Wikipedia kabwiki https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asebter_agejdan MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Uslig Mmeslay Amseqdac Amyannan umsqedac Wikipedia Amyannan n Wikipedia Tugna Amyannan n tugna MediaWiki Amyannan n MediaWiki Talɣa Amyannan n talɣa Tallat Amyannan n tallat Taggayt Amyannan n taggayt Awwur Amyannan uwwur Asenfaṛ Amyannan usenfaṛ TimedText TimedText talk Module Discussion module Event Event talk Sujet 0 25565 117566 117526 2026-10-04T14:31:31Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117566 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Tugna:1515 Third Street.jpg|vignette|Tasɣimt n OpenAI deg San francisco]] '''OpenAI''' d taṛmist n unadi d usnas deg '''[[Tigzi Taragmawant|tigzi taragmawant]]''' (AI) i d-yennulfan deg useggas 2015 deg Marikan, d tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt. Iswi agejdan i d-teskanay OpenAI d ad teḍmen belli tigzi taragmawant tamatut (AGI) ad d-tawi abaɣur i yimdanen merra. Ass-a, OpenAI tettwassen s waṭas s yifarisen d yinagrawen am ChatGPT, imudam GPT, Codex, akked wallalen i yesseqdacen imsihal seg API. == 1. Talalit n OpenAI == OpenAI tettwasnulfa-d sɣur [[Sam Altman]] d [[Elon Musk]] d wiyaḍ deg 2015 am tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt (nonprofit). Seg tazwara, tuddsa-a tefka iman-is yiwen n yiswi ɣezzifen: asnerni n tigzi taragmawant s wudem ara d-yawin abaɣur i yimdanen merra, ladɣa ma tewweḍ tetiknulujit-a ɣer uswir n '''tigzi taragmawant tamatut'''. Tamiḍrant-a tettak azal i wugur ameqqran: ma yella inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant uɣalen sɛan tazmert meqqren, ilaq tazmert-nsen ur tettwakerrez ara kan deg ufus n kra n yimdanen, n tiṛmisin neɣ n tmura, maca ad tettwaseqdac i lfayda tamatut. Deg 2019, OpenAI tesnulfa-d aferdis n tedrimt iwakken ad tessiweḍ ad d-tawi idrimen, imdanen d tazmert n usiḍen i ilaqen i usnerni n yimudam imeqqranen. Aferdis-a yella ddaw n leḥkem n tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt. == 2. D acu-tt tigzi taragmawant? == Tigzi taragmawant d taɣult n tussna d tetiknulujit i yesnernayen inagrawen n tmacint i izemren ad xedmen tiwuriwin i yeḥwaǧǧen s umata kra n tzemmar n tigzi: tegzi n tutlayt, tifrat n wuguren, asuddes n yisefka, tira n yiḍrisen, asnulfu n tugniwin, asihel, neɣ tuddma n kra n yimektayen seg yisefka. Ur ilaq ara, ad nefhem awal tigzi dagi amzun tamacint tesɛa iman, iḥulfan neɣ tamuɣli n umaḍal am umdan. Imudam n tura d inagrawen n uiḍen i yettwaselmaden ɣef yisefka yerna xeddmen s yimenzayen n tussna n uselmed n tmacint. OpenAI tettadi ladɣa deg yimudam imuqqranen(frontier), asuddes d tifrat n wuguren, inagrawen i izemren ad gzun ugar n yiwen n wanaw n yisefka (multimodal systems), akked wamek ara yettwaseqdec AI s tɣellist. == 3. Tigzi taragmawant tamatut — AGI == Iswi ɣezzifen n OpenAI yeqqen ɣer wayen i semman ''Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)'', i nezmer ad d-nini s teqbaylit tigzi taragmawant tamatut. OpenAI tesbadut AGI am inagrawen s timmad-nsen i izemren ad ɣelben imdanen deg tuget n twuriwin yesɛan azal adamsan. Tamiḍrant n tamatut d tagejdant. Anagraw n tigzi taragmawant yezmer ad yili igerraz deg yiwet n twuri kan; AGI, ma tewweḍ tetiknulujit ɣer din, ilaq ad tesɛu tazmert wessiɛen: ad tegzu uguren yemgaraden, ad tesdukkel tamusni seg waṭas n taɣulin, ad tesseqdec ayen telmed deg tegnatin timaynutin, yerna ad tefru uguren ur nettwaselmed ara fell-asen s talɣa tusridt. OpenAI tettwali AGI am iswi n wakud ɣezzifen, maca akud ilaqen akken ad naweḍ ɣer AGI mazal ur yettwassen ara. == 4. Imudam GPT == Gar yisenfaren i d-yerran OpenAI tettwassen deg umaḍal llan imudam GPT — ''Generative Pre-trained Transformer''. Imudam-a d inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant i yettwaselmaden ɣef yisefka imeqqranen. S uselmed-a, zemren ad gzun asiḍen n tutlayt, ad d-snulfun iḍrisen, ad d-rren ɣef yisteqsiyen, ad frun uguren, ad ɛiwnen deg usihel, yerna imudam imaynuten zemren ad xedmen akked yiḍrisen, tugniwin d wanawen-nniḍen n yisefka. OpenAI teskanay tawacult GPT am inagrawen i izemren ad gzun asiḍen, ad d-snulfun agbur yerna ad xedmen tifrat n wuguren deg waṭas n yimeslayen n yisefka. Anamek n azarsileɣ(pre-trained) d akken amudam yettwaselmad uqbel ad yettwaseqdec deg udiwenni. Turriwt(Generative), ma d nettat, temmal-d tazmert-is n usnulfu n ugemmuḍ am yiḍrisen neɣ tangalt n useɣẓan. == 5. ChatGPT == [[ChatGPT]] d afaris agejdan n OpenAI i yiseqdacen. D agrudem n udiwenni i yettaǧǧan amdan ad yesseqdec imudam n tigzi taragmawant s tutlayt tagamant. OpenAI tessegza ChatGPT am ufaris-is agejdan i yiseqdacen. Aseqdac yezmer ad yesteqsi, ad yessuter asegzi, ad yaru neɣ ad iseɣti aḍris, ad yesseqdec tasleḍt, ad yelmed tamiḍrant n tussna, ad yessuter tallelt deg usihel, neɣ ad ixdem ɣef yisefka d yisemliyen. Azal n ChatGPT deg umezruy n tigzi taragmawant d ameqqran acku yessekcem imudam n tutlayt ɣer useqdec n yal ass. Deg umḍiq anda tigzi taragmawant tella tettwassen ladɣa deg tesdawiyin, tanaremt d tkebbaniyin n tetiknulujit, agrudem n udiwenni yerra-tt d allal i yezmer ad yesseqdec umdan s tutlayt-is. == 6. Codex d usihel == Taɣult-nniḍen i deg tesseqdac OpenAI tigzi taragmawant s waṭas d asihel. '''Codex''' d anagraw n tigzi taragmawant i yellan i uxeddim ɣef tengalt d yisenfaren n useɣẓan. Yezmer ad yegzu tangalt yellan, ad yesseɣti tuccḍiwin, ad ibeddel taneɣruft n usenfar, ad yernu timahilin timaynutin, yerna ad ixdem tiwuriwin n usihel seg tazwara ar taggara. Anect-a yeskanay abeddel meqqren deg useqdec n tigzi taragmawant: seg unagraw i d-yettarra kan ɣef yisteqsiyen ɣer umeggi n tigzi taragmawant (AI agent) i izemren ad yesseqdec allalen, ad ixdem ddeqs n yimahilen yerna ad ikemmel ɣer yiswi i as-yettunefken. == 7. Anadi deg OpenAI == OpenAI mačči d taṛmist n yifarisen kan. Anadi yezga d yiwen seg yiḥricen-is igejdanen. Taṛmist txeddem ɣef usnerni n yimudam n tigzi taragmawant, tifrat n wuguren, inagrawen wagutaskaran(multimodal), tɣellist, akked useqdec n yimudam s wudem ara yilin d abaɣur i yimdanen. Yiwet seg tmuɣliwin timeqqranin d aseqdec n tigzi taragmawant deg unadi ussnan. Deg tiɣula am tusnakt, tussna, asihel d tesleḍt n yisefka, anagraw yezmer ad yuɣal d allal ara iɛiwnen imnadiyen deg usnulfu n turdiwin, tifrat n wuguren d useɣiwel n unadi. == 8. Taɣellist d umṣada == Mi ara tettnerni tazmert n tigzi taragmawant, yettnerni daɣen wazal n tɣellist. Anagraw yesɛan tazmert meqqren yezmer ad d-yawi abaɣur, maca yezmer daɣen ad d-yawi uguren ma yella ixdem tuccḍiwin, ma yettwaseqdec i wayen n diri, neɣ ma yella tikli-s ur temṣada ara akked wayen i yebɣa umdan. Ɣef waya, OpenAI tessemras tamiḍrant n "''alignment"'', i d-yemmalen s umata amṣada n tikli n unagraw n tigzi taragmawant akked yiswan d tɣellist i d-yefka umdan. '''''OpenAI Charter''''' yesseḥbibber ɣef sin yimenzayen meqqren: ad yettwabḍu ubaɣur n AGI s wudem wessiɛen, yerna ad yettwaseḥbiber ɣef tɣellist n wakud ɣezzifen. == 9. Taneɣruft n OpenAI == Taneɣruft n OpenAI tbeddel s wakud. OpenAI tebda deg 2015 d tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt. Deg 2019, tesnulfa-d aferdis n tedrimt iwakken ad tesnerni anadi d usnas-is. Deg 28 Tubber 2025, tettwasekna-d taneɣruft tamaynut: tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt tuɣal tettusemma ''OpenAI Foundation''; aferdis n tedrimt yuɣal d ''OpenAI Group PBC'', anamek-is d ''Public Benefit Corporation''; ''OpenAI Foundation'' teqqim tettḥekkim deg ''OpenAI Group''. OpenAI Foundation tesɛa 26% n iḥricen deg ''OpenAI Group''. Microsoft, deg tallit n useggem n taneɣruft, tesɛa azal n 27%, ma d 47% i d-yeqqimen sɛan-t ixeddamen n tura d wid yezrin akked yimendaden-nniḍen. Taneɣruft-a tebɣa ad tesdukkel iswi n OpenAI akked tezmert-is ad d-tawi idrimen imeqqranen i yeḥwaǧǧ unadi n tigzi taragmawant. == 10. Tazmert n usiḍen == Aselmed n yimudam imeqqranen n tigzi taragmawant yeḥwaǧǧ ddeqs n tezmert n usiḍen. Anect-a yesɛa azal acku asnerni n yimudam ur yeqqin ara kan ɣer tarrayin n uselmed. Yeḥwaǧǧ daɣen iselkimen s tezmert tameqqrant n usiḍen, tiḥerci n yisefka, tazmert n trisiti, iẓeḍwan, isefka d tedrimt. Ɣef waya, tigzi taragmawant n uswir unnig tuɣal d taɣult anda anadi ussnan, tiḥerci n usiḍen d tdamsa qqnen gar-asen. == 11. OpenAI d Microsoft == Microsoft tesɛa assaɣ adamsan d utiknulujan ameqqran akked OpenAI. Deg taneɣruft i yettwasbedden deg 2025, Microsoft tesɛa azal n 27% n OpenAI Group. Assaɣ-a yesɛa azal ladɣa deg tezmert n usiḍen d usnerni n yifarisen n tigzi taragmawant. Maca, deg taneɣruft n leḥkem n OpenAI, OpenAI Foundation i yeqqimen tettḥekkim deg OpenAI Group, mačči Microsoft. == 12. OpenAI deg 2026 == Deg 2026, OpenAI ur teqqim ara d tanaremt n unadi kan. Tuɣal d taṛmist tameqqrant i yesɛan inagrawen i yiseqdacen, allalen i yimsihel, API i tkebbaniyin, imudam n tigzi taragmawant n uswir unnig, akked yimeggiyen i izemren ad xedmen tiwuriwin ɣezzifen. ChatGPT d Codex mmalen-d sin n wudmawen n ubeddel-a: ChatGPT d agrudem wessiɛen n tigzi taragmawant i yiseqdacen, ma d Codex yettwabna ugar i uxeddim s tengalt d yisenfaren n useɣẓan. Anadi n OpenAI yettkemmil daɣen deg tifrat n wuguren, imudam ugetaskaran, tɣellist d usnerni n ubrid ɣer AGI. == 13. Abaɣur i tmetti == Tigzi taragmawant tezmer ad tbeddel aṭas n tiɣula: aselmed, tussna, tadamsa, asihel, aẓeṭṭa, axeddim, tasensegmit, asnulfu d unadi ussnan. Ma yella inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant zemren ad xedmen ugar n twuriwin i ixeddem umdan ass-a, ad d-ffɣen yisteqsiyen imaynuten: Amek ara tbeddel tarrayt n uxeddim? Anwi ixeddamen ara d-ilalen? Anwi ara ibeddlen neɣ ara iruḥen? Amek ara ttwasqedcen yimudam-a deg uselmed? Anwa ara yesɛun leḥkem ɣef yiḥricen igejdanen n tetiknulujit-a? Amek ara neḍmen belli abaɣur-is ad ibḍu gar yimdanen? D isteqsiyen-a i yerran asnerni n tigzi taragmawant mačči d tamsalt n tetiknulujit kan, maca d tamsalt tadamsant, tinmettit, tasertant d tasertit n tussna. == 14. Uguren d umeslay ɣef OpenAI == Am yal taṛmist tameqqrant n tetiknulujit, OpenAI tettmagar isteqsiyen d umeslay ɣef tarrayt-is. Gar temsal tigejdanin llan: aḥraz n yisefka, tanezzut n yimudam, asemres n wayen d-yettwafkan sɣur yimdanen i uselmed n yimudam, tɣellist, leḥkem ɣef tetiknulujit, tasertit n yifarisen, tasertit n uxeddim, akked wamek ara tettbeddil tigzi taragmawant tuddsa n tmetti. Ɣef waya, OpenAI ur ilaq ara ad tettwafhem kan seg yifarisen-is. Iwakken ad nefhem azal-is, ilaq ad nwali daɣen tamsalt tameqqrant i d-tessufuɣ tetiknulujit i tesnernay: anwa ara yessnernin tigzi taragmawant n uzekka, anwa ara tt-yesqedcen, anwa ara yettḥekkimen deg-s, yerna anwa ara yawin abaɣur seg-s? e34nqokaqsrkiiy9olxct8dp7srhwn2 0 25605 117569 117563 2026-10-05T10:53:28Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117569 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alexis-Charles-Henri Clérel de Tocqueville''' (ilul ass n 29 yulyu 1805 deg Paris – yemmut ass n 16 yebrir 1859 deg Cannes) d {{Infobox biography|item=Q140694|image=[[File:Alexis de Tocqueville (Théodore Chassériau - Versailles).jpg|thumb|Alexis de Tocqueville (Théodore Chassériau - Versailles)]]|caption=Alexis de Tocqueville.}} aflusuf asertan, d amsunmetti, d amezray yerna d asertay afransis. Yettwaḥseb d yiwen gar yimezwura i d-yessersen llsan i tussna n tsertit tatrart d tesnamettit tasemyifant. Yettwassen deg umaḍal s sin n yidlisen-is imeqranen: '''Tugdut deg''' '''Marikan'''(De la démocratie en Amérique), ideg i d-yesleḍ anagraw amagday d waddad n tgadda deg Iwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan, deg udlis-is wis sin Anagraw Aqbur d Tegrawla(L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution), ideg i d-yefka tamuɣli tasertant ɣef tmentilin d yigemmaḍ n [[Tagrawla Tafṛansist|Tegrawla Tafransist n 1789]]. Tocqueville yella daɣen d amazzan deg Texxamt n yimazanen, dɣa yuɣal d Aneɣlaf n Temsal n Beṛṛa deg useggas n 1849. Yura daɣen aṭas n tneqqisin ɣef temsalt n Lezzayer d usehres afransis, ideg i d-yefka tamuɣli tusligt yerna tamagdazt ɣef [[Tamurt n Leqbayel|Tmurt n Leqbayel]]. == Tameddurt-is == === Temẓi d leqraya-s === Alexis de Tocqueville ilul-d deg twacult tamaglant (aristocratique) tanurmandit yettwassnen aṭas. Jeddi-s seg yemma-s d ''Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes'', argaz n teɣdemt i iḥudden agellid '''Louis XVI''' deg tallit n Tegrawla Tafransist, dɣa ɣef waya yettwanɣa s tgemrart (guillotine) deg 1794. Tawacult-is tenṭerr mliḥ seg unagraw n uramaɣ d tugdi, aya yeǧǧa deg wul n Tocqueville leḥzen ameqran d wuggad mgal lbaṭel n teddiyanin tisertiyin. Yeɣra azerf deg Paris, syin yuɣal d '''aneflus''' n teɣdemt deg temdint n Versailles deg useggas n 1827. Dinna i yemlal d ''Gustave de Beaumont'', yuɣal d ameddakkel-is ameqran i t-iɛawnen deg yisiklen-is d wayen yura. === Asikel ɣer Temrikt (1831–1832) === Deg useggas n 1831, '''Tocqueville''' d '''Gustave de Beaumont''' unagen ɣer Iwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan s yisem n unabaḍ afransis. Iswi amenzu n usikel-a yella d tazrawt ɣef unagraw n leḥbus n Marikan. Maca asmi yewweḍ ɣer din, '''Tocqueville''' yesseqdec tagnit-nni iwakken ad yefhem amek i telḥu tmetti tamarikanit s lekmal-is: tasertit, asɣan, tdamsa, d wassaɣen gar yimdanen. Seg tezrawt-agi i d-yeffeɣ udlis-is ameqran "''De la démocratie en Amérique''", i d-yeffɣen s sin n yiḥricen (amenzu deg 1835, wis sin deg 1840). Adlis-a yewwi ccan d ameqran deg Turuft d Marikan, acku d netta i d tazrawt tamezwarut i d-yesknen llsan n tugdut tatrart. === Axeddim asertan === Deg 1839, Tocqueville yettwafren d amazzan n temnaḍt n ''Valognes'' (deg ''Manche'') deg Usqamu n yimazzanen. Yeqqim deg wemkan-agi armi d 1851. Yella deg ukabar alemmas-aẓelmaḍ, yettnaɣ mgal tasertit tamezbaṭlit n ''François Guizot'' d ''ugellid Louis-Philippe''. Deg tegrawla n 1848, mi teɣli tgelda n Yulyu, Tocqueville yettekki deg tirni n yimazzanen i d-yuran tamendawt n Tegduda Tis Snat. Deg yunyu 1849, yuɣal d Aneɣlaf n Temsal n Berra deg unabaḍ n ''Odilon Barrot''. Maca axeddim-is deg tneɣlaft ur iɛeṭṭel ara aṭas (ar tuber 1849). Asmi iga ''Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte'' Tiyita Uwanek deg 2 dujamber 1851 iwakken ad yesbedd '''Tamnekda Tis Snat''', Tocqueville yugi ad d-yezzul zdat-s, dɣa yettwaḥbes kra n wussan. Mi d-yeffeɣ seg lḥebs, yeǧǧa tasertit i lebda. === Taggara n tudert-is === Mi yebeɛɛed ɣef tsertit, yefka akk tazmart-is i tira d unadi deg umezruy deg taddart-is n ''Tocqueville''. Deg 1856, yessuffeɣ-d adlis-is wis sin yesɛan azal d ameqran: "L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution"(Anagraw Aqbur d Tegrawla). Tocqueville yuḍen aṭan n turin (sil / tuberculose). Yemmut ass n 16 yebrir 1859 deg temdint n Cannes, yesɛa kan 53 n yiseggasen. Yettwamḍel deg tmeqbert n Tocqueville deg Normandie. == Tafelsafit tasertant d tesnamettit == === Tugdut d tagadda n waddaden === I Tocqueville, tugdut mačči kan d anagraw n tnebḍit neɣ n tefranin, maca d addad ametti. Aferdis agejdan n tugdut d tagadda n waddaden (neɣ tagada n tewtilin). Iwala d akken deg umezruy n talsa, timettiwin ttazzalent war aḥebbus seg unagraw Arisṭuqraṭi ɣer unagraw amagday anda akk imdanen gdan (ɛedlen) deg yizerfan. Maca Tocqueville yessken-d d akken tagadda tezmer ''"ad tessiweḍ ɣer snat n tebḥirin"'': * Ad tessiweḍ ɣer tlelli d timanit n umdan. * Neɣ ad tessiweḍ ɣer '''useddanku d lbaṭel''', ma yella imdanen qeblen ad ǧǧen tilelli-nsen iwakken kan ad sɛun talwit d tegdudant tanmettit. === Tadankit n tuget === Gar tiktiwin tigejdanin n Tocqueville d ayen iwumi isemma tadankit n tuget. Deg unagraw amagday, tuget tesɛa tazmart tameqrant. Ma yella ur telli ara tlisa i tezmert-agi, tuget tezmer ad terr tazɣent ɣef tadrust, ur tettak ara talwit i wid ur nettmettul ara tiktiwin-is. Yugad daɣen seg '''taẓerterrast''' (individualisme), anda yal yiwen ad iɣleq tawwurt-is, ad yerfed afus ɣef wayen akk i d-yezzin deg tmetti, aya ad yeldi tawwurt i unabaḍ ad yuɣal d amesbaṭli. === Tametti taɣarimt d tiddukliwin === Iwakken ad tessiweḍ tmetti ad teḥrez tilelli-s mgal tadankit n udabu alemmas, Tocqueville iwala d akken ilaq ad yilin wallalen imeggiyen: '''Tiddukliwin tilelliyin''': Deg Marikan, iwala amek imezdaɣen zegren i wuguren n tmetti s twizi d tiddukliwin mebla ma rjan anabaḍ alemmas ad asen-d-yaf tifrat. '''Tisenbaḍin tidiganin''': Tilelli deg tɣiwanin d temnaḍin tettarra amdan d aɣerman urmid (aɣerman amasay). '''Tilelli n tɣemsa'''. === Asɣan d tlelli === Mgal aṭas n ifelsafen ifransisen n tallit-is i yellan ttwalin ddin d acengu n tugdut d tegrawla, Tocqueville iwala d akken asɣan yesɛa azal d ameqran deg trusi n tugdut. Deg Marikan, iwala d akken ddin d tilelli leḥḥun ɣer sdat ɣer tama n wayeḍ, acku asɣan yettak-d ilugan n tɣaremt i tmetti, yerna yessenqas leḥmala tameqrant n yidrimen d wayla angawan. 80hbq5fxbnkmjc1vnczoclzd61xlap3 0 25606 117570 117564 2026-10-05T11:00:44Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117570 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Asfukel war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: zero-knowledge proof, ZKP) d tarrayt deg uwgelhan i yessemras yiwen umdan neɣ yiwen unagraw iwakken ad isfukel i wayeḍ belli yiwet n tenfalit d tidet, war ma yefka-as talɣut nniḍen ɣef wayen yeffren, nnig wayen i d-temmal tenfalit-nni d yisefka izuyaz. Taɣara-a teqqen ɣer wamek i yettwasileɣ usfukel, mačči kan ɣer usuffeɣ neɣ war asuffeɣ n tuffirt s wudem usrid. == Isem d unamek == « War tukci n tmusni » ur d-yemmal ara belli win yesneqden ur d-yelmid acemma. Yettwali belli tanfalit i as-d-yettunefken tettwaqbel s yilugan n unagraw. Ayen ur d-ilemmid ara d talɣut nniḍen ɣef tuffirt i yellan deffir usfukel. S umedya, ad iselken belli amdan yesɛa tasarut tuffirt, war ma yessen azal n tsarut-nni. == Amezruy d usnerni n tmiḍrant == === Seg yisfukal imatuten ɣer yisfukal s usdiwen === Deg usfukel n tusnakt i nennum, win i d-yettaken asfukel yeskanay-d tikli i izemren ad teḍfer tayeḍ. Maca deg uwgelhan, tikli-nni tezmer ad tesban talɣut i ilaq ad teqqim d tuffirt. Timiḍrant n ZK tefruri-d seg usteqsi-a: amek ara nesfukel tidet n kra, war ma nesban-d meṛṛa ayen i aɣ-yeǧǧan ad t-nessen? ''Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Charles Rackoff'' sbedden tigejda n taɣult-a deg leqdic i d-yeffɣen deg STOC deg 1985. Lqem-is aɣezfan yeffeɣ-d deg ''SIAM Journal on'' ''Computing'' deg 1989. Leqdic-a yesdukkel asfukel s '''usdiwen''', '''taseqqart''' d '''usenqed n''' '''tmusni''' i yezmer ad d-yerbeḥ win yesneqden. === Asemres ɣef ugur imatu === ''Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Avi Wigderson'' sbegnen belli, ma llan kra n tesɣunin i yessehlen i usiḍen deg yiwet n tnila maca iweɛren i tuɣalin ɣer deffir (one-way functions), yal tutlayt deg taggayt NP tesɛa asfukel s usdiwen war tukci n tmusni. Leqdic-nsen yettwabder deg 1986, lqem aɣezfan-is deg 1991. Aya yessuffeɣ timiḍrant seg kra n wuguren n yimḍanen ɣer yiwet n taɣult tasnaẓrayant wessiɛen. === Tuɣalin ɣer leqdic war asdiwen === Deg 1988, ''Manuel Blum'', ''Paul Feldman'' akked ''Silvio Micali'' ssuffɣen-d leqdic agejdan ɣef yisfukal war asdiwen d yiseqdacen-nsen. Iɣewwaṛen izuyaz yezdin gar win yesfukulen d win yesneqden zemren ad ilin d lsas n leqdic-a. Ihi, « war asdiwen » ur yemmal ara « war uheggi » neɣ « war tawsit n unagraw ». === Tallit n yisfukal iwezlan === Deg yiseggasen 2010, inadiyen ɣef yisfukal iwezlan, aselken arurad d leḥsab ameqqran ssawḍen ɣer twaculin am '''Groth16''', '''Bulletproofs''', '''STARK''', '''PLONK''' d '''Halo'''. Yal tawacult tesɛa ilugan d yiswan-is: temẓi n usfukel, akud n usnulfu, tmara n uselken neɣ tukksa n uheggi i yettḥwaǧen laman deg umdan wis kraḍ. == 2. Tabadut tusnakt d yiwudam n leqdic == I ussegzi n tarrayt, nettsemmi P i win yesfukulen (prover), V i win yesneqden (verifier), x i yisefka izuyaz, w i uselkin uffir (witness). Assaɣ R yesbadu ayen ilaq ad yili d tidet gar x d w. [3] '''R(x, w) = 1''' Tanfalit i nettḥeqqiq d tin i d-yeqqaren belli '''illa''' w i yesɛan assaɣ-a d x. Tagrumma n yisefka izuyaz i yesɛan aselkin yettwabdar s: '''L = { x : illa w, R(x, w) = 1 }''' S umedya n ussegzi, x yezmer ad yili d azal y n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ H; w d amḍan uffir s = w. Assaɣ yettwasenqed d H(s) = y. Yezmer daɣen ad yili x d agmuḍ n leḥsab, w d isefka uffiren akked tikli n leḥsab i d-yessawḍen ɣer ugmuḍ-nni. Umḍan n yiwudam ur yettbeddilara tabadut: zemren ad ilin d imdanen, d iqeddacen neɣ d iseɣẓanen. === Kraḍ n tewtilin tigejdanin === '''Aqbal n wayen iṣeḥḥan''' (completeness). Ma x yesɛa aselkin iwatan, yerna P d V ḍefren ilugan, asfukel ilaq ad yettwaqbel s tseqqart meqqren, neɣ dima deg kra n yinagrawen. '''Agi n wayen ur neṣṣiḥ ara''' (soundness). Ma x ur yesɛi ula d yiwen n uselkin iwatan, ilaq ad tili tseqqart n uɣelli n V deg tuccḍa d tameẓyant akken iwata, ɣas P yeɛreḍ ad iɣucc. Taɣara-a tḥerrez tidet n usfukel. '''War tukci n tmusni''' (zero knowledge). Talɣut i d-yettawi V seg leqdic ilaq ad tezmer ad tettwaserwes war aselkin uffir. Taɣara-a tḥerrez ayen i yessen P; ur tettwasefhem ara s wawal « uffir » kan. Taɣellist tettwasbadu s yiwen uɣewwaṛ λ. Taseqqart i wumi neqqar « tameẓyant akken iwata » tezmer ad tili d tin i yettidiren ddaw n 1/λk i yal k > 0, ma λ meqqer akken iwata. D aya i d-anamek n negligible deg tbadutin-a. i8smkcngqs4vgxwmfdbb0hcygxu9wjx 0 25607 117568 117562 2026-10-04T23:07:44Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117568 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Evemerus''' ('''Euhemeros / Εὐήμερος''') d afelsaf u d amyaru Agrigi aqbur, yettwasnen s teẓri i d-yefka ɣef yirebbiten: ɣur-s, kra n {{Infobox biography|item=Q317942|caption=Euhemerus}} yirebbiten yellan zemren ad ilin deg tazwara d imdanen n tidet — igelliden, imnekcamen neɣ imdanen yesɛan azal — syin akkin, deffir n tmettant-nsen, ttwaɛebden am yirebbiten. Tikti-a i d-yefka yiwen n ubrid nniḍen i usefhem n tmucuha d tmitulujit. == 1. Anwa i yella Evemerus? == Evemerus yedder deg taggara n tasut tis IV uqbel talalit n Ɛisa, akked tazwara n tasut tis III uqbel talalit n Ɛisa, deg tallit i d-yeḍfaren tameddit n [[Aliksandr Ameqqran]]. Iɣbula iqburen ur d-ttakken ara talɣut ɣef tudert-is, ihi ur nezmir ara ad nessekfel s telqayt melmi d wanda i d-ilul. Yettwasen deg umezruy n tfelsafit ladɣa s umahil-is '''Hiera Anagraphē''' (Ἱερὰ Ἀναγραφή), i nezmer ad nefhem am « Tira Tuqdist » neɣ « Asekles Uqdis ». Aḍris agejdan n udlis-a iruḥ, maca kra seg-s yettwassen s yisebtar d yisuɣal i d-qqimen deg yimezwura n tallit taqburt. == 2. Tallit ideg yedder == Evemerus yedder deg tallit tahellenistit, mi yekfa udabu n Aliksandr Ameqqran, imi timura i yekcem deg-sent mgaradent gar yigliden d yimnekcamen-is. Tallit-a tesɛa azal meqqren deg umezruy n tmitulujit: tuddsa n yirebbiten d tmucuha n Yigrigiyen teṭṭef tamurt tameqqrant, maca deg yiwen wakud llan ifilasafiyen d yimyura i ibeddun ad sqerdcen timsal-a s tmuɣli n umezruy, n tfelsafit d usegzi aɣaran. Evemerus yella gar wid i d-yefkan yiwet seg teẓriwin i d-yettbanen d timaynutin: ma yella kra n yirebbiten d imdanen n zik i yettwaɛebden deffir? 9zk4vshgfa1ita2ri1zegly1rj1sw2y 0 25608 117565 2026-10-04T14:30:44Z Gurzil90x 14292 Amagrad amaynut 117565 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox biography|item=Q317521|image=[[File:Elon Musk (54816836217) (cropped 2) (b).jpg|thumb|Elon Musk (54816836217) (cropped 2) (b)]]|caption=Elon Musk}} '''Elon Musk''' (ilul s yisem unṣib n '''Elon Reeve Musk''' ass n 28 yunyu 1971 deg Pretoria, [[Tafriqt Wenẓul|Tafriqt n Wenẓul]]) d aṛemmas, d ajenyuṛ, d amsefti yerna d amsidag n tnezzut amarikani-akanadi i d-yekkan seg Tefriqt n Wenẓul. Yettwassen aṭas imi d anemhal amatu (CEO) d amaswaḍ amezwaru n teṛmist n tesnatallunt '''SpaceX''', d anemhal amatu n teṛmist n tkerrusin tiliktranin '''Tesla''', d bab n uzeṭṭa anmetti '''X''' (i yettwassnen zik s yisem n Twitter). Yettekki daɣen deg usbeddi n teṛmisin am '''Neuralink''' (taywalt gar wallaɣ d uselkim), '''The Boring Company''' (eɣẓ n tgennariyin ddaw wakal), '''xAI''' ([[Tigzi Taragmawant|tiɣist tagemdant]]), yerna yella gar yimesbeddiyen imezwura n [[OpenAI]] d PayPal. Musk d yiwen gar yemdanen imarkantiyen akk deg umezruy n talsa. Deg waṭas n talliyin, yella d netta i d amezwaru deg tfelwiyin n Forbes d Bloomberg ɣef wid yesɛan ayla d uẓayer ameqqran akk deg umaḍal. np1whil1joy26eh9c0x2n4uc75k1ktb 0 25609 117567 2026-10-04T18:46:01Z Gurzil90x 14292 Amagrad amaynut 117567 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox biography|item=Q170164|image=[[File:Elena Colosseo Rome Italy.jpg|thumb|Asbdad n Helena deg Ruma]]|caption=Helena Augusta}} '''Helena''', neɣ '''Flavia Julia Helena Augusta''', d yiwet seg tlawin i yesɛan azal meqqren deg umezruy n Tmenkda Tarumanit deg tasut tis kraḍet d tis ukkuẓet. Ɣas akken ur telli ara d tamenkat i iḥekkmen s yiman-is, tettwassen ladɣa imi d yemma-s n umenkad Qusṭantin Ameqqran, maca daɣen imi tella d yiwet seg tlawin timezwura n twacult tamenkat tarumanit i iqeblen tamasiḥit. Deg taggara n tudert-is, tuɣal d yiwet seg tgezmiwin tigejdanin n tmezdayt tamasiḥit deg Tmenkda Tarumanit. == 1. Talalit d temẓi n Helena == Ur nettwassen ara s tidet wass d umḍiq anda tlul Helena. Iɣbula iqburen d yimazrayen mxalafen deg wayagi, maca aṭas n yimezrayen ttwalin belli tlul azal n 247–250 n talalit, ahat deg Drepanum, tamdint n Bitiniya deg Anatoliya, qrib n Nicomedia. Qusṭantin isemma-yas deffir Helenopolis, s yisem n yemma-s. Helena ur d-tekk ara seg twacult n yigelliden neɣ seg yimeqqranen n Tmenkda. Iɣbula imasiḥiyen iqburen mmalen-d belli tella seg twacult taḥerfit. Ambrosius n Milan, i yura deg tasut tis ukkuẓet, isemma-yas stabularia, awal alatini i izemren ad yemmel tameṭṭut ixeddmen deg yiwen n umḍiq n yimsafaren neɣ n usensu. Aya, maca, ur aɣ-d-yefki ara aṭas n telqayt ɣef temẓi-s. Timucuha deffir-is i tt-id-yerran d yelli-s n ugellid n Britanya ur sɛint ara lsas amezrayan. nkd0t4l4xujt87vahkmt536dqfna824