Karl Marks

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      <text bytes="11734" sha1="nrypp5vcoh3qrfpdqg8zn4mtd1s9fwn" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:Karl Marx by John Jabez Edwin Mayall 1875 - Restored.png|vignette|Karl Marks deg useggas 1857.]]
'''Karl Heinrich Marks''', ilul deg 5 si [[Mayyu]] deg usseggas 1818 di tmurt n [[Trier]] yezdeɣ di Rheinland tamurt n [[Lalman]] yemmut di 14 di [[Meɣres]] 1883 di teɣremt n [[London]]. Marks yella d argaz n tfelsafit d tsertit u d ameẓṛay ameqṛan deg tdamsa, tasnametti u d netta i d-isnulfan ayen i wumi neqqar [[Tazdukla]], i d-yeqqaren belli ulac amgarad ger imdanen ɣas ulamma yella deg ixeddim-nsen n yal ass.

Yella d afelsafi, amezruyan, d amassan n tdamsa almani. Yetttwaḥesben d yiwen seg yimassanen imeqranen akk i yesbedden tasnakta(tidyulujit) n tzdukla d tnemla. Axeddim-is akked umeddakel-is '''[[Friedrich Engels]]''', yefka-d tamuɣli tamaynut ɣef umzruy, timetti, d tdamsa. Tikti-ines tagejdant teqqen ɣer umennuɣ n tiserkam. 

==1. Tudert-is==
Ilul ''Karl Heinrich Marx'' di Trier aseggas n 1818. Yella d wis sin ger 8 Tam watmaten-is. Baba-s, ''Heinrich Marx'' (1782–1838), d abugaṭu, yefrurid deg yiwet twacult twudayt Ackenaz. Jedd-nsen Meier Halevi Marx yella d uday, ma d mmi-s d warraw n mmi-s uɣalen d imasiḥiyen, ẓẓiẓrgen isem-nsen ɣer Heinrich iwakken ad izmiren ad xedmen, yemma-s n Karl, Henriette Pressburg (20 [[Yulyu]] 1788-30 [[Wamber]] 1863), d tudayt n [[Timura n Wadda|tmura n wadda]]. 

=== Temẓi-is ===
Twacult-is tella deg tserkemt talemmast. Baba-s, ''Hanrix Marks'', yellan d abugaṭu, yuɣal d amasiḥi ɣas ma yella yekka-d seg yiwet n twacult n wudayen, i wakken ad yerwel i useḥqer amettiyan d usɣan i yellan deg tallit-nni. Marks yekka temẓi-ines deg tmuɣli n tfelsafit n teftilin, anda i yelmed azal n tilelli, n tussna, d umtawa gar yemdanen.

=== Tizrawin d Tfelsafit ===
Marks yedda ɣer tesdawit n Bonn, syin ɣer tin n Berlin i wakken ad yezrew tussna n usaḍuf d tfelsafit. Deg Berlin, yemɣi deg wallaɣ-is unadi ɣef tfelsafit n [[Hegel|Higl]]. Higl yella yessefham-d belli amzruy yettbeddal s tarrayt n wallaɣ d tikta. Marks yeddem terrayt-a n Higl, maca yerra-tt s wudem n tmetti. Yenna-d belli mačči d tikta i d-ixelqen tilawt, maca d tilawt n tmetti, am usfares d tdamsa, i d-iffaren tikta d tmuɣli n wemdan. Da i yebda useggem n tmuɣli-ines ɣef umzruy, yuɣal yettwali belli anagraw n usfares d netta i d lsas n tmetti.

=== Asikel d Temlilit akked Engels ===
Imi Marks yuɣal d amasay n uɣmis almani, yura imagraden i yekkatayen adabu d tsertit n tmurt-is. Ayagi yessawḍ adabu ad yemdel aɣmis-nni, dɣa Marks yettwaḥettem ad yeǧǧ tmurt-is, yuɣal d amsikel. Yedda ɣer Bariz, syin ɣer Bruxelles.

Deg Bariz, deg useggas n 1844, yemlal akked '''[[Friedrich Engels]]'''. Tamlilit-a tella d tamsalt tameqrant deg umzruy n tfelsafit. Angils yellan d amassan n tdamsa, yessen mliḥ [[asihri]] imi baba-s yellan d bab n umukan n usfares deg Langlitir. Engels yeldi-as tiwwura i Marks i wakken ad yissin amek tteddun yimukan n usfares, amek ixeddmen yimɣiden, d wamek i ten-ssexdamen yimawlanen n ihri i wakken ad rnun ayla-nsen. Seg wass-nni, Marks d Engels uɣalen d imeddakel n tudert, xedmen akk tirawin-nsen akken.

=== Asali n Wulɣu n Ukabar Azduklan ===
Deg 1848, tallit ideg tella aṭas n tanekra di Turuft, Marks d Engels ssufɣen-d adlis ameqran &quot;Ulɣu n Ukabar Azduklan&quot;. Deg udlis-a, nnan-d belli amzruy n tmettiyin akk i yellan d amzruy n umennuɣ n tserkam. Sbedden azadur n tanekra n yimɣiden mgal taserkemt n yimawlanen n ihri. Nnan belli asihri ad yemmet s yiman-is s sebba n tnemgalin-is tigensiyin, ad d-teffeɣ tmetti tamaynut anda ulac tiserkam, ulac aɛeffas, tagi tazdukla.

=== Tudert deg Lundun d Udlis &quot;Ihri&quot; ===
Marks yettwaḥettem ad yeǧǧ [[Lalman]] d [[Fransa]], yeqqim deg [[London|Lundun]] (Langlitir) armi yemmut. Tudert-is deg Lundun tella d tawaɣit tameqrant. Yella yedder deg ufellaḍ ameqran. Tameṭṭut-is, Jenni fon Westfalin, ɣas ma tella d yiwet n tmeṭṭut n tserkemt n yimawlanen, teǧǧa tudert n uheyyi i wakken ad teddu yid-s deg ubrid n umennuɣ. Aṭas n warraw-is mmuten d imecṭaḥ s waṭṭan imi ur sɛin ara ayla i wakken ad ten-ḥudden. Maca Engels, imi yella d amerkanti, yella yettɛawan-it s yidrimen i wakken ad ikemmel anadi-ines.

Deg Lundun, Marks yella yetteddu yal ass ɣer temkarḍit tameqrant n Lundun. Din i yezrew aṭas n yidlisen n tdamsa, n umzruy, d tusnakt. Din i yura adlis-is ameqran &quot;Ihri&quot;, anda i yesleḍ s telqayt amek tteddun yidrimen, amek i d-yettwafaras wazal amernay, d wamek i yella unfafad yellan deg unagraw amsihri. &quot;Ihri&quot; mačči kan d adlis n tdamsa, maca d azɣan ameqran ɣef unagraw i yessawḍen imɣiden ad ilin d ifecka kan i usfares.

=== Taggara d Tiras ===
Marks yemmut deg 14 Meɣres 1883 deg Lundun, yemmut d igellil, maca yemmut yessen belli tikta-ines ad kemmlent abrid. Ɣas ma yella yemmut, tikta-ines beddlent amzruy n umaḍal. Deg lqern wis 20, aṭas n tmura i yeddmen tikta-ines i wakken ad sbeddent inagrawen isnemlayen d yizduklayanen.

Ass-a, ɣas akken kra n timuɣliwin i yurzen ɣer tikta n Marks ur ssawḍent ara ad sbeddent tazdukla s wudem i yelhan, azɣan i yefka Marks i usihri, tussna n umzruy, d tussna n tmetti mazal d aɣbalu ameqran i yimassanen n wass-a. Tudert-is tella d amedya n wemdan i yefkan akk ayen i yesɛa i unadi n tidet d tilelli n talsa.

== 2. Asatal amzrayan d waddad n tmetti ==
Marks yedder deg tallit ideg tella tagrawla tamgurant di Turuft. Tallit-nni teddem-d asnulfu ameqran deg usfares, maca ternu-yas tawaɣit i yixeddamen. Asihri yebna ɣef ufraq n ihri gar yimawlanen n yimukan n usfares, imɣiden ur nesɛi ara ula d ayla, ala tazmert-nsen n uxeddim i wakken ad idiren.

Deg tallit-nni, Marks iwala belli anagraw amaynut n tdamsa ur yessaweḍ ara ad yefk tilelli i yemdanen meṛṛa, maca yerna kan aqhaṛ d twaɣit. D ayen i t-yessawḍen ad inadi ɣef yiẓuran n umgired n tiserkam yellan deg unagraw-a.

== 3. Amhaz Icudden Ɣer Wangaw: Lsas n Tfelsafit-is ==
Afelsafi almani [[Hegel]] yesbedd tikti n umhaz, maca s tmuɣli i yurzen ɣer wallaɣ kan, yella yettḥulfu belli tikta d tmuɣliwin n wallaɣ d nitenti i d-ixelqen tilawt. Marks yerra tamsalt-a, yenna-d: &quot;Tikta n yemdanen ur d-ttekken ara seg igenni, maca ttekken-d seg tilawt tangawat, seg usfares d wassaɣen n tdamsa.&quot;

S wawal n Marks, mačči d allaɣ n wemdan i d-yettaken tilawt, maca d tilawt tangawat i d-yettaken allaɣ d tikta. Amhaz s wudem n tangawa yessefham-d belli kullci deg umaḍal yettbeddal, yettemhaz, yerna amhaz-a yettili-d s umgired, s temsal yettemgaraden i yettmyelkafen i wakken ad d-snulfunt tamsalt tamaynut.

=== Tangeẓṛit Tamezrayt ===
Lsas amenzu n tfelsafit n Marks d tangeẓṛi tamezrayt. Ɣer-s, maççi d tikta, asɣan, neɣ d iziɣren i d-yessuddusen amezruy n talsa, maca d tignatin n waddad adamsan d wamek i d-tettili tfarest. Timetti tebna ɣef sin n yeḥricen igejdanen. Aḥric amezwaru d &quot;adda&quot; i d-immalen allalen n ufares akked wassaɣen n ufares (tadamsa, lxedma, tawuri). Aḥric wis sin d &quot;taɣessa&quot; (la superstructure) i d-ijemɛen tasnakta, izerfan, d tsertit. Adda adamsan d netta i d-isbaduyen taɣessa n tmetti. Ihi, yal tuttya neɣ abeddel lqayen deg umezruy yettas-d mi ara yili umennuɣ gar wallalen n ufares d wassaɣen n ufares n tallit-nni. Amezruy ur iteddu ara s tẓeṛiyin timadwanin, maca s tmentilin yellan s wudem n tengeẓri.

== 4. Amzruy d Umennuɣ n Tserkam ==
[[Tugna:Communist-manifesto.png|vignette|Ulɣu n ukabar n tzdukla s tutlayt talalmanit.]]
Deg udlis-is &quot;Ulɣu n Ukabar Azduklan&quot;, Marks yura belli amzruy n tmettiyin akk i yellan d amzruy n umennuɣ n tserkam. Yal tawada n tmetti tettili-d s umgired gar sin n yidisan: wid iṭṭfen adabu d ihri, d wid ur nesɛi ara ayla.

Deg tallit n [[Asihri|usihri]], amennuɣ-a yella gar taserkemt n yimawlanen n ihri d taserkemt n yimɣiden. Imawlanen ttnadin ɣef tanfa d wazal amernay, ma d imɣiden ttnadin ɣef tuddert, tazmert, d tilelli. Umennuɣ-a ur yezmir ara ad yili d amnekni, imi anagraw n usihri yettidir ɣef usfaydu seg uxeddim n yimɣiden baṭel.

Marks yenna-d belli amezruy n tmettiyin meṛṛa d amezruy n umennuɣ n tserkam. Deg unagraw n usihri, amennuɣ-a yettili-d s telqayt gar snat n tserkamin tigejdanin. Taserkemt tamenzut d &quot;imsihranen&quot;, i yesɛan allalen n ufares am tneɣrafin (luzinat), akal, d yihri. Taserkemt tis snat d &quot;tameɣda&quot;, d ixeddamen neɣ imɣad ur nesɛi acemma anagar iɣallen-nsen i zenzun iwakken ad idiren. Imsihranen sfaydayen ɣef imɣad s wammud n tfarest-nsen, d ayen i d-igellun s tlufa n ddel akked lḥif ɣef yixeddamen. Amennuɣ-a ur yezmir ara ad iḥbes alamma tewweḍ-d tagrawla ara ibeddlen llsas n tmetti.

== 5. Tasertit n Tdamsa d Wazal Amernay ==
Deg udlis-is ameqran &quot;Ihri&quot;, Marks yesleḍ amek tteddun idrimen d usfares. Yufa-d tamsalt n wazal amernay.

Amedya: Axeddam ixeddem 8 n yisragen. Deg 4 n yisragen imezwura, ixeddem i wakken ad d-yawi azal n uxeddim-is, ayen akken ad yečč, ad yels, ad yidir. Ma deg 4 n yisragen ineggura, ixeddem i umawlan n ihri baṭel. Azal-nni amernay i d-yettwafarsen deg yisragen-nni ineggura, imawlanen n ihri i t-ttawin.

D ayen i d-issefhamen belli asihri mačči d anagraw n umtawa, maca d anagraw n uqher, anda wid iṭṭfen idrimen ttawin ayla n wid ixeddmen.

=== Tasleḍt n Usihri d Wazal Amernay ===
Deg udlis-is ameqqran &quot;Ihri&quot;, Marks yesleḍ s telqayt amek i iteddu unagraw n usihri. Yufa-d belli llsas n rrbeḥ n umsihran d &quot;iazal amernay&quot;. Azal-a amernay d azal i d-yerna uxeddam s lǧehd-is yugar azal n uɣrad-is. Amsihran yettawi azal-a ameqqran i yiman-is mebla ma yexdem, ma d axeddam yettaṭṭaf kan ayen ara t-id-isidren akken ad yili d amuddir. Tanabda-ya(ammud-a) d nettat i d amsedday(amutur) n wesnerni n yihri. Maca d nettat daɣen ara d-yeglun s twaɣit d uɣelluy n unagraw-a, acku asihri s timmad-is d asaraw n tenmegliwin ur yezmir ad tent-yefru. Lḥif n temeɣda ad yettnerni alamma tewweḍ tmetti ɣer tqacuct n truẓi.

=== Takufḍa ===
Yiwen seg yiferdisen imuqranen deg tfelsafit n Marks d tamiḍrant n tkufḍa. Axeddam deg tmetti tasihrit yettwaḥṣeb am wakken d taɣawsa neɣ d allal kan n ufares, ur yesɛi ara azal alsan. Takufḍa-ya tebḍa ɣef kuẓ n yeḥricen: axeddam ittwakfeḍ (est aliéné) ɣef ufaris-is imi ayen i d-yexdem ur t-yeksib ara; ittwakfeḍ ɣef tigawt n ufares s timmad-is imi lxedma-s d lḥif maççi d usnulfu neɣ d lfeṛḥ; ittwakfeḍ ɣef ugama n talsa-s imi ur yexdim ara s tlelli; yerna ittwakfeḍ ɣef yixeddamen-nniḍen imi timetti tasihrit tessekcem-d Tamsezwert deg umkan n tdukli d tegmat gar yimɣad.

== 6. Tanekra d Imal n Tmetti ==
Marks yumen belli asihri ad temmet s yiman-is, acku yeǧǧur d iɣeblan imeqranen. Imɣiden, mi ara ukin s tilawt-nsen, ad xedmen tanekra.

Tanekra ad tawi ɣer udabu n yimɣiden, anda ara ttwakksen yimukan n usfares i yimawlanen n ihri ad uɣalen d ayla n tmetti meṛṛa.

Deg taggara, ad d-tili tzdukla: d tmetti anda ulac tiserkam, ulac adabu, ulac aqhaṛ. Yal yiwen ad ixeddem almend n tezmert-is, ad yečč almend n wayen i t-ilaqen.

=== Tazdukla d Taggara n Uwanak ===
Tafelsafit n Marks maççi d asenmel(tabadut) n tmetti kan s wawal, maca d abrid ɣer tigawt d ubeddel. Iswi aneggaru d akkes n tmetti tasihrit s tegrawla n temeɣda. Tagrawla-ya ad d-tessiweḍ ɣer yiwet n tmetti tamaynut iwumi isemma &quot;tazdukla&quot; (communisme). Deg tmetti-ya, allalen n ufares ad ilin d ayla n tmetti s umata, ur yettili ara umennuɣ n tserkam, ur tettili tenabda. Awanak, i yellan d allal n udabu n yimsihranen, ad yenger s yiman-is imi ur t-teḥwaǧ ara tmetti war tiserkam. Talsa ad tidir deg tlelli tameqqrant anda yal yiwen ad yexdem s tzemmar-is, yerna ad yaɣ ayen yeḥwaǧ.
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'''JavaScript''' d [[tutlayt n usihel]] mebla aefsu(Tameslayt tasuɣlant) i d-yesnulfa [[Brendan Eich]] ([[Netscape]]). JavaScript itddu kan deg yiminig web maca tura nezmer ad t-nesseqdec deg tama n uqeddac(Backend) s [[Node.js]].

Tameslayt n usihel '''JavaScript''' tella d yiwet seg tmeslayin yettwasxedmen aṭas deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg wasmi i d-tlul deg useggas n 1995, teqqel d taɣawsa tagejdant deg usnerni n Web. Ass-a, ur tettwaḥseb ara kan d tameslayt n yisebtar n Web, wanag tettwasxedem daɣen deg usihel n yiqeddacen, n yisnasen izirazen, d kran n yisnasen n tnarit, d waṭas n yiḥricen-nniḍen.

== 2. Amazray ==

=== 2.1. Talalit n JavaScript ===
JavaScript tlul-d deg useggas n 1995, mi i tt-yesnulfa Brendan Eich deg tkebbanit Netscape Communications. Deg tazwara, isem-is yella &quot;Mocha&quot;, sakkin yuɣal &quot;LiveScript&quot;, qbel ad yettusema &quot;JavaScript&quot;. Iswi amezwaru-is yella ad d-yefk i yimsidag n Web allal n usihel asdawan (interactif) deg yisebtar n Web.

Brendan Eich yesnulfa-d lqem amezwaru n tmeslayt-a deg 10 n wussan kan.

'''Mocha''': D wawal amezwaru i yettunefken i tmeslayt-a.

'''LiveScript''': Sakkin, isem-a yuɣal d LiveScript deg wamber (beta) n yiminig.

'''JavaScript''': Deg dujember 1995, isem yuɣal d JavaScript. Abeddel-a n yisem yella-d s tmuɣli n udellel (marketing), acku deg tallit-nni, tameslayt n usihel Java tella tettwassen aṭas yerna tesɛa azal ameqqran. Netscape tebɣa ad tesqedcec tagnit n Java, ɣas ma JavaScript ur yesɛi ara assaɣ atrar akked Java.

==== Amgaru n Yiminigen d Usdul n ECMAScript (1996-1999) ====
Mi i twala takebbanit Microsoft d akken JavaScript yuɣal d axatar, tesnulfa-d lqem-is i yiminig-is Internet Explorer, isem-is JScript. Aya yesnulfa &quot;Amgaru n Yiminigen&quot;, anda yal iminig yesɛa tameslayt-is, d ayen i yesserwen imsihlen (Ineflayen) acku tangalt ur telli ara txeddem akken iwata deg yiminigen meṛṛa.

I wakken ad frun ugur-a, Netscape tefka tameslayt-a i tuddma Ecma International i wakken ad tt-slugen (tizeɣt).

'''1997 (ES1)''': Alugen amezwaru ECMA-262 yeffɣ-d s yisem ECMAScript 1.

'''1998 (ES2)''': Asnerni meẓẓiyen i uḍfar n ISO/IEC.

'''1999 (ES3)''': Lqem-a yella d axatar aṭas, yerna-d Regular Expressions (tinfaliyin tiluganin), try/catch i usefrek n tuccḍiwin, d usbadu ifazen n tɣawsiwin. Lqem-a yeqqim d amud amezwaru n JavaScript i waṭas n yiseggasen.

=== Tallit n &quot;Web 2.0&quot; d Ajax (2000-2008) ===
Deg tazwara n yiseggasen n 2000, JavaScript ur yettwaqadar ara aṭas, yella kan i usihel n yimussuyen (Amray/Merru) d yisebtar fessusen. Maca, tallit n Web 2.0 tbeddel kulci.

Asnas n Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) yefka i yimsihlen tizemmar ad selḥun isefka seg uqeddac war ma alsen asali n usebter. Isnasen am Gmail (2004) d Google Maps (2005) sbegnen-d d akken JavaScript yezmer ad isali isnasen n Web ixanzen d isdawanen.

Deg tallit-a, tlul jQuery (2006), d tamkarḍit i yessifsen asihel n DOM yerna tefru uguren n umgaru gar yiminigen.

'''2009 (ES5)''': Ecma tefka lqem ES5, i d-yernan JSON s wudem unṣib, Array.prototype.map/filter, d uskar strict mode i uḍman n tɣellist n tengalt.

=== Tawri n Node.js: JavaScript yeffeɣ seg Yiminig (2009) ===
Aseggas n 2009 yella d tagrawla deg umezruy n JavaScript. Amsihel Ryan Dahl yesnulfa Node.js, s useqdec n umutur V8 n Google Chrome.

Aya yefka i JavaScript tizemmar ad ixeddem deg  tama uqeddac (backend), mačči kan deg yiminig (frontend). Seg imir-nni, JavaScript tuɣal d tameslayt &quot;Full-Stack&quot;, anda amsihel yezmer ad iseqdec yiwet n tutlayt i yisebtar n Web, i yiqeddacen, d yizdaren(affiwin)n n yisefka.

=== Tagrawla n ES6 / ES2015 d Ukatar n yimahilen (Frameworks) ===
Deg useggas n 2015, Ecma tefka lqem ameqqran akk deg umezruy n tmeslayt-a: ECMAScript 2015 (ES6). Seg wass-a, alugen yuɣal yettbeddel yal aseggas (ES2016, ES2017, ...).

'''ES6''' yerna tiseddast tatrarin i yerran asihel yeshel yerna iqud:

let d const i usefrek n telqeyt (scope).

Tiseɣnin s uaneccab (Arrow functions =&gt;).

Tiserkemt i usihel yuɣden ar tɣawsa.

Lweɛd (Promises) i usefrek n usihel aramtawan (asynchrone).

Izegrar kter/sifeḍ.

Deg tallit-a daɣen, akatar n yimahilen (frameworks) am React (Facebook, 2013), Angular (Google), d Vue.js beddelen amek i ttwasalnen yisnasen n Web, s useqdec n yimudam am &quot;Virtual DOM&quot; d &quot;Composants&quot;.

=== 2.2. Alugen ECMAScript ===
Deg useggas n 1997, JavaScript tuɣal d alugen n Ecma International s yisem &quot;ECMAScript&quot;. Seg imir-nni, tameslayt-a tettwasnerni s waṭas n ileqman:

* ECMAScript 1 (1997): Alugen amezwaru.
* ECMAScript 3 (1999): Timerna n wallalen n usenqed n tuccḍiwin, Tinfaliyin tiluganin (regular expressions).
* ECMAScript 5 (2009): Asemdu n JSON, asemdu n tɣawsa &quot;strict mode&quot;.
* ECMAScript 6 / ES2015 (2015): Timerna tameqqrant: let, const, class, Promise, arrow functions, modules.
* ECMAScript 2020+: Timerna n BigInt, Optional Chaining, Nullish Coalescing.

=== 2.3. Imeslayen n usihel yeqqnen ar JavaScript ===
Aṭas n tmeslayin-nniḍen n usihel bnant ɣef JavaScript neɣ ttwasuqlent ar JavaScript:

'''[[TypeScript]]''': Tameslayt n usihel s tewsit n isefka (typed) i d-yesnulfa Microsoft.

'''CoffeeScript''': Tameslayt yettwasuqlen ar JavaScript s tseddast ifessusen.

'''Dart''': Tameslayt n usihel i d-yesnulfa Google, tettwasxedem deg Flutter.

== 3. Taseddast d Umawal ==

=== 3.1. Tawsit n tmeslayt ===
JavaScript d tameslayt:

'''Tasuɣlant''': Ur teḥwaǧ ara asefsu send aselkem. Amessuɣal iqqar-d tangalt srid.

'''S tawsit asmussaw''': Tawsit n umutti tettubeddel deg wakud n uselkem.

'''Agetkalmaḍ''' (multi-paradigme): Tesseddu asihel s '''tɣawsa''', asihel '''amesɣan''', d usihel s '''tedyanin'''.

=== 3.2. Tiseddast tigejdanin ===

==== 3.2.1. Imuttiyen ====
JavaScript yesɛa kraḍ n wawalen i usenteḍ n yimuttiyen:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
var x = 10;      // Amutti aqbur (var)
let y = 20;      // Amutti s telqeyt n usweḍ (let)
const z = 30;    // Amutti ur yettubeddlen (const)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''var''': Amutti s telqeyt n tesɣent.

'''let''': Amutti s telqeyt n iḥder.

'''const''': Amutti ur yezmiren ad yettubeddel.

==== 3.2.2. Awalen n tinaḍ ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
if, else, for, while, do, switch, case, break, continue,
return, function, class, new, this, typeof, instanceof,
try, catch, finally, throw, async, await, import, export

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 3.2.3. Isulayen ====
Isulayen n yimuttiyen, n tseɣnin, d n tɣawsiwin ilaq ad bdun s usekkil, s _, neɣ s $. Ur zmiren ad bdun s umḍan.

== 4. Tawsit n Isefka ==
JavaScript tesɛa sin n wudmawen n tewsit n isefka:

=== 4.1. Tiwsitin tizwaranin ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Tawsit
!Amedya
!Aglam
|-
|number
|42, 3.14
|Amḍan ummid neɣ amḍan s ticcert
|-
|string
|&quot;Azul&quot;
|Azrar n isekkilen
|-
|boolean
|true, false
|Ilem neɣ ulac
|-
|undefined
|undefined
|Amutti ur yettusbedden
|-
|null
|null
|Ulac s umata
|-
|symbol
|Symbol('id')
|Azamal asuf (ES6)
|-
|bigint
|9007199254740991n
|Amḍan ameqqran aṭas (ES2020)
|}

=== 4.2. Tawsit n tɣawsa ===
Yal ayen ur nelli ara d tiwsit tizwaranen d taɣawsa. Deg-s:

* Array (Tafelwit): let arr = [1, 2, 3];
* Object (Taɣawsa): let obj = {isem: &quot;Samir&quot;, leɛmer: 25};
* Function (Tasɣent): function azur() { return &quot;Azul!&quot;; }

=== 4.3. Aselkem n tewsit (typeof) ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
typeof 42;           // &quot;number&quot;
typeof &quot;Azul&quot;;       // &quot;string&quot;
typeof true;         // &quot;boolean&quot;
typeof undefined;    // &quot;undefined&quot;
typeof null;         // &quot;object&quot; (tuccḍa deg umezruy)
typeof {};           // &quot;object&quot;
typeof [];           // &quot;object&quot;
typeof function(){}; // &quot;function&quot;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== 5. Tiseɣnin ==

=== 5.1. Tasɣent talugant ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
function smerni(a, b) {
    return a + b;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 5.2. Tasɣent s uneccab – ES6 ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
const smerni = (a, b) =&gt; a + b;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 5.3. Tasɣent d taserkemt tamenzut ===
Deg JavaScript, tiseɣnin d tiserkam timenza: zemrent ad ttwafkent d imuttiyen, ad ttwarrzent d tiɣiratin, d ad ttwarnant ar tefelwin.&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
const tiseɣnin = [
    x =&gt; x * 2,
    x =&gt; x + 1
];
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== 6. Taɣawsa d Usihel s Tɣawsa ==

=== 6.1. Asenteḍ n tɣawsa ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
const amdan = {
    isem: &quot;Samir&quot;,
    leɛmer: 30,
    azur: function() {
        return `Azul, nekk d ${this.isem}`;
    }
};

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 6.2. Taserkemt (Class) – ES6 ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
class Amdan {
    constructor(isem, leɛmer) {
        this.isem = isem;
        this.leɛmer = leɛmer;
    }
    
    azur() {
        return `Azul, nekk d ${this.isem}`;
    }
}

const samir = new Amdan(&quot;Samir&quot;, 30);

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 6.3. Tukkest ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
class Anelmad extends Amdan {
    constructor(isem, leɛmer, asɣar) {
        super(isem, leɛmer);
        this.asɣar = asɣar;
    }
    
    azur() {
        return `Azul, nekk d ${this.isem}, anelmad deg ${this.asɣar}`;
    }
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 6.4. Akwbal ===
Seg ES2022, JavaScript yesɛa iɣewwaṛen usligen s #:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;class Amiḍan {
    #azal;
    
    constructor(azal) {
        this.#azal = azal;
    }
    
    awi() {
        return this.#azal;
    }
}&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== 7. Timṣuki n usenqed ==

=== 7.1. Tawtilt ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
if (amḍan &gt; 18) {
    console.log(&quot;Meqqer&quot;);
} else if (amḍan &gt; 12) {
    console.log(&quot;Alemmas&quot;);
} else {
    console.log(&quot;Mecṭuḥ&quot;);
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 7.2. Tineddict ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
// Tineddict for
for (let i = 0; i &lt; 10; i++) {
    console.log(i);
}

// Tineddict while
let j = 0;
while (j &lt; 5) {
    console.log(j);
    j++;
}

// Tineddict for...of (i tefelwin)
for (const azal of [1, 2, 3]) {
    console.log(azal);
}

// Tineddict for...in (i tɣawsiwin)
for (const tsarutt in {isem: &quot;Samir&quot;}) {
    console.log(tsarutt);
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== 8. Asihel Aramtawan ==

=== 8.1. Callbacks ===
Aɣewwaṛ amezwaru n usihel aramtawan:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
function awiIsefka(callback) {
    setTimeout(() =&gt; {
        callback({isem: &quot;Samir&quot;});
    }, 1000);
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 8.2. Promise (Lweɛd) ===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
function awiIsefka() {
    return new Promise((resolve, reject) =&gt; {
        setTimeout(() =&gt; {
            resolve({isem: &quot;Samir&quot;});
        }, 1000);
    });
}

awiIsefka()
    .then(isefka =&gt; console.log(isefka))
    .catch(tuccḍa =&gt; console.error(tuccḍa));
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 8.3. Async/Await ===
Tarrayt tatrart i usihel aramtawan:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
async function awiIsefka() {
    try {
        const tiririt = await fetch('https://api.example.com/data');
        const isefka = await tiririt.json();
        console.log(isefka);
    } catch (tuccḍa) {
        console.error('Tuccḍa:', tuccḍa);
    }
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== Taggrayt ==
JavaScript teqqel d tameslayt n usihel tameqqrant deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg wasmi i d-tlul deg 1995, tettwasnerni s waṭas, teqqel d tameslayt i yesɛan aṭas n wudmawen: asihel n Web (frontend d backend), asihel n yisnasen izirazen, tigzi taragmawant, d waṭas n yiḥricen-nniḍen.

S tizeɣt n ECMAScript i d-yettuɣalen yal aseggas, JavaScript tettkemmel ad tettwasnerni, ad d-ternu tiwsitin imaynuten, d ad tessifses asihel i yineflayen.

I yneflayen d yimusnawen n tsenselkimt, JavaScript d tameslayt ilaq ad tt-issinen, acku d nettat i d tameslayt n Web, d yiwet seg tmeslayin yettwasqedcen aṭas deg umaḍal.

==  Ẓer daɣen == 

*[[TypeScript]]

[[Taggayt:Tutlayt n usihel]]</text>
      <sha1>90igxhltn2xhzjeukahn5vgp1ch3umv</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ṭṭraḍ asemmaḍ</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>23772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117245</id>
      <parentid>114188</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T01:26:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
      <origin>117245</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10612" sha1="8swdd7kjhhipq3tjlf6efyw1mwqs9cp" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}

'''Ṭṭraḍ asemmaḍ''' (s [[taglizit]]: ''Cold War'', s [[tarusit]]: Холодная война), d tamenziɣt deffir [[Ṭṭraḍ Amaḍlan Wis Sin]], seg [[1945]] ar [[1991]], gar [[Iwunak Yeddukklen n Temrikt]], [[Tadukli Tasuvyatit]] ed yimsisan-nsen&lt;ref&gt;{{Fr}} [https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/guerre_froide/122564 Guerre froide], deg ''larousse.fr''.&lt;/ref&gt;, Ṭṭraḍ asemmaḍ tella deg [[tasertit]], [[tadamsa]] ed [[tazniwt]], aseqdec n [[Amrig|yemrigen]] d win yesεan lḥedd&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{En}} [https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War Cold War], deg ''britannica.com''.&lt;/ref&gt;.

''Ṭṭraḍ asemmaḍ'' d awal yura-t i tikelt tamezwarut s [[Amaru|umaru]] aglizi [[George Orwell]], deg umagrad i yeffeɣ-d deg [[1945]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

Ṭṭrad Asemmaḍ d tallit n umennuɣ asertan, d usnaktawi i d-yebdan seld Ṭṭrad Amaḍlan Wis Sin (deg 1945) yerna yekfa s uɣelluy n Tdukli Tasuvyatit deg 1991. Fkan-as isem (isem-is) &quot;asemmaḍ&quot; acku ur d-yelli ara d ṭṭrad iẓrilew neɣ d imenɣi srid gar snat n tnezmarin timeqqranin: Iwunak Yedduklen n Marikan (IYM) d Tdukli Tasuvyatit (TT).

== Iẓuran n Umennuɣ: Tazdukla mgal Asihri ==
Deg yiwet n tama, tella Marikan d yimsisan-is n utaram, i yellan dduklend ɣer unagraw asihri , tugdut talibiralit, d uzayez n tlelli tudmawant. Sɛan asihri n ssuq ilelli.

Deg tama nniḍen, tella Tdukli Tasuvyatit d tmura n Wegmuḍ. TT tella tettabaɛ anagraw n tazdukla , s unabaḍ imeslemmes s waṭas, anda akabar amyiwen i d-yettaṭṭafen adabu.

Yal yiwet seg tnezmarin timeqqranin-a tella tettnadi ad tesnerni tazrirt d tesnakta-ines deg umaḍal.

=== 1. Anagraw n Wataram: Asihri d Tugdut Talibiralit ===
Iwunak Yedduklen n Marikan d yimsisan-nsen n Wataram (am Tgelda Yedduklen, Fṛansa, atg.) llan ḍefren anagraw yebnan ɣef:

* '''Tadamsa:''' Asihri n ssuq ilelli. Anect-a yebɣa ad yini d akken imdanen d tkebbaniyin n uḥric uslig sɛan azref ad sɛun ayla, ad xedmen tanezzut, yerna ad myezzayen tamsezwert gar-asen. Adabu neɣ awanek ur ikeccem ara aṭas deg tdamsa.
* '''Tasertit:''' Tugdut talibiralit. Anagraw-a yebna ɣef tlelli tudmawanin, am tlelli n wawal, tlelli n tɣamsa, d tlelli n usɣan. Llan inagrawan n yikabaren, dɣa lɣaci i d-yefrennan anwa ara ten-inebḍen.
* '''Iswi:''' Taggara n Ṭṭrad Amaḍlan Wis Sin, Marikan tella tettwali Tazdukla d amihi ameqqran ɣef tlelli n umaḍal. Iswi ameqqran nsen yella d &quot;aḥbas&quot; n tesnerni n tesnakta tazduklant, ladɣa deg Turuft i yettwaḍerrfen s ṭṭrad.

=== 2. Anagraw n Wegmuḍ: Tazdukla d Unagraw n Ukabar Amyiwen ===
[[Tugna:1973 NATO and WP troop strengths in Europe.svg|vignette|Isardasen n Tamsisit Taṭlasit d Umatwa n Waṛsu deg turuft (1973)]]
Tadukli Tasuvyatit d tmura n Wegmuḍ n Turuft i teddukul (i yellan seddaw n tecḍaḍt-is) llan ḍefren anagraw yemgarraden s tidett:

* '''Tadamsa:''' Tazdukla, akken i d-tenna tesnakta n Marx d Lenin. Deg unagraw-a, ur telli ara wayla uslig n walalen n ufares (usines, terres...). D adabu i d-yettaṭṭafen kullec s yisem n tmetti. Tadamsa yella usɣiwes sɣur unabaḍ ameslemmes.
* '''Tasertit:''' Anagraw n ukabar amyiwen. Ala Akabar Azduklan i yesɛan azref ad yili deg udabu. Ur yelli ara tamsezwert tasertant. Anagraw-a yettusemma daɣen &quot;aɣrudan&quot; acku adabu yella ikeccem deg yal tama n tmeddurt n yemdanen, yerna yella uḥbas ameqqran n tlelli n wawal d uzɣan.
* '''Iswi:''' Tadukli Tasuvyatit, s tesnakta-s, tella tettamen d akken asihri d anagraw n wammud yerna ilaq ad teɣli. Iswi-s yella d asnerni n tegrawla tazduklant deg umaḍal, ad seddukel ixeddamen n umaḍal yakk.

=== Amgired i d-Yeslulen Ṭṭrad ===
Imenɣi d umgired n tesnakta i d-yebdan uqbel Ṭṭrad Amaḍlan Wis Sin, maca yuɣal d aṣeḥḥan seld 1945.
[[Tugna:Truman signing North Atlantic Treaty.jpg|vignette|Aselway Truman yesskanay-d amtawa anaṭlas n Ugafa d yinebgiwen-is deg Uɣlif Uval.]]
Seg temliliyin n Yalta d Potsdam, Iwunak Yedduklen d Tdukli Tasuvyatit ur msefhamen ara ɣef wamek ara tili Turuft mbeɛd ṭṭrad. Marikan tebɣa timura tilelliyin s tefranin n tugdut. Tadukli Tasuvyatit, i yexsren aṭas n yimdanen, tebɣa ad tesbedd &quot;tamnaḍt n uḥuddu&quot; gar-as d Wegmuḍ n Turuft, s usbeddi n yinabaḍen izduklanen i s-yeddan deg tmura am Pulunya, Hungarya, d Rumanya.

Widak n Wataram walan anect-a d tamsulta d usnerni n tezdukla s yiɣil. Dɣa yal tama tebda tettwali tamaniḍt d amihi ɣef tilin-is. Anect-a i d-yeslulen beṭṭu n Turuft d umaḍal ɣef sin n yiḥricen, d tallit n Ṭṭrad Asemmaḍ.

== Tazzla ɣer Yimrigen Iɣisanen ==
Yiwet seg tmeẓri timeqranin n Ṭṭrad Asemmaḍ d &quot;tazzla ɣer leslaḥ,&quot; ladɣa imrigen iɣisanen. Seg wasmi i sseqdec Iwunak Yedduklen tibumbtin tiɣisanin deg 1945, Tadukli Tasuvyatit texdem tirmit ines tamezwarut deg 1949.

Anect-a yebda tallit n &quot;tuggdi n uɣisan&quot;. Snat n tmura-a wwḍent ɣer tnezmart  n ussexṛeb n umaḍal acḥal d tikkelt. Tuggdi-a n ussexṛeb d ayen i d-yeslulen lḥers ameqqran, maca deg yiwet n tama, d ayen i d-iḥebsen ṭṭrad usrid gar-asent.

&quot;Tazzla ɣer Yimrigen Iɣisanen&quot;  d timsizzelt tameqqrant i d-yellan gar Iwunak Yedduklen n Marikan d Tdukli Tasuvyatit iwakken ad snernin yerna ad afen imrigen iweɛṛen ugar, ladɣa imrigen iɣisanen.

Mačči d tazzla ɣef yimrigen iklasikiyen kan i yellan, maca d tazzla ɣef tknulujit n ussexṛeb ameqqran.

=== 1. Tagara n Uḥkar ===
Ṭṭrad Asemmaḍ yebda s yiwet n tnezmart kan i yesɛan abrid ɣer umrig aɣisan.

* '''1945:''' Iwunak Yedduklen n Marikan sseqdacen snat n tbumbtin tiɣisanin ɣef Hiroshima d Nagasaki deg Japun. D nutni i d imezwura yerna d nutni i d imyiwen i yesɛan tanezmart-a tameqqrant. D anect-a i wumi neqqar &quot;aḥkar aɣisan&quot;.
* '''1949:''' Tadukli Tasuvyatit, s uɣalli d tmuɣli n tmusniyin-is, tessefɣ-d tabumbt-is tamezwarut. Dɣa yeɣli uḥkar n Marikan. Seg yimir-nni, tebda tazzla n tidett.

=== 2. Tameẓla n Usseḥbes ===
Ilaq ad nefhem ayɣer i ṣerrfen idrimen ɣef yimrigen-a. Tameẓla  tamezwarut d &quot;asseḥbes&quot; neɣ &quot;aṣerheb&quot;.

Anamek: Yal tama tella tettnadi ad tesɛu imrigen i yeqqnen iwakken ad teṣerheb tama nniḍen. Tikti-nni tella akka: &quot;Ma tebɣiḍ ad iyi-d-tewteḍ, ilaq ad teẓreḍ belli sɛiɣ ayen s wayes ara k-ssexṛbeɣ ula d kečč, yerna s tarrayt iweɛṛen.&quot;

Anect-a yebna ɣef tuggdi. Yal tama tuggad tanezmart n tama nniḍen.

=== 3. Asali n Tnezmart: Seg Tbumbt 'A' ɣer Tbumbt 'H' ===
Tazzla-a ur teḥbis ara deg tbumbt taɣisant tamenzut (A-Bomb).

* '''Tabumbt n Uhidṛujin (H-Bomb):''' Deg 1952, Marikan tessefɣ-d tabumbt &quot;H&quot;, i tesɛan tanezmart n ussexṛeb ugar n tbumbt taɣisant n 1945 s waṭas n tikkal.
* '''1953:''' Tadukli Tasuvyatit terra-d, texdem ula d nettat tabumbt-is &quot;H&quot;.

Amyezzyi-a yuɣal d &quot;anwa ara yesɛun tabumbt i d-yettawin axeṣṣar ugar.&quot;

=== 4. Timsizzelt n umseḍru ===
[[Tugna:Space Race images.png|vignette|Sputnik 1, Abulun 11 La d-yettrusu ɣef wayyur, taɣsert Tallunt Mir]]
Aṭas n yimrigen ur yettunfaɛ ara ma ur tesɛiḍ ara amek ara ten-tesserwteḍ ɣer umnaḍ (iswi). Dɣa tebda tazzla nniḍen:

* '''Imrigen Ibalistikiyen :''' Bdan leqdic ɣef yimrigen i zemren ad awin tiqweṛṛa tiɣisanin si yiwet n temnaḍt neɣ umenẓaw ɣer tayeḍ. D wigi i wumi neqqar &quot;Imrigen Ibalistikiyen Igraklanen&quot; (ICBMs).
* '''Tuffɣa n Sputnik (1957):''' Asmi i d-tessefɣ TT &quot;Sputnik 1&quot; (agensas aragmawan amezwaru) ɣer tallunt, anect-a yessexdem Marikan. Mačči kan ɣef tazzla n tallunt, maca lmaɛna-s d akken TT tesɛa tknulujit n yimrigen i zemren ad awḍen srid ɣer wakal n Marikan.

=== 5. Tuggdi n Ussexṛeb Gar-asent ===
Deg yiseggasen n 1960, snat n tnezmarin-a wwḍent ɣer yiwet n tegnit iɣef ur zmirent ara ad uɣalent ɣer deffir.

Sɛant i sin ayen i yeqqnen n yimrigen iɣisanen iwakken ad ssexṛbent tamaniḍt n yal yiwen acḥal d tikkelt. Anagraw-a n tuggdi yettusemma s Tenglizt &quot;MAD&quot; .

Tameẓla-a, ɣas d tamcumt, d ayen i d-iḥebsen ṭṭrad asrid gar-asent. Yal yiwen yuggad ad yebdu imenɣi acku yessen inalkamen: assexṛeb n umaḍal.

=== 6. Tazɣent n Imrigen n Kuba (1962) ===
[[Tugna:Cuban missiles.jpg|vignette|Tawlaft seg igenni n yiwen n usmel n imrigen iɣisanen asuvyati deg Kuba, yeṭṭef-itt yiwen n usafag aɣalli amarikani, 1 wamber 1962.]]
D anect-a i d akud iweɛṛen akk deg Ṭṭrad Asemmaḍ. Asmi i tebɣa TT ad tesbedd imrigen iɣisanen deg Kuba (tama n Marikan), amaḍal yewweḍ ɣer yiri n ṭṭrad aɣisan n tidett. D anect-a i d-yesbeggnen amihi ameqqran n tazzla-a ɣer yimrigen.

=== 7. Inalkamen ===
Tazzla-a tesɛa inalkamen imeziwiyen:

# '''Iṣurdiyen Imeqqranen:''' Snat n tmura xesṛent idrimen ur nesɛi tilisa ɣef leslaḥ, ayen i d-yesseɛtaben tadamsa-nsent, ladɣa tadamsa tasuvyatit i yeɣlin deg taggara.
# '''Tuggdi n Yimir:''' Imdanen n umaḍal ddren acḥal n yiseggasen seddaw n tuggdi n ṭṭrad aɣisan i zemren ad d-yas deg yal saɛa.
# '''Asnerni n Tknulujit:''' Ɣas d ayen n diri, tazzla-a tewwi-d asnerni ameqqran n tknulujit (am tazzla ɣer tallunt, iselkimen/Net).

Deg taggara, mbeɛd tazɣent n Kuba, bdan yimtawayen am &quot;SALT&quot; iwakken ad ssenqsen ɣef yimrigen-a, maca tazzla-a ur teḥbis ara s tidett armi d taggara n Ṭṭrad Asemmaḍ.

== Amennuɣ ɣef Tallunt d Tknulujit ==
Amennuɣ mačči d aserdas kan. Yella daɣen &quot;Tazzlan ɣer Tallunt&quot;. D anect-a i d-yesbeyynen anwa unagraw  i d-yufraren deg tɣawsiwin n tmusni d tussna d tknulujit.

'''1957:''' Tadukli Tasuvyatit tessefɣ-d agensa  amezwaru, &quot;Sputnik 1&quot;.

'''1961:''' Yuri Gagarin (Asubyati) yuɣal d amdan amezwaru i d-yezzin ɣef umtiweg n wakal.

'''1969:''' Marikan terra-d s tuwwḍa n &quot;Apollo 11&quot;, anda Neil Armstrong yersa ɣef Wayyur.

== Ṭṭradat s Uwkil d Uɣrab n Berlin ==
Iwakken ad myaɣen war ma nnuɣen srid, IYM d TT llan ssexdamen &quot;ṭṭradat s uwkil&quot;. Llan ttgen tadrimt yerna ttgrn imrigen i yimsisan nsen deg yimenɣan n tmura nniḍen. Amedya:

* Ṭṭrad n Kurya (1950-1953)
* Ṭṭrad n Vyetnam (1955-1975)
* Amennuɣ n Tdukli Tasuvyatit deg Afɣanistan (1979-1989)

Deg Turuft, yebna &quot;Aɣrab n Berlin&quot; deg 1961. Aɣrab-a  yebḍa tamdint n Berlin ɣef sin, yerna yuɣal d azamul n beṭṭu n Wegmuḍ (tazdukla) d Wataram (asihri).

== Tagara n Ṭṭrad Asemmaḍ ==
Deg yiseggasen n 1980, Tadukli Tasuvyatit tebda tettidir tizɣatin timeqqranin n tdamsa d tsertit. Tismeskal n &quot;Perestroika&quot; (aɛawed n lebni n tdamsa) d &quot;Glasnost&quot; (tuffɣa ɣer tafat/lfiraq) i d-yewwi Mikhail Gorbachev, ur ssawḍen ara ad sselken anagraw.

== Tizmilin ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>8swdd7kjhhipq3tjlf6efyw1mwqs9cp</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aselkim</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>23829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117236</id>
      <parentid>117211</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-27T13:09:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117236</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5880" sha1="08a0idce5pkkkxjogmk0pijfkzzdfxu" xml:space="preserve">{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|image1=ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg|alt1=Man replacing one vacuum tube out of hundreds in early computer|image2=IBM System360 Mainframe.jpg|alt2=Computer room with multiple computer cabinets and operating panel|image3=LYF WATER 2 Smartphone.JPG|alt3=Smartphone with rainbow-like display held in a hand|image4=ThinkCentre S50.jpg|alt4=Black desktop computer with monitor on top and keyboard in front|image5=Gamecube-console.jpg|alt5=Purple video game console with attached controller|image6=Summit (supercomputer).jpg|alt6=Rows of large, dark computer cabinets in warehouse-like room|footer=iselkimen deg talliyin yemgaraden.
ordinateurs dans différentes positions.}}

'''Aselkim''' d tamacint taliktṛunant n usiḍen. Tezmer ad tselkem iseɣzanen. Iseɣzanen deg-sen tingalin i d-yeqqaṛen i usekkar amek ad yeqdec ɣef yisefka umḍinen. Seg yibenkan i d-yesbabbay usekkar iseɣzanen d yisefka i tkatut-ines.

D Charles Babbage, ajenyuṛ si Tmurt n Lengliz, i d-yesnulfan di 1822 tikti n umutur n umgired, i usiḍen n yigetfulen n tusnakt. Syin akkin, di 1834, isuffeɣ-d tikti n umutur usliḍ i yesεan akk tulmisin n uselkim. Ma d aselkim atrar, d Alan Turing, amusnak si Tmurt n Lengliz, i d-isersen imenzayen-ines di 1936. D ayen iwumi qqaṛen Tamacint n Turing. Nezmer ad d-nini Turing d ababat n tsenselkimt.

Dɣa aselkim amezwaru, Manchester Mark 1, yeffeɣ-d di Tesdawit n Manchester deg ussegas n 1949. IBM 360 d aselkim amezwaru i yenzan s waṭas. Yeffeɣ-d di 1954. Taẓayt-is tekka nnig 2000 kg, ma d taččaṛt-is tewweḍ ar 3 m3.

Syin akkin, seg usegas ar wayeḍ, aselkim yeƫƫuɣal d aṭuṭaḥ, d afessas, d arurad. Aselkim i nessen ass-a, ur yewwiḍ ara kilu di taẓayt, yerna d arurad 2 imelyunen n tikkal af uselkim amezwaru i d-yeffɣen di 1954.

Ass-a, aselkim yekcem di yal annar n tudert. Yewweḍ-d armi d tilifun i nettawi yid-neɣ. Sya ar zdat, yezmer ad yaweḍ ar daxel n wallaɣ-nneɣ.

== Aẓar n Yisem ==
[[Tugna:X-4_with_Female_Computer_-_GPN-2000-001932.jpg|alt=A human computer.|vignette|aselkim amdanan, akked amikṛuscup d tamsiḍent, 1952.ordinateur humain, avec un microscope et une calculatrice, 1952.]]
Deg tmaziɣt, Aselkim (iselkmen) yusa-d seg umyag 'Selkem' i yesɛan anamek n &quot;exucute,  نفذ&quot;.

== Amezruy d Umhaz n Uselkim: Seg Tfelwit n Usiḍen armi d Tigzi Taragmawant ==
Aselkim (s teglizit: Computer, s tefransist: Ordinateur), mačči d tamacint i d-ilulen deg yiwen wass. D agmuḍ n wazal n tisutwin n uxemmem, n tusnakt, d tussna. Awal-a &quot;Aselkim&quot; yekka-d seg wamyag &quot;selkem&quot;, acku d tamacint yettselkamen tiludna. Maca, uqbel ad naweḍ ɣer yiselkimen imeqqranen n ass-a, yella wahil ɣezzifen n umhaz.

=== 1. Tallit Tamezwarut: Ifecka n Usiḍen (Tallit taqburt armi d Tisut 17) ===
Zik, uqbel trisiti d tmacinin, imdanen llan xeddmen '''asiḍen''' s ifassen-nsen.

'''Tafelwit n usiḍen''' (Abaque): D afecku amezwaru i sxedmen icinwaten, iṛumaniyen d waṭas n yiɣerfan akken ad xedmen leḥsab s urured.

Deg tallit-nni, awal &quot;Aselkim&quot; yella yettunefk i yemdanen ixeddmen asiḍen s ifassen-nsen

== Iḥricen d iferdisen igejdanen n uselkim ==

== Arrum ==
Arrum d igmanen iɣaranen (physiques) n uselkim i nezmer ad ten-nwali neɣ ad ten-nnal. Gar yigmanen-a, ad naf:

'''Asekkar''' (CPU): D allaɣ n uselkim. Netta i yettsekkaren isefka, i yettselkamen tinaḍin, u i yessuffuɣen agmuḍ.

'''Takatut''': D amkan anda yettwaḥerrez usekker i yimal. Tettwabḍu ɣer sin n yigezda:

'''Takatut tuddirt''' (RAM): D takatut i yettxeddemen kan mi ara yili uselkim yecɛel. Tettwasefk i usekkar akken ad yessukel isefka s urured.

'''Takatut tugrist''' (ROM): D takatut yettwaɣersen, ur tettbeddil ara, tettaǧǧa aselkim ad yekker (amorçage / awel) mi ara tecɛelḍ trisiti ɣer uslkim.

'''Ibenkan''': D ibenkan n wekcam d tuffɣa:

* Anasiw: I usekcem n yisekkilen d wawalen.
* Tamumedt / Taɣerdayt: I usenked d umutti n teḥnaccaṭ ɣef ugdil.
* Agdil: Allal n ubeggeḍ i yisekkilen, tugniwin, d yisnasen.
* Aḍebsi  / Tasfift: I uḥraz n isefka i yimal.

== Aseɣẓan ==
Aselkim mebla aseɣẓan, am tmacint mebla ṛṛuḥ. Aseɣẓan d tugna n yihilen d tinaḍin i yettmududen i usekkar amek ara yexdem.

'''Anagraw n wammud''': D aseɣẓan agejday (am ''Windows, Linux, macOS'') i yessefraken arrum, takatut, d yibenkan, u i yeldin tawwurt i yisnasen akken ad xedmen.

'''Isnasen''': D iseɣẓanen i wemdan (aseqdac). Am usekker n weḍris, unuɣ, neɣ imesli.

'''Ahil''': D azrir n tinaḍin yuran s tmeslayt n usihel i uselkim.

== Izeḍwa d Internet ==
Aselkim ma yella weḥd-s ur yesɛi ara azal amuqqran am wass-a. S uzeṭṭa, iselkimen myuqqnen i usemmeskel  isefka.

'''Aqeddac''': D aselkim amuqqran, i yettmuddun isefka neɣ tanfiwin i yiselkimen nniḍen (imsaɣen) deg uzeṭṭa.

'''Iminig''': D asnas i yettaǧǧan aseqdac ad inig deg yisebtar n Web.

'''Asigna''' (Cloud): Ass-a, isefka ur ttwakelsen ara kan deg uḍebsi n uselkim, maca ttwakelsen deg yiqeddacen imeqqranen i wumi nessawel &quot;Asigna&quot;.

== Taɣellist Tasenselkamt ==
Deg umaḍal umḍin, isefka d ayen ɣlayen s waṭas. Ilaq ad ten-nḥrez seg tuggziwin.

'''Awgelhen''': D tarrayt n uselket n telɣa ɣer wawal uffir s useqdec n tsarut , akken ur ten-yettwali ara win ur nesɛi ara azref.

'''Anfafad / Avirus''' (Virus): D aseɣẓan n ddiri i yettbeddilen tkli uselkim war tafrit n uqeddac, i yettakeren isefka, neɣ i yessewḥalen anagraw.

'''Tanezgert taɣelsant / aɣrab aɣellsan''' (Firewall): I uḥraz n uzeṭṭa seg yinekcamen ur nesɛi ara azref.[[Tugna:Abacus_6.png|gauche|vignette|suanpan ({{Lang|zh|算盘}}) n Tcinwa. Amaru yettwakalen deg uḍar-a d 6.302.715.408. suapan ({{Lang|zh|算盘}}) chinois. Le nombre écrit dans cette partie est 6.302.715.408.]]

== iɣbula ==

[[Taggayt:Tatiknulujit]]
[[Taggayt:Aselkim]]</text>
      <sha1>08a0idce5pkkkxjogmk0pijfkzzdfxu</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tazdukla</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117243</id>
      <parentid>117166</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T01:21:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
      <origin>117243</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13083" sha1="tk0qt0v90l9pcpkug0wakkerjozpiu1" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:Hammer and Sickle and Star.svg|vignette|Tafḍist d umger d asentel amiran n uzamul azduklan. Wa d amedya n tefḍist d wemger d yitri azewwaɣ i d-yekkan seg wannay n tdukla tasuvyatit.]]
Tasnakta n '''tzdukla''', d yiwet n tiẓri tasertit, tadamsant, akked tmettit i d-yeflalin i wakken ad d-teglu s ubeddel aẓaran deg unagraw ametti. Iswi-ines agejdan d asali n tmetti war tiserkm, anda ayla uslig n wallalen n ufares ad yettwakkes, ad yuɣal d ayla amagraw (ayla amazday) iwumi ara d-tezzizdig tmetti s timmad-is. Deg unagraw-a, yal yiwen ad yefk ilmend n tezmert-is, yal yiwen ad yaweḍ ilmend n tesri-ines.

== Aẓar d Laṣel ==
Aẓar n tiẓri-a yettarra ɣer lqern wis XIX, sɣur sin n yigaggen ilmaniyen: '''[[Karl Marks]]''' akked '''[[Friedrich Engels]]'''. Deg useggas n 1848, ssufɣen-d adlis-nsen yettwassnen aṭas, i wumi semman ''Ameskan n Ukabar Azduklan'' (neɣ ulɣu n ukabar azduklan).

Deg tallit-nni, timura n Turuft llant ddrent tallit n tgrawla temguranit. Annect-a yegla-d s unagraw amsihran, anda inesbaɣuren, neɣ ''tiburjwazit'', ttqemmiren imɣidan (aprolitari), wid ur nesɛi ara ayla, ssexdamen-ten s rxa d leɛtab ameqqran i wakken ad snernin ayla-nsen. D lḥif-a n yimahilen d tɣara n tudert-nsen i d-yeǧǧan Marks d Engels ad d-sbedden tasnakta i d-yessawalen ɣer tnekra mgal anagraw-a asihri i d-yeglan s miḥyaf d lbaṭel.

== Tiktiwin d Tiẓriyin Tigejdanin ==
Tasnakta n tzdukla tebna ɣef waṭas n tamiḍranin yezdin ɣef yiwen n lqaleb. Gar tigejdanin-a, nezmer ad d-nebder:

* '''Amennuɣ n Tserkam:''' [[Karl Marks|Marks]] yeqqar-d belli amezruy n tmetti n wemdan d amezruy n umennuɣ gar tserkam. Amennuɣ-a amezray yella gar wid yesɛan allalen n ufares d wengaw ɣer tama, akked wid yesnuzuyen afus n lḥirfa-nsen akken ad idiren ɣer tama nniḍen.
[[Tugna:Marx and Engels.jpg|vignette|Karl Marks d  Friedrich Engels]]
&quot;Amennuɣ n tserkam&quot; d netta i d lsas, neɣ d ul n tesnakta tazduklant i d-sbedden [[Karl Marks]] akked [[Friedrich Engels]]. Di teẓri-nsen, llan ttwalin d akken amezruy n tmetti n wemdan, seg wasmi i d-tebda alamma d ass-a, d amezruy n umennuɣ gar tserkam timettiyin. Amennuɣ-a ur yelli ara d ayen i d-yekkan s lebɣi n yimdanen, maca d ayen i d-ilulen s usrag n wamek i tebna tadamsa d wassaɣen n ufares. Deg yal tallit n umezruy, timetti tettwabḍa ɣef sin n yigrawen igejdanen: wid yesɛan akked wid ur nesɛi ara, asemsan akked d win yettwaɛeffsen, i yettidiren deg yiwen waddad n umennuɣ d umcewwel ur nḥebbes ara. Ihi, amennuɣ-a yettwaḥsab d mutur i d-yettawin abeddel amezray, imi d netta i d-igellun s tnekra n yinagrawen imaynuten n tadamsa d tsertit.

Deg tallit n tmsihrit i deg ddren Marks d Engels, amennuɣ-a yuɣal d amesfari ugar n zik. Anagraw amsihran yegla-d s beṭṭu n tmetti ɣef snat n tserkam timeqqranin i yemgaraden s waṭas, yerna mgalent yiwet ɣer tayeḍ deg yiswi d yinzwayen-nsent. Ɣer tama, tella tburjwazit neɣ inesbaɣuren, d nutni i d imawlan n wallalen n ufares am tmacinin, tiferkiwin, d wallalen n tnezzut. Ɣer tama nniḍen, llan yimɣiden neɣ imahilen (ixeddamen), i d-yufan iman-nsen ur sɛin kra n wayla ara ten-isidren, ayen i ten-yessawḍen ad znuzun afus n yirq-nsen d tezmert-nsen i inesbaɣuren-nni s lexlaṣ d aḥafi. Assaɣ-a yellan gar-asen mačči d assaɣ n tegdazalt, maca d assaɣ yebnan ɣef tduli d wassar.

Taggara n wassaɣ-a yellan gar snat n tserkmin-a d amennuɣ ameqqran i d-yettilalin seg umnekni yexṣren gar-asen. Marks yessefhem-d belli aburjwazi ur yettxelliṣ ara amahil ɣef wakken yeswa s tidet, maca yettak-as kan ayen ara t-yeǧǧen ad yidir akken ad ikemmel ad ixeddem azekka-nni. Ayen i d-yernan seg ufares n umahil, i wumi yeqqar Marks &quot;azal amernu&quot; (la plus-value), yettaṭṭaf-it umsihran(ukapitali) i yiman-is. D ayen i t-yettaǧǧan ad yesnerni ayla-s d cci-ines s lbaṭel, ayen i d-yettaken yiwet n tmetti anda amesbaɣur yettnernay deg tnesbaɣurt-is, ma d axeddam yettɣaraq deg lḥif-is d tmeɣbunt-is. Addad-a yessawaḍ amdan ɣer wayen iwumi ssawalen takufḍa, anda axeddam ur yettḥussu ara iman-is deg wayen i d-yessufuɣ, yettwali iman-is d allal kan gar wallalen n ufares nniḍen, ayen i s-yettkessan agemmir-is d yiseɣ-is.

Ɣer taggara, tiẓri n umennuɣ n tserkam ur teḥbis ara kan deg tesleḍt n tmetti n yimir-nni, maca tettak-d ula d asirem ɣer yimal. Imsiḍnen neɣ imeslaḍen n tezdukla qeblen belli amennuɣ-a ur yezmir ara ad ikemmel i lebda war ma yegla-d s ubeddel aẓaran i unagraw s timmad-is. Tickki imahilen ad d-akin s waddad-nsen, ad d-slalen tafrit n tserkemt, amennuɣ-nsen ad yuɣal d amaḍlan u d asertan. D tafrit-a ara d-yessawḍen ɣer tgrawla n yimahilen ara yesseɣlin anagraw amsihran s tezmert. Iswi n tgrawla-a mačči d asekcem n tserkemt ɣef tayeḍ am zik, maca d tukksa n wayla uslig s timmad-is, i wakken ad tesbedd deg umkan-is awanek anemlay, sakin ad taweḍ ɣer iswi aneggaru: asali n tmetti n tzduklant war tiserkam, anda ur yelli lbaṭel, ur yelli umennuɣ, yal amdan ad yili d amegday gar watmaten-is.
* '''Tukksa n Wayla Uslig:''' Tazdukla ur teqbil ara ad yili wayla uslig i wallalen d tanga n ufares, am tkuziyin, tisegza, d tferkiwin. Iswi d asekcem n wayla-ya gar yifassen n tmetti akken ad yili umnekni d tgdazalt akked tgada gar yimdanen.
Tukksa n wayla uslig d yiwet gar tgejdanin timakkiyin ɣef i tebna tesnakta n tzdukla. Deg teẓri n [[Karl Marks]] d [[Friedrich Engels]], annect-a mačči d asurif kan n tsertit neɣ n tdamsa, maca d aẓar n ubeddel ameqqran ara d-yessuksen imdanen seg uɣmar, d tneggayt ara d-yeslalen timetti tamaynut. Tiẓri-a tettawi-d d akken ayla uslig d netta i d ssebba tagejdant n beṭṭu n tmetti ɣef tserkam d ssebbat n lḥif i d-ttmagaren yimahilen deg yal tallit n umezruy. Iwakken ad neṭṭef amkan n tmiḍrant-a akken iwata, ssefk ad tnfhem deg tazwara amgired gar uyla uslig i d-tebɣa tzdukla(tkumunist) ad tekkes, akked uyla udmawan.

Mi d-yemmeslay Marks ɣef tukksa n wayla, ur d-yenni ara ad yettwakkes wayen yesɛa wemdan i yiman-is neɣ &quot;ayla udmawan&quot; am uxxam, llebsa, idlisen, neɣ tiɣawsiwin n yal ass i ssexdamen yimdanen akken ad idiren. Iswi n tzdukla mačči d tukksa n tegmit i yessexdam wemdan i dduzan-is. Ayen i tebɣa ad tekkes, d ayla-nni i d-yesrusuyen lḥif ɣef wiyyaḍ, id-yessawaḍen ad yekseb wemdan tigemmi ɣef uqerruy n lɛetab n wiyyaḍ. Meḥsub, ayla uslig-a yerza &quot;allalen n ufares&quot;: timacinin, isenfaṛen imeqqranen, tiferkiwin, imɣiren, tisegza, d wallalen n tnezzut. D allalen-a i d-yettfarasen ayen tesri tmetti, asmi ara ilin gar yifassen n kra kan n yimdanen, ad uɣalen d allalen n uqemmer d miḥyaf.

Deg unagraw amsihran, imawlan n wallalen-a n ufares, iwumi ssawalen tiburjwazit, ssexdamen ayla-nsen i wakken ad farsen idrimen d rrbeḥ i iman-nsen, war ma ḥusben assas(laɛtab) n yimahilen. Imahilen neɣ imɣiden, imi ur sɛin ara ayla s wayes ara xedmen iman-nsen, ttuḥettmen ad znuzun afus n uxeddim-nsen i yinesbaɣuren s wazal n lexlaṣ yettaɣen di lqaɛa. S wakka, ayla uslig yettuɣal d allal n wammud. Marks yessefhem-d d akken akatar-a n wayla uslig yessawaḍ ɣer &quot;takufḍa&quot;. Amdan ur d-yettaf ara iman-is deg wayen i d-yessufeɣ s ufus-is, ur yettwali ara aselkam n uxeddim-is, yerna tametti tettidir di tezɣenin tidamsanin ur nḥebbes imi iswi n ufares yeqqen ɣer rrbeḥ n yiwet n tarbaɛt (akatar n rbeḥ), mačči ɣer tneflit n tmetti d tririt ɣef tesriyin-is.

Ɣef waya, tukksa n wayla uslig tettawi-d ɣer ubeddel n unagraw n usuddes ametti d udamsan s lekmal-is. Amkan n uyla-a ad t-yeṭṭef &quot;wayla amagraw amettan&quot; neɣ ayla amezdi. Deg waddad-a anemlay d uzduklan, allalen n ufares ad uɣalen d ayla n tmetti s timmad-is, ur ttakken ara abaɣur i yiwen udmawan neɣ i yiwet n twacult. Tametti d nettat ara ten-yesferken s wudem amegday d anɣiwes. Afares ad yili ibedd ɣef lɛeqliya tamaynut: ad d-nfares ayen tesri tmetti akken ad idir yal amdan s liser, mačči akken ad nessiweḍ cci d yisufar ɣer lqella n yinesbaɣuren i ixeddmen fell-asen tarwa n lḥif.

S tukksa n wayla uslig-a n wallalen n ufares, ad negren s wudem awurman tiserkam timettiyin. Imi ma yella ur yelli win i d-yugaren wayeḍ deg wayen yerzan akcam ɣer wallalen-a, d tɣbula n tmurt, ur d-tettagri ara ssebba n umennuɣ gar yimdanen neɣ gar tserkam. Tukksa n wayla-a d nettat i d asurif agejdan ara d-yelden abrid i usbeddi n tmetti tazduklant tummidt i deg yettwaseḥbiber ɣef yiswi-nni aɛlayan n tesnakta n Marks: &quot;Seg yal yiwen ilmend n tezmert-is, ɣer yal yiwen ilmend n tesri-ines&quot;. D anagraw anda ad ifak awanek i d-yessuksen ayla uslig i lbaṭel, d wanda yal amdan ad yesɛu tilelli ad yeflali deg tudert-is war ma yella umennuɣ gar tserkam, s ddemma n idrimen, neɣ s temḥeqranit tadamsant.
* '''Seg Tnemla ɣer Tzdukla:''' Ɣer yimsiḍnen n tesnakta-a, '''tanemla''' (socialisme) d aḥric kan n uɛeddi. Asmi ara d-tili tgrawla n yimahilen, awanek ad yeṭṭef allalen n ufares s yisem n tmetti, ad yexdem anagraw anemlay. Syin akkin, asmi ara d-taweḍ tmetti ɣer tegmi-ines tummidt, awanek ad yenger s timmad-is, ad d-tegri tmetti n tzduklant anda ur tella tsertit n miḥyaf gar yimdanen, ur yelli udrim, ur tella tmurt (tilisa).
Di teẓri n Karl Marks d Friedrich Engels, abeddel seg unagraw n temsihrit ɣer tmetti n tzdukla ur yezmir ara ad d-yili deg yiwen n wass neɣ s yiwen n ussurif kan. Marks yessefhem-d belli asali n tmetti war tiserkam yesra ɣer yiwet n tallit n uɛeddi, d tallit tamenzut iwumi isemma &quot;tanemla&quot;, i wakken ad taweḍ tmetti s wudem uktu ɣer tzduklant tatrat.

Tickki tagrawla n yimahilen teɣleb anagraw n temsihrit, timetti ad tkecem deg tallit n tnemla. Deg waddad-a, awanek mazal-it yella, maca ad yuɣal d allal gar yifassen n yimahilen, ayen iwumi ssawalen &quot;aḥkam aɣrudan n yimahilen&quot;. Iswi n uwanek-a anemlay d asuffeɣ n wallalen n ufares seg yifassen n tburjwazit, i wakken ad uɣalen d ayla n tmetti s umata. Deg tallit-a, tamhazt tadamsant d tmettit tettban-d deg ubeddel n lqaleb n ufraq n wayla. Ilugan n tnemla bnan ɣef wawal-a: &quot;Seg yal yiwen ilmend n tezmert-is, ɣer yal yiwen ilmend n umahil-is&quot;. Meḥsub, yal amdan ad yettwaxelleṣ ɣef wakken ixeddem d wakken yefka tezmert-is i tmetti, imi idrimen mazal-iten ddren s wudem-nsen alɣawan deg umbaddel.

== Amezruy d Umhaz ==
Tirmit n tkumunist tɛedda-d seg waṭas n wudmawen d talliyin deg umezruy n talsa:

=== 1. Tagrawla n Trusit d Unagraw Asuvyati (1917) ===
Termit tamezwarut n tesnakta-a s wudem asertan teḍra-d deg Tmurt n Rrus s tneggayt n Vladimir Lenin akked yibulcuvikiyen. Sseɣlin anagraw n ugellid (Tsar) deg 1917, sbedden awanek amezwaru anemlay deg umaḍal, i d-yuɣalen syin d Tadukli n Tegdudiyin Tinemlayin Tisuvyatiyin (URSS). Lenin yesnerna tiẓri n [[Karl Marks|Marks]] s wakken iwata ilmend n usatal n tmurt-is, ayen i d-yefkan yiwen umhaz d amaynut: ''Amarksizm-Alininizm''.

=== 2. Afukti deg Umaḍal d Wamgaru Asemmaḍ ===
Deffir n Wemgaru Amaḍlan Wis Sin, tasnakta n tzdukla tenfufed ɣer waṭas n tmura, dɣa tger-d llsas di Turuft tagmuḍant s ddaw n tezrirt n URSS. Deg Asya, tegla-d tgrawla meqqren deg Ccinwa s uqerruy n Mao Zedong (1949), i d-yessuflen tiẓri tamaynut i yebnan ɣef yifellaḥen mačči kan ɣef yimahilen n temdinin (''Amawizm''). Ɣer tama-s, ddukklent-d tmura am Kuba, Vietnam, akked Kurya n Ugafa, ayen i d-yeldin tiwwura i wemgaru asnaktan mgal tmura timsihriyin n Umalu (Amgaru Asemmaḍ).

=== 3. Tazɣent d Uɣelluy ===
Deg yiseggasen n 1980, anagraw asuvyati yekcem deg tezɣent tasertant d tadamsant muqqran mliḥ. Lqella n tnafa, Tazzla ɣer yimrigen(leslaḥ), d tagmat i d-yeqqimen d awal kan gar tmura tizduklanin, wwint-d ɣer uɣelluy n Weɣrab n Birlin deg 1989, d uɣelluy n URSS s timmad-is deg 1991. Deg aṭas n tmura n Turuft, tirmit-a n tzuklant(tkumunist) tegla-d s ubrir.

== Ayen i d-iqqimen seg-s deg Umaḍal Atrar ==
Ass-a, deg lqern wis XXI, ur llint ara aṭas n tmura i iṭṭfen deg tesnakta n tzdukla s wudem-is alugen yecban win n zik.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Tamurt'''
|'''Addad Atrar'''
|-
|'''Ccinwa'''
|Mazal teṭṭef deg yisem n tezdukla tasertant, maca deg wannar n tadamsa tessemres aṭas n yilugan n usihri.. Teddu s wayen iwumi ssawalen &quot;Tanemla s udem n ulzuz(ssuq)&quot;.
|-
|'''Kukba / Vietnam'''
|Seḥbunt ɣef ukabar awḥid, maca lldint tiwwura i wayla uslig d tnezzut tagraɣlant akken ad ssifsent ɣef tadamsa-nsent.
|-
|'''Kurya n Ugafa'''
|Tuɣal d awanek agensas yebnan ɣef tesnakta tasimanit (''Juche''), tebɛed aṭas ɣef tmiḍranin timarkisiyin timezwura.
|}

== Asemdu deg Tmetti ==
Ɣas akken inagrawen isertanen n tezdukla wwḍen ɣer taggara-nsent, tiktiwin n tzdukla ǧǧant-d lǧerra meqqren i d-yessawen asemdu ɣef tmetti tatrart. Uɣalent d tameskart n izerfan n yimahilen, am umnekni di tɣara n umahil, timɣriwin n tegmat gar yigduden, akked uḥareb mgal tamnukda d miḥyaf. Tasnakta-a mazal-itt d azɣan lqayen ɣef lqella n tegdazalt, taɣtest n ddin, d lmeḥnat i d-yettawi unagraw amsihran amaḍlan ass-a.</text>
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      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
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      <text bytes="13077" sha1="1tsd7w4kwl15jzgqfieshrfwjzzqjg1" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:Hammer and Sickle and Star.svg|vignette|Tafḍist d umger d asentel amiran n uzamul azduklan. Wa d amedya n tefḍist d wemger d yitri azewwaɣ i d-yekkan seg wannay n tdukla tasuvyatit.]]
Tasnakta n '''tzdukla''', d yiwet n tiẓri tasertit, tadamsant, akked tmettit i d-yeflalin i wakken ad d-teglu s ubeddel aẓaran deg unagraw ametti. Iswi-ines agejdan d asali n tmetti war tiserkm, anda ayla uslig n wallalen n ufares ad yettwakkes, ad yuɣal d ayla amagraw (ayla amazday) iwumi ara d-tezzizdig tmetti s timmad-is. Deg unagraw-a, yal yiwen ad yefk ilmend n tezmert-is, yal yiwen ad yaweḍ ilmend n tesri-ines.

== Aẓar d Laṣel ==
Aẓar n tiẓri-a yettarra ɣer lqern wis XIX, sɣur sin n yigaggen ilmaniyen: '''[[Karl Marks]]''' akked '''[[Friedrich Engels]]'''. Deg useggas n 1848, ssufɣen-d adlis-nsen yettwassnen aṭas, i wumi semman ''Ameskan n Ukabar Azduklan'' (neɣ ulɣu n ukabar azduklan).

Deg tallit-nni, timura n Turuft llant ddrent tallit n tgrawla temguranit. Annect-a yegla-d s unagraw amsihran, anda inesbaɣuren, neɣ ''tiburjwazit'', ttqemmiren imɣidan (aprolitari), wid ur nesɛi ara ayla, ssexdamen-ten s rxa d leɛtab ameqqran i wakken ad snernin ayla-nsen. D lḥif-a n yimahilen d tɣara n tudert-nsen i d-yeǧǧan Marks d Engels ad d-sbedden tasnakta i d-yessawalen ɣer tnekra mgal anagraw-a asihri i d-yeglan s miḥyaf d lbaṭel.

== Tiktiwin d Tiẓriyin Tigejdanin ==
Tasnakta n tzdukla tebna ɣef waṭas n tamiḍranin yezdin ɣef yiwen n lqaleb. Gar tigejdanin-a, nezmer ad d-nebder:

* '''Amennuɣ n Tserkam:''' [[Karl Marks|Marks]] yeqqar-d belli amezruy n tmetti n wemdan d amezruy n umennuɣ gar tserkam. Amennuɣ-a amezray yella gar wid yesɛan allalen n ufares d wengaw ɣer tama, akked wid yesnuzuyen afus n lḥirfa-nsen akken ad idiren ɣer tama nniḍen.
[[Tugna:Marx and Engels.jpg|vignette|Karl Marks d  Friedrich Engels]]
&quot;Amennuɣ n tserkam&quot; d netta i d lsas, neɣ d ul n tesnakta tazduklant i d-sbedden [[Karl Marks]] akked [[Friedrich Engels]]. Di teẓri-nsen, llan ttwalin d akken amezruy n tmetti n wemdan, seg wasmi i d-tebda alamma d ass-a, d amezruy n umennuɣ gar tserkam timettiyin. Amennuɣ-a ur yelli ara d ayen i d-yekkan s lebɣi n yimdanen, maca d ayen i d-ilulen s usrag n wamek i tebna tadamsa d wassaɣen n ufares. Deg yal tallit n umezruy, timetti tettwabḍa ɣef sin n yigrawen igejdanen: wid yesɛan akked wid ur nesɛi ara, asemsan akked d win yettwaɛeffsen, i yettidiren deg yiwen waddad n umennuɣ d umcewwel ur nḥebbes ara. Ihi, amennuɣ-a yettwaḥsab d mutur i d-yettawin abeddel amezray, imi d netta i d-igellun s tnekra n yinagrawen imaynuten n tadamsa d tsertit.

Deg tallit n tmsihrit i deg ddren Marks d Engels, amennuɣ-a yuɣal d amesfari ugar n zik. Anagraw amsihran yegla-d s beṭṭu n tmetti ɣef snat n tserkam timeqqranin i yemgaraden s waṭas, yerna mgalent yiwet ɣer tayeḍ deg yiswi d yinzwayen-nsent. Ɣer tama, tella tburjwazit neɣ inesbaɣuren, d nutni i d imawlan n wallalen n ufares am tmacinin, tiferkiwin, d wallalen n tnezzut. Ɣer tama nniḍen, llan yimɣiden neɣ imahilen (ixeddamen), i d-yufan iman-nsen ur sɛin kra n wayla ara ten-isidren, ayen i ten-yessawḍen ad znuzun afus n yirq-nsen d tezmert-nsen i inesbaɣuren-nni s lexlaṣ d aḥafi. Assaɣ-a yellan gar-asen mačči d assaɣ n tegdazalt, maca d assaɣ yebnan ɣef tduli d wassar.

Taggara n wassaɣ-a yellan gar snat n tserkmin-a d amennuɣ ameqqran i d-yettilalin seg umnekni yexṣren gar-asen. Marks yessefhem-d belli aburjwazi ur yettxelliṣ ara amahil ɣef wakken yeswa s tidet, maca yettak-as kan ayen ara t-yeǧǧen ad yidir akken ad ikemmel ad ixeddem azekka-nni. Ayen i d-yernan seg ufares n umahil, i wumi yeqqar Marks &quot;azal amernu&quot; (la plus-value), yettaṭṭaf-it umsihran(ukapitali) i yiman-is. D ayen i t-yettaǧǧan ad yesnerni ayla-s d cci-ines s lbaṭel, ayen i d-yettaken yiwet n tmetti anda amesbaɣur yettnernay deg tnesbaɣurt-is, ma d axeddam yettɣaraq deg lḥif-is d tmeɣbunt-is. Addad-a yessawaḍ amdan ɣer wayen iwumi ssawalen takufḍa, anda axeddam ur yettḥussu ara iman-is deg wayen i d-yessufuɣ, yettwali iman-is d allal kan gar wallalen n ufares nniḍen, ayen i s-yettkessan agemmir-is d yiseɣ-is.

Ɣer taggara, tiẓri n umennuɣ n tserkam ur teḥbis ara kan deg tesleḍt n tmetti n yimir-nni, maca tettak-d ula d asirem ɣer yimal. Imsiḍnen neɣ imeslaḍen n tezdukla qeblen belli amennuɣ-a ur yezmir ara ad ikemmel i lebda war ma yegla-d s ubeddel aẓaran i unagraw s timmad-is. Tickki imahilen ad d-akin s waddad-nsen, ad d-slalen tafrit n tserkemt, amennuɣ-nsen ad yuɣal d amaḍlan u d asertan. D tafrit-a ara d-yessawḍen ɣer tgrawla n yimahilen ara yesseɣlin anagraw amsihran s tezmert. Iswi n tgrawla-a mačči d asekcem n tserkemt ɣef tayeḍ am zik, maca d tukksa n wayla uslig s timmad-is, i wakken ad tesbedd deg umkan-is awanek anemlay, sakin ad taweḍ ɣer iswi aneggaru: asali n tmetti n tzduklant war tiserkam, anda ur yelli lbaṭel, ur yelli umennuɣ, yal amdan ad yili d amegday gar watmaten-is.
* '''Tukksa n Wayla Uslig:''' Tazdukla ur teqbil ara ad yili wayla uslig i wallalen d tanga n ufares, am tkuziyin, tisegza, d tferkiwin. Iswi d asekcem n wayla-ya gar yifassen n tmetti akken ad yili umnekni d tgdazalt akked tgada gar yimdanen.
Tukksa n wayla uslig d yiwet gar tgejdanin timakkiyin ɣef i tebna tesnakta n tzdukla. Deg teẓri n [[Karl Marks]] d [[Friedrich Engels]], annect-a mačči d asurif kan n tsertit neɣ n tdamsa, maca d aẓar n ubeddel ameqqran ara d-yessuksen imdanen seg uɣmar, d tneggayt ara d-yeslalen timetti tamaynut. Tiẓri-a tettawi-d d akken ayla uslig d netta i d ssebba tagejdant n beṭṭu n tmetti ɣef tserkam d ssebbat n lḥif i d-ttmagaren yimahilen deg yal tallit n umezruy. Iwakken ad neṭṭef amkan n tmiḍrant-a akken iwata, ssefk ad tnfhem deg tazwara amgired gar uyla uslig i d-tebɣa tzdukla(tkumunist) ad tekkes, akked uyla udmawan.

Mi d-yemmeslay Marks ɣef tukksa n wayla, ur d-yenni ara ad yettwakkes wayen yesɛa wemdan i yiman-is neɣ &quot;ayla udmawan&quot; am uxxam, llebsa, idlisen, neɣ tiɣawsiwin n yal ass i ssexdamen yimdanen akken ad idiren. Iswi n tzdukla mačči d tukksa n tegmit i yessexdam wemdan i dduzan-is. Ayen i tebɣa ad tekkes, d ayla-nni i d-yesrusuyen lḥif ɣef wiyyaḍ, id-yessawaḍen ad yekseb wemdan tigemmi ɣef uqerruy n lɛetab n wiyyaḍ. Meḥsub, ayla uslig-a yerza &quot;allalen n ufares&quot;: timacinin, isenfaṛen imeqqranen, tiferkiwin, imɣiren, tisegza, d wallalen n tnezzut. D allalen-a i d-yettfarasen ayen tesri tmetti, asmi ara ilin gar yifassen n kra kan n yimdanen, ad uɣalen d allalen n uqemmer d miḥyaf.

Deg unagraw amsihran, imawlan n wallalen-a n ufares, iwumi ssawalen tiburjwazit, ssexdamen ayla-nsen i wakken ad farsen idrimen d rrbeḥ i iman-nsen, war ma ḥusben assas(laɛtab) n yimahilen. Imahilen neɣ imɣiden, imi ur sɛin ara ayla s wayes ara xedmen iman-nsen, ttuḥettmen ad znuzun afus n uxeddim-nsen i yinesbaɣuren s wazal n lexlaṣ yettaɣen di lqaɛa. S wakka, ayla uslig yettuɣal d allal n wammud. Marks yessefhem-d d akken akatar-a n wayla uslig yessawaḍ ɣer &quot;takufḍa&quot;. Amdan ur d-yettaf ara iman-is deg wayen i d-yessufeɣ s ufus-is, ur yettwali ara aselkam n uxeddim-is, yerna tametti tettidir di tezɣenin tidamsanin ur nḥebbes imi iswi n ufares yeqqen ɣer rrbeḥ n yiwet n tarbaɛt (akatar n rbeḥ), mačči ɣer tneflit n tmetti d tririt ɣef tesriyin-is.

Ɣef waya, tukksa n wayla uslig tettawi-d ɣer ubeddel n unagraw n usuddes ametti d udamsan s lekmal-is. Amkan n uyla-a ad t-yeṭṭef &quot;wayla amagraw amettan&quot; neɣ ayla amezdi. Deg waddad-a anemlay d uzduklan, allalen n ufares ad uɣalen d ayla n tmetti s timmad-is, ur ttakken ara abaɣur i yiwen udmawan neɣ i yiwet n twacult. Tametti d nettat ara ten-yesferken s wudem amegday d anɣiwes. Afares ad yili ibedd ɣef lɛeqliya tamaynut: ad d-nfares ayen tesri tmetti akken ad idir yal amdan s liser, mačči akken ad nessiweḍ cci d yisufar ɣer lqella n yinesbaɣuren i ixeddmen fell-asen tarwa n lḥif.

S tukksa n wayla uslig-a n wallalen n ufares, ad negren s wudem awurman tiserkam timettiyin. Imi ma yella ur yelli win i d-yugaren wayeḍ deg wayen yerzan akcam ɣer wallalen-a, d tɣbula n tmurt, ur d-tettagri ara ssebba n umennuɣ gar yimdanen neɣ gar tserkam. Tukksa n wayla-a d nettat i d asurif agejdan ara d-yelden abrid i usbeddi n tmetti tazduklant tummidt i deg yettwaseḥbiber ɣef yiswi-nni aɛlayan n tesnakta n Marks: &quot;Seg yal yiwen ilmend n tezmert-is, ɣer yal yiwen ilmend n tesri-ines&quot;. D anagraw anda ad ifak awanek i d-yessuksen ayla uslig i lbaṭel, d wanda yal amdan ad yesɛu tilelli ad yeflali deg tudert-is war ma yella umennuɣ gar tserkam, s ddemma n idrimen, neɣ s temḥeqranit tadamsant.
* '''Seg Tnemla ɣer Tzdukla:''' Ɣer yimsiḍnen n tesnakta-a, '''tanemla''' (socialisme) d aḥric kan n uɛeddi. Asmi ara d-tili tgrawla n yimahilen, awanek ad yeṭṭef allalen n ufares s yisem n tmetti, ad yexdem anagraw anemlay. Syin akkin, asmi ara d-taweḍ tmetti ɣer tegmi-ines tummidt, awanek ad yenger s timmad-is, ad d-tegri tmetti n tzduklant anda ur tella tsertit n miḥyaf gar yimdanen, ur yelli udrim, ur tella tmurt (tilisa).
Di teẓri n Karl Marks d Friedrich Engels, abeddel seg unagraw n usihri ɣer tmetti n tzdukla ur yezmir ara ad d-yili deg yiwen n wass neɣ s yiwen n ussurif kan. Marks yessefhem-d belli asali n tmetti war tiserkam yesra ɣer yiwet n tallit n uɛeddi, d tallit tamenzut iwumi isemma &quot;tanemla&quot;, i wakken ad taweḍ tmetti s wudem uktu ɣer tzduklant tatrat.

Tickki tagrawla n yimahilen teɣleb anagraw n usihri, timetti ad tkecem deg tallit n tnemla. Deg waddad-a, awanek mazal-it yella, maca ad yuɣal d allal gar yifassen n yimahilen, ayen iwumi ssawalen &quot;aḥkam aɣrudan n yimahilen&quot;. Iswi n uwanek-a anemlay d asuffeɣ n wallalen n ufares seg yifassen n tburjwazit, i wakken ad uɣalen d ayla n tmetti s umata. Deg tallit-a, tamhazt tadamsant d tmettit tettban-d deg ubeddel n lqaleb n ufraq n wayla. Ilugan n tnemla bnan ɣef wawal-a: &quot;Seg yal yiwen ilmend n tezmert-is, ɣer yal yiwen ilmend n umahil-is&quot;. Meḥsub, yal amdan ad yettwaxelleṣ ɣef wakken ixeddem d wakken yefka tezmert-is i tmetti, imi idrimen mazal-iten ddren s wudem-nsen alɣawan deg umbaddel.

== Amezruy d Umhaz ==
Tirmit n tkumunist tɛedda-d seg waṭas n wudmawen d talliyin deg umezruy n talsa:

=== 1. Tagrawla n Trusit d Unagraw Asuvyati (1917) ===
Termit tamezwarut n tesnakta-a s wudem asertan teḍra-d deg Tmurt n Rrus s tneggayt n Vladimir Lenin akked yibulcuvikiyen. Sseɣlin anagraw n ugellid (Tsar) deg 1917, sbedden awanek amezwaru anemlay deg umaḍal, i d-yuɣalen syin d Tadukli n Tegdudiyin Tinemlayin Tisuvyatiyin (URSS). Lenin yesnerna tiẓri n [[Karl Marks|Marks]] s wakken iwata ilmend n usatal n tmurt-is, ayen i d-yefkan yiwen umhaz d amaynut: ''Amarksizm-Alininizm''.

=== 2. Afukti deg Umaḍal d Wamgaru Asemmaḍ ===
Deffir n Wemgaru Amaḍlan Wis Sin, tasnakta n tzdukla tenfufed ɣer waṭas n tmura, dɣa tger-d llsas di Turuft tagmuḍant s ddaw n tezrirt n URSS. Deg Asya, tegla-d tgrawla meqqren deg Ccinwa s uqerruy n Mao Zedong (1949), i d-yessuflen tiẓri tamaynut i yebnan ɣef yifellaḥen mačči kan ɣef yimahilen n temdinin (''Amawizm''). Ɣer tama-s, ddukklent-d tmura am Kuba, Vietnam, akked Kurya n Ugafa, ayen i d-yeldin tiwwura i wemgaru asnaktan mgal tmura timsihriyin n Umalu (Amgaru Asemmaḍ).

=== 3. Tazɣent d Uɣelluy ===
Deg yiseggasen n 1980, anagraw asuvyati yekcem deg tezɣent tasertant d tadamsant muqqran mliḥ. Lqella n tnafa, Tazzla ɣer yimrigen(leslaḥ), d tagmat i d-yeqqimen d awal kan gar tmura tizduklanin, wwint-d ɣer uɣelluy n Weɣrab n Birlin deg 1989, d uɣelluy n URSS s timmad-is deg 1991. Deg aṭas n tmura n Turuft, tirmit-a n tzuklant(tkumunist) tegla-d s ubrir.

== Ayen i d-iqqimen seg-s deg Umaḍal Atrar ==
Ass-a, deg lqern wis XXI, ur llint ara aṭas n tmura i iṭṭfen deg tesnakta n tzdukla s wudem-is alugen yecban win n zik.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Tamurt'''
|'''Addad Atrar'''
|-
|'''Ccinwa'''
|Mazal teṭṭef deg yisem n tezdukla tasertant, maca deg wannar n tadamsa tessemres aṭas n yilugan n usihri.. Teddu s wayen iwumi ssawalen &quot;Tanemla s udem n ulzuz(ssuq)&quot;.
|-
|'''Kukba / Vietnam'''
|Seḥbunt ɣef ukabar awḥid, maca lldint tiwwura i wayla uslig d tnezzut tagraɣlant akken ad ssifsent ɣef tadamsa-nsent.
|-
|'''Kurya n Ugafa'''
|Tuɣal d awanek agensas yebnan ɣef tesnakta tasimanit (''Juche''), tebɛed aṭas ɣef tmiḍranin timarkisiyin timezwura.
|}

== Asemdu deg Tmetti ==
Ɣas akken inagrawen isertanen n tezdukla wwḍen ɣer taggara-nsent, tiktiwin n tzdukla ǧǧant-d lǧerra meqqren i d-yessawen asemdu ɣef tmetti tatrart. Uɣalent d tameskart n izerfan n yimahilen, am umnekni di tɣara n umahil, timɣriwin n tegmat gar yigduden, akked uḥareb mgal tamnukda d miḥyaf. Tasnakta-a mazal-itt d azɣan lqayen ɣef lqella n tegdazalt, taɣtest n ddin, d lmeḥnat i d-yettawi unagraw amsihran amaḍlan ass-a.</text>
      <sha1>1tsd7w4kwl15jzgqfieshrfwjzzqjg1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C++</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117247</id>
      <parentid>117233</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T10:40:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="19118" sha1="h81ddvcqkkqnhlrumvkxntlhl7jmap1" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
[[Tugna:ISO C++ Logo.svg|vignette|Alugu n C++.]]
'''Tutlayt n usihel C++''' Yesnulfa-tt-id Bjarne Stroustrup deg useggas n 1979 deg Bell Laboratories. Deg tazwara, semman-as &quot;C s tserkam&quot;, acku tella d asiɣzef n tutlayt C s tmerna n tserkam. Deg useggas n 1983, beddlen isem-is ɣer C++. Deg useggas n 1998, teffeɣ-d tizeɣt tamezwarut s waggaz ISO/IEC 14882.

C++ tella d tutlayt n usihel i d-yufraren ɣef C acku terni-yas :

* Asihel s tɣawsiwin 
* Asihel s tserkam 
* Asihel imcettel (Generic Programming) s templates
* Asefrek n tkatut s ufus

Tutlayt-a tettwaseqdec deg :

Asnulfu n yisiɣẓanen n unagraw d usihel n yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, arnu asnulfu n wuraren akked deg uḥric n tussna n isefka d tigzi taragmawant. arnu daɣen deg iseggasen-a ineggura C++ nezmer ad t-nesseqdec deg weḥric n Web seg tama n umsaɣ s tallelt n WebAssembly.

== Amezruy ==
Tutlayt n usihel C++ tella d yiwet seg tutlayin timeqranin akk deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg wasmi i d-tlul deg useggas n 1979 ar ass-a, C++ temhaz-d s waṭas, tessaweḍ ad tili d allal agejdan deg waṭas n yiḥricen : seg usnulfu n yinagrawen n wammud ar usihel n yiselkimen, seg wuraren ar tigzi taragmawant. Aḍris-agi ad d-yezzuɣɣer amezruy-is, amhaz-is, d wazal-is deg yal tallit n tselkimt.

=== 1. Tilalin : Seg C ar C s Tserkam (1979–1983) ===

==== 1.1 Asenti ====
Deg useggas n 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, yiwen n unelmad n PhD deg Bell Laboratories (AT&amp;T) deg [[Marikan]], yebda yettmahal ɣef usnulfu n tutlayt tamaynut. Stroustrup yella yesseqdac s [[C (tutlayt)|tutlayt C]], maca yebɣa ad yernu fell-as tarrayin n usihel s tɣawsiwin (object-oriented programming) i d-yellan seg tutlayt '''Simula'''.

Iswi-ines amezwaru d ad yessers tamṣukt n usihel s tserkam ɣef tutlayt C, i wakken ad yessers isefka d twsitin n tserkam deg yiwen n umkan. Deg tazwara, isem n tutlayt-a yella d &quot;C with Classes&quot; (C s Tserkam).

==== 1.2 Ismawen d Tarrayin Timezwura ====
Deg tallit-a tamezwarut, Stroustrup yerni-yas i C :

* '''Tiserkam''' (classes) s tmahilin-nsent (member functions)
* '''Tukkest''' (inheritance) : taserkemt ad tawi isefka d twsitin seg tserkemt nniḍen
* '''Timselɣutin''' (references)
* '''Asenqed n tewsatin''' (type checking) iǧehden

Deg useggas n 1983, beddlen isem n tutlayt seg &quot;C with Classes&quot; ar &quot;C++&quot;. Azamul ++ deg C yettawwi-d anerni n wazal s yiwen, d tinnaṭ i d-yemmalen belli C++ d asiɣzef n C.

=== 2. Tallit n Umhaz Amezwaru (1983–1998) ===

==== 2.1 Tizeɣt Tamezwarut ====
Deg tallit-a, C++ terna aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin :

'''1985''' : Tiffeɣ-d Tizeɣt tamezwarut n C++ s uzwel &quot;The C++ Programming Language&quot; n Stroustrup. Tizeɣt-a tesɛa tiserkam, tukkest, tiseɣnin tuhlistin, d tseɣnin n tserkam (member functions).

'''1989''' : Yerna-yas agettalɣa (polymorphism) s twsitin timenyafin, akwbal (encapsulation) s wawalen ''private'', ''public,'' d ''protected'', d tamadwant (abstraction).

'''1990''' : Timerna n &quot;''templates&quot;'' i usihel imcettel (generic programming), tisuraf (exceptions) i uselmed n tuccḍiwin, d ismawen n tallunin (namespaces).

==== 2.2 C++ deg Tselkimt n Tallit-a ====
Deg tallit-a, C++ tettwaseqdec aṭas deg :

* Usnulfu n yinagrawen n wammud am Windows d Unix
* Usihel n yinagrawen yettwaselɣen 
* Usnulfu n isiɣẓanen n tnarit 
* Asihel n yinagrawen n taffa n isefka

C++ tella d tutlayt i yesɛan tanezmart meqqren deg uselkem, acku tettaǧǧa asefrek asmussaw n tkatut s ufus, s useqdec n ''new'' d ''delete''.

=== 3. Tallit n Tizeɣt (1998–2011) ===

==== 3.1 Tizeɣt Tamezwarut : C++98 ====
Deg useggas n 1998, teffeɣ-d tizeɣt tamezwarut n C++ s waggaz ISO/IEC 14882:1998. Tizeɣt-a tesbedd ilugan n tutlayt s wudem unṣib, tefka-yas i C++ tamṣukt tusliḍt i yettwaqbalen deg umaḍal meṛṛa.

'''C++98''' tesɛa :

* '''STL''' (Standard Template Library) : tamkarḍit n temudmin timcettelt (generic templates) am vector, list, map, set
* '''allusen''' (iterators) i ulḥu deg yimgraden
* '''Tiwsatin timatuyin''' (algorithms) am sort, find, for_each
* '''Tusrufin''' (exceptions) s try, catch, throw

==== 3.2 C++03 ====
Deg useggas n 2003, yeffeɣ-d lqem wis sin n tizeɣt (ISO/IEC 14882:2003). Lqem-a ur yerni ara aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin, maca yesseɣti kra n tuccḍiwin yellan deg C++98, yesbedd ilugan s wudem uḥric.

==== 3.3 C++ deg Tallit-a ====
Deg tallit n 1998 ar 2011, C++ tettwaseqdec aṭas deg :

* Usnulfu n wuraren : s tallelt n imuturen n wuraren am Unreal Engine, CryEngine
* Usihel n yiselkimen : afreɣẓan, inuḍaf, anagraw n wammud
* Tasnallunt d tmhelt n tkeṛṛusin 
* Taɣult n tedrimt : inagrawen n lbanka d tenzzut

=== 4. Tallit n Imaynuten n C++  (2011–Ass-a) ===

==== 4.1 C++11 : Tagrawla Tameqqrant ====
Deg useggas n 2011, teffeɣ-d C++11, i yettwaḥsben d tagrawla tameqqrant deg umezruy n tutlayt-a. C++11 terna aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin i yessahlen asihel :

* ''auto'' : tawsit yettwafra s wudem awurman
* ''Lambda expressions'' : tiwsitin tuffirin i yettwarun deg umkan
* ''Range-based for'' : tineddict ɣef yal aferdis n umegrad
* ''Move semantics'' : asmutti n tɣawsiwin bla anɣal, i usnerni n tmellit
* ''Smart pointers'' (unique_ptr, shared_ptr) : isewwaṛen iuḥricen i yettḥerzen takatut s wudem awurman
* ''constexpr'' : azalen yettwaḥesben deg wakud n lqem
* ''nullptr'' : azal amaynut i usewwaṛ ilem, yettbeddilen NULL
* ''enum class'' : inumriyen iǧehden

==== 4.2 C++14 ====
Deg 2014, yeffeɣ-d lqem i d-yernan :

''Generic lambdas'' : lambdas s tewsatin timcettelt, akeed &quot;''Return type deduction''&quot; i twsitin, &quot;''constexpr&quot;'' iǧehden, arnu timudmin s wudem amutti &quot;''Variable templates&quot;.''

==== 4.3 C++17 ====
Deg 2017, C++17 terna :

''if constexpr'' : tiwtilin deg wakud n lqem, ''optional, variant, any'' : tiwsatin n isefka imatuyen, ''Fold expressions'' : i timudmin, ''Parallel algorithms'' : tiwsatin timatuyin s uselmed n ukala afessas.

==== 4.4 C++20 ====
Deg 2020, C++20 terna tɣawsiwin timeqranin :

''Concepts'' : tilisa ɣef timudmin, i wakken ad yili useqqer n tuccḍiwin drus, ''Modules'' : anagraw amaynut n uskecm n ifuyla, yettbeddilen #include, ''Coroutines'' : tiwsitin i izemren ad ḥebsent rnu ad kemmlent, ''Ranges'' : allalen imaynuten n umahil ɣef yimgraden, &lt;format&gt; : tamṣukt n usformat am Python, Kraḍ n iberdan n userwes (&lt;=&gt;)

==== 4.5 C++23 ====
Deg 2023, C++23 terna :

''std::expected'' : i uselmed n tuccḍiwin bla tasureft, ''Deducing this'' : i twsitin n tserkam.

== Tamṣukt n Wahil C++ ==
Yal ahil n C++ yesɛa tamṣukt taseddast. Aḥric amezwaru i yessefken ad yili deg yal ahil d tawsit n tesɣent &quot;main()&quot;, d nettat i d iḥdar agejdan amezwer n uselkem.&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;iostream&gt;
using namespace std;

int main() {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azul, a ddunit!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Deg uḍris-agi :

'''#include &lt;iostream&gt;''' : d taladna n uzarsekkar i d-yesskecmen tamkarḍit n unekcum d usuffeɣ.

'''using namespace std;''' : d alɣu i d-yemmalen belli nseqdac tallunt n yismawen (namespace) std.

'''int main()''' : d tawsit n tesɣent tagejdant ideg yebda uselkem.

'''cout''' : d allal n usuffeɣ ɣer wegdil.

'''return 0;''' : d tinnaṭ n tuɣalin i d-yemmalen belli ahil yemmed akken iwata.

== Tewsatin n Isefka d Imuttiyen ==

=== 1 Tewsatin tigejdanin ===
C++ tesɛa aṭas n tewsatin n isefka tigejdanin :
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Tawsit
!Aglam
!Tiddi
|-
|int
|Ummid (entier)
|4 ibitten
|-
|float
|Amḍan s ticcert yettifliwen (réel simple précision)
|4 ibitten
|-
|double
|Amḍan s ticcert yettifliwen (réel double précision)
|8 ibitten
|-
|char
|Asekkil
|1 n ubit
|-
|void
|Ulac
|0
|}

=== 2 Imuttiyen ===
Amutti d isem i yettunefken i wadeg di tkatut (mémoire) ideg yettwasekles wazal. Asebded (tabadut) n umutti yettili s tewsit, isem, d wazal amezwaru :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int amḍan = 10;
double azal = 3.14;
char asekkil = 'A';
bool tidett = true;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 3 Ismawen d Yilugan-nsen ===
Ismawen n yimuttiyen deg C++ ilaq ad ḍefren ilugan-agi :

* Zemren ad bdun s usekkil neɣ s ujerriḍ n wadda (_)
* Ur zmiren ara ad bdun s umḍan
* Ur zmiren ara ad sqedcen awalen yettwaḥerzen (reserved keywords)
* C++ txedem amgired gar usekkil ameqran d umeẓyan

=== 4 Imahalen ===
Imahalen deg C++ d izamulen i yettunefken i tmhelt ɣef wazalen.

==== 4.1 Imahalen imsnamḍanen ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Tamhelt
!Amedya
|-
| +
|Timernit
|5 + 3 = 8
|-
| -
|Tukkssit
|5 - 3 = 2
|-
|*
|Asegat
|5 * 3 = 15
|-
|/
|Taẓunt
|6 / 3 = 2
|-
|%
|Tasagert
|7 % 3 = 1
|}

==== 4.2 Imahalen n usemyif ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Anamek
|-
|==
|Yugda (égal à)
|-
|!=
|Ur yugdi ara
|-
|&lt;
|Amazdar
|-
|&gt;
|Imineg
|-
|&lt;=
|Amazdar neɣ yugda
|-
|&gt;=
|Imineg neɣ yugda
|}

==== 4.3 Imahalen imeẓẓulen ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Anamek
|-
|&amp;&amp;
|D (ET logique)
|-
|!
|Ur (NON logique)
|}

==== 4.4 Imahalen n usemdukel ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int x = 10;    // Asemdukel asentan
x += 5;        // x = x + 5
x -= 3;        // x = x - 3
x *= 2;        // x = x * 2
x /= 4;        // x = x / 4
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 5. Tamṣukt n Usenqed ===

==== 5.1 Tiwtilin ====
'''if / else if / else'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
if (azal &gt; 100) {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal meqqeṛ&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
} else if (azal &gt; 50) {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal alemmas&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
} else {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal meẓẓi&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''switch'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
switch (ass) {
    case 1: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    case 2: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    case 3: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    default: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Ass nniḍen&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 5.2 Tineddicin ====
Tineddict '''for'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
for (int i = 0; i &lt; 10; i++) {
    cout &lt;&lt; i &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Tineddict '''while'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 0;
do {
    cout &lt;&lt; azal &lt;&lt; endl;
    azal++;
} while (azal &lt; 5);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''Tinnaḍin n usenqed n tneddict'''

'''break''' : ad teffeɣ seg tneddict neɣ seg switch

'''continue''' : ad tezgel tikkelt-a, ad teddu ɣer tikkelt i d-iteddun

=== 6. Tiseɣnin ===

==== 6.1 Asebded n Tasɣent ====
Tasɣent deg C++ tesɛa :

* Tawsit n tuɣalin 
* Isem n tasɣent
* Iɣewwaṛen
* Tafekka s tinnaḍin
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
tawsit_n_tuɣalin isem_n_tasɣent(iɣewwaṛen) {
    // tinnaḍin
    return azal;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 6.2 Amedya ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int smerni_sin(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
}

// Aseɣṛi (appel)
int ugmuḍ = smerni_sin(5, 3);  // ugmuḍ = 8
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 6.3 Aɛeddi n Yiɣewwaṛen ====
C++ tesɛa kraḍ n tarrayin n uɛeddi n yiɣewwaṛen :

* Aɛeddi s wazal (pass by value) : ad yettwaneɣl wazal
* Aɛeddi s tamselɣut (pass by reference) : ad yettwafk unekcam srid ɣer umutti
* Aɛeddi s usewwaṛ (pass by pointer) : ad yettwafk wazal n tkatut
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// S wazal
void s_wazal(int x) { x = x + 1; }

// S tamselɣut
void s_tamselɣut(int&amp; x) { x = x + 1; }

// S usewwaṛ
void s_usewwaṛ(int* x) { *x = *x + 1; }

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 7. Isewwaṛen d Timselɣutin ===

==== 7.1 Isewwaṛen (Pointers) ====
Asewwaṛ d amutti i yessekles adɣar (ideg/tansa) n umutti nniḍen di tkatut.&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 42;
int* asewwaṛ = &amp;azal;  // asewwaṛ yesseklas adɣar n &quot;azal&quot;

cout &lt;&lt; *asewwaṛ &lt;&lt; endl;  // ad yesken 42 
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Imahalen imenza :

* &amp; : amahal n tansa (address-of operator)
* * : amahal n tukksa n tmselɣut (dereference operator)

==== 7.2 Timselɣutin ====
Tamselɣut (reference) d isem nniḍen i umutti yellan. Ur yezmirt ara ad ibeddel ɣer umutti nniḍen :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 10;
int&amp; tamselɣut = azal;  // tamselɣut d isem nniḍen i &quot;azal&quot;
tamselɣut = 20;          // azal yuɣal 20
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 8. Tifelwiyin d Izraren ===

==== 8.1 Tifelwiyin ====
Tafelwit d tagrumma n wazalen n tewsit yiwen, yettwaskelsen deg tkatut s wudem amezdi&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int tifelwiyin[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

// Anekcum ɣer uferdis
cout &lt;&lt; tifelwiyin[0] &lt;&lt; endl;  // 10
cout &lt;&lt; tifelwiyin[4] &lt;&lt; endl;  // 50
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 8.2 Tifelwiyin s uget n tsektiwin ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int tafelwit[3][4] = {
    {1, 2, 3, 4},
    {5, 6, 7, 8},
    {9, 10, 11, 12}
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 8.3 Izraren ====
Deg C++, azrar (string) yezmer ad yili :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// Azrar s tewsit C
char azrar_c[] = &quot;Azul&quot;;

// Azrar s tewsit C++ (tamkarḍit &lt;string&gt;)
#include &lt;string&gt;
string azrar_cpp = &quot;Azul, a ddunit!&quot;;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 9. Asihel s Tɣawsiwin ===
Asihel s tɣawsiwin (OOP) d tarrayt n usihel i yessebdaden ahil ɣef tɣawsiwin i yesɛan isefka d tarrayin.

==== 9.1 Taserkemt ====
Taserkemt d tamudemt (template) i d-yessnulfuyen tiɣawsiwin. Tesɛa :

Imuttiyen n tserkemt (imuttiyen-ines / imyaren-ines)

Tiwsatin n tserkemt (tiseɣnin-ines / tarrayin-ines)&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Aɣersiw {
private:
    string isem;
    int leɛmeṛ;

public:
    // Amakras (constructor)
    Aɣersiw(string i, int l) {
        isem = i;
        leɛmeṛ = l;
    }

    // Tawsit n tserkemt
    void sken() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Isem: &quot; &lt;&lt; isem &lt;&lt; &quot;, Leɛmeṛ: &quot; &lt;&lt; leɛmeṛ &lt;&lt; endl;
    }

    // Asemmatay (destructor)
    ~Aɣersiw() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aɣersiw yettwakkes&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.2 Taɣawsa ====
Taɣawsa d tummant n tserkemt :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int main() {
    Aɣersiw aɣyu1(&quot;Muc&quot;, 3);
    aɣyu1.sken();  // Isem: Muc, Leɛmeṛ: 3
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.3 Akwbal ====
Akwbal d amenzay i yettḥerzen isefka n tserkemt s useqdec n wawalen :

'''private''' : anekcum kan seg twsitin n tserkemt

'''public''' : anekcum seg yal amkan

'''protected''' : anekcum seg tserkemt akked tserkam i d-yufraren seg-s s uzellum

==== 9.4 Tukkest ====
Tukkest tettajǧa taserkemt ad tawi isefka d twsitin seg tserkemt nniḍen :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Amɣar : public Aɣersiw {
private:
    string tawuri;

public:
    Amɣar(string i, int l, string t) : Aɣersiw(i, l) {
        tawuri = t;
    }

    void sken_tawuri() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Tawuri: &quot; &lt;&lt; tawuri &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''Tawsitin n tukkest deg C++ :'''

* Tukkest tasufut 
* Tukkest tusgit
* Tukkest s waṭas n yiswiren 

==== 9.5 Agettalɣa (Polymorphism) ====
Agettalɣa d amenzay i yettǧǧan tiwsitin yemgaraden ad sɛunt isem yiwen maca ad xedmen tigawin yemgaraden.

'''Tiseɣnin tuhlisin:'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Aɣersiw {
public:
    virtual void imesli() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Imesli n uɣersiw&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

class Amcic : public Aɣersiw {
public:
    void imesli() override {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Miyaw!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

class Aydi : public Aɣersiw {
public:
    void imesli() override {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Waw!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.6 Tamadwant ====
Tamadwant d amenzay i yettḥerzen isefka n daxel, ad yesken kan ayen ilaqen i useqdac :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Talɣa {
public:
    virtual double tajumma() = 0;  // Tasɣent tadwant tamenyafit
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 10. Asihel Amatu s Leqwaleb ===
Leqwaleb neɣ &quot;Templates&quot; ttajǧan ad naru tangalt ara ixedmen s uget n tewsatin n isefka bla ma naru-tt yal tikkelt.

==== 10.1 Tiseɣnin n Leqwaleb ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
template &lt;typename T&gt;
T ameqqran(T a, T b) {
    return (a &gt; b) ? a : b;
}

// Aseqdec
int x = ameqqran(5, 3);       // x = 5
double y = ameqqran(3.14, 2.71);  // y = 3.14

Tiserkam Timatuyin

template &lt;typename T&gt;
class Akufi {
private:
    T iferdisen[100];
    int uṭṭun;

public:
    Akufi() : uṭṭun(0) {}

    void rnu(T azal) {
        iferdisen[uṭṭun++] = azal;
    }

    T kkes() {
        return iferdisen[--uṭṭun];
    }
};

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 11. Asefrek n Tkatut ===

==== 11.1 Aḥeṛṛi Asmussaw ====
C++ tettaǧǧa aḥeṛṛi asmussaw n tkatut s wawalen '''new''' d '''delete''' :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// Aḥeṛṛi n wazal yiwen
int* p = new int;
*p = 42;
delete p;

// Aḥeṛṛi n tfelwit
int* arr = new int[10];
delete[] arr;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 11.2 Isewwaṛen Uḥricen ====
Deg imaynuten n C++, llan isewwaṛen uḥricen i yettḥerzen tkatut s wudem awurman :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;memory&gt;

// unique_ptr : yezmer kan yiwen n usewwaṛ ad yesɛu taɣawsa
unique_ptr&lt;int&gt; p1 = make_unique&lt;int&gt;(42);

// shared_ptr : aṭas n isewwaṛen zemren ad bḍun taɣawsa
shared_ptr&lt;int&gt; p2 = make_shared&lt;int&gt;(100);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 12. Asefrek n Tsuraf ===
Tsuraf d tarrayt n usefrek n tuccḍiwin deg wakud n uselkem :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;stdexcept&gt;

double beṭṭu(int a, int b) {
    if (b == 0) {
        throw invalid_argument(&quot;Ur yezmir ara ad yebḍu ɣef 0&quot;);
    }
    return (double)a / b;
}

int main() {
    try {
        double ugmuḍ = beṭṭu(10, 0);
    } catch (const invalid_argument&amp; e) {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Tuccḍa: &quot; &lt;&lt; e.what() &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
    return 0;
}

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 13. Tamkarḍit Tizeɣtant n Temudmin (STL) ===
STL (Standard Template Library) d tagrumma n tserkam d twsitin timatuyin i yettwasqedcen aṭas deg C++.

==== 13.1 Imagbaren ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Amagbar
!anamek-is
|-
|vector
|Tafelwit tamussawt (dynamic array)
|-
|list
|Tabdart tamsuddast (doubly linked list)
|-
|map
|Amawal n tsuraf (key-value pairs)
|-
|set
|Tagrumma n wazalen ur nelli ara d imenza
|-
|queue
|Adras FIFO
|-
|stack
|Akufi LIFO
|}

==== 13.2 Imedyaten ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;vector&gt;
#include &lt;algorithm&gt;

vector&lt;int&gt; imḍanen = {5, 2, 8, 1, 9};

// Af ran (sorting)
sort(imḍanen.begin(), imḍanen.end());

// Anadi (searching)
auto it = find(imḍanen.begin(), imḍanen.end(), 8);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 13.3 Tineddicin ====
Tineddicin d allalen i yettǧǧan ad nelḥu deg yimagbaren :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
for (auto it = imḍanen.begin(); it != imḍanen.end(); ++it) {
    cout &lt;&lt; *it &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 13.4 Tiwsatin Timatuyin (Algorithms) ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;algorithm&gt;

// Af ran
sort(v.begin(), v.end());

// Anadi
auto it = find(v.begin(), v.end(), 42);

// Asmekti n yal aferdis
for_each(v.begin(), v.end(), [](int x) { cout &lt;&lt; x &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;; });
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== Taggrayt ==
Tutlayt n usihel C++ d yiwet seg tutlayin timeqranin deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg usihel n yinagrawen n wammud ar usnulfu n yisiɣẓanen n tigzi taragmawant, C++ tezmer ad tili deg yal aḥric.

Tamurt-agi n tutlayt-a tbedd ɣef :

'''Tazmert''' : C++ tettaǧǧa asefrek asmussaw n tkatut d uselkem

'''Taflest''' : tawala n yilɣa imaynuten (C++11 ar C++23)

'''Taseddi''' : tanezmart deg uselkem

'''Tagttilɣa''' : tettaǧǧa asihel s tɣawsiwin, asihel imcettel(amatu), d usihel amesɣan

I useqdac amaynut, yewwid ad yebdu s yilugan tseddast, syin ad yelmed asihel s tɣawsiwin, rnu ad yesnerni tamusni-is s templates d STL.</text>
      <sha1>h81ddvcqkkqnhlrumvkxntlhl7jmap1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>117248</id>
      <parentid>117247</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T10:42:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117248</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="19254" sha1="7aj3w1787h3d8rfmboh5c7rv6qh4mw9" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
[[Tugna:ISO C++ Logo.svg|vignette|Alugu n C++.]]
'''Tutlayt n usihel C++''' Yesnulfa-tt-id Bjarne Stroustrup deg useggas n 1979 deg Bell Laboratories. Deg tazwara, semman-as &quot;C s tserkam&quot;, acku tella d asiɣzef n tutlayt C s tmerna n tserkam. Deg useggas n 1983, beddlen isem-is ɣer C++. Deg useggas n 1998, teffeɣ-d tizeɣt tamezwarut s waggaz ISO/IEC 14882.

C++ tella d tutlayt n usihel i d-yufraren ɣef C acku terni-yas :

* Asihel s tɣawsiwin 
* Asihel s tserkam 
* Asihel imcettel (Generic Programming) s templates
* Asefrek n tkatut s ufus

Tutlayt-a tettwaseqdec deg :

Asnulfu n yisiɣẓanen n unagraw d usihel n yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, arnu asnulfu n wuraren akked deg uḥric n tussna n isefka d tigzi taragmawant. arnu daɣen deg iseggasen-a ineggura C++ nezmer ad t-nesseqdec deg weḥric n Web seg tama n umsaɣ s tallelt n WebAssembly.

== Amezruy ==
Tutlayt n usihel C++ tella d yiwet seg tutlayin timeqranin akk deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg wasmi i d-tlul deg useggas n 1979 ar ass-a, C++ temhaz-d s waṭas, tessaweḍ ad tili d allal agejdan deg waṭas n yiḥricen : seg usnulfu n yinagrawen n wammud ar usihel n yiselkimen, seg wuraren ar tigzi taragmawant. Aḍris-agi ad d-yezzuɣɣer amezruy-is, amhaz-is, d wazal-is deg yal tallit n tselkimt.

=== 1. Tilalin : Seg C ar C s Tserkam (1979–1983) ===

==== 1.1 Asenti ====
Deg useggas n 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, yiwen n unelmad n PhD deg Bell Laboratories (AT&amp;T) deg [[Marikan]], yebda yettmahal ɣef usnulfu n tutlayt tamaynut. Stroustrup yella yesseqdac s [[C (tutlayt)|tutlayt C]], maca yebɣa ad yernu fell-as tarrayin n usihel s tɣawsiwin (object-oriented programming) i d-yellan seg tutlayt '''Simula'''.

Iswi-ines amezwaru d ad yessers tamṣukt n usihel s tserkam ɣef tutlayt C, i wakken ad yessers isefka d twsitin n tserkam deg yiwen n umkan. Deg tazwara, isem n tutlayt-a yella d &quot;C with Classes&quot; (C s Tserkam).

==== 1.2 Ismawen d Tarrayin Timezwura ====
Deg tallit-a tamezwarut, Stroustrup yerni-yas i C :

* '''Tiserkam''' (classes) s tmahilin-nsent (member functions)
* '''Tukkest''' (inheritance) : taserkemt ad tawi isefka d twsitin seg tserkemt nniḍen
* '''Timselɣutin''' (references)
* '''Asenqed n tewsatin''' (type checking) iǧehden

Deg useggas n 1983, beddlen isem n tutlayt seg &quot;C with Classes&quot; ar &quot;C++&quot;. Azamul ++ deg C yettawwi-d anerni n wazal s yiwen, d tinnaṭ i d-yemmalen belli C++ d asiɣzef n C.

=== 2. Tallit n Umhaz Amezwaru (1983–1998) ===

==== 2.1 Tizeɣt Tamezwarut ====
Deg tallit-a, C++ terna aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin :

'''1985''' : Tiffeɣ-d Tizeɣt tamezwarut n C++ s uzwel &quot;The C++ Programming Language&quot; n Stroustrup. Tizeɣt-a tesɛa tiserkam, tukkest, tiseɣnin tuhlistin, d tseɣnin n tserkam (member functions).

'''1989''' : Yerna-yas agettalɣa (polymorphism) s twsitin timenyafin, akwbal (encapsulation) s wawalen ''private'', ''public,'' d ''protected'', d tamadwant (abstraction).

'''1990''' : Timerna n &quot;''templates&quot;'' i usihel imcettel (generic programming), tisuraf (exceptions) i uselmed n tuccḍiwin, d ismawen n tallunin (namespaces).

==== 2.2 C++ deg Tselkimt n Tallit-a ====
Deg tallit-a, C++ tettwaseqdec aṭas deg :

* Usnulfu n yinagrawen n wammud am Windows d Unix
* Usihel n yinagrawen yettwaselɣen 
* Usnulfu n isiɣẓanen n tnarit 
* Asihel n yinagrawen n taffa n isefka

C++ tella d tutlayt i yesɛan tanezmart meqqren deg uselkem, acku tettaǧǧa asefrek asmussaw n tkatut s ufus, s useqdec n ''new'' d ''delete''.

=== 3. Tallit n Tizeɣt (1998–2011) ===

==== 3.1 Tizeɣt Tamezwarut : C++98 ====
Deg useggas n 1998, teffeɣ-d tizeɣt tamezwarut n C++ s waggaz ISO/IEC 14882:1998. Tizeɣt-a tesbedd ilugan n tutlayt s wudem unṣib, tefka-yas i C++ tamṣukt tusliḍt i yettwaqbalen deg umaḍal meṛṛa.

'''C++98''' tesɛa :

* '''STL''' (Standard Template Library) : tamkarḍit n temudmin timcettelt (generic templates) am vector, list, map, set
* '''allusen''' (iterators) i ulḥu deg yimgraden
* '''Tiwsatin timatuyin''' (algorithms) am sort, find, for_each
* '''Tusrufin''' (exceptions) s try, catch, throw

==== 3.2 C++03 ====
Deg useggas n 2003, yeffeɣ-d lqem wis sin n tizeɣt (ISO/IEC 14882:2003). Lqem-a ur yerni ara aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin, maca yesseɣti kra n tuccḍiwin yellan deg C++98, yesbedd ilugan s wudem uḥric.

==== 3.3 C++ deg Tallit-a ====
Deg tallit n 1998 ar 2011, C++ tettwaseqdec aṭas deg :

* Usnulfu n wuraren : s tallelt n imuturen n wuraren am Unreal Engine, CryEngine
* Usihel n yiselkimen : afreɣẓan, inuḍaf, anagraw n wammud
* Tasnallunt d tmhelt n tkeṛṛusin 
* Taɣult n tedrimt : inagrawen n lbanka d tenzzut

=== 4. Tallit n Imaynuten n C++  (2011–Ass-a) ===

==== 4.1 C++11 : Tagrawla Tameqqrant ====
Deg useggas n 2011, teffeɣ-d C++11, i yettwaḥsben d tagrawla tameqqrant deg umezruy n tutlayt-a. C++11 terna aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin i yessahlen asihel :

* ''auto'' : tawsit yettwafra s wudem awurman
* ''Lambda expressions'' : tiwsitin tuffirin i yettwarun deg umkan
* ''Range-based for'' : tineddict ɣef yal aferdis n umegrad
* ''Move semantics'' : asmutti n tɣawsiwin bla anɣal, i usnerni n tmellit
* ''Smart pointers'' (unique_ptr, shared_ptr) : isewwaṛen iuḥricen i yettḥerzen takatut s wudem awurman
* ''constexpr'' : azalen yettwaḥesben deg wakud n lqem
* ''nullptr'' : azal amaynut i usewwaṛ ilem, yettbeddilen NULL
* ''enum class'' : inumriyen iǧehden

==== 4.2 C++14 ====
Deg 2014, yeffeɣ-d lqem i d-yernan :

''Generic lambdas'' : lambdas s tewsatin timcettelt, akeed &quot;''Return type deduction''&quot; i twsitin, &quot;''constexpr&quot;'' iǧehden, arnu timudmin s wudem amutti &quot;''Variable templates&quot;.''

==== 4.3 C++17 ====
Deg 2017, C++17 terna :

''if constexpr'' : tiwtilin deg wakud n lqem, ''optional, variant, any'' : tiwsatin n isefka imatuyen, ''Fold expressions'' : i timudmin, ''Parallel algorithms'' : tiwsatin timatuyin s uselmed n ukala afessas.

==== 4.4 C++20 ====
Deg 2020, C++20 terna tɣawsiwin timeqranin :

''Concepts'' : tilisa ɣef timudmin, i wakken ad yili useqqer n tuccḍiwin drus, ''Modules'' : anagraw amaynut n uskecm n ifuyla, yettbeddilen #include, ''Coroutines'' : tiwsitin i izemren ad ḥebsent rnu ad kemmlent, ''Ranges'' : allalen imaynuten n umahil ɣef yimgraden, &lt;format&gt; : tamṣukt n usformat am Python, Kraḍ n iberdan n userwes (&lt;=&gt;)

==== 4.5 C++23 ====
Deg 2023, C++23 terna :

''std::expected'' : i uselmed n tuccḍiwin bla tasureft, ''Deducing this'' : i twsitin n tserkam.

== Tamṣukt n Wahil C++ ==
Yal ahil n C++ yesɛa tamṣukt taseddast. Aḥric amezwaru i yessefken ad yili deg yal ahil d tawsit n tesɣent &quot;main()&quot;, d nettat i d iḥdar agejdan amezwer n uselkem.&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;iostream&gt;
using namespace std;

int main() {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azul, a ddunit!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Deg uḍris-agi :

'''#include &lt;iostream&gt;''' : d taladna n uzarsekkar i d-yesskecmen tamkarḍit n unekcum d usuffeɣ.

'''using namespace std;''' : d alɣu i d-yemmalen belli nseqdac tallunt n yismawen (namespace) std.

'''int main()''' : d tawsit n tesɣent tagejdant ideg yebda uselkem.

'''cout''' : d allal n usuffeɣ ɣer wegdil.

'''return 0;''' : d tinnaṭ n tuɣalin i d-yemmalen belli ahil yemmed akken iwata.

== Tewsatin n Isefka d Imuttiyen ==

=== 1 Tewsatin tigejdanin ===
C++ tesɛa aṭas n tewsatin n isefka tigejdanin :
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Tawsit
!Aglam
!Tiddi
|-
|int
|Ummid (entier)
|4 ibitten
|-
|float
|Amḍan s ticcert yettifliwen (réel simple précision)
|4 ibitten
|-
|double
|Amḍan s ticcert yettifliwen (réel double précision)
|8 ibitten
|-
|char
|Asekkil
|1 n ubit
|-
|void
|Ulac
|0
|}

=== 2 Imuttiyen ===
Amutti d isem i yettunefken i wadeg di tkatut (mémoire) ideg yettwasekles wazal. Asebded (tabadut) n umutti yettili s tewsit, isem, d wazal amezwaru :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int amḍan = 10;
double azal = 3.14;
char asekkil = 'A';
bool tidett = true;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 3 Ismawen d Yilugan-nsen ===
Ismawen n yimuttiyen deg C++ ilaq ad ḍefren ilugan-agi :

* Zemren ad bdun s usekkil neɣ s ujerriḍ n wadda (_)
* Ur zmiren ara ad bdun s umḍan
* Ur zmiren ara ad sqedcen awalen yettwaḥerzen (reserved keywords)
* C++ txedem amgired gar usekkil ameqran d umeẓyan

=== 4 Imahalen ===
Imahalen deg C++ d izamulen i yettunefken i tmhelt ɣef wazalen.

==== 4.1 Imahalen imsnamḍanen ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Tamhelt
!Amedya
|-
| +
|Timernit
|5 + 3 = 8
|-
| -
|Tukkssit
|5 - 3 = 2
|-
|*
|Asegat
|5 * 3 = 15
|-
|/
|Taẓunt
|6 / 3 = 2
|-
|%
|Tasagert
|7 % 3 = 1
|}

==== 4.2 Imahalen n usemyif ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Anamek
|-
|==
|Yugda (égal à)
|-
|!=
|Ur yugdi ara
|-
|&lt;
|Amazdar
|-
|&gt;
|Imineg
|-
|&lt;=
|Amazdar neɣ yugda
|-
|&gt;=
|Imineg neɣ yugda
|}

==== 4.3 Imahalen imeẓẓulen ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Anamek
|-
|&amp;&amp;
|D (ET logique)
|-
|!
|Ur (NON logique)
|}

==== 4.4 Imahalen n usemdukel ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int x = 10;    // Asemdukel asentan
x += 5;        // x = x + 5
x -= 3;        // x = x - 3
x *= 2;        // x = x * 2
x /= 4;        // x = x / 4
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 5. Tamṣukt n Usenqed ===

==== 5.1 Tiwtilin ====
'''if / else if / else'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
if (azal &gt; 100) {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal meqqeṛ&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
} else if (azal &gt; 50) {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal alemmas&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
} else {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal meẓẓi&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''switch'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
switch (ass) {
    case 1: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    case 2: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    case 3: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    default: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Ass nniḍen&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 5.2 Tineddicin ====
Tineddict '''for'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
for (int i = 0; i &lt; 10; i++) {
    cout &lt;&lt; i &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Tineddict '''while'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 0;
do {
    cout &lt;&lt; azal &lt;&lt; endl;
    azal++;
} while (azal &lt; 5);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''Tinnaḍin n usenqed n tneddict'''

'''break''' : ad teffeɣ seg tneddict neɣ seg switch

'''continue''' : ad tezgel tikkelt-a, ad teddu ɣer tikkelt i d-iteddun

=== 6. Tiseɣnin ===

==== 6.1 Asebded n Tasɣent ====
Tasɣent deg C++ tesɛa :

* Tawsit n tuɣalin 
* Isem n tasɣent
* Iɣewwaṛen
* Tafekka s tinnaḍin
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
tawsit_n_tuɣalin isem_n_tasɣent(iɣewwaṛen) {
    // tinnaḍin
    return azal;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 6.2 Amedya ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int smerni_sin(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
}

// Aseɣṛi (appel)
int ugmuḍ = smerni_sin(5, 3);  // ugmuḍ = 8
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 6.3 Aɛeddi n Yiɣewwaṛen ====
C++ tesɛa kraḍ n tarrayin n uɛeddi n yiɣewwaṛen :

* Aɛeddi s wazal (pass by value) : ad yettwaneɣl wazal
* Aɛeddi s tamselɣut (pass by reference) : ad yettwafk unekcam srid ɣer umutti
* Aɛeddi s usewwaṛ (pass by pointer) : ad yettwafk wazal n tkatut
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// S wazal
void s_wazal(int x) { x = x + 1; }

// S tamselɣut
void s_tamselɣut(int&amp; x) { x = x + 1; }

// S usewwaṛ
void s_usewwaṛ(int* x) { *x = *x + 1; }

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 7. Isewwaṛen d Timselɣutin ===

==== 7.1 Isewwaṛen (Pointers) ====
Asewwaṛ d amutti i yessekles adɣar (ideg/tansa) n umutti nniḍen di tkatut.&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 42;
int* asewwaṛ = &amp;azal;  // asewwaṛ yesseklas adɣar n &quot;azal&quot;

cout &lt;&lt; *asewwaṛ &lt;&lt; endl;  // ad yesken 42 
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Imahalen imenza :

* &amp; : amahal n tansa (address-of operator)
* * : amahal n tukksa n tmselɣut (dereference operator)

==== 7.2 Timselɣutin ====
Tamselɣut (reference) d isem nniḍen i umutti yellan. Ur yezmirt ara ad ibeddel ɣer umutti nniḍen :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 10;
int&amp; tamselɣut = azal;  // tamselɣut d isem nniḍen i &quot;azal&quot;
tamselɣut = 20;          // azal yuɣal 20
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 8. Tifelwiyin d Izraren ===

==== 8.1 Tifelwiyin ====
Tafelwit d tagrumma n wazalen n tewsit yiwen, yettwaskelsen deg tkatut s wudem amezdi&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int tifelwiyin[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

// Anekcum ɣer uferdis
cout &lt;&lt; tifelwiyin[0] &lt;&lt; endl;  // 10
cout &lt;&lt; tifelwiyin[4] &lt;&lt; endl;  // 50
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 8.2 Tifelwiyin s uget n tsektiwin ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int tafelwit[3][4] = {
    {1, 2, 3, 4},
    {5, 6, 7, 8},
    {9, 10, 11, 12}
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 8.3 Izraren ====
Deg C++, azrar (string) yezmer ad yili :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// Azrar s tewsit C
char azrar_c[] = &quot;Azul&quot;;

// Azrar s tewsit C++ (tamkarḍit &lt;string&gt;)
#include &lt;string&gt;
string azrar_cpp = &quot;Azul, a ddunit!&quot;;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 9. Asihel s Tɣawsiwin ===
Asihel s tɣawsiwin (OOP) d tarrayt n usihel i yessebdaden ahil ɣef tɣawsiwin i yesɛan isefka d tarrayin.

==== 9.1 Taserkemt ====
Taserkemt d tamudemt (template) i d-yessnulfuyen tiɣawsiwin. Tesɛa :

Imuttiyen n tserkemt (imuttiyen-ines / imyaren-ines)

Tiwsatin n tserkemt (tiseɣnin-ines / tarrayin-ines)&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Aɣersiw {
private:
    string isem;
    int leɛmeṛ;

public:
    // Amakras (constructor)
    Aɣersiw(string i, int l) {
        isem = i;
        leɛmeṛ = l;
    }

    // Tawsit n tserkemt
    void sken() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Isem: &quot; &lt;&lt; isem &lt;&lt; &quot;, Leɛmeṛ: &quot; &lt;&lt; leɛmeṛ &lt;&lt; endl;
    }

    // Asemmatay (destructor)
    ~Aɣersiw() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aɣersiw yettwakkes&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.2 Taɣawsa ====
Taɣawsa d tummant n tserkemt :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int main() {
    Aɣersiw aɣyu1(&quot;Muc&quot;, 3);
    aɣyu1.sken();  // Isem: Muc, Leɛmeṛ: 3
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.3 Akwbal ====
Akwbal d amenzay i yettḥerzen isefka n tserkemt s useqdec n wawalen :

'''private''' : anekcum kan seg twsitin n tserkemt

'''public''' : anekcum seg yal amkan

'''protected''' : anekcum seg tserkemt akked tserkam i d-yufraren seg-s s uzellum

==== 9.4 Tukkest ====
Tukkest tettajǧa taserkemt ad tawi isefka d twsitin seg tserkemt nniḍen :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Amɣar : public Aɣersiw {
private:
    string tawuri;

public:
    Amɣar(string i, int l, string t) : Aɣersiw(i, l) {
        tawuri = t;
    }

    void sken_tawuri() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Tawuri: &quot; &lt;&lt; tawuri &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''Tawsitin n tukkest deg C++ :'''

* Tukkest tasufut 
* Tukkest tusgit
* Tukkest s waṭas n yiswiren 

==== 9.5 Agettalɣa (Polymorphism) ====
Agettalɣa d amenzay i yettǧǧan tiwsitin yemgaraden ad sɛunt isem yiwen maca ad xedmen tigawin yemgaraden.

'''Tiseɣnin tuhlisin:'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Aɣersiw {
public:
    virtual void imesli() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Imesli n uɣersiw&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

class Amcic : public Aɣersiw {
public:
    void imesli() override {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Miyaw!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

class Aydi : public Aɣersiw {
public:
    void imesli() override {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Waw!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.6 Tamadwant ====
Tamadwant d amenzay i yettḥerzen isefka n daxel, ad yesken kan ayen ilaqen i useqdac :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Talɣa {
public:
    virtual double tajumma() = 0;  // Tasɣent tadwant tamenyafit
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 10. Asihel Amatu s Leqwaleb ===
Leqwaleb neɣ &quot;Templates&quot; ttajǧan ad naru tangalt ara ixedmen s uget n tewsatin n isefka bla ma naru-tt yal tikkelt.

==== 10.1 Tiseɣnin n Leqwaleb ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
template &lt;typename T&gt;
T ameqqran(T a, T b) {
    return (a &gt; b) ? a : b;
}

// Aseqdec
int x = ameqqran(5, 3);       // x = 5
double y = ameqqran(3.14, 2.71);  // y = 3.14

Tiserkam Timatuyin

template &lt;typename T&gt;
class Akufi {
private:
    T iferdisen[100];
    int uṭṭun;

public:
    Akufi() : uṭṭun(0) {}

    void rnu(T azal) {
        iferdisen[uṭṭun++] = azal;
    }

    T kkes() {
        return iferdisen[--uṭṭun];
    }
};

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 11. Asefrek n Tkatut ===

==== 11.1 Aḥeṛṛi Asmussaw ====
C++ tettaǧǧa aḥeṛṛi asmussaw n tkatut s wawalen '''new''' d '''delete''' :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// Aḥeṛṛi n wazal yiwen
int* p = new int;
*p = 42;
delete p;

// Aḥeṛṛi n tfelwit
int* arr = new int[10];
delete[] arr;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 11.2 Isewwaṛen Uḥricen ====
Deg imaynuten n C++, llan isewwaṛen uḥricen i yettḥerzen tkatut s wudem awurman :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;memory&gt;

// unique_ptr : yezmer kan yiwen n usewwaṛ ad yesɛu taɣawsa
unique_ptr&lt;int&gt; p1 = make_unique&lt;int&gt;(42);

// shared_ptr : aṭas n isewwaṛen zemren ad bḍun taɣawsa
shared_ptr&lt;int&gt; p2 = make_shared&lt;int&gt;(100);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 12. Asefrek n Tsuraf ===
Tsuraf d tarrayt n usefrek n tuccḍiwin deg wakud n uselkem :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;stdexcept&gt;

double beṭṭu(int a, int b) {
    if (b == 0) {
        throw invalid_argument(&quot;Ur yezmir ara ad yebḍu ɣef 0&quot;);
    }
    return (double)a / b;
}

int main() {
    try {
        double ugmuḍ = beṭṭu(10, 0);
    } catch (const invalid_argument&amp; e) {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Tuccḍa: &quot; &lt;&lt; e.what() &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
    return 0;
}

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Imawalen imenza :

'''try''' : ɛreḍ tangalt i izemren ad teg tuccḍa

'''throw''' : zzuzer tasureft

'''catch''' : ṭṭef tasureft

=== 13. Tamkarḍit Tizeɣtant n Temudmin (STL) ===
STL (Standard Template Library) d tagrumma n tserkam d twsitin timatuyin i yettwasqedcen aṭas deg C++.

==== 13.1 Imagbaren ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Amagbar
!anamek-is
|-
|vector
|Tafelwit tamussawt (dynamic array)
|-
|list
|Tabdart tamsuddast (doubly linked list)
|-
|map
|Amawal n tsuraf (key-value pairs)
|-
|set
|Tagrumma n wazalen ur nelli ara d imenza
|-
|queue
|Adras FIFO
|-
|stack
|Akufi LIFO
|}

==== 13.2 Imedyaten ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;vector&gt;
#include &lt;algorithm&gt;

vector&lt;int&gt; imḍanen = {5, 2, 8, 1, 9};

// Af ran (sorting)
sort(imḍanen.begin(), imḍanen.end());

// Anadi (searching)
auto it = find(imḍanen.begin(), imḍanen.end(), 8);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 13.3 Tineddicin ====
Tineddicin d allalen i yettǧǧan ad nelḥu deg yimagbaren :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
for (auto it = imḍanen.begin(); it != imḍanen.end(); ++it) {
    cout &lt;&lt; *it &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 13.4 Tiwsatin Timatuyin (Algorithms) ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;algorithm&gt;

// Af ran
sort(v.begin(), v.end());

// Anadi
auto it = find(v.begin(), v.end(), 42);

// Asmekti n yal aferdis
for_each(v.begin(), v.end(), [](int x) { cout &lt;&lt; x &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;; });
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== Taggrayt ==
Tutlayt n usihel C++ d yiwet seg tutlayin timeqranin deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg usihel n yinagrawen n wammud ar usnulfu n yisiɣẓanen n tigzi taragmawant, C++ tezmer ad tili deg yal aḥric.

Tamurt-agi n tutlayt-a tbedd ɣef :

'''Tazmert''' : C++ tettaǧǧa asefrek asmussaw n tkatut d uselkem

'''Taflest''' : tawala n yilɣa imaynuten (C++11 ar C++23)

'''Taseddi''' : tanezmart deg uselkem

'''Tagttilɣa''' : tettaǧǧa asihel s tɣawsiwin, asihel imcettel(amatu), d usihel amesɣan

I useqdac amaynut, yewwid ad yebdu s yilugan tseddast, syin ad yelmed asihel s tɣawsiwin, rnu ad yesnerni tamusni-is s templates d STL.</text>
      <sha1>7aj3w1787h3d8rfmboh5c7rv6qh4mw9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>117251</id>
      <parentid>117248</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T10:57:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
      <origin>117251</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19256" sha1="91lgli5sd6f5dtzifk8jaarsg9ws6r5" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
[[Tugna:ISO C++ Logo.svg|vignette|Alugu n C++.]]
'''Tutlayt n usihel C++''' Yesnulfa-tt-id Bjarne Stroustrup deg useggas n 1979 deg Bell Laboratories. Deg tazwara, semman-as &quot;C s tserkam&quot;, acku tella d asiɣzef n tutlayt C s tmerna n tserkam. Deg useggas n 1983, beddlen isem-is ɣer C++. Deg useggas n 1998, teffeɣ-d tizeɣt tamezwarut s waggaz ISO/IEC 14882.

C++ tella d tutlayt n usihel i d-yufraren ɣef C acku terni-yas :

* Asihel s tɣawsiwin 
* Asihel s tserkam 
* Asihel imcettel (Generic Programming) s templates
* Asefrek n tkatut s ufus

Tutlayt-a tettwaseqdec deg :

Asnulfu n yisiɣẓanen n unagraw d usihel n yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, arnu asnulfu n wuraren akked deg uḥric n tussna n isefka d tigzi taragmawant. arnu daɣen deg iseggasen-a ineggura C++ nezmer ad t-nesseqdec deg weḥric n Web seg tama n umsaɣ s tallelt n WebAssembly.

== Amezruy ==
Tutlayt n usihel C++ tella d yiwet seg tutlayin timeqranin akk deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg wasmi i d-tlul deg useggas n 1979 ar ass-a, C++ temhaz-d s waṭas, tessaweḍ ad tili d allal agejdan deg waṭas n yiḥricen : seg usnulfu n yinagrawen n wammud ar usihel n yiselkimen, seg wuraren ar tigzi taragmawant. Aḍris-agi ad d-yezzuɣɣer amezruy-is, amhaz-is, d wazal-is deg yal tallit n tselkimt.

=== 1. Tilalin : Seg C ar C s Tserkam (1979–1983) ===

==== 1.1 Asenti ====
Deg useggas n 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, yiwen n unelmad n PhD deg Bell Laboratories (AT&amp;T) deg [[Marikan]], yebda yettmahal ɣef usnulfu n tutlayt tamaynut. Stroustrup yella yesseqdac s [[C (tutlayt)|tutlayt C]], maca yebɣa ad yernu fell-as tarrayin n usihel s tɣawsiwin (object-oriented programming) i d-yellan seg tutlayt '''Simula'''.

Iswi-ines amezwaru d ad yessers tamṣukt n usihel s tserkam ɣef tutlayt C, i wakken ad yessers isefka d twsitin n tserkam deg yiwen n umkan. Deg tazwara, isem n tutlayt-a yella d &quot;C with Classes&quot; (C s Tserkam).

==== 1.2 Ismawen d Tarrayin Timezwura ====
Deg tallit-a tamezwarut, Stroustrup yerni-yas i C :

* '''Tiserkam''' (classes) s tmahilin-nsent (member functions)
* '''Tukkest''' (inheritance) : taserkemt ad tawi isefka d twsitin seg tserkemt nniḍen
* '''Timselɣutin''' (references)
* '''Asenqed n tewsatin''' (type checking) iǧehden

Deg useggas n 1983, beddlen isem n tutlayt seg &quot;C with Classes&quot; ar &quot;C++&quot;. Azamul ++ deg C yettawwi-d anerni n wazal s yiwen, d tinnaṭ i d-yemmalen belli C++ d asiɣzef n C.

=== 2. Tallit n Umhaz Amezwaru (1983–1998) ===

==== 2.1 Tizeɣt Tamezwarut ====
Deg tallit-a, C++ terna aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin :

'''1985''' : Tiffeɣ-d Tizeɣt tamezwarut n C++ s uzwel &quot;The C++ Programming Language&quot; n Stroustrup. Tizeɣt-a tesɛa tiserkam, tukkest, tiseɣnin tuhlistin, d tseɣnin n tserkam (member functions).

'''1989''' : Yerna-yas agettalɣa (polymorphism) s twsitin timenyafin, akwbal (encapsulation) s wawalen ''private'', ''public,'' d ''protected'', d tamadwant (abstraction).

'''1990''' : Timerna n &quot;''templates&quot;'' i usihel imcettel (generic programming), tisuraf (exceptions) i uselmed n tuccḍiwin, d ismawen n tallunin (namespaces).

==== 2.2 C++ deg Tselkimt n Tallit-a ====
Deg tallit-a, C++ tettwaseqdec aṭas deg :

* Usnulfu n yinagrawen n wammud am Windows d Unix
* Usihel n yinagrawen yettwaselɣen 
* Usnulfu n isiɣẓanen n tnarit 
* Asihel n yinagrawen n taffa n isefka

C++ tella d tutlayt i yesɛan tanezmart meqqren deg uselkem, acku tettaǧǧa asefrek asmussaw n tkatut s ufus, s useqdec n ''new'' d ''delete''.

=== 3. Tallit n Tizeɣt (1998–2011) ===

==== 3.1 Tizeɣt Tamezwarut : C++98 ====
Deg useggas n 1998, teffeɣ-d tizeɣt tamezwarut n C++ s waggaz ISO/IEC 14882:1998. Tizeɣt-a tesbedd ilugan n tutlayt s wudem unṣib, tefka-yas i C++ tamṣukt tusliḍt i yettwaqbalen deg umaḍal meṛṛa.

'''C++98''' tesɛa :

* '''STL''' (Standard Template Library) : tamkarḍit n temudmin timcettelt (generic templates) am vector, list, map, set
* '''allusen''' (iterators) i ulḥu deg yimgraden
* '''Tiwsatin timatuyin''' (algorithms) am sort, find, for_each
* '''Tusrufin''' (exceptions) s try, catch, throw

==== 3.2 C++03 ====
Deg useggas n 2003, yeffeɣ-d lqem wis sin n tizeɣt (ISO/IEC 14882:2003). Lqem-a ur yerni ara aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin, maca yesseɣti kra n tuccḍiwin yellan deg C++98, yesbedd ilugan s wudem uḥric.

==== 3.3 C++ deg Tallit-a ====
Deg tallit n 1998 ar 2011, C++ tettwaseqdec aṭas deg :

* Usnulfu n wuraren : s tallelt n imuturen n wuraren am Unreal Engine, CryEngine
* Usihel n yiselkimen : afreɣẓan, inuḍaf, anagraw n wammud
* Tasnallunt d tmhelt n tkeṛṛusin 
* Taɣult n tedrimt : inagrawen n lbanka d tenzzut

=== 4. Tallit n Imaynuten n C++  (2011–Ass-a) ===

==== 4.1 C++11 : Tagrawla Tameqqrant ====
Deg useggas n 2011, teffeɣ-d C++11, i yettwaḥsben d tagrawla tameqqrant deg umezruy n tutlayt-a. C++11 terna aṭas n tɣawsiwin timaynutin i yessahlen asihel :

* ''auto'' : tawsit yettwafra s wudem awurman
* ''Lambda expressions'' : tiwsitin tuffirin i yettwarun deg umkan
* ''Range-based for'' : tineddict ɣef yal aferdis n umegrad
* ''Move semantics'' : asmutti n tɣawsiwin bla anɣal, i usnerni n tmellit
* ''Smart pointers'' (unique_ptr, shared_ptr) : isewwaṛen iuḥricen i yettḥerzen takatut s wudem awurman
* ''constexpr'' : azalen yettwaḥesben deg wakud n lqem
* ''nullptr'' : azal amaynut i usewwaṛ ilem, yettbeddilen NULL
* ''enum class'' : inumriyen iǧehden

==== 4.2 C++14 ====
Deg 2014, yeffeɣ-d lqem i d-yernan :

''Generic lambdas'' : lambdas s tewsatin timcettelt, akeed &quot;''Return type deduction''&quot; i twsitin, &quot;''constexpr&quot;'' iǧehden, arnu timudmin s wudem amutti &quot;''Variable templates&quot;.''

==== 4.3 C++17 ====
Deg 2017, C++17 terna :

''if constexpr'' : tiwtilin deg wakud n lqem, ''optional, variant, any'' : tiwsatin n isefka imatuyen, ''Fold expressions'' : i timudmin, ''Parallel algorithms'' : tiwsatin timatuyin s uselmed n ukala afessas.

==== 4.4 C++20 ====
Deg 2020, C++20 terna tɣawsiwin timeqranin :

''Concepts'' : tilisa ɣef timudmin, i wakken ad yili useqqer n tuccḍiwin drus, ''Modules'' : anagraw amaynut n uskecm n ifuyla, yettbeddilen #include, ''Coroutines'' : tiwsitin i izemren ad ḥebsent rnu ad kemmlent, ''Ranges'' : allalen imaynuten n umahil ɣef yimgraden, &lt;format&gt; : tamṣukt n usformat am Python, Kraḍ n iberdan n userwes (&lt;=&gt;)

==== 4.5 C++23 ====
Deg 2023, C++23 terna :

''std::expected'' : i uselmed n tuccḍiwin bla tasureft, ''Deducing this'' : i twsitin n tserkam.

== Tamṣukt n Wahil C++ ==
Yal ahil n C++ yesɛa tamṣukt taseddast. Aḥric amezwaru i yessefken ad yili deg yal ahil d tawsit n tesɣent &quot;main()&quot;, d nettat i d iḥdar agejdan amezwer n uselkem.&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;iostream&gt;
using namespace std;

int main() {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azul, a ddunit!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Deg uḍris-agi :

'''#include &lt;iostream&gt;''' : d taladna n uzarsekkar i d-yesskecmen tamkarḍit n unekcum d usuffeɣ.

'''using namespace std;''' : d alɣu i d-yemmalen belli nseqdac tallunt n yismawen (namespace) std.

'''int main()''' : d tawsit n tesɣent tagejdant ideg yebda uselkem.

'''cout''' : d allal n usuffeɣ ɣer wegdil.

'''return 0;''' : d tinnaṭ n tuɣalin i d-yemmalen belli ahil yemmed akken iwata.

== Tewsatin n Isefka d Imuttiyen ==

=== 1 Tewsatin tigejdanin ===
C++ tesɛa aṭas n tewsatin n isefka tigejdanin :
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Tawsit
!Aglam
!Tiddi
|-
|int
|Ummid (entier)
|4 ibitten
|-
|float
|Amḍan s ticcert yettifliwen (réel simple précision)
|4 ibitten
|-
|double
|Amḍan s ticcert yettifliwen (réel double précision)
|8 ibitten
|-
|char
|Asekkil
|1 n ubit
|-
|void
|Ulac
|0
|}

=== 2 Imuttiyen ===
Amutti d isem i yettunefken i wadeg di tkatut (mémoire) ideg yettwasekles wazal. Asebded (tabadut) n umutti yettili s tewsit, isem, d wazal amezwaru :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int amḍan = 10;
double azal = 3.14;
char asekkil = 'A';
bool tidett = true;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 3 Ismawen d Yilugan-nsen ===
Ismawen n yimuttiyen deg C++ ilaq ad ḍefren ilugan-agi :

* Zemren ad bdun s usekkil neɣ s ujerriḍ n wadda (_)
* Ur zmiren ara ad bdun s umḍan
* Ur zmiren ara ad sqedcen awalen yettwaḥerzen (reserved keywords)
* C++ txedem amgired gar usekkil ameqran d umeẓyan

=== 4 Imahalen ===
Imahalen deg C++ d izamulen i yettunefken i tmhelt ɣef wazalen.

==== 4.1 Imahalen imsnamḍanen ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Tamhelt
!Amedya
|-
| +
|Timernit
|5 + 3 = 8
|-
| -
|Tukkssit
|5 - 3 = 2
|-
|*
|Asegat
|5 * 3 = 15
|-
|/
|Taẓunt
|6 / 3 = 2
|-
|%
|Tasagert
|7 % 3 = 1
|}

==== 4.2 Imahalen n usemyif ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Anamek
|-
|==
|Yugda (égal à)
|-
|!=
|Ur yugdi ara
|-
|&lt;
|Amazdar
|-
|&gt;
|Imineg
|-
|&lt;=
|Amazdar neɣ yugda
|-
|&gt;=
|Imineg neɣ yugda
|}

==== 4.3 Imahalen imeẓẓulen ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Azamul
!Anamek
|-
|&amp;&amp;
|D (ET logique)
|-
|!
|Ur (NON logique)
|}

==== 4.4 Imahalen n usemdukel ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int x = 10;    // Asemdukel asentan
x += 5;        // x = x + 5
x -= 3;        // x = x - 3
x *= 2;        // x = x * 2
x /= 4;        // x = x / 4
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 5. Tamṣukt n Usenqed ===

==== 5.1 Tiwtilin ====
'''if / else if / else'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
if (azal &gt; 100) {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal meqqeṛ&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
} else if (azal &gt; 50) {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal alemmas&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
} else {
    cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Azal meẓẓi&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''switch'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
switch (ass) {
    case 1: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    case 2: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    case 3: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aram&quot; &lt;&lt; endl; break;
    default: cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Ass nniḍen&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 5.2 Tineddicin ====
Tineddict '''for'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
for (int i = 0; i &lt; 10; i++) {
    cout &lt;&lt; i &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Tineddict '''while'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 0;
do {
    cout &lt;&lt; azal &lt;&lt; endl;
    azal++;
} while (azal &lt; 5);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''Tinnaḍin n usenqed n tneddict'''

'''break''' : ad teffeɣ seg tneddict neɣ seg switch

'''continue''' : ad tezgel tikkelt-a, ad teddu ɣer tikkelt i d-iteddun

=== 6. Tiseɣnin ===

==== 6.1 Asebded n Tasɣent ====
Tasɣent deg C++ tesɛa :

* Tawsit n tuɣalin 
* Isem n tasɣent
* Iɣewwaṛen
* Tafekka s tinnaḍin
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
tawsit_n_tuɣalin isem_n_tasɣent(iɣewwaṛen) {
    // tinnaḍin
    return azal;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 6.2 Amedya ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int smerni_sin(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
}

// Aseɣṛi (appel)
int ugmuḍ = smerni_sin(5, 3);  // ugmuḍ = 8
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 6.3 Aɛeddi n Yiɣewwaṛen ====
C++ tesɛa kraḍ n tarrayin n uɛeddi n yiɣewwaṛen :

* Aɛeddi s wazal (pass by value) : ad yettwaneɣl wazal
* Aɛeddi s tamselɣut (pass by reference) : ad yettwafk unekcam srid ɣer umutti
* Aɛeddi s usewwaṛ (pass by pointer) : ad yettwafk wazal n tkatut
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// S wazal
void s_wazal(int x) { x = x + 1; }

// S tamselɣut
void s_tamselɣut(int&amp; x) { x = x + 1; }

// S usewwaṛ
void s_usewwaṛ(int* x) { *x = *x + 1; }

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 7. Isewwaṛen d Timselɣutin ===

==== 7.1 Isewwaṛen (Pointers) ====
Asewwaṛ d amutti i yessekles adɣar (ideg/tansa) n umutti nniḍen di tkatut.&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 42;
int* asewwaṛ = &amp;azal;  // asewwaṛ yesseklas adɣar n &quot;azal&quot;

cout &lt;&lt; *asewwaṛ &lt;&lt; endl;  // ad yesken 42 
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Imahalen imenza :

* &amp; : amahal n tansa (address-of operator)
* * : amahal n tukksa n tmselɣut (dereference operator)

==== 7.2 Timselɣutin ====
Tamselɣut (reference) d isem nniḍen i umutti yellan. Ur yezmirt ara ad ibeddel ɣer umutti nniḍen :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int azal = 10;
int&amp; tamselɣut = azal;  // tamselɣut d isem nniḍen i &quot;azal&quot;
tamselɣut = 20;          // azal yuɣal 20
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 8. Tifelwiyin d Izraren ===

==== 8.1 Tifelwiyin ====
Tafelwit d tagrumma n wazalen n tewsit yiwen, yettwaskelsen deg tkatut s wudem amezdi&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int tifelwiyin[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

// Anekcum ɣer uferdis
cout &lt;&lt; tifelwiyin[0] &lt;&lt; endl;  // 10
cout &lt;&lt; tifelwiyin[4] &lt;&lt; endl;  // 50
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 8.2 Tifelwiyin s uget n tsektiwin ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int tafelwit[3][4] = {
    {1, 2, 3, 4},
    {5, 6, 7, 8},
    {9, 10, 11, 12}
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 8.3 Izraren ====
Deg C++, azrar (string) yezmer ad yili :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// Azrar s tewsit C
char azrar_c[] = &quot;Azul&quot;;

// Azrar s tewsit C++ (tamkarḍit &lt;string&gt;)
#include &lt;string&gt;
string azrar_cpp = &quot;Azul, a ddunit!&quot;;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 9. Asihel s Tɣawsiwin ===
Asihel s tɣawsiwin (OOP) d tarrayt n usihel i yessebdaden ahil ɣef tɣawsiwin i yesɛan isefka d tarrayin.

==== 9.1 Taserkemt ====
Taserkemt d tamudemt (template) i d-yessnulfuyen tiɣawsiwin. Tesɛa :

Imuttiyen n tserkemt (imuttiyen-ines / imyaren-ines)

Tiwsatin n tserkemt (tiseɣnin-ines / tarrayin-ines)&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Aɣersiw {
private:
    string isem;
    int leɛmeṛ;

public:
    // Amakras (constructor)
    Aɣersiw(string i, int l) {
        isem = i;
        leɛmeṛ = l;
    }

    // Tawsit n tserkemt
    void sken() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Isem: &quot; &lt;&lt; isem &lt;&lt; &quot;, Leɛmeṛ: &quot; &lt;&lt; leɛmeṛ &lt;&lt; endl;
    }

    // Asemmatay (destructor)
    ~Aɣersiw() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Aɣersiw yettwakkes&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.2 Taɣawsa ====
Taɣawsa d tummant n tserkemt :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
int main() {
    Aɣersiw aɣyu1(&quot;Muc&quot;, 3);
    aɣyu1.sken();  // Isem: Muc, Leɛmeṛ: 3
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.3 Akwbal ====
Akwbal d amenzay i yettḥerzen isefka n tserkemt s useqdec n wawalen :

'''private''' : anekcum kan seg twsitin n tserkemt

'''public''' : anekcum seg yal amkan

'''protected''' : anekcum seg tserkemt akked tserkam i d-yufraren seg-s s uzellum

==== 9.4 Tukkest ====
Tukkest tettajǧa taserkemt ad tawi isefka d twsitin seg tserkemt nniḍen :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Amɣar : public Aɣersiw {
private:
    string tawuri;

public:
    Amɣar(string i, int l, string t) : Aɣersiw(i, l) {
        tawuri = t;
    }

    void sken_tawuri() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Tawuri: &quot; &lt;&lt; tawuri &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;'''Tawsitin n tukkest deg C++ :'''

* Tukkest tasufut 
* Tukkest tusgit
* Tukkest s waṭas n yiswiren 

==== 9.5 Agettalɣa (Polymorphism) ====
Agettalɣa d amenzay i yettǧǧan tiwsitin yemgaraden ad sɛunt isem yiwen maca ad xedmen tigawin yemgaraden.

'''Tiseɣnin tuhlisin:'''&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Aɣersiw {
public:
    virtual void imesli() {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Imesli n uɣersiw&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

class Amcic : public Aɣersiw {
public:
    void imesli() override {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Miyaw!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

class Aydi : public Aɣersiw {
public:
    void imesli() override {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Waw!&quot; &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
};

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 9.6 Tamadwant ====
Tamadwant d amenzay i yettḥerzen isefka n daxel, ad yesken kan ayen ilaqen i useqdac :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
class Talɣa {
public:
    virtual double tajumma() = 0;  // Tasɣent tadwant tamenyafit
};
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 10. Asihel Amatu s Leqwaleb ===
Leqwaleb neɣ &quot;Templates&quot; ttajǧan ad naru tangalt ara ixedmen s uget n tewsatin n isefka bla ma naru-tt yal tikkelt.

==== 10.1 Tiseɣnin n Leqwaleb ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
template &lt;typename T&gt;
T ameqqran(T a, T b) {
    return (a &gt; b) ? a : b;
}

// Aseqdec
int x = ameqqran(5, 3);       // x = 5
double y = ameqqran(3.14, 2.71);  // y = 3.14

Tiserkam Timatuyin

template &lt;typename T&gt;
class Akufi {
private:
    T iferdisen[100];
    int uṭṭun;

public:
    Akufi() : uṭṭun(0) {}

    void rnu(T azal) {
        iferdisen[uṭṭun++] = azal;
    }

    T kkes() {
        return iferdisen[--uṭṭun];
    }
};

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 11. Asefrek n Tkatut ===

==== 11.1 Aḥeṛṛi Asmussaw ====
C++ tettaǧǧa aḥeṛṛi asmussaw n tkatut s wawalen '''new''' d '''delete''' :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
// Aḥeṛṛi n wazal yiwen
int* p = new int;
*p = 42;
delete p;

// Aḥeṛṛi n tfelwit
int* arr = new int[10];
delete[] arr;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 11.2 Isewwaṛen Uḥricen ====
Deg imaynuten n C++, llan isewwaṛen uḥricen i yettḥerzen tkatut s wudem awurman :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;memory&gt;

// unique_ptr : yezmer kan yiwen n usewwaṛ ad yesɛu taɣawsa
unique_ptr&lt;int&gt; p1 = make_unique&lt;int&gt;(42);

// shared_ptr : aṭas n isewwaṛen zemren ad bḍun taɣawsa
shared_ptr&lt;int&gt; p2 = make_shared&lt;int&gt;(100);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

=== 12. Asefrek n Tsuraf ===
Tsuraf d tarrayt n usefrek n tuccḍiwin deg wakud n uselkem :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;stdexcept&gt;

double beṭṭu(int a, int b) {
    if (b == 0) {
        throw invalid_argument(&quot;Ur yezmir ara ad yebḍu ɣef 0&quot;);
    }
    return (double)a / b;
}

int main() {
    try {
        double ugmuḍ = beṭṭu(10, 0);
    } catch (const invalid_argument&amp; e) {
        cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Tuccḍa: &quot; &lt;&lt; e.what() &lt;&lt; endl;
    }
    return 0;
}

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Imawalen imenza :

'''try''' : ɛreḍ tangalt i izemren ad teg tuccḍa

'''throw''' : zzuzer tasureft

'''catch''' : ṭṭef tasureft

=== 13. Tamkarḍit Tizeɣtant n Temudmin (STL) ===
STL (Standard Template Library) d tagrumma n tserkam d twsitin timatuyin i yettwasqedcen aṭas deg C++.

==== 13.1 Imagbaren ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Amagbar
!anamek-is
|-
|vector
|Tafelwit tamussawt (dynamic array)
|-
|list
|Tabdart tamsuddast (doubly linked list)
|-
|map
|Amawal n tsuraf (key-value pairs)
|-
|set
|Tagrumma n wazalen ur nelli ara d imenza
|-
|queue
|Adras FIFO
|-
|stack
|Akufi LIFO
|}

==== 13.2 Imedyaten ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;vector&gt;
#include &lt;algorithm&gt;

vector&lt;int&gt; imḍanen = {5, 2, 8, 1, 9};

// Af ran (sorting)
sort(imḍanen.begin(), imḍanen.end());

// Anadi (searching)
auto it = find(imḍanen.begin(), imḍanen.end(), 8);
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 13.3 Tineddicin ====
Tineddicin d allalen i yettǧǧan ad nelḥu deg yimagbaren :&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
for (auto it = imḍanen.begin(); it != imḍanen.end(); ++it) {
    cout &lt;&lt; *it &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== 13.4 Tiwsatin Timatuyin (Algorithms) ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c++&quot;&gt;
#include &lt;algorithm&gt;

// Af ran
sort(v.begin(), v.end());

// Anadi
auto it = find(v.begin(), v.end(), 42);

// Asmekti n yal aferdis
for_each(v.begin(), v.end(), [](int x) { cout &lt;&lt; x &lt;&lt; &quot; &quot;; });
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

== Taggrayt ==
Tutlayt n usihel C++ d yiwet seg tutlayin timeqranin deg umaḍal n tsenselkimt. Seg usihel n yinagrawen n wammud ar usnulfu n yisiɣẓanen n tigzi taragmawant, C++ tezmer ad tili deg yal aḥric.

Tamudemt-agi n tutlayt-a tbedd ɣef :

'''Tazmert''' : C++ tettaǧǧa asefrek asmussaw n tkatut d uselkem

'''Taflest''' : tawala n yilɣa imaynuten (C++11 ar C++23)

'''Taseddi''' : tanezmart deg uselkem

'''Tagttilɣa''' : tettaǧǧa asihel s tɣawsiwin, asihel imcettel(amatu), d usihel amesɣan

I useqdac amaynut, yewwid ad yebdu s yilugan tseddast, syin ad yelmed asihel s tɣawsiwin, rnu ad yesnerni tamusni-is s templates d STL.</text>
      <sha1>91lgli5sd6f5dtzifk8jaarsg9ws6r5</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friedrich Engels</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117242</id>
      <parentid>117210</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T01:20:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
      <origin>117242</origin>
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'''Friedrich Engels''' d yiwen seg yimussnawen imeqqranen n tfelsafit, n tdamsa tasertant, d umezruy deg tasut tis 19. D netta, ɣer yidis n [[Karl Marks]], i d-issersen lsas n tazdukla tussnant d tiẓri [[Tazdukla|tazduklant]]. Tikta-ines beddlent amezruy n umaḍal, rnant fkan afud i yimussuyen n yixeddamen mgal [[tamsihrit|asihri]]. Tallalt i d-yefka i tussna n tmetti tella d agellus i yal ameɣnas i yettnadin ɣef tlelli d tgada.

== Temẓi-s d Tazwara n Tudert-is ==
Ilul Friedrich Engels ass n 28 unbir 1820, deg temdint n Barmen, i yellan ass-a deg tmurt n [[Lalman]]. Yekker-d deg yiwet n twacult tameqqrant yernu d tanesbaɣurt, imi baba-s d amsihri yesɛan tikebbaniyin n uẓeṭṭa. Ɣas akken twacult-is tella deg uḥric n yimsihran, Engels, seg temẓi-s, yebda yettḥulfu i lḥif i ttmagaren yixeddamen deg tnebgitin n baba-s. Ayagi yessawḍ-it ad yili d amnamar n unagraw i t-yurwen.

Deg temẓi-s, yuzen-it baba-s ɣer Bremen akken ad yelmed tanezzut, maca netta yerra deg wallaɣ-is tasekla, tafelsafit, d tsertit. Yura imgraden deg tesɣunin tiradikaliyin s yisem uffir, yernu yebda yettnadi ɣef tmuɣliwin timaynutin i ubeddel n tmetti.

=== Tallit-is deg Tmurt n Ingliz d Yixeddamen ===
Deg useggas n 1842, yunag ɣer [[Manchester]] deg tmurt n Ingliz akken ad yexdem deg tkebbanit n baba-s. Dinna, i t-twali tamsalt n yixeddamen s wallen-is. Iwala amek i ttidiren yimɣiden deg yir tignatin, deg lḥers, d tmeslayin n waṭṭan d uɣdlilif. Seg wakken yeqqel d amussnaw n tudert-nsen, yura adlis-is ukuẓ yernu meqqren: &quot;Addad n tserkemt n ixeddamen deg Ingliz&quot; deg 1845. Adlis-agi yeffeɣ-d d asummer ameqqran ɣef usihri d wayen i d-tettfaras ɣef tmetti, yernu yefka i [[Karl Marks]] isalan isehlen ɣef tuddsa n tdamsa tasihrit.

=== Timlilit d Karl Marks d umeddakul n Tudert ===
Deg ɣuct 1844, yemlal d [[Karl Marks]] deg [[Paris (Fransa)|Paris]]. Timlilit-a tella d tazwara n yiwet n timidwa d umahil amezday i yeqqimen arma d tamettant-nsen. Llan kifkif-iten deg tikta, yernu myallalen akken ad arun ɣef tfelsafit, ad tt-kksen seg yigenni akken ad tt-rren ɣer wakal s tangeẓrit tamazrayt.

Deg 1845, suffɣen-d adlis-nsen amezwaru amezday: &quot;Tawacult tagerramt&quot;, yernu deg 1846, &quot;Tasnakta talmanit&quot;, anda i d-sersen lsas n tangeẓrit tamazrayt, i yellan d taɣect tameqqrant mgal utafelsafit taqbur i yellan deg tallit-nni.

== Ulɣu Azduklan ==
Deg 1848, [[Karl Marks|Marks]] d Engels sfuɣen-d &quot;Ameskan n [[Tazdukla|Tzdukla]]&quot;. Adlis-agi wezzil maca yesɛa tazmert tameqqrant, yura deg-s: &quot;Amezruy n yal tmetti d amezruy n umennuɣ gar tserkam&quot;. Amfeskan-agi yerra d asawen i yixeddamen n umaḍal akken ad dduklen mgal asihri., yerna yefka abrid ɣer tmetti anda ur ttilin ara tserkam yemgaraden.

== Taluft Tadamsant d Tallelt i Marks ==
Engels ur yelli ara kan d amyag, maca yella d amsadur n tdamsa. Akken [[Karl Marks|Marks]] ad yili deg Lundun, ad yexdem ɣef udlis-is ameqqran &quot;'''Ihri'''&quot;, Engels yuɣal ɣer [[Manchester]] ad yexdem deg tkebbanit n baba-s akken ad as-yazen idrimen i Marks. Tallelt-a tadamsant d tin i yeǧǧan Marks ad ikemmel anadi-ines war ma yettxemmim ɣef wučči n wass.

Mi yemmut Marks deg 1883, Engels yerra iman-is akken ad ifru, ad iṣṣeggem, yerna ad d-yessuffeɣ iḥricen wis sin d wis kraḍ n &quot;'''Ihri'''&quot; seg yiferdisen ur nekfi ara i d-yeǧǧa Marks. Ayagi yexdem-it s tmusni tameqqrant, war ma yerra iman-is d bab n tira-nni.

== Tira-ines Tigejdanin ==
Engels yura aṭas n yidlisen i yellan d lsas deg ufelsaf amarksist, gar-asen:

&quot;'''Mgal Dühring'''&quot; deg 1878: Adlis-agi d agzul ameqqran n teẓriwin n Marks d Engels. Yefka deg-s tixutert i tdamsa tasertant, i ufelsaf, d wamud n tazdukla tussnant.

&quot;'''Aẓar n twacult, n wayla uslig, d uwanek'''&quot; deg 1884: Deg udlis-agi, yesseqdac tangaẓrit tamazrayt akken ad yezrew amek i d-yennulfa uwanek, d wamek i yebda ubrid n tmetti seg umɣiwan n tazwara ɣer tserkam yemgaraden, yerna yefka tamuɣli ɣef wamek i yella usmuddu n tmeṭṭut deg umezruy.

&quot;'''Tadialektikt n Ugama'''&quot;: Adlis ur nekfi ara, i d-ittwafsaren seld tamettant-is, anda i yettarra tadialektikt ɣer yisuḍaf n ugama d tussniwin n ugama.

== Amennuɣ deg Umussu Amaḍlan n Yixeddamen ==
Engels yella d aɣella deg Umussu Amaḍlan n Yixeddamen. Yettekka deg usbeddi n Tuddsa Tamezwarut d Tuddsa Tis Snat, yernu yettarra tabɣest i yimeɣnasen n tmura n Urupa akken ad nnaɣen mgal asihri d wammud-is. Mi yemmut Marks, netta i yuɣalen d allaɣ i yimussuyen n umaḍal, d netta i d-yettawin tiktiwin-nsen timaynutin, yerna yettara asirem deg wid i d-yusan d imaynuten.

== Tamettant d Ayen i d-Yeǧǧa ==
Friedrich Engels yemmut ass n 5 ɣuct 1895 deg London, seg waṭṭan n ukunsir.

Friedrich Engels ur yelli ara kan d tili n Karl Marks, maca d aggag, d amussnaw, d afelsaf yuran s timmad-is. Ayen i d-yefka i tussna n tmetti, i tdamsa, d tfelsafit, yella d abrid ineǧren i yal ameɣnas i yettnadin ɣef tlelli, tagada, d tuẓelt n wemdan s wemdan. Ism-is yeqqel d azamul n umennuɣ mgal lbaṭel deg umaḍal ɣer waṭas n izduklanen.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Vladimir Lenin</title>
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[[Tugna:Lenin in 1920 (cropped).jpg|vignette|Lenin deg 1920.]]
'''Vladimir Ilitch Oulianov''', win i wumi qqaren s yisem azayez '''Lenin''', d yiwen seg yirgazen n tsertit, agrawliw, ameẓray asertan ameqran i ibeddlen udem n umaḍal deg lqern wis 20. D netta i d aqerru agejdan n tgrawla n Tuber 1917 deg [[Rusya]], yerna d amezwaru i yessersen lsas n uwanek amaynut: [[Tadukli n Tegdudiwin Tinemlayin Tisuvyitiyin|Tadukkli n Tegdudiwin Tisuvyitiyin]]. Tasnaktit-is, i wumi qqaren '''Talinit''', tefka udem amaynut i temsalt n umennuɣ n yimɣiden mgal anagraw amsihran d temnekda.

== Temeddurt-is tamezwarut d usegmi ==
Ilul deg wass n 22 Yebrir 1870 deg temdint n Simbirsk deg [[Rusya]]. Babas yella d amasay deg taɣult n usegmi, yerna d amdan yettwassnen s tezmert-is d uqader-is i tmussniwin. Ma d gma-s ameqran Alexander, yella d ameɣnas yettikki deg yimussuyen isertiyen i yessawalen ad ssufɣen Agellid Alexandre III seg udabu. Alexander yettwanɣa, d ayen i yessersen lxiq d lhemm deg wul n Vladimir, yerna yefka-as afud akken ad yekcem s tmerna deg ubrid n umennuɣ asertian.

Yekcem ɣer tesdawit akken ad yezrew tussna n usaḍuf, maca imi yella yettikki deg yimussuyen n yimɣiden, ssufɣen-t seg tesdawit. Ɣas akken, yessaweḍ ad yawi agerdas-is n usaḍuf, yerna yuɣal d amastan. Maca tussna n umussu amarksi d tameskant n tmetti i yessawḍen udem-is s amur ameqran.

== Asaka asertan, anfay, d tmuɣli n Tlinit ==
Seg useggas n 1893, Lenin yettwanfa srid ɣer [[Saint-Petersburg]], yebda yeṭṭafar yernu yeqqar idlisen n [[Karl Marks]] d [[Friedrich Engels]]. Yeqbel s tidet d akken taserkemt n yimɣiden d ixeddamen d netta i d lsas n lebni n tegrawla.

'''Abbaẓ d Unfay''': Deg useggas n 1895, yettwaṭṭef sɣur tmsulta n utsar(agellid n rrus), dɣa yettwanfa ɣer temnaḍt n Sibirya i kraḍ n yiseggasen. Dinna i yuɣ tameṭṭut-is '''Nadejda Krupskaya'''.

Deffir mi d-yunfa Vladimir Lenin ɣer temdint n Saint-Petersburg deg useggas n 1893, yebda amennuɣ-is asertan s wudem uffir gar yixeddamen n luzinat, anda i d-yesbedd netta d kra n yigrawliwen nniḍen (gar-asen Yuly Martov) tarbaɛt tasertant umi semman « Tadukli n Umennuɣ i Weslelli n Tserkemt n Yixeddamen ». Tarbaɛt-a tella tessewjad asuffeɣ n yiwen n uɣmis agrawlaw n tuffra i wakken ad d-tessaki ixeddamen ɣef yizerfan-nsen yerna ad tessenfali tasertit taqesḥant mgal udabu n Utsar. Maca, uqbel ad d-yeffeɣ uṭṭun amezwaru n uɣmis-nni, tamsulta tasertant tuffirt n utsar (yettwassnen s yisem n Okhrana) twala tirmudt-nsen s tmentilt n yqeddacen-is. Deg yiḍ n 20 duǧember 1895, Lenin yettwaṭṭef s wudmawan (yettwabbeẓ) netta d waṭas n yimaslaḍen n ukabar.

Lenin yeqqim deg lḥebs (tazeqqa n useddu) n Saint-Petersburg azal n 14 n wagguren. Ɣas akken yella seddaw n tɛessast tameqqrant, ur yeḥbis ara tirmudt-is tasnaktat; yella yesseqdac Ileɣ(lḥebber) uffir (s uyefki) d wawalen uffiren deg yidlisen i d-ttawin yimawlan-is iwakken ad ikemmel tiririt d useddu n temsal n lbeṛṛa. Deg fuṛaṛ 1897, taɣdemt n utsar tḥekkem fell-as s kraḍ n yiseggasen n unfa ɣer temnaḍt taqesḥant n Sibirya, deg yiwet n taddart umi semman Chouchinskoïé (Shushenskoye) i d-yezgan deg temnaḍt n Yeniseysk.

Ɣas akken lḥala n tudert deg Sibirya tella d tasemmaṭ yerna d tin iɛezlen mliḥ ɣef umaḍal, Lenin yesseqdec tallit-nni n unfa iwakken ad yesnerni tussna-ines d tẓri-ines tamarksit. Deg useggas n 1898, terza-d fell-as ɣer Sibirya tmeddakkelt-is deg umennuɣ, '''Nadejda Krupskaya''', i yettwabbeẓen ula d nettat; dinna i zewǧen s wudem azerfan iwakken ad ten-ǧǧen yiduba ad ddren deg yiwen n uxxam. Deg tallit-nni n usufeɣ, Lenin yura adlis-is afelsaf d udamsan amezwaru ameqqran umi isemma « Asnegmu n Temsihrit(Tkapitalit) deg Rrus » (Развитие капитализма в России), anda i d-yesbeggen s yimḍanen d usleḍ d akken timetti tarusit tebda tettaǧǧa tanemhizt taqburt n tfellaḥt, tetteddu srid ɣer [[Tamsihrit|temsihrit]](tkapitalit) tamgurant, dɣa aya yefka-as ttbut d akken asmil(taserkimt) ameskari (ixeddamen) d netta i d taɣerfa tagejdant ara yesselḥun tagrawla i d-itteddun.

Mi tfukk tegnit-is n unfa deg Sibirya deg fuṛaṛ 1900, adabu n utsar yegdel fell-as ad yezdeɣ deg temdinin timeqqranin n Rrus. Imi i yebɣa ad ikemmel amennuɣ war ma teṭṭef-it tmsulta tikkelt nniḍen, Lenin yeffeɣ seg tmurt n Rrus deg unebdu n useggas n 1900, yebda tallit tamaynut n unfa agraɣlan deg Tuṛuft Tutrimt (Lalman, Legliz d Taswisrit). D tallit-a i d-yeldin tawwurt i usbeddi n uɣmis agrawlaw Iskra (« Ifeṭṭiwej ») d ussewjed n tsuddest ijehden n Ukabar Abulčivik.

'''Akabar Abulčivik''': Mi d-yeffeɣ seg Sibirya deg useggas n 1900, Lenin yunfa ɣer Tuṛuft Tutrimt (Lalman, Legliz, Taswisrit). Yebda asuffeɣ n uɣmis i d-yessawalen i tegrawla umi semman Iskra (« Tifawt »).

Deg tallit n unfa-ines deg Tuṛuft Tutrimt (gar Munich, London d Genève), Vladimir Lenin yeqsed ad yesdukkel akk tirebbaɛ timarksiyin tirusiyin i yellan mfaṛaqent seddaw n yiwen n ukabar agrawlaw iğehden. I wakken ad yaweḍ ɣer yiswi-a, yesseqdec ayen yesbedd yakan netta d yimeddukkal-is (am Georgi Plekhanov d Yuly Martov) aɣmis uffir umi semman ''Iskra''. Aɣmis-agi yella d allal agejdan n usedmer, n usnefli asnaktay d tuqqna n yizdayen gar tseddasin tagrawlawin i yessemlalayen ixeddamen d yinelmaden deg daxel n Rrus.

Deg useggas n 1902, Lenin yura yiwen n udlis asnaktay ameqqran umi isemma « D acu ara nexdem? » (Что делать?). Deg tektabt-a, yessegza-d tiẓri-ines ɣef wamek ilaq ad yebnu ukabar asertan: yettwali d akken asmil ameskari (ixeddamen) weḥd-s ur yezmir ara ad d-yesnulfu tamṣukt tanemlayt tummidt war ma tewweḍ-it-id seg berra, acku amennuɣ amguran n yixeddamen yettawi kan ɣer ''tsendikalit''. Ihi, yenna-d d akken ilaq ad d-yili yiwen n '''ukabar n yigrawliwen imsaduren''', i yebnan ɣef tseddi, tugrint iğehden d '''tlemmast tamagdayt''' (tadimuqṛatit)—anda i d-yettili umciwer d umeslay ilelli deg daxel n ukabar, maca ticki yettwaṭṭef rray sɣur tuget, ilaq akk imaslaḍen ad t-qeblen yerna ad t-snekren s wudem yesseddin.

Deg unebdu n useggas n 1903, '''Akabar''' '''Anmetti Amagday n Yixeddamen n Rrus''' ('''POSDR''') yesselḥa agraw-is amatu wis sin deg Bruxelles sakin yunfa ɣer London. Deg ugraw-agi, tekker-d yiwet n tenmegla taqesḥant gar Lenin d umeddakkel-is Yuly Martov ɣef usaḍuf amezwaru n ukabar (ilugan n ukabar): Lenin yebɣa ad yerr tiwuriwin s wudem awizi neɣ amirew i yiɛeggalen (yal aɛeggal ilaq ad yettekki srid yerna s wudem amsadur deg yiwet n tsaddast tuffirt), ma d Martov yebɣa akabar ad yili s wudem ameccaq neɣ yerna ad yeqbel yal yiwen i d-yettaken tallalt ɣas ur yelli ara d agrawliw uffir.

Mi d-yewweḍ lweqt n tefrant ɣef tseqqamut talemmast d teẓrigt n uɣmis Iskra, tagrawt i yeḍfren Lenin tewwi tuget n tefranin, dɣa seg yimir-nni semman-asen Ibulčiviken (seg wawal arusi bol'chinstvo i d-yemmalen wid n tuget). Ma d tagrawt n Martov i yellan deg tdersi, semman-asen Imenčiviken (seg wawal arusi men'chinstvo). Bṭu-agi ur yeqqim ara kan d amgired n tmuɣli ɣef yilugan, maca yuɣal d taẓuni tasnaktayt talqayant: Ibulčiviken kran srid ɣer usedmer d tegrawla tamsekrit iwakken ad ṭṭfen adabu, ma d Imenčiviken tmuɣli-nsen tella tettheyyi abrid ameẓẓayan i tdiganin ''tidimuqṛatiyin'' tiburjwiyin uqbel tanemla.

Ihi deg useggas n 1903, deg useqqamu wis sin n U'''kabar Anmetti Amagday n Yixeddamen n Rrus (POSDR)''', Lenin yebḍa akabar-nni ɣef sin:

* ''Ibulčiviken'' (Bolsheviks): Wid yebɣan akabar yeqseḥen n yigrawliwen yettheggin ad awḍen ɣer udabu.
* ''Imenčiviken'' (Mensheviks): Wid yebɣan abrid afessas d uheggi ameẓẓayan.
Ɣas akken llant kra n tegnatin n usemlili deg yiseggasen i d-yeḍfren, Lenin ikemmel lebni n tsuddest-is war aḥbas. Deg temlilit n Prague deg useggas n 1912, Ibulčiviken bḍan s wudem unṣib d Imenčiviken, dɣa sbedden akabar-nsen d aḥrur yerna iteddu deg unegmu deg tallit-nni akked iseggasen i d-ḍfren, d netta i yuɣalen d lsas igejdanen i Tegrawla n Tuber deg useggas n 1917.

== Tagrawla n 1917 ==
Deg useggas n 1917, Tamnekda Tarusit tella tettwaɣ mliḥ s sebba n Ṭṭraḍ Amaḍlan Amezwaru, laẓ, d wuguren n tdamsa:

'''Tagrawla n Fuṛaṛ 1917''': Agdud d yiserdasen kran mgal Utsar Nikulas Wis Sin, dɣa yeɣli udabu n utsar, tbedd yiwen n unabaḍ uɛḍil.

Deg tazwara n useggas n 1917, Tamnekda Tarusit tella tennuɣna s talqayt s sebba n lemxeffat d lmutat n yiserdasen deg Ṭṭraḍ Amaḍlan Amezwaru, rnu-as-d aɣelluy n tdamsa i d-yeglan s lexṣas ameqqran n weɣrum, laẓ d tneqqlebt gar yimezdaɣen n tmaneɣt Petrograd (Saint-Petersburg). Ass n 23 fuṛaṛ (8 meɣres deg teswast tatrart), deg Wass Agraɣlan n Tmeṭṭut, tullas tixeddamin fɣent-d srid ɣer yizenqan s yisuɣan n « Aɣrum d Talwit! ». Amussu-a yemɣer s lemɣawla mi d-rrnan fell-asen yixeddamen n luzinat, dɣa yeḍra-d usunded amatu (grève générale) i yerran tamdint akk amzun texla war irmuden.

Mi d-yefka Utsar Nikulas Wis Sin lameṛ i yiserdasen iwakken ad wten agdud s rṣas, teḍra-d yiwet n tkerwa tameqqrant: iserdasen ugin ad wten ɣef &quot;igrawliwen&quot;, dɣa gullen ɣer yidis n yixeddamen yerna fkan-asen leslaḥ. Imi i iwala akk iɛessasen-is ǧǧan-t, Utsar Nikulas Wis Sin yettwaḥṛes armi i yexdem  i yiman-isasegdel n udabu (yuǧǧa adabu) ass n 2 meɣres 1917, dɣa d taggara i d-yewwḍen i tenbaḍt n twacult n Romanov i yeṭṭfen tamurt ugar n kraḍ n leqrun.

'''Tuɣalin n Lenin''': Deg yebrir 1917, Lenin yuɣal-d seg ''Taswisrit'' ɣer Saint-Petersburg (Petrograd) s tmacint i d-thegga Lalman. Yenna-d deg tefyirt-is tameqqrant (Tisumar n Yebrir): « Akk adabu ilaq ad yuɣal i yisuvyaten (iseqquma n yixeddamen d yiserdasen)! ».

'''Tagrawla n Tuber 1917''': Deg yiḍ n 24 ɣer 25 tuber 1917 (s wazemz ajulyan), Ibulčiviken seddaw n tmehla n Lenin d Leon Trotsky ṭṭfen Tiɣremt n Tsegrest (Palais d'Hiver), dɣa sseɣlin anabaḍ amiran, sbedden anabaḍ asuvyati azduklan.</text>
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[[Tugna:Lenin in 1920 (cropped).jpg|vignette|Lenin deg 1920.]]
'''Vladimir Ilitch Oulianov''', win i wumi qqaren s yisem azayez '''Lenin''', d yiwen seg yirgazen n tsertit, agrawliw, ameẓray asertan ameqran i ibeddlen udem n umaḍal deg lqern wis 20. D netta i d aqerru agejdan n tgrawla n Tuber 1917 deg [[Rusya]], yerna d amezwaru i yessersen lsas n uwanek amaynut: [[Tadukli n Tegdudiwin Tinemlayin Tisuvyitiyin|Tadukkli n Tegdudiwin Tisuvyitiyin]]. Tasnaktit-is, i wumi qqaren '''Talinit''', tefka udem amaynut i temsalt n umennuɣ n yimɣiden mgal anagraw amsihran d temnekda.

== Temeddurt-is tamezwarut d usegmi ==
Ilul deg wass n 22 Yebrir 1870 deg temdint n Simbirsk deg [[Rusya]]. Babas yella d amasay deg taɣult n usegmi, yerna d amdan yettwassnen s tezmert-is d uqader-is i tmussniwin. Ma d gma-s ameqran Alexander, yella d ameɣnas yettikki deg yimussuyen isertiyen i yessawalen ad ssufɣen Agellid Alexandre III seg udabu. Alexander yettwanɣa, d ayen i yessersen lxiq d lhemm deg wul n Vladimir, yerna yefka-as afud akken ad yekcem s tmerna deg ubrid n umennuɣ asertian.

Yekcem ɣer tesdawit akken ad yezrew tussna n usaḍuf, maca imi yella yettikki deg yimussuyen n yimɣiden, ssufɣen-t seg tesdawit. Ɣas akken, yessaweḍ ad yawi agerdas-is n usaḍuf, yerna yuɣal d amastan. Maca tussna n umussu amarksi d tameskant n tmetti i yessawḍen udem-is s amur ameqran.

== Asaka asertan, anfay, d tmuɣli n Tlinit ==
Seg useggas n 1893, Lenin yettwanfa srid ɣer [[Saint-Petersburg]], yebda yeṭṭafar yernu yeqqar idlisen n [[Karl Marks]] d [[Friedrich Engels]]. Yeqbel s tidet d akken taserkemt n yimɣiden d ixeddamen d netta i d lsas n lebni n tegrawla.

'''Abbaẓ d Unfay''': Deg useggas n 1895, yettwaṭṭef sɣur tmsulta n utsar(agellid n rrus), dɣa yettwanfa ɣer temnaḍt n Sibirya i kraḍ n yiseggasen. Dinna i yuɣ tameṭṭut-is '''Nadejda Krupskaya'''.

Deffir mi d-yunfa Vladimir Lenin ɣer temdint n Saint-Petersburg deg useggas n 1893, yebda amennuɣ-is asertan s wudem uffir gar yixeddamen n luzinat, anda i d-yesbedd netta d kra n yigrawliwen nniḍen (gar-asen Yuly Martov) tarbaɛt tasertant umi semman « Tadukli n Umennuɣ i Weslelli n Tserkemt n Yixeddamen ». Tarbaɛt-a tella tessewjad asuffeɣ n yiwen n uɣmis agrawlaw n tuffra i wakken ad d-tessaki ixeddamen ɣef yizerfan-nsen yerna ad tessenfali tasertit taqesḥant mgal udabu n Utsar. Maca, uqbel ad d-yeffeɣ uṭṭun amezwaru n uɣmis-nni, tamsulta tasertant tuffirt n utsar (yettwassnen s yisem n Okhrana) twala tirmudt-nsen s tmentilt n yqeddacen-is. Deg yiḍ n 20 duǧember 1895, Lenin yettwaṭṭef s wudmawan (yettwabbeẓ) netta d waṭas n yimaslaḍen n ukabar.

Lenin yeqqim deg lḥebs (tazeqqa n useddu) n Saint-Petersburg azal n 14 n wagguren. Ɣas akken yella seddaw n tɛessast tameqqrant, ur yeḥbis ara tirmudt-is tasnaktat; yella yesseqdac Ileɣ(lḥebber) uffir (s uyefki) d wawalen uffiren deg yidlisen i d-ttawin yimawlan-is iwakken ad ikemmel tiririt d useddu n temsal n lbeṛṛa. Deg fuṛaṛ 1897, taɣdemt n utsar tḥekkem fell-as s kraḍ n yiseggasen n unfa ɣer temnaḍt taqesḥant n Sibirya, deg yiwet n taddart umi semman Chouchinskoïé (Shushenskoye) i d-yezgan deg temnaḍt n Yeniseysk.

Ɣas akken lḥala n tudert deg Sibirya tella d tasemmaṭ yerna d tin iɛezlen mliḥ ɣef umaḍal, Lenin yesseqdec tallit-nni n unfa iwakken ad yesnerni tussna-ines d tẓri-ines tamarksit. Deg useggas n 1898, terza-d fell-as ɣer Sibirya tmeddakkelt-is deg umennuɣ, '''Nadejda Krupskaya''', i yettwabbeẓen ula d nettat; dinna i zewǧen s wudem azerfan iwakken ad ten-ǧǧen yiduba ad ddren deg yiwen n uxxam. Deg tallit-nni n usufeɣ, Lenin yura adlis-is afelsaf d udamsan amezwaru ameqqran umi isemma « Asnegmu n Temsihrit(Tkapitalit) deg Rrus » (Развитие капитализма в России), anda i d-yesbeggen s yimḍanen d usleḍ d akken timetti tarusit tebda tettaǧǧa tanemhizt taqburt n tfellaḥt, tetteddu srid ɣer [[Tamsihrit|temsihrit]](tkapitalit) tamgurant, dɣa aya yefka-as ttbut d akken asmil(taserkimt) ameskari (ixeddamen) d netta i d taɣerfa tagejdant ara yesselḥun tagrawla i d-itteddun.

Mi tfukk tegnit-is n unfa deg Sibirya deg fuṛaṛ 1900, adabu n utsar yegdel fell-as ad yezdeɣ deg temdinin timeqqranin n Rrus. Imi i yebɣa ad ikemmel amennuɣ war ma teṭṭef-it tmsulta tikkelt nniḍen, Lenin yeffeɣ seg tmurt n Rrus deg unebdu n useggas n 1900, yebda tallit tamaynut n unfa agraɣlan deg Tuṛuft Tutrimt (Lalman, Legliz d Taswisrit). D tallit-a i d-yeldin tawwurt i usbeddi n uɣmis agrawlaw Iskra (« Ifeṭṭiwej ») d ussewjed n tsuddest ijehden n Ukabar Abulčivik.

'''Akabar Abulčivik''': Mi d-yeffeɣ seg Sibirya deg useggas n 1900, Lenin yunfa ɣer Tuṛuft Tutrimt (Lalman, Legliz, Taswisrit). Yebda asuffeɣ n uɣmis i d-yessawalen i tegrawla umi semman Iskra (« Tifawt »).

Deg tallit n unfa-ines deg Tuṛuft Tutrimt (gar Munich, London d Genève), Vladimir Lenin yeqsed ad yesdukkel akk tirebbaɛ timarksiyin tirusiyin i yellan mfaṛaqent seddaw n yiwen n ukabar agrawlaw iğehden. I wakken ad yaweḍ ɣer yiswi-a, yesseqdec ayen yesbedd yakan netta d yimeddukkal-is (am Georgi Plekhanov d Yuly Martov) aɣmis uffir umi semman ''Iskra''. Aɣmis-agi yella d allal agejdan n usedmer, n usnefli asnaktay d tuqqna n yizdayen gar tseddasin tagrawlawin i yessemlalayen ixeddamen d yinelmaden deg daxel n Rrus.

Deg useggas n 1902, Lenin yura yiwen n udlis asnaktay ameqqran umi isemma « D acu ara nexdem? » (Что делать?). Deg tektabt-a, yessegza-d tiẓri-ines ɣef wamek ilaq ad yebnu ukabar asertan: yettwali d akken asmil ameskari (ixeddamen) weḥd-s ur yezmir ara ad d-yesnulfu tamṣukt tanemlayt tummidt war ma tewweḍ-it-id seg berra, acku amennuɣ amguran n yixeddamen yettawi kan ɣer ''tsendikalit''. Ihi, yenna-d d akken ilaq ad d-yili yiwen n '''ukabar n yigrawliwen imsaduren''', i yebnan ɣef tseddi, tugrint iğehden d '''tlemmast tamagdayt''' (tadimuqṛatit)—anda i d-yettili umciwer d umeslay ilelli deg daxel n ukabar, maca ticki yettwaṭṭef rray sɣur tuget, ilaq akk imaslaḍen ad t-qeblen yerna ad t-snekren s wudem yesseddin.

Deg unebdu n useggas n 1903, '''Akabar''' '''Anmetti Amagday n Yixeddamen n Rrus''' ('''POSDR''') yesselḥa agraw-is amatu wis sin deg Bruxelles sakin yunfa ɣer London. Deg ugraw-agi, tekker-d yiwet n tenmegla taqesḥant gar Lenin d umeddakkel-is Yuly Martov ɣef usaḍuf amezwaru n ukabar (ilugan n ukabar): Lenin yebɣa ad yerr tiwuriwin s wudem awizi neɣ amirew i yiɛeggalen (yal aɛeggal ilaq ad yettekki srid yerna s wudem amsadur deg yiwet n tsaddast tuffirt), ma d Martov yebɣa akabar ad yili s wudem ameccaq neɣ yerna ad yeqbel yal yiwen i d-yettaken tallalt ɣas ur yelli ara d agrawliw uffir.

Mi d-yewweḍ lweqt n tefrant ɣef tseqqamut talemmast d teẓrigt n uɣmis Iskra, tagrawt i yeḍfren Lenin tewwi tuget n tefranin, dɣa seg yimir-nni semman-asen Ibulčiviken (seg wawal arusi bol'chinstvo i d-yemmalen wid n tuget). Ma d tagrawt n Martov i yellan deg tdersi, semman-asen Imenčiviken (seg wawal arusi men'chinstvo). Bṭu-agi ur yeqqim ara kan d amgired n tmuɣli ɣef yilugan, maca yuɣal d taẓuni tasnaktayt talqayant: Ibulčiviken kran srid ɣer usedmer d tegrawla tamsekrit iwakken ad ṭṭfen adabu, ma d Imenčiviken tmuɣli-nsen tella tettheyyi abrid ameẓẓayan i tdiganin ''tidimuqṛatiyin'' tiburjwiyin uqbel tanemla.

Ihi deg useggas n 1903, deg useqqamu wis sin n U'''kabar Anmetti Amagday n Yixeddamen n Rrus (POSDR)''', Lenin yebḍa akabar-nni ɣef sin:

* ''Ibulčiviken'' (Bolsheviks): Wid yebɣan akabar yeqseḥen n yigrawliwen yettheggin ad awḍen ɣer udabu.
* ''Imenčiviken'' (Mensheviks): Wid yebɣan abrid afessas d uheggi ameẓẓayan.
Ɣas akken llant kra n tegnatin n usemlili deg yiseggasen i d-yeḍfren, Lenin ikemmel lebni n tsuddest-is war aḥbas. Deg temlilit n Prague deg useggas n 1912, Ibulčiviken bḍan s wudem unṣib d Imenčiviken, dɣa sbedden akabar-nsen d aḥrur yerna iteddu deg unegmu deg tallit-nni akked iseggasen i d-ḍfren, d netta i yuɣalen d lsas igejdanen i Tegrawla n Tuber deg useggas n 1917.

== Tagrawla n 1917 ==
Deg useggas n 1917, Tamnekda Tarusit tella tettwaɣ mliḥ s sebba n Ṭṭraḍ Amaḍlan Amezwaru, laẓ, d wuguren n tdamsa:

'''Tagrawla n Fuṛaṛ 1917''': Agdud d yiserdasen kran mgal Utsar Nikulas Wis Sin, dɣa yeɣli udabu n utsar, tbedd yiwen n unabaḍ uɛḍil.

Deg tazwara n useggas n 1917, Tamnekda Tarusit tella deg yal addad(liḥala), rnu-as-d aɣelluy n tdamsa i d-yeglan s lexṣas ameqqran n weɣrum, laẓ d tneqqlebt gar yimezdaɣen n tmaneɣt Petrograd (Saint-Petersburg). Ass n 23 fuṛaṛ (8 meɣres deg teswast tatrart), deg Wass Agraɣlan n Tmeṭṭut, tullas tixeddamin fɣent-d srid ɣer yizenqan s yisuɣan n « Aɣrum d Talwit! ». Amussu-a yemɣer s lemɣawla mi d-rrnan fell-asen yixeddamen n luzinat, dɣa yeḍra-d usunded amatu (grève générale) i yerran tamdint akk amzun texla war irmuden.

Mi d-yefka Utsar Nikulas Wis Sin lameṛ i yiserdasen iwakken ad wten agdud s rṣas, teḍra-d yiwet n tkerwa tameqqrant: iserdasen ugin ad wten ɣef &quot;igrawliwen&quot;, dɣa gullen ɣer yidis n yixeddamen yerna fkan-asen leslaḥ. Imi i iwala akk iɛessasen-is ǧǧan-t, Utsar Nikulas Wis Sin yettwaḥṛes armi i yexdem  i yiman-isasegdel n udabu (yuǧǧa adabu) ass n 2 meɣres 1917, dɣa d taggara i d-yewwḍen i tenbaḍt n twacult n Romanov i yeṭṭfen tamurt ugar n kraḍ n leqrun.

'''Tuɣalin n Lenin''': Deg yebrir 1917, Lenin yuɣal-d seg ''Taswisrit'' ɣer Saint-Petersburg (Petrograd) s tmacint i d-thegga Lalman. Yenna-d deg tefyirt-is tameqqrant (Tisumar n Yebrir): « Akk adabu ilaq ad yuɣal i yisuvyaten (iseqquma n yixeddamen d yiserdasen)! ».

'''Tagrawla n Tuber 1917''': Deg yiḍ n 24 ɣer 25 tuber 1917 (s wazemz ajulyan), Ibulčiviken seddaw n tmehla n Lenin d Leon Trotsky ṭṭfen Tiɣremt n Tsegrest (Palais d'Hiver), dɣa sseɣlin anabaḍ amiran, sbedden anabaḍ asuvyati azduklan.</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asihri</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117238</id>
      <parentid>117235</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T01:00:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Gurzil90x yebeddel isem n usebtar seg [[Tamsihrit]] ar [[Asihri]] : Tuccḍa deg uzwel</comment>
      <origin>117235</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5146" sha1="sv1zdzkgw262553rs5t757ovbdz75m7" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:New York Stock Exchange, Broad Street LCCN00650325.jpg|vignette|taggazt n New York, d azamul n temsihrit.]]
'''Tamsihrit''' d anagraw adamsan d tedrimt i d-yebnan ɣef wayla uslig n wallalen n ufares d usenzi. Iswi amenzu n unagraw-a d anadi ɣef rrbeḥ d tebaɣurt. Deg unagraw n temsihrit, tisuda n udabu (ddula/awanek) ur d-keččment ara s waṭas deg ulzuz(ssuq/agadaz) neɣ deg temsal n tdamsa. Yal taɣawsa, d anagraw n usuter d wunefk (ayen yellan d wayen i d-ssuturen) i d-iḥekkmen deg watug-s d wazal-is.

== Aẓar n Temsihrit ==
Aẓar n temsihrit yuɣ-d sseḥ seg tmura n Turuft deg taggara n tallit talemmast d tlalit taleslalit. Uqbel-is, llan medden ddren s ddaw unagraw n tfyudalit (féodalisme) anda akal yella gar yifassen n yigelliden d yimrabḍen, ma d imdanen iqeddcen fell-asen ttwaḥesben d ayla-nsen (aklan).

Mi d-yebda usenzi d tiɣin yettnerni, ladɣa gar tmura yembɛaden deg lqern wis 14 d wis 15, tban-d tseddart tamaynut n yimzenziyen. D imzenziyen-a i d-issersen lsas amenzu i temsihrit, imi bdan jemmɛen idrimen, snulfan-d ibankiwen imenza di Ṭelyan, uɣalen ssebbaḍen allalen n ubeddel n tedrimt.

== Amezruy d Umhaz n Temsihrit ==
Tamsihrit tɛedda-d ɣef waṭas n tseddarin deg umezruy-is, yal taseddart tewwi-d amhaz amaynut:

* '''Tamsihrit Talzazt/Tamercantit (Lqern wis 16 ar wis 18)''': Tbedd ɣef usenzi ameqqran gar tmura d ujemmeɛ n ureɣ(ddheb) d lfeṭṭa. D lawan n yiminigen imeqqranen (am unekcum ɣer Temrikt d usenzi n yisulas) anda timura timeqqranin rrant lwelha-nsent ɣer usewseɛ n ulzuz-nsent(ssuq-nsent).
* '''Tamsihrit Tamguranit (Lqern wis 18 ar wis 19)''': S tegrawla tamguranit i d-yebdan di tmurt n Lengliz, tamsihrit tbeddel udem. D asekcem n tmacinin, am tmacint n iraggen, i d-ixelqen tixxamin timeqqranin n ufares (luzinat). Tban-d tseddart tamaynut n yixeddamen i yettnuzun s yiɣallen-nsen s lexlaṣ ameẓyan, d tseddart n tburjwazit i yesɛan tabaɣurt.
* '''Tamsihrit Taẓerfanit (Lqern wis 20)''': Tamsihrit tuɣal tbedd ɣef yibankiwen d tneɣrufin(timudmawin) s wudem anmaḍal. Tennerna deg ugzu(tamiḍrant) n tkebbaniyin timeqqranin s yiḥricen-nsent i yesɛan aṭas n yimawlan (actionnaires).
* '''Tamsihrit Tatrart / Tanyulyiberalit (Seg iseggasen n 1970 ar tura)''': D tamudemt i d-yewwin asmaḍel amatu (mondialisation). Anagraw-a yessazzel tiɣawsiwin, idrimen, d yimdanen deg umaḍal meṛṛa s war tilisa.

== Tiktiwin d Tiẓriyin Tigejdanin ==
Tamsihrit tebna ɣef kraḍ n tgejda tisnaktayin (itadyulujit) d tdamsiyin i tt-id-yessenṭqen :

=== 1. Ayla Uslig ===
Deg temsihrit, allalen n ufares (tizɣiwin, tixxamin n ccɣel, akal, tmacinin) mačči n uwanek(ddula), maca n yimdanen neɣ n tkebbaniyin tusligin. Yal amdan yesɛa azref ad yekseb, ad yesnirem, yerna ad yessewseɛ ayla-s.

=== 2. Timsizzelt d Ulzuz Ilelli ===
Timsizzelt gar tkebbaniyin d amussu agejdan i d-yettawin ɣer usnulfu d unqaṣ n watig(ssuma). Tiẓri-a tcudd ɣer ufiluzuf ''[[Adam Smith]]'', bab n tekti n &quot;Ufus uffir&quot;. Smith yenna-d d akken mi ara yettnadi yal amdan ɣef rrbeḥ-is uzzig, s wudem amzun d uffir, ad d-yawi lfayda i tmetti s timmad-is, acku ulzuz/agadez (ssuq) ad iseggem iman-is s yiman-is war ma ikeččem-d uwanek deg tdamsa.

== Azɣan n Karl Marks ==
Ur nezmir ara ad d-nawi awal ɣef tiẓriyin n temsihrit mebla ma nebdar-d ''[[Karl Marks]]''. Ɣer Marks, tamsihrit d anagraw i yebnan ɣef unxeṣsef. Yufa d akken imawlan n wallalen n ufares ttawin rrbeḥ-nsen seg &quot;wazal amernu&quot; (la plus-value) i d-yeffɣen seg tidi n yixeddamen i ur nettwaxelleṣ ara akken iwata. Ayagi, ɣer Marks, yettarra-d amennuɣ gar tserkam i d-yettawin ɣer tgrawla.

== Ayen i d-iqqimen seg-s deg Umaḍal Atrar ==
Ass-a, tamsihrit tenṭeḍ ɣer yakk tiɣemmar n umaḍal yerna tuɣal d anagraw adamsan amatu. Ayen i d-teǧǧa neɣ ayen i d-tewwi i tmetti tatrart yebḍa ɣef sin n wudmawen:

'''Udmawen''' '''ufriren :'''

* Tewwi-d abeddel ameqqran deg teknulujit d usnulfu n tussniwin imi yal asurif yettqelleb ɣef unqaṣ n wakud d usegder n ufares.
* Tesnulfa-d aṭas n tbuɣar (tabaɣurt) di tmura yellan zik d tigellilin.
* Tesnerna deg tnezzut tagraɣlant i d-isrebḥen aṭas n tmura deg umaḍal.

'''Udmawen ibawiyen d wuguren :'''

* '''Tinmegliyin(tirgaddiwin) :''' Tamsihrit tatrart tessimɣur lqedd gar imeṛkantiyen (imawlan n tebaɣurt) d yigellilen. Aṭas n yimdanen qqimen deg ddiq, ma d kra n tkebbaniyin uɣalent ɣlayit ugar n tmura s timmad-nsent.

* '''Aluleɣ n twennaṭ d ugama :''' Anadi ɣef rrbeḥ s zreb yewwi-d asexṣar n twennaḍt d uheddu n ubaɣur agaman. Iswi n temsihrit d afares war tilisa, ayen i d-yeslalen timerna n lḥamu anezwan.
* '''Tizeɣnin tidamsanin :''' Anagraw-a ur yerkid ara; yettawi-d deg yal tallit tawaɣit tadamsant (am tin n 1929 neɣ tin n 2008), i d-yettaǧǧan aṭas n yixeddamen di barra.
Ɣef waya, ass-a, tuget n tmura sqeddcent ayen umi neqqar '''&quot;Tadamsa tamasayt&quot;''' neɣ tadamsa tasuddist. Deg unagraw-a, ddula tkeččem-d akken ad tḥader ɣef yizerfan n yixeddamen, ad tessekcem isuḍaf, yerna ad tesḥibber ɣef yixeddamen s unagraw n tɣellist tamettant.</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>117240</id>
      <parentid>117238</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T01:12:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
      <origin>117240</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5067" sha1="rigf4viv3seyeesia8w21x6wz5tciul" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:New York Stock Exchange, Broad Street LCCN00650325.jpg|vignette|Taggazt n New York, d azamul n usihri.]]
'''Asihri''' d anagraw adamsan d tedrimt i d-yebnan ɣef wayla uslig n wallalen n ufares d usenzi. Iswi amenzu n unagraw-a d anadi ɣef rrbeḥ d tebaɣurt. Deg unagraw n asihri, tisuda n udabu (ddula/awanek) ur d-keččment ara s waṭas deg ulzuz(ssuq/agadaz) neɣ deg temsal n tdamsa. Yal taɣawsa, d anagraw n usuter d wunefk (ayen yellan d wayen i d-ssuturen) i d-iḥekkmen deg watug-s d wazal-is.

== Aẓar n Usihri ==
Aẓar n usihri yuɣ-d sseḥ seg tmura n Turuft deg taggara n tallit talemmast d tlalit taleslalit. Uqbel-is, llan medden ddren s ddaw unagraw n tfyudalit (féodalisme) anda akal yella gar yifassen n yigelliden d yimrabḍen, ma d imdanen iqeddcen fell-asen ttwaḥesben d ayla-nsen (aklan).

Mi d-yebda usenzi d tiɣin yettnerni, ladɣa gar tmura yembɛaden deg lqern wis 14 d wis 15, tban-d tseddart tamaynut n yimzenziyen. D imzenziyen-a i d-issersen lsas amenzu i usihri, imi bdan jemmɛen idrimen, snulfan-d ibankiwen imenza di Ṭelyan, uɣalen ssebbaḍen allalen n ubeddel n tedrimt.

== Amezruy d Umhaz n Usihri ==
Asihri yɛedda-d ɣef waṭas n tseddarin deg umezruy-is, yal taseddart tewwi-d amhaz amaynut:

* '''Asihri n Talzazt/Tamercantit (Lqern wis 16 ar wis 18)''': Ibedd ɣef usenzi ameqqran gar tmura d ujemmeɛ n ureɣ(ddheb) d lfeṭṭa. D lawan n yiminigen imeqqranen (am unekcum ɣer Temrikt d usenzi n yisulas) anda timura timeqqranin rrant lwelha-nsent ɣer usewseɛ n ulzuz-nsent(ssuq-nsent).
* '''Asihri Amguran (Lqern wis 18 ar wis 19)''': S tegrawla tamguranit i d-yebdan di tmurt n Lengliz, asihri ibeddel udem. D asekcem n tmacinin, am tmacint n iraggen, i d-ixelqen tixxamin timeqqranin n ufares (luzinat). Tban-d tseddart tamaynut n yixeddamen i yettnuzun s yiɣallen-nsen s lexlaṣ ameẓyan, d tseddart n tburjwazit i yesɛan tabaɣurt.
* '''Asihri Aẓerfani (Lqern wis 20)''': Asihri yuɣal ibedd ɣef yibankiwen d tneɣrufin(timudmawin) s wudem anmaḍal. Yennerna deg ugzu(tamiḍrant) n tkebbaniyin timeqqranin s yiḥricen-nsent i yesɛan aṭas n yimawlan (actionnaires).
* '''Asihri Atrar / Tanyulyiberalit (Seg iseggasen n 1970 ar tura)''': D tamudemt i d-yewwin asmaḍel amatu. Anagraw-a yessazzel tiɣawsiwin, idrimen, d yimdanen deg umaḍal meṛṛa s war tilisa.

== Tiktiwin d Tiẓriyin Tigejdanin ==
Asihri yebna ɣef kraḍ n tgejda tisnaktayin (itadyulujit) d tdamsiyin i tt-id-yessenṭqen :

=== 1. Ayla Uslig ===
Deg usihri, allalen n ufares (tizɣiwin, tixxamin n ccɣel, akal, tmacinin) mačči n uwanek(ddula), maca n yimdanen neɣ n tkebbaniyin tusligin. Yal amdan yesɛa azref ad yekseb, ad yesnirem, yerna ad yessewseɛ ayla-s.

=== 2. Timsizzelt d Ulzuz Ilelli ===
Timsizzelt gar tkebbaniyin d amussu agejdan i d-yettawin ɣer usnulfu d unqaṣ n watig(ssuma). Tiẓri-a tcudd ɣer ufiluzuf ''[[Adam Smith]]'', bab n tekti n &quot;Ufus uffir&quot;. Smith yenna-d d akken mi ara yettnadi yal amdan ɣef rrbeḥ-is uzzig, s wudem amzun d uffir, ad d-yawi lfayda i tmetti s timmad-is, acku ulzuz/agadez (ssuq) ad iseggem iman-is s yiman-is war ma ikeččem-d uwanek deg tdamsa.

== Azɣan n Karl Marks ==
Ur nezmir ara ad d-nawi awal ɣef tiẓriyin n usihri mebla ma nebdar-d ''[[Karl Marks]]''. Ɣer Marks, asihri d anagraw i yebnan ɣef wammud n yimɣiden. Yufa d akken imawlan n wallalen n ufares ttawin rrbeḥ-nsen seg &quot;wazal amernu&quot; (la plus-value) i d-yeffɣen seg tidi n yixeddamen i ur nettwaxelleṣ ara akken iwata. Ayagi, ɣer Marks, yettarra-d amennuɣ gar tserkam i d-yettawin ɣer tgrawla.

== Ayen i d-iqqimen seg-s deg Umaḍal Atrar ==
Ass-a, asihri yenṭeḍ ɣer yakk tiɣemmar n umaḍal yerna tuɣal d anagraw adamsan amatu. Ayen i d-teǧǧa neɣ ayen i d-tewwi i tmetti tatrart yebḍa ɣef sin n wudmawen:

'''Udmawen''' '''ufriren :'''

* Tewwi-d abeddel ameqqran deg teknulujit d usnulfu n tussniwin imi yal asurif yettqelleb ɣef unqaṣ n wakud d usegder n ufares.
* Tesnulfa-d aṭas n tbuɣar (tabaɣurt) di tmura yellan zik d tigellilin.
* Tesnerna deg tnezzut tagraɣlant i d-isrebḥen aṭas n tmura deg umaḍal.

'''Udmawen ibawiyen d wuguren :'''

* '''Tinmegliyin(tirgaddiwin) :''' Asihri atrar yessimɣur lqedd gar imeṛkantiyen (imawlan n tebaɣurt) d yigellilen. Aṭas n yimdanen qqimen deg ddiq, ma d kra n tkebbaniyin uɣalent ɣlayit ugar n tmura s timmad-nsent.

* '''Aluleɣ n twennaṭ d ugama :''' Anadi ɣef rrbeḥ s zreb yewwi-d asexṣar n twennaḍt d uheddu n ubaɣur agaman. Iswi n usihri d afares war tilisa, ayen i d-yeslalen timerna n lḥamu anezwan.
* '''Tizeɣnin tidamsanin :''' Anagraw-a ur yerkid ara; yettawi-d deg yal tallit tawaɣit tadamsant (am tin n 1929 neɣ tin n 2008), i d-yettaǧǧan aṭas n yixeddamen di barra.
Ɣef waya, ass-a, tuget n tmura sqeddcent ayen umi neqqar '''&quot;Tadamsa tamasayt&quot;''' neɣ tadamsa tasuddist. Deg unagraw-a, ddula tkeččem-d akken ad tḥader ɣef yizerfan n yixeddamen, ad tessekcem isuḍaf, yerna ad tesḥibber ɣef yixeddamen s unagraw n tɣellist tamettant.</text>
      <sha1>rigf4viv3seyeesia8w21x6wz5tciul</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tamilla</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117237</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-27T13:47:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abillardoo</username>
        <id>16203</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Asebtar amaynut: {{Automatic taxobox}} '''Tamilla''' neɣ '''Tamulla''' neɣ '''Tadurit''' ([[isem ussnan]]: '''Streptopelia''') d yiwet n [[tawsit (tudersent)|tewsit]] n [[agḍiḍ|yigḍaḍ]] yeṭṭafaren [[tawacult (tasnudert)|tawacult]] n [[titbirin|tetbirin]].  == Asismel ==  == Tilmas ==  == Imniren == [[Taggayt:iɣersiwen]] [[Taggayt:igṭaṭ]] [[Taggayt:Tiwsitin n yigṭaṭ]] [[Taggayt:Tiwsitin n iɣersiwen]] [[Taggayt:Titbirin]]</comment>
      <origin>117237</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="430" sha1="isucb1bskxe370jx7ig6m67uyzg85rg" xml:space="preserve">{{Automatic taxobox}}
'''Tamilla''' neɣ '''Tamulla''' neɣ '''Tadurit''' ([[isem ussnan]]: '''Streptopelia''') d yiwet n [[tawsit (tudersent)|tewsit]] n [[agḍiḍ|yigḍaḍ]] yeṭṭafaren [[tawacult (tasnudert)|tawacult]] n [[titbirin|tetbirin]].

== Asismel ==

== Tilmas ==

== Imniren ==
[[Taggayt:iɣersiwen]]
[[Taggayt:igṭaṭ]]
[[Taggayt:Tiwsitin n yigṭaṭ]]
[[Taggayt:Tiwsitin n iɣersiwen]]
[[Taggayt:Titbirin]]</text>
      <sha1>isucb1bskxe370jx7ig6m67uyzg85rg</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tamsihrit</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25548</id>
    <redirect title="Asihri" />
    <revision>
      <id>117239</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-28T01:00:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Gurzil90x yebeddel isem n usebtar seg [[Tamsihrit]] ar [[Asihri]] : Tuccḍa deg uzwel</comment>
      <origin>117239</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="23" sha1="a54ydldcm23qdrh6j2yxmypgbdzbbx1" xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECTION [[Asihri]]</text>
      <sha1>a54ydldcm23qdrh6j2yxmypgbdzbbx1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
</mediawiki>