New York

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      <text bytes="5349" sha1="fgkul77vn661jzcs5yv54kjd8y8hkfz" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox city}}

'''New York''' d nettat ay d tamdint tameqqrant akk deg [[Iwunak Yedduklen|Yiwunak Yeddukklen]]. Tezga-d deg ugafa-agmuḍan n tmurt, ɣef [[Agaraw Aṭlasi|Ugaraw Aṭlasi]]. Zedɣen-tt 8.336.697 n yimezdaɣen (19.006.798 s yegmamen ay d-yezzin fell-as). Tamdint-a tezga-d deg [[New York (Awanak)|uwanak n New York]].

Tamdint-a tettwassen s yixxamen-is ɣezzifen, s tnezzut, s tdamsa tameqqrant, s tẓuri, s tesdawiyin, s tmusni d umezruy-is amesbaɣur.

New York mačči d tamdint n tnezzut kan. D amkan anda mlalen yigduden seg waṭas n tmura, s tutlayin yemgaraden, s yidles yemgaraden d wallalen yemgaraden n tudert.

Ɣas akken tamdint-a tettwassen am yiwet n tɣerma tameqqrant n umaḍal amiran, amezruy-is yezga yeqqen ɣer yigduden inaṣliyen n Marikan n Ugafa...

Tamsalt i ilaq ad nseɣti deg tazwara: igduden inaṣliyen n New York d '''Lenape''', seg yigduden inasliyen n Marikan n Ugafa. Amezruy n temdint yemmal-d amek i tettwabna ɣef wakal-nsen, syin akin amek i tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin tigejdanin n umaḍal.

== Tarakalt d ugama n New York ==
New York tezga deg umkan yesɛan azal ameqqran deg trakalt n Marikan. Tella gar yisaffen d yilellen, ayen i tt-yerran d tamdint n yinig d tnezzut seg zik.

Deg tama-s n umalu yella ''Asif Hudson'', deg tama-s n usamar yella ''East River'', i d aferdis n waman meẓẓiyen yeqqnen ɣer yilel. Deg unẓul, tella tagnit tameqqrant n waman i yettwassnen s yisem n ''New York Harbor'', anda i d-keččmen yiseflinen.

Tarakalt-a tettak-as kraḍ n lfaydat:

* Yezmer ad yili deg-s unermis n tnezzut gar Marikan, Turuft d tmura nniḍen.
* Isaffen d yilellen ttaken-d iberdan n usiweḍ n yiferdisen d medden.
* Igelluyen n wakal d yigziren ttawin-d aṭas n temnaḍin i lebni n temdint.

Maca amkan-a yesɛa ula d uguren: iḥemmalen n waman, ahuzzu n yilel, leɣla n wakal d uguren n lebni deg temnaḍin i d-yettwarran zdat n waman.

=== Tiɣiwanin tisudisin ===
New York tebḍa ɣef semmus n tiɣiwanin timeqqranin (boroughs).

==== '''Manhattan''' ====
[[Tugna:West side of Manhattan from Hudson Commons (95103p).jpg|centré|cadre|Manhattan.]]
D ul n tdamsa n temdint, anda ''llan Wall Street, Times Square, Central Park'' d waṭas n yixxamen ɣezzifen. D tamnaḍt yettwassnen aṭas deg umaḍal.

==== '''Brooklyn''' ====
[[Tugna:Dumbo Neighborhood in Brooklyn, NYC.jpg|centré|cadre|Brooklyn]]
D tamnaḍt yesɛan agdud meqqren, tuddar tiqdimin, taẓuri, izerfan idelsanen d yimḍiqen imeqqranen n tudert n temdint.

==== '''Queens''' ====
[[Tugna:Flushing Queens from roof of Starlight Hotel.jpg|centré|cadre|Queens]]
Tettwassen s tmeslayin d yidles yemgaraden. Deg-s llan yimḍiqen n yinig, timnaḍin n tnezzut d waṭas n tdukliwin n yimezdaɣ.

==== '''The Bronx''' ====
[[Tugna:Yankee Stadium 001.JPG|centré|vignette|650x650px|Bronx.]]
D yiwet seg temnaḍin ideg d-yennulfa uɣanib aẓawan n hip-hop. Deg-s daɣen azrib ameqqran ɣer Bronx Zoo d Yankee Stadium.

==== '''Staten Island''' ====
[[Tugna:Freshkills Park in Staten Island, New York.jpg|centré|vignette|650x650px|Staten Island.]]
D tamnaḍt i yesɛan aṭas n yigran imenza, izerfan izegzawen d tuddar ur neččur ara d imezdaɣ am Manhattan.

== 3. Amezruy uqbel ad d-awḍen Yirupiyen ==
Uqbel ad d-awḍen Yirupiyen, akal n New York yella d aḥric seg wakal amenzu n ''Lenape'', i d-yettwasemman ''Lenapehoking''.

Igduden-a zedɣen deg temnaḍt-a i waṭas n yiseggasen s waṭas uqbel asnulfu n temdint tamirant.

Lenape sɛan tudert i d-yettwaznen ɣef ugama. Ttidiren s:

* Ugmar n yiɣersiwen.
* Uṣeggem n tiferkiwin d wakal n tfellaḥt.
* Uṣeyyeḍ n yiselman deg yisaffen.
* Tnezzut d wussawel gar tuddar d yigrawen yemgaraden.

Tudert-nsen tella teqqen ɣer tmettiwin n twaculin, taddart, tiɣawsiwin n ugama d tmenna n yimezwura.

Deg trakalt-nsen, '''Manhattan''' tettwassen s yisem yeqqnen ɣer '''Manahatta'''. Isem-a d yiwen seg yisemawen iqburen i d-yeggran deg temdint tamirant.

Aselmed n umezruy n New York ilaq ad yebdu s ''Lenape'', acku ur tebdi ara tudert d tademsa n temnaḍt-a deg 1624.

==Isunen n weɣrem n New York== 

Llan semmus (5) n yisunen deg New York, s tenglizt qqaren-as ''Boroughs''. [[File:5 Boroughs Labels New York City Map.png|thumb|5 Isunen n weɣrem n New York sɣur Julius Schorzman : 1- Manhattan, 2-Queens, 3-Brooklyn, 4-The Bronx, 5- Staten Island]]

*[[Manhattan]] : agwans n temdint, tella af tegzirt n Manhattan. Llant deg-s [[Wall Street]], [[Tasdawit n New York]], [[Tasdawit n Columbia]], asutel n Yiwunak Yeddukklen (ONU/NU). Ɣur-es imezdaɣen 1 546 856 deg-s. 
*[[The Bronx]] : ay d asun agellil akk deg weɣrem n New York akwd tdersiwin (minorités) tiberkanin d tispanikin maca tuɣal-d cwiṭ n teɣlist seg 20 iseggassen i yezrin. Ay d dduḥ n uẓawan Hip-Hop, deg-s illa [[Asarir Yankees Stadium]]. Ɣur-es  1 354 068 imezdaɣen deg-s. 
*[[Queens]] :  Ɣur-es  2 237 815 imezdaɣen deg-s. Yeḍra [[US Open]] dinna yal uggur n ctember, deg-s llan imafagen n JFK d La Guardia. Illa d agemim n tmezduɣt d tmugri (industry). 
*[[Brooklyn]] : Agemim n tmezduɣt n New-Yorkers. Ɣur-es 2 488 194 imezdaɣen deg-s
*[[Staten Island]] :  Ɣur-es imezdaɣen 491 730 deg-s. Daɣem d agemim n tmezduɣt n New-Yorkers, yuggug si Manhattan. 

[[Category:New York]][[Category:Timdinin]][[Category:Iwunak Yeddukklen]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lucretia</title>
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      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
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      <text bytes="15509" sha1="akxewv4yjswu9p11l4fopma7wrm3ix0" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox biography vcard&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-above&quot; |&lt;div class=&quot;fn&quot;&gt;Lucretia&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-image&quot; |[[File:Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Lucretia_-_J._Paul_Getty_Museum.jpg|sans_cadre]]&lt;div class=&quot;infobox-caption&quot;&gt;''[[Artemisia Gentileschi|Lucretya sɣur Artemisia Gentileschi]], (Los Angeles)''
''Lucretia'',
Artemisia Gentileschi, azal n useggas 1627 &lt;/div&gt;
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Temmut
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;510 Send Ɛisa&amp;#x2009;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Tamentilt n tmettant&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |Anɣiman
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Yettwassen&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |Ssebba n usseɣli n  [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|n tgelda n Ṛuman]]
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Tameṭṭut n
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |[[Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus]]
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; |Baba-s
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |[[Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus]]
|}
Ɣef leḥsab n wansay aṛumani, '''Lucretia''' (/luːˈkriːʃə/ , Latin: [ ⁇ ʊˈkreːtia]; temmut azal n 510 Uqbel n Lmasiḥ), s teglizit '''Lucrece''', d tameṭṭut n tgelda deg Ṛuma taqdimt. Sextus Tarquinius (Tarquin), mmi-s n ugellid, yeɛra u itɛedda s tuzuft ɣef Lucretia, yerna s deffir-s, s tmenɣiwt-is ay d-yesnekren tanekra i d-yesdermen tagelda n Ṛuman yerna d aya ay yessawḍen ɣer ubeddel n unabaḍ n Ṛuman seg tegeldit ɣer tegduda.&lt;ref name=&quot;:04&quot;&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretia#cite_note-:04-1&lt;/ref&gt; Deffir mi iεedda ''Tarquin'' ɣef yiseɣ n Lucretia, ajajiḥ n wurfan yella-d ɣef ttawilat n tmenɣiwt d tarrayin-nni n baba-s n Tarquin, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, agellid-nni ineggura n Ṛuma. D ayen i d-yewwin, tiwaculin yettwassnen sbeddent-d tagduda, nehṛent tawacult tageldant meqqren n Tarquin seg Ruma, dɣa ḥuddent tagduda mgal asekcem n Etruskan d tlatinit.&lt;ref name=&quot;:04&quot; /&gt;

Ulac iɣbula atraren ɣef Lucretia d temsalt-is n Tarquin. Timsal ɣef Lucretia, amek d melmi iɛedda s tuzuft fell-as Tarquin, amek tenɣa iman-is, d ayen i d-yeǧǧan u i d-yeglan s beddu n tazwara n Tagduda n Ṛuman, d ayen i d-yenna uselmed n unmezray n Ṛuman ''Livy d Dionysius'' d ''Halicarnassus n  Umezray n Gric-Ruman'', azal n 500 n yiseggasen sakkin. Iɣbula isnawanen ɣef usbedd n tegduda, ttεawaden-d ineḍruyen igejdanen n teqsiṭ n Lucretia, ɣas akken imiḍanen mgaraden acemma gar inmezrayen. D ttbut i d-yemmalen tilin umezruy n yiwet n tmeṭṭut isem-is Lucretia d yiwet n tedyant i yuraren aḥric d axatar deg usfel n tgelda. Maca, Ɣef leḥsab n yiɣbula atraren, tamacahut n Lucretia tettwaḥseb d aḥric seg tasnemyit taṛumanit.  Am win yetεeddan ɣef tlawin tisabiyin, taqsiṭ n Lucretia tettak-d asegzi i ubeddel umezruy deg Ruma s uεawed n tekriṭ mgal tilawin sɣur yergazen. 

== Tameddurt tamezwarut d tissulya(zzwaǧ) ==
Lucretia tella d yelli-s n uneflus(lqaḍi) ''Spurius Lucretius, u tella'' tmeṭṭut n ''Lusyus Tarquinius Collatinus''. Zzwaǧ yellan gar ''Lucretia'' d ''Collatinus'' iban-d d tadukli tarumanit tanuktut, imi Lucretia d Collatinus llan mbudden s teflest gar-asen. Ɣef akken i d-yenna '''Livy''', Lucretia tella d tin i d-yufraren deg &quot;taɣawsa d tezdeg d ccbaḥa&quot;, am yilugan iṛumiyen. Mi yella urgaz-is deg umennuɣ, Lucretia ad teqqim deg uxxam, ad tedɛu i tuɣalin-is tuɣlist. Am Livy, tamuɣli n ''Dionysius'' ɣef Lucretia tebḍa-tt ɣef tlawin nniḍen n Ṛuman deg yiwet n teqsiṭ yerzan irgazen-nni i d-yettuɣalen s axxam seg umennuɣ. Aneqqis neɣ taqsiḍt tbeddu s uqemmer gar warraw n '''''Tarquinius''''' d wid i ten-ilan qqarben-ten, '''''Brutus d Collatinus'''''. Irgazen ttnaɣen ɣef tin seg tlawin-nsen i d- yufraren mliḥ iccuban ''sophrosyne'', d yiwet n tikti tanuktut ifazen n tuzzma d taggagt. Irgazen-nni qqlen ɣer uxxam ad d-afen tilawin-nni ttmeslayen gar-asent, akken i ilaq deg umeslay. S umgired, ufan Lucretia deg uxxam weḥd-s, tettmahal(texdem) taḍuft-nnes s tsusmi. imyura iṛumiyen Livy d Dionysius rran Lucretia d amedya tamudemt i teqcicin tiṛumaniyin.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretia#cite_note-:022-4&lt;/ref&gt;

== Atɛeddi azufan fell-as ==
[[Tugna:Tizian 094.jpg|vignette|Tarquint n Titian d Lucretia (1571), d yiwet n tmuɣli ɣef utεeddi azufan n Lucretia sɣur ''Sextus Tarquinius'']]
Akken i ttεeddin ineḍruyen n teqsiṭ-nni s tɣawla, azemz-nni ideg itεedda Tarquin ɣef Lucretia ahat d aseggas amezwaru n ''fasti''. ''Dionysius'' n ''Halicarnasse'' yesbedd aseggas-a &quot;deg tazwara n Ulimpiyad wis 68 ... ''Isagoras'' yella d '''''arkun''''' aseggasan deg Atina&quot;; dɣa 508/507 send talalit n Lmasiḥ. Ɣef leḥsab n ''Dionysius'', Lucretia temmut ihi deg useggas n 508 uqbel talalit n Lmasiḥ. Azemz-a yiqreb ɣer wayen i msefhamen yemnadiyen niḍen n umezruy; d acu kan, aseggas-nni s tidet d win ay izemren ad yettwasqerdec deg yiwen n wakud n wazal n semmus(xemsa) n yiseggasen.

Mi yella yettekka deg usɣim n temdint n ''Ardea'', ''Lucius Tarquinius Superbus'', agellid aneggaru n Ruma, yuzen mmi-s, Tarquin, ɣer yiwent n tuɣḍaṭ taserdast ɣer ''Collatia''. Tarquin yettwaqbel s lfeṛḥ d ameqqran deg wexxam n unebbaḍ, d axxam n ''Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus'', mmi-s n ɛemmi-s n ugellid, ''Arruns Tarquinius'', yellan d anebbaḍ aqbur n ''Collatia'' yerna d amezwaru seg ''Tarquinii Collatini''. ''Spurius Lucretius'', baba-s n Lucretia, tameṭṭut n Collatinus, yerna d aselway n Ruma,&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretia#cite_note-DHIV642-7&lt;/ref&gt; yeḍmen akken mmi-s n ugellid ad yettwaḥseb d inebgi deg uswir n tṣeddart-is.

Deg yiwet n tentala n tmacahut,&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretia#cite_note-8&lt;/ref&gt; Tarquin d Collatinus, deg yiwet n tmeɣra n ccrab, deg tgara n wass, llan ttmeslayen ɣef lxir d tuẓult n tlawin armi ay d-yefka Collatinus iman-nnes akken ad yefru askasi-nni. Akken ad yexdem aya, yessumer-d ad yeddu ɣer wexxam-is akken ad iẓer Lucretia. Mi d-wwḍen, tella tẓeṭṭ d tqeddacin-nnes. Tefka-as tmeɣra tazdayt n trennawt, yerna Collatinus yenna-asen ad qqimen, maca imir-a, uɣalen ɣer ugrur.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretia#cite_note-:04-1&lt;/ref&gt;

Deg yiḍ, yekcem Tarquin ɣer texxamt n yiḍes n Lucretia, yeɛedda s tɣawla i waklan(iqeddacen n Lucretia) yeṭṭsen ɣef tewwurt-is. Mi d-tekker, yessken-as iman-nnes yerna yefka-as sin n yiberdan: ad tt-iεeddi s tazuft fell-as yerna ad tuɣal d tameṭṭut-nnes u d tgellidt ay d-yetteddun, neɣ ad tt-ineɣ netta d yiwen seg yiqeddacen-nnes, ad yerr tifekkiwin-nni deg yiwen n wemkan, yerna ad d-yini d akken yeṭṭef-itt tetteddu ad texdem uzuf meqqren (ẓer tuzuft deg Ruma taqburt i tmuɣli tarumit ɣer tuzuft). Deg teqsiṭ-nni tamlellayt, yuɣal-d seg ugrur kra n wussan umbaɛd akked yiwen n umeddakel akken ad yawi Collatinus ɣef tinnubga-s akken ad yerzu, ad t-awin ɣer texxamt n yinebgawen. Yekcem ɣer texxamt n Lucretia mi tella teẓẓel akken d taεeryant deg wusu-ines, yebda yessirid aεebbuḍ-is s waman, d anct-a i tt-id-yessakin. Tarquin yeεreḍ ad iqenneε Lucretia d akken ilaq ad tili yid-s, s useqdec n &quot;yal askasi izemren ad yesεu tazrirt ɣef wul n tmeṭṭut.&quot; D acu kan, Lucretia tella teṭṭef iman-is deg umekdi-ines ɣer urgaz-is, ula mi Tarquin yeggez tudert-is d yiseɣ-is, deg tgara, itɛedda s tuzuft fell-as.

== Anɣiman ==

=== Asatal awezlan ===
Azrug-agi yemmal-d lḥif d tmenɣiwt n Lucrece, yiwet n tlemẓit tarumanit i ɣef itεedda s tazuft fell-as mmi-s n ugellid Tarquin. Kraḍ-nni n yinmezrayen iqburen — ''Dionysius n Halicarnassus'', ''Livy (Livy)'' d ''Dio Cassius'' (Dio) — ttmeslayen-d ɣef tedyant-a s umgarad deg uɣanib d usnulfu yellan deg tmacahut. maca s yiwen n wemseḍfer kan : awehhi d ubeggen n wanɣa-nni, asuter n ttar, imiren, anɣiman i d-igellan s twaɣit d uḥulfu n uɛaqeb mgal Tarquins.

=== Tamacahut ɣef leḥsab n yal ameskar ===

==== ''Dionysius n Halicarnassus'' ====
[[Tugna:Monogrammist I.W. - Lucretia (1525).jpg|vignette|Lucretia tesmermec ajenwi uqbel ma tenɣa iman-nnes.]]
Deg uḍris n Dionysius n Halicarnassus, ass-nni i d-iteddun Lucretia telsa lqecc aberkan, truḥ ɣer wexxam n baba-s di Ruma, tessers iman-is deg umkan n tmeṭṭut-nni yettsutrun, tettru zdat baba-s d wergaz-is. Tessuter ad d-tessefhem iman-nnes yerna teḥettem-d ad d-tessiwel i yinagan uqbel ma tenna-asen-d ɣef utɛeddi-nnes azufan fell-as. Mi d-tenna d akken Tarquin i teɛadda fell-as, tessuter seg-sen ad d-rren ttaṛ, yiwet n tɣawsa ur nezmir ad tt-nɣunzu acku tella tettmeslay d unezzarfu(lqaḍi) d uneflus agejdan ameqqran n Ṛuma. Mi llan irgazen-nni ttmeslayen ɣef ubrid ilaqen n tigawt, Lucretia tessufeɣ-d yiwen ujenwi yeffren, twet iman-is deg wul. Temmut deg yifassen n baba-s, ma d tilawin yellan dinna sḥasfent ɣef tmettant-is. Ɣef leḥsab n Dionysius, &quot;tadyant-a ay yessewhamen teɣli-d ɣef Yiṛumyen ay yellan din s lxuf d wurfana, dɣa sɣuyyen akk s yiwet n taɣect, qqaren-d axir-asen ad mmten alef n tmettant i lmend n wemḥaddi ɣef tlelli-nsen wala ad sɛeddin ccwal am wa ay d-ttgen yiɣermanen.&quot;

==== Deg tmuɣli n ''&quot;Livy&quot;'' ====
Di lqem n ''livy,'' Lucretia txeddem s tɣawla yerna s talwit, tegzem-itt ur tettruḥ ara ɣer Ruma, maca deg umkan-is tessuter ad d-awin baba-s d wergaz-is, tessuter-asen ad d-awin yiwen umeddakel yal yiwen akken ad yili d anagi.Wid yettwafernen d ''Publius Valerius Publicola'' seg Ruma d ''Lucius Junius'' Brutus seg wegrir n Ardea. Mi d-ufan yergazen-nni Lucretia deg texxamt-nnes, asefhem-nnes ɣef utɛeddi-nnes n Tarquin yessaweḍ irgazen-nni ad d-inin d akken &quot;d allaɣ ay d-yesnulfan ddnub, maci d tafekka, yerna anda ur yelli ara weqbal d lebɣi gar-asen, ur yelli ara ccṛeɛ mgal-nsen.&quot;, Mi tessuter ttaṛ, deg wakud aydeg irgazen-nni llan ttmeslayen ɣef temsalt-a — « Gullen s wawal d akken win ixeddmen atɛeddi-agi azufan ur yettɛeṭṭil ara ad yettwaɛaqeb » —Lucretia tejbed-d ajenwi, tewwet-it s deg wul-is.

==== Deg tmuɣli n &quot;''Dio''&quot; ====
Deg tmuɣli n ''Dio'', asuter n Lucretia i lmend n ttaṛ d winna : « U, deg wakud aydeg nekk (imi nekk d tameṭṭut) ad xedmeɣ s tɣawsa ay iyi-iwulmen : kenwi, ma tellam d irgazen, yerna ma yella tḥemmlem tilawin-nwen d warraw-nwen, ssutret-d ttaṛ s yisem-inu yerna ssufɣet tilelli-nwen s yiman-nwen yerna sseknet-d i yiɣermanen d acu n ṣṣenf n yirgazen ay tellam ! Teḍfer awal-is mi d-tger ajenwi deg yidmaren-is yerna temmut s tɣawla.

== Tagrawla ==
Taseqqamut-nni tagrawliwt tamaynut tessuli tafekka-nni mm yidammen n Lucretia ɣer unmager Aṛumi anda teqqim deg uskan d asmekti n lbaṭel ay d-yellan. Deg wemyager-nni, aseqqamu-a yesla i ccwal mgal ''Tarquins'' yerna yebda aheyyi n tredsa i lmend n tukksa n tgelda. Brutus &quot;iger-iten-id ad tgen am yergazen d Yiṛumyen yerna ad d-awin imrigen mgal yiɛdawen-nsen ur nesɛi lḥeqq&quot; i lmend n tmettant n tmeṭṭut ay yesɛan lḥeqq. Tiwwura n Ruma ttwaqqnent sɣur iserdasen imaynuten n tegrawla yerna ttwaceggɛen-d ugar akken ad ɛassen ''Collatia''. Ar tura llan ttnejmaɛen-d lɣaci deg useqqamu; tilin n yineflusen(yimajistraten) gar yigrawliwen teǧǧa-ten deg lḥal yelhan.

Brutus yella d Tribune n Celeres, d lbiru n kra n leεwayed isɣananen, yerna d aya ay t-yefkan, s yisem-nnes d amajistrat, tazmert tanaẓrit akken ad d-yessiwel i '''Kuri'''('''''curiae)''''', d tuddsa n twaculin timarkantiyin ay sseqdacen ladɣa i lmend n ussebded n usaḍuf(lqanun) n ugellid. Yessawel-iten-id deg wemkan-nni kan, yerna yerra lɣaci-nni d agraw n lqanun yesɛan tazmert, u yebda yettmeslay-asen-d deg yiwen seg yinaw-nni ay d-yellan s wazal-nnes ugar yerna d win ay d-yellan s lfayda n Ruma taqburt.

Yebda-d mi d-yekcef belli udem-is am akken d amehbul neɣ d ungif, d aɣawas kan i yemmug akken ad t-iḥudd mgal agellid amcum. Iger-d aṭas n tirdayin mgal agellid d twacult-nnes : atɛeddi azufan n Tarquin ɣef Lucretia, ay ttwalin medden akk teffak-s deg tmezgunt n unmagar, aɛetteb n ugellid, axeddim n lḥeṛs n ''yiplebeyen'' deg yiɣeẓran n Ruma. Deg wawal-is, iger-d tamawt belli Superbus yusa-d ɣer leḥkem s tmenɣiwt n Servius Tullius, baba n tmeṭṭut-is, yellan deffir n ugellid aneggaru n Ruma. &quot;Yessuter s lḥir irebbiten d imḥaddiyen n yimawlan yettwanɣan.&quot; Yessumer-d ɣef tmeṭṭut n ugellid Tullia, tella deg tilawt deg Ruma yerna ahat d tin ay iḍefren tidyanin i d-itteddun seg ssṛaya-s ɣer tama n unmager. Mi twala iman-is d iswi ameqqran, terwel seg ufrag s tugdi n tudert-is, truḥ ɣer ugrur n Ardea.
[[Tugna:Gentileschi-Lucrezia-Potsdam.jpg|vignette|Attɛedi ɣef Lucretia]]
Brutus yeldi-d askasi ɣef ṣṣenf n udabu ay yessefk ad tesɛu Ruma, d askasi aydeg ay d-mmeslayen aṭas n yipatriciyen. Deg uskasi, yessumer-d agdal n Tarquins seg wakk akal n Ruma d ussemres n yiwen n ''interrex'' ara d-yessuffɣen imajistraten imaynuten ad d-yessuddes tafrant n usebdi.

Ggten-d talɣa n unabaḍ s talɣa tagdudant aydeg ara ilin sin n yiqenṣulen deg wemkan n ugellid ara d-yesbedden lebɣi n yiwen n useqqamu n '''Usinat''' aristukraṭit. Aya yella-d d amatar n leɛḍil arma xemmemen ɣef yifatusen s wugar n lemḥadra. Brutus yeǧǧa akk azref n ukersi-nni n tgelda. Deg yiseggasen ay d-yeddan, bḍant tzemmar n ugellid gar imajistraten yemgerraden ay yettwafernen.

Afran aneggaru n '''Kuri'''('''''curiae)''''' yewwi-d tamendawt n tgara. Spurius Lukretiyus yettwafren s tɣawla d imḍebber n tmehla (''interrex''); yella d aqeṛṛu n temdint yakan. Yessumer-d ''Brutus'' d ''Collatinus'' d sin n yiqenṣulen imezwura yerna afran-nni sqedcen-t-id ''yikuriyen'' (curiae). Imi ay ḥwajen ad sɛun aqbal n yimezdaɣ s lekmal-nsen, refden Lucretia deg yizenqan, ssawlen i yiplebiyen ɣer yiwet n tejmaεt tazerfant deg unmager. Mi wwḍen din, slan i yiwen n yinaw n tmenḍawt n Brutus. Yebda:

''Deg wayen yerzan Tarquinius ula d netta ur d-yewwi ara tanaya s insayen d isuḍaf n lejdud-nneɣ, ula d netta, seg wasmi ay tt-id-yewwi – akken yebɣu yili lḥal amek i t-id-yewwi(tanaya) – ur tt-yesseqdac ara s yiseɣ ,neɣ s wudem agelldan, maca yezger deg lbaṭel u iɛedda tilas n umaḍal. nεewwel ad s-nekkes tazmert-is, d ayen i ilaq ad nexdem seg zik, maca nexdem-it imi tura i ɣ-tettunefk tegnit yelhan. Yerna nessawel-awen-d akk, ay yiplebiyen, Akken ad aɣ-d-ḍefrem, sakkin ad nessuter lemɛawna-nwen akken ad naweḍ ɣer tlelli i tmurt-nneɣ'' ....

Tella-d tefranin timatuyin, dɣa terbeḥ tefranin ilmend n tegduda. Aya yekfa tagelda. dɣa deg ussan-nni n tefranin, Lucretia mazal-itt tettwassken deg wemyager. 

Inalkamen n tmendawt n tedyant-a d akken fukken leḥkem n ugellid-nni ''aneditary'' ; d acu kan, syin d imnukal llan d imḍebbren n tidet s yisem kan. d acu kan, imenkaden ay d-yellan sakkin llan d imḍebbren ikemlen deg wakk-n, ala isem. Ansay-a amendawan yegdel ama i Julius Caesar, ama i Octavien Augustus ad qeblen taɛkemt (crown); deg wemkan-nnes, deg umkan-nnes, terra-ten tmara ad d-sseɣlin aṭas n tnariyin tigdudanin ɣef umdan-nsen akken ad ḥudden adabu amagdez. Wid i ten-yewwin ama deg Ruma, ama deg Qsenṭina, ṭṭfen ansay-a deg tumast, yerna amkan n Ugellid Aṛumi Aqbur n Lalman yeqqim d ayen ay d-yettwafernen, maci d ayen ay d-yettwasnekren (s lwert)– armi ay yettwakkes deg Yimenɣiyen n ''Napuliyun'', ugar n 2300 n yiseggasen sakkin. 
[[Taggayt:Amezruy]]
[[Taggayt:Rrum]]
[[Taggayt:Tagduda taṛumanit]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lukrityus Karus</title>
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      <comment>Gurzil90x yebeddel isem n usebtar seg [[Lukrisyus Karus]] ar [[Lukrityus Karus]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="4377" sha1="keu29dvkg6hwmq4xsembt914d695sxk" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:T. Lucretius Carus, Of the nature of things (1714) (14777804164).jpg|vignette|Amedyaz aṛumi Lukrsyus yettwehhi ɣer ''casus'', amussu i d-ittṣubbun neɣ i d-issufuɣen ibelkimen.]]
'''Titus Lukrisyus Karus''', yettwassnen s yisem n Lukrisyus, d yiwen seg yifelsafen d yimedyazen irumaniyen meqqren akk n lqern amezwaru send n Talalit. Yettwassen s yiwen n udlis-is kan, &quot;De rerum natura&quot; (Ɣef Ugama n Tiɣawsiwin), i yessefra s talɣa tazurant i wakken ad issefhem tafalsafit n [[Epikur]]. '''Iswi''' ameqqran n Lukrisyus d anida-nni ad isellek amdan seg tuggdiwin timeqqranin (tuggdi n lmut d tuggdi n yiṛebbiten) s useqdec n wallaɣ '''ameɣẓan''' d tegzi n '''ugama'''.

== Tudert-is: Yiwen n Wadrugan ==
Llant drus n tilɣa iɣef yerzan tudert n Lukrisyus. Tudert-is d yiwen n '''wadrug'''  ameqqran i imusnawen n umezruy. Nessen-t kan s udlis-is ameqqran. Isem-is s latinit, ''Titus Lucretius Carus'', yezga-d deg yidlisen n ''Cicero'' d ''Saint Jérôme''.

Kra n teɣbula timasiḥiyin, am tid n Ugerram Jirum (i d-yuran acḥal n lqernat sdeffir-s), qqarent-d belli Lukrisyus yuɣal d amahbul yerna yenɣa iman-is. Maca, imir-a, amur ameqqran n yimnadiyen ɣilen belli annect-a d '''tazniwt''' kan i xedmen wid yebɣan ad ssersen azal n teflesafit-is, imi tidmi-s teqqar-d belli iṛebbiten ur d-ggrin ara iman-nsen deg '''umeɣraḍ'''.

== Adlis-is Ameqqran: ''De rerum natura'' ==
''De rerum natura'' (Ɣef Ugama n Tiɣawsiwin) d isefra s talɣa tafelsafit tuzribt, i yebḍa ɣef setta n yidlisen. Lukrisyus yerra-tt i umeddakel-is ''Gaius Memmius''. Deg udlis-a, yessefham s wudem ussnan n wakud-nni amek i teddes ddunit.

* '''Idlisen I d II:''' Ssefhamen imenzayen iṛumaniyen n teflesafit tabelkimt (atomisme). Sseknen-d belli '''ameɣraḍ''' yemmug s sin n yeḥricen kan: '''ibelkimen'''  d '''tallunt'''. Ibelkimen-a d tiɣawsiwin timeẓyanin, ur nettwebḍa ara, i yettmenṭaren daymen deg '''tallunt'''.
* '''Idlisen III d IV:''' Kkaten-d ɣef '''ugama''' n '''uziɣer''' d yiman. Lucretius yeqqar-d belli ula d nutni d '''angaw''', mmugen d ibelkimen imeẓyanen. Imi '''aziɣer''' d '''angaw'''  yerna yeddukkel d tfekka, ad yemmet yid-s. S wakka, yessefk ad nekkes tuggdi n lmut, imi &quot;mi nella, lmut ulac-itt; mi tella lmut, nekni ulac-aɣ.&quot;
* '''Idlisen V d VI:''' Ssefhamen-d amek i d-lulen '''umeɣraḍ''', ddunit, tudert, d yemdanen, war ma yella-d ukbac n yiṛebbiten. Ssefhamen daɣen '''tumant'''  tagamant  am lebṛaq, rreɛd, d waṭṭanen, s tmentilin timeɣẓanin.

== Tiẓriwin n Teflesafit-is ==
Tafalsafit n Lucretius d tafalsafit [[Epikur|tabikurit]] i ɣef tebna. Assaɣen-is  d irumaniyen:

# '''Tabelkimt d Tanga :''' Am ''Epikur'', Lucretius yumen belli kullec d '''tanga'''. Ulac ayen i d-yennulfan seg ulac s tezmert n yiṛebbiten. Amezruy n '''umeɣraḍ''' d amezruy n temlilit '''tagacurant''' n '''yibelkimen'''  i yettmenṭaren seg zik.
# '''Azɣan n Tuggdi:'''
#* '''Tuggdi n Lmut:''' Imi iman d ayen yettmettaten am tfekka, ur yessefk ara ad naggad ayen yellan sdeffir lmut, imi ulac kra.
#* '''Tuggdi n Yiṛebbiten:''' Lukrisyus ur yenkir ara belli llan yiṛebbiten. Yeqqar-d llan, maca ddren deg '''tallunt''' nnsen, deg talwit tameqqrant (ataraxie), ur d-ggan ara iman-nsen deg tilufa n yemdanen. D ayen yellan d azulal ad naggad tizemmar-nsen. Yeqqar-d belli d asɣan i d-yeglan s waṭas n tekriḍt  d cceṛ deg umezruy n yemdanen.
# '''Iswi n Tudert''' '''d Tadfi :''' Am lejdud-is ibikuriyen, Lucretius yeqqar-d belli iswi n tudert d tadfi. Maca tadfi-a mačči d zzhu n tfekka kan, d tadfi n uziɣer: d talwit n daxel, d tuffɣa n leḥzen d tuggdi, d wayen i wumi ssawalen &quot;ataraxie&quot;. Abrid ɣer waya d tussna d tegzi n ugama.

== Tazrirt-is d Tuggint ==
Deg wussan n Ṛuma Tamezrayt, adlis n ''De rerum natura'' yesɛa kra n tazrirt , maca imi tidmi-s tella d taẓarant yerna tella mgal asɣan, ur tedda ara aṭas.

Mi d-tewweḍ Tallit  Talemmast, adlis-a yeffer, yuɣal d adrug. Armi d lqern wis 15, mi d-ufan yiwet n linsxa-s, i d-yuɣal ɣer tafat.

Seg yimir-nni, '''tazrirt'''  n Lucretius tuɣal d tameqqrant. Yesselmed aṭas n yimussnawen n Tallit n Taleslalit d yifelsafen n Tallit n Tafat . Tidmi n ubelkim d tmuɣli-s tangawit n tudert, uɣalent d azadur i tussna tatrart. Yesɛa tazrirt meqqren ɣef yimdanen am ''Giordano Bruno, Galileo'', d wid i d-yewwin talsawt.</text>
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      <text bytes="4494" sha1="kfql1ad63x2vjrnbb0jh34c7r0722i0" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:T. Lucretius Carus, Of the nature of things (1714) (14777804164).jpg|vignette|Amedyaz aṛumi Lukrityus yettwehhi ɣer ''casus'', amussu i d-ittṣubbun neɣ i d-issufuɣen ibelkimen.]]
'''Titus Lukrityus Karus''', yettwassnen s yisem n Lukrityus, d yiwen seg yifelsafen d {{Infobox biography|item=Q47154|image=[[File:Lucretius1.png|thumb|Lukrityus]]|caption=Lukrityus Karus.}}yimedyazen irumaniyen meqqren akk n lqern amezwaru send n Talalit. Yettwassen s yiwen n udlis-is kan, &quot;De rerum natura&quot; (Ɣef Ugama n Tiɣawsiwin), i yessefra s talɣa tazurant i wakken ad issefhem tafalsafit n [[Epikur]]. '''Iswi''' ameqqran n Lukrityus d anida-nni ad isellek amdan seg tuggdiwin timeqqranin (tuggdi n lmut d tuggdi n yiṛebbiten) s useqdec n wallaɣ '''ameɣẓan''' d tegzi n '''ugama'''.

== Tudert-is: Yiwen n Wadrugan ==
Llant drus n tilɣa iɣef yerzan tudert n Lukrityus. Tudert-is d yiwen n '''wadrug'''  ameqqran i imusnawen n umezruy. Nessen-t kan s udlis-is ameqqran. Isem-is s latinit, ''Titus Lucretius Carus'', yezga-d deg yidlisen n ''Cicero'' d ''Saint Jérôme''.

Kra n teɣbula timasiḥiyin, am tid n Ugerram Jirum (i d-yuran acḥal n lqernat sdeffir-s), qqarent-d belli Lukrityus yuɣal d amahbul yerna yenɣa iman-is. Maca, imir-a, amur ameqqran n yimnadiyen ɣilen belli annect-a d '''tazniwt''' kan i xedmen wid yebɣan ad ssersen azal n teflesafit-is, imi tidmi-s teqqar-d belli iṛebbiten ur d-ggrin ara iman-nsen deg '''umeɣraḍ'''.

== Adlis-is Ameqqran: ''De rerum natura'' ==
''De rerum natura'' (Ɣef Ugama n Tiɣawsiwin) d isefra s talɣa tafelsafit tuzribt, i yebḍa ɣef setta n yidlisen. Lukrityus yerra-tt i umeddakel-is ''Gaius Memmius''. Deg udlis-a, yessefham s wudem ussnan n wakud-nni amek i teddes ddunit.

* '''Idlisen I d II:''' Ssefhamen imenzayen iṛumaniyen n teflesafit tabelkimt (atomisme). Sseknen-d belli '''ameɣraḍ''' yemmug s sin n yeḥricen kan: '''ibelkimen'''  d '''tallunt'''. Ibelkimen-a d tiɣawsiwin timeẓyanin, ur nettwebḍa ara, i yettmenṭaren daymen deg '''tallunt'''.
* '''Idlisen III d IV:''' Kkaten-d ɣef '''ugama''' n '''uziɣer''' d yiman. ''Lucretius'' yeqqar-d belli ula d nutni d '''angaw''', mmugen d ibelkimen imeẓyanen. Imi '''aziɣer''' d '''angaw'''  yerna yeddukkel d tfekka, ad yemmet yid-s. S wakka, yessefk ad nekkes tuggdi n lmut, imi &quot;mi nella, lmut ulac-itt; mi tella lmut, nekni ulac-aɣ.&quot;
* '''Idlisen V d VI:''' Ssefhamen-d amek i d-lulen '''umeɣraḍ''', ddunit, tudert, d yemdanen, war ma yella-d ukbac n yiṛebbiten. Ssefhamen daɣen '''tumant'''  tagamant  am lebṛaq, rreɛd, d waṭṭanen, s tmentilin timeɣẓanin.

== Tiẓriwin n Teflesafit-is ==
Tafalsafit n ''Lucretius'' d tafalsafit [[Epikur|tabikurit]] i ɣef tebna. Assaɣen-is  d irumaniyen:

# '''Tabelkimt d Tanga :''' Am ''Epikur'', ''Lucretius'' yumen belli kullec d '''tanga'''. Ulac ayen i d-yennulfan seg ulac s tezmert n yiṛebbiten. Amezruy n '''umeɣraḍ''' d amezruy n temlilit '''tagacurant''' n '''yibelkimen'''  i yettmenṭaren seg zik.
# '''Azɣan n Tuggdi:'''
#* '''Tuggdi n Lmut:''' Imi iman d ayen yettmettaten am tfekka, ur yessefk ara ad naggad ayen yellan sdeffir lmut, imi ulac kra.
#* '''Tuggdi n Yiṛebbiten:''' Lukrityus ur yenkir ara belli llan yiṛebbiten. Yeqqar-d llan, maca ddren deg '''tallunt''' nnsen, deg talwit tameqqrant (ataraxie), ur d-ggan ara iman-nsen deg tilufa n yemdanen. D ayen yellan d azulal ad naggad tizemmar-nsen. Yeqqar-d belli d asɣan i d-yeglan s waṭas n tekriḍt  d cceṛ deg umezruy n yemdanen.
# '''Iswi n Tudert''' '''d Tadfi :''' Am lejdud-is ipikuriyen, Lucretius yeqqar-d belli iswi n tudert d tadfi. Maca tadfi-a mačči d zzhu n tfekka kan, d tadfi n uziɣer: d talwit n daxel, d tuffɣa n leḥzen d tuggdi, d wayen i wumi ssawalen &quot;ataraxie&quot;. Abrid ɣer waya d tussna d tegzi n ugama.

== Tazrirt-is d Tuggint ==
Deg wussan n Ṛuma Tamezrayt, adlis n ''De rerum natura'' yesɛa kra n tazrirt , maca imi tidmi-s tella d taẓarant yerna tella mgal asɣan, ur tedda ara aṭas.

Mi d-tewweḍ Tallit  Talemmast, adlis-a yeffer, yuɣal d adrug. Armi d lqern wis 15, mi d-ufan yiwet n linsxa-s, i d-yuɣal ɣer tafat.

Seg yimir-nni, '''tazrirt'''  n Lukrityus tuɣal d tameqqrant. Yesselmed aṭas n yimussnawen n Tallit n Taleslalit d yifelsafen n Tallit n Tafat . Tidmi n ubelkim d tmuɣli-s tangawit n tudert, uɣalent d azadur i tussna tatrart. Yesɛa tazrirt meqqren ɣef yimdanen am ''Giordano Bruno, Galileo'', d wid i d-yewwin talsawt.</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>117613</id>
      <parentid>117612</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-11T11:26:11Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
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      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
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      <text bytes="4501" sha1="gf8pxv0cv2gd5qzfdrmz94e0gijdzd4" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:T. Lucretius Carus, Of the nature of things (1714) (14777804164).jpg|vignette|Amedyaz aṛumi Lukrityus yettwehhi ɣer ''casus'', amussu i d-ittṣubbun neɣ i d-issufuɣen ibelkimen.]]
'''Titus Lukrityus Karus''', yettwassnen s yisem n Lukrityus, d yiwen seg yifelsafen d {{Infobox biography|item=Q47154|image=[[File:Lucretius1.png|thumb|Lukrityus]]|caption=Lukrityus Karus.}}yimedyazen irumaniyen meqqren akk n lqern amezwaru send n Talalit. Yettwassen s yiwen n udlis-is kan, &quot;De rerum natura&quot; (Ɣef Ugama n Tiɣawsiwin), i yessefra s talɣa tazurant i wakken ad issefhem tafalsafit n [[Epikur]]. '''Iswi''' ameqqran n Lukrityus d anida-nni ad isellek amdan seg tuggdiwin timeqqranin (tuggdi n lmut d tuggdi n yiṛebbiten) s useqdec n wallaɣ '''ameɣẓan''' d tegzi n '''ugama'''.

== Tudert-is: Yiwen n Wadrug Amuqqran ==
Llant drus n tilɣa iɣef yerzan tudert n Lukrityus. Tudert-is d yiwen n '''wadrug'''  ameqqran i imusnawen n umezruy. Nessen-t kan s udlis-is ameqqran. Isem-is s latinit, ''Titus Lucretius Carus'', yezga-d deg yidlisen n ''Cicero'' d ''Saint Jérôme''.

Kra n teɣbula timasiḥiyin, am tid n Ugerram Jirum (i d-yuran acḥal n lqernat sdeffir-s), qqarent-d belli Lukrityus yuɣal d amahbul yerna yenɣa iman-is. Maca, imir-a, amur ameqqran n yimnadiyen ɣilen belli annect-a d '''tazniwt''' kan i xedmen wid yebɣan ad ssersen azal n teflesafit-is, imi tidmi-s teqqar-d belli iṛebbiten ur d-ggrin ara iman-nsen deg '''umeɣraḍ'''.

== Adlis-is Ameqqran: ''De rerum natura'' ==
''De rerum natura'' (Ɣef Ugama n Tiɣawsiwin) d isefra s talɣa tafelsafit tuzribt, i yebḍa ɣef setta n yidlisen. Lukrityus yerra-tt i umeddakel-is ''Gaius Memmius''. Deg udlis-a, yessefham s wudem ussnan n wakud-nni amek i teddes ddunit.

* '''Idlisen I d II:''' Ssefhamen imenzayen iṛumaniyen n teflesafit tabelkimt (atomisme). Sseknen-d belli '''ameɣraḍ''' yemmug s sin n yeḥricen kan: '''ibelkimen'''  d '''tallunt'''. Ibelkimen-a d tiɣawsiwin timeẓyanin, ur nettwebḍa ara, i yettmenṭaren daymen deg '''tallunt'''.
* '''Idlisen III d IV:''' Kkaten-d ɣef '''ugama''' n '''uziɣer''' d yiman. ''Lucretius'' yeqqar-d belli ula d nutni d '''angaw''', mmugen d ibelkimen imeẓyanen. Imi '''aziɣer''' d '''angaw'''  yerna yeddukkel d tfekka, ad yemmet yid-s. S wakka, yessefk ad nekkes tuggdi n lmut, imi &quot;mi nella, lmut ulac-itt; mi tella lmut, nekni ulac-aɣ.&quot;
* '''Idlisen V d VI:''' Ssefhamen-d amek i d-lulen '''umeɣraḍ''', ddunit, tudert, d yemdanen, war ma yella-d ukbac n yiṛebbiten. Ssefhamen daɣen '''tumant'''  tagamant  am lebṛaq, rreɛd, d waṭṭanen, s tmentilin timeɣẓanin.

== Tiẓriwin n Teflesafit-is ==
Tafalsafit n ''Lucretius'' d tafalsafit [[Epikur|tabikurit]] i ɣef tebna. Assaɣen-is  d irumaniyen:

# '''Tabelkimt d Tanga :''' Am ''Epikur'', ''Lucretius'' yumen belli kullec d '''tanga'''. Ulac ayen i d-yennulfan seg ulac s tezmert n yiṛebbiten. Amezruy n '''umeɣraḍ''' d amezruy n temlilit '''tagacurant''' n '''yibelkimen'''  i yettmenṭaren seg zik.
# '''Azɣan n Tuggdi:'''
#* '''Tuggdi n Lmut:''' Imi iman d ayen yettmettaten am tfekka, ur yessefk ara ad naggad ayen yellan sdeffir lmut, imi ulac kra.
#* '''Tuggdi n Yiṛebbiten:''' Lukrityus ur yenkir ara belli llan yiṛebbiten. Yeqqar-d llan, maca ddren deg '''tallunt''' nnsen, deg talwit tameqqrant (ataraxie), ur d-ggan ara iman-nsen deg tilufa n yemdanen. D ayen yellan d azulal ad naggad tizemmar-nsen. Yeqqar-d belli d asɣan i d-yeglan s waṭas n tekriḍt  d cceṛ deg umezruy n yemdanen.
# '''Iswi n Tudert''' '''d Tadfi :''' Am lejdud-is ipikuriyen, Lucretius yeqqar-d belli iswi n tudert d tadfi. Maca tadfi-a mačči d zzhu n tfekka kan, d tadfi n uziɣer: d talwit n daxel, d tuffɣa n leḥzen d tuggdi, d wayen i wumi ssawalen &quot;ataraxie&quot;. Abrid ɣer waya d tussna d tegzi n ugama.

== Tazrirt-is d Tuggint ==
Deg wussan n Ṛuma Tamezrayt, adlis n ''De rerum natura'' yesɛa kra n tazrirt , maca imi tidmi-s tella d taẓarant yerna tella mgal asɣan, ur tedda ara aṭas.

Mi d-tewweḍ Tallit  Talemmast, adlis-a yeffer, yuɣal d adrug. Armi d lqern wis 15, mi d-ufan yiwet n linsxa-s, i d-yuɣal ɣer tafat.

Seg yimir-nni, '''tazrirt'''  n Lukrityus tuɣal d tameqqrant. Yesselmed aṭas n yimussnawen n Tallit n Taleslalit d yifelsafen n Tallit n Tafat . Tidmi n ubelkim d tmuɣli-s tangawit n tudert, uɣalent d azadur i tussna tatrart. Yesɛa tazrirt meqqren ɣef yimdanen am ''Giordano Bruno, Galileo'', d wid i d-yewwin talsawt.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Liyun Trutski</title>
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      <text bytes="4591" sha1="e676tjnm8n2anw9ee82dzwklvkq6gn5" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:Leon Trotsky 1918 (3x4 rotated cropped b).jpg|vignette|Liyun Trutski.]]
'''Liyun Trutski''' (s tarusit: Лев Давидович Троцкий), ilul s yisem n '''Lev Davidovič Bronstein''' 

{{Infobox biography|item=Q33391|image=[[File:Leon Trotsky, 1924.jpg|thumb|Liyun Trutski, 1924]]|caption=Liyun Trutski}}

ass n 7 wamber 1879 deg Yanovka (Ukrayin n tura) yerna yemmut ass n 21 ɣuct 1940 deg Coyoacán (tamurt n [[Miksik]]), d amgrawliw amarksi, d amseẓri asertan, d amaru yerna d amesertay [[Tadukli n Tegdudiwin Tinemlayin Tisuvyitiyin|asuvyati]].

Yella d yiwen seg yimḍebbren imeqqranen n Tegrawla n Tuber 1917 tama n [[Vladimir Lenin]]. D netta i d amesbeddi n Yigen Azeggwaɣ (Taredsa Tazeggaɣt) i yrebḥen amgaru aɣarim arusi (1917–1922). Deffir tmettant n Lenin, yerra iman-is d amgal ameqqran mgal [[Jozef Stalin|Josef Stalin]] d tbiṛuqṛasit tasuvyatit. Yettwanfa seg Tdukli Tasuvyatit deg useggas n 1929, yerna deg taggara yettwanɣa deg Miksik s ufus n yiwen n umeggi n temsulta tuffirt n Stalin.

== Tudert-is ==

=== 1. Temẓi d tazwara n umennuɣ ===
'''Lev Davidovič Bronstein''' ilul deg yiwet n twacult tayudayt n yimekkasen (ifellaḥen imerkantiyen) deg tmurt n Ukrayin (yellan imiren seddaw udabu n Tsar n Rrus. Segmi yella d ilemẓi deg tesdawit n Odesa, yebda yekccem deg yimussuyen igrawliwen. Deg useggas n 1898, yettwaṭṭef yerna yettwanfa ɣer Sibirya. Dinna i yefferfed isem-nniḍen « Trotsky » (isem n yiwen umḥebbus n temsulta deg temnaḍt n Odesa) i yuɣalen d isem-is n umgrawliw. Yerwel seg Sibirya deg 1902 ɣer Turuft Tutrimt, anda yemlal [[Vladimir Lenin]] deg Lundun.

=== 2. Tagrawla n 1905 d Tuber 1917 ===
Deg Tegrawla n 1905 di Rrus, Trutski yuɣal d aɣella n Usqamu n Yixeddamen n Petrograd (Soviet). Mi teɣli tegrawla-nni, yettwaḥkem fell-as s unfa s wudem imezgi ɣer Sibirya, maca yerwel tikkelt nniḍen.

Deg useggas n 1917, mi d-teɣli tmenkda n Tsar, yuɣal-d ɣer Rrus. Yekcem ɣer Ukabar Abulcivik n Lenin. D netta i d amḍebber amezwaru i yheggan yerna yessewjed anekcum n yibulciviken ɣer udabu deg Tegrawla n Tuber 1917.

=== 3. Asbeddi n Yigen Azeggwaɣ d Umgaru Aɣarim ===
Seg 1918 ar 1925, Trutski yuɣal d Aneɣlaf n Yigen(Taredsa). D netta i d bab n usnulfu n Yigen Azeggwaɣ seg yilemẓiyen, ixeddamen d yifellaḥen. S tarrayin-ines yebnan ɣef tugrint d tseddarin deg uselḥu n iserdasen, yessekker-d yiwen yigen meqqren i yrebḥen amgaru aɣarim arusi mgal « Iserdasen Imellalen » (wid yebɣan ad d-yerr udabu n Tsar) d tezmert n tmura n beṛṛa.

== Tanmegla mgal Stalin d Unfay ==
Mi yemmut [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]] deg 1924, tennulfa-d yiwet n tnemgla tameqqrant deg daxel n Ukabar. Trutski yella d aɣella n Tnemgla n Zelmaḍ:

Trutski yella yettwali dakken tanemlayt ur tezmird ara ad tekker deg yiwet kan n tmurt (« Tagrawla tameɣlalt »).

Stalin, seg tama-s, yessufeɣ-d tiẓri n « Tnemlayt deg yiwet n tmurt ».

Stalin yezmer ad yeṭṭef akk allalen n udabu s usseqdec n tbiṛuqṛatit. Deg 1927, Trutski yettwakkes seg ukabar; deg 1929 yettwanfa seg Tdukli Tasuvyatit. Yezger seg tmurt ɣer tayeḍ: Turkiya, Fransa, Norvij, almi d taggara yufa asutel deg tmurt n Miksik deg 1937.

== Timenɣiwt-is ==
Ɣas akken yella mebɛid deg Miksik, Trutski yeqqim d aɛdaw amezwaru n Stalin. Deg usseggas n 1938, yessebded Tagraɣlant Tis Kuẓet (IVᵉ Internationale) iwakken ad yelli uzbu mgal adabu aɣrudan astalani d tfacist.

Ass n 20 ɣuct 1940, Ramón Mercader, d yiwen n umeggi asuvyati n NKVD (tamsulta tuffirt n Stalin), yekcem ɣer wexxam n Trutski deg Coyoacán yerna yewwet-it s tqabact n wegris deg uqerru. Tutski yemmut azekka-nni ass n 21 ɣuct 1940.

== Tiẓri-ines tasertant (Tatruskit) ==
'''Tagrawla Tameɣlalt''': Tiẓri-a teqqar-d dakken deg tmura tiɣellayin (am Rrus n 1917), tagrawla taburjwazit ur tezmir ara ad tefru tilufa n ugdud; d tadukli gar yixeddamen d yifellaḥen ara yaɣen adabu s ubrid n tegrawla tanemlayt, yerna tagrawla-agi ilaq ad tenfufed ɣer umaḍal akk.

'''Asleḍ n Tbiṛuqṛatit''': Trutski yessefhem-d amek Tadukli Tasuvyatit tuɣal d « awank anmetti iɛewjen », anda iɣella n ukabar uɣalen d ugur s wudem n tbiṛuqṛatit i yekksen azref n uselway d umeslay i yixeddamen.

== Idlisen-is igejdanen ==

* '''Amezruy n Tegrawla Tarusit (История русской революции, 1930)'''
* '''Tagrawla Tameɣlalt (Перманентная революция, 1930)[17]'''
* '''Tagrawla Yettwaxeḍɛen (Преданная революция, 1936)'''
* '''Tudert-iw (Моя жизнь, 1930)'''</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Asfukel war tukci n tmusni</title>
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        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
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      <text bytes="13514" sha1="o5svkux8m86ne50d16w1d7vfi6cndfe" xml:space="preserve">'''Asfukel war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: zero-knowledge proof, ZKP) d tarrayt deg uwgelhan i yessemras yiwen umdan neɣ yiwen unagraw iwakken ad isfukel i wayeḍ belli yiwet n tenfalit d tidet, war ma yefka-as talɣut nniḍen ɣef wayen yeffren, nnig wayen i d-temmal tenfalit-nni d yisefka izuyaz. Taɣara-a teqqen ɣer wamek i yettwasileɣ usfukel, mačči kan ɣer usuffeɣ neɣ war asuffeɣ n tuffirt s wudem usrid.

== Isem d unamek ==
« War tukci n tmusni » ur d-yemmal ara belli win yesneqden ur d-yelmid acemma. Yettwali belli tanfalit i as-d-yettunefken tettwaqbel s yilugan n unagraw. Ayen ur d-ilemmid ara d talɣut nniḍen ɣef tuffirt i yellan deffir usfukel. S umedya, ad iselken belli amdan yesɛa tasarut tuffirt, war ma yessen azal n tsarut-nni.

== Amezruy d usnerni n tmiḍrant ==

=== Seg yisfukal imatuten ɣer yisfukal s usdiwen ===
Deg usfukel n tusnakt i nennum, win i d-yettaken asfukel yeskanay-d tikli i izemren ad teḍfer tayeḍ. Maca deg uwgelhan, tikli-nni tezmer ad tesban talɣut i ilaq ad teqqim d tuffirt. Timiḍrant n ZK tefruri-d seg usteqsi-a: amek ara nesfukel tidet n kra, war ma nesban-d meṛṛa ayen i aɣ-yeǧǧan ad t-nessen?

''Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Charles Rackoff'' sbedden tigejda n taɣult-a deg leqdic i d-yeffɣen deg STOC deg 1985. Lqem-is aɣezfan yeffeɣ-d deg ''SIAM Journal on'' ''Computing'' deg 1989. Leqdic-a yesdukkel asfukel s '''usdiwen''', '''taseqqart''' d '''usenqed n''' '''tmusni''' i yezmer ad d-yerbeḥ win yesneqden. 

=== Asemres ɣef ugur imatu ===
''Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Avi Wigderson'' sbegnen belli, ma llan kra n tesɣunin i yessehlen i usiḍen deg yiwet n tnila maca iweɛren i tuɣalin ɣer deffir (one-way functions), yal tutlayt deg taggayt NP tesɛa asfukel s usdiwen war tukci n tmusni. Leqdic-nsen yettwabder deg 1986, lqem aɣezfan-is deg 1991. Aya yessuffeɣ timiḍrant seg kra n wuguren n yimḍanen ɣer yiwet n taɣult tasnaẓrayant wessiɛen.

=== Tuɣalin ɣer leqdic war asdiwen ===
Deg 1988, ''Manuel Blum'', ''Paul Feldman'' akked ''Silvio Micali'' ssuffɣen-d leqdic agejdan ɣef yisfukal war asdiwen d yiseqdacen-nsen. Iɣewwaṛen izuyaz yezdin gar win yesfukulen d win yesneqden zemren ad ilin d lsas n leqdic-a. Ihi, « war asdiwen » ur yemmal ara « war uheggi » neɣ « war tawsit n unagraw ». 

=== Tallit n yisfukal iwezlan ===
Deg yiseggasen 2010, inadiyen ɣef yisfukal iwezlan, aselken arurad d leḥsab ameqqran ssawḍen ɣer twaculin am '''Groth16''', '''Bulletproofs''', '''STARK''', '''PLONK''' d '''Halo'''. Yal tawacult tesɛa ilugan d yiswan-is: temẓi n usfukel, akud n usnulfu, tmara n uselken neɣ tukksa n uheggi i yettḥwaǧen laman deg umdan wis kraḍ.

== 2. Tabadut tusnakt d yiwudam n leqdic ==
I ussegzi n tarrayt, nettsemmi P i win yesfukulen (prover), V i win yesneqden (verifier), x i yisefka izuyaz, w i uselkin uffir (witness). Assaɣ R yesbadu ayen ilaq ad yili d tidet gar x d w. 

'''R(x, w) = 1'''

Tanfalit i nettḥeqqiq d tin i d-yeqqaren belli '''illa''' w i yesɛan assaɣ-a d x. Tagrumma n yisefka izuyaz i yesɛan aselkin yettwabdar s:

'''L = { x : illa w, R(x, w) = 1 }'''

S umedya n ussegzi, x yezmer ad yili d azal y n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ H; w d amḍan uffir s = w. Assaɣ yettwasenqed d H(s) = y. Yezmer daɣen ad yili x d agmuḍ n leḥsab, w d isefka uffiren akked tikli n leḥsab i d-yessawḍen ɣer ugmuḍ-nni. Umḍan n yiwudam ur yettbeddilara tabadut: zemren ad ilin d imdanen, d iqeddacen neɣ d iseɣẓanen.

=== Kraḍ n tewtilin tigejdanin ===
'''Aqbal n wayen iṣeḥḥan''' (completeness). Ma x yesɛa aselkin iwatan, yerna P d V ḍefren ilugan, asfukel ilaq ad yettwaqbel s tseqqart meqqren, neɣ dima deg kra n yinagrawen.

'''Agi n wayen ur neṣṣiḥ ara''' (soundness). Ma x ur yesɛi ula d yiwen n uselkin iwatan, ilaq ad tili tseqqart n uɣelli n V deg tuccḍa d tameẓyant akken iwata, ɣas P yeɛreḍ ad iɣucc. Taɣara-a tḥerrez tidet n usfukel.

'''War tukci n tmusni''' (zero knowledge). Talɣut i d-yettawi V seg leqdic ilaq ad tezmer

ad tettwaserwes war aselkin uffir. Taɣara-a tḥerrez ayen i yessen P; ur tettwasefhem ara s wawal « uffir » kan.  Taɣellist tettwasbadu s yiwen uɣewwaṛ λ. Taseqqart i wumi neqqar « tameẓyant akken iwata » tezmer ad tili d tin i yettidiren ddaw n 1/λk i yal k &gt; 0, ma λ meqqer akken iwata. D aya i d-anamek n negligible deg tbadutin-a.

== Asfukel d afukal ==
Deg unamek usdid, ''anza'' yesseḥbibir ɣef tidet ula mgal win yesfukulen s tzemmar n leḥsab ur nesɛi ara tilisa. Afukal(Argument) yettḥerrez tidet mgal aɣuccam(win iɣuccen) i yesɛan tazmert n leḥsab talast. Deg uḍris imatu, awal « asfukel » yettwasemras i snat-a; deg usenqed tusnakt, amgired-a ilaq ad yettwaḥrez.

=== Tugna 1. Asfukel d uselkin uffir ===
Win yesfukulen yessemras aselkin uffir; win yesneqden yesseḥḥay tanfalit s usfukel d yisefka izuyaz.
[[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|400x400px]]

== 3. Aserwes d unamek usdid n ZK ==

=== Aserwas am tewtilt n usfukel ===
'''Aserwas''' (simulator) d axwerzim(alguritm) i d-yeslalayen ayen i izemren ad iwali win yesneqden, war ma yesɛa aselkin uffir. Deg tabadut n ZK, ilaq ayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas ad yemcabi, ilmend n tewtilt tusnakt i nettsemras, ayen i d-yettawi win yesneqden seg leqdic ilaw. Ma nezmer ad neslal talɣut-nni war tuffirt, tikli n usfukel ur as-d-terni ara talɣut i izemren ad tessegzi tuffirt. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli '''aɣuccam''' yezmer ad d-yesnulfu yal asfukel yebɣa deg unagraw ilaw. Aserwes yezmer ad yessemres tarrayt tasnaẓrayant am tuɣalin ɣer kra n waddaden n win yesneqden, neɣ yiwen n uheggi n usenqed i yemgaraden ɣef uheggi ilaw. Iwakkenad tettwaḥrez tidet, tarrayin-a ilaq ad ttwasbadunt deg umedya tusnakt n tɣellist.

=== Kraḍ n talɣiwin n umcabi ===
'''War tukci n tmusni s wudem ummid''' (perfect zero knowledge). Tiski n wayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas d tin n leqdic ilaw d yiwet s tusnakt.

'''War tukci n tmusni s waddadan''' (statistical zero knowledge). Sin n yisuffaɣ qriben nezzeh deg tseqqart; amgired-nsen d ameẓyan akken iwata, ɣas win i ten-yesneqden yesɛa tazmert n usiḍen(leḥsab) war tilisa.

'''War tukci n tmusni n usiḍen''' (computational zero knowledge). Axwerzim i yesɛan tilisa n usiḍen(leḥsab) ur yezmir ara ad yefrez gar sin n yisuffaɣ s tzemmar yugaren talast tameẓyant i tettwasbadun. Taɣara-a tezmer ad tbedd ɣef ugur tusnakt i yettwaḥsaben d aweɛran.

== Win yesneqden s laman d win iɣuccen ==
Kra n yisfukal ttwaseknen kan d ''War tukci n tmusni'''''('''ZK) ma ara yelli win yesneqden yeḍfer ilugan: aya d &quot;''honest-verifier zero knowledge, HVZK&quot;''. ''War tukci n tmusni(''ZK) mgal win yesneqden iɣuccen ilaq ad tesseḥbiber ɣef tuffirt ula ma ibeddel isteqsiyen neɣ ixeddem s talɣut nniḍen. Ur ilaq ara ad nerr HVZK d agdazal n ZK mgal yal aɣuccam. 

Deg unagraw anda aṭas n yisfukal teddun deg yiwet n tallit, taɣara n ZK n yiwen n leqdic ur tekfi ara i usfukel n tɣellist n wammud. Leqdic yezdin, allus d ubeddel n umizwer n yiznan ḥwaǧen asenqed i iman-nsen.

== 4. Imedyaten d wassaɣ d NP ==

=== Asfukel n umḍan n yiseggasen ===
Amedya n ussegzi: yiwen n umdan yebɣa ad isfukel belli yesɛa 18 n yiseggasen neɣ ugar, war ma yesban-d azemz n tlalit-is. Isefka izuyaz zemren ad ilin d azemz n wass-a, talast 18, akked tsarut tazayezt n win i d-yefkan aselkin. Isefka uffiren zemren ad ilin d azemz n tlalit d uzmul umḍin i t-yesseḥḥan.

Asfukel ilaq ad yesdukkel snat n tewtilin: azemz yeqqen ɣer uselkin iṣeḥḥan, yerna amḍan n yiseggasen yellan deg-s ugar neɣ yewweḍ 18. Ma yesneqed kan tanaḍt « age ≥ 18 » war tuqqna ɣer uselkin, amdan yezmer ad yefk amḍan i d-isnulfa. Ihi, ZK yettḥerrez tikli n uselken; aɣbalu n yisefka ilaq ad yili d win i nezmer ad namen.

=== Amedya n tfelwit n wurar ===
Yezmer umdan ad yebɣu ad isfukel belli yesɛa tifrat n yiwen n '''Sudoku''', war ma d-yesban tifrat. Isefka izuyaz d tafelwit n wurar; aselkin uffir d imḍanen i yefka i texxamin tilemmas. Assaɣ R yesneqed belli yal izirig, yal tigejdit d yal aḥric yesɛa imḍanen ilaqen, yerna imḍanen i yellan seg tazwara ur beddlen ara. Amedya-a yeskanay belli aselkin ur ilaq ara ad yili d awal uffir; yezmer ad yili d tifrat n ugur.

=== Anamek n NP ===
NP d taggayt n wuguren anda tifrat i aɣ-d-yettunefken tezmer ad tettwasenqed deg wakud i yettnernin s wudem agetfulan ilmend n teɣzi n yisefka. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli tifrat-nni teshel i tifin. Yal tifrat n kra n wuguren tezmer ad tettwasenqed s lemɣawla, maca tifin-is tezmer ad teḥwaǧ leḥsab meqqren. 

Agmuḍ n Goldreich, Micali d Wigderson yemmal belli, s kra n turdiwin n uwgelhan, nezmer ad nesfukel tilin n tifrat i yal ugur deg NP war tukci n tmusni. Maca tilin n tarrayt deg tusnakt ur d-yemmal ara belli tarrayt-nni d taruradt neɣ teshel i usemres. Asenqed n wakud, tkatut d teɣzi n usfukel d aḥric nniḍen n unadi.

=== Tugna 2. Aselken n umḍan n yiseggasen ===
Amedya n ussegzi: asfukel belli amdan yesɛa 18 n yiseggasen neɣ ugar, war asban n uzemz n tlalit-is.
[[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|vignette|380x380px|Tugna n uselken n umḍan n yiseggasen.]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 2. Asfukel yesdukkel tidet n uzmul akked tewtilt n yiseggasen. Ilaq daɣen aselkin ad yeqqen ɣer umdan iwatan, ad ur yemmut ara wakud n usemres-is, ad ur tettwakkes ara tsiregt-is. D amedya n ussegzi, mačči d anagraw ummid n usesteb.&lt;/small&gt;

== 5. Isfukal war asdiwen (NIZK) ==
Deg usfukel s usdiwen, P d V ttmeslayen s yiznan: P yezmer ad yefk aḥric amezwaru, V ad yefren asteqsi agacuran, P ad d-yerr. Deg NIZK, P yeslalay-d asfukel π, V yesneqed-it s yisefka izuyaz, war ma yuḥwaǧ ad d-yesteqsi P deg tallit-nni. Yezmer daɣen ad yiselkenasfukel seld azemz n usnulfu-is.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Aḥric
!Ayen i ixeddem
|-
|Setup
|Iheggi iɣewwaṛen izuyaz pp, ilmend n tarrayt.
|-
|Prove(pp, x, w)
|Yeslalay-d asfukel π s yisefka x d uselkin uffir w.
|-
|Verify(pp, x, π)
|Yettarra aqbal neɣ agi n usfukel.
|}

=== Iɣewwaṛen yezdin d laman ===
Kra n yinagrawen semrasen ''common reference string (CRS)'': d azrar n yisefka izuyaz i ttsemrasen sin yiwudam. Deg kra n talɣiwin, aheggi yeslalay-d daɣen talɣut tuffirt i ilaq ad tettwakkes; ma teqqim ɣer kra n umdan, yezmer ad tesruḥ taɣara n tɣellist. D ta i wumi qqaren ''trusted setup''.

'''Aheggi''' s waṭas n yimttekkiyen yezmer ad yesneɣṣ laman i nettara deg yiwen umdan, ilmend n tewtilin n tarrayt. Kra n yiɣewwaṛen zemren ad ttwasemrsen i waṭas n leḥsabat, yerna ad ttwalqamen s lmendad n yimttekkiyen imaynuten; PLONK aneṣli d amedya n uheggi amatu i izemren ad yettwalqem. 

=== Aheggi ibanen (transparent setup) ===
Deg kra n twaculin, ulac talɣut tuffirt n uheggi i ilaq ad tettwakkes. Iɣewwaṛen zemren add-ttwasnulfun s tarrayt ibanenn neɣ s yimḍanen ugacuranen izuyaz. '''STARK''' d '''Bulletproofs''' d sin n yimedyaten yemgaraden n tarrayin war &quot;''trusted setup&quot;''. Aya ur yekkesara ilugan n tusnakt d turdiwin n uwgelhan iɣef bḍan. 

=== Fiat-Shamir ===
Tarrayt n '''Fiat-Shamir''' tettbeddil, i kra n yisfukal s usdiwen i iwulmen, asteqsi agacuran n V s ugmuḍ n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ. Tanfalit, aḥric amezwaru n usfukel d usatal ilaq ad qqnen ɣer usiḍen-a. Taɣellist tettwasenqed deg umedya n &quot;''random oracle&quot;''; ur ilaq ara adnerr yal asdiwen d NIZK s ubeddel-a war asfukel n tɣellist.

=== Tugna 3. S usdiwen d war asdiwen ===
Aḥric afellay yeskanay amedya s kraḍ n yiznan; aḥric n wadda yeskanay asfukel NIZK

==== A · S usdiwen ====
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-11 10-42-52.png|710x710px]]

==== B · War asdiwen (NIZK) ====
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-11 10-45-37.png|763x763px]]

&lt;small&gt;'''Tugna 3.''' Deg NIZK, win yesneqden ur d-yettazen ara asteqsi deg tallit n usfukel. Maca iɣewwaṛen yezdin&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;zemren ad ttwaheggin uqbel. « War asdiwen » ur d-yemmal ara « war tuzzna n usfukel » neɣ « war uheggi ».&lt;/small&gt;

== 6. Amedya s wudem n tusnakt: tarrayt n Schnorr ==
Schnorr yessemras agraw '''G''' s umḍan amezwaru '''q''' n yiferdisen, d uferdis '''g''' i d-yeslalayen agraw-a. Tasarut tuffirt d '''s'''; tasarut tazayezt d '''y = gs'''. Ugur n tifin n '''s''' seg '''y''' d '''g''' yettusemma ''discrete logarithm''. Dag i asfukel n tmusni n '''s''', mačči kan n tilin-is. 

=== Kraḍ n yiznan ===
1. '''P''' yefren amḍan agacuran '''r''' modulo '''q''', isiḍen '''a = gr''', syin ad yazen '''a''' i '''V'''.

2. '''V''' yefren asteqsi agacuran '''c''' modulo '''q''', ad t-yazen i '''P'''.

3. '''P''' yerr-d '''z = r + cs''' (mod q). '''V''' yesneqed asekkil-a:

'''&lt;math&gt;g{z} = a \cdot y^{c}&lt;/math&gt;'''


Aqbal n win yeḍfren ilugan yettban seg: &lt;math&gt;g^{r+cs} = g^{r} \cdot (g^{s})^{c}&lt;/math&gt;. Talɣa-a tessemras « + » deg z;

&lt;nowiki&gt;RFC 8235&lt;/nowiki&gt; yessemras talɣa tagdazalt s « − » d useggem n uselken. 

=== Asiḍen ameẓyan i ussegzi ===
Ad neddem p = 23, q = 11, g = 2. Leḥsab n yiferdisen n ugraw yettawi-d agmuḍ modulo

23. Ma s = 3, ad naf y = 8. Ma r = 4, ad naf a = 16. Ma c = 2, ad naf z = 10 modulo 11.

Ihi:

&lt;math&gt;2^{10} \bmod 23 = 12&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;16 \cdot 8^{12} \bmod 23 = 12&lt;/math&gt;

Sin yidisawen d yiwen, ihi aselken yeqbel. Imḍanen-a d imeẓyanen nezzeh: kul yiwen yezmer ad yaf s s usenqed n kra n wazalen. Amedya-a d win n uselmed kan, ur yesɛi ara taɣellist n usemres ilaw.</text>
      <sha1>o5svkux8m86ne50d16w1d7vfi6cndfe</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helena (yemma-s n Qusṭantin Amezwaru)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117605</id>
      <parentid>117583</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-10T14:08:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117605</origin>
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      <text bytes="10997" sha1="jbazlkpo9ia1ne4nv38pj443jaau8ne" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q170164|image=[[File:Elena Colosseo Rome Italy.jpg|thumb|Asbdad n Helena deg Ruma]]|caption=Helena Augusta}}

'''Helena''', neɣ '''Flavia Julia Helena Augusta''', d yiwet seg tlawin i yesɛan azal meqqren deg umezruy n Tmenkda Tarumanit deg tasut tis kraḍet d tis ukkuẓet. Ɣas akken ur telli ara d tamenkat i iḥekkmen s yiman-is, tettwassen ladɣa imi d yemma-s n umenkad [[Qusṭantin Amezwaru|Qusṭantin Ameqqran]], maca daɣen imi tella d yiwet seg tlawin timezwura n twacult tamenkat tarumanit i iqeblen tamasiḥit. Deg taggara n tudert-is, tuɣal d yiwet seg tgezmiwin tigejdanin n tmezdayt tamasiḥit deg Tmenkda Tarumanit.

== 1. Talalit d temẓi n Helena ==
Ur nettwassen ara s tidet wass d umḍiq anda tlul Helena. Iɣbula iqburen d yimazrayen mxalafen deg wayagi, maca aṭas n yimezrayen ttwalin belli tlul azal n 247–250 n talalit, ahat deg Drepanum, tamdint n Bitiniya deg Anatoliya, qrib n Nicomedia. Qusṭantin isemma-yas deffir Helenopolis, s yisem n yemma-s.

Helena ur d-tekk ara seg twacult n yigelliden neɣ seg yimeqqranen n Tmenkda. Iɣbula imasiḥiyen iqburen mmalen-d belli tella seg twacult taḥerfit. Ambrosius n Milan, i yura deg tasut tis ukkuẓet, isemma-yas stabularia, awal alatini i izemren ad yemmel tameṭṭut ixeddmen deg yiwen n umḍiq n yimsafaren neɣ n usensu. Aya, maca, ur aɣ-d-yefki ara aṭas n telqayt ɣef temẓi-s.

Timucuha deffir-is i tt-id-yerran d yelli-s n ugellid n Britanya ur sɛint ara lsas amezrayan.

== 2. Helena d Qusṭantin Klurus ==
Deg tazwara n tudert-is, Helena teddukkel akked [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] (Constantius Chlorus), aserdas arumani i yuɣalen deffir d yiwen seg imenkaden n ''tetrarkiya''.

Ur nettwassen ara akken ilaq ma Helena d Qusṭantiyus zewǧen s uzref arumani neɣ ma tella gar-asen kan ''concubinatus,'' assaɣ yettwasnen deg Tmenkda Tarumanit, ladɣa gar yimdanen n yidgan inmettiyen yemgaraden. Iɣbula iqburen ur d-ttakken ara tiririt yiwet ɣef waya. 

Azal n 272–274, Helena tesɛa-d Qusṭantin, win ara yuɣalen deffir d '''Qusṭantin Ameqqran'''.

Mi tebda tetrarkiya n [[Dyuklisyan]] ad tbeddel taɣessa tasertant n Tmenkda, Qusṭantin yebra i Helena neɣ yemsefrak yid-s. Deg 293, yuɣ ''Theodora'', yelli-s s tissulya n umenkad Maximianus. Azwaj-a yella d allal asertan: yesdukkel Qusṭantin akked twacult tamenkat i iḥekkmen. 

Seg wakud-nni armi d tallit n Qusṭantin, Helena tettban-d drus deg yiɣbula.

== 3. Helena d mmi-s Qusṭantin ==
Assaɣ gar Helena d mmi-s Qusṭantin yella d agejdan deg tudert-is.

Mi yemmut Qusṭantin Klurus deg Eboracum (York) deg 306, isedasen-is sbedden Qusṭantin d amenkad. Maca Qusṭantin ilaq-as aṭas n yiseggasen n ṭṭraḍ d unadi ɣef udabu iwakken ad yuɣal d amenkad agejdan.

Mi yuli Qusṭantin deg udabu, Helena tuɣal ɣer twacult tamenkat. Mmi-s yefka-as azal meqqren, yerna yessuffeɣ-d idrimen s tugna-s.

Deg 325, tettunefk-as tezmer tamenkat Augusta, yiwen seg yismawen unnigen n tlawin n twacult tamenkat. S waya Helena ur tezgi ara kan d «yemma-s n umenkad»; tuɣal tesɛa addad unṣib deg twacult iḥekkmen Tamenkda. 

== 4. Helena d tmasiḥit ==
Yiwen seg yisental i ɣef mazal yella umgired gar yimezrayen d melmi i tuɣal Helena d tamasiḥit.

'''''Eusebius n Qaysariya''''', i yuran Tudert n Qusṭantin, yemmal-d belli Qusṭantin yesɛa azal deg tuɣalin n yemma-s ɣer tmasiḥit. Maca ur nɛlim ara s wass neɣ s useggas melmi teḍra tuɣalin-a. 

Deg taggara n tudert-is, tamasiḥit-is tettban-d s waṭas deg leqdicat-is. Eusebius yesnifel-itt d tameṭṭut yettaken idrimen i yigellilen, tettɛawan wid yettwaḥebsen, wid yettwasekṛen ad xedmen deg uḥric n unaɣez n wuzzal, d wid yettwanfan. 

Aya yeskanay-d daɣen abeddel meqqren i d-yellan deg Tmenkda Tarumanit: tamasiḥit, i tettwaḍeyyeq s waṭas deg tallit n Dyuklisyan, tebda deg tallit n Qusṭantin ad tuɣal d tadeyyanit i yesɛan azal meqqren deg tsertit d tmetti n Tmenkda.

== 5. Tirza tameqqrant ɣer Akal Amqaddes ==
Deg 326–327, mi qrib tesɛa 80 n yiseggasen, Helena teffeɣ ɣer usammar n Tmenkda, ladɣa ɣer ''Palestina''.

'''Eusebius''', i yella d yiwen seg yiɣbula iqburen i d-yewwin ɣef tirza-a, yemmal-d belli Helena tettṛuḥu ɣer temnaḍin timasiḥiyin timqaddesin, maca tettɛeddi daɣen ɣef temdinin d tmettiyin n usammar n Tmenkda. 

Tirza-a tesɛa azal meqqren deg umezruy n tmasiḥit, acku Helena tettwasen daɣen s lebni neɣ s tallelt i lebni n kra n yiẓekwan d tfaskiwin timasiḥiyin.

Gar wid yettwasnen ugar:

- Taklizt n Talalit deg Bethlehem, deg umḍiq i yettwamen belli din i d-ilul [[Ɛisa]].

- Taklizt n Eleona deg Udrar n Izemuren, deg temnaḍt n [[Uṛacalim|Uṛčalim]], i yeqqnen ɣer usmekti n tuɣalin n Ɛisa ɣer igenni.

Eusebius yessawal s telqayt ɣef snat n tzeɣwin-a, yerna yeqqen lebni-nsent ɣer Helena d tallelt tameqqrant n Qusṭantin.

== 6. Helena d «Umidag n Uẓekka Amqaddes» ==
Deg tmucuha timasiḥiyin, Helena tettwassen ugar s unadi ɣef Umidag Amqaddes (True Cross), i yettwamen belli d aẓekka i ɣef yettwaṣemmer Ɛisa.

Timucuha n deffir qqaren-d belli mi tewweḍ ɣer Uṛčalim, Helena tefka lamer ad ɣzen kra n yimukan, armi d-ufan kraḍ n yimidagen; yiwen seg-sen yettwaf deffir d aẓekka n Ɛisa.

Maca dagi ilaq ad nefrez gar amezruy d tansayt tadeyyanit.

'''Eusebius n Qaysariya''', i yuran qrib n tallit n Helena yerna i d-yewwin s telqayt ɣef tirza-s, ur d-yebdir ara belli Helena tuf-d Amidag Amqaddes. Ula d iɣbula n tazwara n tasut tis ukkuẓet ur d-beddren ara tadyant-a. Tineqqisin i tt-yesdukklen srid akked tifin n Umidag Amqaddes bdant ad d-banent s wudem ifazen kan ɣer taggara n tasut tis ukkuẓet. 

Ɣef waya, nezmer ad nini:

Tirza n Helena ɣer Palestina d tadyant tamezrayt yettwassnen; tifin n Umidag Amqaddes s ufus-is d tansayt tamasiḥit i d-yernan deffir.

== 7. Helena d Uṛčalim ==
Tirza n Helena tesɛa daɣen azal meqqren i Uṛčalim.

Segmi [[Hadriyan]] ibeddel tamdint ɣer '''Aelia Capitolina''' deg tasut tis snat, aṭas n yimukan i yettwaḥesben d imqaddesen ɣer yimasiḥiyen beddlen udem.

Deg tallit n Qusṭantin, tadbelt tamenkdant tebda asenfar meqqren n lebni n tzeɣwin timasiḥiyin. Amḍiq n usemmer d uẓekka n Ɛisa yuɣal d agejdan deg usenfar-a, anda tebna Taklizt n Uẓekka Amqaddes — Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Ihi, Helena tella deg yiwet n tallit tagejdant anda Uṛčalim tebda ad tuɣal d yiwen seg yimukan imqaddesen igejdanen n tmasiḥit.

== 8. Tallit n Crispus d Fausta ==
Deg 326, tella yiwet n twaɣit tameqqrant deg twacult n Qusṭantin.

Qusṭantin yefka lamer i tmenɣiwt n mmi-s ''Crispus'', d mmi-s seg tmuṭṭut-is tamezwarut ''Minervina''. Kra n wakud kan deffir, tameṭṭut n Qusṭantin tis snat Fausta ula d nettat temmut deg tegnatin ur nettwassen ara akken ilaq.

Iɣbula n deffir rnan-d tamacahut i deg Helena tella terfa ɣef tmenɣiwt n ''Crispus'', yerna belli tuɣalin-is ɣer Qusṭantin tesɛa azal deg tmettant n Fausta. Maca iɣbula n tallit-nni ur d-ssegzayen ara s wudem ibanen acu i yeḍran. Ɣef waya, ur nezmir ara ad nḥseb tadyant-a am wakken tettwasekles s tidet. 

Tirza n Helena ɣer Palestina teḍra-d deffir n tmenɣiwt n Crispus, maca assaɣ srid gar snat n tedyanin mazal ur yettwasebgen ara.

== 9. Helena am Augusta ==
[[Tugna:Elena, madre di costantino il grande, solido, 324 dc.JPG|vignette|Tadrimt taqburt tarumanit deg tallit n Qusṭantin, tegber tugna n Helena seg yiwen n wudmawen-is.]]
Azal n Helena ur yeqqim ara kan deg tedyanin n ddin.

Azwel Augusta i as-yefka Qusṭantin yesɛa anamek asertan. Idrimen n Tmenkda ttwasuffɣen-d s tugna-s, aya yeskanay-d belli tettwaḥsab am uḥric n twacult tamenkdat.

Helena tesɛa daɣen tallelt seg tedrimt tamenkdat i leqdicat-is. Eusebius yemmal-d belli deg tirza-s ɣer usammar tettak-d lɛeṭaya i temdinin, i yiserdasen d yigellilen, yerna tettɛawan kra n wid yettwaḥebsen neɣ yettwanfan.

S waya, nettat d amedya n wudem amaynut n tamenkda tamasiḥit: tameṭṭut n twacult tamenkdat i iseqdacen idrimen d udabu n twacult i lebni n tzeɣwin, tallelt i tmezdayt d leqdicat n twiziwin.

== 10. Tamettant n Helena ==
Azemz n tmettant-is ur yettwassen ara s leqqayt. Aṭas n yimezrayen ttawin-d azal n 327–330. Eusebius yemmal-d belli temmut mi tella meqqret deg leɛmer, deffir tirza-s ɣer usammar, yerna mmi-s Qusṭantin yella yid-s deg taggara n tudert-is.

Iɣbula mxalafen daɣen ɣef wanda tettwamḍel deg tazwara. Tansayt n umalu teqqen-itt s Roma, anda yella yiwen n uẓekka ameqqran — Mausoleum of Helena — i yettwaḥesben d win i as-yettuheggan. 

== 11. Helena d tamqaddest ==
[[Tugna:Helena of Constantinople (Cima da Conegliano)FXD.jpg|vignette|Helena tamqaddest, sɣur Cima da Conegliano, 1495.]]
Deffir tmettant-is, tugna n Helena teqqim tettnerni deg tmezdayin timasiḥiyin.

Tettwaḥseb d tamqaddest deg kra n tmezdayin timasiḥiyin, ladɣa Tamezdayt Takatulikit d Tmezdayt Turtuduksit. Deg tugniwin d tẓuri tamasiḥit, tettwasekkan s waṭas tesɛa '''amidag''' deg ufus-is, acku tansayt teqqen-itt ɣer tifin n Umidag Amqaddes.

S wakud, tansayt tesseɣzif azal-is arma tuɣal Helena d yiwet seg tlawin yettwassnen ugar deg umezruy amasiḥi.

== 12. Amgired gar Helena tamezrayt d Helena n tensayt ==
Iwakken ad negzu tudert-is akken iwata, ilaq ad nebḍu sin n yiswiren:

=== Helena tamezrayt: ===
Tella d tameṭṭut seg uẓar aḥerfi; teddukkel akked [[Qusṭantin Klurus]]; d yemma-s n Qusṭantin; mmi-s yerra-tt ɣer twacult tamenkat yerna yefka-as azwel Augusta; tuɣal ɣer tmasiḥit; terza ɣer Palestina mi tella meqqret; tettɛawan lebni n tzeɣwin timasiḥiyin yerna tettak seg wayla-s i yigellilen. Ayagi yesɛa iɣbula iqburen, ladɣa Eusebius. 

=== Helena n tensayt: ===
Tuf-d '''Amidag Amqaddes neɣ anda yemmut [[Ɛisa]]'''; tuf-d imesmar n usemmer; tesɛa assaɣ akked waṭas n lɛejayeb d yireṭṭalen imqaddesen. Kra seg yineḍruyen-a rnan-d deg tensayt timasiḥit deffir n tmettant-is, ur d-ttwabedren ara deg yiɣbula iqburen i iqerben ɣer tallit-is.

Afraz-a d agejdan acku aṭas n yimagraden ɣef Helena sduklen sin n yiswiren-a war ma ferzen-ten.

== 13. Azal-is deg umezruy n Tmenkda Tarumanit ==
Helena tesɛa azal ladɣa acku tudert-is teḍra deg yiwet n tallit n ubeddel ameqqran.

Mi d-tlul, Tamenkda Tarumanit mazal teqqen s waṭas ɣer ddiyanat tiqburin. Mi tella Helena meqqret, Qusṭantin yebda ad iseggem assaɣ gar udabu amenkad d tmasiḥit.

Helena tettban-d deg ubeddel-a am uzamul: seg tameṭṭut ur d-nekk ara seg twacult n yigelliden, tuɣal d Augusta; seg tudert i ɣef ur nesɛi ara aṭas n telqayt, tuɣal d yiwet seg wudmawen yettwassnen ugar n tmasiḥit tarumanit.

Tirza-s ɣer Palestina tesɛa daɣen azal deg umezruy n tirza tadeyyanit. Lebni n tzeɣwin deg yimukan i yettwaḥesben d imqaddesen iɛawen ad yerr tamurt-a d aniccan agejdan i yimasiḥiyen n Tmenkda d wid n talliyin i d-iteddun.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Qusṭantin Amezwaru</title>
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      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="9502" sha1="jn79w8y9y3vd8js9ktintxtpd36t68l" xml:space="preserve">'''Qusṭantin Amezwaru''', i yettwassnen daɣen s yisem n '''Qusṭantin Ameqqran''' (''Constantinus Magnus s tlatinit''), d yiwen seg 

{{Infobox biography|item=Q8413|image=[[File:0 Gaius Flavius Valerius Constantinus, Palatino.jpg|thumb|Asebdad n Qusṭantin Amezwaru]]|caption=Qusṭantin Amezwaru.}}

yimenkaden irumanen i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy n umaḍal aqdim.

Yella d amenkad n Tgelda Tarumanit seg useggas 306 armi d 337, maca ur yuɣal d amenkad awḥid n tgelda meṛṛa alamma d aseggas 324.

Deg 31 n yiseggasen n udabu-is, Qusṭantin yessaweḍ ad ibeddel aṭas n tɣawsiwin deg tsertit, deg tedbelt, deg tsertit taserdasit, deg tdamsa, ladɣa deg wassaɣ gar uwanek arumani d tmeslayt tamasiḥit.

Gar wayen i t-yeskanayen deg umezruy:

- Yerbeḥ ṭṭradat imeqqranen mgal imenkaden i t-yettnaɣen ɣef udabu.

- Yerr-a tamurt tarumanit meṛṛa ddaw yiwen n umenkad deg 324.

- Yesnerna tasertit n tsureft d uḥraz n tilelli n ddin i yimasḥiyen.

- Yefka afus n tallelt i tmeslayt tamasiḥit, armi tuɣal d yiwet n tɣessa timeqqranin n tmetti tarumanit.

- Yebna tamezdeɣt tamanekdat tamaynut deg Qusṭanṭiniya, ɣef wakal n temdint taqdimt n Byzantion.

- Yesdukkel amussu n uselḥu n tmeslayt tamasiḥit deg ugraw n Nikiya, deg 325.

- Yesnerna yiwet n tsertit tamaynut n tedrimt, taserdast d tedbelt.

S wakka, Qusṭantin ur yelli ara kan d amenkad i yerbeḥ ṭṭradat. Yella daɣen d yiwen n yimdanen i d-yeslulfen tallit tamaynut deg umezruy n Tgelda Tarumanit, tin ara yessiwḍen sya ɣer temsalt tarumanit n usamar, i yettwassnen deg umezruy am Tgelda Tabizantin.

== 1. Talalit d temẓi n Qusṭantin ==

=== 1.1. Talalit-is ===
Qusṭantin ilul, ilmend n tɣbula i d-yewḍen ɣur-neɣ, ɣef useggas 272 neɣ deg kra n yiseggasen i t-id-yezwaren, deg temdint n ''Naissus'', i d-yeqqimen ass-a d Nič deg [[Ṣerbya]].

Isem-is arumani yella d ''Flavius Valerius Constantinus''.

Baba-s d [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] (Constantius Chlorus), yiwen n yimeqqranen iserdasiyen irumanen i yuɣalen d imenkaden.

Yemma-s d [[Helena (yemma-s n Qusṭantin Amezwaru)|Helena]], tameṭṭut i yuɣalen sya ɣer zdat d yiwet n tuqdisin timeqqranin n umezruy amasiḥi.

Ur nessin ara s tidet meṛṛa ma [[Helena (yemma-s n Qusṭantin Amezwaru)|Helena]] d tameṭṭut tamezwarut n Qusṭantin Klurus s uzref, neɣ d tameṭṭut i yesɛa yid-s assaɣ uqbel zwaǧ-is ameskaran. Tameṭṭut-a ur tesɛi ara tazmert n tsertit deg tazwara, maca mmi-s mi yuɣal d amenkad, ad as-yefk azal ameqqran.

=== 1.2. Axxam-is d tugna n tmetti n wakud-nni ===
Deg tazwara n tasut tis IV, Tgelda Tarumanit d tamurt tameqqrant i yeṭṭfen aḥric ameqqran n Tuṛuft, Tafriqt n ugafa d Asya n umalu.

Deg tallit-a, aṭas n yimenkaden ur d-ttilalen ara deg temdint n Ruma. Llan-d seg temnaḍin n Danub, Illyricum d Balkans, anda taserdast tesɛa azal ameqqran deg usefru n udabu.

Qusṭantin yella seg tɣiwant-a n tsertit taserdasit. Ihi, talalit-is deg Naissus ur telli ara d ayen iweɛren ad nefhem, imi taserdast tarumanit tuɣal d yiwen n yigejdan n tɣessa n tgelda.

=== 1.3. Tamẓi deg yixxamen n yimenkaden ===
Qusṭantin yessaweḍ ad ikker deg tɣiwant n yimenkaden. Yedder deg yixxamen n udabu deg usamar n tgelda, anda yella Dyuklisyan d amenkad.

Yelmed amek tettwaselḥu tgelda, amek tettwasebdad taserdast, akked wamek tteddun wassaɣen gar yimenkaden.

Yexdem daɣen deg teserdast, yedda deg kra n yikabar iserdasiyen, yessen tamsalt n usefrek n yimukan d uselḥu n yimrigen.

Tudert-is deg tallit-a tefka-yas tirmit i as-yettunefken kan i kra n yimeqqranen irumanen.

== 2. Tagnit n Tgelda Tarumanit uqbel ad d-yili Qusṭantin ==

=== 2.1. Tazɣent n tasut tis III ===
Deg tasut tis III, Tgelda Tarumanit tɛedda ɣef yiwet n tallit iweɛren aṭas.

Llan aṭas n yimenkaden i d-ttilin s tallelt n teserdast, maca ur ttɣimin ara deg udabu aṭas n wakud.

Ṭṭradat n daxel, tazɣent n tedrimt, asenqes n uselḥu n temnaḍin, akked ṭṭradat ɣef tilisa rnan-d ccwal i tgelda.

Seg 235 armi d 284, aṭas n yimenkaden uɣalen-d ɣer udabu, kra seg-sen ttwaneɣan neɣ ttwakksen deg wakud ameẓẓyan.

=== 2.2. Aɣelluy n tetrarkiya ===
Dyuklisyan, mi yuɣal d amenkad deg 284, yeɛreḍ ad yefru ugur-a.

Yesbed tasertit n tetrarkiya, anda tgelda tettwasefru s ukuẓ n yimeqqranen: sin n yimenkaden imeqqranen (Augusti) d sin n yimenkaden imawlan n lɛehd (Caesares).

Iswi n tetrarkiya yella d:

- Asefru n tgelda s wudem iqriben ɣer temnaḍin-is.

- Aḥraz n tilisa seg iɣerfan ibarbaren.

- Asenqes n ṭṭradat n udabu gar yimeqqranen.

- Aḍman n usemḍfer n udabu war ṭṭradat.

Maca tarrayt-a ur tessawaḍ ara ad teḥrez talwit i lebda.

Mi Dyuklisyan d Maximian ǧǧan adabu deg 305, tamukrist(ugur) n wamek ara d-yilin yimenkaden imaynuten tebda tettban-d.

Qusṭantin ad yuɣal d yiwen n yimdanen i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg uɣelluy n tetrarkiya.

=== 3. Abrid n Qusṭantin ɣer udabu (305–306) ===
Deg 305, baba-s [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] yuɣal d amenkad ameqqran n umalu n tgelda.

Qusṭantin, i yellan deg usamar, yuɣal ɣer baba-s, yedda yid-s deg yigrawen iserdasiyen n Britanya.

Deg 25 Yulyu 306, Qusṭantin Klurus yemmut deg temdint n Eboracum, i d-yuɣalen ass-a d York deg Ngliz.

Deffir tmettant-is, iserdasen-is ssutren ad yili mmi-s Qusṭantin d amenkad.

Deffir tmettant n baba-s, iserdasen-is sbedden Qusṭantin d amenkad deg 306, maca Galerius, amenkad ameqqran n usamar, ur iqbil ara ad t-yessisem d Augustus s tazwara. Yefka-yas kan azwel n Caesar.

Tamsalt-a tessekcem Qusṭantin deg yiwet n tɣawsa tameqqrant: anadi ɣef adabu arumani s tallelt n teserdast.

Deg yiseggasen i d-iteddun, Qusṭantin isnerna adabu-is deg Galiya, Britanya d kra n temnaḍin n Uṛupa n umalu.

Yesbed daɣen assaɣen n tsertit s yimenkaden nniḍen.

Deg 307, yezweǧ Fausta, yell-is n umenkad aqdim Maximian. Zwaǧ-a yella daɣen d yiwet n tarrayt n usdukkel n yiɛeggalen n udabu.

== 4. Ṭṭradat n Qusṭantin akked Maxentius (312) ==

=== 4.1. Anwa i yellan d ''Maxentius''? ===
''Maxentius'' d mmi-s n ''Maximian'', yiwen n yimenkaden iqburen n tetrarkiya. Yuɣal d amenkad deg Ruma deg 306, yerna yeṭṭef kra n temnaḍin n ṭṭelyan d Tafriqt Tarumanit. Qusṭantin d ''Maxentius'' uɣalen d imnaɣen ɣef udabu n umalu. Deg 312, Qusṭantin yefren ad yessekcem taserdast-is ɣer ṭṭelyan iwakken ad yernu Maxentius.

=== 4.2. Akabar n Itelya ===
Qusṭantin yessufeɣ taserdast-is seg ''Galiya'', yezger idurar n ''Alpes'', yerna kra n isedasen n yigen n ''Maxentius'' deg temdinin n usamar n ṭṭelyan. Yerbeḥ deg ''Turin'', ''Verona'' d yimukan nniḍen, syin yuɣal ɣer [[Roma|Ruma]].

Maxentius yefren ad yessuffeɣ taserdast-is seg Ruma iwakken ad yemmager Qusṭantin.

=== 4.3. Ṭṭrad n Teqenṭert n Milvius ===
[[Tugna:Ponte Milvio-side view-antmoose.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Tiqenṭart n Milvius, anda i d-yeḍra amennuɣ gar Qusṭantin d Maxentius.]]


Deg 28 Kṭuber 312, sin n yimeqqranen mmagren ɣef teqenṭert n Milvius (Pons Milvius), deg ugafa n Ruma. Tarrayt n Qusṭantin, akked udabu-s ɣef yigen, teǧǧa-t ad yerbeḥ ṭṭrad. Deg trewla-ines ɣer Ruma, Maxentius yeɣli deg wasif n Tiber, yemmut deg waman.

Tameɣra n Qusṭantin tebna ɣef rbeḥ-a, imi seg wass-nni yuɣal d amenkad yesɛan adabu ɣef umalu n Tgelda Tarumanit.

Ṭṭrad-a ad yesɛu daɣen azal ameqqran deg umezruy n tmeslayt tamasiḥit.

== 5. Tirgit n Qusṭantin d uqerrub-is ɣer usɣan(ddin) amasiḥi ==

=== 5.1. D acu i d-yellan uqbel ṭṭrad? ===
Imezrayen n tallit taqdimt ḥkan-d belli Qusṭantin yeẓra azamul deg yigenni neɣ yurga tirgit uqbel ṭṭrad n Milvius.

Maca iɣbula ur msefhamen ara ɣef wamek i yeḍra. '''''Lactantius''''', ameskar amasiḥi n tasut tis IV, yura belli Qusṭantin yettwawelleh deg targit iwakken ad yerr azamul amasiḥi ɣef yiwen seg yizamulen n teserdast-is.

Eusebius n Qaysariya, i yuran Vita Constantini, yefka-d taḥkayt nniḍen, anda Qusṭantin yeẓra, ilmend n wayen i d-yenna, azamul n ufus amasiḥi(amidag) deg yigenni. Deg yiɣbula n tmasiḥit, taḥkayt-a tettwaqqen ɣer wawal alatini:

'''In hoc signo vinces — «S uzamul-a ara terbeḥeḍ.»'''

Maca ur nezmir ara ad nini s tidet belli ayen i d-yettwaḥkan deg yiɣbula-a yeḍra akken i t-id-uran. Imezrayen imiranen kkaten-d deg taḥkayat-a imi tella deg-sent tmuɣli n ddin, tazerfa n udabu-s d usnulfu n tugna n umenkad.

Amgired gar ''Lactantius'' d ''Eusebius'', akked wakud anda ttwarun iɣbula-nsen, yettaǧǧa tamsalt-a d tin ɣef mazal yettili unadi n umezruy. 

=== 5.2. Qusṭantin d amasiḥi neɣ d afagan? ===
Tamsalt-a ur tefru ara s yiwet n tririt tafessast.

Qusṭantin yella deg tmetti tarumanit anda llan aṭas n yisɣanen d leɛwayed n wafagan. Deg tazwara n udabu-is, yella yesskanay-d assaɣen d ddin n yiṭij, ladɣa d Sol Invictus. Maca seg 312 d asawen, aselḥu-s yesɛa ugar n wassaɣen d tmeslayt tamasiḥit.

Yebda yettak-as tallelt, yettqabal imrabḍen-is, yerna yebna tallelt-is tasertant ɣef tɣessa-s. Ihi, nezmer ad nini belli Qusṭantin yuɣal yettak afus i ddin amasiḥi, maca '''ur nezmir ara ad nẓer s tidet''' melmi i tbeddel tikti-s n ddin, neɣ amek i tella taflest-is tagensant.

Tamsalt n ddin-is tban-d daɣen deg wayen i yeḍran ɣer taggara n tudert-is, imi ur yettwaɣḍes ara deg waman n lebni amasiḥi (baptême) alamma d aseggas 337, deg wakud i yella yettwaḍen.</text>
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      <comment>Gurzil90x yebeddel isem n usebtar seg [[Lukrisyus Karus]] ar [[Lukrityus Karus]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="32" sha1="76eluln1p8vppbyiumw45b968z9zhzj" xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECTION [[Lukrityus Karus]]</text>
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