New York

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    <title>New York</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Mastiman Anumidi</username>
        <id>17235</id>
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      <comment>Aḍris amaynut</comment>
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      <text bytes="8154" sha1="dhju4hwgltwfc0mnw7a4a466buf75x1" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox city}}

'''New York''' d nettat ay d tamdint tameqqrant akk deg [[Iwunak Yedduklen|Yiwunak Yeddukklen]]. Tezga-d deg ugafa-agmuḍan n tmurt, ɣef [[Agaraw Aṭlasi|Ugaraw Aṭlasi]]. Zedɣen-tt 8.336.697 n yimezdaɣen (19.006.798 s yegmamen ay d-yezzin fell-as). Tamdint-a tezga-d deg [[New York (Awanak)|uwanak n New York]].

Tamdint-a tettwassen s yixxamen-is ɣezzifen, s tnezzut, s tdamsa tameqqrant, s tẓuri, s tesdawiyin, s tmusni d umezruy-is amesbaɣur.

New York mačči d tamdint n tnezzut kan. D amkan anda mlalen yigduden seg waṭas n tmura, s tutlayin yemgaraden, s yidles yemgaraden d wallalen yemgaraden n tudert.

Ɣas akken tamdint-a tettwassen am yiwet n tɣerma tameqqrant n umaḍal amiran, amezruy-is yezga yeqqen ɣer yigduden inaṣliyen n Marikan n Ugafa...

Tamsalt i ilaq ad nseɣti deg tazwara: igduden inaṣliyen n New York d '''Lenape''', seg yigduden inasliyen n Marikan n Ugafa. Amezruy n temdint yemmal-d amek i tettwabna ɣef wakal-nsen, syin akin amek i tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin tigejdanin n umaḍal.

== Tarakalt d ugama n New York ==
New York tezga deg umkan yesɛan azal ameqqran deg trakalt n Marikan. Tella gar yisaffen d yilellen, ayen i tt-yerran d tamdint n yinig d tnezzut seg zik.

Deg tama-s n umalu yella ''Asif Hudson'', deg tama-s n usamar yella ''East River'', i d aferdis n waman meẓẓiyen yeqqnen ɣer yilel. Deg unẓul, tella tagnit tameqqrant n waman i yettwassnen s yisem n ''New York Harbor'', anda i d-keččmen yiseflinen.

Tarakalt-a tettak-as kraḍ n lfaydat:

* Yezmer ad yili deg-s unermis n tnezzut gar Marikan, Turuft d tmura nniḍen.
* Isaffen d yilellen ttaken-d iberdan n usiweḍ n yiferdisen d medden.
* Igelluyen n wakal d yigziren ttawin-d aṭas n temnaḍin i lebni n temdint.

Maca amkan-a yesɛa ula d uguren: iḥemmalen n waman, ahuzzu n yilel, leɣla n wakal d uguren n lebni deg temnaḍin i d-yettwarran zdat n waman.

=== Tiɣiwanin tisudisin ===
New York tebḍa ɣef semmus n tiɣiwanin timeqqranin (boroughs).

==== '''Manhattan''' ====
[[Tugna:West side of Manhattan from Hudson Commons (95103p).jpg|centré|cadre|Manhattan.]]
D ul n tdamsa n temdint, anda ''llan Wall Street, Times Square, Central Park'' d waṭas n yixxamen ɣezzifen. D tamnaḍt yettwassnen aṭas deg umaḍal.

==== '''Brooklyn''' ====
[[Tugna:Dumbo Neighborhood in Brooklyn, NYC.jpg|centré|cadre|Brooklyn]]
D tamnaḍt yesɛan agdud meqqren, tuddar tiqdimin, taẓuri, izerfan idelsanen d yimḍiqen imeqqranen n tudert n temdint.

==== '''Queens''' ====
[[Tugna:Flushing Queens from roof of Starlight Hotel.jpg|centré|cadre|Queens]]
Tettwassen s tmeslayin d yidles yemgaraden. Deg-s llan yimḍiqen n yinig, timnaḍin n tnezzut d waṭas n tdukliwin n yimezdaɣ.

==== '''The Bronx''' ====
[[Tugna:Yankee Stadium 001.JPG|centré|vignette|650x650px|Bronx.]]
D yiwet seg temnaḍin ideg d-yennulfa uɣanib aẓawan n hip-hop. Deg-s daɣen azrib ameqqran ɣer Bronx Zoo d Yankee Stadium.

==== '''Staten Island''' ====
[[Tugna:Freshkills Park in Staten Island, New York.jpg|centré|vignette|650x650px|Staten Island.]]
D tamnaḍt i yesɛan aṭas n yigran imenza, izerfan izegzawen d tuddar ur neččur ara d imezdaɣ am Manhattan.

== 3. Amezruy uqbel ad d-awḍen Yirupiyen ==
Uqbel ad d-awḍen Yirupiyen, akal n New York yella d aḥric seg wakal amenzu n ''Lenape'', i d-yettwasemman ''Lenapehoking''.

Igduden-a zedɣen deg temnaḍt-a i waṭas n yiseggasen s waṭas uqbel asnulfu n temdint tamirant.

Lenape sɛan tudert i d-yettwaznen ɣef ugama. Ttidiren s:

* Ugmar n yiɣersiwen.
* Uṣeggem n tiferkiwin d wakal n tfellaḥt.
* Uṣeyyeḍ n yiselman deg yisaffen.
* Tnezzut d wussawel gar tuddar d yigrawen yemgaraden.

Tudert-nsen tella teqqen ɣer tmettiwin n twaculin, taddart, tiɣawsiwin n ugama d tmenna n yimezwura.

Deg trakalt-nsen, '''Manhattan''' tettwassen s yisem yeqqnen ɣer '''Manahatta'''. Isem-a d yiwen seg yisemawen iqburen i d-yeggran deg temdint tamirant.

Aselmed n umezruy n New York ilaq ad yebdu s ''Lenape'', acku ur tebdi ara tudert d tademsa n temnaḍt-a deg 1624.

== 4. Tallit n Hulanda — New Amsterdam (1624–1664) ==
Deg useggas 1609, '''amnadi Henry Hudson''', i ixeddmen i tdukla n tnezzut tahulandit, yewweḍ ɣer temnaḍt n New York.

Hudson yella yettnadi abrid amaynut n tnezzut ɣer Asya, maca yeẓra azal n temnaḍt-a, ladɣa isaffen-is d waman i tt-id-yezgan.

Deg 1624, Ihulandiyen bdan ad d-sbedden imezdaɣ-nsen deg temnaḍt. Deg yiseggasen i d-iteddun, '''New Amsterdam''' tuɣal d tamdint tameẓẓyant n tnezzut ɣef yiri n Manhattan.

Deg 1653, tettwaɛqal s wudem unṣib am temdint.

New Amsterdam ur tettwasebded ara deg wakal ur nesɛi ara imezdaɣ, maca deg wakal i zedɣen yakan yigduden inasliyen Lenape. Yella d aḥric n tɣawsa tameqqrant n ikuluniyen Irupiyen,i yekksen kra n wakal i yigduden inasliyen Lenape, yerna i d-yessawḍen anagraw n '''useqdec n yimdanen i lfayda n wiyaḍ''' d tnezzut n waklan. ».

Tamdint tettnerni s:

* Tnezzut n yigelman n yiɣersiwen.
* Usiweḍ n yiferdisen ɣer Turuft.
* Lebni n yixxamen d lebni tqenṭyar n waman.
* Tnezzut gar tigdudin yemgaraden.

Deg tallit-a, tamdint tella d amkan n waṭas n tutlayin d yisɣanen. Llant temettiyin tihulandiyin, talmaniyin, tafransisin, tagliziyin, tiyahudiyin d yimezdaɣ iberkanen. tilelli n usɣan(n tedyanit) ur tettunefk ara i meṛṛa s yiwen wudem, yerna taklit d uɛzel n kra n yigrawen n yimezdaɣ d ayen yellan deg temdint.

== 5. Tallit n Lingliziyen (1664–1783) ==
Deg 1664, Lingliziyen ṭṭfen New Amsterdam. Beddlen-as isem, semman-as New York, ilmend n ''James'', ''Duke of York''.

Deg tallit-a, tamdint tettnerni s waṭas, tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin tigejdanin n tmura i yellan ddaw udabu n [[Legliz|Leglizi]] deg Marikan n Ugafa.

Tanezzut tettnerni, llan imezdaɣ imaynuten, ttemḍafaren-d yimseftiyen n tnezzut. Maca tadamsa n temdint tella tesɛa ula d aḥric i ibedden ɣef umahil n waklan.

Deg ṭṭrad n timunent n Marikan, New York teqqim ddaw n udabu aserdasi n Lingliziyen seg 1776 armi 1783.

Mi ifukk ṭṭrad, tamdint tebda tallit tamaynut, tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg usbeddi n uwanek amarikani.

== 6. New York deg tazwara n Uwanek Amarikani ==
Seg 1789 armi 1790, New York tella d tamdint tagejdant n Marikan (tamanaɣt tafidiralit).

Deg-s i yeṭṭef George Washington tanbaḍt-is tamezwarut am umenzu n tmurt deg 1789.

Ayen i d-yerr New York d tamdint tameqqrant n tnezzut deg lqern wis 19 mačči d tadamsa kan, maca d amkan-is:

* Asif n Hudson i d-yettɛawanen asirag ɣer daxel n tmurt.
* Asiweḍ n yiferdisen gar taddart d tmeddurt.
* Abrid n ''Erie Canal'', i d-yeldin deg 1825.
* Tanezzut n Marikan s usiweḍ n waman.

''Erie Canal'' yessuddes assaɣ n tnezzut gar New York d temnaḍin n wadda n Ilel Erie, ayen i yesnernan azal n temdint deg tedamsa n Marikan.

==Isunen n weɣrem n New York== 

Llan semmus (5) n yisunen deg New York, s tenglizt qqaren-as ''Boroughs''. [[File:5 Boroughs Labels New York City Map.png|thumb|5 Isunen n weɣrem n New York sɣur Julius Schorzman : 1- Manhattan, 2-Queens, 3-Brooklyn, 4-The Bronx, 5- Staten Island]]

*[[Manhattan]] : agwans n temdint, tella af tegzirt n Manhattan. Llant deg-s [[Wall Street]], [[Tasdawit n New York]], [[Tasdawit n Columbia]], asutel n Yiwunak Yeddukklen (ONU/NU). Ɣur-es imezdaɣen 1 546 856 deg-s. 
*[[The Bronx]] : ay d asun agellil akk deg weɣrem n New York akwd tdersiwin (minorités) tiberkanin d tispanikin maca tuɣal-d cwiṭ n teɣlist seg 20 iseggassen i yezrin. Ay d dduḥ n uẓawan Hip-Hop, deg-s illa [[Asarir Yankees Stadium]]. Ɣur-es  1 354 068 imezdaɣen deg-s. 
*[[Queens]] :  Ɣur-es  2 237 815 imezdaɣen deg-s. Yeḍra [[US Open]] dinna yal uggur n ctember, deg-s llan imafagen n JFK d La Guardia. Illa d agemim n tmezduɣt d tmugri (industry). 
*[[Brooklyn]] : Agemim n tmezduɣt n New-Yorkers. Ɣur-es 2 488 194 imezdaɣen deg-s
*[[Staten Island]] :  Ɣur-es imezdaɣen 491 730 deg-s. Daɣem d agemim n tmezduɣt n New-Yorkers, yuggug si Manhattan. 

[[Category:New York]][[Category:Timdinin]][[Category:Iwunak Yeddukklen]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Jessica Ellerby</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <timestamp>2026-10-13T00:33:54Z</timestamp>
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      <text bytes="7744" sha1="tv9a2auzm85xfmfs2lva48ihjm7cqjt" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography
| name         = Jessica Anne Ellerby
| birth_date   = 1986
| birth_place  = [[Dubay]], [[Émirats arabes unis]]
| nationality  = Taglizit
| occupation   = Tameslayt, tamesnulfa
| years_active = 2008 – ar tura
}}

'''Jessica Anne Ellerby''' (tulid di 1986) d tameslayt d tamesnulfa taglizit yettwalden di [[Dubay]]. Tebda tarrayt-is di [[tiɣerɣart]] (tmasra). Di tiliẓri, tettwassan s yidurar-is di ''[[Lovesick (série télévisée)|Lovesick]]'' (2014–2016) n [[Netflix]], deg tzemmur 8 n ''[[Benidorm (British TV series)|Benidorm]]'' (2016) ɣef [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]], d ''[[Pennyworth]]'' (2019–2021) ɣef [[Epix]].

== Tameṭṭut ==
Ellerby twalad d tetsṛuḥ di [[Dubaï]] seg yimawlan n Taglizt. Tettekki di [[Dubai College]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://gulfnews.com/uae/music-of-the-heart-1.419420 Music of the heart — ''Gulf News'' (21 June 2001).]&lt;/ref&gt; Di 17 n iseggwasen,&lt;ref&gt;[https://untitled-magazine.com/actress-jessica-ellerby-gets-royal-for-her-queen-elizabeth-role-in-pennyworth/ Actress Jessica Ellerby gets royal for her Queen Elizabeth role in &quot;Pennyworth&quot; — ''The Untitled'' (25 September 2019).]&lt;/ref&gt; tuɣal ɣer Taglizt i weɛrab n ''A Levels''.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.abookof.us/openbook/jessica-ellerby? Jessica Ellerby [Pennyworth] — ''A Book of Magazine'' (17 September 2019).]&lt;/ref&gt; Sakin t-yeffeɣ-d seg [[Bristol Old Vic Theatre School]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.essence-magazine.co.uk/Jessica-Ellerby-Interview-November-2018.html Jessica Ellerby – Living the dream — ''Essence'' (November 2018).]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tarrayt ==
Seld tmedras n tɣerɣart, Ellerby yesɛa-d tazwara-is n umɛal di ''Triptych'' di [[Southwark Playhouse]] di 2008. Di 2010, tgez deg [[West End theatre|West End]] s ''Dreamboats and Petticoats'' di [[Playhouse Theatre]].

Seld tazwara-is di sinima s urrole ameẓyan di ''[[Get Him to the Greek]]'' (2010), ig zemren ad d-yili role amezwaru ameqran s Lynne di ''[[Hollow (2011 British film)|Hollow]]'' (2011). Di 2012, tuɣal ɣer West End deg usnulfu n [[Trevor Nunn]] n ''[[A Chorus of Disapproval (play)|A Chorus of Disapproval]]'' di [[Harold Pinter Theatre]]. Sakin tban di ''[[I Will Rock You]]'' (2013) s role n Alice.

Seg 2014 ɣer 2016, Ellerby tesɛa-d role yettales ɣef snat n tzemmurin tamezwartin n ''Lovesick'' n [[Netflix]] am Jane Ansell, tabaḥbula n Dylan ([[Johnny Flynn]]).&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.digitalspy.com/tv/a29698926/lovesick-season-4-renewal/ Exclusive: ''Lovesick'' actor reveals whether we'll ever see the show again — ''Digital Spy'' (5 November 2019).]&lt;/ref&gt; Di 2015, tban di tavidyut n [[Noel Gallagher]] “Ballad of the Mighty”. Di 2016, teqrab-d ɣer uzegrir agejdan n ''Benidorm'' (ITV) i tzemmur 8 s role n Amber Platt.

Ellerby tura tura tura tsensel d tamesnulfa — tura tesɛa-d tira d usnulfu n waggur ''The Hungry Games'' di 2018.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.theitalianreve.com/interview-with-jessica-ellerby-on-the-new-wave-of-female-leading-roles/ Interview with Jessica Ellerby: On the New Wave of Female Leading Roles — ''The Italian Rêve'' (16 January 2019).]&lt;/ref&gt;

Tessawel Stacee di tzemmur tis snat n tgladt n [[Sky One]] ''[[Living the Dream (British TV series)|Living the Dream]]'' (2019).&lt;ref&gt;[https://meaww.com/jessica-ellerby-on-her-love-for-directing-and-playing-someone-nice-for-once-on-living-the-dream Jessica Ellerby on her love for directing… — ''MEAWW'' (21 January 2019).]&lt;/ref&gt; Deg useggwas-nni, tesɛa-d role n [[Élisabeth II]] tameẓyan di ''[[Pennyworth]]'' ɣef [[Epix]], t-tales di tzemmur 2.&lt;ref&gt;[https://deadline.com/2019/03/pennyworth-emma-paetz-jessica-ellerby-cast-in-epixs-batman-prequel-series-1202579258/ ''Pennyworth'': Emma Paetz &amp; Jessica Ellerby Cast — ''Deadline'' (20 March 2019).]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tudert tudmawant ==
Ellerby tettdawi deg [[Londres]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ldnfashion.com/interviews/jessica-ellerby-actress/ My London: Jessica Ellerby – Actress — ''LDN Fashion'' (8 March 2021).]&lt;/ref&gt; Tettaḥ ay imi tɣer-as amessawa [[Nick Hendrix]] di yulyu 2017.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.whattowatch.com/features/midsomer-murders-star-nick-hendrix-in-any-other-show-id-be-a-seasoned-veteran Midsomer Murders star Nick Hendrix… — ''What to Watch'' (29 May 2022).]&lt;/ref&gt; Deg yiwen usrig am tameslayt, Ellerby tettmuddu-d daɣen amekkan i usenduk n [[yoga]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jyoga.co.uk/ Jessica Ellerby Stewart Yoga — JYoga.]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tifrat n yifilm ==
=== Sinima ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Aseggas
! Azwel
! Role
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; | Awennit
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Get Him to the Greek]]''
| Club Girl
|
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Hollow]]''
| Lynne
|
|-
| 2013
| ''[[I Will Rock You]]''
| Alice
|
|-
| 2015
| ''The Pitch''
| Carol
| Azenzi (court métrage)
|-
| 2016
| ''The Five Wives &amp; Lives of Melvyn Pfferberg''
| Scarlett
| Azenzi
|-
| 2018
| ''The Hungry Games''
| Anna
| Azenzi; tamesnulfa
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2019
| ''This Time Away''
| Louise
| Azenzi
|-
| ''Dirty Rotten Liars''
| Sasha
| Azenzi
|-
| 2023
| ''Making Up''
| Cass
| Azenzi
|-
|}

=== Tiliẓri ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Aseggas
! Azwel
! Role
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; | Awennit
|-
| 2009
| ''[[The Bill]]''
| Stacey Hayes
| Iqesm : « Growing Pains »
|-
| 2013
| ''[[By Any Means (2013 TV series)|By Any Means]]''
| Karen Mason
| 1 iqesm
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2014
| ''[[Les Enquêtes de Morse]]''
| Diana Day
| Iqesm : « Trove »
|-
| ''[[Cardinal Burns]]''
| Various
| 1 iqesm
|-
| 2014–2016
| ''[[Lovesick (série télévisée)|Lovesick]]''
| Jane Ansell
| 4 iqesmen
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 2015
| ''[[Inside No. 9]]''
| Zara
| Anthologie, iqesm : « [[The 12 Days of Christine]] »
|-
| ''[[SunTrap]]''
| Serveuse
| Iqesm : « The Usual Suspects »
|-
| ''The Red Dress''
| Candice
| Tiliẓri (tifilm n tiliẓri)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | 2016
| ''[[Benidorm (British TV series)|Benidorm]]''
| Amber Platt
| Role agejdan (tzemmur 8, 7 iqesmen)
|-
| ''[[In the Club]]''
| Molly
| 3 iqesmen
|-
| ''[[Hoff the Record]]''
| Rebecca
| Iqesm : « Finance »
|-
| 2019
| ''[[Living the Dream (British TV series)|Living the Dream]]''
| Stacee
| 5 iqesmen
|-
| 2019–2021
| ''[[Pennyworth]]''
| [[Élisabeth II]]
| 13 iqesmen
|-
| 2021
| ''[[Midsomer Murders]]''
| Caitlin Dawson
| Iqesm : « Scarecrow Murders »
|-
|}

=== Iwuraren n yiraḍ (Jeux vidéo) ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Aseggas
! Azwel
! Role
|-
| 2023
| ''[[The Lord of the Rings: Gollum]]''
| Mell
|-
|}

== Tiɣerɣart (théâtre) ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Aseggas
! Azwel
! Role
! class=&quot;unsortable&quot; | Awennit
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2008
| ''Triptych''
| Brandy
| [[Southwark Playhouse]], Londres
|-
| ''Word:Play 2''
|
| [[Theatre503]], Londres
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2009
| ''Oorah!''
|
| [[Finborough Theatre]], Londres
|-
| ''Dick Whittington''
| Alice Fitzwarren
| [[The Theatre Chipping Norton]]
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Dreamboats and Petticoats]]''
| Donna
| [[Playhouse Theatre]], Londres
|-
| 2011
| ''Fanta Orange''
| Ronnie
| Finborough Theatre, Londres&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Web |title=''Fanta Orange'' — Finborough Theatre. |url=https://finboroughtheatre.co.uk/production/fanta-orange/ |access-date=2025-09-13 |archive-date=2023-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819022524/https://finboroughtheatre.co.uk/production/fanta-orange/ |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| 2012
| ''[[A Chorus of Disapproval (play)|A Chorus of Disapproval]]''
| Linda Washbrook
| [[Harold Pinter Theatre]], Londres
|-
|}

== Tiwelhiwin ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Taggayt:Tiluli deg 1986]]
[[Taggayt:Tiluli di Dubay]]
[[Taggayt:Tamdint n tudert n tɣawsaṭ n temdint n Brittanya deg usrid n yiwen n wemzizel]]
[[Taggayt:Tamdint n tlalit n television n tanglizt]]
[[Taggayt:Tamdint n tlalit n uɣrum n tanglizt]]
[[Taggayt:Tamdint n tlalit n sinima n tanglizt]]</text>
      <sha1>tv9a2auzm85xfmfs2lva48ihjm7cqjt</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zhu Xi</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25178</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-10-12T18:36:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="2661" sha1="rtgm6yypk3v6hs147cw3m5mrogpm6o2" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q9397|image=[[File:唯一可靠的朱熹画像.jpg|thumb|唯一可靠的朱熹画像]]}}

'''Zhu Xi''' (1130-1200) yella d afelsaf n tmurt n Ccinwa, yerna d yiwen seg yergazen imeqqranen i d-yessemlin &quot;'''Takunfisyunit Tamaynut'''&quot; (Neo-Confucianism). D netta i d-yefkan udem i tfelsafit n Ccinwa i waṭas n lqurun, aladɣa di tallit n twacult n Song.

== Tudert-is s ==
Ilul-d di Fujian, di Ccinwa. Yeɣra aṭas segmi yella d ameẓyan. Yewwi amkan (leqdic) deg udabu n Ccinwa acḥal n tikkal, maca amur ameqqran n wakud-is issedda-t deg uselmed d tira. Yella yettnadi ad d-yaf lmeɛna n tidmi n ''Confucius'', maca s wallen n tallit-is.

== Tafelsafit-is ==
Tafelsafit n Zhu Xi tebna ɣef tmuɣli d tameẓlayt ɣef umeɣraḍ d umdan. Yebɣa ad d-yessemlil tidmi n ''Confucius'' d wayen i d-nnan ifelsafen nniḍen i t-id-yezwaren.

Iferreq ger sin n yiferdisen igejdanen n ddunit:

# '''Li (Amenzay):''' D &quot;amenzay&quot; neɣ &quot;alugen&quot; yellan deffir yal taɣawsa. Yal tɣawsa (amdan, tasekla, itri) tesɛa ''Li'' ines. D ayen i d-yettakken i tɣawsa talɣa-s d wamek i tella. D tidet tamagdezt ur nettbeddil ara.
# '''Qi (Taẓwert neɣ Tanga):''' D &quot;taẓwert n tudert&quot; neɣ &quot;tanga&quot; i yesseḍfaren ''Li''. D anagaw (matériel) n ddunit, d ayen iɣ-yeǧǧan nenṭer neɣ nemyeggarad. ''Qi'' yezmer ad yili d azedgan neɣ d arazedgan, d aya i d-yettaken amgired ger yimdanen d tɣawsiwin, ɣas akken sɛan yiwen n ''Li''.

'''Taiji (Agejdi Ameqqran)''' Ɣer '''Zhu Xi''', ''Taiji'' (yeqqar-as &quot;Tagara Tameqqrant&quot;) d llsas n yimenzayen ( ''Li'') merra. D netta i ten-id-yejmeɛn d yiwen.

'''Abrid n Uselmed (Gewu)''' Akken ad yegzu umdan ''Li'' (amenzay) n tɣawsiwin, yessefk ad yexdem ayen iwumi yesemma &quot;Gewu&quot; (Akayad n tɣawsiwin). Anamek-is, ilaq ad yezger, ad isleḍ tɣawsiwin n tudert n yal ass, seg tɣawsiwin timeẓyanin armi d timeqqranin, akken ad yegzu imenzayen i tent-iseddayen. S wakka, ad yelmed amek ad yidir s tuẓult d lmeɛqul.

== Tazrirt-is ==
Ayen yeqqimen mliḥ deffir Zhu Xi d leqdic-is ɣef &quot;Rebɛa n Yedlisen&quot; (Adlis Ameqqran, Tameddurt n Ulemmas, Awalen n Confucius, d Mencius).

* Yessemli-ten, yessefhem-iten yiwen yiwen.
* Iwenniten i yura ɣef yedlisen-a uɣalen d nutni i d llsas n uselmed unṣib di Ccinwa.
* Iwakken ad yawi yiwen amkan deg udabu (ad isɛeddi akayaḍ n unekcum), ilaq ad yissin mliḥ isegziyen n Zhu Xi.
* Tazrirt-is teqqim i qrib 700 n yiseggasen di Ccinwa, yerna teffeɣ armi d Japan d Kurya.

S wegzul, Zhu Xi d yiwen seg yifelsafen i yesɛan tazrirt tameqqrant akk, acku d netta i d-yessemlalen tidmi n Confucius tamzwarut d tmuɣli tamaynut, tamẓlayt, ɣef umeɣraḍ.</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>OpenAI</title>
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      <parentid>117621</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-12T13:52:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
      <origin>117627</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10542" sha1="rvsdko8rkmgr435jqcdbzdks2xct6mp" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company
| name = OpenAI
| official_name = OpenAI
| type = Taṛmist
| founded = 2015
| founder = Sam Altman, Elon Musk, Greg Brockman, Ilya Sutskever, Wojciech Zaremba, John Schulman
| headquarters = San Francisco
| country = Iwunak Yedduklen
| industry = Tigzi taragmawant
| products = ChatGPT, DALL·E, Sora
| website = https://openai.com
|image=[[File:1515 Third Street.jpg|300px]]}}

'''OpenAI''' d taṛmist n unadi d usnas deg '''[[Tigzi Taragmawant|tigzi taragmawant]]''' (AI) i d-yennulfan deg useggas 2015 deg Marikan, d tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt. Iswi agejdan i d-teskanay OpenAI d ad teḍmen belli tigzi taragmawant tamatut (AGI) ad d-tawi abaɣur i yimdanen merra. Ass-a, OpenAI tettwassen s waṭas s yifarisen d yinagrawen am ChatGPT, imudam GPT, Codex, akked wallalen i yesseqdacen imsihal seg API.

== 1. Talalit n OpenAI ==
OpenAI tettwasnulfa-d sɣur [[Sam Altman]] d [[Elon Musk]] d wiyaḍ deg 2015 am tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt (nonprofit). Seg tazwara, tuddsa-a tefka iman-is yiwen n yiswi ɣezzifen: asnerni n tigzi taragmawant s wudem ara d-yawin abaɣur i yimdanen merra, ladɣa ma tewweḍ tetiknulujit-a ɣer uswir n '''tigzi taragmawant tamatut'''.

Tamiḍrant-a tettak azal i wugur ameqqran: ma yella inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant uɣalen sɛan tazmert meqqren, ilaq tazmert-nsen ur tettwakerrez ara kan deg ufus n kra n yimdanen, n tiṛmisin neɣ n tmura, maca ad tettwaseqdac i lfayda tamatut.

Deg 2019, OpenAI tesnulfa-d aferdis n tedrimt iwakken ad tessiweḍ ad d-tawi idrimen, imdanen d tazmert n usiḍen i ilaqen i usnerni n yimudam imeqqranen. Aferdis-a yella ddaw n leḥkem n tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt.

== 2. D acu-tt tigzi taragmawant? ==
Tigzi taragmawant d taɣult n tussna d tetiknulujit i yesnernayen inagrawen n tmacint i izemren ad xedmen tiwuriwin i yeḥwaǧǧen s umata kra n tzemmar n tigzi: tegzi n tutlayt, tifrat n wuguren, asuddes n yisefka, tira n yiḍrisen, asnulfu n tugniwin, asihel, neɣ tuddma n kra n yimektayen seg yisefka.

Ur ilaq ara, ad nefhem awal tigzi dagi amzun tamacint tesɛa iman, iḥulfan neɣ tamuɣli n umaḍal am umdan. Imudam n tura d inagrawen n uiḍen i yettwaselmaden ɣef yisefka yerna xeddmen s yimenzayen n tussna n uselmed n tmacint.

OpenAI tettadi ladɣa deg yimudam imuqqranen(frontier), asuddes d tifrat n wuguren, inagrawen i izemren ad gzun ugar n yiwen n wanaw n yisefka (multimodal systems), akked wamek ara yettwaseqdec AI s tɣellist.

== 3. Tigzi taragmawant tamatut — AGI ==
Iswi ɣezzifen n OpenAI yeqqen ɣer wayen i semman ''Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)'', i nezmer ad d-nini s teqbaylit tigzi taragmawant tamatut.

OpenAI tesbadut AGI am inagrawen s timmad-nsen i izemren ad ɣelben imdanen deg tuget n twuriwin yesɛan azal adamsan.

Tamiḍrant n tamatut d tagejdant. Anagraw n tigzi taragmawant yezmer ad yili igerraz deg yiwet n twuri kan; AGI, ma tewweḍ tetiknulujit ɣer din, ilaq ad tesɛu tazmert wessiɛen: ad tegzu uguren yemgaraden, ad tesdukkel tamusni seg waṭas n taɣulin, ad tesseqdec ayen telmed deg tegnatin timaynutin, yerna ad tefru uguren ur nettwaselmed ara fell-asen s talɣa tusridt.

OpenAI tettwali AGI am iswi n wakud ɣezzifen, maca akud ilaqen akken ad naweḍ ɣer AGI mazal ur yettwassen ara.

== 4. Imudam GPT ==
Gar yisenfaren i d-yerran OpenAI tettwassen deg umaḍal llan imudam GPT — ''Generative Pre-trained Transformer''.

Imudam-a d inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant i yettwaselmaden ɣef yisefka imeqqranen. S uselmed-a, zemren ad gzun asiḍen n tutlayt, ad d-snulfun iḍrisen, ad d-rren ɣef yisteqsiyen, ad frun uguren, ad ɛiwnen deg usihel, yerna imudam imaynuten zemren ad xedmen akked yiḍrisen, tugniwin d wanawen-nniḍen n yisefka. OpenAI teskanay tawacult GPT am inagrawen i izemren ad gzun asiḍen, ad d-snulfun agbur yerna ad xedmen tifrat n wuguren deg waṭas n yimeslayen n yisefka.

Anamek n azarsileɣ(pre-trained) d akken amudam yettwaselmad uqbel ad yettwaseqdec deg udiwenni. Turriwt(Generative), ma d nettat, temmal-d tazmert-is n usnulfu n ugemmuḍ am yiḍrisen neɣ tangalt n useɣẓan.

== 5. ChatGPT ==
[[ChatGPT]] d afaris agejdan n OpenAI i yiseqdacen. D agrudem n udiwenni i yettaǧǧan amdan ad yesseqdec imudam n tigzi taragmawant s tutlayt tagamant. OpenAI tessegza ChatGPT am ufaris-is agejdan i yiseqdacen.

Aseqdac yezmer ad yesteqsi, ad yessuter asegzi, ad yaru neɣ ad iseɣti aḍris, ad yesseqdec tasleḍt, ad yelmed tamiḍrant n tussna, ad yessuter tallelt deg usihel, neɣ ad ixdem ɣef yisefka d yisemliyen.

Azal n ChatGPT deg umezruy n tigzi taragmawant d ameqqran acku yessekcem imudam n tutlayt ɣer useqdec n yal ass. Deg umḍiq anda tigzi taragmawant tella tettwassen ladɣa deg tesdawiyin, tanaremt d tkebbaniyin n tetiknulujit, agrudem n udiwenni yerra-tt d allal i yezmer ad yesseqdec umdan s tutlayt-is.

== 6. Codex d usihel ==
Taɣult-nniḍen i deg tesseqdac OpenAI tigzi taragmawant s waṭas d asihel.

'''Codex''' d anagraw n tigzi taragmawant i yellan i uxeddim ɣef tengalt d yisenfaren n useɣẓan. Yezmer ad yegzu tangalt yellan, ad yesseɣti tuccḍiwin, ad ibeddel taneɣruft n usenfar, ad yernu timahilin timaynutin, yerna ad ixdem tiwuriwin n usihel seg tazwara ar taggara.

Anect-a yeskanay abeddel meqqren deg useqdec n tigzi taragmawant: seg unagraw i d-yettarra kan ɣef yisteqsiyen ɣer umeggi n tigzi taragmawant (AI agent) i izemren ad yesseqdec allalen, ad ixdem ddeqs n yimahilen yerna ad ikemmel ɣer yiswi i as-yettunefken.

== 7. Anadi deg OpenAI ==
OpenAI mačči d taṛmist n yifarisen kan. Anadi yezga d yiwen seg yiḥricen-is igejdanen.

Taṛmist txeddem ɣef usnerni n yimudam n tigzi taragmawant, tifrat n wuguren, inagrawen wagutaskaran(multimodal), tɣellist, akked useqdec n yimudam s wudem ara yilin d abaɣur i yimdanen.

Yiwet seg tmuɣliwin timeqqranin d aseqdec n tigzi taragmawant deg unadi ussnan. Deg tiɣula am tusnakt, tussna, asihel d tesleḍt n yisefka, anagraw yezmer ad yuɣal d allal ara iɛiwnen imnadiyen deg usnulfu n turdiwin, tifrat n wuguren d useɣiwel n unadi.

== 8. Taɣellist d umṣada ==
Mi ara tettnerni tazmert n tigzi taragmawant, yettnerni daɣen wazal n tɣellist.

Anagraw yesɛan tazmert meqqren yezmer ad d-yawi abaɣur, maca yezmer daɣen ad d-yawi uguren ma yella ixdem tuccḍiwin, ma yettwaseqdec i wayen n diri, neɣ ma yella tikli-s ur temṣada ara akked wayen i yebɣa umdan.

Ɣef waya, OpenAI tessemras tamiḍrant n &quot;''alignment&quot;'', i d-yemmalen s umata amṣada n tikli n unagraw n tigzi taragmawant akked yiswan d tɣellist i d-yefka umdan.

'''''OpenAI Charter''''' yesseḥbibber ɣef sin yimenzayen meqqren: ad yettwabḍu ubaɣur n AGI s wudem wessiɛen, yerna ad yettwaseḥbiber ɣef tɣellist n wakud ɣezzifen.

== 9. Taneɣruft n OpenAI ==
Taneɣruft n OpenAI tbeddel s wakud.

OpenAI tebda deg 2015 d tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt. Deg 2019, tesnulfa-d aferdis n tedrimt iwakken ad tesnerni anadi d usnas-is.

Deg 28 Tubber 2025, tettwasekna-d taneɣruft tamaynut:

tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt tuɣal tettusemma ''OpenAI Foundation'';

aferdis n tedrimt yuɣal d ''OpenAI Group PBC'', anamek-is d ''Public Benefit Corporation'';

''OpenAI Foundation'' teqqim tettḥekkim deg ''OpenAI Group''.

OpenAI Foundation tesɛa 26% n iḥricen deg ''OpenAI Group''. Microsoft, deg tallit n useggem n taneɣruft, tesɛa azal n 27%, ma d 47% i d-yeqqimen sɛan-t ixeddamen n tura d wid yezrin akked yimendaden-nniḍen.

Taneɣruft-a tebɣa ad tesdukkel iswi n OpenAI akked tezmert-is ad d-tawi idrimen imeqqranen i yeḥwaǧǧ unadi n tigzi taragmawant.

== 10. Tazmert n usiḍen ==
Aselmed n yimudam imeqqranen n tigzi taragmawant yeḥwaǧǧ ddeqs n tezmert n usiḍen.

Anect-a yesɛa azal acku asnerni n yimudam ur yeqqin ara kan ɣer tarrayin n uselmed. Yeḥwaǧǧ daɣen iselkimen s tezmert tameqqrant n usiḍen, tiḥerci n yisefka, tazmert n trisiti, iẓeḍwan, isefka d tedrimt.

Ɣef waya, tigzi taragmawant n uswir unnig tuɣal d taɣult anda anadi ussnan, tiḥerci n usiḍen d tdamsa qqnen gar-asen.

== 11. OpenAI d Microsoft ==
Microsoft tesɛa assaɣ adamsan d utiknulujan ameqqran akked OpenAI. Deg taneɣruft i yettwasbedden deg 2025, Microsoft tesɛa azal n 27% n OpenAI Group.

Assaɣ-a yesɛa azal ladɣa deg tezmert n usiḍen d usnerni n yifarisen n tigzi taragmawant. Maca, deg taneɣruft n leḥkem n OpenAI, OpenAI Foundation i yeqqimen tettḥekkim deg OpenAI Group, mačči Microsoft.

== 12. OpenAI deg 2026 ==
Deg 2026, OpenAI ur teqqim ara d tanaremt n unadi kan. Tuɣal d taṛmist tameqqrant i yesɛan inagrawen i yiseqdacen, allalen i yimsihel, API i tkebbaniyin, imudam n tigzi taragmawant n uswir unnig, akked yimeggiyen i izemren ad xedmen tiwuriwin ɣezzifen.

ChatGPT d Codex mmalen-d sin n wudmawen n ubeddel-a: ChatGPT d agrudem wessiɛen n tigzi taragmawant i yiseqdacen, ma d Codex yettwabna ugar i uxeddim s tengalt d yisenfaren n useɣẓan.

Anadi n OpenAI yettkemmil daɣen deg tifrat n wuguren, imudam ugetaskaran, tɣellist d usnerni n ubrid ɣer AGI.

== 13. Abaɣur i tmetti ==
Tigzi taragmawant tezmer ad tbeddel aṭas n tiɣula: aselmed, tussna, tadamsa, asihel, aẓeṭṭa, axeddim, tasensegmit, asnulfu d unadi ussnan.

Ma yella inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant zemren ad xedmen ugar n twuriwin i ixeddem umdan ass-a, ad d-ffɣen yisteqsiyen imaynuten:

Amek ara tbeddel tarrayt n uxeddim? Anwi ixeddamen ara d-ilalen? Anwi ara ibeddlen neɣ ara iruḥen? Amek ara ttwasqedcen yimudam-a deg uselmed? Anwa ara yesɛun leḥkem ɣef yiḥricen igejdanen n tetiknulujit-a? Amek ara neḍmen belli abaɣur-is ad ibḍu gar yimdanen?

D isteqsiyen-a i yerran asnerni n tigzi taragmawant mačči d tamsalt n tetiknulujit kan, maca d tamsalt tadamsant, tinmettit, tasertant d tasertit n tussna.

== 14. Uguren d umeslay ɣef OpenAI ==
Am yal taṛmist tameqqrant n tetiknulujit, OpenAI tettmagar isteqsiyen d umeslay ɣef tarrayt-is.

Gar temsal tigejdanin llan: aḥraz n yisefka, tanezzut n yimudam, asemres n wayen d-yettwafkan sɣur yimdanen i uselmed n yimudam, tɣellist, leḥkem ɣef tetiknulujit, tasertit n yifarisen, tasertit n uxeddim, akked wamek ara tettbeddil tigzi taragmawant tuddsa n tmetti.

Ɣef waya, OpenAI ur ilaq ara ad tettwafhem kan seg yifarisen-is. Iwakken ad nefhem azal-is, ilaq ad nwali daɣen tamsalt tameqqrant i d-tessufuɣ tetiknulujit i tesnernay: anwa ara yessnernin tigzi taragmawant n uzekka, anwa ara tt-yesqedcen, anwa ara yettḥekkimen deg-s, yerna anwa ara yawin abaɣur seg-s?</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-10-12T19:11:46Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
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      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
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      <text bytes="10559" sha1="dbjy538ky993rh60y2ubu52tyjhm335" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company
| name = OpenAI
| official_name = OpenAI
| type = Taṛmist Tatiknulujit
| founded = 2015
| founder = Sam Altman, Elon Musk, Greg Brockman, Ilya Sutskever, Wojciech Zaremba, John Schulman
| headquarters = San Francisco
| country = Iwunak Yedduklen
| industry = Tigzi taragmawant
| products = ChatGPT, DALL·E, Sora
| website = https://openai.com
| image = [[File:1515 Third Street.jpg|300px]]
}}

'''OpenAI''' d taṛmist n unadi d usnas deg '''[[Tigzi Taragmawant|tigzi taragmawant]]''' (AI) i d-yennulfan deg useggas 2015 deg Marikan, d tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt. Iswi agejdan i d-teskanay OpenAI d ad teḍmen belli tigzi taragmawant tamatut (AGI) ad d-tawi abaɣur i yimdanen merra. Ass-a, OpenAI tettwassen s waṭas s yifarisen d yinagrawen am ChatGPT, imudam GPT, Codex, akked wallalen i yesseqdacen imsihal seg API.

== 1. Talalit n OpenAI ==
OpenAI tettwasnulfa-d sɣur [[Sam Altman]] d [[Elon Musk]] d wiyaḍ deg 2015 am tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt (nonprofit). Seg tazwara, tuddsa-a tefka iman-is yiwen n yiswi ɣezzifen: asnerni n tigzi taragmawant s wudem ara d-yawin abaɣur i yimdanen merra, ladɣa ma tewweḍ tetiknulujit-a ɣer uswir n '''tigzi taragmawant tamatut'''.

Tamiḍrant-a tettak azal i wugur ameqqran: ma yella inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant uɣalen sɛan tazmert meqqren, ilaq tazmert-nsen ur tettwakerrez ara kan deg ufus n kra n yimdanen, n tiṛmisin neɣ n tmura, maca ad tettwaseqdac i lfayda tamatut.

Deg 2019, OpenAI tesnulfa-d aferdis n tedrimt iwakken ad tessiweḍ ad d-tawi idrimen, imdanen d tazmert n usiḍen i ilaqen i usnerni n yimudam imeqqranen. Aferdis-a yella ddaw n leḥkem n tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt.

== 2. D acu-tt tigzi taragmawant? ==
Tigzi taragmawant d taɣult n tussna d tetiknulujit i yesnernayen inagrawen n tmacint i izemren ad xedmen tiwuriwin i yeḥwaǧǧen s umata kra n tzemmar n tigzi: tegzi n tutlayt, tifrat n wuguren, asuddes n yisefka, tira n yiḍrisen, asnulfu n tugniwin, asihel, neɣ tuddma n kra n yimektayen seg yisefka.

Ur ilaq ara, ad nefhem awal tigzi dagi amzun tamacint tesɛa iman, iḥulfan neɣ tamuɣli n umaḍal am umdan. Imudam n tura d inagrawen n uiḍen i yettwaselmaden ɣef yisefka yerna xeddmen s yimenzayen n tussna n uselmed n tmacint.

OpenAI tettadi ladɣa deg yimudam imuqqranen(frontier), asuddes d tifrat n wuguren, inagrawen i izemren ad gzun ugar n yiwen n wanaw n yisefka (multimodal systems), akked wamek ara yettwaseqdec AI s tɣellist.

== 3. Tigzi taragmawant tamatut — AGI ==
Iswi ɣezzifen n OpenAI yeqqen ɣer wayen i semman ''Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)'', i nezmer ad d-nini s teqbaylit tigzi taragmawant tamatut.

OpenAI tesbadut AGI am inagrawen s timmad-nsen i izemren ad ɣelben imdanen deg tuget n twuriwin yesɛan azal adamsan.

Tamiḍrant n tamatut d tagejdant. Anagraw n tigzi taragmawant yezmer ad yili igerraz deg yiwet n twuri kan; AGI, ma tewweḍ tetiknulujit ɣer din, ilaq ad tesɛu tazmert wessiɛen: ad tegzu uguren yemgaraden, ad tesdukkel tamusni seg waṭas n taɣulin, ad tesseqdec ayen telmed deg tegnatin timaynutin, yerna ad tefru uguren ur nettwaselmed ara fell-asen s talɣa tusridt.

OpenAI tettwali AGI am iswi n wakud ɣezzifen, maca akud ilaqen akken ad naweḍ ɣer AGI mazal ur yettwassen ara.

== 4. Imudam GPT ==
Gar yisenfaren i d-yerran OpenAI tettwassen deg umaḍal llan imudam GPT — ''Generative Pre-trained Transformer''.

Imudam-a d inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant i yettwaselmaden ɣef yisefka imeqqranen. S uselmed-a, zemren ad gzun asiḍen n tutlayt, ad d-snulfun iḍrisen, ad d-rren ɣef yisteqsiyen, ad frun uguren, ad ɛiwnen deg usihel, yerna imudam imaynuten zemren ad xedmen akked yiḍrisen, tugniwin d wanawen-nniḍen n yisefka. OpenAI teskanay tawacult GPT am inagrawen i izemren ad gzun asiḍen, ad d-snulfun agbur yerna ad xedmen tifrat n wuguren deg waṭas n yimeslayen n yisefka.

Anamek n azarsileɣ(pre-trained) d akken amudam yettwaselmad uqbel ad yettwaseqdec deg udiwenni. Turriwt(Generative), ma d nettat, temmal-d tazmert-is n usnulfu n ugemmuḍ am yiḍrisen neɣ tangalt n useɣẓan.

== 5. ChatGPT ==
[[ChatGPT]] d afaris agejdan n OpenAI i yiseqdacen. D agrudem n udiwenni i yettaǧǧan amdan ad yesseqdec imudam n tigzi taragmawant s tutlayt tagamant. OpenAI tessegza ChatGPT am ufaris-is agejdan i yiseqdacen.

Aseqdac yezmer ad yesteqsi, ad yessuter asegzi, ad yaru neɣ ad iseɣti aḍris, ad yesseqdec tasleḍt, ad yelmed tamiḍrant n tussna, ad yessuter tallelt deg usihel, neɣ ad ixdem ɣef yisefka d yisemliyen.

Azal n ChatGPT deg umezruy n tigzi taragmawant d ameqqran acku yessekcem imudam n tutlayt ɣer useqdec n yal ass. Deg umḍiq anda tigzi taragmawant tella tettwassen ladɣa deg tesdawiyin, tanaremt d tkebbaniyin n tetiknulujit, agrudem n udiwenni yerra-tt d allal i yezmer ad yesseqdec umdan s tutlayt-is.

== 6. Codex d usihel ==
Taɣult-nniḍen i deg tesseqdac OpenAI tigzi taragmawant s waṭas d asihel.

'''Codex''' d anagraw n tigzi taragmawant i yellan i uxeddim ɣef tengalt d yisenfaren n useɣẓan. Yezmer ad yegzu tangalt yellan, ad yesseɣti tuccḍiwin, ad ibeddel taneɣruft n usenfar, ad yernu timahilin timaynutin, yerna ad ixdem tiwuriwin n usihel seg tazwara ar taggara.

Anect-a yeskanay abeddel meqqren deg useqdec n tigzi taragmawant: seg unagraw i d-yettarra kan ɣef yisteqsiyen ɣer umeggi n tigzi taragmawant (AI agent) i izemren ad yesseqdec allalen, ad ixdem ddeqs n yimahilen yerna ad ikemmel ɣer yiswi i as-yettunefken.

== 7. Anadi deg OpenAI ==
OpenAI mačči d taṛmist n yifarisen kan. Anadi yezga d yiwen seg yiḥricen-is igejdanen.

Taṛmist txeddem ɣef usnerni n yimudam n tigzi taragmawant, tifrat n wuguren, inagrawen wagutaskaran(multimodal), tɣellist, akked useqdec n yimudam s wudem ara yilin d abaɣur i yimdanen.

Yiwet seg tmuɣliwin timeqqranin d aseqdec n tigzi taragmawant deg unadi ussnan. Deg tiɣula am tusnakt, tussna, asihel d tesleḍt n yisefka, anagraw yezmer ad yuɣal d allal ara iɛiwnen imnadiyen deg usnulfu n turdiwin, tifrat n wuguren d useɣiwel n unadi.

== 8. Taɣellist d umṣada ==
Mi ara tettnerni tazmert n tigzi taragmawant, yettnerni daɣen wazal n tɣellist.

Anagraw yesɛan tazmert meqqren yezmer ad d-yawi abaɣur, maca yezmer daɣen ad d-yawi uguren ma yella ixdem tuccḍiwin, ma yettwaseqdec i wayen n diri, neɣ ma yella tikli-s ur temṣada ara akked wayen i yebɣa umdan.

Ɣef waya, OpenAI tessemras tamiḍrant n &quot;''alignment&quot;'', i d-yemmalen s umata amṣada n tikli n unagraw n tigzi taragmawant akked yiswan d tɣellist i d-yefka umdan.

'''''OpenAI Charter''''' yesseḥbibber ɣef sin yimenzayen meqqren: ad yettwabḍu ubaɣur n AGI s wudem wessiɛen, yerna ad yettwaseḥbiber ɣef tɣellist n wakud ɣezzifen.

== 9. Taneɣruft n OpenAI ==
Taneɣruft n OpenAI tbeddel s wakud.

OpenAI tebda deg 2015 d tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt. Deg 2019, tesnulfa-d aferdis n tedrimt iwakken ad tesnerni anadi d usnas-is.

Deg 28 Tubber 2025, tettwasekna-d taneɣruft tamaynut:

tuddsa ur nettnadi ara ɣef tedrimt tuɣal tettusemma ''OpenAI Foundation'';

aferdis n tedrimt yuɣal d ''OpenAI Group PBC'', anamek-is d ''Public Benefit Corporation'';

''OpenAI Foundation'' teqqim tettḥekkim deg ''OpenAI Group''.

OpenAI Foundation tesɛa 26% n iḥricen deg ''OpenAI Group''. Microsoft, deg tallit n useggem n taneɣruft, tesɛa azal n 27%, ma d 47% i d-yeqqimen sɛan-t ixeddamen n tura d wid yezrin akked yimendaden-nniḍen.

Taneɣruft-a tebɣa ad tesdukkel iswi n OpenAI akked tezmert-is ad d-tawi idrimen imeqqranen i yeḥwaǧǧ unadi n tigzi taragmawant.

== 10. Tazmert n usiḍen ==
Aselmed n yimudam imeqqranen n tigzi taragmawant yeḥwaǧǧ ddeqs n tezmert n usiḍen.

Anect-a yesɛa azal acku asnerni n yimudam ur yeqqin ara kan ɣer tarrayin n uselmed. Yeḥwaǧǧ daɣen iselkimen s tezmert tameqqrant n usiḍen, tiḥerci n yisefka, tazmert n trisiti, iẓeḍwan, isefka d tedrimt.

Ɣef waya, tigzi taragmawant n uswir unnig tuɣal d taɣult anda anadi ussnan, tiḥerci n usiḍen d tdamsa qqnen gar-asen.

== 11. OpenAI d Microsoft ==
Microsoft tesɛa assaɣ adamsan d utiknulujan ameqqran akked OpenAI. Deg taneɣruft i yettwasbedden deg 2025, Microsoft tesɛa azal n 27% n OpenAI Group.

Assaɣ-a yesɛa azal ladɣa deg tezmert n usiḍen d usnerni n yifarisen n tigzi taragmawant. Maca, deg taneɣruft n leḥkem n OpenAI, OpenAI Foundation i yeqqimen tettḥekkim deg OpenAI Group, mačči Microsoft.

== 12. OpenAI deg 2026 ==
Deg 2026, OpenAI ur teqqim ara d tanaremt n unadi kan. Tuɣal d taṛmist tameqqrant i yesɛan inagrawen i yiseqdacen, allalen i yimsihel, API i tkebbaniyin, imudam n tigzi taragmawant n uswir unnig, akked yimeggiyen i izemren ad xedmen tiwuriwin ɣezzifen.

ChatGPT d Codex mmalen-d sin n wudmawen n ubeddel-a: ChatGPT d agrudem wessiɛen n tigzi taragmawant i yiseqdacen, ma d Codex yettwabna ugar i uxeddim s tengalt d yisenfaren n useɣẓan.

Anadi n OpenAI yettkemmil daɣen deg tifrat n wuguren, imudam ugetaskaran, tɣellist d usnerni n ubrid ɣer AGI.

== 13. Abaɣur i tmetti ==
Tigzi taragmawant tezmer ad tbeddel aṭas n tiɣula: aselmed, tussna, tadamsa, asihel, aẓeṭṭa, axeddim, tasensegmit, asnulfu d unadi ussnan.

Ma yella inagrawen n tigzi taragmawant zemren ad xedmen ugar n twuriwin i ixeddem umdan ass-a, ad d-ffɣen yisteqsiyen imaynuten:

Amek ara tbeddel tarrayt n uxeddim? Anwi ixeddamen ara d-ilalen? Anwi ara ibeddlen neɣ ara iruḥen? Amek ara ttwasqedcen yimudam-a deg uselmed? Anwa ara yesɛun leḥkem ɣef yiḥricen igejdanen n tetiknulujit-a? Amek ara neḍmen belli abaɣur-is ad ibḍu gar yimdanen?

D isteqsiyen-a i yerran asnerni n tigzi taragmawant mačči d tamsalt n tetiknulujit kan, maca d tamsalt tadamsant, tinmettit, tasertant d tasertit n tussna.

== 14. Uguren d umeslay ɣef OpenAI ==
Am yal taṛmist tameqqrant n tetiknulujit, OpenAI tettmagar isteqsiyen d umeslay ɣef tarrayt-is.

Gar temsal tigejdanin llan: aḥraz n yisefka, tanezzut n yimudam, asemres n wayen d-yettwafkan sɣur yimdanen i uselmed n yimudam, tɣellist, leḥkem ɣef tetiknulujit, tasertit n yifarisen, tasertit n uxeddim, akked wamek ara tettbeddil tigzi taragmawant tuddsa n tmetti.

Ɣef waya, OpenAI ur ilaq ara ad tettwafhem kan seg yifarisen-is. Iwakken ad nefhem azal-is, ilaq ad nwali daɣen tamsalt tameqqrant i d-tessufuɣ tetiknulujit i tesnernay: anwa ara yessnernin tigzi taragmawant n uzekka, anwa ara tt-yesqedcen, anwa ara yettḥekkimen deg-s, yerna anwa ara yawin abaɣur seg-s?</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Asfukel war tukci n tmusni</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>117636</id>
      <parentid>117626</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-13T11:03:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
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      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="18874" sha1="8krrshjnf8yurhvuhjmi3jorp1mxl8r" xml:space="preserve">'''Asfukel war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: zero-knowledge proof, ZKP) d tarrayt deg uwgelhan i yessemras yiwen umdan neɣ yiwen unagraw iwakken ad isfukel i wayeḍ belli yiwet n tenfalit d tidet, war ma yefka-as talɣut nniḍen ɣef wayen yeffren, nnig wayen i d-temmal tenfalit-nni d yisefka izuyaz. Taɣara-a teqqen ɣer wamek i yettwasileɣ usfukel, mačči kan ɣer usuffeɣ neɣ war asuffeɣ n tuffirt s wudem usrid.

== Isem d unamek ==
« War tukci n tmusni » ur d-yemmal ara belli win yesneqden ur d-yelmid acemma. Yettwali belli tanfalit i as-d-yettunefken tettwaqbel s yilugan n unagraw. Ayen ur d-ilemmid ara d talɣut nniḍen ɣef tuffirt i yellan deffir usfukel. S umedya, ad iselken belli amdan yesɛa tasarut tuffirt, war ma yessen azal n tsarut-nni.

== Amezruy d usnerni n tmiḍrant ==

=== Seg yisfukal imatuten ɣer yisfukal s usdiwen ===
Deg usfukel n tusnakt i nennum, win i d-yettaken asfukel yeskanay-d tikli i izemren ad teḍfer tayeḍ. Maca deg uwgelhan, tikli-nni tezmer ad tesban talɣut i ilaq ad teqqim d tuffirt. Timiḍrant n ZK tefruri-d seg usteqsi-a: amek ara nesfukel tidet n kra, war ma nesban-d meṛṛa ayen i aɣ-yeǧǧan ad t-nessen?

''Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Charles Rackoff'' sbedden tigejda n taɣult-a deg leqdic i d-yeffɣen deg STOC deg 1985. Lqem-is aɣezfan yeffeɣ-d deg ''SIAM Journal on'' ''Computing'' deg 1989. Leqdic-a yesdukkel asfukel s '''usdiwen''', '''taseqqart''' d '''usenqed n''' '''tmusni''' i yezmer ad d-yerbeḥ win yesneqden. 

=== Asemres ɣef ugur imatu ===
''Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Avi Wigderson'' sbegnen belli, ma llan kra n tesɣunin i yessehlen i usiḍen deg yiwet n tnila maca iweɛren i tuɣalin ɣer deffir (one-way functions), yal tutlayt deg taggayt NP tesɛa asfukel s usdiwen war tukci n tmusni. Leqdic-nsen yettwabder deg 1986, lqem aɣezfan-is deg 1991. Aya yessuffeɣ timiḍrant seg kra n wuguren n yimḍanen ɣer yiwet n taɣult tasnaẓrayant wessiɛen.

=== Tuɣalin ɣer leqdic war asdiwen ===
Deg 1988, ''Manuel Blum'', ''Paul Feldman'' akked ''Silvio Micali'' ssuffɣen-d leqdic agejdan ɣef yisfukal war asdiwen d yiseqdacen-nsen. Iɣewwaṛen izuyaz yezdin gar win yesfukulen d win yesneqden zemren ad ilin d lsas n leqdic-a. Ihi, « war asdiwen » ur yemmal ara « war uheggi » neɣ « war tawsit n unagraw ». 

=== Tallit n yisfukal iwezlan ===
Deg yiseggasen 2010, inadiyen ɣef yisfukal iwezlan, aselken arurad d leḥsab ameqqran ssawḍen ɣer twaculin am '''Groth16''', '''Bulletproofs''', '''STARK''', '''PLONK''' d '''Halo'''. Yal tawacult tesɛa ilugan d yiswan-is: temẓi n usfukel, akud n usnulfu, tmara n uselken neɣ tukksa n uheggi i yettḥwaǧen laman deg umdan wis kraḍ.

== 2. Tabadut tusnakt d yiwudam n leqdic ==
I ussegzi n tarrayt, nettsemmi P i win yesfukulen (prover), V i win yesneqden (verifier), x i yisefka izuyaz, w i uselkin uffir (witness). Assaɣ R yesbadu ayen ilaq ad yili d tidet gar x d w. 

'''R(x, w) = 1'''

Tanfalit i nettḥeqqiq d tin i d-yeqqaren belli '''illa''' w i yesɛan assaɣ-a d x. Tagrumma n yisefka izuyaz i yesɛan aselkin yettwabdar s:

'''L = { x : illa w, R(x, w) = 1 }'''

S umedya n ussegzi, x yezmer ad yili d azal y n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ H; w d amḍan uffir s = w. Assaɣ yettwasenqed d H(s) = y. Yezmer daɣen ad yili x d agmuḍ n leḥsab, w d isefka uffiren akked tikli n leḥsab i d-yessawḍen ɣer ugmuḍ-nni. Umḍan n yiwudam ur yettbeddilara tabadut: zemren ad ilin d imdanen, d iqeddacen neɣ d iseɣẓanen.

=== Kraḍ n tewtilin tigejdanin ===
'''Aqbal n wayen iṣeḥḥan''' (completeness). Ma x yesɛa aselkin iwatan, yerna P d V ḍefren ilugan, asfukel ilaq ad yettwaqbel s tseqqart meqqren, neɣ dima deg kra n yinagrawen.

'''Agi n wayen ur neṣṣiḥ ara''' (soundness). Ma x ur yesɛi ula d yiwen n uselkin iwatan, ilaq ad tili tseqqart n uɣelli n V deg tuccḍa d tameẓyant akken iwata, ɣas P yeɛreḍ ad iɣucc. Taɣara-a tḥerrez tidet n usfukel.

'''War tukci n tmusni''' (zero knowledge). Talɣut i d-yettawi V seg leqdic ilaq ad tezmer

ad tettwaserwes war aselkin uffir. Taɣara-a tḥerrez ayen i yessen P; ur tettwasefhem ara s wawal « uffir » kan.  Taɣellist tettwasbadu s yiwen uɣewwaṛ λ. Taseqqart i wumi neqqar « tameẓyant akken iwata » tezmer ad tili d tin i yettidiren ddaw n 1/λk i yal k &gt; 0, ma λ meqqer akken iwata. D aya i d-anamek n negligible deg tbadutin-a.

== Asfukel d afukal ==
Deg unamek usdid, ''anza'' yesseḥbibir ɣef tidet ula mgal win yesfukulen s tzemmar n leḥsab ur nesɛi ara tilisa. Afukal(Argument) yettḥerrez tidet mgal aɣuccam(win iɣuccen) i yesɛan tazmert n leḥsab talast. Deg uḍris imatu, awal « asfukel » yettwasemras i snat-a; deg usenqed tusnakt, amgired-a ilaq ad yettwaḥrez.

=== Tugna 1. Asfukel d uselkin uffir ===
Win yesfukulen yessemras aselkin uffir; win yesneqden yesseḥḥay tanfalit s usfukel d yisefka izuyaz.
[[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|400x400px]]

== 3. Aserwes d unamek usdid n ZK ==

=== Aserwas am tewtilt n usfukel ===
'''Aserwas''' (simulator) d axwerzim(alguritm) i d-yeslalayen ayen i izemren ad iwali win yesneqden, war ma yesɛa aselkin uffir. Deg tabadut n ZK, ilaq ayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas ad yemcabi, ilmend n tewtilt tusnakt i nettsemras, ayen i d-yettawi win yesneqden seg leqdic ilaw. Ma nezmer ad neslal talɣut-nni war tuffirt, tikli n usfukel ur as-d-terni ara talɣut i izemren ad tessegzi tuffirt. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli '''aɣuccam''' yezmer ad d-yesnulfu yal asfukel yebɣa deg unagraw ilaw. Aserwes yezmer ad yessemres tarrayt tasnaẓrayant am tuɣalin ɣer kra n waddaden n win yesneqden, neɣ yiwen n uheggi n usenqed i yemgaraden ɣef uheggi ilaw. Iwakkenad tettwaḥrez tidet, tarrayin-a ilaq ad ttwasbadunt deg umedya tusnakt n tɣellist.

=== Kraḍ n talɣiwin n umcabi ===
'''War tukci n tmusni s wudem ummid''' (perfect zero knowledge). Tiski n wayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas d tin n leqdic ilaw d yiwet s tusnakt.

'''War tukci n tmusni s waddadan''' (statistical zero knowledge). Sin n yisuffaɣ qriben nezzeh deg tseqqart; amgired-nsen d ameẓyan akken iwata, ɣas win i ten-yesneqden yesɛa tazmert n usiḍen(leḥsab) war tilisa.

'''War tukci n tmusni n usiḍen''' (computational zero knowledge). Axwerzim i yesɛan tilisa n usiḍen(leḥsab) ur yezmir ara ad yefrez gar sin n yisuffaɣ s tzemmar yugaren talast tameẓyant i tettwasbadun. Taɣara-a tezmer ad tbedd ɣef ugur tusnakt i yettwaḥsaben d aweɛran.

== Win yesneqden s laman d win iɣuccen ==
Kra n yisfukal ttwaseknen kan d ''War tukci n tmusni'''''('''ZK) ma ara yelli win yesneqden yeḍfer ilugan: aya d &quot;''honest-verifier zero knowledge, HVZK&quot;''. ''War tukci n tmusni(''ZK) mgal win yesneqden iɣuccen ilaq ad tesseḥbiber ɣef tuffirt ula ma ibeddel isteqsiyen neɣ ixeddem s talɣut nniḍen. Ur ilaq ara ad nerr HVZK d agdazal n ZK mgal yal aɣuccam. 

Deg unagraw anda aṭas n yisfukal teddun deg yiwet n tallit, taɣara n ZK n yiwen n leqdic ur tekfi ara i usfukel n tɣellist n wammud. Leqdic yezdin, allus d ubeddel n umizwer n yiznan ḥwaǧen asenqed i iman-nsen.

== 4. Imedyaten d wassaɣ d NP ==

=== Asfukel n umḍan n yiseggasen ===
Amedya n ussegzi: yiwen n umdan yebɣa ad isfukel belli yesɛa 18 n yiseggasen neɣ ugar, war ma yesban-d azemz n tlalit-is. Isefka izuyaz zemren ad ilin d azemz n wass-a, talast 18, akked tsarut tazayezt n win i d-yefkan aselkin. Isefka uffiren zemren ad ilin d azemz n tlalit d uzmul umḍin i t-yesseḥḥan.

Asfukel ilaq ad yesdukkel snat n tewtilin: azemz yeqqen ɣer uselkin iṣeḥḥan, yerna amḍan n yiseggasen yellan deg-s ugar neɣ yewweḍ 18. Ma yesneqed kan tanaḍt « age ≥ 18 » war tuqqna ɣer uselkin, amdan yezmer ad yefk amḍan i d-isnulfa. Ihi, ZK yettḥerrez tikli n uselken; aɣbalu n yisefka ilaq ad yili d win i nezmer ad namen.

=== Amedya n tfelwit n wurar ===
Yezmer umdan ad yebɣu ad isfukel belli yesɛa tifrat n yiwen n '''Sudoku''', war ma d-yesban tifrat. Isefka izuyaz d tafelwit n wurar; aselkin uffir d imḍanen i yefka i texxamin tilemmas. Assaɣ R yesneqed belli yal izirig, yal tigejdit d yal aḥric yesɛa imḍanen ilaqen, yerna imḍanen i yellan seg tazwara ur beddlen ara. Amedya-a yeskanay belli aselkin ur ilaq ara ad yili d awal uffir; yezmer ad yili d tifrat n ugur.

=== Anamek n NP ===
NP d taggayt n wuguren anda tifrat i aɣ-d-yettunefken tezmer ad tettwasenqed deg wakud i yettnernin s wudem agetfulan ilmend n teɣzi n yisefka. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli tifrat-nni teshel i tifin. Yal tifrat n kra n wuguren tezmer ad tettwasenqed s lemɣawla, maca tifin-is tezmer ad teḥwaǧ leḥsab meqqren. 

Agmuḍ n Goldreich, Micali d Wigderson yemmal belli, s kra n turdiwin n uwgelhan, nezmer ad nesfukel tilin n tifrat i yal ugur deg NP war tukci n tmusni. Maca tilin n tarrayt deg tusnakt ur d-yemmal ara belli tarrayt-nni d taruradt neɣ teshel i usemres. Asenqed n wakud, tkatut d teɣzi n usfukel d aḥric nniḍen n unadi.

=== Tugna 2. Aselken n umḍan n yiseggasen ===
Amedya n ussegzi: asfukel belli amdan yesɛa 18 n yiseggasen neɣ ugar, war asban n uzemz n tlalit-is.
[[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|vignette|380x380px|Tugna n uselken n umḍan n yiseggasen.]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 2. Asfukel yesdukkel tidet n uzmul akked tewtilt n yiseggasen. Ilaq daɣen aselkin ad yeqqen ɣer umdan iwatan, ad ur yemmut ara wakud n usemres-is, ad ur tettwakkes ara tsiregt-is. D amedya n ussegzi, mačči d anagraw ummid n usesteb.&lt;/small&gt;

== 5. Isfukal war asdiwen (NIZK) ==
Deg usfukel s usdiwen, P d V ttmeslayen s yiznan: P yezmer ad yefk aḥric amezwaru, V ad yefren asteqsi agacuran, P ad d-yerr. Deg NIZK, P yeslalay-d asfukel π, V yesneqed-it s yisefka izuyaz, war ma yuḥwaǧ ad d-yesteqsi P deg tallit-nni. Yezmer daɣen ad yiselkenasfukel seld azemz n usnulfu-is.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Aḥric
!Ayen i ixeddem
|-
|Setup
|Iheggi iɣewwaṛen izuyaz pp, ilmend n tarrayt.
|-
|Prove(pp, x, w)
|Yeslalay-d asfukel π s yisefka x d uselkin uffir w.
|-
|Verify(pp, x, π)
|Yettarra aqbal neɣ agi n usfukel.
|}

=== Iɣewwaṛen yezdin d laman ===
Kra n yinagrawen semrasen ''common reference string (CRS)'': d azrar n yisefka izuyaz i ttsemrasen sin yiwudam. Deg kra n talɣiwin, aheggi yeslalay-d daɣen talɣut tuffirt i ilaq ad tettwakkes; ma teqqim ɣer kra n umdan, yezmer ad tesruḥ taɣara n tɣellist. D ta i wumi qqaren ''trusted setup''.

'''Aheggi''' s waṭas n yimttekkiyen yezmer ad yesneɣṣ laman i nettara deg yiwen umdan, ilmend n tewtilin n tarrayt. Kra n yiɣewwaṛen zemren ad ttwasemrsen i waṭas n leḥsabat, yerna ad ttwalqamen s lmendad n yimttekkiyen imaynuten; PLONK aneṣli d amedya n uheggi amatu i izemren ad yettwalqem. 

=== Aheggi ibanen (transparent setup) ===
Deg kra n twaculin, ulac talɣut tuffirt n uheggi i ilaq ad tettwakkes. Iɣewwaṛen zemren add-ttwasnulfun s tarrayt ibanenn neɣ s yimḍanen ugacuranen izuyaz. '''STARK''' d '''Bulletproofs''' d sin n yimedyaten yemgaraden n tarrayin war &quot;''trusted setup&quot;''. Aya ur yekkesara ilugan n tusnakt d turdiwin n uwgelhan iɣef bḍan. 

=== Fiat-Shamir ===
Tarrayt n '''Fiat-Shamir''' tettbeddil, i kra n yisfukal s usdiwen i iwulmen, asteqsi agacuran n V s ugmuḍ n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ. Tanfalit, aḥric amezwaru n usfukel d usatal ilaq ad qqnen ɣer usiḍen-a. Taɣellist tettwasenqed deg umedya n &quot;''random oracle&quot;''; ur ilaq ara adnerr yal asdiwen d NIZK s ubeddel-a war asfukel n tɣellist.

=== Tugna 3. S usdiwen d war asdiwen ===
Aḥric afellay yeskanay amedya s kraḍ n yiznan; aḥric n wadda yeskanay asfukel NIZK

==== A · S usdiwen ====
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-11 10-42-52.png|710x710px]]

==== B · War asdiwen (NIZK) ====
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-11 10-45-37.png|763x763px]]

&lt;small&gt;'''Tugna 3.''' Deg NIZK, win yesneqden ur d-yettazen ara asteqsi deg tallit n usfukel. Maca iɣewwaṛen yezdin&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;zemren ad ttwaheggin uqbel. « War asdiwen » ur d-yemmal ara « war tuzzna n usfukel » neɣ « war uheggi ».&lt;/small&gt;

== 6. Amedya s wudem n tusnakt: tarrayt n Schnorr ==
Schnorr yessemras agraw '''G''' s umḍan amezwaru '''q''' n yiferdisen, d uferdis '''g''' i d-yeslalayen agraw-a. Tasarut tuffirt d '''s'''; tasarut tazayezt d '''y = gs'''. Ugur n tifin n '''s''' seg '''y''' d '''g''' yettusemma ''discrete logarithm''. Dag i asfukel n tmusni n '''s''', mačči kan n tilin-is. 

=== Kraḍ n yiznan ===
1. '''P''' yefren amḍan agacuran '''r''' modulo '''q''', isiḍen '''a = gr''', syin ad yazen '''a''' i '''V'''.

2. '''V''' yefren asteqsi agacuran '''c''' modulo '''q''', ad t-yazen i '''P'''.

3. '''P''' yerr-d '''z = r + cs''' (mod q). '''V''' yesneqed asekkil-a:

'''&lt;math&gt;g{z} = a \cdot y^{c}&lt;/math&gt;'''


Aqbal n win yeḍfren ilugan yettban seg: &lt;math&gt;g^{r+cs} = g^{r} \cdot (g^{s})^{c}&lt;/math&gt;. Talɣa-a tessemras « + » deg z;

&lt;nowiki&gt;RFC 8235&lt;/nowiki&gt; yessemras talɣa tagdazalt s « − » d useggem n uselken. 

=== Asiḍen ameẓyan i ussegzi ===
Ad neddem p = 23, q = 11, g = 2. Leḥsab n yiferdisen n ugraw yettawi-d agmuḍ modulo

23. Ma s = 3, ad naf y = 8. Ma r = 4, ad naf a = 16. Ma c = 2, ad naf z = 10 modulo 11.

Ihi:

&lt;math&gt;2^{10} \bmod 23 = 12&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;16 \cdot 8^{12} \bmod 23 = 12&lt;/math&gt;

Sin yidisawen d yiwen, ihi aselken yeqbel. Imḍanen-a d imeẓyanen nezzeh: kul yiwen yezmer ad yaf s s usenqed n kra n wazalen. Amedya-a d win n uselmed kan, ur yesɛi ara taɣellist n usemres ilaw.

=== Aserwes d allus n r ===
I win yesneqden s laman, aserwas yezmer ad yefren '''c''' d '''z''', syin ad isiḍen &lt;math&gt;a = g^{z} \cdot y^{-c}&lt;/math&gt; . Yewwi-d kraḍ n wazalen i yeqbel uselken, war '''s'''. Maca deg leqdic ilaw, '''P''' ilaq ad yefk '''a''' uqbel ma yessen '''c'''. D umizwer-a i yessemgiriden aserwes d uɣuccu.

Ma P yessemres yiwen '''r''' i sin n yisteqsiyen yemgaraden '''c₁''' d '''c₂''', s tririyin '''z₁''' d '''z₂''', tasarut tezmer ad tettwaf: '''s = (z₁ − z₂) · (c₁ − c₂)−1 modulo q'''. D asfukel usrid n wazal n yimḍanen igacuranen d yibeddilen-nsen.

&lt;small&gt;Deg talɣa war asdiwen, '''c''' yettwasiḍen seg '''H''' n yiɣewwaṛen, '''y''', '''a''' d isutal. Aselken n ugraw d umasal n yisefka d aḥric n tɣellist, ɣas ur d-yettwasegzi ara meṛṛa dagi.&lt;/small&gt;

== 7. Tiwaculin n yisfukal ==

=== zk-SNARK d Groth16 ===
zk-SNARK d agzul n &quot;''zero-knowledge Succinct Non-interactive ARgument of Knowledge&quot;''. «Succinct » yemmal belli asfukel d aselken-is zemren ad ilin d iwezlan ilmend n leḥsab i yettwasenqaden; « of knowledge » teqqen ɣer tewtilt n tmusni n uselkin. '''Groth16''', i d-yefka '''Jens Groth''' deg 2016, d tarrayt s &quot;''pairings''&quot; deg yigrawen tusnakt. Asfukel-is yesɛa kraḍ n yiferdisen n ugraw. Aheggi-is yettwasnen yeqqen ɣer leḥsab i yebɣa ad yesneqed.

=== PLONK ===
PLONK, i d-yefɣen deg 2019, yessemras iɣewwaṛen yezdin i waṭas n leḥsabat, s talast n teɣzi i yettwasbadun, yerna iɣewwaṛen-a zemren ad ttwalqamen. Yesseqdec assaɣen gar igetfulen akked usfukel n ubeddel n umizwer n yiferdisen. Isem « PLONK » yettwasemras daɣen i tarrayin i d-yekkan seg-s, maca ur ilaq ara ad nerr meṛṛa talɣiwin-nni sɛant yiwen uheggi neɣ yiwet n tɣellist.

=== zk-STARK ===
zk-STARK d &quot;''zero-knowledge Scalable Transparent ARgument of Knowledge&quot;''. Leqdic n '''Ben-Sasson''' d yimdukal-is deg 2018 yeskanay tarrayt i leḥsab ameqqran s uheggi ibanen. Tiwaculin-a ttsemrasent tarrayin n yigatfulen, asenqed n kra n yiferdisen d tesɣunin n ugeddeḥ. Taɣellist-nsent mgal iselkimen ikwantiyen teqqen ɣer turdiwin i yettwasemrasen, mačči ɣer yisem « STARK » kan. 

=== Bulletproofs ===
Bulletproofs d tarrayt war &quot;''trusted setup&quot;'', tettwasemras s waṭas i usfukel belli azal uffir yella gar snat n tlisa (range proof). Teɣzi n usfukel tettnerni s wudem alugaritman; maca akud n usnulfu d uselken, deg tarrayt taneṣlit, yettnerni s wudem imzireg ilmend n tiddi nugur. Ihi, « asfukel awezlan » ur d-yemmal ara dima « aselken awezlan ».

=== Halo d usdukkel n yisfukal ===
'''Halo''' yeskanay deg 2019 asdukkel n yisfukal s tuɣalin ɣer yiman-is (recursive proof

composition) war ''trusted setup''. Asfukel amaynut yezmer ad yesneqed asfukel aqbur d kra n leḥsab nniḍen, iwakken ad tili teɣzi n leqdic yettwasenqaden meqqret, ɣas asfukel i neḥrez d awezlan. Aya d tarrayt i usemẓi n tmara n uselken n umezrar n leḥsabat.

== 8. Iseqdacen ==

=== Asesteb d yiselkinen umḍinen ===
Asfukel n tmusni n tsarut tuffirt yezmer ad yili d aḥric n usesteb. Anagraw yezmer ad yiselken belli win i as-d-yettmeslayen yesɛa tasarut, war ma t-id-yefka. Iwakken ad yettwakkes usemres n usfukel aqbur, ilaq tuqqna ɣer usatal, asteqsi amaynut neɣ tallit nusemres. Asfukel i izemren ad yettwasenqed sɣur yal yiwen ur yettuɣal ara d asesteb amaynut s yiman-is. 

Deg yiselkinen umḍinen, ZK yezmer ad yesseḥbiber ɣef talɣut ur neḥwaǧ ara i wuskan:

amḍan n yiseggasen, tilin deg yiwet n tegrumma, neɣ tasiregt i kra n leqdic. Maca anagraw ilaq ad isenqed daɣen azmul n win i d-yefkan aselkin, azemz n taggara n usemres-is d wamek ara tettwakkes tsiregt ma tbeddel tegnit.

=== Tidrimin tumḍinin d Zerocash ===
'''Zerocash''', i d-yettwabedren deg 2014, yessemras zk-SNARKs iwakken ad yettwasenqed tanigawt(lexlaṣ) war asban n kra n yisefka n win i d-yettaken, win yettawin d wazal n yidrimen.

Asfukel yezmer ad yesdukkel tilin n yidrimen, tasiregt n usemres-nsen d uḥraz n wazal.

Anagraw ummid yessemras daɣen allalen nniḍen iwakken ad yagi lexlaṣ snat n tikkal s yiwen n uḥric n yidrimen. 

=== Aselken n usiḍen(leḥsab) d yimesdukklen n temhal(rollups) ===
Deg wannar n yizurar n yiḥedren(blockchains), '''amesdukkel n temhal aneɣbal''' &quot;'''''validity rollup'''''&quot;, deg-s aṭas n temhal ttwaseqdacent berra n uzrar agejdan. Asfukel yeseɣtay abeddel n waddad seg S ɣer S′; tezrart tagejdant tesneqad asfukel ilmend n yilugan-is. Aya yezmer ad isneɣṣ leḥsab i ilaq ad xedmen meṛṛa yimttekkiyen. Maca aṭas n yiseqdacen i wumi qqaren « ZK-rollups » semrasen asfukel n tidet, war ma ffren meṛṛa isefka n temhal. 

Tilin n usfukel ur tefru ara s yiman-is ugur n unekcum ɣer yisefka (data availability). Ilaq ad tili tarrayt i win iḥwaǧen isefka n waddad iwakken ad t-id-yales, ad yiselken tazmert n usuffeɣ neɣ ad iḥrez izerfan-is deg unagraw. 

=== Asenqed, afran d usemres n yisefka ===
ZK yezmer ad yekki deg yinagrawen n ufran, usenqed n usiḍen(leḥsab) neɣ uselken n leqdic n yiwen wahil ɣef yisefka uffiren. Deg yal amedya, ilaq ad yettwasbadu wayen i yettwasfukulen s ṣṣfa: asfukel n kra n tneqqiḍin ur yettuɣal ara d asfukel n tɣellist n unagraw meṛṛa. Aḥraz n tuffirt d aselken n leḥsab zemren ad myekmalen, maca yal yiwen yesɛa tiwtilin-is.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Qusṭantin Amezwaru</title>
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      <text bytes="14521" sha1="mwikmutdjm2md7cxl5p5n7en5jxze4a" xml:space="preserve">'''Qusṭantin Amezwaru''', i yettwassnen daɣen s yisem n '''Qusṭantin Ameqqran''' (''Constantinus Magnus s tlatinit''), d yiwen seg 

{{Infobox biography|item=Q8413|image=[[File:0 Gaius Flavius Valerius Constantinus, Palatino.jpg|thumb|Asebdad n Qusṭantin Amezwaru|300px]]|caption=Qusṭantin Amezwaru.}}

yimenkaden irumanen i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy n umaḍal aqdim.

Yella d amenkad n Tgelda Tarumanit seg useggas 306 armi d 337, maca ur yuɣal d amenkad awḥid n tgelda meṛṛa alamma d aseggas 324.

Deg 31 n yiseggasen n udabu-is, Qusṭantin yessaweḍ ad ibeddel aṭas n tɣawsiwin deg tsertit, deg tedbelt, deg tsertit taserdasit, deg tdamsa, ladɣa deg wassaɣ gar uwanek arumani d tmeslayt tamasiḥit.

Gar wayen i t-yeskanayen deg umezruy:

- Yerbeḥ ṭṭradat imeqqranen mgal imenkaden i t-yettnaɣen ɣef udabu.

- Yerr-a tamurt tarumanit meṛṛa ddaw yiwen n umenkad deg 324.

- Yesnerna tasertit n tsureft d uḥraz n tilelli n ddin i yimasḥiyen.

- Yefka afus n tallelt i tmeslayt tamasiḥit, armi tuɣal d yiwet n tɣessa timeqqranin n tmetti tarumanit.

- Yebna tamezdeɣt tamanekdat tamaynut deg Qusṭanṭiniya, ɣef wakal n temdint taqdimt n Byzantion.

- Yesdukkel amussu n uselḥu n tmeslayt tamasiḥit deg ugraw n Nikiya, deg 325.

- Yesnerna yiwet n tsertit tamaynut n tedrimt, taserdast d tedbelt.

S wakka, Qusṭantin ur yelli ara kan d amenkad i yerbeḥ ṭṭradat. Yella daɣen d yiwen n yimdanen i d-yeslulfen tallit tamaynut deg umezruy n Tgelda Tarumanit, tin ara yessiwḍen sya ɣer temsalt tarumanit n usamar, i yettwassnen deg umezruy am Tgelda Tabizantin.

== 1. Talalit d temẓi n Qusṭantin ==

=== 1.1. Talalit-is ===
Qusṭantin ilul, ilmend n tɣbula i d-yewḍen ɣur-neɣ, ɣef useggas 272 neɣ deg kra n yiseggasen i t-id-yezwaren, deg temdint n ''Naissus'', i d-yeqqimen ass-a d Nič deg [[Ṣerbya]].

Isem-is arumani yella d ''Flavius Valerius Constantinus''.

Baba-s d [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] (Constantius Chlorus), yiwen n yimeqqranen iserdasiyen irumanen i yuɣalen d imenkaden.

Yemma-s d [[Helena (yemma-s n Qusṭantin Amezwaru)|Helena]], tameṭṭut i yuɣalen sya ɣer zdat d yiwet n tuqdisin timeqqranin n umezruy amasiḥi.

Ur nessin ara s tidet meṛṛa ma [[Helena (yemma-s n Qusṭantin Amezwaru)|Helena]] d tameṭṭut tamezwarut n Qusṭantin Klurus s uzref, neɣ d tameṭṭut i yesɛa yid-s assaɣ uqbel zwaǧ-is ameskaran. Tameṭṭut-a ur tesɛi ara tazmert n tsertit deg tazwara, maca mmi-s mi yuɣal d amenkad, ad as-yefk azal ameqqran.

=== 1.2. Axxam-is d tugna n tmetti n wakud-nni ===
Deg tazwara n tasut tis IV, Tgelda Tarumanit d tamurt tameqqrant i yeṭṭfen aḥric ameqqran n Tuṛuft, Tafriqt n ugafa d Asya n umalu.

Deg tallit-a, aṭas n yimenkaden ur d-ttilalen ara deg temdint n Ruma. Llan-d seg temnaḍin n Danub, Illyricum d Balkans, anda taserdast tesɛa azal ameqqran deg usefru n udabu.

Qusṭantin yella seg tɣiwant-a n tsertit taserdasit. Ihi, talalit-is deg Naissus ur telli ara d ayen iweɛren ad nefhem, imi taserdast tarumanit tuɣal d yiwen n yigejdan n tɣessa n tgelda.

=== 1.3. Tamẓi deg yixxamen n yimenkaden ===
Qusṭantin yessaweḍ ad ikker deg tɣiwant n yimenkaden. Yedder deg yixxamen n udabu deg usamar n tgelda, anda yella Dyuklisyan d amenkad.

Yelmed amek tettwaselḥu tgelda, amek tettwasebdad taserdast, akked wamek tteddun wassaɣen gar yimenkaden.

Yexdem daɣen deg teserdast, yedda deg kra n yikabar iserdasiyen, yessen tamsalt n usefrek n yimukan d uselḥu n yimrigen.

Tudert-is deg tallit-a tefka-yas tirmit i as-yettunefken kan i kra n yimeqqranen irumanen.

== 2. Tagnit n Tgelda Tarumanit uqbel ad d-yili Qusṭantin ==

=== 2.1. Tazɣent n tasut tis III ===
Deg tasut tis III, Tgelda Tarumanit tɛedda ɣef yiwet n tallit iweɛren aṭas.

Llan aṭas n yimenkaden i d-ttilin s tallelt n teserdast, maca ur ttɣimin ara deg udabu aṭas n wakud.

Ṭṭradat n daxel, tazɣent n tedrimt, asenqes n uselḥu n temnaḍin, akked ṭṭradat ɣef tilisa rnan-d ccwal i tgelda.

Seg 235 armi d 284, aṭas n yimenkaden uɣalen-d ɣer udabu, kra seg-sen ttwaneɣan neɣ ttwakksen deg wakud ameẓẓyan.

=== 2.2. Aɣelluy n tetrarkiya ===
Dyuklisyan, mi yuɣal d amenkad deg 284, yeɛreḍ ad yefru ugur-a.

Yesbed tasertit n tetrarkiya, anda tgelda tettwasefru s ukuẓ n yimeqqranen: sin n yimenkaden imeqqranen (Augusti) d sin n yimenkaden imawlan n lɛehd (Caesares).

Iswi n tetrarkiya yella d:

- Asefru n tgelda s wudem iqriben ɣer temnaḍin-is.

- Aḥraz n tilisa seg iɣerfan ibarbaren.

- Asenqes n ṭṭradat n udabu gar yimeqqranen.

- Aḍman n usemḍfer n udabu war ṭṭradat.

Maca tarrayt-a ur tessawaḍ ara ad teḥrez talwit i lebda.

Mi Dyuklisyan d Maximian ǧǧan adabu deg 305, tamukrist(ugur) n wamek ara d-yilin yimenkaden imaynuten tebda tettban-d.

Qusṭantin ad yuɣal d yiwen n yimdanen i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg uɣelluy n tetrarkiya.

=== 3. Abrid n Qusṭantin ɣer udabu (305–306) ===
Deg 305, baba-s [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] yuɣal d amenkad ameqqran n umalu n tgelda.

Qusṭantin, i yellan deg usamar, yuɣal ɣer baba-s, yedda yid-s deg yigrawen iserdasiyen n Britanya.

Deg 25 Yulyu 306, Qusṭantin Klurus yemmut deg temdint n Eboracum, i d-yuɣalen ass-a d York deg Ngliz.

Deffir tmettant-is, iserdasen-is ssutren ad yili mmi-s Qusṭantin d amenkad.

Deffir tmettant n baba-s, iserdasen-is sbedden Qusṭantin d amenkad deg 306, maca Galerius, amenkad ameqqran n usamar, ur iqbil ara ad t-yessisem d Augustus s tazwara. Yefka-yas kan azwel n Caesar.

Tamsalt-a tessekcem Qusṭantin deg yiwet n tɣawsa tameqqrant: anadi ɣef adabu arumani s tallelt n teserdast.

Deg yiseggasen i d-iteddun, Qusṭantin isnerna adabu-is deg Galiya, Britanya d kra n temnaḍin n Uṛupa n umalu.

Yesbed daɣen assaɣen n tsertit s yimenkaden nniḍen.

Deg 307, yezweǧ Fausta, yell-is n umenkad aqdim Maximian. Zwaǧ-a yella daɣen d yiwet n tarrayt n usdukkel n yiɛeggalen n udabu.

== 4. Ṭṭradat n Qusṭantin akked Maxentius (312) ==

=== 4.1. Anwa i yellan d ''Maxentius''? ===
''Maxentius'' d mmi-s n ''Maximian'', yiwen n yimenkaden iqburen n tetrarkiya. Yuɣal d amenkad deg Ruma deg 306, yerna yeṭṭef kra n temnaḍin n ṭṭelyan d Tafriqt Tarumanit. Qusṭantin d ''Maxentius'' uɣalen d imnaɣen ɣef udabu n umalu. Deg 312, Qusṭantin yefren ad yessekcem taserdast-is ɣer ṭṭelyan iwakken ad yernu Maxentius.

=== 4.2. Akabar n Itelya ===
Qusṭantin yessufeɣ taserdast-is seg ''Galiya'', yezger idurar n ''Alpes'', yerna kra n isedasen n yigen n ''Maxentius'' deg temdinin n usamar n ṭṭelyan. Yerbeḥ deg ''Turin'', ''Verona'' d yimukan nniḍen, syin yuɣal ɣer [[Roma|Ruma]].

Maxentius yefren ad yessuffeɣ taserdast-is seg Ruma iwakken ad yemmager Qusṭantin.

=== 4.3. Ṭṭrad n Teqenṭert n Milvius ===
[[Tugna:Ponte Milvio-side view-antmoose.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Tiqenṭart n Milvius, anda i d-yeḍra amennuɣ gar Qusṭantin d Maxentius.]]


Deg 28 Kṭuber 312, sin n yimeqqranen mmagren ɣef teqenṭert n Milvius (Pons Milvius), deg ugafa n Ruma. Tarrayt n Qusṭantin, akked udabu-s ɣef yigen, teǧǧa-t ad yerbeḥ ṭṭrad. Deg trewla-ines ɣer Ruma, Maxentius yeɣli deg wasif n Tiber, yemmut deg waman.

Tameɣra n Qusṭantin tebna ɣef rbeḥ-a, imi seg wass-nni yuɣal d amenkad yesɛan adabu ɣef umalu n Tgelda Tarumanit.

Ṭṭrad-a ad yesɛu daɣen azal ameqqran deg umezruy n tmeslayt tamasiḥit.

== 5. Tirgit n Qusṭantin d uqerrub-is ɣer usɣan(ddin) amasiḥi ==

=== 5.1. D acu i d-yellan uqbel ṭṭrad? ===
Imezrayen n tallit taqdimt ḥkan-d belli Qusṭantin yeẓra azamul deg yigenni neɣ yurga tirgit uqbel ṭṭrad n Milvius.

Maca iɣbula ur msefhamen ara ɣef wamek i yeḍra. '''''Lactantius''''', ameskar amasiḥi n tasut tis IV, yura belli Qusṭantin yettwawelleh deg targit iwakken ad yerr azamul amasiḥi ɣef yiwen seg yizamulen n teserdast-is.

Eusebius n Qaysariya, i yuran Vita Constantini, yefka-d taḥkayt nniḍen, anda Qusṭantin yeẓra, ilmend n wayen i d-yenna, azamul n ufus amasiḥi(amidag) deg yigenni. Deg yiɣbula n tmasiḥit, taḥkayt-a tettwaqqen ɣer wawal alatini:

'''In hoc signo vinces — «S uzamul-a ara terbeḥeḍ.»'''

Maca ur nezmir ara ad nini s tidet belli ayen i d-yettwaḥkan deg yiɣbula-a yeḍra akken i t-id-uran. Imezrayen imiranen kkaten-d deg taḥkayat-a imi tella deg-sent tmuɣli n ddin, tazerfa n udabu-s d usnulfu n tugna n umenkad.

Amgired gar ''Lactantius'' d ''Eusebius'', akked wakud anda ttwarun iɣbula-nsen, yettaǧǧa tamsalt-a d tin ɣef mazal yettili unadi n umezruy. 

=== 5.2. Qusṭantin d amasiḥi neɣ d afagan? ===
Tamsalt-a ur tefru ara s yiwet n tririt tafessast.

Qusṭantin yella deg tmetti tarumanit anda llan aṭas n yisɣanen d leɛwayed n wafagan. Deg tazwara n udabu-is, yella yesskanay-d assaɣen d ddin n yiṭij, ladɣa d Sol Invictus. Maca seg 312 d asawen, aselḥu-s yesɛa ugar n wassaɣen d tmeslayt [[tamasiḥit]].

Yebda yettak-as tallelt, yettqabal imrabḍen-is, yerna yebna tallelt-is tasertant ɣef tɣessa-s. Ihi, nezmer ad nini belli Qusṭantin yuɣal yettak afus i ddin amasiḥi, maca '''ur nezmir ara ad nẓer s tidet''' melmi i tbeddel tikti-s n ddin, neɣ amek i tella taflest-is tagensant.

Tamsalt n ddin-is tban-d daɣen deg wayen i yeḍran ɣer taggara n tudert-is, imi ur yettwaɣḍes ara deg waman n lebni amasiḥi (baptême) alamma d aseggas 337, deg wakud i yella yettwaḍen.

== 6. Asaḍuf n Milan (313): abeddel ameqqran deg umezruy n ddin ==
Deg useggas 313, Qusṭantin yemlal d ''Licinius'', amenkad n usamar n Tgelda Tarumanit, deg temdint n Milan. Sin n yimenkaden msefhamen ɣef yiwet n tsertit tamaynut i yeɛnan tilelli n ddin deg tgelda. Tizrawin n umezruy semman-as '''Asaḍuf n Milan''' (Edictum Mediolanense).

=== 6.1. D acu i d-yella deg talwit-a? ===
Iswi-is yella d aḥraz n tilelli n ddin i yimdanen n Tgelda Tarumanit. Imasḥiyen, i yellan d wid i yettwaḥebsen neɣ yettwaneɣan deg kra n talliyin yezrin, uɣalen sɛan azref ad ɛebden ddin-nsen war aḥebbes seg tmenkda.

Adabu yessuter daɣen ad ttwaldin kra n yixxamen n usɣan [[Tamasiḥit|amasiḥi]] akked wayen i as-yettwakkesen deg tallit n uqehher. Maca ilaq ad nefhem yiwet n tɣawsa:

Asaḍuf n Milan ur yerr ara ddin amasiḥi d ddin unṣib n Tmenkda Tarumanit. Tefka tilelli n ddin, ur teḥbis ara meṛṛa leɛwayed n wafagan, ur tessekcem ara akk imdanen deg usɣan amasiḥi. Ddɣa, deg tallit n Qusṭantin, isɣanen iqburen mazal llan deg tmetti tarumanit. 

=== 6.2. Amgired gar Qusṭantin d Dyuklisyan ===
Deg 303, deg wakud n [[Dyuklisyan]], tella yiwet n tsertit taẓayant mgal yimasḥiyen. Kra n tklizin ttwamdlent, idlisen n ddin ttwaseṛɣen, yerna aṭas n yimasḥiyen ɛeddan ɣef lmeḥna. Deg tallit n Qusṭantin, tamsalt-a tbeddel.

Anekcum n ddin amasiḥi deg tsertit n uwanek yella d yiwen n yiberdan imeqqranen n ubeddel n tmetti tarumanit.

Maca anamek n ubeddel-a ur d-yemmal ara belli Tmenkda Tarumanit tuɣal d tamasiḥit deg yiwen wass. Abeddel yella s leɛqel, yerna yedda deg waṭas n tasutin.

== 7. Ṭṭradat d Licinius d usdukkel n Tgelda Tarumanit (316–324) ==
Deffir talwit n Milan, Qusṭantin d ''Licinius'' llan d sin n yimenkaden imeqqranen. Qusṭantin yeṭṭef amalu n tgelda, Licinius yeṭṭef aḥric ameqqran n usamar. Assaɣen-nsen llan d wid iweɛren, ɣas akken Licinius yezweǧ Kunsṭantiya, ultma-s n Qusṭantin.

=== 7.1. Ṭṭrad n Cibalae ===
Deg 316, neɣ 314 ilmend n kra n yiɣbula, ṭṭrad amezwaru ameqqran gar-asen yeḍra deg ''Cibalae'', deg temnaḍt n Karwasya n wass-a.

Qusṭantin yerbeḥ ṭṭrad-a. Deffir-s, ṭṭrad nniḍen yeḍra ɣef temnaḍt n ''Mardia''.

Sin n yimenkaden msefhamen ɣef talwit, maca assaɣen-nsen warǧǧin llan rakden.

=== 7.2. Ṭṭrad aneggaru deg 324 ===
Deg 324, Qusṭantin yessufeɣ agraw aserdasi ameqqran mgal Licinius.

Ṭṭradat imeqqranen ḍran deg:

- ''Adrianopolis'', deg [[Tturk|Tturkya]] n wass-a.

- ''Hellespont'', deg yilel gar Uṛupa d Asya.

- ''Chrysopolis'', i d-yeqqimen ass-a deg tama tasya n Istanbul.

Qusṭantin yerbeḥ Licinius deg Kṭuber 324. Licinius yeqbel ad yefk adabu, maca deg useggas 325 yettwanɣa s unamek n uḥraz n udabu n Qusṭantin. Sya ɣer zdat, Qusṭantin yuɣal d amenkad awḥid n Tmenkda Tarumanit meṛṛa. Ayen ur nessawaḍ ara ad yeg Dyuklisyan s tetrarkiya, Qusṭantin yessaweḍ ad t-yeg s ṭṭradat d wassaɣen n udabu.

== 8. Asbeddi n Qusṭanṭiniya: tamdint tamaynut n tgelda ==
[[Tugna:Theodosian Walls in Constantinople 2.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Iɣraben iqburen n Qusṭanṭiniya.]]

=== 8.1. Ayɣer Qusṭantin yefren Byzantion? ===
Deffir rbeḥ-is ɣef Licinius, Qusṭantin yebɣa ad yesbed yiwet n temdint tamanaɣt i udabu-is. Yefren temdint taqdimt n Byzantion, i yellan deg uḍiq agensu gar ilel Aberkan d ilel n Marmara. Tamnaḍt-a tesɛa azal ameqqran deg umezruy, deg ttjara d tsertit taserdasit.

''Byzantion'' teṭṭef amkan gar Uṛupa d Asya. Tella ɣef teqenṭert n yiberdan n ttjara i d-yettasen seg usamar ɣer umalu. Aman n Bosphorus, akked ufran n umkan-is, teǧǧa-tt d yiwet n temdint yezmer ad ttwaḥrez s shala ugar n waṭas n temdinin.

=== 8.2. Asbeddi n Qusṭanṭiniya ===
Deg 11 Mayyu 330, Qusṭantin yessekcem tamdint tamaynut deg wudmawen n udabu.

Yefka-yas azal n yiwet n temdint tanamkant n tgelda.

Tamdint-a tettwasemma Constantinopolis, anamek-is «Tamdint n Qusṭantin».

Tettwafren daɣen s yisem n Ruma Tamaynut (Nova Roma).

Maca ilaq ad nẓer belli Qusṭantin ur yebni ara tamdint-a seg ulac. Yessnerna tamezdeɣt n Byzantion, isbedd deg-s iberdan imeqqranen, tigejda n tedbelt, imukan n tɣuri, isayesen, temsirin d yixxamen n udabu.

=== 8.3. Tamsalt n Qusṭanṭiniya deg umezruy ===
Tamdint-a tuɣal sya ɣer zdat d yiwet n temdinin timeqqranin n umaḍal. Deffir tmettant n Qusṭantin, ad teqqim d amkan agejdan n udabu arumani deg usamar. Deg 395, mi tbeddel tɣessa n udabu gar umalu d usamar, Qusṭanṭiniya tuɣal d tamezdeɣt n udabu n tgelda tarumanit n usamar. Deffir aɣelluy n udabu arumani deg umalu deg 476, tamdint-a teqqim d amkan agejdan n tgelda i d-yettkemmilen amezruy arumani.

Deg umezruy amiran, tgelda-a tettwasemma aṭas Tgelda Tabizantin. Maca imezdaɣ-is ur semman ara i yiman-nsen «Bizantiyen» deg unamek amiran. Ttwalin iman-nsen d Irumanen, yerna ssawalen i tgelda-nsen tagelda tarumanit.</text>
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| label2 = Isem unṣib
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| label7 = Azemz n usbeddi
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| label11 = Taɣult n urmud
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== Aseqdec ==
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      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founded&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azemz n usebddi&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founder&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amesbedday&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;headquarters&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tasɣimt tagejdant&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;country&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tamurt&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;industry&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɣult n urmud&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;products&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ifarisen&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;website&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asmel unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;url&quot;
    },
    
&quot;logo&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Alugu&quot;,
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Alugu n termist.&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
},
&quot;logo_caption&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;logo_name&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;symbol&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azamul&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;label&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tabzimt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},

&quot;services&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imeẓla&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;key_people&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imdanen igejdanen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;employees&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ixeddamen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;revenue&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amaduf&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;profit&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tagenfit&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;net_income&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tigenfit n taggara&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;subsidiaries&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiṛmisin tinaddawin&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;resources&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiɣbula&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;expenses&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɛkwamt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
}

  }
}
&lt;/templatedata&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ovid</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117633</id>
      <parentid>117624</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-12T20:16:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117633</origin>
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      <text bytes="2084" sha1="spw450ihpoea58wf4oysp0syo2n2fev" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q7198|image=[[File:Ovid by an anonymous sculptor.jpg|thumb|Ovid sɣur yiwen umserɣta udrig]]|caption=Ovid.}}

'''Ovid''', s yisem-is ummid '''Publius Ovidius Naso''', d yiwen seg yimedyazen irumanen imeqqranen n tallit taɣustit. Yella d amedyaz, amaru n tmucuha timiṭulujiyin, d win i yerran tayri, tuttya, tafekka, tamagit, lḥif akked unejli d isental igejdanen n tsekla-s.

Yettwassen ladɣa s udlis-is Metamorphoses (tuttyiwin), yiwen seg yedlisen i yesɛan tazrirt tameqqrant ɣef tsekla, tasugna, tasertit n tfekka d tẓuriwin n Umaḍal n Utrim.

Tudert-is tbeddel s wudem ameqqran deg useggas 8 mbaɛd talalit n Ɛisa, mi t-yessufeɣ umenkad Uɣustus seg Ruma, yerra-t ɣer Tomis, ɣef yiri n Yilel Aberkan. Dinna i yemmut, war ma yuɣal ɣer temdint i iḥemmel.

Yettwaḥsab Ovid gar kraḍ n yimedyazen irumanen i d-yettwabedren s waṭas deg tsekla talaṭinit, akked '''Virgil''' (Vergilius) d '''Horace''' (Horatius). Maca yal yiwen deg-sen yesɛa aɣanib d yisental yemgaraden. 

== 2. Talalit d twacult-is ==

=== 2.1. Sulmo, tamdint n Ovid ===
[[Tugna:PanoramaSulmona.JPG|centré|vignette|550x550px|Tamdint Sulmona deg ṭṭelyan.]]
Ovid ilul ass n 20 Meɣres, deg useggas 43 send Ɛisa, di Sulmo, i d-yettwasemman ass-a Sulmona, deg temnaḍt n Abruzzo, di [[ṭṭelyan]] n wass-a.

Sulmo tella d tamdint tarumanit di tmurt n Peligni, yiwen seg yiɣerfan n ṭṭelyan alqayan i yellan uqbel asnerni n Ruma. Tamnaḍt-a tettwassen s yidurar-is, izuɣar-is d wakal-is n tfellaḥt.

Ovid yesɛa tawacult taɣerfant, d tin yesɛan idrimen. Baba-s yebɣa ad yili mmi-s d amdan n uẓayer deg tedbelt tarumanit, ladɣa deg uɣerbaz n uzref d tsnukyest n wawal.

Deg yisefra-s, Ovid yessefk-d amek i ilul deg yiwen n useggas ara d-yeglun s ubeddel ameqqran deg umezruy arumani: d aseggas n tmettant n ''Cicero'', '''amesnukyes''' d '''amsesten''' arumani ameqqran.

Deg tallit-a, Tagduda Trumanit tella tettɛeddi seg tazɣent tasertant ɣer tallit n usdukel n tezmert deg ufus n yiwen n umdan, ''Octavianus'', win ara yuɣalen d Uɣust.</text>
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