Wikipedia kabwiki https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asebter_agejdan MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Uslig Mmeslay Amseqdac Amyannan umsqedac Wikipedia Amyannan n Wikipedia Tugna Amyannan n tugna MediaWiki Amyannan n MediaWiki Talɣa Amyannan n talɣa Tallat Amyannan n tallat Taggayt Amyannan n taggayt Awwur Amyannan uwwur Asenfaṛ Amyannan usenfaṛ TimedText TimedText talk Module Discussion module Event Event talk Sujet 0 25597 117560 117548 2026-10-03T14:25:58Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117560 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox biography|item=Q7407093|image=[[File:Sam Altman speaking at TED (cropped).jpg|thumb|Sam Altman, april 2025]]|caption=Sam Altman.}}'''Samuel Harris Altman''', yettwassnen s yisem '''Sam Altman''', d aṛemmas, amsefti yerna d amsihel amarikan. D yiwen seg yimsnulfayen n OpenAI, yerna d anemhal amatu (CEO) n taṛmist-a. Uqbel OpenAI, yettwassen s waṭas deg umaḍal n tgemma(''startups)'', ladɣa s leqdic-is deg '''Y Combinator''', anda yella d amsefrak agejdan seg 2014 ar 2019. Ass-a, azal-is yeqqen ladɣa ɣer unerni n tigzi taragmawant (AI), ChatGPT d tmuɣli n OpenAI ɣef '''tigzi taragmawant tamatut''' '''(AGI)'''. == 1. Talalit d ulmad == Sam Altman ilul deg yiwet n twacult tayudayt deg [[Chicago]], maca yekker-d deg temdint n Saint-Louis deg uwanak n Missouri. Yemma-s d tamejjayt n wul (takardyulijit). Mi yesɛa 8 n yiseggasen deg leɛmer-is, yefka-yas baba-s aselkim-is amezwaru, d anaw n ''Apple Macintosh''. Seg tallit-nni, yebda yelmed asihel d useggem n warrumen n uselkim. Yezrew deg tesnawit n J''ohn Burroughs School'' deg temdint n ''Ladue''. Deg useggas n 2004, yekcem ɣer Tesdawit n ''Stanford'' akken ad iɣer tasenselkimt. Maca am waṭas n yimaswaḍen n ''Silicon Valley'' (am ''Steve Jobs'' neɣ ''Mark Zuckerberg''), Altman yeǧǧa tasdawit deg useggas n 2005 bla ma yekfa turagt-is, iwakken ad yerr akk lwelha-s ɣer teṛmist-is tamezwarut. == 2. Aban n umahil (akarir) == === 2.1. Loopt (2005–2012) === Deg useggas n 2005, mi yella yesɛa 19 n yiseggasen, Altman d yimdukkal-is sbedden taṛmist tamezwarut umi semman '''''Loopt'''''. Asnas-a d yiwen seg yisnasen imezwura deg ''tilifunat'' i yesseqdacen imsidag n GPS akken ad d-yemel i yiseqdacen anda llan yimdukkal-nsen deg wakud ilaw. '''''Loopt''''' tekcem deg tegrawt tamezwarut i yeffɣen seg tkebbanit n useddu '''Y Combinator'''. Xas akken asnas-a ur d-yewwi ara aṭas n yiseqdacen akken llan ttraǧun, taṛmist n tazzla Green Dot Corporation tuɣ-itt deg 2012 s wazal n 43 n yimelyunen n yidulaṛen. === 2.2. Y Combinator (2011–2019) === Deg useggas n 2011, Altman yuɣal d amedraw deg teṛmist n useddu n teṛmisin tigemma '''Y Combinator'''. Deg 2014, amesbeddi agejdan n Y Combinator, Paul Graham, yextar Sam Altman ad yuɣal d aselway n teṛmist-a s lekmal-is. Deg wakud ideg yella Altman d aselway, Y Combinator tennulfa yerna tefti deg yisenfaren imeqqranen deg umaḍal, gar-asen tiṛmisin mucaɛen am '''Airbnb''', '''Stripe''', '''Dropbox, DoorDash, Instacart, d Reddit''' (deg Reddit, Altman yella d anemhal amatu i kra n wussan deg 2014). Deg meɣres 2019, Altman yeǧǧa taselwit n Y Combinator iwakken ad yerr afus d wakk tazmert-is ɣer teṛmist [[OpenAI]]. === 2.3. OpenAI d tegrawla n tiɣist tagemdant (seg 2015) === Deg dujember 2015, '''Sam Altman''', '''Elon Musk''', '''Greg Brockman''', '''Ilya Sutskever''' d kra n yimuzzayen nniḍen sbedden [[OpenAI]]. Deg tazwara, OpenAI d tuddsa n unadi ussnan ur nqessad ara lfayda tadrimant (non-profit organization), s yiswi n usegmi d usnegmu n '''tiɣist tagemdant tamatut''' (AGI - '''Tigzi taragmawant tamatut''') ara yilin d tabaɣurt yerna d talwit i talsa. Deg 2019, mi wala d akken anadi deg taɣult-a yesra tadrimt tameqqrant d wallalen n uselkim iǧehden aṭas, Altman yebdel talɣa n teṛmist-a ɣer talɣa yesɛan lfayda yettwaḥedden (capped-profit company). Deg useggas-nni yakan, taṛmist [[Microsoft]] tsefti deg OpenAI azal n yiwen n umelyar n yidulaṛen. Deg 30 wember 2022, OpenAI tessufeɣ-d [[ChatGPT]] (tamudemt n tutlayt tameqqrant), asnas i yerran '''[[Tigzi Taragmawant|tiɣist tagemdant]]''' gar yifassen n yal amdan deg umaḍal.ChatGPT yegla-d s yiwet n tegrawla tasnatwilant tameqqrant, dɣa aya yessaweḍ Sam Altman ad yuɣal d yiwen gar yirgazen ifazen akk deg tfelsift d tnezzut tatrart. === 2.4. Tadyant n wember 2023 (Tuffɣa d tuɣalin) === Ass n 17 wember 2023, aseqqamu n tedbelt n OpenAI yessewhem amaḍal mi d-yessufeɣ Altman seg twuri-s n unemhal amatu. Nnan-d dakken Altman «ur yelli ara d aṣaḍi deg teywalt-is yid-sen». Tadyant-a tessekker aɣilif d ameqqran: Uggar n 700 n yixeddamen n OpenAI (ugar n 95% seg yimahalen) ssenyan tanaḍt ideg ggzen ad fɣen akk ma yella ur d-yuɣal ara Altman. Imseftiyen imeqqranen, ladɣa Microsoft, fkan-as afus yerna ssutren ad d-yuɣal. Deffir n semmus (5) n wussan kan, ass n 22 wember 2023, Altman yuɣal-d d anemhal amatu n OpenAI, ma d imaslaḍen n useqqamu n tedbelt i t-yessufɣen rran-d imukan-nsen i yimḍebbren imaynuten. == 3. Isenfaren nniḍen d usefti == Yerna ɣer uxeddim-is deg OpenAI, Sam Altman yesɛa isenfaṛen d yiseftiyen deg waṭas n tɣulin tuzzigin: '''Ifecka i Telsa (Worldcoin)''': D asenfar i d-yebda deg 2019, yettnadin ad d-yefk tamagit tumḍint tagraɣlant (World ID) s usekles d usɛeddi n tiṭ (s uḍummu n iris), iwakken ad myeccaden yemdanen d yiselkimen deg tallit n '''[[Tigzi Taragmawant|tiɣist tagemdant]]''', yerna ad yeṭṭef amkan deg tdamsa n tedrimt tumḍint (cryptomonnaie). '''Helion Energy''': Altman yefka azal n 375 n yimelyunen n yidulaṛen deg teṛmist-a yettennadin ɣef usegmi n tezmert s ubrid n tefsa taɣisant (neɣ ''azday aɣwawan''), iwakken ad d-yefk tifrat i uswir n trisiti d wayen teḥwaǧ talsa. '''Retro Biosciences''': Yefka azal n 180 n yimelyunen n yidulaṛen i teṛmist-a n tesnudert (tabyulijit), yesɛan iswi n usɣezzef n leɛmer n wemdan d umennuɣ mgal tiseddarin n temɣer. == 4. Tudert tudmawant == Altman d amluzuf; yeffeɣ-d s waya seg wasmi yella d anelmad deg uɣerbaz alemmas. Deg yennayer 2024, yezweǧ d umeddakkel-is ''Oliver Mulherin'', d ajenyuṛ n tasenselkimt seg tmurt n Ustralya. Altman d '''''ameččimɣan''''' seg temẓi-s. Yettwassen daɣen s tiktiwin-is ɣef uselkem n « uɣṛud azaduran ameɣradan » (UBI - Universal Basic Income), acku yumen dakken '''tiɣist tagemdant''' ad tekkkes aṭas n yimahilen i yemdanen, dɣa yessefk ad yili ubrid n teẓraf i yal amdan. chkr3xykuo8f8sas2xqh9gduikhjx3o 0 25598 117561 117549 2026-10-03T18:32:49Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117561 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Qusṭantin Klurus''' (s tlaṭinit Flavius Valerius Constantius; yezga yettwassen s yisem Constantius Chlorus) yella d yiwen gar {{Infobox biography|item=Q131195|image=[[File:Const.chlorus01 pushkin.jpg|thumb|Const.chlorus01 pushkin]]|caption=Amenkad Qusṭantin Klurus.}} imenkaden igejdanen n Tmenkda Tarumanit deg taggara n tasut tis III d tazwara n tasut tis IV. Yella d yiwen seg yimḍebbaren n Tetrarkiya, anagraw n leḥkem i d-yessnulfa umenkad Dyuklisyan akken ad yebḍu tadbelt n tmenkda gar ukuẓ n yimḍebbaren. Maca ayen i t-yeǧǧan yettwassen ugar deg umezruy d akken netta i d baba-s n Qusṭantin Ameqqran, win ara ibeddlen s waṭas udem n Tmenkda Tarumanit. == 1. Talalit d tazwara n tudert-is == '''Qusṭantin Klurus''' ilul azal n 250 n Tallit Tatrart, deg tmurt n ''Illyria'' neɣ deg temnaḍt n ''Dardanya'', ɣas akken imedyaten iqburen ur msefhamen ara akk ɣef wadeg d useggas n talalit-is. Iɣbula iqburen i d-yettawin d akken yella seg twacult tameqqrant, deg tilawt ur tettwasebded ara s tidet; aṭas n yimazrayen ttwalin belli assaɣ i as-rran sin ɣer umenkad ''Claudius II Gothicus'' yezmer ad yili d asnulfu asertan n twacult n Qusṭantin Ameqqran akken ad tesɛu aẓar amenkadi aqbur. Am waṭas n yimḍebbaren n tallit-nni, abrid-is ɣer leḥkem ibda s tredsa. Yettban-d d amdan yesɛan tazmert deg ṭṭrad d tedbelt, armi yuɣal d amḍebber n ''Dalmatia''. Tallit-nni tella d tallit n ubeddel ameqqran: Tazɣent n tasut tis III teǧǧa Tamnekda Tarumanit tesra talɣa tamaynut n leḥkem, iserdasen iǧehden d tlisa yettwaɛassan akken iwata. == 2. Helena d talalit n Qusṭantin Ameqqran == Deg tudert-is tusligt, Qusṭantin Klurus yesɛa assaɣ akked '''Helena,''' tameṭṭut ara yuɣalen deffir d yiwet seg tulawin yettwassnen aṭas deg umezruy amasiḥi. Gar-asen i d-ilul Qusṭantin Ameqqran. Mi yebda Qusṭantin Klurus yettali deg uswir asertan, assaɣen n twacult uɣalen d aferdis n leḥkem. Yebra i Helena neɣ yemsefraq yid-s, syin yuɣ ''Theodora'', yell-is n tmeṭṭut n umenkad ''Maximian''. Aya yesseǧhed assaɣ-is akked twacult timenkadit. Iɣbula ttemgaraden ɣef talɣa tusligt n wassaɣ-is akked Helena, ihi ilaq ad neḥrez tamawt-a mi ara d-nemmeslay ɣef tudert-is. == 3. Tetrarkiya n Dyuklisyan == Akken ad yerr Tamnekda Tarumanit ɣer lebni iǧehden deffir Tazɣent n tasut tis III, [[Dyuklisyan]] yebna anagraw n Tetrarkiya. Deg unagraw-a llan ukuẓ n yimḍebbaren: sin d Augustus, ma d sin-nniḍen d Caesar, d imḍebbaren ddaw-asen yerna ilaq ad ten-id-ḍefren deg leḥkem. Deg 293, Maximian yerra Qusṭantin Klurus d Caesar n Tmenkda Tarumanit n umalu, ma d Galerius yuɣal d Caesar n Dyuklisyan deg usamar. Qusṭantin Klurus yewwi deg leḥkem-is s umata Gaul, Britanniya, akked kra n tmura n umalu. Aya yerra-t d yiwen gar wid yesɛan azal ameqqran deg tsertit tarumanit. == 4. Ṭṭrad mgal Carausius d Allectus == Yiwen seg wuguren imeqqranen i d-yufa Qusṭantin Klurus yella deg Britanniya. Amezwaru n tallit-nni, Carausius, yiwen n umeskar aserdasi arumani, yugi leḥkem n Roma yerna yerr-a iman-is d amenkad deg Britanniya. Mi yemmut Carausius, Allectus yeṭṭef adeg-is. Qusṭantin Klurus yebɣa ad d-yerr Britanniya ddaw leḥkem n Tmenkda Tarumanit. Deg 293, yesseḥbes tamnaḍt n Gesoriacum — Boulogne n wass-a — i yellan d yiwen n yiɣbula igejdanen n tezmert n Carausius deg Gaul. Deg 296, iserdasen n Qusṭantin Klurus zgeren ilel ɣer Britannia. Allectus yettwanɣa deg ṭṭrad, yerna Britannia tuɣal tikelt-nniḍen ddaw leḥkem arumani. Aya yella d yiwen seg leqdicat iserdasen imeqqranen n Qusṭantin Klurus. == 5. Tilisa n Rhine d ṭṭrad mgal Alamanni == Ur yelli ara deg Britanniya kan i yesɛan uguren. Tilisa n Tmenkda deg Rhine tettwaḥaz s waṭas s trebbuyaɛ iǧermaniyen. Deg 298, Qusṭantin Klurus yerna '''Alamanni''' deg temnaḍt n Lingones, azal n Langres n wass-a. Syin yesseǧhed tilisa n Rhine akken ad iḥareb ɣef tmura tarumanin deg Gaul. Ṭṭraḍat-a rran-t d yiwen gar imḍebbaren iserdasen yesɛan azal deg umalu n Tmenkda deg tallit n Tetrarkiya. == 6. Qusṭantin Klurus d imasiḥiyen == Deg 303, [[Dyuklisyan]] d yimḍebbaren-nniḍen n Tetrarkiya ssuffɣen isuḍaf i bedden mgal imasiḥiyen. Tallit-a tettwassen deg umezruy am yiwet seg talliyin n uqhaṛ ameqqran mgal tamasiḥit deg Tmenkda Tarumanit. Maca deg tmura i yellan ddaw Qusṭantin Klurus, asuter n yisudar-a ur yelli ara s leǧhed am wakken yella deg kra n tmura n usamar. Iɣbula ttwawin-d belli kra n Ideggen Uqdisen n yimasiḥiyin ttwahuddent, maca afqhaṛ mgal imdanen yella d afessas ugar. Ilaq, maca, ad neḥrez amgired gar Qusṭantin Klurus d mmi-s: aya ur d-yemmal ara belli Klurus yella d amasiḥi. Ula d tarrayt n Qusṭantin Ameqqran akked tmasiḥit, ara d-ibanen deffir, ur ilaq ara ad tettwarr ɣer baba-s war abeggen. == 7. Seg Caesar ɣer Augustus == [[Tugna:Bronze-Flavia Maximiana Theodora-trier RIC 65.jpg|vignette|Tadrimt i d-yessebganen tameṭṭut tis snat n Qusṭantin Klurus, ''Augusta'' Flavia Maximiana Theodora.]] Deg 1 Mayyu 305, Dyuklisyan d Maximian ǧǧan leḥkem. S unagraw n Tetrarkiya, wid yellan d Caesares ilaq ad uɣalen d Augusti. Ihi: Qusṭantin Klurus yuɣal d Augustus deg umalu, ma d Galerius yuɣal d Augustus deg usamar. Caesares imaynuten llan Severus d Maximinus Daia. Maca anagraw-a yella ɣur-s wugur ameqqran: mmi-s n Qusṭantin Klurus, Qusṭantin, ur yettwafren ara d Caesar. Aya ara yuɣalen d yiwen seg yisebdaden n tazɣent tasertant ara yeḍrun deffir tamettant n Klurus. == 8. Qusṭantin Ameqqran ɣer tama n baba-s == Qusṭantin, mmi-s n Klurus, yella deg usamar ɣer tama n Dyuklisyan d Galerius, anda yella deg tredsa. Deg 305–306, Klurus yebɣa ad yili mmi-s ɣer tama-s. Qusṭantin yewweḍ ɣer baba-s deg umalu, syin akkin ṛuḥen ɣer Britannyia. '''Klurus''' s d mmi-s ddun d yiserdasen ɣer ugafa n Britanniya akken ad nnaɣen mgal trebbuyaɛ n temnaḍt-nni. Aya yella d ṭṭrad aneggaru n Qusṭantin Klurus. == 9. Tamettant deg Eboracum == Deg uzal n 25 Yulyu 306, Qusṭantin Klurus yemmut deg Eboracum, tamdint i wumi neqqar ass-a York, deg Legliz. Tamettant-is tbeddel abrid n umezruy n Tmenkda Tarumanit. Iserdasen i yellan yid-s deg Britannita ur ṭṭfiren ara s wudem afessas anagraw n Tetrarkiya. Deg Eboracum, rran mmi-s Qusṭantin d amenkad. Seg tama n unagraw n Tetrarkiya, aya yella d ugur asertan, acku Qusṭantin ur yelli ara d win yettwafernen s tarrayt i d-yers Dyuklisyan. Deg yiseggasen i d-iteddun, annect-a ad yili d yiwen seg yisebdaden n ṭṭraḍat n daxel gar wid ibɣan adabu. == 10. Amezruy n twacult-is == Qusṭantin Klurus yesɛa azal ameqqran daɣen deg umezruy acku yella deg uẓar n twacult taqusṭantinit ara yeṭṭfen leḥkem deg tasut tis IV. Seg Helena yesɛa d tmeṭṭut Qusṭantin Ameqqran. Seg Theodora yesɛa daɣen yid-s dderya-nniḍen. Twacult-a ara d-tefk deffir imdanen yesɛan azal deg tsertit tarumanit. Ula d imenkaden am Julianus n tasut tis IV qqnen ɣer uẓar-a; Julian yella d mmi-s n mmi-s n Qusṭantin Klurus. == 11. Ayɣer qqaren-as «Klurus»? == Isem-is unṣib yella Flavius Valerius Constantius. Awal Chlorus — Klurus yekka-d seg tegrigit χλωρός (chloros), yerna deg tarrayt i yettwaseqdec deg iɣbula n umezruy yezmer ad d-yefk anamek n win yesɛan udem awraɣ neɣ acebḥan. Maca tanekwa Chlorus ur tettban ara d yiwet seg tenkwin unṣibin i yesseqdac Klurus deg tallit-is. Iɣbula ttwawin-d belli d imazrayen ibiẓuntiyen n talliyin i d-iteddun i s-ineṭḍen isem-a. == 12. Azal-is deg umezruy n Tmenkda Tarumanit == Qusṭantin Klurus ur yeḥkim ara d Augustus ala azal n useggas — seg Mayyu 305 armi yemmut deg Yulyu 306 — maca yella deg udabu s tazmert n Caesar seg 293. Azal-is yezmer ad yettwali deg kraḍ n yiḥricen igejdanen. '''Amezwaru''', deg tredsa, yerr Britanniya ɣer Tmenkda Tarumanit, yerna yesseǧhed tilisa n Rhine. '''Wis sin''', deg tsertit, yella d aferdis agejdan deg Tetrarkiya n Dyuklisyan, anagraw i yebɣan ad yerr adabu arumani d win ibedden ɣef uselḥu n yimḍebbren deg tmura yemgaraden. '''Wis kraḍ''' — yerna d wa i yesɛan tazrirt tameqqrant ɣef wayen i d-iteddun — yella d baba-s n Qusṭantin Ameqqran. Tamettant-is deg Eboracum d usmenyef n mmi-s sɣur iserdasen llan gar tedyanin i yeldin abrid ɣer ṭṭraḍat n leḥkem ara yefken, deg taggara, tazmert tameqqrant i Qusṭantin. i95g3kj25dmin56evqqi94m2pnl9x1d 0 25605 117563 117558 2026-10-04T10:24:59Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117563 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alexis-Charles-Henri Clérel de Tocqueville''' (ilul ass n 29 yulyu 1805 deg Paris – yemmut ass n 16 yebrir 1859 deg Cannes) d {{Infobox biography|item=Q140694|image=[[File:Alexis de Tocqueville (Théodore Chassériau - Versailles).jpg|thumb|Alexis de Tocqueville (Théodore Chassériau - Versailles)]]|caption=Alexis de Tocqueville.}} aflusuf asertan, d amsunmetti, d amezray yerna d asertay afransis. Yettwaḥseb d yiwen gar yimezwura i d-yessersen llsan i tussna n tsertit tatrart d tesnamettit tasemyifant. Yettwassen deg umaḍal s sin n yidlisen-is imeqranen: '''Tugdut deg''' '''Marikan'''(De la démocratie en Amérique), ideg i d-yesleḍ anagraw amagday d waddad n tgadda deg Iwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan, deg udlis-is wis sin Anagraw Aqbur d Tegrawla(L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution), ideg i d-yefka tamuɣli tasertant ɣef tmentilin d yigemmaḍ n [[Tagrawla Tafṛansist|Tegrawla Tafransist n 1789]]. Tocqueville yella daɣen d amazzan deg Texxamt n yimazanen, dɣa yuɣal d Aneɣlaf n Temsal n Beṛṛa deg useggas n 1849. Yura daɣen aṭas n tneqqisin ɣef temsalt n Lezzayer d usehres afransis, ideg i d-yefka tamuɣli tusligt yerna tamagdazt ɣef [[Tamurt n Leqbayel|Tmurt n Leqbayel]]. == Tameddurt-is == === Temẓi d leqraya-s === Alexis de Tocqueville ilul-d deg twacult tamaglant (aristocratique) tanurmandit yettwassnen aṭas. Jeddi-s seg yemma-s d ''Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes'', argaz n teɣdemt i iḥudden agellid '''Louis XVI''' deg tallit n Tegrawla Tafransist, dɣa ɣef waya yettwanɣa s tgemrart (guillotine) deg 1794. Tawacult-is tenṭerr mliḥ seg unagraw n uramaɣ d tugdi, aya yeǧǧa deg wul n Tocqueville leḥzen ameqran d wuggad mgal lbaṭel n teddiyanin tisertiyin. Yeɣra azerf deg Paris, syin yuɣal d '''aneflus''' n teɣdemt deg temdint n Versailles deg useggas n 1827. Dinna i yemlal d ''Gustave de Beaumont'', yuɣal d ameddakkel-is ameqran i t-iɛawnen deg yisiklen-is d wayen yura. === Asikel ɣer Temrikt (1831–1832) === Deg useggas n 1831, '''Tocqueville''' d '''Gustave de Beaumont''' unagen ɣer Iwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan s yisem n unabaḍ afransis. Iswi amenzu n usikel-a yella d tazrawt ɣef unagraw n leḥbus n Marikan. Maca asmi yewweḍ ɣer din, '''Tocqueville''' yesseqdec tagnit-nni iwakken ad yefhem amek i telḥu tmetti tamarikanit s lekmal-is: tasertit, asɣan, tdamsa, d wassaɣen gar yimdanen. Seg tezrawt-agi i d-yeffeɣ udlis-is ameqran "''De la démocratie en Amérique''", i d-yeffɣen s sin n yiḥricen (amenzu deg 1835, wis sin deg 1840). Adlis-a yewwi ccan d ameqran deg Turuft d Marikan, acku d netta i d tazrawt tamezwarut i d-yesknen llsan n tugdut tatrart. === Axeddim asertan === Deg 1839, Tocqueville yettwafren d amazzan n temnaḍt n ''Valognes'' (deg ''Manche'') deg Usqamu n yimazzanen. Yeqqim deg wemkan-agi armi d 1851. Yella deg ukabar alemmas-aẓelmaḍ, yettnaɣ mgal tasertit tamezbaṭlit n ''François Guizot'' d ''ugellid Louis-Philippe''. Deg tegrawla n 1848, mi teɣli tgelda n Yulyu, Tocqueville yettekki deg tirni n yimazzanen i d-yuran tamendawt n Tegduda Tis Snat. Deg yunyu 1849, yuɣal d Aneɣlaf n Temsal n Berra deg unabaḍ n ''Odilon Barrot''. Maca axeddim-is deg tneɣlaft ur iɛeṭṭel ara aṭas (ar tuber 1849). Asmi iga ''Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte'' Tiyita Uwanek deg 2 dujamber 1851 iwakken ad yesbedd '''Tamnekda Tis Snat''', Tocqueville yugi ad d-yezzul zdat-s, dɣa yettwaḥbes kra n wussan. Mi d-yeffeɣ seg lḥebs, yeǧǧa tasertit i lebda. === Taggara n tudert-is === Mi yebeɛɛed ɣef tsertit, yefka akk tazmart-is i tira d unadi deg umezruy deg taddart-is n ''Tocqueville''. Deg 1856, yessuffeɣ-d adlis-is wis sin yesɛan azal d ameqran: "L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution"(Anagraw Aqbur d Tegrawla). Tocqueville yuḍen aṭan n turin (sil / tuberculose). Yemmut ass n 16 yebrir 1859 deg temdint n Cannes, yesɛa kan 53 n yiseggasen. Yettwamḍel deg tmeqbert n Tocqueville deg Normandie. 7v5wosq4mohaow2dr8a4g2uu1vuce4r 0 25606 117564 117559 2026-10-04T10:39:39Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117564 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Asfukel war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: zero-knowledge proof, ZKP) d tarrayt deg uwgelhan i yessemras yiwen umdan neɣ yiwen unagraw iwakken ad isfukel i wayeḍ belli yiwet n tenfalit d tidet, war ma yefka-as talɣut nniḍen ɣef wayen yeffren, nnig wayen i d-temmal tenfalit-nni d yisefka izuyaz. Taɣara-a teqqen ɣer wamek i yettwasileɣ usfukel, mačči kan ɣer usuffeɣ neɣ war asuffeɣ n tuffirt s wudem usrid. == Isem d unamek == « War tukci n tmusni » ur d-yemmal ara belli win yesneqden ur d-yelmid acemma. Yettwali belli tanfalit i as-d-yettunefken tettwaqbel s yilugan n unagraw. Ayen ur d-ilemmid ara d talɣut nniḍen ɣef tuffirt i yellan deffir usfukel. S umedya, ad iselken belli amdan yesɛa tasarut tuffirt, war ma yessen azal n tsarut-nni. == Amezruy d usnerni n tmiḍrant == === Seg yisfukal imatuten ɣer yisfukal s usdiwen === Deg usfukel n tusnakt i nennum, win i d-yettaken asfukel yeskanay-d tikli i izemren ad teḍfer tayeḍ. Maca deg uwgelhan, tikli-nni tezmer ad tesban talɣut i ilaq ad teqqim d tuffirt. Timiḍrant n ZK tefruri-d seg usteqsi-a: amek ara nesfukel tidet n kra, war ma nesban-d meṛṛa ayen i aɣ-yeǧǧan ad t-nessen? ''Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Charles Rackoff'' sbedden tigejda n taɣult-a deg leqdic i d-yeffɣen deg STOC deg 1985. Lqem-is aɣezfan yeffeɣ-d deg ''SIAM Journal on'' ''Computing'' deg 1989. Leqdic-a yesdukkel asfukel s '''usdiwen''', '''taseqqart''' d '''usenqed n''' '''tmusni''' i yezmer ad d-yerbeḥ win yesneqden. === Asemres ɣef ugur imatu === ''Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Avi Wigderson'' sbegnen belli, ma llan kra n tesɣunin i yessehlen i usiḍen deg yiwet n tnila maca iweɛren i tuɣalin ɣer deffir (one-way functions), yal tutlayt deg taggayt NP tesɛa asfukel s usdiwen war tukci n tmusni. Leqdic-nsen yettwabder deg 1986, lqem aɣezfan-is deg 1991. Aya yessuffeɣ timiḍrant seg kra n wuguren n yimḍanen ɣer yiwet n taɣult tasnaẓrayant wessiɛen. === Tuɣalin ɣer leqdic war asdiwen === Deg 1988, ''Manuel Blum'', ''Paul Feldman'' akked ''Silvio Micali'' ssuffɣen-d leqdic agejdan ɣef yisfukal war asdiwen d yiseqdacen-nsen. Iɣewwaṛen izuyaz yezdin gar win yesfukulen d win yesneqden zemren ad ilin d lsas n leqdic-a. Ihi, « war asdiwen » ur yemmal ara « war uheggi » neɣ « war tawsit n unagraw ». === Tallit n yisfukal iwezlan === Deg yiseggasen 2010, inadiyen ɣef yisfukal iwezlan, aselken arurad d leḥsab ameqqran ssawḍen ɣer twaculin am '''Groth16''', '''Bulletproofs''', '''STARK''', '''PLONK''' d '''Halo'''. Yal tawacult tesɛa ilugan d yiswan-is: temẓi n usfukel, akud n usnulfu, tmara n uselken neɣ tukksa n uheggi i yettḥwaǧen laman deg umdan wis kraḍ. i6tartc83fa0qwhyrja8ytdczcho7ef 0 25607 117562 2026-10-04T00:05:29Z Gurzil90x 14292 Amagrad amaynut 117562 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Evemerus''' ('''Euhemeros / Εὐήμερος''') d afelsaf u d amyaru Agrigi aqbur, yettwasnen s teẓri i d-yefka ɣef yirebbiten: ɣur-s, kra n {{Infobox biography|item=Q317942|caption=Euhemerus}} yirebbiten yellan zemren ad ilin deg tazwara d imdanen n tidet — igelliden, imnekcamen neɣ imdanen yesɛan azal — syin akkin, deffir n tmettant-nsen, ttwaɛebden am yirebbiten. Tikti-a i d-yefka yiwen n ubrid nniḍen i usefhem n tmacahut d tmitulujit. lfby6tshbsv2h10na9hnm8ckqq1fnd7