmert tameqrant deg temnaḍt n [[Ilel Agrakal|Ilel agrakal]] d kra n temnaḍin n Turuft. Deg tallit-is tameqqrant, teṭṭef ɣef teftist n ugafa n Tefriqt, Maṣer, Aẓul n Tuṛuft, akk-d tuget n Tuṛuft n Umalu, Ibalkanen, Krim, akk-d tuget n Timunent Talemmast, gar-asen Anatoliya, temnaḍt n deg usammar n Ilel agrakal, d kra n temnaḍin n Mesupotamiya d Waɛrabya. Tageldit-a tella gar tigelditin timeqranin akk deg umaḍal aqbur, tesɛa azal n 5 n yimelyunen n ikilumitren imkuẓen deg useggas n 117 n tallit-nneɣ,&lt;ref&gt;Taagepera, Rein (1979). &quot;Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.&quot;. Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 125. doi:[[doi:10.2307/1170959|10.2307/1170959]]. ISSN [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-5532 0145-5532]. JSTOR [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170959 1170959].&lt;/ref&gt; s wazal n 50 ar 90 n yimelyunen n yimezdaɣen, azal n 20% n yimezdaɣen n umaḍal di tallit-nni.&lt;ref&gt;Scheidel, Walter; Saller, Richard P.; Morris, Ian (2007). The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-8053-7|978-0-5217-8053-7]]. OL [[openlibrary:works/OL16929915W|16929915W]].&lt;/ref&gt; Tamurt n Ṛuman tuɣal si tgelda n tgelda yettwafernen ɣer tegduda taklasikit, syin ɣer yiwet n tdukli taserdasit i d-yettɣimin s waṭas deg tallit n tgelda n Ṛuman.

Ṛuma n zik tettwasdukkel s waṭas ɣer tallit n umezruy akk-d tmurt n Legrik, d yidles-nsen d tmetti-nsen i yettwasnen s yisem n umaḍal agrik-rumani. Tamedyezt n Ṛuma n zik, tesɛa azal i tutlayet, ddin, tmetti, tatiknulujit, asaḍuf, tasertit, adabu, amennuɣ, taẓuri, tasekla, tadamsa d tneẓruft tatrart. Ṛuma tesseggem-d taεkemt-is, terna-d taεkemt-is, yiwen n usenfar n unabaḍ iwumi qqaren ''res publica'' &quot;Tamsalt tadelsant&quot;, i d yellan d amedya i tegduda tatrart am [[Iwunak Yeddukklen n Temrikt|Iwunak Yeddukklen]] d [[Fransa]].&lt;ref&gt;Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). [https://books.google.com/books?id=bGxiE6jvzOcC A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution]. Harvard University Press. p. 793. ISBN [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-6741-7728-4|978-0-6741-7728-4]].; Luckham, Robin; White, Gordon (1996). [https://books.google.com/books?id=RMDnAAAAIAAJ Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave]. Manchester University Press. p. 11. ISBN [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4942-2|978-0-7190-4942-2]].; Sellers, Mortimer N. (1994). [https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7lgzjettgC American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution]. NYU Press. p. 90. &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN 978-0-8147-8005-3&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Yessaweḍ-d i kra n wayen yessewhamen deg tmusni d tneẓṛi, am lebni n waman d yiberdan deg temnaḍt meṛṛa, am wakken daɣen i yessebded isefka d tneqqiḍin yessewhamen ugar.

== '''Amezruy''' ==
'''Ṭṭelyan n zik d usnulfu n Ṛuma'''
[[Tugna:Lupa Capitolina, Rome.jpg|alt=Romulus d Remus ; tuccent tefka-asent ayefki-ines|vignette|Romulus d Remus ; tuccent tefka-asent ayefki-ines]]
Tiɣri n umezruy n tnezduɣt i d-yezzin ɣer Ruma tebda ad d-tban azal n useggas 1000 UT.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], p. 519.&lt;/ref&gt; Tiddukla d tameqqrant tettban-d kan azal 800 UT, s iẓekwan imezwura deg iẓekwan n tewrirt n Esquilinus, d lḥiḍ n yiẓekwan d yiẓekwan deg ufella n tewrirt n Palatine i d-yellan seg tlemmast n lqern wis 8 UT. Seg azal 650 UT, Iṛumaniyen bdan ad ssufuɣen agelmim yellan gar yiɣil n Capitolium d Palatinus, anda i d-yezdeɣ ass-a umkan n Forum Romanum. 5] Deg lqern wis setta UT, Iṛumaniyen bnan Afakan n Jupiter Optimus Maximus deg Capitoline u ssenɛen-t ɣer Forum Boarium i d-yezgan gar tawrirt n Capitolium d tawrirt n Aventinus&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], p. 31.&lt;/ref&gt; ''(sin gar sebɛa n  tiwririn n Ṛuma: Aventinus, Cælius, Capitolium, Esquilinus, Palatinus, Quirinalis, d Viminalis.)''.

[[Irrumanen|Iṛumaniyen]] llan sεan yiwen n usefru i d-yeqqaren belli Romulus d Remus, d tarwa n Mars d yiwet n tgeldunt n tamdint n Albalonga&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], pp. 31–32.&lt;/ref&gt;, i d-yesbeddayen tamdint-nsen. Mi llan mazal-iten d llufanat, agellid Amulius, i yumnen belli ad ilin d aɣbel i tgelda-s, yefka lameṛ ad ten-nɣen. Ihi, ǧǧan-ten ad mmten ɣef yiri n wasif n Tiber. Isellek-iten Rebbi Tiberinus, baba-s n wasif, i d-iceggɛen yiwen n tuccent akken ad ten- tsellek; tefka-asent ayefki-ines, deg yimir-nni, d imdanen n tmurt i ten-iεawnen.Ɣer tagara, irebb-iten yiwen umeksa isem-is Faustulus armi meqqṛen. Uɣalen-d ad d-rren agellid n Ibanen, u bnan tamdint. Mi d-yeḍra kra n umennuɣ, Romulus yenɣa Remus dɣa yuɣal d netta kan i d-yesbedden tamdint. Tamnaḍt-nni anda i d-yebda lebni-ines, di tewrirt n Palatinus, tuuɣal tettwassen s yisem n Roma Quadrata (&quot;Ruma taẓeṭṭabt&quot;). Taqsiṭ-a tbeddu-d meqqar seg lqern wis tlata UT. Amyaru arumi Marcus Terentius Varro yura belli tamdint-a tettwabna-d deg useggas n 753 UT&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], p. 32.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Taqsiṭ-nniḍen, i d-yeḥka umezruy agriki Dionysius n Halicarnassus, tenna-d belli Agellid Aeneas yewwi-d agraw n Trojans ɣer lebḥer akken ad d-sbedden Trojya tamaynut deffir Ṭṭraḍ n Trojya. Usan-d ɣef yiri n wasif n Tiber, dɣa yiwet n tmeṭṭut i d-yeddun yid-sen, i wumi qqaren Roma, tesseṛɣay lbabuṛat-nsen akken ur d-ttεawaden ara ad ruḥen. S yisem-is i semman taɣiwant-nni.&lt;ref&gt;Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, ''The Ancient Roman World'' p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009).&lt;/ref&gt; Amedyaz aṛumi Vergilius yessawel-d ɣef tmucuha-yagi deg usefru-ines amesbaṭli ''Aenēĭs''.

== '''Tagelda''' ==
Llan isallen n umezruy ɣef lḥekma n Ṛuma sɣur igelliden, i d-yettwaseknen deg uḍrisen n lqern wis 6 UT.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], p. 35. &quot;Rex, d awal n tlatinit i d-yettakken anamek i ugellid, i d-yettbanen deg sin n yisenfaren n lqern wis setta, yiwen deg-sen d aḍris i d-yekkan seg uẓekwan n Vulcan, wayeḍ d yiwen n uẓekwan n uɣebbaṛ i d-yufan deg Regia&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; 10]. Ula mbeɛed n usekkes n tgelda tarumaniyin, a ccɣel aqdim n ''rex sacrorum (agellid n tɣawsiwin timeqranin)—''taseddart n ussenṭur i d-yettwaḥerzen i imḍebbren—yettwaḥrez-ed iwakken ad yeţţexdem ccɣel aqdim n lmuqeddem n ugellid. Iṛumaniyen llan ţţamnen belli tageldit-nsen d tin yeţţwafernen, s sebɛa igelliden n tmuɣliwin ur llin ara d atmaten&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], p. 36.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Asmḍel n Ṛuman iban-d deg lqern wis seṭṭac UT; deg taggara-s, Ṛuma teṭṭef akal n wazal n 780 n yikilumitren imkuẓen s wazal n 35 000 n yimezdaɣ&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Aɣrem, Regia, yebna c. 625 UT;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Iṛumaniyen ssawḍen-d asnulfu n tuddsiwin-nsen timezwura n medden d Ussenṭar ɣer tallit n tgelda.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], p. 37.&lt;/ref&gt; Ṛuma tebda ula d nettat ad tesnerni taḥkemt-is ɣef lǧiran-is latinen.

Timucuha tarumanin am &quot; Aeneid &quot; qqaren dakk Ilatiniyen d arraw n ''Aenēĭs''&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], p. 39.&lt;/ref&gt;. Llan-d daɣen izerfan imgaraden n zzwaǧ d tɣiwant gar temdinin tilatiniyin''—Jus Latii'' (Tiḥerkiwin tilatiniyin neɣ taɣdemt tilatiniyin)''—''d tfaskiwin n ddin i yettemcabin, i d-yeskanen daɣen yiwet n yidles i yemcabin. Ɣer taggara n lqern wis 6 UT, tuget n temnaḍt-a tella ddaw n lḥekma n Iṛumaniyen&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFBoatwright2012|Boatwright 2012]], p. 42.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== '''Tagduda''' ==
[[Tugna:Roman Republic Empire map.gif|vignette]]
Deg taggara n lqern wis setta UT, Ṛuma d waṭas n tmura n Ṭṭelyan i d-yezgan ɣer tama-s, kecmen deg yiwet n tallit n ccwal; tiɣri n umezruy d ayen i d-yesbeggnen belli yella kra n ṭṭraḍ i d-yellan deg waṭas n imukan&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Ɣef akken i d-nnan imeɣnasen d yimyura imeggura am Livius, Tagduda Tarumaniyt tettwabna c. 509 UT&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFCornell1995|Cornell 1995]], pp. 215 et seq.&lt;/ref&gt;,  asmi i d-yettwakkes ugellid aneggaru seg sebɛa igelliden n Ruma, Tarquin Amqebbar, yerna yettwasbed-d unagraw i yebnan ɣef imḍebbren yettwafernen yal aseggas d waṭas n tdukliwin n yimsefran.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFMatyszak2003|Matyszak 2003]], pp. 43–44.&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Tugna:Cicero Denounces Catiline in the Roman Senate by Cesare Maccari.png|vignette|Asenṭar n Ṛuma]]
Tamezwarut tefka-d kra n yisenfaren d ussemḍel n tezmert. Imḍebbren imeqranen llan d sin n yiqonsulen, i d-yeṭṭafaren tazmert n useḍru am win n imperyum, neɣ amkan aserdasi.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFAdkinsAdkins1998|Adkins &amp; Adkins 1998]], pp. 41–42.&lt;/ref&gt; Imqonsulen ilaq-asen ad xedmen d Senat, i yellan di tazwara d aɣersiw n useqdec n yiqeddacen, neɣ d imḍebbren. D acu kan, imqonsulen meqqren deg teɣzi d tezmert.&lt;ref&gt;Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20110514025151/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM Rome: The Roman Republic]&quot;. Washington State University. Archived from [http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM the original] on 14 May 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;

Deg lqern wis 4 UT, Ṛuma ttuɣ-d sɣur liggul, i d-yekkren tura tazmert-nsen deg waṭlas n Ṭṭelyan nnig n Teẓgi n Po akk d Etruria. Deg 16 Yulyu 390 UT, yiwen n lɛeskeṛ n liggul s ddaw n uselway n tɣerma Brennus, yeɣleb Iṛumaniyen deg umennuɣ n Allia, dɣa ddan ɣer Ṛuma. Liggul rẓan-d tamdint, rran-tt ɣer tmes, syin rran-tt-id ɣer tewrirt n Capitolium, anda llan kra n Iṛumaniyen i d-yeqqnen, i sebɛa wagguren. Liggul rnan qeblen ad fken lehna i iṛumaniyen ma rran-asen 454 n kilogramm n ddheb. Ɣef leḥsab n tmucuha n deffir, arumi i d-yettɛassan timẓin iwala belli liggul llan ssexdamen tiɣawsiwin n lekdeb. Imir-nni, irumiyen kksen-d leslaḥ, rebḥen-asen i liggul. Amḍebbar-nsen Camillus yenna-d: &quot;S wuzzal, mačči s ddheb, i d-teɣla Ṛuma tilelli-s&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Camillus'', XXIX, 2.&lt;/ref&gt;

Iṛumaniyen s ttawil-nniḍen, ḥekmen ɣef yigduden-nniḍen deg tegzirt n Ṭṭelyan, gar-asen Iṭruskiyen. Amihi aneggaru i tugdut tarumanit deg Ṭṭelyan, yeḍra-d asmi Taranṭum, yiwet n tmazirt tameqqrant n Tegrikt, i d-yessawlen afus n tallelt i Pyrrhus n Epirus deg useggas n 281 UT, maca ula d taɛkemt-a ur tessaweḍ ara. Iṛumaniyen rnan-d sser n tmenɣiwin-nsen s usbeddi n tmenɣiwin tirumiyin deg temnaḍin i d-yeqqimen d tidett, s wakka i d-sbedden azemz d uḥezzeb ɣef temnaḍt-nni.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFHaywood1971|Haywood 1971]], pp. 350–358.&lt;/ref&gt;

== '''Ṭṭraḍ mgal Qerṭaj''' ==
[[Tugna:Timgad Ruins Panorama.jpg|vignette|Taddart tarumanit deg Tamezɣa ([[Lezzayer]]).]]
Di lqern wis 3 UT, Ṛuma temmug d yiwen wexṣim amaynut ameqqran: Qerṭaj, tazmert nniḍen meqqren deg umalu n Ilel agrakal.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006|Goldsworthy 2006]], pp. 25–26; [[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFMiles2011|Miles 2011]], pp. 175–176.&lt;/ref&gt;

Ṭṭraḍ amezwaru mgal Qerṭaj yebda-d deg useggas n 264 UT, asmi i d-tessuter temdint n Messana''—''tigzirt n Sicilia mazal ur telli ara seddaw n tezmert n Ṛuma''—''tallelt n Qerṭaj deg umennuɣ-nsen d Hiero II n Syracuse. Mi d-yessawel Qerṭaj, Messana yessuter-as i Ruma ad ssufɣen Qerṭaj.

Ṛuma tekcem deg umenɣi-a imi Syracuse d Messana llan qrib aṭas ɣer temdinin tigriqin i d-teṭṭef Ṛuma di tazwara n tmurt n Ṭṭelyan n Wenẓul, dɣa Qerṭaj tessaweḍ tura ad d-teṭṭef taεkemt s wakal n Ṛuma; s ssebba-agi, Ṛuma tufi-d amek ara ad ternu tazmert-is ɣef Sicilia.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/11*.html Cassius Dio – Fragments of Book 11]&quot;. penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 6 September 2022.&lt;/ref&gt;

Qerṭaj tella d tazmert n lebḥer, dɣa Iṛumaniyen ur sɛin ara aṭas n lbabuṛat neɣ asurif n lebḥer. Ayagi yeǧǧa abrid n rrbeḥ d ayen yuεren i Tegduda Tarumaniyt. Ɣas akken akka, deffir ugar n 20 iseggasen n ṭṭraḍ, Ruma terbeḥ mgal Qerṭaj; sbedden-d i sin agraw n talwit i d-yeqqaren belli Qerṭaj ilaq ad txelleṣ aṭas i Ṛuma.

Gar ssebbat n ṭṭrad wis sin&lt;ref&gt;Labberton, Robert Henlopen. New historical atlas and general history. p. 35.&lt;/ref&gt; llan isekkilen imeqqranen i d-tefka Ṛuma i Qerṭaj akken i d-yemsefhamen deg talwit n ṭṭraḍ amezwaru.&lt;ref&gt;Caspari, Maximilian Otto Bismarck (1911). &quot;[[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Punic_Wars|Punic Wars § The Interval between the First and Second Wars]]&quot; . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 850.&lt;/ref&gt; Ṭṭraḍ yebda-d s tuṭṭfa n Ḥanibal ɣer tmurt n Hispania, dɣa yedda-d s yeεsekṛiwen-is d yifilen-is seg tmurt n Hispania armi yewweḍ ɣer idurar n Ṭṭelyan. Tazrawt n Hannibal teṭṭef ugar n 16 n yiseggasen, degs yexreb akal n Ṭṭelyan, maca di taggara, Qerṭaj tettwaɣ deg umennuɣ n Zama deg Tubeṛ n 202 UT. 

Ugar n wezgen n lqern segmi i d-yellan wannect-a, Qerṭaj teǧǧa-d iman-is teḥqer. Tameẓla n Tegduda tura tettwaḥerrez ɣer tgeldiwin tihelinistiyin n tmurt n Legrik d tegrawliwin n Hispania. Maca, Qerṭaj, mi tekfa ad txelleṣ tiɣriwin n ṭṭraḍ, tenwa belli ur ilaq ara ad teqqim ddaw tezmert n Ṛuma. Tagi d yiwet n tmuɣli ur t-yeqbil ara ussenṭar n Ṛuma. Ṭṭraḍ wis kraḍ gar Ṛuma d Qerṭaj yebda mi tebda Ṛuma lgirra mgal Qerṭaj deg useggas n 149 UT.

Qerṭaj tegzem akken ilaq di tazwara, maca ur tezmir ara ad teṭṭef deg umenɣi n Scipio Aemilianus, i yesnegren tamdint akken ma tella, yerra imezdaɣ-is d aklan, yerna yewwi-d tazmert ɣef temnaḍt-nni, i yuɣalen d tawilayt n Tefriqt. Iɣerrawen-a akk d wid i d-yeǧǧan Ruma ad d-teṭṭef tiɣremt-is tamezwarut deg tmura n berra (Sicilia, Hispania d Tefriqt) d usnerni n Ruma d tazmert tameqqrant.&lt;ref&gt;Haywood 1971, pp. 376–393; Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). &quot;Rome: The Punic Wars&quot;. Washington State University. Retrieved 22 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; Iṛumaniyen uɣalen d agdud ameqqran n yilel agrakal.&lt;ref&gt;Bury, John Bagnell (1889). [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/secondary/burlat/home.html History of the Later Roman Empire]. MacMillan and Co.; Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires Archived 1 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine by Richard &lt;/ref&gt; 

== '''Constantinus d Tamasiḥit''' ==
Constantinus yeṭṭef tageldit-nni deg useggas n 306 mbeɛed n talalit n Lmasiḥ. Iɛedda deg waṭas n yimenɣiyen mgal imḍebbren-nniḍen. Tazwara yeɣleb Maxentius deg 312 . Deg useggas n 313, yefka-d Aselmed n Milan (''Edictum Mediolanense)'', i d-yefkan tilelli i imasiḥiyen akken ad d-ddmen ddin-nsen. 116] Constantinus yuɣal d amasiḥi, yessekles liman amasiḥi. D neţţa i yebdan usefru n tamasiḥit deg tgelda awkd d Turuft - d ayen i d-tfukk Taglisya Takatulikt deg tallit n tlemmast. Ifrenkiyen d Ilemaniyen ɣelbent deg useggas n 306 d 308. Deg useggas n 324, yerbeḥ-d mgal yiwen n lḥakem nniḍen, Licinius, dɣa iḥkem ɣef tgelda-nni merra, am akken tella uqbel Diocletianus. I wakken ad yesfugel timenɣiwin-is d lmeεna n tamasiḥit, yebna-d Byzantium yerna yessuqel isem-is ɣer Nova Roma (&quot; Ṛuma tamaynut&quot;); akken yebɣu yili, cwiṭ kan mbeɛd aya, medden semman-as Constantinopolis (&quot;Tamdint n Constantinus&quot;; assa isem-is Istanbul di Tturk).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Gibbon, Edward (1906). &quot;[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Blink182HCH0001 Chapter XVII]&quot; (Online version). In Bury, J.B. (ed.). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Fred de Fau and Co.; [http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm Constantine I (306–337 AD)] by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 8 January 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

== '''Aɣelluy n Tgelda Taṛumaniyt n Utaram''' ==
Deg tagara n lqern wis 4 d lqern wis 5, Tagelda Taṛumaniyt n Utaram tekcem deg yiwet n teswiεt tameqrant i ifukk s tuɣalin n Tagelda Taṛumaniyt n Utaram. Ṛuma texṣer deg yimenɣiyen imqeddsen mgal Tgelda n Sasanniyen d Igermaniyen iweḥciyen: deg useggas n 363, imesbaṭli Julianus Amxallaf yettwanɣa deg umenɣi n Samarra, mgal Ipersiyen, amenɣi n Adrianopolis mgal Igothiyen yesɛedda tudert n umesbaṭli Valens (364 – 378)&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Agellid-nni i d-yusan, Theodosius I (379 - 395), yefka-d ugar n tezmert i liman amasiḥi, dɣa deffir lmut-is, tagelda tebḍa ɣef Tagelda taṛumaniyt n usammar, i iḥekmen Arcadius d Tagelda n Ṛuman n Umalu, i iḥekmen Honorius, is sin d arraw n Theodosius.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/un-dittico-imperiale-oriente-e-occidente-dopo-il-395_%28Storia-della-civilt%C3%A0-europea-a-cura-di-Umberto-Eco%29/ Un dittico imperiale: Oriente e Occidente dopo il 395]&quot; (in Italian). Retrieved 12 August 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

Talɣa tuɣal tewɛer deg useggas n 408, deffir lmut n Stilicho, d amalway deg userdun iεerḍen ad yesdukkel tageldit yerna ad yeεreḍ ad yeḥbes aẓdam n iweḥciyen deg iseggasen imezwura n lqern wis 5. Maca userdun n tageldit yeɣli mgal aẓdam n iweḥciyen. Deg useggas n 410, tageldit teẓra Ivisiguten kkaten tamdint Ṛuma akken ad hudden tagelda.&lt;ref&gt;Lapham, Lewis (1997). ''The End of the World.'' New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN [[:en:Special:BookSources/0-3122-5264-1|0-3122-5264-1]]. pp. 47–50.&lt;/ref&gt;

Deg lqern wis 5, Tagelda n Utaram tesεedda texser meqqren n wakal-is. Ivandalen rebḥen Tafriqt n Ugafa, Ivisiguten ṭṭfen aḥric n wenẓul n Lggul, Gallaecia wwin-tt isuebiyen, anabaḍ n Ṛuma uma yeǧǧa-d Briṭanya, dɣa Attila, anelmad n Ihunen, ihud tageldit.&lt;ref&gt;Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 8, §2.; [29] Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 6, §4.; [30] Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 6, §3.; [31] Bury, J.B.: History of the Later Roman Empire, 9.; &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20130812103150/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe]&quot;. University of Calgary. August 1996. Archived from [https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html the original] on 12 August 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2007.; [[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001|Duiker &amp; Spielvogel 2001]], p. [[iarchive:worldhistoryto1500duik/page/157|157]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Iɣil Orestes ur yeqbil ara ad yeqbel tiɣawsiwin n &quot;imdukkal&quot; ibarbariyen, tura d nutni i d aḥric ameqran n lɛesker, dɣa yeɛreḍ ad ten-yessufeɣ si Ṭṭelyan. Ur yefreḥ ara deg waya uselway n lbarbar, Odoacer; yenɣ Orestes, yenɣa-t, yeṭṭef Ravenna, yerna yekkes ɣef ukersi n tgeldit Romulus Augustus, mmi-s n Orestes. Tadyant-a n 476 tettwaḥsab d taggara n Taɣawsa taqburt d tazwara n Tallit-Tanammast.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggiero.htm Roman Emperors – DIR Romulus Augustulu]s&quot;. www.roman-emperors.org. 23 July 2022.; [http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggiero.htm Romulus Augustulus (475–476 AD) – Two Views] by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 26 August 1997. Retrieved 22 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; Aɣlal arumi d uselway n zik Julius Nepos ikemmel ad iḥkem d aselway seg Dalmatia ula deffir n usekcem n Romulus Augustus alamma d lmut-is deg 480. Kra n imseḍrayen ttwalin-t d agellid aneggaru n Tgelda n Umalu deg umkan n Romulus Augustus.&lt;ref&gt;Mathisen, Ralph A. (8 February 1998). &quot;[http://www.roman-emperors.org/nepos.htm Roman Emperors – DIR Nepos]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;

Seld 1200 iseggasen n tlelli d wazal n 700 iseggasen d tazmert tameqqrant, tageldit n Ṛuma deg umalu tekfa.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFDurantDurant1944|Durant &amp; Durant 1944]], p. 670.&lt;/ref&gt; Tagelda n usammar teqqim azal n 1000 n yiseggasen deffir n tuɣalin n tdukli-ines n umalu, dɣa tuɣal d tagelda tamasiḥit tameqrant deg tallit n tlemmast.

Deg lqern wis 6, Justinianus yerbeḥ-d tamnaṭ n Ṭṭelyan seg Ostrogoths, Tafriqt n Ugafa seg Ivandalen, d wenẓul n Hispania seg Ivisiguten. Maca deg kra n yiseggasen kan segmi yemmut Justinianus, imukan n Ṛuma n usammar (Byzantin) deg Ṭṭelyan, rẓan s waṭas sɣur Ilembardiyen i d-yeqqimen ɣer temnaḍt-nni.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001|Duiker &amp; Spielvogel 2001]], p. 347.&lt;/ref&gt; Deg usammar, ɣef lǧal n waṭṭan d yimenɣiyen mgal Tgelda n Sassaniyen n Fars, Iṛumaniyen n Byzantin llan ttwaggzen s usnerni n iɛraben. Iɛraben s lemɣawla ṭṭfen-ed Surya, rnan Armenya d Maṣer deg yimenɣiyen mgal i ibyzantiyen, dɣa s lemɣawla-nni kan, ssawḍen-d ad sbedden azaglu-nsen ɣer Constantinopolis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/19990224072609/http://www.wsu.edu/%7Edee/MA/BYZ.HTM The Byzantine Empire]&quot;. Washington State University. Yettwasekles-d seg [http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MA/BYZ.HTM umezwaru] deg 24 fuṛar 1999.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Bray, R.S. (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=djPWGnvBm08C&amp;pg=PA26 Armies of Pestilence]. James Clarke &amp; Co. p. 26. &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN 978-0-2271-7240-7&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Deg lqern-nni i d-yusan, Iɛraben ṭṭfen anẓul n Ṭṭelyan d Sicilia.&lt;ref&gt;Kreutz, Barbara M. (1996). [https://books.google.com/books?id=qamIQbPLMqgC Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries]. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1587-8|978-0-8122-1587-8]].&lt;/ref&gt; Deg umalu, imezdaɣ islawiyen kecmen ɣer wakal n ibalkanen.

Maca, Iṛumaniyen n Byzantin, ssawḍen ad ḥebsen taεkemt n iɛraben ɣer wakal-nsen deg lqern wis 8 yerna, seg lqern wis 9, rran-d kra n wakal-nni i ṭṭfen.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Ancient_Rome#CITEREFDuikerSpielvogel2001|Duiker &amp; Spielvogel 2001]], p. 349.&lt;/ref&gt; Deg useggas n 1000, tagelda n usammar, s ddaw n Basil II, teṭṭef-d tamurt n Bulgarya d tmurt n Armenya.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.roman-emperors.org/basilii.htm Basil II (AD 976–1025)] by Catherine Holmes. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 1 April 2003. Retrieved 22 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; 20 n yiseggasen n umennuɣ n daxel d tnezzutin tiṭurkiyin i d-yessawḍen tageldit Alexios I Komnenos ad d-yessuter tallelt i tgeldiwin n Turuft n umalu deg useggas n 1095. Tigeldiwin n Turuft n umalu rran-d awal s yimenɣiyen imqeddsen. Ayagi yewwi-d ɣer Lqerḥ  n Constantinopolis deg 1204 sɣur wid akk i yettekkan deg yimenɣiyen imqeddsen tis ṛebεa.

Tageldit taṛumaniyt n usammar (Byzantin) teɣli asmi i d-yeṭṭef Meḥmed Amesbaṭli Constantinopolis deg 29 Mayu 1453.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theottomans.org/english/family/mehmet2.asp Mehmet II] by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 3 April 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== '''Umuɣ n tezrawt n unadi ɣef temsalt-a''' ==
{{Reflist}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Atiliskup James Webb</title>
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        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
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      <comment>Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="3741" sha1="cd40spzyrwdmomzersxyp9xw5kn8dnq" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:JWST spacecraft model 3.png|vignette|Tugna tumḍint tummidt n utiliskup James Webb yettwaḍleq deg tallunt.]]
Atiliskup James Webb (s teglizit: James Webb Space Telescope - JWST) d yiwen n wallal n tussna ameqqran akk i d-yettwaxedmen i tmuɣli d unadi deg tallunt. Yettwaḍleq deg 25 Dujember 2021. D asenfar i d-xedmen lwaḥid Tuddsa Tamirikanit n Tallunt (NASA), Tuddsa n Tallunt n Turuft (ESA), akked Tuddsa n Tallunt n Kanada (CSA).

== Iswiyen-is igejdanen: ==

=== '''Amezruy n umeɣraḍ:''' ===
Atiliskup James Webb yettwaqeddec iwakken ad yili am tmacint n wakud i yettarran imassanen ɣer yizri lqayen n umeɣraḍ-nneɣ. Imi tafat tettawi akud iwakken ad d-taweḍ ɣur-nneɣ seg yimukan ibeɛden, ayen i nettwali ass-a deg tallunt d ayen yeḍran zik. Ɣef waya, ma nmuqel ɣer yimukan yebɛeden ugar, nettwali tugniwin tiqburin n umeɣraḍ, ayen yettaǧǧan atiliskup-a ad iẓer tikkelt tamenzut i d-nnulfan yitran d yimazellawen kra n lweqt kan deffir n &quot;Big Bang&quot;.

Ayen i t-yettajjan ad yessewti iswi-ya d tamusni-ines deg tmuɣli s teẓririyt n uzeggaɣ-adda. Imi ameɣraḍ-nneɣ yettimɣur yerna yettkemmil deg uwsay-is, tafat i d-yeffɣen seg yimazellawen imenza akk deg umezruy tetteɣzif teɣzi n temdeswalin-is am &quot;kawiču&quot; akken tettaweḍ-d ɣur-nneɣ, almi tkeččem srid deg wannar n uzeggaɣ-adda. Atiliskup James Webb yewjed s wallalen ussnanen ilqayen iwakken ad d-yeṭṭef tafat-a tabadut i ur yezmir ara ad tt-iwali wallen n wemdan neɣ yitiliskupen n tmuɣli tagnawt (am uqbur-nni Hubble).

S usnirem-a, atiliskup James Webb yettnadi ad yefhem tamhazt n umeɣraḍ seg wussan-is imezwura. Yebɣa ad d-iwali amek i d-yennulfa uɣebbar d lgaz deg tallunt i d-yefkan iferdisen imenza, d wamek i ttnejmaɛen yiferdisen-a s tezmert n '''Taẓeyt'''(neɣ n teldayt) iwakken ad d-fken imazellawen yemgaraden i nettwali ass-a. Akka, allal-a isewseɛ tamusni-nneɣ, yettarra-d ɣef yisteqsiyen lqayen i yesseɣbalen talsawt ɣef dduḥ n wamaḍal, yerna yettak-aɣ-d tagnit ad negzu amek i d-bennun yimtiwgen i izemren ad awin tudert.

=== Asnirem n yimtiwgen: ===
Atiliskup-a ur yettnadi ara kan ɣef yimazellawen i d-yennulfan zik yebɛeden aṭas, maca yerra daɣen lwelha-s s telqayt ɣer yimtiwgen imaynuten i itezzin ɣef yitran beṛṛa n unagraw-nneɣ afukan. Iswi-is ameqqran deg uḥric-a d taɣuri n tegnawt i d-yezzin i yimtiwgen-a iwakken ad yefhem d acu n yiferdisen i ten-id-yesbedden. S useqdec n tmuɣli-ines tameqrant deg wannar n uzeggaɣ-adda, atiliskup yezmer ad d-yeṭṭef tafat n yitran mi ara d-tɛeddi seg tegnawt n yimtiwgen-nsen. Aya yettaǧǧa imassanen ad farsen tafat-nni iwakken ad d-afen ticraḍ n lgazat am waman, uksid n ukaṛbun, neɣ lmiṭan, ayen i d-yemmalen addad n yimtiwgen-a d wayen i izemren ad d-yefk isallen lqayen ma yella wemtiweg-nni yesɛa tiwtilin i izemren ad seddunt tudert neɣ ala.

Rnu ɣef waya, asnirem-a yettεawan-aɣ ad negzu ula d amek i d-ttnulfun unagrawen n yimtiwgen s timmad-nsen. Atiliskup yezmer ad ixezzer srid ɣer wadiren n uɣebbar d lgaz i d-yezzin i yitran imecṭuḥen i d-ilulen d imaynuten, anda i d-ttnejmaɛen yiferdisen iwakken ad xedmen imtiwgen imenza. Tamuɣli-ya tettekkes aɣummu ɣef tisuraf timezwura n tlalit n wakalen n tigennawin, yerna tessebgan-d amek i d-yettili wemhaz-nsent si tazwara. Xas akken allal-a yettnadi s waṭas deg lɣemq n umeɣraḍ, yezmer daɣen ad d-yerr tamuɣli-s ɣer unagraw-nneɣ afukan iwakken ad iwali s tseddi imtiwgen am Meɣres, Yebṭer, neɣ ula d ayyuren-nsen. S webrid-a amserreḥ, tasnallunt tettali ɣer uswir amaynut, anda imdanen zeḍḍen assaɣen gar wamek i d-ttnulfun yimtiwgen d wamek i tezmer ad tili tudert deg yimukan nniḍen beṛṛa n wakal-nneɣ.</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
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      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tucdiwin</comment>
      <origin>116481</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="3741" sha1="lpthw478ohtl7zatm67ugbmemxht2ly" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:JWST spacecraft model 3.png|vignette|Tugna tumḍint tummidt n utiliskup James Webb yettwaḍleq deg tallunt.]]
Atiliskup James Webb (s teglizit: James Webb Space Telescope - JWST) d yiwen n wallal n tussna ameqqran akk i d-yettwaxedmen i tmuɣli d unadi deg tallunt. Yettwaḍleq deg 25 Dujember 2021. D asenfar i d-xedmen lwaḥid Tuddsa Tamirikanit n Tallunt (NASA), Tuddsa n Tallunt n Turuft (ESA), akked Tuddsa n Tallunt n Kanada (CSA).

== Iswiyen-is igejdanen: ==

=== '''Amezruy n umeɣraḍ:''' ===
Atiliskup James Webb yettwaqeddec iwakken ad yili am tmacint n wakud i yettarran imassanen ɣer yizri lqayen n umeɣraḍ-nneɣ. Imi tafat tettawi akud iwakken ad d-taweḍ ɣur-nneɣ seg yimukan ibeɛden, ayen i nettwali ass-a deg tallunt d ayen yeḍran zik. Ɣef waya, ma nmuqel ɣer yimukan yebɛeden ugar, nettwali tugniwin tiqburin n umeɣraḍ, ayen yettaǧǧan atiliskup-a ad iẓer tikkelt tamenzut i d-nnulfan yitran d yimazellawen kra n lweqt kan deffir n &quot;Big Bang&quot;.

Ayen i t-yettajjan ad yessewti iswi-ya d tamusni-ines deg tmuɣli s teẓririyt n uzeggaɣ-adda. Imi ameɣraḍ-nneɣ yettimɣur yerna yettkemmil deg uwsay-is, tafat i d-yeffɣen seg yimazellawen imenza akk deg umezruy tetteɣzif teɣzi n temdeswalin-is am &quot;kawiču&quot; akken tettaweḍ-d ɣur-nneɣ, almi tkeččem srid deg wannar n uzeggaɣ-adda. Atiliskup James Webb yewjed s wallalen ussnanen ilqayen iwakken ad d-yeṭṭef tafat-a tabadut i ur yezmir ara ad tt-iwali wallen n wemdan neɣ yitiliskupen n tmuɣli tagnawt (am uqbur-nni Hubble).

S usnirem-a, atiliskup James Webb yettnadi ad yefhem tamhazt n umeɣraḍ seg wussan-is imezwura. Yebɣa ad d-iwali amek i d-yennulfa uɣebbar d lgaz deg tallunt i d-yefkan iferdisen imenza, d wamek i ttnejmaɛen yiferdisen-a s tezmert n '''Taẓeyt'''(neɣ n teldayt) iwakken ad d-fken imazellawen yemgaraden i nettwali ass-a. Akka, allal-a isewseɛ tamusni-nneɣ, yettarra-d ɣef yisteqsiyen lqayen i yesseɣbalen talsawt ɣef dduḥ n wamaḍal, yerna yettak-aɣ-d tagnit ad negzu amek i d-bennun yimtiwgen i izemren ad awin tudert.

=== Asnirem n yimtiwgen: ===
Atiliskup-a ur yettnadi ara kan ɣef yimazellawen i d-yennulfan zik yebɛeden aṭas, maca yerra daɣen lwelha-s s telqayt ɣer yimtiwgen imaynuten i itezzin ɣef yitran beṛṛa n unagraw-nneɣ afukan. Iswi-is ameqqran deg uḥric-a d taɣuri n tegnawt i d-yezzin i yimtiwgen-a iwakken ad yefhem d acu n yiferdisen i ten-id-yesbedden. S useqdec n tmuɣli-ines tameqrant deg wannar n uzeggaɣ-adda, atiliskup yezmer ad d-yeṭṭef tafat n yitran mi ara d-tɛeddi seg tegnawt n yimtiwgen-nsen. Aya yettaǧǧa imassanen ad farsen tafat-nni iwakken ad d-afen ticraḍ n lgazat am waman, uksid n ukaṛbun, neɣ lmiṭan, ayen i d-yemmalen addad n yimtiwgen-a d wayen i izemren ad d-yefk isallen lqayen ma yella wemtiweg-nni yesɛa tiwtilin i izemren ad seddunt tudert neɣ ala.

Rnu ɣef waya, asnirem-a yettεawan-aɣ ad negzu ula d amek i d-ttnulfun unagrawen n yimtiwgen s timmad-nsen. Atiliskup yezmer ad ixezzer srid ɣer wadiren n uɣebbar d lgaz i d-yezzin i yitran imecṭuḥen i d-ilulen d imaynuten, anda i d-ttnejmaɛen yiferdisen iwakken ad xedmen imtiwgen imenza. Tamuɣli-ya tettekkes aɣummu ɣef tisuraf timezwura n tlalit n wakalen n tigennawin, yerna tessebgan-d amek i d-yettili wemhaz-nsent si tazwara. Xas akken allal-a yettnadi s waṭas deg lɣemq n umeɣraḍ, yezmer daɣen ad d-yerr tamuɣli-s ɣer unagraw-nneɣ afukan iwakken ad iwali s tseddi imtiwgen am Mezweɣ, Adanbala, neɣ ula d ayyuren-nsen. S webrid-a amserreḥ, tasnallunt tettali ɣer uswir amaynut, anda imdanen zeḍḍen assaɣen gar wamek i d-ttnulfun yimtiwgen d wamek i tezmer ad tili tudert deg yimukan nniḍen beṛṛa n wakal-nneɣ.</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>116483</id>
      <parentid>116481</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-15T19:54:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
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      <comment>Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="4888" sha1="m5w97g84qxxe2d1pzhxvfsizgrfsnwh" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:JWST spacecraft model 3.png|vignette|Tugna tumḍint tummidt n utiliskup James Webb yettwaḍleq deg tallunt.]]
Atiliskup James Webb (s teglizit: James Webb Space Telescope - JWST) d yiwen n wallal n tussna ameqqran akk i d-yettwaxedmen i tmuɣli d unadi deg tallunt. Yettwaḍleq deg 25 Dujember 2021. D asenfar i d-xedmen lwaḥid Tuddsa Tamirikanit n Tallunt (NASA), Tuddsa n Tallunt n Turuft (ESA), akked Tuddsa n Tallunt n Kanada (CSA).

== Iswiyen-is igejdanen: ==

=== '''Amezruy n umeɣraḍ:''' ===
Atiliskup James Webb yettwaqeddec iwakken ad yili am tmacint n wakud i yettarran imassanen ɣer yizri lqayen n umeɣraḍ-nneɣ. Imi tafat tettawi akud iwakken ad d-taweḍ ɣur-nneɣ seg yimukan ibeɛden, ayen i nettwali ass-a deg tallunt d ayen yeḍran zik. Ɣef waya, ma nmuqel ɣer yimukan yebɛeden ugar, nettwali tugniwin tiqburin n umeɣraḍ, ayen yettaǧǧan atiliskup-a ad iẓer tikkelt tamenzut i d-nnulfan yitran d yimazellawen kra n lweqt kan deffir n &quot;Big Bang&quot;.

Ayen i t-yettajjan ad yessewti iswi-ya d tamusni-ines deg tmuɣli s teẓririyt n uzeggaɣ-adda. Imi ameɣraḍ-nneɣ yettimɣur yerna yettkemmil deg uwsay-is, tafat i d-yeffɣen seg yimazellawen imenza akk deg umezruy tetteɣzif teɣzi n temdeswalin-is am &quot;kawiču&quot; akken tettaweḍ-d ɣur-nneɣ, almi tkeččem srid deg wannar n uzeggaɣ-adda. Atiliskup James Webb yewjed s wallalen ussnanen ilqayen iwakken ad d-yeṭṭef tafat-a tabadut i ur yezmir ara ad tt-iwali wallen n wemdan neɣ yitiliskupen n tmuɣli tagnawt (am uqbur-nni Hubble).

S usnirem-a, atiliskup James Webb yettnadi ad yefhem tamhazt n umeɣraḍ seg wussan-is imezwura. Yebɣa ad d-iwali amek i d-yennulfa uɣebbar d lgaz deg tallunt i d-yefkan iferdisen imenza, d wamek i ttnejmaɛen yiferdisen-a s tezmert n '''Taẓeyt'''(neɣ n teldayt) iwakken ad d-fken imazellawen yemgaraden i nettwali ass-a. Akka, allal-a isewseɛ tamusni-nneɣ, yettarra-d ɣef yisteqsiyen lqayen i yesseɣbalen talsawt ɣef dduḥ n wamaḍal, yerna yettak-aɣ-d tagnit ad negzu amek i d-bennun yimtiwgen i izemren ad awin tudert.

=== Asnirem n yimtiwgen: ===
Atiliskup-a ur yettnadi ara kan ɣef yimazellawen i d-yennulfan zik yebɛeden aṭas, maca yerra daɣen lwelha-s s telqayt ɣer yimtiwgen imaynuten i itezzin ɣef yitran beṛṛa n unagraw-nneɣ afukan. Iswi-is ameqqran deg uḥric-a d taɣuri n tegnawt i d-yezzin i yimtiwgen-a iwakken ad yefhem d acu n yiferdisen i ten-id-yesbedden. S useqdec n tmuɣli-ines tameqrant deg wannar n uzeggaɣ-adda, atiliskup yezmer ad d-yeṭṭef tafat n yitran mi ara d-tɛeddi seg tegnawt n yimtiwgen-nsen. Aya yettaǧǧa imassanen ad farsen tafat-nni iwakken ad d-afen ticraḍ n lgazat am waman, uksid n ukaṛbun, neɣ lmiṭan, ayen i d-yemmalen addad n yimtiwgen-a d wayen i izemren ad d-yefk isallen lqayen ma yella wemtiweg-nni yesɛa tiwtilin i izemren ad seddunt tudert neɣ ala.

Rnu ɣef waya, asnirem-a yettεawan-aɣ ad negzu ula d amek i d-ttnulfun unagrawen n yimtiwgen s timmad-nsen. Atiliskup yezmer ad ixezzer srid ɣer wadiren n uɣebbar d lgaz i d-yezzin i yitran imecṭuḥen i d-ilulen d imaynuten, anda i d-ttnejmaɛen yiferdisen iwakken ad xedmen imtiwgen imenza. Tamuɣli-ya tettekkes aɣummu ɣef tisuraf timezwura n tlalit n wakalen n tigennawin, yerna tessebgan-d amek i d-yettili wemhaz-nsent si tazwara. Xas akken allal-a yettnadi s waṭas deg lɣemq n umeɣraḍ, yezmer daɣen ad d-yerr tamuɣli-s ɣer unagraw-nneɣ afukan iwakken ad iwali s tseddi imtiwgen am Mezweɣ, Adanbala, neɣ ula d ayyuren-nsen. S webrid-a amserreḥ, tasnallunt tettali ɣer uswir amaynut, anda imdanen zeḍḍen assaɣen gar wamek i d-ttnulfun yimtiwgen d wamek i tezmer ad tili tudert deg yimukan nniḍen beṛṛa n wakal-nneɣ.

=== Tlalit n yitran: ===
Atiliskup James Webb yeldi tiwwura timaynutin iwakken ad negzu amek i d-ttlalalen yitran deg lɣemq n umeɣraḍ. Zik, imassanen llan ttafen ugur d ameqqran imi itran ttnekmalen-d daxel n yisignawen imeqqranen i d-yecsan s uɣebbar d lgaz, ayen i yeṭṭfen tafat tamagnut ur tt-yeṭṭaǧǧa ara ad d-teffeɣ iwakken ad tt-nwali. Maca tura, s tmuɣli-ines lqayen deg wannar n uzeggaɣ-adda, atiliskup-a yezmer ad iwexxer aɣummu-nni n uɣebbar swaswa am wakken yettwali deffir n srid. Aya yettaǧǧa allal-a ad d-yeṭṭef tugniwin n yitran imecṭuḥen deg tseddarin-nsen timezwura n tlalit, mi ara llan d isignawen i d-yettejmaɛen cwiya cwiya s lǧehd n teẓeyt. S usnirem-a s telqayt, tasnallunt tezmer ad tzar s tseddi amek agraw-nni n lgaz yettqaraṣ yerna yettaẓay almi d-yefka itri amaynut i d-yettfeǧǧiǧen. Taɣuri-ya ur tettak ara kan isallen ɣef yitran ibeɛden, maca tessefham-aɣ-d ula d amek i d-tlul tfukt-nneɣ zik-nni d wamek tebda tudert n unagraw afukan. S webrid-a, atiliskup yettak-d inagan imaynuten ɣef umezruy awessar n tallunt d wamek yal itri yesɛa tamacahut tuzzigt n tlalit-is.</text>
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