Wikipedia kabwiki https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asebter_agejdan MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Uslig Mmeslay Amseqdac Amyannan umsqedac Wikipedia Amyannan n Wikipedia Tugna Amyannan n tugna MediaWiki Amyannan n MediaWiki Talɣa Amyannan n talɣa Tallat Amyannan n tallat Taggayt Amyannan n taggayt Awwur Amyannan uwwur Asenfaṛ Amyannan usenfaṛ TimedText TimedText talk Module Discussion module Event Event talk Sujet 0 25605 117574 117569 2026-10-06T10:20:45Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117574 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alexis-Charles-Henri Clérel de Tocqueville''' (ilul ass n 29 yulyu 1805 deg Paris – yemmut ass n 16 yebrir 1859 deg Cannes) d {{Infobox biography|item=Q140694|image=[[File:Alexis de Tocqueville (Théodore Chassériau - Versailles).jpg|thumb|Alexis de Tocqueville (Théodore Chassériau - Versailles)]]|caption=Alexis de Tocqueville.}} aflusuf asertan, d amsunmetti, d amezray yerna d asertay afransis. Yettwaḥseb d yiwen gar yimezwura i d-yessersen llsan i tussna n tsertit tatrart d tesnamettit tasemyifant. Yettwassen deg umaḍal s sin n yidlisen-is imeqranen: '''Tugdut deg''' '''Marikan'''(De la démocratie en Amérique), ideg i d-yesleḍ anagraw amagday d waddad n tgadda deg Iwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan, deg udlis-is wis sin Anagraw Aqbur d Tegrawla(L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution), ideg i d-yefka tamuɣli tasertant ɣef tmentilin d yigemmaḍ n [[Tagrawla Tafṛansist|Tegrawla Tafransist n 1789]]. Tocqueville yella daɣen d amazzan deg Texxamt n yimazanen, dɣa yuɣal d Aneɣlaf n Temsal n Beṛṛa deg useggas n 1849. Yura daɣen aṭas n tneqqisin ɣef temsalt n Lezzayer d usehres afransis, ideg i d-yefka tamuɣli tusligt yerna tamagdazt ɣef [[Tamurt n Leqbayel|Tmurt n Leqbayel]]. == Tameddurt-is == === Temẓi d leqraya-s === Alexis de Tocqueville ilul-d deg twacult tamaglant (aristocratique) tanurmandit yettwassnen aṭas. Jeddi-s seg yemma-s d ''Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes'', argaz n teɣdemt i iḥudden agellid '''Louis XVI''' deg tallit n Tegrawla Tafransist, dɣa ɣef waya yettwanɣa s tgemrart (guillotine) deg 1794. Tawacult-is tenṭerr mliḥ seg unagraw n uramaɣ d tugdi, aya yeǧǧa deg wul n Tocqueville leḥzen ameqran d wuggad mgal lbaṭel n teddiyanin tisertiyin. Yeɣra azerf deg Paris, syin yuɣal d '''aneflus''' n teɣdemt deg temdint n Versailles deg useggas n 1827. Dinna i yemlal d ''Gustave de Beaumont'', yuɣal d ameddakkel-is ameqran i t-iɛawnen deg yisiklen-is d wayen yura. === Asikel ɣer Temrikt (1831–1832) === Deg useggas n 1831, '''Tocqueville''' d '''Gustave de Beaumont''' unagen ɣer Iwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan s yisem n unabaḍ afransis. Iswi amenzu n usikel-a yella d tazrawt ɣef unagraw n leḥbus n Marikan. Maca asmi yewweḍ ɣer din, '''Tocqueville''' yesseqdec tagnit-nni iwakken ad yefhem amek i telḥu tmetti tamarikanit s lekmal-is: tasertit, asɣan, tdamsa, d wassaɣen gar yimdanen. Seg tezrawt-agi i d-yeffeɣ udlis-is ameqran "''De la démocratie en Amérique''", i d-yeffɣen s sin n yiḥricen (amenzu deg 1835, wis sin deg 1840). Adlis-a yewwi ccan d ameqran deg Turuft d Marikan, acku d netta i d tazrawt tamezwarut i d-yesknen llsan n tugdut tatrart. === Axeddim asertan === Deg 1839, Tocqueville yettwafren d amazzan n temnaḍt n ''Valognes'' (deg ''Manche'') deg Usqamu n yimazzanen. Yeqqim deg wemkan-agi armi d 1851. Yella deg ukabar alemmas-aẓelmaḍ, yettnaɣ mgal tasertit tamezbaṭlit n ''François Guizot'' d ''ugellid Louis-Philippe''. Deg tegrawla n 1848, mi teɣli tgelda n Yulyu, Tocqueville yettekki deg tirni n yimazzanen i d-yuran tamendawt n Tegduda Tis Snat. Deg yunyu 1849, yuɣal d Aneɣlaf n Temsal n Berra deg unabaḍ n ''Odilon Barrot''. Maca axeddim-is deg tneɣlaft ur iɛeṭṭel ara aṭas (ar tuber 1849). Asmi iga ''Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte'' Tiyita Uwanek deg 2 dujamber 1851 iwakken ad yesbedd '''Tamnekda Tis Snat''', Tocqueville yugi ad d-yezzul zdat-s, dɣa yettwaḥbes kra n wussan. Mi d-yeffeɣ seg lḥebs, yeǧǧa tasertit i lebda. === Taggara n tudert-is === Mi yebeɛɛed ɣef tsertit, yefka akk tazmart-is i tira d unadi deg umezruy deg taddart-is n ''Tocqueville''. Deg 1856, yessuffeɣ-d adlis-is wis sin yesɛan azal d ameqran: "L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution"(Anagraw Aqbur d Tegrawla). Tocqueville yuḍen aṭan n turin (sil / tuberculose). Yemmut ass n 16 yebrir 1859 deg temdint n Cannes, yesɛa kan 53 n yiseggasen. Yettwamḍel deg tmeqbert n Tocqueville deg Normandie. == Tafelsafit tasertant d tesnamettit == === Tugdut d tagadda n waddaden === I Tocqueville, tugdut mačči kan d anagraw n tnebḍit neɣ n tefranin, maca d addad ametti. Aferdis agejdan n tugdut d tagadda n waddaden (neɣ tagada n tewtilin). Iwala d akken deg umezruy n talsa, timettiwin ttazzalent war aḥebbus seg unagraw Arisṭuqraṭi ɣer unagraw amagday anda akk imdanen gdan (ɛedlen) deg yizerfan. Maca Tocqueville yessken-d d akken tagadda tezmer ''"ad tessiweḍ ɣer snat n tebḥirin"'': * Ad tessiweḍ ɣer tlelli d timanit n umdan. * Neɣ ad tessiweḍ ɣer '''useddanku d lbaṭel''', ma yella imdanen qeblen ad ǧǧen tilelli-nsen iwakken kan ad sɛun talwit d tegdudant tanmettit. === Tadankit n tuget === Gar tiktiwin tigejdanin n Tocqueville d ayen iwumi isemma tadankit n tuget. Deg unagraw amagday, tuget tesɛa tazmart tameqrant. Ma yella ur telli ara tlisa i tezmert-agi, tuget tezmer ad terr tazɣent ɣef tadrust, ur tettak ara talwit i wid ur nettmettul ara tiktiwin-is. Yugad daɣen seg '''taẓerterrast''' (individualisme), anda yal yiwen ad iɣleq tawwurt-is, ad yerfed afus ɣef wayen akk i d-yezzin deg tmetti, aya ad yeldi tawwurt i unabaḍ ad yuɣal d amesbaṭli. === Tametti taɣarimt d tiddukliwin === Iwakken ad tessiweḍ tmetti ad teḥrez tilelli-s mgal tadankit n udabu alemmas, Tocqueville iwala d akken ilaq ad yilin wallalen imeggiyen: '''Tiddukliwin tilelliyin''': Deg Marikan, iwala amek imezdaɣen zegren i wuguren n tmetti s twizi d tiddukliwin mebla ma rjan anabaḍ alemmas ad asen-d-yaf tifrat. '''Tisenbaḍin tidiganin''': Tilelli deg tɣiwanin d temnaḍin tettarra amdan d aɣerman urmid (aɣerman amasay). '''Tilelli n tɣemsa'''. === Asɣan d tlelli === Mgal aṭas n ifelsafen ifransisen n tallit-is i yellan ttwalin ddin d acengu n tugdut d tegrawla, Tocqueville iwala d akken asɣan yesɛa azal d ameqran deg trusi n tugdut. Deg Marikan, iwala d akken ddin d tilelli leḥḥun ɣer sdat ɣer tama n wayeḍ, acku asɣan yettak-d ilugan n tɣaremt i tmetti, yerna yessenqas leḥmala tameqrant n yidrimen d wayla angawan. == Tocqueville d Temsalt n Lezzayer == === Tamuɣli-s ɣef usehres === Tamuɣli n Tocqueville ɣef Lezzayer d tamsalt yebḍan aṭas imusnawen n umezruy. Ɣas akken yella d amusnak n tlelli deg Turuft d TMarikan, Tocqueville yella d afus ijehden n usehres d temhersa tafransist deg Lezzayer. Netta iwala d akken tuṭṭfa n Lezzayer tesɛa azal ameqran i lhiba tasertant d tdamsant n Fransa deg illel(lebḥer) alemmas. Tocqueville yerza ɣer Lezzayer snat n tikkal: deg useggas n 1841 d useggas n 1846. Deg tira-s am "'''Travail sur l'Algérie (1841)"''' d yinawen-is deg Usqamu n yimazzanen (1847), yeqbel kra n tarrayin tiweɛranin n yigen(lɛesker) am userɣi n yirden, tuṭṭfa n wayla d lmal, d usekref n yimezdaɣen iwakken Fransa ad ternu amennuɣ n ''Lamir Ɛebd Lqader''. Ɣas akken, Tocqueville yeqqel-d d amezwaru i d-yefkan lewṣayat mgal lbaṭel n yiɣallen n igen(lɛesker) afransis, yerna yenna-d s yimeslayen ibanen: « '''[...] d anamek-is dakken nerra timetti tineslemt d tin imɣebbnen ugar, d tin yerwin ugar, d tin n tarmusni ugar, yerna d tawaḥcit ugar n wakken tella uqbel aɣ-tissin.''' ». == Tamurt n Leqbayel deg tira-s == Deg yimuraden-is d yisedranen-is ɣef Lezzayer, Tocqueville yessmgared s wazal gar Yiɛraben d Yeqbayliyen (Imaziɣen). Deg tseddarin i d-yura deg 1837 d 1847, yewhem aṭas deg tuddsa n tmetti taqbaylit: Iwala d akken Tamurtt n Leqbayel tesɛa anagraw amagday amensay: Yal taddart tetteddu s tejmaɛt, adabu yebḍa gar yemdanen s tefranin, ulac aqerru alemmas neɣ agellid. Iwala daɣen ayla s wudem aterrasan, d lḥirfa d tfellaḥt iǧehden. Ɣef waya, Tocqueville yugi asehres aserdasan n Tmurt n Leqbayel. Yessawel i Franṣa ad teǧǧ Tamurt n Leqbayel d tilellit (tasimant), ad teqqim kan s wudem n wassaɣen n tnezzut d tdukli. Yura-d deg 1847: « '''Ur ilaq ara akk ad nwali ɣer unekcum neɣ asehres n Tmurt n Leqbayel. Leqbayel bɣan tilelli-nsen s waṭas yerna ur tt-fkin i yiwen [...] Ilaq ad neǧǧ gar-aneɣ d yid-sen assaɣen n tnezzut d talwit''' ». Ɣas akken Tocqueville yefka-d tamuɣli-ya, unabaḍ afransis d yiserdasen (am Mac Mahon d Randon) ur ḥsiben ara lewṣaya-s, dɣa zeḍmen ɣef Tmurt n Leqbayel deg 1857. 0a52m1mvf7ke4ojlvpveseisrjzdmhm 0 25606 117575 117570 2026-10-06T10:44:12Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117575 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Asfukel war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: zero-knowledge proof, ZKP) d tarrayt deg uwgelhan i yessemras yiwen umdan neɣ yiwen unagraw iwakken ad isfukel i wayeḍ belli yiwet n tenfalit d tidet, war ma yefka-as talɣut nniḍen ɣef wayen yeffren, nnig wayen i d-temmal tenfalit-nni d yisefka izuyaz. Taɣara-a teqqen ɣer wamek i yettwasileɣ usfukel, mačči kan ɣer usuffeɣ neɣ war asuffeɣ n tuffirt s wudem usrid. == Isem d unamek == « War tukci n tmusni » ur d-yemmal ara belli win yesneqden ur d-yelmid acemma. Yettwali belli tanfalit i as-d-yettunefken tettwaqbel s yilugan n unagraw. Ayen ur d-ilemmid ara d talɣut nniḍen ɣef tuffirt i yellan deffir usfukel. S umedya, ad iselken belli amdan yesɛa tasarut tuffirt, war ma yessen azal n tsarut-nni. == Amezruy d usnerni n tmiḍrant == === Seg yisfukal imatuten ɣer yisfukal s usdiwen === Deg usfukel n tusnakt i nennum, win i d-yettaken asfukel yeskanay-d tikli i izemren ad teḍfer tayeḍ. Maca deg uwgelhan, tikli-nni tezmer ad tesban talɣut i ilaq ad teqqim d tuffirt. Timiḍrant n ZK tefruri-d seg usteqsi-a: amek ara nesfukel tidet n kra, war ma nesban-d meṛṛa ayen i aɣ-yeǧǧan ad t-nessen? ''Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Charles Rackoff'' sbedden tigejda n taɣult-a deg leqdic i d-yeffɣen deg STOC deg 1985. Lqem-is aɣezfan yeffeɣ-d deg ''SIAM Journal on'' ''Computing'' deg 1989. Leqdic-a yesdukkel asfukel s '''usdiwen''', '''taseqqart''' d '''usenqed n''' '''tmusni''' i yezmer ad d-yerbeḥ win yesneqden. === Asemres ɣef ugur imatu === ''Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Avi Wigderson'' sbegnen belli, ma llan kra n tesɣunin i yessehlen i usiḍen deg yiwet n tnila maca iweɛren i tuɣalin ɣer deffir (one-way functions), yal tutlayt deg taggayt NP tesɛa asfukel s usdiwen war tukci n tmusni. Leqdic-nsen yettwabder deg 1986, lqem aɣezfan-is deg 1991. Aya yessuffeɣ timiḍrant seg kra n wuguren n yimḍanen ɣer yiwet n taɣult tasnaẓrayant wessiɛen. === Tuɣalin ɣer leqdic war asdiwen === Deg 1988, ''Manuel Blum'', ''Paul Feldman'' akked ''Silvio Micali'' ssuffɣen-d leqdic agejdan ɣef yisfukal war asdiwen d yiseqdacen-nsen. Iɣewwaṛen izuyaz yezdin gar win yesfukulen d win yesneqden zemren ad ilin d lsas n leqdic-a. Ihi, « war asdiwen » ur yemmal ara « war uheggi » neɣ « war tawsit n unagraw ». === Tallit n yisfukal iwezlan === Deg yiseggasen 2010, inadiyen ɣef yisfukal iwezlan, aselken arurad d leḥsab ameqqran ssawḍen ɣer twaculin am '''Groth16''', '''Bulletproofs''', '''STARK''', '''PLONK''' d '''Halo'''. Yal tawacult tesɛa ilugan d yiswan-is: temẓi n usfukel, akud n usnulfu, tmara n uselken neɣ tukksa n uheggi i yettḥwaǧen laman deg umdan wis kraḍ. == 2. Tabadut tusnakt d yiwudam n leqdic == I ussegzi n tarrayt, nettsemmi P i win yesfukulen (prover), V i win yesneqden (verifier), x i yisefka izuyaz, w i uselkin uffir (witness). Assaɣ R yesbadu ayen ilaq ad yili d tidet gar x d w. '''R(x, w) = 1''' Tanfalit i nettḥeqqiq d tin i d-yeqqaren belli '''illa''' w i yesɛan assaɣ-a d x. Tagrumma n yisefka izuyaz i yesɛan aselkin yettwabdar s: '''L = { x : illa w, R(x, w) = 1 }''' S umedya n ussegzi, x yezmer ad yili d azal y n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ H; w d amḍan uffir s = w. Assaɣ yettwasenqed d H(s) = y. Yezmer daɣen ad yili x d agmuḍ n leḥsab, w d isefka uffiren akked tikli n leḥsab i d-yessawḍen ɣer ugmuḍ-nni. Umḍan n yiwudam ur yettbeddilara tabadut: zemren ad ilin d imdanen, d iqeddacen neɣ d iseɣẓanen. === Kraḍ n tewtilin tigejdanin === '''Aqbal n wayen iṣeḥḥan''' (completeness). Ma x yesɛa aselkin iwatan, yerna P d V ḍefren ilugan, asfukel ilaq ad yettwaqbel s tseqqart meqqren, neɣ dima deg kra n yinagrawen. '''Agi n wayen ur neṣṣiḥ ara''' (soundness). Ma x ur yesɛi ula d yiwen n uselkin iwatan, ilaq ad tili tseqqart n uɣelli n V deg tuccḍa d tameẓyant akken iwata, ɣas P yeɛreḍ ad iɣucc. Taɣara-a tḥerrez tidet n usfukel. '''War tukci n tmusni''' (zero knowledge). Talɣut i d-yettawi V seg leqdic ilaq ad tezmer ad tettwaserwes war aselkin uffir. Taɣara-a tḥerrez ayen i yessen P; ur tettwasefhem ara s wawal « uffir » kan. Taɣellist tettwasbadu s yiwen uɣewwaṛ λ. Taseqqart i wumi neqqar « tameẓyant akken iwata » tezmer ad tili d tin i yettidiren ddaw n 1/λk i yal k > 0, ma λ meqqer akken iwata. D aya i d-anamek n negligible deg tbadutin-a. == Asfukel d afukal == Deg unamek usdid, ''anza'' yesseḥbibir ɣef tidet ula mgal win yesfukulen s tzemmar n leḥsab ur nesɛi ara tilisa. Afukal(Argument) yettḥerrez tidet mgal aɣuccam(win iɣuccen) i yesɛan tazmert n leḥsab talast. Deg uḍris imatu, awal « asfukel » yettwasemras i snat-a; deg usenqed tusnakt, amgired-a ilaq ad yettwaḥrez. === Tugna 1. Asfukel d uselkin uffir === Win yesfukulen yessemras aselkin uffir; win yesneqden yesseḥḥay tanfalit s usfukel d yisefka izuyaz. [[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|400x400px]] 7riat3eqnua2kmsj1145v1cck5bkix5 0 25607 117573 117568 2026-10-06T10:01:28Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117573 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Evemerus''' ('''Euhemeros / Εὐήμερος''') d afelsaf u d amyaru Agrigi aqbur, yettwasnen s teẓri i d-yefka ɣef yirebbiten: ɣur-s, kra n {{Infobox biography|item=Q317942|caption=Euhemerus}} yirebbiten yellan zemren ad ilin deg tazwara d imdanen n tidet — igelliden, imnekcamen neɣ imdanen yesɛan azal — syin akkin, deffir n tmettant-nsen, ttwaɛebden am yirebbiten. Tikti-a i d-yefka yiwen n ubrid nniḍen i usefhem n tmucuha d tmitulujit. == 1. Anwa i yella Evemerus? == Evemerus yedder deg taggara n tasut tis IV uqbel talalit n Ɛisa, akked tazwara n tasut tis III uqbel talalit n Ɛisa, deg tallit i d-yeḍfaren tameddit n [[Aliksandr Ameqqran]]. Iɣbula iqburen ur d-ttakken ara talɣut ɣef tudert-is, ihi ur nezmir ara ad nessekfel s telqayt melmi d wanda i d-ilul. Yettwasen deg umezruy n tfelsafit ladɣa s umahil-is '''Hiera Anagraphē''' (Ἱερὰ Ἀναγραφή), i nezmer ad nefhem am « Tira Tuqdist » neɣ « Asekles Uqdis ». Aḍris agejdan n udlis-a iruḥ, maca kra seg-s yettwassen s yisebtar d yisuɣal i d-qqimen deg yimezwura n tallit taqburt. == 2. Tallit ideg yedder == Evemerus yedder deg tallit tahellenistit, mi yekfa udabu n Aliksandr Ameqqran, imi timura i yekcem deg-sent mgaradent gar yigliden d yimnekcamen-is. Tallit-a tesɛa azal meqqren deg umezruy n tmitulujit: tuddsa n yirebbiten d tmucuha n Yigrigiyen teṭṭef tamurt tameqqrant, maca deg yiwen wakud llan ifilasafiyen d yimyura i ibeddun ad sqerdcen timsal-a s tmuɣli n umezruy, n tfelsafit d usegzi aɣaran. Evemerus yella gar wid i d-yefkan yiwet seg teẓriwin i d-yettbanen d timaynutin: ma yella kra n yirebbiten d imdanen n zik i yettwaɛebden deffir? == 3. « Hiera Anagraphē » — amahil-is agejdan == Deg udlis-is, Evemerus yules-d ɣef tinigin ara t-yawin ɣer tegzirt n ''Panchaia.'' ''Panchaia'' tettwasegza am wakal aberkan d amerkanti, anda i yufa Evemerus kra n uḍris neɣ n usekles uqdis. Ɣef wakken i d-yenna, deg-s llan yismawen d umezruy n yirebbiten am: '''Zeus, Kronos d Uranos.''' Maca ayen i d-yufa — ilmend n wayen i d-yules — yessefk ad ibeddel tamuɣli ɣef-sen: ur llin ara seg tazwara d yirebbiten n igenni, maca d imdanen n zik, d igelliden neɣ d imdanen yesɛan adabu d wazal meqqren. ''Panchaia'' tezmer ad tili d amkan asugnan i yesseqdec umyaru iwakken ad d-yefk tiktiwin-is. Imusnawen n wass-a ur ttwalin ara taleqqimt-is am umezruy ussid n tinigt i yeḍran akken i d-yettwales. 5y72l0qspyfv6i377edds79cl7sxolx 0 25608 117571 117565 2026-10-05T13:56:07Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117571 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox biography|item=Q317521|image=[[File:Elon Musk (54816836217) (cropped 2) (b).jpg|thumb|Elon Musk (54816836217) (cropped 2) (b)]]|caption=Elon Musk}} '''Elon Musk''' (ilul s yisem unṣib n '''Elon Reeve Musk''' ass n 28 yunyu 1971 deg Pretoria, [[Tafriqt Wenẓul|Tafriqt n Wenẓul]]) d aṛemmas, d ajenyuṛ, d amsefti yerna d amsidag n tnezzut amarikani-akanadi i d-yekkan seg Tefriqt n Wenẓul. Yettwassen aṭas imi d anemhal amatu (CEO) d amaswaḍ amezwaru n teṛmist n tesnatallunt '''SpaceX''', d anemhal amatu n teṛmist n tkerrusin tiliktranin '''Tesla''', d bab n uzeṭṭa anmetti '''X''' (i yettwassnen zik s yisem n Twitter). Yettekki daɣen deg usbeddi n teṛmisin am '''Neuralink''' (taywalt gar wallaɣ d uselkim), '''The Boring Company''' (eɣẓ n tgennariyin ddaw wakal), '''xAI''' ([[Tigzi Taragmawant|tiɣist tagemdant]]), yerna yella gar yimesbeddiyen imezwura n [[OpenAI]] d PayPal. Musk d yiwen gar yemdanen imarkantiyen akk deg umezruy n talsa. Deg waṭas n talliyin, yella d netta i d amezwaru deg tfelwiyin n Forbes d Bloomberg ɣef wid yesɛan ayla d uẓayer ameqqran akk deg umaḍal. == 2. Almad asdawan == Musk yebda leqraya-s tatrart deg Tesdawit n ''Queen's'' deg temdint n ''Kingston'' (deg uwanak n ''Ontario'', deg ''Kanada''). Sin n yiseggasen syin, yusa-d ɣer Iwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan akken ad ikemmel leqraya-s deg Tesdawit n ''Pennsylvania''. Dinna i d-yewwi snat n turagin tusnanin deg 1997: Turagt deg tdamsa (deg uɣerbaz n ''Wharton School''). Turagt deg tfizikt (deg ugezdu n Tussniwin d Tẓuriwin). Deg 1995, Musk yekcem ɣer Tesdawit n ''Stanford'' deg ''[[Kalifurnya|Kalifuṛnya]]'' akken ad yexdem duktura deg tfizikt tatrart d tussna n yinganen. Maca deffir sin kan n wussan seg wasmi i d-tekcem "tefsut" n Internet, yeǧǧa tasdawit akken ad d-yesnulfu tiṛmisin-is timzwura. == 3. Aban n umahil d teṛmisin == === 3.1. Zip2 d X.com (PayPal) (1995–2002) === Deg 1995, Elon Musk d gma-s Kimbal sbedden taṛmist umi semman '''Zip2''' s tallelt n kra n yimseftiyen. ''Zip2'' tella tettak-d imagraden d tkarḍiwin tumḍinin i yiɣmisen imeqqranen am ''The New York Times'' d ''Chicago Tribune''. Deg 1999, taṛmist '''Compaq''' tuɣ '''Zip2''' s wazal n 307 n yimelyunen n yidulaṛen; Musk yewwi deg-s 22 n yimelyunen. S yidrimen-nni, deg 1999 yakan, Musk yesbeddi '''X.com''', d yiwet gar tbankiwin timzwura i yeddun srid deg Internet. Deg useggas n 2000, '''X.com''' teddukkul d tkebbanit tamseddayt '''Confinity''', i d-yesnulfan anagraw n tenigawt n tedrimt '''PayPal'''. Deg tuber 2002, taṛmist '''eBay''' tuɣ '''PayPal''' s wazal n 1.5 n umelyar n yidulaṛen. Musk yewwi amur n 175 n yimelyunen n yidulaṛen. === 3.2. SpaceX (seg 2002) === Deg mayyu 2002, Musk yesbeddi '''SpaceX''' (Space Exploration Technologies Corp.) s yiswi n usenqes n watig n tuffɣa ɣer tallunt d usedger n wemdan akken ad yuɣal d aɣref amsallun i yezmren ad yidir deg umtiweg n [[Mezweɣ]] (Mars). SpaceX tessaweḍ ad d-tesnulfu timseddiyin d tmezda (fusées) ur nessutur ara aṭas n tnezzut, ladɣa s usnulfu n tmezda i yettuɣalen ad ttwasseqdcent am '''Falcon 9''' d '''Falcon Heavy''': '''Dragon''': D allal i yessawḍen imasallunen ɣer Tɣerɣert Tagraɣlant n Tallunt (ISS) s umtawa d NASA. '''Starlink''': D aẓeṭṭa ameqqran n yigensawen i d-yettaken Internet azayez deg wakk tiɣemmar n umaḍal. '''Starship''': D timezdit tameqqrant yerna d tin iǧehden akk deg umezruy n umdan, i yettwaxedmen iwakken ad tawi imdanen ɣer waggur d Mezweɣ. === 3.3. Tesla (seg 2004) === Deg useggas n 2004, Musk yekcem d amsefti amezwaru deg teṛmist '''Tesla Motors''' (i sbedden Martin Eberhard d Marc Tarpenning). Deg useggas n 2008, yuɣal d anemhal amatu (CEO) d umḍebber n usnulfu n tkerrusin. Tesla tbeddel tamuɣli n umaḍal ɣef tkerrusin tiliktranin, mi d-tessufeɣ kra n tmudmawin ifazen am '''Roadster''', '''Model S''', '''Model X''', '''Model 3''', d '''Model Y''', rnu-as takerrust n wuzzal '''Cybertruck'''. Tesla tebda daɣen tesseqdac anagraw n umseddu awurman (Autopilot / Full Self-Driving), d anagraw i yettdun s [[Tigzi Taragmawant|tiɣist tagemdant]] d tsekna n tkamiriwin. === 3.4. Neuralink (seg 2016) === Musk yettekki deg usbeddi n Neuralink, d taṛmist iqeddcen deg wannar n taknulujit n inuṛunen (neurotechnologie). Iswi-ines d asbeddi n ugrudem n taywalt srid gar wallaɣ n wemdan d yiselkimen. Ay-a yezmer ad yefk tifrat i wid yesɛan akukel n tfekka (paralysie) neɣ aṭanen n inuṛunen, yerna ad yerr amdan ad yeqqim deg uswir iweznen mgal '''tiɣist tagemdant'''. Deg yennayer 2024, Neuralink tsers s rrbeḥ tasfift taliktrunit tamezwarut deg wallaɣ n wemdan. === 3.5. The Boring Company (seg 2016) === Iswi n teṛmist-a d taɣuzi n tgennariyin ddaw n temdinin timeqqranin s watig tameẓyant, akken ad d-tefk tifrat i ucebbel d uzuɣer n tkerrusin deg yiberdan. kctr8pgcs1b2xjqogl42bb82qhf2ddm 0 25609 117572 117567 2026-10-05T18:59:14Z Gurzil90x 14292 Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen 117572 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox biography|item=Q170164|image=[[File:Elena Colosseo Rome Italy.jpg|thumb|Asbdad n Helena deg Ruma]]|caption=Helena Augusta}} '''Helena''', neɣ '''Flavia Julia Helena Augusta''', d yiwet seg tlawin i yesɛan azal meqqren deg umezruy n Tmenkda Tarumanit deg tasut tis kraḍet d tis ukkuẓet. Ɣas akken ur telli ara d tamenkat i iḥekkmen s yiman-is, tettwassen ladɣa imi d yemma-s n umenkad Qusṭantin Ameqqran, maca daɣen imi tella d yiwet seg tlawin timezwura n twacult tamenkat tarumanit i iqeblen tamasiḥit. Deg taggara n tudert-is, tuɣal d yiwet seg tgezmiwin tigejdanin n tmezdayt tamasiḥit deg Tmenkda Tarumanit. == 1. Talalit d temẓi n Helena == Ur nettwassen ara s tidet wass d umḍiq anda tlul Helena. Iɣbula iqburen d yimazrayen mxalafen deg wayagi, maca aṭas n yimezrayen ttwalin belli tlul azal n 247–250 n talalit, ahat deg Drepanum, tamdint n Bitiniya deg Anatoliya, qrib n Nicomedia. Qusṭantin isemma-yas deffir Helenopolis, s yisem n yemma-s. Helena ur d-tekk ara seg twacult n yigelliden neɣ seg yimeqqranen n Tmenkda. Iɣbula imasiḥiyen iqburen mmalen-d belli tella seg twacult taḥerfit. Ambrosius n Milan, i yura deg tasut tis ukkuẓet, isemma-yas stabularia, awal alatini i izemren ad yemmel tameṭṭut ixeddmen deg yiwen n umḍiq n yimsafaren neɣ n usensu. Aya, maca, ur aɣ-d-yefki ara aṭas n telqayt ɣef temẓi-s. Timucuha deffir-is i tt-id-yerran d yelli-s n ugellid n Britanya ur sɛint ara lsas amezrayan. == 2. Helena d Qusṭantin Klurus == Deg tazwara n tudert-is, Helena teddukkel akked [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] (Constantius Chlorus), aserdas arumani i yuɣalen deffir d yiwen seg imenkaden n ''tetrarkiya''. Ur nettwassen ara akken ilaq ma Helena d Qusṭantiyus zewǧen s uzref arumani neɣ ma tella gar-asen kan ''concubinatus,'' assaɣ yettwasnen deg Tmenkda Tarumanit, ladɣa gar yimdanen n yidgan inmettiyen yemgaraden. Iɣbula iqburen ur d-ttakken ara tiririt yiwet ɣef waya. Azal n 272–274, Helena tesɛa-d Qusṭantin, win ara yuɣalen deffir d '''Qusṭantin Ameqqran'''. Mi tebda tetrarkiya n [[Dyuklisyan]] ad tbeddel taɣessa tasertant n Tmenkda, Qusṭantin yebra i Helena neɣ yemsefrak yid-s. Deg 293, yuɣ ''Theodora'', yelli-s s tissulya n umenkad Maximianus. Azwaj-a yella d allal asertan: yesdukkel Qusṭantin akked twacult tamenkat i iḥekkmen. Seg wakud-nni armi d tallit n Qusṭantin, Helena tettban-d drus deg yiɣbula. == 3. Helena d mmi-s Qusṭantin == Assaɣ gar Helena d mmi-s Qusṭantin yella d agejdan deg tudert-is. Mi yemmut Qusṭantin Klurus deg Eboracum (York) deg 306, isedasen-is sbedden Qusṭantin d amenkad. Maca Qusṭantin ilaq-as aṭas n yiseggasen n ṭṭraḍ d unadi ɣef udabu iwakken ad yuɣal d amenkad agejdan. Mi yuli Qusṭantin deg udabu, Helena tuɣal ɣer twacult tamenkat. Mmi-s yefka-as azal meqqren, yerna yessuffeɣ-d idrimen s tugna-s. Deg 325, tettunefk-as tezmer tamenkat Augusta, yiwen seg yismawen unnigen n tlawin n twacult tamenkat. S waya Helena ur tezgi ara kan d «yemma-s n umenkad»; tuɣal tesɛa addad unṣib deg twacult iḥekkmen Tamenkda. == 4. Helena d tmasiḥit == Yiwen seg yisental i ɣef mazal yella umgired gar yimezrayen d melmi i tuɣal Helena d tamasiḥit. '''''Eusebius n Qaysariya''''', i yuran Tudert n Qusṭantin, yemmal-d belli Qusṭantin yesɛa azal deg tuɣalin n yemma-s ɣer tmasiḥit. Maca ur nɛlim ara s wass neɣ s useggas melmi teḍra tuɣalin-a. Deg taggara n tudert-is, tamasiḥit-is tettban-d s waṭas deg leqdicat-is. Eusebius yesnifel-itt d tameṭṭut yettaken idrimen i yigellilen, tettɛawan wid yettwaḥebsen, wid yettwasekṛen ad xedmen deg uḥric n unaɣez n wuzzal, d wid yettwanfan. Aya yeskanay-d daɣen abeddel meqqren i d-yellan deg Tmenkda Tarumanit: tamasiḥit, i tettwaḍeyyeq s waṭas deg tallit n Dyuklisyan, tebda deg tallit n Qusṭantin ad tuɣal d tadeyyanit i yesɛan azal meqqren deg tsertit d tmetti n Tmenkda. 3biwsrdzu1lc3ck4rb0kg8axd3prytx