Wikipedia kabwiki https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asebter_agejdan MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Uslig Mmeslay Amseqdac Amyannan umsqedac Wikipedia Amyannan n Wikipedia Tugna Amyannan n tugna MediaWiki Amyannan n MediaWiki Talɣa Amyannan n talɣa Tallat Amyannan n tallat Taggayt Amyannan n taggayt Awwur Amyannan uwwur Asenfaṛ Amyannan usenfaṛ TimedText TimedText talk Module Discussion module Event Event talk Sujet 0 370 117578 116650 2026-10-07T00:48:23Z InternetArchiveBot 10734 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 117578 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox biography}} '''William Shakespeare''' d amedyaz yettwasnen ugar, d argaz umezgun, d amyaru n yedles aglizi. Ilul ass n 23 ibrir (kuzyur) 1564. Immut ass n 23 ibrir (kuzyur) 1616. '''Ticequfin n Shakespeare''' * ''[[Romeo and Juliet]] * ''[[Macbeth (pièce)|Macbeth]]'' * ''[[King Lear]] * ''[[Hamlet, Prince of Denmark]] * ''[[Othello, the Moor of Venice]] * ''[[Titus Andronicus]]'' * ''[[Julius Caesar]] * ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]] * ''[[Coriolanus]] * ''[[Troilus and Cressida]] * ''[[Timon of Athens]] * ''[[All's Well that Ends Well]] * ''[[As You Like It]] * ''[[Le Songe d'une nuit d'été]]'' (''A Midsummer Night's Dream'') * ''[[Beaucoup de bruit pour rien]]'' (''Much Ado About Nothing'') * ''[[Mesure pour Mesure]]'' (''Measure for Measure'') ** * ''[[La Mégère apprivoisée]]'' (''The Taming of the Shrew'') * ''[[La Nuit des rois (théâtre)|La Nuit des Rois]]'' (''Twelfth Night'') * ''[[Le Marchand de Venise]]'' (''The Merchant of Venice'') ** * ''[[Les Joyeuses Commères de Windsor]]'' (''The Merry Wives of Windsor'') * ''[[Peines d'amour perdues]]'' (''Love's Labour's Lost'') * ''[[Les Deux Gentilshommes de Vérone]]'' (''The Two Gentlemen of Verona'') * ''[[La Comédie des erreurs]]'' (''The Comedy of Errors'') '''Ticequfin umezruy n Shakespeare''' * ''[[Richard III (Shakespeare)|Richard III]]'' * ''[[Richard II (Shakespeare)|Richard II]]'' * ''[[Henri VI (Shakespeare)|Henri VI]], 1ère partie, 2e partie, 3e partie'' (''Henry VI, Part 1, Part 2, Part 3'') * ''[[Henry V (tragédie historique)|Henri V]]'' (''Henry V'') * ''[[Henri IV (Shakespeare)|Henri IV]], 1ère partie, 2e partie'' (''Henry IV, Part 1, Part 2'') * ''[[Henri VIII (Shakespeare)|Henri VIII]]'' (''Henry VIII'') * ''[[Le Roi Jean]]'' (''King John'') * ''[[Édouard III (Shakespeare)|Édouard III]]'' (''Edward III'') '''Ticequfin n tayri n Shakespeare''' * ''[[Péricles, prince de Tyr]]'' (''Pericles, Prince of Tyre'') * * ''[[Cymbeline]]'' * * ''[[Le Conte d'hiver]]'' (''The Winter's Tale'') * * ''[[La Tempête]]'' (''The Tempest'') * * ''[[Les Deux Nobles Cousins]]'' (''The Two Noble Kinsmen'') * '''Tasekla nniḍen n Shakespeare''' * les ''Sonnets'' (voir [[Sonnet]]) * les ''Longs Poèmes'' == Tamselyut == * Wikipedia s tefransist '''Af tuddert n Shakespeare''' * [http://adlitteram.free.fr/index.php/content/view/79/31/ Biographie détaillée de Shakespeare] * [http://www.onlineshakespeare.com/frenchindex.htm Online Shakespeare] tameddurt-ines s tefransist. * [https://www.onelittleangel.com/sagesse/citations/william-shakespeare.asp Sa vie, ses portraits et ses poèmes mystiques]. * [http://www.littanam.ulg.ac.be Shakespeare et Hamlet sur la toile]. * [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Study_Guide:Shakespeare Study Guide:Shakespeare sur Wikibooks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070330012934/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Study_Guide:Shakespeare |date=2007-03-30 }} * [https://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/ Open Source Shakespeare] possède l’édition de 1866 des œuvres complètes de Shakespeare, avec concordance complète et moteur de recherche avancé. Pas de publicité, mais ne donne le texte que scène par scène. * [http://www.bl.uk/treasures/shakespeare/homepage.html British Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611141145/http://www.bl.uk/treasures/shakespeare/homepage.html |date=2011-06-11 }}; original 93 copies in quarto * [http://www.ericdigests.org ericdigests.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416165920/http://www.ericdigests.org/ |date=2021-04-16 }} propose des pistes pédagogiques, sous forme de liste de liens. Pas de mention des sources, cependant. * [http://suchshakespearestuff.blogspot.com/ Such Shakespeare Stuff] est un blog quotidien couvrant l’actualité autour du dramaturge: télévision, films, livres, etc. On y trouve aussi des quizzes, des anecdotes, des forums et d’autres informations dans ce genre. * [http://william-shakespeare.classic-literature.co.uk/ classic-literature.co.uk] donne une version électronique d’un texte anonyme. Présente le texte page par page. * Works by William Shakespeare sur le [http://www.gutenberg.org/author/William_Shakespeare Projet Gutenberg], dans des langues variées (y compris les œuvres illégitimes...) et avec les graphies d’origine. * [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Shakespeare%2C+William upenn.edu online books page for Shakespeare] donne un texte de base, et redirige vers d’autres sites de référence. * [http://www.shakespeare-literature.com/ Shakespeare Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428062047/http://www.shakespeare-literature.com/ |date=2020-04-28 }} propose une version organisée par chapitre pour une recherche facilitée dans les œuvres du poète. * [http://shakespeare.palomar.edu/ Mr. William Shakespeare and the Internet] * [http://www.methuen.co.uk/williamshakespearepoems.html Selected Sonnets par William Shakespeare] * Shakespeare et le théâtre du Globe tirée de l’[http://search.eb.com/shakespeare/index2.html Encyclopædia Britannica] * [http://www.touchstone.bham.ac.uk/index.html Touchstone - UK Shakespeare collections] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722230042/http://www.touchstone.bham.ac.uk/index.html |date=2020-07-22 }} * [http://www.elook.org/literature/shakespeare/ elook.org Shakespeare]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601205223/http://www.elook.org/literature/shakespeare/ |date=2007-06-01 }} présente quatre œuvres en version électronique avec une base de données permettant les recherches. * [https://shakespeare-1.com/doubtful/ Doubtful Works of William Shakespeare] Texte complet des œuvres dramaturgiques attribuées par erreur à William Shakespeare. * [http://shakespeare.nowheres.com/ The original shakespeare.com] L’édition Moby dans une version lisible en ligne. * [http://wiredforbooks.org/shakespeare/ William Shakespeare's plays and poems in audio and video] * [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/Arts/subcollections/IllusShakeAbout.shtml The Illustrated Shakespeare] Un projet du Centre de Documentation Digitale de l’Université de Wisconsin, qui présente des images et des documents en relation avec Shakespeare et son œuvre. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070825143929/http://www.kennedy-center.org/explorer/shakespeare/ Explore Shakespeare] Un site du Kennedy Center ("The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts" - Washington DC) ayant la particularité de présenter Shakespeare et son oeuvre en relation avec les événements de...1330 à 2008. Accompagné d'une carte du monde positionnant les éléments cités. * [http://www.aufildemeslectures.net/?P=s&au=325 Citations] [[Taggayt:Tameddurt|Shakespeare]] [[Taggayt:Amaru|Shakespeare]] jk2d03017i88mg8vg32imzxv19n98t0 0 25606 117580 117575 2026-10-07T10:12:40Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117580 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Asfukel war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: zero-knowledge proof, ZKP) d tarrayt deg uwgelhan i yessemras yiwen umdan neɣ yiwen unagraw iwakken ad isfukel i wayeḍ belli yiwet n tenfalit d tidet, war ma yefka-as talɣut nniḍen ɣef wayen yeffren, nnig wayen i d-temmal tenfalit-nni d yisefka izuyaz. Taɣara-a teqqen ɣer wamek i yettwasileɣ usfukel, mačči kan ɣer usuffeɣ neɣ war asuffeɣ n tuffirt s wudem usrid. == Isem d unamek == « War tukci n tmusni » ur d-yemmal ara belli win yesneqden ur d-yelmid acemma. Yettwali belli tanfalit i as-d-yettunefken tettwaqbel s yilugan n unagraw. Ayen ur d-ilemmid ara d talɣut nniḍen ɣef tuffirt i yellan deffir usfukel. S umedya, ad iselken belli amdan yesɛa tasarut tuffirt, war ma yessen azal n tsarut-nni. == Amezruy d usnerni n tmiḍrant == === Seg yisfukal imatuten ɣer yisfukal s usdiwen === Deg usfukel n tusnakt i nennum, win i d-yettaken asfukel yeskanay-d tikli i izemren ad teḍfer tayeḍ. Maca deg uwgelhan, tikli-nni tezmer ad tesban talɣut i ilaq ad teqqim d tuffirt. Timiḍrant n ZK tefruri-d seg usteqsi-a: amek ara nesfukel tidet n kra, war ma nesban-d meṛṛa ayen i aɣ-yeǧǧan ad t-nessen? ''Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Charles Rackoff'' sbedden tigejda n taɣult-a deg leqdic i d-yeffɣen deg STOC deg 1985. Lqem-is aɣezfan yeffeɣ-d deg ''SIAM Journal on'' ''Computing'' deg 1989. Leqdic-a yesdukkel asfukel s '''usdiwen''', '''taseqqart''' d '''usenqed n''' '''tmusni''' i yezmer ad d-yerbeḥ win yesneqden. === Asemres ɣef ugur imatu === ''Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Avi Wigderson'' sbegnen belli, ma llan kra n tesɣunin i yessehlen i usiḍen deg yiwet n tnila maca iweɛren i tuɣalin ɣer deffir (one-way functions), yal tutlayt deg taggayt NP tesɛa asfukel s usdiwen war tukci n tmusni. Leqdic-nsen yettwabder deg 1986, lqem aɣezfan-is deg 1991. Aya yessuffeɣ timiḍrant seg kra n wuguren n yimḍanen ɣer yiwet n taɣult tasnaẓrayant wessiɛen. === Tuɣalin ɣer leqdic war asdiwen === Deg 1988, ''Manuel Blum'', ''Paul Feldman'' akked ''Silvio Micali'' ssuffɣen-d leqdic agejdan ɣef yisfukal war asdiwen d yiseqdacen-nsen. Iɣewwaṛen izuyaz yezdin gar win yesfukulen d win yesneqden zemren ad ilin d lsas n leqdic-a. Ihi, « war asdiwen » ur yemmal ara « war uheggi » neɣ « war tawsit n unagraw ». === Tallit n yisfukal iwezlan === Deg yiseggasen 2010, inadiyen ɣef yisfukal iwezlan, aselken arurad d leḥsab ameqqran ssawḍen ɣer twaculin am '''Groth16''', '''Bulletproofs''', '''STARK''', '''PLONK''' d '''Halo'''. Yal tawacult tesɛa ilugan d yiswan-is: temẓi n usfukel, akud n usnulfu, tmara n uselken neɣ tukksa n uheggi i yettḥwaǧen laman deg umdan wis kraḍ. == 2. Tabadut tusnakt d yiwudam n leqdic == I ussegzi n tarrayt, nettsemmi P i win yesfukulen (prover), V i win yesneqden (verifier), x i yisefka izuyaz, w i uselkin uffir (witness). Assaɣ R yesbadu ayen ilaq ad yili d tidet gar x d w. '''R(x, w) = 1''' Tanfalit i nettḥeqqiq d tin i d-yeqqaren belli '''illa''' w i yesɛan assaɣ-a d x. Tagrumma n yisefka izuyaz i yesɛan aselkin yettwabdar s: '''L = { x : illa w, R(x, w) = 1 }''' S umedya n ussegzi, x yezmer ad yili d azal y n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ H; w d amḍan uffir s = w. Assaɣ yettwasenqed d H(s) = y. Yezmer daɣen ad yili x d agmuḍ n leḥsab, w d isefka uffiren akked tikli n leḥsab i d-yessawḍen ɣer ugmuḍ-nni. Umḍan n yiwudam ur yettbeddilara tabadut: zemren ad ilin d imdanen, d iqeddacen neɣ d iseɣẓanen. === Kraḍ n tewtilin tigejdanin === '''Aqbal n wayen iṣeḥḥan''' (completeness). Ma x yesɛa aselkin iwatan, yerna P d V ḍefren ilugan, asfukel ilaq ad yettwaqbel s tseqqart meqqren, neɣ dima deg kra n yinagrawen. '''Agi n wayen ur neṣṣiḥ ara''' (soundness). Ma x ur yesɛi ula d yiwen n uselkin iwatan, ilaq ad tili tseqqart n uɣelli n V deg tuccḍa d tameẓyant akken iwata, ɣas P yeɛreḍ ad iɣucc. Taɣara-a tḥerrez tidet n usfukel. '''War tukci n tmusni''' (zero knowledge). Talɣut i d-yettawi V seg leqdic ilaq ad tezmer ad tettwaserwes war aselkin uffir. Taɣara-a tḥerrez ayen i yessen P; ur tettwasefhem ara s wawal « uffir » kan. Taɣellist tettwasbadu s yiwen uɣewwaṛ λ. Taseqqart i wumi neqqar « tameẓyant akken iwata » tezmer ad tili d tin i yettidiren ddaw n 1/λk i yal k > 0, ma λ meqqer akken iwata. D aya i d-anamek n negligible deg tbadutin-a. == Asfukel d afukal == Deg unamek usdid, ''anza'' yesseḥbibir ɣef tidet ula mgal win yesfukulen s tzemmar n leḥsab ur nesɛi ara tilisa. Afukal(Argument) yettḥerrez tidet mgal aɣuccam(win iɣuccen) i yesɛan tazmert n leḥsab talast. Deg uḍris imatu, awal « asfukel » yettwasemras i snat-a; deg usenqed tusnakt, amgired-a ilaq ad yettwaḥrez. === Tugna 1. Asfukel d uselkin uffir === Win yesfukulen yessemras aselkin uffir; win yesneqden yesseḥḥay tanfalit s usfukel d yisefka izuyaz. [[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|400x400px]] == 3. Aserwes d unamek usdid n ZK == === Aserwas am tewtilt n usfukel === '''Aserwas''' (simulator) d axwerzim(alguritm) i d-yeslalayen ayen i izemren ad iwali win yesneqden, war ma yesɛa aselkin uffir. Deg tabadut n ZK, ilaq ayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas ad yemcabi, ilmend n tewtilt tusnakt i nettsemras, ayen i d-yettawi win yesneqden seg leqdic ilaw. Ma nezmer ad neslal talɣut-nni war tuffirt, tikli n usfukel ur as-d-terni ara talɣut i izemren ad tessegzi tuffirt. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli '''aɣuccam''' yezmer ad d-yesnulfu yal asfukel yebɣa deg unagraw ilaw. Aserwes yezmer ad yessemres tarrayt tasnaẓrayant am tuɣalin ɣer kra n waddaden n win yesneqden, neɣ yiwen n uheggi n usenqed i yemgaraden ɣef uheggi ilaw. Iwakkenad tettwaḥrez tidet, tarrayin-a ilaq ad ttwasbadunt deg umedya tusnakt n tɣellist. === Kraḍ n talɣiwin n umcabi === '''War tukci s wudem ummid''' (perfect zero knowledge). Tiski n wayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas d tin n leqdic ilaw d yiwet s tusnakt. '''War tukci n tmusni s waddadan''' (statistical zero knowledge). Sin n yisuffaɣ qriben nezzeh deg tseqqart; amgired-nsen d ameẓyan akken iwata, ɣas win i ten-yesneqden yesɛa tazmert n usiḍen(leḥsab) war tilisa. '''War tukci n usiḍen''' (computational zero knowledge). Axwerzim i yesɛan tilisa n usiḍen(leḥsab) ur yezmir ara ad yefrez gar sin n yisuffaɣ s tzemmar yugaren talast tameẓyant i tettwasbadun. Taɣara-a tezmer ad tbedd ɣef ugur tusnakt i yettwaḥsaben d aweɛran. iz3fqstst9lr0wcd36yh3u0i5si5d03 0 25607 117579 117573 2026-10-07T09:55:50Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117579 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Evemerus''' ('''Euhemeros / Εὐήμερος''') d afelsaf u d amyaru Agrigi aqbur, yettwasnen s teẓri i d-yefka ɣef yirebbiten: ɣur-s, kra n {{Infobox biography|item=Q317942|caption=Euhemerus}} yirebbiten yellan zemren ad ilin deg tazwara d imdanen n tidet — igelliden, imnekcamen neɣ imdanen yesɛan azal — syin akkin, deffir n tmettant-nsen, ttwaɛebden am yirebbiten. Tikti-a i d-yefka yiwen n ubrid nniḍen i usefhem n tmucuha d tmiṭulujit. == 1. Anwa i yella Evemerus? == Evemerus yedder deg taggara n tasut tis IV uqbel talalit n Ɛisa, akked tazwara n tasut tis III uqbel talalit n Ɛisa, deg tallit i d-yeḍfaren tameddit n [[Aliksandr Ameqqran]]. Iɣbula iqburen ur d-ttakken ara talɣut ɣef tudert-is, ihi ur nezmir ara ad nessekfel s telqayt melmi d wanda i d-ilul. Yettwasen deg umezruy n tfelsafit ladɣa s umahil-is '''Hiera Anagraphē''' (Ἱερὰ Ἀναγραφή), i nezmer ad nefhem am « Tira Tuqdist » neɣ « Asekles Uqdis ». Aḍris agejdan n udlis-a iruḥ, maca kra seg-s yettwassen s yisebtar d yisuɣal i d-qqimen deg yimezwura n tallit taqburt. == 2. Tallit ideg yedder == Evemerus yedder deg tallit tahellenistit, mi yekfa udabu n Aliksandr Ameqqran, imi timura i yekcem deg-sent mgaradent gar yigliden d yimnekcamen-is. Tallit-a tesɛa azal meqqren deg umezruy n tmitulujit: tuddsa n yirebbiten d tmucuha n Yigrigiyen teṭṭef tamurt tameqqrant, maca deg yiwen wakud llan ifilasafiyen d yimyura i ibeddun ad sqerdcen timsal-a s tmuɣli n umezruy, n tfelsafit d usegzi aɣaran. Evemerus yella gar wid i d-yefkan yiwet seg teẓriwin i d-yettbanen d timaynutin: ma yella kra n yirebbiten d imdanen n zik i yettwaɛebden deffir? == 3. « Hiera Anagraphē » — amahil-is agejdan == Deg udlis-is, Evemerus yules-d ɣef tinigin ara t-yawin ɣer tegzirt n ''Panchaia.'' ''Panchaia'' tettwasegza am wakal aberkan d amerkanti, anda i yufa Evemerus kra n uḍris neɣ n usekles uqdis. Ɣef wakken i d-yenna, deg-s llan yismawen d umezruy n yirebbiten am: '''Zeus, Kronos d Uranos.''' Maca ayen i d-yufa — ilmend n wayen i d-yules — yessefk ad ibeddel tamuɣli ɣef-sen: ur llin ara seg tazwara d yirebbiten n igenni, maca d imdanen n zik, d igelliden neɣ d imdanen yesɛan adabu d wazal meqqren. ''Panchaia'' tezmer ad tili d amkan asugnan i yesseqdec umyaru iwakken ad d-yefk tiktiwin-is. Imusnawen n wass-a ur ttwalin ara taleqqimt-is am umezruy ussid n tinigt i yeḍran akken i d-yettwales. == 4. Tikti tagejdant n Evemerus == Tikti-s nezmer ad tt-id-nessegzi akka: '''Amdan → ameqqran deg tmetti → amazray → aɛebbad → arebbi.''' S unamek nniḍen, amdan yezmer ad yili d agellid neɣ d amnekcam yesɛan azal meqqren. Mi yemmut, imdanen ad cfun fell-as. Tallit tettɛeddi, tamacahut tettnerni, tamektit-is tettbeddil, alamma amdan-nni yettuɣal deg tmiṭulujit d arebbi(illu/akuc). Ɣef wakken i t-id-yessegza Evemerus, ihi, tmiṭulujit tezmer ad tesɛu aẓar amazray. == 5. Amedya n Zeus == Deg tmuɣli-a, '''Zeus''' ur yelli ara seg tazwara d arebbi ur nesɛi ara talalit. Yella d amdan, neɣ d agellid ameqqran, i yellan deg umezruy aqbur. Seld tamettant-is, imezwura ɛebden-t, syin akkin tuget n yimdanen tettut belli yella d amdan. S wakka, tamacahut tessexlaḍ gar tamektit n umezruy d tmiṭulujit. Ur ilaq ara ad nefhem aya am '''yisemli''' amazray yettwaselken s wallalen n yimussnawen n wass-a; d tarrayt tafelsafant d tsekla i yesseqdec Evemerus i usefhem n yirebbiten. bikjetcst16xt2guz58m31dycoxen0o 0 25608 117576 117571 2026-10-06T13:05:12Z Gurzil90x 14292 Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen 117576 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox biography|item=Q317521|image=[[File:Elon Musk (54816836217) (cropped 2) (b).jpg|thumb|Elon Musk (54816836217) (cropped 2) (b)]]|caption=Elon Musk}} '''Elon Musk''' (ilul s yisem unṣib n '''Elon Reeve Musk''' ass n 28 yunyu 1971 deg Pretoria, [[Tafriqt Wenẓul|Tafriqt n Wenẓul]]) d aṛemmas, d ajenyuṛ, d amsefti yerna d amsidag n tnezzut amarikani-akanadi i d-yekkan seg Tefriqt n Wenẓul. Yettwassen aṭas imi d anemhal amatu (CEO) d amaswaḍ amezwaru n teṛmist n tesnatallunt '''SpaceX''', d anemhal amatu n teṛmist n tkerrusin tiliktranin '''Tesla''', d bab n uzeṭṭa anmetti '''X''' (i yettwassnen zik s yisem n Twitter). Yettekki daɣen deg usbeddi n teṛmisin am '''Neuralink''' (taywalt gar wallaɣ d uselkim), '''The Boring Company''' (eɣẓ n tgennariyin ddaw wakal), '''xAI''' ([[Tigzi Taragmawant|tiɣist tagemdant]]), yerna yella gar yimesbeddiyen imezwura n [[OpenAI]] d PayPal. Musk d yiwen gar yemdanen imarkantiyen akk deg umezruy n talsa. Deg waṭas n talliyin, yella d netta i d amezwaru deg tfelwiyin n Forbes d Bloomberg ɣef wid yesɛan ayla d uẓayer ameqqran akk deg umaḍal. == 2. Almad asdawan == Musk yebda leqraya-s tatrart deg Tesdawit n ''Queen's'' deg temdint n ''Kingston'' (deg uwanak n ''Ontario'', deg ''Kanada''). Sin n yiseggasen syin, yusa-d ɣer Iwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan akken ad ikemmel leqraya-s deg Tesdawit n ''Pennsylvania''. Dinna i d-yewwi snat n turagin tusnanin deg 1997: Turagt deg tdamsa (deg uɣerbaz n ''Wharton School''). Turagt deg tfizikt (deg ugezdu n Tussniwin d Tẓuriwin). Deg 1995, Musk yekcem ɣer Tesdawit n ''Stanford'' deg ''[[Kalifurnya|Kalifuṛnya]]'' akken ad yexdem duktura deg tfizikt tatrart d tussna n yinganen. Maca deffir sin kan n wussan seg wasmi i d-tekcem "tefsut" n Internet, yeǧǧa tasdawit akken ad d-yesnulfu tiṛmisin-is timzwura. == 3. Aban n umahil d teṛmisin == === 3.1. Zip2 d X.com (PayPal) (1995–2002) === Deg 1995, Elon Musk d gma-s Kimbal sbedden taṛmist umi semman '''Zip2''' s tallelt n kra n yimseftiyen. ''Zip2'' tella tettak-d imagraden d tkarḍiwin tumḍinin i yiɣmisen imeqqranen am ''The New York Times'' d ''Chicago Tribune''. Deg 1999, taṛmist '''Compaq''' tuɣ '''Zip2''' s wazal n 307 n yimelyunen n yidulaṛen; Musk yewwi deg-s 22 n yimelyunen. S yidrimen-nni, deg 1999 yakan, Musk yesbeddi '''X.com''', d yiwet gar tbankiwin timzwura i yeddun srid deg Internet. Deg useggas n 2000, '''X.com''' teddukkul d tkebbanit tamseddayt '''Confinity''', i d-yesnulfan anagraw n tenigawt n tedrimt '''PayPal'''. Deg tuber 2002, taṛmist '''eBay''' tuɣ '''PayPal''' s wazal n 1.5 n umelyar n yidulaṛen. Musk yewwi amur n 175 n yimelyunen n yidulaṛen. === 3.2. SpaceX (seg 2002) === Deg mayyu 2002, Musk yesbeddi '''SpaceX''' (Space Exploration Technologies Corp.) s yiswi n usenqes n watig n tuffɣa ɣer tallunt d usedger n wemdan akken ad yuɣal d aɣref amsallun i yezmren ad yidir deg umtiweg n [[Mezweɣ]] (Mars). SpaceX tessaweḍ ad d-tesnulfu timseddiyin d timeẓdiyina (fusées) ur nessutur ara aṭas n tnezzut, ladɣa s usnulfu n tmeẓdit i yettuɣalen ad ttwasseqdcent am '''Falcon 9''' d '''Falcon Heavy''': '''Dragon''': D allal i yessawḍen imasallunen ɣer Tɣerɣert Tagraɣlant n Tallunt (ISS) s umtawa d NASA. '''Starlink''': D aẓeṭṭa ameqqran n yigensawen i d-yettaken Internet azayez deg wakk tiɣemmar n umaḍal. '''Starship''': D timeẓdit tameqqrant yerna d tin iǧehden akk deg umezruy n umdan, i yettwaxedmen iwakken ad tawi imdanen ɣer waggur d Mezweɣ. === 3.3. Tesla (seg 2004) === Deg useggas n 2004, Musk yekcem d amsefti amezwaru deg teṛmist '''Tesla Motors''' (i sbedden Martin Eberhard d Marc Tarpenning). Deg useggas n 2008, yuɣal d anemhal amatu (CEO) d umḍebber n usnulfu n tkerrusin. Tesla tbeddel tamuɣli n umaḍal ɣef tkerrusin tiliktranin, mi d-tessufeɣ kra n tmudmawin ifazen am '''Roadster''', '''Model S''', '''Model X''', '''Model 3''', d '''Model Y''', rnu-as takerrust n wuzzal '''Cybertruck'''. Tesla tebda daɣen tesseqdac anagraw n umseddu awurman (Autopilot / Full Self-Driving), d anagraw i yettdun s [[Tigzi Taragmawant|tiɣist tagemdant]] d tsekna n tkamiriwin. === 3.4. Neuralink (seg 2016) === Musk yettekki deg usbeddi n Neuralink, d taṛmist iqeddcen deg wannar n taknulujit n inuṛunen (neurotechnologie). Iswi-ines d asbeddi n ugrudem n taywalt srid gar wallaɣ n wemdan d yiselkimen. Ay-a yezmer ad yefk tifrat i wid yesɛan akukel n tfekka (paralysie) neɣ aṭanen n inuṛunen, yerna ad yerr amdan ad yeqqim deg uswir iweznen mgal '''tiɣist tagemdant'''. Deg yennayer 2024, Neuralink tsers s rrbeḥ tasfift taliktrunit tamezwarut deg wallaɣ n wemdan. === 3.5. The Boring Company (seg 2016) === Iswi n teṛmist-a d taɣuzi n tgennariyin ddaw n temdinin timeqqranin s watig tameẓyant, akken ad d-tefk tifrat i ucebbel d uzuɣer n tkerrusin deg yiberdan. == 4. Tudert tudmawant == Musk yezweǧ acḥal d tikkelt: Tameṭṭut-is tamezwarut d tamyarut takanadit ''Justine Wilson'' (gar 2000 d 2008), sɛan 5 n warraw-nsen. Yezweǧ daɣen d tmeskirt tasebgart ''Talulah Riley'' snat n tikkal (2010–2012, syin 2013–2016). Yella yesɛa iseggasen n tdukli d tnaẓurt n uẓawan ''Grimes'', yid-s i d-yesɛa kraḍ (3) n yigerdan. Yesɛa daɣen arraw-is d ''Shivon Zilis'', yiwet gar tmḍebbriyin n Neuralink. Deg wayen yerzan tdamsa d waddad n '''tɣermi''', Musk yesɛa kṛad n tiɣelnin: tin n Tefrikt n Wenẓul (anda ilul), tin n Kanada (s yemma-s), d tin n Yiwunak Yeddukklen n Marikan (seg 2002) igdm45oc5wzhupsu0go0ckp6rtlyyr7 0 25609 117577 117572 2026-10-06T18:12:23Z Gurzil90x 14292 arniɣ ayen ilaqen 117577 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox biography|item=Q170164|image=[[File:Elena Colosseo Rome Italy.jpg|thumb|Asbdad n Helena deg Ruma]]|caption=Helena Augusta}} '''Helena''', neɣ '''Flavia Julia Helena Augusta''', d yiwet seg tlawin i yesɛan azal meqqren deg umezruy n Tmenkda Tarumanit deg tasut tis kraḍet d tis ukkuẓet. Ɣas akken ur telli ara d tamenkat i iḥekkmen s yiman-is, tettwassen ladɣa imi d yemma-s n umenkad Qusṭantin Ameqqran, maca daɣen imi tella d yiwet seg tlawin timezwura n twacult tamenkat tarumanit i iqeblen tamasiḥit. Deg taggara n tudert-is, tuɣal d yiwet seg tgezmiwin tigejdanin n tmezdayt tamasiḥit deg Tmenkda Tarumanit. == 1. Talalit d temẓi n Helena == Ur nettwassen ara s tidet wass d umḍiq anda tlul Helena. Iɣbula iqburen d yimazrayen mxalafen deg wayagi, maca aṭas n yimezrayen ttwalin belli tlul azal n 247–250 n talalit, ahat deg Drepanum, tamdint n Bitiniya deg Anatoliya, qrib n Nicomedia. Qusṭantin isemma-yas deffir Helenopolis, s yisem n yemma-s. Helena ur d-tekk ara seg twacult n yigelliden neɣ seg yimeqqranen n Tmenkda. Iɣbula imasiḥiyen iqburen mmalen-d belli tella seg twacult taḥerfit. Ambrosius n Milan, i yura deg tasut tis ukkuẓet, isemma-yas stabularia, awal alatini i izemren ad yemmel tameṭṭut ixeddmen deg yiwen n umḍiq n yimsafaren neɣ n usensu. Aya, maca, ur aɣ-d-yefki ara aṭas n telqayt ɣef temẓi-s. Timucuha deffir-is i tt-id-yerran d yelli-s n ugellid n Britanya ur sɛint ara lsas amezrayan. == 2. Helena d Qusṭantin Klurus == Deg tazwara n tudert-is, Helena teddukkel akked [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] (Constantius Chlorus), aserdas arumani i yuɣalen deffir d yiwen seg imenkaden n ''tetrarkiya''. Ur nettwassen ara akken ilaq ma Helena d Qusṭantiyus zewǧen s uzref arumani neɣ ma tella gar-asen kan ''concubinatus,'' assaɣ yettwasnen deg Tmenkda Tarumanit, ladɣa gar yimdanen n yidgan inmettiyen yemgaraden. Iɣbula iqburen ur d-ttakken ara tiririt yiwet ɣef waya. Azal n 272–274, Helena tesɛa-d Qusṭantin, win ara yuɣalen deffir d '''Qusṭantin Ameqqran'''. Mi tebda tetrarkiya n [[Dyuklisyan]] ad tbeddel taɣessa tasertant n Tmenkda, Qusṭantin yebra i Helena neɣ yemsefrak yid-s. Deg 293, yuɣ ''Theodora'', yelli-s s tissulya n umenkad Maximianus. Azwaj-a yella d allal asertan: yesdukkel Qusṭantin akked twacult tamenkat i iḥekkmen. Seg wakud-nni armi d tallit n Qusṭantin, Helena tettban-d drus deg yiɣbula. == 3. Helena d mmi-s Qusṭantin == Assaɣ gar Helena d mmi-s Qusṭantin yella d agejdan deg tudert-is. Mi yemmut Qusṭantin Klurus deg Eboracum (York) deg 306, isedasen-is sbedden Qusṭantin d amenkad. Maca Qusṭantin ilaq-as aṭas n yiseggasen n ṭṭraḍ d unadi ɣef udabu iwakken ad yuɣal d amenkad agejdan. Mi yuli Qusṭantin deg udabu, Helena tuɣal ɣer twacult tamenkat. Mmi-s yefka-as azal meqqren, yerna yessuffeɣ-d idrimen s tugna-s. Deg 325, tettunefk-as tezmer tamenkat Augusta, yiwen seg yismawen unnigen n tlawin n twacult tamenkat. S waya Helena ur tezgi ara kan d «yemma-s n umenkad»; tuɣal tesɛa addad unṣib deg twacult iḥekkmen Tamenkda. == 4. Helena d tmasiḥit == Yiwen seg yisental i ɣef mazal yella umgired gar yimezrayen d melmi i tuɣal Helena d tamasiḥit. '''''Eusebius n Qaysariya''''', i yuran Tudert n Qusṭantin, yemmal-d belli Qusṭantin yesɛa azal deg tuɣalin n yemma-s ɣer tmasiḥit. Maca ur nɛlim ara s wass neɣ s useggas melmi teḍra tuɣalin-a. Deg taggara n tudert-is, tamasiḥit-is tettban-d s waṭas deg leqdicat-is. Eusebius yesnifel-itt d tameṭṭut yettaken idrimen i yigellilen, tettɛawan wid yettwaḥebsen, wid yettwasekṛen ad xedmen deg uḥric n unaɣez n wuzzal, d wid yettwanfan. Aya yeskanay-d daɣen abeddel meqqren i d-yellan deg Tmenkda Tarumanit: tamasiḥit, i tettwaḍeyyeq s waṭas deg tallit n Dyuklisyan, tebda deg tallit n Qusṭantin ad tuɣal d tadeyyanit i yesɛan azal meqqren deg tsertit d tmetti n Tmenkda. == 5. Tirza tameqqrant ɣer Akal Amqaddes == Deg 326–327, mi qrib tesɛa 80 n yiseggasen, Helena teffeɣ ɣer usammar n Tmenkda, ladɣa ɣer ''Palestina''. '''Eusebius''', i yella d yiwen seg yiɣbula iqburen i d-yewwin ɣef tirza-a, yemmal-d belli Helena tettṛuḥu ɣer temnaḍin timasiḥiyin timqaddesin, maca tettɛeddi daɣen ɣef temdinin d tmettiyin n usammar n Tmenkda. Tirza-a tesɛa azal meqqren deg umezruy n tmasiḥit, acku Helena tettwasen daɣen s lebni neɣ s tallelt i lebni n kra n yiẓekwan d tfaskiwin timasiḥiyin. Gar wid yettwasnen ugar: - Taklizt n Talalit deg Bethlehem, deg umḍiq i yettwamen belli din i d-ilul [[Ɛisa]]. - Taklizt n Eleona deg Udrar n Izemuren, deg temnaḍt n [[Uṛacalim|Uṛčalim]], i yeqqnen ɣer usmekti n tuɣalin n Ɛisa ɣer igenni. Eusebius yessawal s telqayt ɣef snat n tzeɣwin-a, yerna yeqqen lebni-nsent ɣer Helena d tallelt tameqqrant n Qusṭantin. == 6. Helena d «Umidag n Uẓekka Amqaddes» == Deg tmucuha timasiḥiyin, Helena tettwassen ugar s unadi ɣef Uẓekka Amqaddes (True Cross), i yettwamen belli d aẓekka i ɣef yettwaṣemmer Ɛisa. Timucuha n deffir qqaren-d belli mi tewweḍ ɣer Uṛčalim, Helena tefka lamer ad ɣzen kra n yimukan, armi d-ufan kraḍ n yiẓekwan; yiwen seg-sen yettwaf deffir d aẓekka n Ɛisa. Maca dagi ilaq ad nefrez gar amezruy d tansayt tadeyyanit. '''Eusebius n Qaysariya''', i yuran qrib n tallit n Helena yerna i d-yewwin s telqayt ɣef tirza-s, ur d-yebdir ara belli Helena tuf-d Aẓekka Amqaddes. Ula d iɣbula n tazwara n tasut tis ukkuẓet ur d-beddren ara tadyant-a. Tineqqisin i tt-yesdukklen srid akked tifin n Uẓekka Amqaddes bdant ad d-banent s wudem ifazen kan ɣer taggara n tasut tis ukkuẓet. Ɣef waya, nezmer ad nini: Tirza n Helena ɣer Palestina d tadyant tamezrayt yettwassnen; tifin n Uẓekka Amqaddes s ufus-is d tansayt tamasiḥit i d-yernan deffir. == 7. Helena d Uṛčalim == Tirza n Helena tesɛa daɣen azal meqqren i Uṛčalim. Segmi [[Hadriyan]] ibeddel tamdint ɣer '''Aelia Capitolina''' deg tasut tis snat, aṭas n yimukan i yettwaḥesben d imqaddesen ɣer yimasiḥiyen beddlen udem. Deg tallit n Qusṭantin, tadbelt tamenkdant tebda asenfar meqqren n lebni n tzeɣwin timasiḥiyin. Amḍiq n usemmer d uẓekka n Ɛisa yuɣal d agejdan deg usenfar-a, anda tebna Taklizt n Uẓekka Amqaddes — Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Ihi, Helena tella deg yiwet n tallit tagejdant anda Uṛčalim tebda ad tuɣal d yiwen seg yimukan imqaddesen igejdanen n tmasiḥit. hxgedr4citmy8kxvktax2qj0myunkrh