New York

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      <text bytes="10849" sha1="ixclpqwanzuh0vh68rer8t63paacx80" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox city}}

'''New York''' d nettat ay d tamdint tameqqrant akk deg [[Iwunak Yedduklen|Yiwunak Yeddukklen]]. Tezga-d deg ugafa-agmuḍan n tmurt, ɣef [[Agaraw Aṭlasi|Ugaraw Aṭlasi]]. Zedɣen-tt 8.336.697 n yimezdaɣen (19.006.798 s yegmamen ay d-yezzin fell-as). Tamdint-a tezga-d deg [[New York (Awanak)|uwanak n New York]].

Tamdint-a tettwassen s yixxamen-is ɣezzifen, s tnezzut, s tdamsa tameqqrant, s tẓuri, s tesdawiyin, s tmusni d umezruy-is amesbaɣur.

New York mačči d tamdint n tnezzut kan. D amkan anda mlalen yigduden seg waṭas n tmura, s tutlayin yemgaraden, s yidles yemgaraden d wallalen yemgaraden n tudert.

Ɣas akken tamdint-a tettwassen am yiwet n tɣerma tameqqrant n umaḍal amiran, amezruy-is yezga yeqqen ɣer yigduden inaṣliyen n Marikan n Ugafa...

Tamsalt i ilaq ad nseɣti deg tazwara: igduden inaṣliyen n New York d '''Lenape''', seg yigduden inasliyen n Marikan n Ugafa. Amezruy n temdint yemmal-d amek i tettwabna ɣef wakal-nsen, syin akin amek i tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin tigejdanin n umaḍal.

== Tarakalt d ugama n New York ==
New York tezga deg umkan yesɛan azal ameqqran deg trakalt n Marikan. Tella gar yisaffen d yilellen, ayen i tt-yerran d tamdint n yinig d tnezzut seg zik.

Deg tama-s n umalu yella ''Asif Hudson'', deg tama-s n usamar yella ''East River'', i d aferdis n waman meẓẓiyen yeqqnen ɣer yilel. Deg unẓul, tella tagnit tameqqrant n waman i yettwassnen s yisem n ''New York Harbor'', anda i d-keččmen yiseflinen.

Tarakalt-a tettak-as kraḍ n lfaydat:

* Yezmer ad yili deg-s unermis n tnezzut gar Marikan, Turuft d tmura nniḍen.
* Isaffen d yilellen ttaken-d iberdan n usiweḍ n yiferdisen d medden.
* Igelluyen n wakal d yigziren ttawin-d aṭas n temnaḍin i lebni n temdint.

Maca amkan-a yesɛa ula d uguren: iḥemmalen n waman, ahuzzu n yilel, leɣla n wakal d uguren n lebni deg temnaḍin i d-yettwarran zdat n waman.

=== Tiɣiwanin tisudisin ===
New York tebḍa ɣef semmus n tiɣiwanin timeqqranin (boroughs).

==== '''Manhattan''' ====
[[Tugna:West side of Manhattan from Hudson Commons (95103p).jpg|centré|cadre|Manhattan.]]
D ul n tdamsa n temdint, anda ''llan Wall Street, Times Square, Central Park'' d waṭas n yixxamen ɣezzifen. D tamnaḍt yettwassnen aṭas deg umaḍal.

==== '''Brooklyn''' ====
[[Tugna:Dumbo Neighborhood in Brooklyn, NYC.jpg|centré|cadre|Brooklyn]]
D tamnaḍt yesɛan agdud meqqren, tuddar tiqdimin, taẓuri, izerfan idelsanen d yimḍiqen imeqqranen n tudert n temdint.

==== '''Queens''' ====
[[Tugna:Flushing Queens from roof of Starlight Hotel.jpg|centré|cadre|Queens]]
Tettwassen s tmeslayin d yidles yemgaraden. Deg-s llan yimḍiqen n yinig, timnaḍin n tnezzut d waṭas n tdukliwin n yimezdaɣ.

==== '''The Bronx''' ====
[[Tugna:Yankee Stadium 001.JPG|centré|vignette|650x650px|Bronx.]]
D yiwet seg temnaḍin ideg d-yennulfa uɣanib aẓawan n hip-hop. Deg-s daɣen azrib ameqqran ɣer Bronx Zoo d Yankee Stadium.

==== '''Staten Island''' ====
[[Tugna:Freshkills Park in Staten Island, New York.jpg|centré|vignette|650x650px|Staten Island.]]
D tamnaḍt i yesɛan aṭas n yigran imenza, izerfan izegzawen d tuddar ur neččur ara d imezdaɣ am Manhattan.

== 3. Amezruy uqbel ad d-awḍen Yirupiyen ==
Uqbel ad d-awḍen Yirupiyen, akal n New York yella d aḥric seg wakal amenzu n ''Lenape'', i d-yettwasemman ''Lenapehoking''.

Igduden-a zedɣen deg temnaḍt-a i waṭas n yiseggasen s waṭas uqbel asnulfu n temdint tamirant.

Lenape sɛan tudert i d-yettwaznen ɣef ugama. Ttidiren s:

* Ugmar n yiɣersiwen.
* Uṣeggem n tiferkiwin d wakal n tfellaḥt.
* Uṣeyyeḍ n yiselman deg yisaffen.
* Tnezzut d wussawel gar tuddar d yigrawen yemgaraden.

Tudert-nsen tella teqqen ɣer tmettiwin n twaculin, taddart, tiɣawsiwin n ugama d tmenna n yimezwura.

Deg trakalt-nsen, '''Manhattan''' tettwassen s yisem yeqqnen ɣer '''Manahatta'''. Isem-a d yiwen seg yisemawen iqburen i d-yeggran deg temdint tamirant.

Aselmed n umezruy n New York ilaq ad yebdu s ''Lenape'', acku ur tebdi ara tudert d tademsa n temnaḍt-a deg 1624.

== 4. Tallit n Hulanda — New Amsterdam (1624–1664) ==
Deg useggas 1609, '''amnadi Henry Hudson''', i ixeddmen i tdukla n tnezzut tahulandit, yewweḍ ɣer temnaḍt n New York.

Hudson yella yettnadi abrid amaynut n tnezzut ɣer Asya, maca yeẓra azal n temnaḍt-a, ladɣa isaffen-is d waman i tt-id-yezgan.

Deg 1624, Ihulandiyen bdan ad d-sbedden imezdaɣ-nsen deg temnaḍt. Deg yiseggasen i d-iteddun, '''New Amsterdam''' tuɣal d tamdint tameẓẓyant n tnezzut ɣef yiri n Manhattan.

Deg 1653, tettwaɛqal s wudem unṣib am temdint.

New Amsterdam ur tettwasebded ara deg wakal ur nesɛi ara imezdaɣ, maca deg wakal i zedɣen yakan yigduden inasliyen Lenape. Yella d aḥric n tɣawsa tameqqrant n ikuluniyen Irupiyen,i yekksen kra n wakal i yigduden inasliyen Lenape, yerna i d-yessawḍen anagraw n '''useqdec n yimdanen i lfayda n wiyaḍ''' d tnezzut n waklan. ».

Tamdint tettnerni s:

* Tnezzut n yigelman n yiɣersiwen.
* Usiweḍ n yiferdisen ɣer Turuft.
* Lebni n yixxamen d lebni tqenṭyar n waman.
* Tnezzut gar tigdudin yemgaraden.

Deg tallit-a, tamdint tella d amkan n waṭas n tutlayin d yisɣanen. Llant temettiyin tihulandiyin, talmaniyin, tafransisin, tagliziyin, tiyahudiyin d yimezdaɣ iberkanen. tilelli n usɣan(n tedyanit) ur tettunefk ara i meṛṛa s yiwen wudem, yerna taklit d uɛzel n kra n yigrawen n yimezdaɣ d ayen yellan deg temdint.

== 5. Tallit n Lingliziyen (1664–1783) ==
Deg 1664, Lingliziyen ṭṭfen New Amsterdam. Beddlen-as isem, semman-as New York, ilmend n ''James'', ''Duke of York''.

Deg tallit-a, tamdint tettnerni s waṭas, tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin tigejdanin n tmura i yellan ddaw udabu n [[Legliz|Leglizi]] deg Marikan n Ugafa.

Tanezzut tettnerni, llan imezdaɣ imaynuten, ttemḍafaren-d yimseftiyen n tnezzut. Maca tadamsa n temdint tella tesɛa ula d aḥric i ibedden ɣef umahil n waklan.

Deg ṭṭrad n timunent n Marikan, New York teqqim ddaw n udabu aserdasi n Lingliziyen seg 1776 armi 1783.

Mi ifukk ṭṭrad, tamdint tebda tallit tamaynut, tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg usbeddi n uwanek amarikani.

== 6. New York deg tazwara n Uwanek Amarikani ==
Seg 1789 armi 1790, New York tella d tamdint tagejdant n Marikan (tamanaɣt tafidiralit).

Deg-s i yeṭṭef George Washington tanbaḍt-is tamezwarut am umenzu n tmurt deg 1789.

Ayen i d-yerr New York d tamdint tameqqrant n tnezzut deg lqern wis 19 mačči d tadamsa kan, maca d amkan-is:

* Asif n Hudson i d-yettɛawanen asirag ɣer daxel n tmurt.
* Asiweḍ n yiferdisen gar taddart d tmeddurt.
* Abrid n ''Erie Canal'', i d-yeldin deg 1825.
* Tanezzut n Marikan s usiweḍ n waman.

''Erie Canal'' yessuddes assaɣ n tnezzut gar New York d temnaḍin n wadda n Ilel Erie, ayen i yesnernan azal n temdint deg tedamsa n Marikan.

== 7. New York deg lqern wis 19 — tamdint n yinigen ==
[[Tugna:New-York-Fifth-Avenue 1900.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|aNew York deg 1900.]]


Deg lqern wis 19, New York tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin i d-yettawin aṭas n yinigen seg Turuft. Imdanen n waṭas n tmura kecmen ɣer New York i wakken ad afen amahil, tilelli n usɣan neɣ tudert yelhan ugar.

Gar yinigen-a llan:

* '''Irlandiyen''' i d-iffɣen seg tazɣent n laẓ deg tmurt-nsen.
* '''Iṭalyanen''' i d-yusan seg waṭas n temnaḍin n [[Ṭṭelyan|Ṭelyan]].
* '''Ilmaniyen''' d yinigen n Turuft Talemmast.
* '''Iyahudiyen''' i d-iffɣen seg Turuft n Usamar, ladɣa seg ussan n miḥyaf.

Deg 1892, tigzirt n Ellis Island tebda ad tesɛu tawuri tameqqrant deg usqerdec n yinigen i d-yekcemen ɣer Marikan.

New York tuɣal d tamdint n tutlayin yemgaraden, n yiɣaniben n tudert yemgaraden, d tnezzut i yettnernin.

Maca amhaz-a ur yelli ara war uguren. Imezdaɣ aṭas zedɣen deg yixxamen imecṭaḥ, gar-asen tella Maca aṭas n yimezdaɣ ttidiren deg tegnatin iweɛren: lehlakat, laẓ d tegnatin n umahil iwaɛren d uɛeddi ɣef yizerfan n yixeddamen.

=== Asbeddi n New York tamirant deg 1898 ===
Deg 1 Yennayer 1898, tiɣiwanin i d-yettwasemman ass-a '''Manhattan''', '''Brooklyn''', '''Queens''', '''Bronx''' d '''Staten Island''' dduklent deg yiwet n temdint tameqqrant.

Aneḍru-a yerr-a New York d yiwet seg temdinin timeqqranin n Marikan, s tmurt d ugdud meqqren aṭas.

== 8. Lqern wis 20 — tallit n lebni d tẓuri ==
[[Tugna:Fifth Avenue and 25th Street, New York 1900.png|vignette|New York deg 1900.]]
Deg tazwara n lqern wis 20, New York tebda ad tettbeddil s wudem ur nelli ara yakan.

Timdinin nniḍen n Marikan sɛant daɣen lebni ɣezzifen, maca New York tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin i d-yettbanen s waṭas s yixxamen-is ɣezzifen, imahilen n tnezzut, tesdawiyin d tẓuri.

Deg 1904, aẓeṭṭa n umitru ddaw n wakal (subway) yeldi deg temdint. Anagraw-a yessizmir i waṭas n yimezdaɣ ad ddun gar temnaḍin yemgaraden.


=== Ixxamen ɣezzifen d lebni amaynut ===
[[Tugna:Chrysler Building NYC-20090519-RM-094845.jpg|vignette|D yiwen seg yixxamen yettwassnen s uɣanib n lebni Art déco.]]
[[Tugna:Empire State Building (aerial view).jpg|vignette|519x519px|Yettwabna deg tallit n tazɣent tadamsant tameqqrant, yuɣal d azamul n New York.]]
Deg 1929, tazɣent tadamsant tameqqrant tebda seld aɣelluy n tggazt n ''Wall Street''. New York tuɣal d yiwet seg temdinin i yettwaḥuzzen s waṭas s twaɣit-a n tdamsa.

Maca seg yiseggasen n 1930 armi d taggara n ṭṭrad wis sin n umaḍal, tamdint tettnerni s lebni n yixxamen, iberdan d useggem n yizerfan n umahil.


==Isunen n weɣrem n New York== 

Llan semmus (5) n yisunen deg New York, s tenglizt qqaren-as ''Boroughs''. [[File:5 Boroughs Labels New York City Map.png|thumb|5 Isunen n weɣrem n New York sɣur Julius Schorzman : 1- Manhattan, 2-Queens, 3-Brooklyn, 4-The Bronx, 5- Staten Island]]

*[[Manhattan]] : agwans n temdint, tella af tegzirt n Manhattan. Llant deg-s [[Wall Street]], [[Tasdawit n New York]], [[Tasdawit n Columbia]], asutel n Yiwunak Yeddukklen (ONU/NU). Ɣur-es imezdaɣen 1 546 856 deg-s. 
*[[The Bronx]] : ay d asun agellil akk deg weɣrem n New York akwd tdersiwin (minorités) tiberkanin d tispanikin maca tuɣal-d cwiṭ n teɣlist seg 20 iseggassen i yezrin. Ay d dduḥ n uẓawan Hip-Hop, deg-s illa [[Asarir Yankees Stadium]]. Ɣur-es  1 354 068 imezdaɣen deg-s. 
*[[Queens]] :  Ɣur-es  2 237 815 imezdaɣen deg-s. Yeḍra [[US Open]] dinna yal uggur n ctember, deg-s llan imafagen n JFK d La Guardia. Illa d agemim n tmezduɣt d tmugri (industry). 
*[[Brooklyn]] : Agemim n tmezduɣt n New-Yorkers. Ɣur-es 2 488 194 imezdaɣen deg-s
*[[Staten Island]] :  Ɣur-es imezdaɣen 491 730 deg-s. Daɣem d agemim n tmezduɣt n New-Yorkers, yuggug si Manhattan. 

[[Category:New York]][[Category:Timdinin]][[Category:Iwunak Yeddukklen]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Tadist</title>
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      <text bytes="403" sha1="n58f8m2yv7z4tk2ipv6wozvy5vkwzm9" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:PregnantWoman.jpg|thumb|250px|Tameṭṭut s tadist]]

'''Tadist''' ɣer [[tawtemt|twetmin]] n [[Timsiffatin|temsuṭṭad]] d tamhalt deg wanda i tettadam [[amgun]] neɣ ugar deg [[adis|wadis-is]], Tadist ar [[afgan|ufgan]] tettaṭaf 9 n [[ayyur (akud)|wayyuren]], [[Aqziz]] d isem n tadist i tettadam tewtemt deg tallit n [[asebrer alsan|usebrer]] alma d [[tarrawt]]

== Imeskanen n tadist ==</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Aɣray di Lezzayer</title>
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        <username>Abillardoo</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* */</comment>
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      <text bytes="1670" sha1="rykhleavwdrelv9yze1lp7qvicd78jy" xml:space="preserve">Asaḍuf azzayri yegdel [[aɣray]] akked assewsen fellas s yinuzal neɣ temliliyin&lt;ref&gt;https://www.safeabortionwomensright.org/news/algeria-abortion-has-not-been-legalised-in-algeria/ {{Assaɣ yerrẓen|date=October 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Yal yiwen yeggar-d iman-is deg uzerruy n waɣray yezmer ad ikcem ar usekraf.

== Timella n waɣray aẓerfan ==
Yiwen usenfar n usaḍuf n unabaḍ ɣef uguren n tdawsa yessumer-d ad d-iger waɣray ɣef kraḍ n waddaden kan:

# Tadist tesres-d tameṭṭut deg umihi usnamnan neɣ allaɣan. 
# Amgun ur yezmir ara ad yedder axaṭer yesεa tazenbegt neɣ aṭṭan imeqsuḥen.
# Tazmert neɣ tudert n tmeṭṭut tella deg umihi mi tekfa tadest. 


== Tikliniyin n waɣray s tuffra ==
Llant kra n tikliniyin i teggent takala war assireg n unabaḍ, Aṭaṣ n temsaɣin-nsent d tiqcicin i uɣalent s tadist maɛna nedment imi ur ttheggint ara iman-nsent i tmasit n tyemmatt, neɣ d tilawin terra-tent tmara ad sseɣlin tadist ɣef ssebbat tidamsanin maca ur bɣint ara ad tent-negren twacult-nsent.

== Aɣray d takerḍa ==
Deg useggas n 1998, yella kra n dderz ɣef waɣray imi tɛeddan iremmaɣen insenselmen deg lḥeṛma n yimiyyaten n tlawin. Tameṭṭut tebɣa azref ad tesseɣli tadist maɛna yegdel-t aṣaḍuf. azzayri imi aɣray ur d-yettili ara deg kraḍ n waddaden.

== Amsizzel Agraɣlan i wazref n waɣray aksaɣeṛtan ==
Lezzayer tella gar tmura i yettekkan deg-s drus i umsizzel n wazref-a ula gar timura n Tafriqt n Ugafa ɣef lǧal n yisuḍaf d tanelayt n tmetti i ttaṭṭafen mliḥ deg tid n zik, ur wjiden ara i udiwenni anafri am wa.

== Tiwelhiwin ==
{{Reflist}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Asfukel war tukci n tmusni</title>
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        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
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      <comment>seɣtiɣ kra n tuccḍiwin</comment>
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      <text bytes="21449" sha1="bvlavcyc6p7njaxgkmtxejw7x6af2j9" xml:space="preserve">'''Asfukel war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: zero-knowledge proof, ZKP) d tarrayt deg uwgelhan i yessemras yiwen umdan neɣ yiwen unagraw iwakken ad isfukel i wayeḍ belli yiwet n tenfalit d tidet, war ma yefka-as talɣut nniḍen ɣef wayen yeffren, nnig wayen i d-temmal tenfalit-nni d yisefka izuyaz. Taɣara-a teqqen ɣer wamek i yettwasileɣ usfukel, mačči kan ɣer usuffeɣ neɣ war asuffeɣ n tuffirt s wudem usrid.

== Isem d unamek ==
« War tukci n tmusni » ur d-yemmal ara belli win yesneqden ur d-yelmid acemma. Yettwali belli tanfalit i as-d-yettunefken tettwaqbel s yilugan n unagraw. Ayen ur d-ilemmid ara d talɣut nniḍen ɣef tuffirt i yellan deffir usfukel. S umedya, ad iselken belli amdan yesɛa tasarut tuffirt, war ma yessen azal n tsarut-nni.

== Amezruy d usnerni n tmiḍrant ==

=== Seg yisfukal imatuten ɣer yisfukal s usdiwen ===
Deg usfukel n tusnakt i nennum, win i d-yettaken asfukel yeskanay-d tikli i izemren ad teḍfer tayeḍ. Maca deg uwgelhan, tikli-nni tezmer ad tesban talɣut i ilaq ad teqqim d tuffirt. Timiḍrant n ZK tefruri-d seg usteqsi-a: amek ara nesfukel tidet n kra, war ma nesban-d meṛṛa ayen i aɣ-yeǧǧan ad t-nessen?

''Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Charles Rackoff'' sbedden tigejda n taɣult-a deg leqdic i d-yeffɣen deg STOC deg 1985. Lqem-is aɣezfan yeffeɣ-d deg ''SIAM Journal on'' ''Computing'' deg 1989. Leqdic-a yesdukkel asfukel s '''usdiwen''', '''taseqqart''' d '''usenqed n''' '''tmusni''' i yezmer ad d-yerbeḥ win yesneqden. 

=== Asemres ɣef ugur imatu ===
''Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Avi Wigderson'' sbegnen belli, ma llan kra n tesɣunin i yessehlen i usiḍen deg yiwet n tnila maca iweɛren i tuɣalin ɣer deffir (one-way functions), yal tutlayt deg taggayt NP tesɛa asfukel s usdiwen war tukci n tmusni. Leqdic-nsen yettwabder deg 1986, lqem aɣezfan-is deg 1991. Aya yessuffeɣ timiḍrant seg kra n wuguren n yimḍanen ɣer yiwet n taɣult tasnaẓrayant wessiɛen.

=== Tuɣalin ɣer leqdic war asdiwen ===
Deg 1988, ''Manuel Blum'', ''Paul Feldman'' akked ''Silvio Micali'' ssuffɣen-d leqdic agejdan ɣef yisfukal war asdiwen d yiseqdacen-nsen. Iɣewwaṛen izuyaz yezdin gar win yesfukulen d win yesneqden zemren ad ilin d lsas n leqdic-a. Ihi, « war asdiwen » ur yemmal ara « war uheggi » neɣ « war tawsit n unagraw ». 

=== Tallit n yisfukal iwezlan ===
Deg yiseggasen 2010, inadiyen ɣef yisfukal iwezlan, aselken arurad d leḥsab ameqqran ssawḍen ɣer twaculin am '''Groth16''', '''Bulletproofs''', '''STARK''', '''PLONK''' d '''Halo'''. Yal tawacult tesɛa ilugan d yiswan-is: temẓi n usfukel, akud n usnulfu, tmara n uselken neɣ tukksa n uheggi i yettḥwaǧen laman deg umdan wis kraḍ.

== 2. Tabadut tusnakt d yiwudam n leqdic ==
I ussegzi n tarrayt, nettsemmi P i win yesfukulen (prover), V i win yesneqden (verifier), x i yisefka izuyaz, w i uselkin uffir (witness). Assaɣ R yesbadu ayen ilaq ad yili d tidet gar x d w. 

'''R(x, w) = 1'''

Tanfalit i nettḥeqqiq d tin i d-yeqqaren belli '''illa''' w i yesɛan assaɣ-a d x. Tagrumma n yisefka izuyaz i yesɛan aselkin yettwabdar s:

'''L = { x : illa w, R(x, w) = 1 }'''

S umedya n ussegzi, x yezmer ad yili d azal y n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ H; w d amḍan uffir s = w. Assaɣ yettwasenqed d H(s) = y. Yezmer daɣen ad yili x d agmuḍ n leḥsab, w d isefka uffiren akked tikli n leḥsab i d-yessawḍen ɣer ugmuḍ-nni. Umḍan n yiwudam ur yettbeddilara tabadut: zemren ad ilin d imdanen, d iqeddacen neɣ d iseɣẓanen.

=== Kraḍ n tewtilin tigejdanin ===
'''Aqbal n wayen iṣeḥḥan''' (completeness). Ma x yesɛa aselkin iwatan, yerna P d V ḍefren ilugan, asfukel ilaq ad yettwaqbel s tseqqart meqqren, neɣ dima deg kra n yinagrawen.

'''Agi n wayen ur neṣṣiḥ ara''' (soundness). Ma x ur yesɛi ula d yiwen n uselkin iwatan, ilaq ad tili tseqqart n uɣelli n V deg tuccḍa d tameẓyant akken iwata, ɣas P yeɛreḍ ad iɣucc. Taɣara-a tḥerrez tidet n usfukel.

'''War tukci n tmusni''' (zero knowledge). Talɣut i d-yettawi V seg leqdic ilaq ad tezmer

ad tettwaserwes war aselkin uffir. Taɣara-a tḥerrez ayen i yessen P; ur tettwasefhem ara s wawal « uffir » kan.  Taɣellist tettwasbadu s yiwen uɣewwaṛ λ. Taseqqart i wumi neqqar « tameẓyant akken iwata » tezmer ad tili d tin i yettidiren ddaw n 1/λk i yal k &gt; 0, ma λ meqqer akken iwata. D aya i d-anamek n negligible deg tbadutin-a.

== Asfukel d afukal ==
Deg unamek usdid, ''anza'' yesseḥbibir ɣef tidet ula mgal win yesfukulen s tzemmar n leḥsab ur nesɛi ara tilisa. Afukal(Argument) yettḥerrez tidet mgal aɣuccam(win iɣuccen) i yesɛan tazmert n leḥsab talast. Deg uḍris imatu, awal « asfukel » yettwasemras i snat-a; deg usenqed tusnakt, amgired-a ilaq ad yettwaḥrez.

=== Tugna 1. Asfukel d uselkin uffir ===
Win yesfukulen yessemras aselkin uffir; win yesneqden yesseḥḥay tanfalit s usfukel d yisefka izuyaz.
[[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|400x400px]]

== 3. Aserwes d unamek usdid n ZK ==

=== Aserwas am tewtilt n usfukel ===
'''Aserwas''' (simulator) d axwerzim(alguritm) i d-yeslalayen ayen i izemren ad iwali win yesneqden, war ma yesɛa aselkin uffir. Deg tabadut n ZK, ilaq ayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas ad yemcabi, ilmend n tewtilt tusnakt i nettsemras, ayen i d-yettawi win yesneqden seg leqdic ilaw. Ma nezmer ad neslal talɣut-nni war tuffirt, tikli n usfukel ur as-d-terni ara talɣut i izemren ad tessegzi tuffirt. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli '''aɣuccam''' yezmer ad d-yesnulfu yal asfukel yebɣa deg unagraw ilaw. Aserwes yezmer ad yessemres tarrayt tasnaẓrayant am tuɣalin ɣer kra n waddaden n win yesneqden, neɣ yiwen n uheggi n usenqed i yemgaraden ɣef uheggi ilaw. Iwakkenad tettwaḥrez tidet, tarrayin-a ilaq ad ttwasbadunt deg umedya tusnakt n tɣellist.

=== Kraḍ n talɣiwin n umcabi ===
'''War tukci n tmusni s wudem ummid''' (perfect zero knowledge). Tiski n wayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas d tin n leqdic ilaw d yiwet s tusnakt.

'''War tukci n tmusni s waddadan''' (statistical zero knowledge). Sin n yisuffaɣ qriben nezzeh deg tseqqart; amgired-nsen d ameẓyan akken iwata, ɣas win i ten-yesneqden yesɛa tazmert n usiḍen(leḥsab) war tilisa.

'''War tukci n tmusni n usiḍen''' (computational zero knowledge). Axwerzim i yesɛan tilisa n usiḍen(leḥsab) ur yezmir ara ad yefrez gar sin n yisuffaɣ s tzemmar yugaren talast tameẓyant i tettwasbadun. Taɣara-a tezmer ad tbedd ɣef ugur tusnakt i yettwaḥsaben d aweɛran.

== Win yesneqden s laman d win iɣuccen ==
Kra n yisfukal ttwaseknen kan d ''War tukci n tmusni'''''('''ZK) ma ara yelli win yesneqden yeḍfer ilugan: aya d &quot;''honest-verifier zero knowledge, HVZK&quot;''. ''War tukci n tmusni(''ZK) mgal win yesneqden iɣuccen ilaq ad tesseḥbiber ɣef tuffirt ula ma ibeddel isteqsiyen neɣ ixeddem s talɣut nniḍen. Ur ilaq ara ad nerr HVZK d agdazal n ZK mgal yal aɣuccam. 

Deg unagraw anda aṭas n yisfukal teddun deg yiwet n tallit, taɣara n ZK n yiwen n leqdic ur tekfi ara i usfukel n tɣellist n wammud. Leqdic yezdin, allus d ubeddel n umizwer n yiznan ḥwaǧen asenqed i iman-nsen.

== 4. Imedyaten d wassaɣ d NP ==

=== Asfukel n umḍan n yiseggasen ===
Amedya n ussegzi: yiwen n umdan yebɣa ad isfukel belli yesɛa 18 n yiseggasen neɣ ugar, war ma yesban-d azemz n tlalit-is. Isefka izuyaz zemren ad ilin d azemz n wass-a, talast 18, akked tsarut tazayezt n win i d-yefkan aselkin. Isefka uffiren zemren ad ilin d azemz n tlalit d uzmul umḍin i t-yesseḥḥan.

Asfukel ilaq ad yesdukkel snat n tewtilin: azemz yeqqen ɣer uselkin iṣeḥḥan, yerna amḍan n yiseggasen yellan deg-s ugar neɣ yewweḍ 18. Ma yesneqed kan tanaḍt « age ≥ 18 » war tuqqna ɣer uselkin, amdan yezmer ad yefk amḍan i d-isnulfa. Ihi, ZK yettḥerrez tikli n uselken; aɣbalu n yisefka ilaq ad yili d win i nezmer ad namen.

=== Amedya n tfelwit n wurar ===
Yezmer umdan ad yebɣu ad isfukel belli yesɛa tifrat n yiwen n '''Sudoku''', war ma d-yesban tifrat. Isefka izuyaz d tafelwit n wurar; aselkin uffir d imḍanen i yefka i texxamin tilemmas. Assaɣ R yesneqed belli yal izirig, yal tigejdit d yal aḥric yesɛa imḍanen ilaqen, yerna imḍanen i yellan seg tazwara ur beddlen ara. Amedya-a yeskanay belli aselkin ur ilaq ara ad yili d awal uffir; yezmer ad yili d tifrat n ugur.

=== Anamek n NP ===
NP d taggayt n wuguren anda tifrat i aɣ-d-yettunefken tezmer ad tettwasenqed deg wakud i yettnernin s wudem agetfulan ilmend n teɣzi n yisefka. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli tifrat-nni teshel i tifin. Yal tifrat n kra n wuguren tezmer ad tettwasenqed s lemɣawla, maca tifin-is tezmer ad teḥwaǧ leḥsab meqqren. 

Agmuḍ n Goldreich, Micali d Wigderson yemmal belli, s kra n turdiwin n uwgelhan, nezmer ad nesfukel tilin n tifrat i yal ugur deg NP war tukci n tmusni. Maca tilin n tarrayt deg tusnakt ur d-yemmal ara belli tarrayt-nni d taruradt neɣ teshel i usemres. Asenqed n wakud, tkatut d teɣzi n usfukel d aḥric nniḍen n unadi.

=== Tugna 2. Aselken n umḍan n yiseggasen ===
Amedya n ussegzi: asfukel belli amdan yesɛa 18 n yiseggasen neɣ ugar, war asban n uzemz n tlalit-is.
[[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|vignette|380x380px|Tugna n uselken n umḍan n yiseggasen.]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 2. Asfukel yesdukkel tidet n uzmul akked tewtilt n yiseggasen. Ilaq daɣen aselkin ad yeqqen ɣer umdan iwatan, ad ur yemmut ara wakud n usemres-is, ad ur tettwakkes ara tsiregt-is. D amedya n ussegzi, mačči d anagraw ummid n usesteb.&lt;/small&gt;

== 5. Isfukal war asdiwen (NIZK) ==
Deg usfukel s usdiwen, P d V ttmeslayen s yiznan: P yezmer ad yefk aḥric amezwaru, V ad yefren asteqsi agacuran, P ad d-yerr. Deg NIZK, P yeslalay-d asfukel π, V yesneqed-it s yisefka izuyaz, war ma yuḥwaǧ ad d-yesteqsi P deg tallit-nni. Yezmer daɣen ad yiselkenasfukel seld azemz n usnulfu-is.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Aḥric
!Ayen i ixeddem
|-
|Setup
|Iheggi iɣewwaṛen izuyaz pp, ilmend n tarrayt.
|-
|Prove(pp, x, w)
|Yeslalay-d asfukel π s yisefka x d uselkin uffir w.
|-
|Verify(pp, x, π)
|Yettarra aqbal neɣ agi n usfukel.
|}

=== Iɣewwaṛen yezdin d laman ===
Kra n yinagrawen semrasen ''common reference string (CRS)'': d azrar n yisefka izuyaz i ttsemrasen sin yiwudam. Deg kra n talɣiwin, aheggi yeslalay-d daɣen talɣut tuffirt i ilaq ad tettwakkes; ma teqqim ɣer kra n umdan, yezmer ad tesruḥ taɣara n tɣellist. D ta i wumi qqaren ''trusted setup''.

'''Aheggi''' s waṭas n yimttekkiyen yezmer ad yesneɣṣ laman i nettara deg yiwen umdan, ilmend n tewtilin n tarrayt. Kra n yiɣewwaṛen zemren ad ttwasemrsen i waṭas n leḥsabat, yerna ad ttwalqamen s lmendad n yimttekkiyen imaynuten; PLONK aneṣli d amedya n uheggi amatu i izemren ad yettwalqem. 

=== Aheggi ibanen (transparent setup) ===
Deg kra n twaculin, ulac talɣut tuffirt n uheggi i ilaq ad tettwakkes. Iɣewwaṛen zemren add-ttwasnulfun s tarrayt ibanenn neɣ s yimḍanen ugacuranen izuyaz. '''STARK''' d '''Bulletproofs''' d sin n yimedyaten yemgaraden n tarrayin war &quot;''trusted setup&quot;''. Aya ur yekkesara ilugan n tusnakt d turdiwin n uwgelhan iɣef bḍan. 

=== Fiat-Shamir ===
Tarrayt n '''Fiat-Shamir''' tettbeddil, i kra n yisfukal s usdiwen i iwulmen, asteqsi agacuran n V s ugmuḍ n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ. Tanfalit, aḥric amezwaru n usfukel d usatal ilaq ad qqnen ɣer usiḍen-a. Taɣellist tettwasenqed deg umedya n &quot;''random oracle&quot;''; ur ilaq ara adnerr yal asdiwen d NIZK s ubeddel-a war asfukel n tɣellist.

=== Tugna 3. S usdiwen d war asdiwen ===
Aḥric afellay yeskanay amedya s kraḍ n yiznan; aḥric n wadda yeskanay asfukel NIZK

==== A · S usdiwen ====
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-11 10-42-52.png|710x710px]]

==== B · War asdiwen (NIZK) ====
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-11 10-45-37.png|763x763px]]

&lt;small&gt;'''Tugna 3.''' Deg NIZK, win yesneqden ur d-yettazen ara asteqsi deg tallit n usfukel. Maca iɣewwaṛen yezdin&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;zemren ad ttwaheggin uqbel. « War asdiwen » ur d-yemmal ara « war tuzzna n usfukel » neɣ « war uheggi ».&lt;/small&gt;

== 6. Amedya s wudem n tusnakt: tarrayt n Schnorr ==
Schnorr yessemras agraw '''G''' s umḍan amezwaru '''q''' n yiferdisen, d uferdis '''g''' i d-yeslalayen agraw-a. Tasarut tuffirt d '''s'''; tasarut tazayezt d '''y = gs'''. Ugur n tifin n '''s''' seg '''y''' d '''g''' yettusemma ''discrete logarithm''. Dag i asfukel n tmusni n '''s''', mačči kan n tilin-is. 

=== Kraḍ n yiznan ===
1. '''P''' yefren amḍan agacuran '''r''' modulo '''q''', isiḍen '''a = gr''', syin ad yazen '''a''' i '''V'''.

2. '''V''' yefren asteqsi agacuran '''c''' modulo '''q''', ad t-yazen i '''P'''.

3. '''P''' yerr-d '''z = r + cs''' (mod q). '''V''' yesneqed asekkil-a:

'''&lt;math&gt;g{z} = a \cdot y^{c}&lt;/math&gt;'''


Aqbal n win yeḍfren ilugan yettban seg: &lt;math&gt;g^{r+cs} = g^{r} \cdot (g^{s})^{c}&lt;/math&gt;. Talɣa-a tessemras « + » deg z;

&lt;nowiki&gt;RFC 8235&lt;/nowiki&gt; yessemras talɣa tagdazalt s « − » d useggem n uselken. 

=== Asiḍen ameẓyan i ussegzi ===
Ad neddem p = 23, q = 11, g = 2. Leḥsab n yiferdisen n ugraw yettawi-d agmuḍ modulo

23. Ma s = 3, ad naf y = 8. Ma r = 4, ad naf a = 16. Ma c = 2, ad naf z = 10 modulo 11.

Ihi:

&lt;math&gt;2^{10} \bmod 23 = 12&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;16 \cdot 8^{12} \bmod 23 = 12&lt;/math&gt;

Sin yidisawen d yiwen, ihi aselken yeqbel. Imḍanen-a d imeẓyanen nezzeh: kul yiwen yezmer ad yaf s s usenqed n kra n wazalen. Amedya-a d win n uselmed kan, ur yesɛi ara taɣellist n usemres ilaw.

=== Aserwes d allus n r ===
I win yesneqden s laman, aserwas yezmer ad yefren '''c''' d '''z''', syin ad isiḍen &lt;math&gt;a = g^{z} \cdot y^{-c}&lt;/math&gt; . Yewwi-d kraḍ n wazalen i yeqbel uselken, war '''s'''. Maca deg leqdic ilaw, '''P''' ilaq ad yefk '''a''' uqbel ma yessen '''c'''. D umizwer-a i yessemgiriden aserwes d uɣuccu.

Ma P yessemres yiwen '''r''' i sin n yisteqsiyen yemgaraden '''c₁''' d '''c₂''', s tririyin '''z₁''' d '''z₂''', tasarut tezmer ad tettwaf: '''s = (z₁ − z₂) · (c₁ − c₂)−1 modulo q'''. D asfukel usrid n wazal n yimḍanen igacuranen d yibeddilen-nsen.

&lt;small&gt;Deg talɣa war asdiwen, '''c''' yettwasiḍen seg '''H''' n yiɣewwaṛen, '''y''', '''a''' d isutal. Aselken n ugraw d umasal n yisefka d aḥric n tɣellist, ɣas ur d-yettwasegzi ara meṛṛa dagi.&lt;/small&gt;

== 7. Tiwaculin n yisfukal ==

=== zk-SNARK d Groth16 ===
zk-SNARK d agzul n &quot;''zero-knowledge Succinct Non-interactive ARgument of Knowledge&quot;''. «Succinct » yemmal belli asfukel d aselken-is zemren ad ilin d iwezlan ilmend n leḥsab i yettwasenqaden; « of knowledge » teqqen ɣer tewtilt n tmusni n uselkin. '''Groth16''', i d-yefka '''Jens Groth''' deg 2016, d tarrayt s &quot;''pairings''&quot; deg yigrawen tusnakt. Asfukel-is yesɛa kraḍ n yiferdisen n ugraw. Aheggi-is yettwasnen yeqqen ɣer leḥsab i yebɣa ad yesneqed.

=== PLONK ===
PLONK, i d-yefɣen deg 2019, yessemras iɣewwaṛen yezdin i waṭas n leḥsabat, s talast n teɣzi i yettwasbadun, yerna iɣewwaṛen-a zemren ad ttwalqamen. Yesseqdec assaɣen gar igetfulen akked usfukel n ubeddel n umizwer n yiferdisen. Isem « PLONK » yettwasemras daɣen i tarrayin i d-yekkan seg-s, maca ur ilaq ara ad nerr meṛṛa talɣiwin-nni sɛant yiwen uheggi neɣ yiwet n tɣellist.

=== zk-STARK ===
zk-STARK d &quot;''zero-knowledge Scalable Transparent ARgument of Knowledge&quot;''. Leqdic n '''Ben-Sasson''' d yimdukal-is deg 2018 yeskanay tarrayt i leḥsab ameqqran s uheggi ibanen. Tiwaculin-a ttsemrasent tarrayin n yigatfulen, asenqed n kra n yiferdisen d tesɣunin n ugeddeḥ. Taɣellist-nsent mgal iselkimen ikwantiyen teqqen ɣer turdiwin i yettwasemrasen, mačči ɣer yisem « STARK » kan. 

=== Bulletproofs ===
Bulletproofs d tarrayt war &quot;''trusted setup&quot;'', tettwasemras s waṭas i usfukel belli azal uffir yella gar snat n tlisa (range proof). Teɣzi n usfukel tettnerni s wudem alugaritman; maca akud n usnulfu d uselken, deg tarrayt taneṣlit, yettnerni s wudem imzireg ilmend n tiddi nugur. Ihi, « asfukel awezlan » ur d-yemmal ara dima « aselken awezlan ».

=== Halo d usdukkel n yisfukal ===
'''Halo''' yeskanay deg 2019 asdukkel n yisfukal s tuɣalin ɣer yiman-is (recursive proof

composition) war ''trusted setup''. Asfukel amaynut yezmer ad yesneqed asfukel aqbur d kra n leḥsab nniḍen, iwakken ad tili teɣzi n leqdic yettwasenqaden meqqret, ɣas asfukel i neḥrez d awezlan. Aya d tarrayt i usemẓi n tmara n uselken n umezrar n leḥsabat.

== 8. Iseqdacen ==

=== Asesteb d yiselkinen umḍinen ===
Asfukel n tmusni n tsarut tuffirt yezmer ad yili d aḥric n usesteb. Anagraw yezmer ad yiselken belli win i as-d-yettmeslayen yesɛa tasarut, war ma t-id-yefka. Iwakken ad yettwakkes usemres n usfukel aqbur, ilaq tuqqna ɣer usatal, asteqsi amaynut neɣ tallit nusemres. Asfukel i izemren ad yettwasenqed sɣur yal yiwen ur yettuɣal ara d asesteb amaynut s yiman-is. 

Deg yiselkinen umḍinen, ZK yezmer ad yesseḥbiber ɣef talɣut ur neḥwaǧ ara i wuskan:

amḍan n yiseggasen, tilin deg yiwet n tegrumma, neɣ tasiregt i kra n leqdic. Maca anagraw ilaq ad isenqed daɣen azmul n win i d-yefkan aselkin, azemz n taggara n usemres-is d wamek ara tettwakkes tsiregt ma tbeddel tegnit.

=== Tidrimin tumḍinin d Zerocash ===
'''Zerocash''', i d-yettwabedren deg 2014, yessemras zk-SNARKs iwakken ad yettwasenqed tanigawt(lexlaṣ) war asban n kra n yisefka n win i d-yettaken, win yettawin d wazal n yidrimen.

Asfukel yezmer ad yesdukkel tilin n yidrimen, tasiregt n usemres-nsen d uḥraz n wazal.

Anagraw ummid yessemras daɣen allalen nniḍen iwakken ad yagi lexlaṣ snat n tikkal s yiwen n uḥric n yidrimen. 

=== Aselken n usiḍen(leḥsab) d yimesdukklen n temhal(rollups) ===
Deg wannar n yizurar n yiḥedren(blockchains), '''amesdukkel n temhal aneɣbal''' &quot;'''''validity rollup'''''&quot;, deg-s aṭas n temhal ttwaseqdacent berra n uzrar agejdan. Asfukel yeseɣtay abeddel n waddad seg S ɣer S′; tezrart tagejdant tesneqad asfukel ilmend n yilugan-is. Aya yezmer ad isneɣṣ leḥsab i ilaq ad xedmen meṛṛa yimttekkiyen. Maca aṭas n yiseqdacen i wumi qqaren « ZK-rollups » semrasen asfukel n tidet, war ma ffren meṛṛa isefka n temhal. 

Tilin n usfukel ur tefru ara s yiman-is ugur n unekcum ɣer yisefka (data availability). Ilaq ad tili tarrayt i win iḥwaǧen isefka n waddad iwakken ad t-id-yales, ad yiselken tazmert n usuffeɣ neɣ ad iḥrez izerfan-is deg unagraw. 

=== Asenqed, afran d usemres n yisefka ===
ZK yezmer ad yekki deg yinagrawen n ufran, usenqed n usiḍen(leḥsab) neɣ uselken n leqdic n yiwen wahil ɣef yisefka uffiren. Deg yal amedya, ilaq ad yettwasbadu wayen i yettwasfukulen s ṣṣfa: asfukel n kra n tneqqiḍin ur yettuɣal ara d asfukel n tɣellist n unagraw meṛṛa. Aḥraz n tuffirt d aselken n leḥsab zemren ad myekmalen, maca yal yiwen yesɛa tiwtilin-is.

== 9. Tilisa, taɣellist d tmara n usiḍen(leḥsab) ==

=== Tidet n yisefka n tazwara ===
Asfukel yesneqed assaɣ i yettwasbadun deg wahil. Ma assaɣ-nni yella deg-s useɣti ur nemmid ara, neɣ isefka n tazwara d ikerkas, asfukel yezmer ad yettwaqbel ɣas agmuḍ i nettmenni deg tilawt ur iṣeḥḥa ara. S umedya n &quot;18 n yiseggasen&quot;, ilaq aselkin n tlalit iṣeḥḥan; ZK ur yettbeddil ara azal ur neṣṣiḥ ara ɣer tidet.

=== Tuffirt n uselkin d talɣut i d-yettbanen ===
Isefka izuyaz d ugmuḍ n uselken zemren ad d-mmalen kra n talɣut. Ma anagraw yesfukel « amḍan n yiseggasen yugar 18 », talɣut-a teffeɣ-d s lebɣi. Ma anagraw yefka aṭas n tririyin ɣef waṭas n tlisa, yezmer ad yesban ugar. Ihi, afran n tenfalit yezmer ad yili azal-is am wazal n tarrayt n usfukel. Uffir n uselkin ur d-yettawi ara s yiman-is uffir n tansa IP, akud n usemres, tuqqna gar yiḍrisen neɣ isem n umseqdac. Anadi ɣef [[Zcash]] yeskanay amek kra n tarrayin n usemres d yisefka izuyaz zemrent ad ɛawnent i tuqqna gar temhal, ɣas allalen n uwgelhan llan.

=== Tamara d yiseɣẓanen ===
Asnulfu n usfukel yezmer ad yeḥwaǧ ugar n wakud d tkatut n leḥsab aneṣli. Aselken yezmer ad yili d arurad, maca aya yettbeddil ilmend n tarrayt, teɣzi n yisefka izuyaz, talɣa n wahil d warraten n uselkim. Asenqed n tarrayin ilaq ad yefrez gar akud n uheggi,n usnulfu, d uselken d teɣzi n usfukel. Tuccḍa deg useɣẓan, asenqed ur nemmid ara n yiɣewwaṛen, neɣ asnulfu ur neṣṣiḥ ara n yimḍanen ugacuranen zemren ad sruḥen taɣellist. Deg '''Schnorr''', allus n yiwen '''r''' yezmer ad yesban tasarut. Deg yinagrawen n leḥsab imatu, tiwtilin i yettwanṭṭan deg tbadut n ugur zemrent ad ǧǧent asfukel ad yeqbel ayen ur nettraju ara. Iselkimen ikwantiyen bden ɣef Kra n tarrayin yebḍan ɣef ugur n &quot;''discrete logarithm&quot;'' neɣ &quot;''pairings''&quot;, ur ttwaḥsabent ara d tiɣellsanin mgal aselkim akwanti ameqqran iwatan. Tiwaculin ibedden ɣef tesɣunin n ugeddeḥ zemrent ad sɛunt turdiwin yemgaraden. Ilaq ad yettwasenqed unagraw meṛṛa, seg usfukel ɣer yizmal d tsura; isem n twacult ur yekfi ara i usfukel n tɣellist akwantiyant.

=== Iselkimen ikwantiyen ===
Kra n tarrayin bḍant ɣef ugur n &quot;''discrete logarithm''&quot; neɣ &quot;''pairings''&quot;, ur ttwaḥsabent ara d tiɣellsanin mgal aselkim akwanti ameqqran i iwatan. Tiwaculin ibedden ɣef tesɣunin n ugeddeḥ zemrent ad sɛunt turdiwin yemgaraden. Ilaq ad yettwasenqed unagraw meṛṛa,seg usfukel ɣer yizmal d tsura; isem n twacult ur yekfi ara i usfukel n tɣellist akwantiyant.</text>
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      <text bytes="21807" sha1="9mniv9elj37yq0xycnvi6luicsdqhjy" xml:space="preserve">'''Asfukel war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: zero-knowledge proof, ZKP) d tarrayt deg uwgelhan i yessemras yiwen umdan neɣ yiwen unagraw iwakken ad isfukel i wayeḍ belli yiwet n tenfalit d tidet, war ma yefka-as talɣut nniḍen ɣef wayen yeffren, nnig wayen i d-temmal tenfalit-nni d yisefka izuyaz. Taɣara-a teqqen ɣer wamek i yettwasileɣ usfukel, mačči kan ɣer usuffeɣ neɣ war asuffeɣ n tuffirt s wudem usrid.

'''Isfukal war asdiwen, war tukci n tmusni''' (s teglizit: ''non-interactive zero-knowledge'' ''proofs'', NIZK) d yiwet n twacult n yisfukal-a. Win i d-yeslalayen asfukel yezmer ad t-id-yeg s yisefka i ɣur-s, syin ad t-yazen i win ara t-yesneqden, war asteqsi d tririt gar-asen deg tallit n usfukel. Yezmer ad yili uheggi n yiɣewwaṛen yezdin uqbel aya.

== Isem d unamek ==
« War tukci n tmusni » ur d-yemmal ara belli win yesneqden ur d-yelmid acemma. Yettwali belli tanfalit i as-d-yettunefken tettwaqbel s yilugan n unagraw. Ayen ur d-ilemmid ara d talɣut nniḍen ɣef tuffirt i yellan deffir usfukel. S umedya, ad iselken belli amdan yesɛa tasarut tuffirt, war ma yessen azal n tsarut-nni.

== Amezruy d usnerni n tmiḍrant ==

=== Seg yisfukal imatuten ɣer yisfukal s usdiwen ===
Deg usfukel n tusnakt i nennum, win i d-yettaken asfukel yeskanay-d tikli i izemren ad teḍfer tayeḍ. Maca deg uwgelhan, tikli-nni tezmer ad tesban talɣut i ilaq ad teqqim d tuffirt. Timiḍrant n ZK tefruri-d seg usteqsi-a: amek ara nesfukel tidet n kra, war ma nesban-d meṛṛa ayen i aɣ-yeǧǧan ad t-nessen?

''Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Charles Rackoff'' sbedden tigejda n taɣult-a deg leqdic i d-yeffɣen deg STOC deg 1985. Lqem-is aɣezfan yeffeɣ-d deg ''SIAM Journal on'' ''Computing'' deg 1989. Leqdic-a yesdukkel asfukel s '''usdiwen''', '''taseqqart''' d '''usenqed n''' '''tmusni''' i yezmer ad d-yerbeḥ win yesneqden. 

=== Asemres ɣef ugur imatu ===
''Oded Goldreich, Silvio Micali'' akked ''Avi Wigderson'' sbegnen belli, ma llan kra n tesɣunin i yessehlen i usiḍen deg yiwet n tnila maca iweɛren i tuɣalin ɣer deffir (one-way functions), yal tutlayt deg taggayt NP tesɛa asfukel s usdiwen war tukci n tmusni. Leqdic-nsen yettwabder deg 1986, lqem aɣezfan-is deg 1991. Aya yessuffeɣ timiḍrant seg kra n wuguren n yimḍanen ɣer yiwet n taɣult tasnaẓrayant wessiɛen.

=== Tuɣalin ɣer leqdic war asdiwen ===
Deg 1988, ''Manuel Blum'', ''Paul Feldman'' akked ''Silvio Micali'' ssuffɣen-d leqdic agejdan ɣef yisfukal war asdiwen d yiseqdacen-nsen. Iɣewwaṛen izuyaz yezdin gar win yesfukulen d win yesneqden zemren ad ilin d lsas n leqdic-a. Ihi, « war asdiwen » ur yemmal ara « war uheggi » neɣ « war tawsit n unagraw ». 

=== Tallit n yisfukal iwezlan ===
Deg yiseggasen 2010, inadiyen ɣef yisfukal iwezlan, aselken arurad d leḥsab ameqqran ssawḍen ɣer twaculin am '''Groth16''', '''Bulletproofs''', '''STARK''', '''PLONK''' d '''Halo'''. Yal tawacult tesɛa ilugan d yiswan-is: temẓi n usfukel, akud n usnulfu, tmara n uselken neɣ tukksa n uheggi i yettḥwaǧen laman deg umdan wis kraḍ.

== 2. Tabadut tusnakt d yiwudam n leqdic ==
I ussegzi n tarrayt, nettsemmi P i win yesfukulen (prover), V i win yesneqden (verifier), x i yisefka izuyaz, w i uselkin uffir (witness). Assaɣ R yesbadu ayen ilaq ad yili d tidet gar x d w. 

'''R(x, w) = 1'''

Tanfalit i nettḥeqqiq d tin i d-yeqqaren belli '''illa''' w i yesɛan assaɣ-a d x. Tagrumma n yisefka izuyaz i yesɛan aselkin yettwabdar s:

'''L = { x : illa w, R(x, w) = 1 }'''

S umedya n ussegzi, x yezmer ad yili d azal y n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ H; w d amḍan uffir s = w. Assaɣ yettwasenqed d H(s) = y. Yezmer daɣen ad yili x d agmuḍ n leḥsab, w d isefka uffiren akked tikli n leḥsab i d-yessawḍen ɣer ugmuḍ-nni. Umḍan n yiwudam ur yettbeddilara tabadut: zemren ad ilin d imdanen, d iqeddacen neɣ d iseɣẓanen.

=== Kraḍ n tewtilin tigejdanin ===
'''Aqbal n wayen iṣeḥḥan''' (completeness). Ma x yesɛa aselkin iwatan, yerna P d V ḍefren ilugan, asfukel ilaq ad yettwaqbel s tseqqart meqqren, neɣ dima deg kra n yinagrawen.

'''Agi n wayen ur neṣṣiḥ ara''' (soundness). Ma x ur yesɛi ula d yiwen n uselkin iwatan, ilaq ad tili tseqqart n uɣelli n V deg tuccḍa d tameẓyant akken iwata, ɣas P yeɛreḍ ad iɣucc. Taɣara-a tḥerrez tidet n usfukel.

'''War tukci n tmusni''' (zero knowledge). Talɣut i d-yettawi V seg leqdic ilaq ad tezmer

ad tettwaserwes war aselkin uffir. Taɣara-a tḥerrez ayen i yessen P; ur tettwasefhem ara s wawal « uffir » kan.  Taɣellist tettwasbadu s yiwen uɣewwaṛ λ. Taseqqart i wumi neqqar « tameẓyant akken iwata » tezmer ad tili d tin i yettidiren ddaw n 1/λk i yal k &gt; 0, ma λ meqqer akken iwata. D aya i d-anamek n negligible deg tbadutin-a.

== Asfukel d afukal ==
Deg unamek usdid, ''anza'' yesseḥbibir ɣef tidet ula mgal win yesfukulen s tzemmar n leḥsab ur nesɛi ara tilisa. Afukal(Argument) yettḥerrez tidet mgal aɣuccam(win iɣuccen) i yesɛan tazmert n leḥsab talast. Deg uḍris imatu, awal « asfukel » yettwasemras i snat-a; deg usenqed tusnakt, amgired-a ilaq ad yettwaḥrez.

=== Tugna 1. Asfukel d uselkin uffir ===
Win yesfukulen yessemras aselkin uffir; win yesneqden yesseḥḥay tanfalit s usfukel d yisefka izuyaz.
[[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|400x400px]]

== 3. Aserwes d unamek usdid n ZK ==

=== Aserwas am tewtilt n usfukel ===
'''Aserwas''' (simulator) d axwerzim(alguritm) i d-yeslalayen ayen i izemren ad iwali win yesneqden, war ma yesɛa aselkin uffir. Deg tabadut n ZK, ilaq ayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas ad yemcabi, ilmend n tewtilt tusnakt i nettsemras, ayen i d-yettawi win yesneqden seg leqdic ilaw. Ma nezmer ad neslal talɣut-nni war tuffirt, tikli n usfukel ur as-d-terni ara talɣut i izemren ad tessegzi tuffirt. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli '''aɣuccam''' yezmer ad d-yesnulfu yal asfukel yebɣa deg unagraw ilaw. Aserwes yezmer ad yessemres tarrayt tasnaẓrayant am tuɣalin ɣer kra n waddaden n win yesneqden, neɣ yiwen n uheggi n usenqed i yemgaraden ɣef uheggi ilaw. Iwakkenad tettwaḥrez tidet, tarrayin-a ilaq ad ttwasbadunt deg umedya tusnakt n tɣellist.

=== Kraḍ n talɣiwin n umcabi ===
'''War tukci n tmusni s wudem ummid''' (perfect zero knowledge). Tiski n wayen i d-yessuffeɣ userwas d tin n leqdic ilaw d yiwet s tusnakt.

'''War tukci n tmusni s waddadan''' (statistical zero knowledge). Sin n yisuffaɣ qriben nezzeh deg tseqqart; amgired-nsen d ameẓyan akken iwata, ɣas win i ten-yesneqden yesɛa tazmert n usiḍen(leḥsab) war tilisa.

'''War tukci n tmusni n usiḍen''' (computational zero knowledge). Axwerzim i yesɛan tilisa n usiḍen(leḥsab) ur yezmir ara ad yefrez gar sin n yisuffaɣ s tzemmar yugaren talast tameẓyant i tettwasbadun. Taɣara-a tezmer ad tbedd ɣef ugur tusnakt i yettwaḥsaben d aweɛran.

== Win yesneqden s laman d win iɣuccen ==
Kra n yisfukal ttwaseknen kan d ''War tukci n tmusni'''''('''ZK) ma ara yelli win yesneqden yeḍfer ilugan: aya d &quot;''honest-verifier zero knowledge, HVZK&quot;''. ''War tukci n tmusni(''ZK) mgal win yesneqden iɣuccen ilaq ad tesseḥbiber ɣef tuffirt ula ma ibeddel isteqsiyen neɣ ixeddem s talɣut nniḍen. Ur ilaq ara ad nerr HVZK d agdazal n ZK mgal yal aɣuccam. 

Deg unagraw anda aṭas n yisfukal teddun deg yiwet n tallit, taɣara n ZK n yiwen n leqdic ur tekfi ara i usfukel n tɣellist n wammud. Leqdic yezdin, allus d ubeddel n umizwer n yiznan ḥwaǧen asenqed i iman-nsen.

== 4. Imedyaten d wassaɣ d NP ==

=== Asfukel n umḍan n yiseggasen ===
Amedya n ussegzi: yiwen n umdan yebɣa ad isfukel belli yesɛa 18 n yiseggasen neɣ ugar, war ma yesban-d azemz n tlalit-is. Isefka izuyaz zemren ad ilin d azemz n wass-a, talast 18, akked tsarut tazayezt n win i d-yefkan aselkin. Isefka uffiren zemren ad ilin d azemz n tlalit d uzmul umḍin i t-yesseḥḥan.

Asfukel ilaq ad yesdukkel snat n tewtilin: azemz yeqqen ɣer uselkin iṣeḥḥan, yerna amḍan n yiseggasen yellan deg-s ugar neɣ yewweḍ 18. Ma yesneqed kan tanaḍt « age ≥ 18 » war tuqqna ɣer uselkin, amdan yezmer ad yefk amḍan i d-isnulfa. Ihi, ZK yettḥerrez tikli n uselken; aɣbalu n yisefka ilaq ad yili d win i nezmer ad namen.

=== Amedya n tfelwit n wurar ===
Yezmer umdan ad yebɣu ad isfukel belli yesɛa tifrat n yiwen n '''Sudoku''', war ma d-yesban tifrat. Isefka izuyaz d tafelwit n wurar; aselkin uffir d imḍanen i yefka i texxamin tilemmas. Assaɣ R yesneqed belli yal izirig, yal tigejdit d yal aḥric yesɛa imḍanen ilaqen, yerna imḍanen i yellan seg tazwara ur beddlen ara. Amedya-a yeskanay belli aselkin ur ilaq ara ad yili d awal uffir; yezmer ad yili d tifrat n ugur.

=== Anamek n NP ===
NP d taggayt n wuguren anda tifrat i aɣ-d-yettunefken tezmer ad tettwasenqed deg wakud i yettnernin s wudem agetfulan ilmend n teɣzi n yisefka. Aya ur d-yemmal ara belli tifrat-nni teshel i tifin. Yal tifrat n kra n wuguren tezmer ad tettwasenqed s lemɣawla, maca tifin-is tezmer ad teḥwaǧ leḥsab meqqren. 

Agmuḍ n Goldreich, Micali d Wigderson yemmal belli, s kra n turdiwin n uwgelhan, nezmer ad nesfukel tilin n tifrat i yal ugur deg NP war tukci n tmusni. Maca tilin n tarrayt deg tusnakt ur d-yemmal ara belli tarrayt-nni d taruradt neɣ teshel i usemres. Asenqed n wakud, tkatut d teɣzi n usfukel d aḥric nniḍen n unadi.

=== Tugna 2. Aselken n umḍan n yiseggasen ===
Amedya n ussegzi: asfukel belli amdan yesɛa 18 n yiseggasen neɣ ugar, war asban n uzemz n tlalit-is.
[[Tugna:Tugna 1 Asfukel d uselkin uffir.png|centré|vignette|380x380px|Tugna n uselken n umḍan n yiseggasen.]]
&lt;small&gt;Tugna 2. Asfukel yesdukkel tidet n uzmul akked tewtilt n yiseggasen. Ilaq daɣen aselkin ad yeqqen ɣer umdan iwatan, ad ur yemmut ara wakud n usemres-is, ad ur tettwakkes ara tsiregt-is. D amedya n ussegzi, mačči d anagraw ummid n usesteb.&lt;/small&gt;

== 5. Isfukal war asdiwen (NIZK) ==
Deg usfukel s usdiwen, P d V ttmeslayen s yiznan: P yezmer ad yefk aḥric amezwaru, V ad yefren asteqsi agacuran, P ad d-yerr. Deg NIZK, P yeslalay-d asfukel π, V yesneqed-it s yisefka izuyaz, war ma yuḥwaǧ ad d-yesteqsi P deg tallit-nni. Yezmer daɣen ad yiselkenasfukel seld azemz n usnulfu-is.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Aḥric
!Ayen i ixeddem
|-
|Setup
|Iheggi iɣewwaṛen izuyaz pp, ilmend n tarrayt.
|-
|Prove(pp, x, w)
|Yeslalay-d asfukel π s yisefka x d uselkin uffir w.
|-
|Verify(pp, x, π)
|Yettarra aqbal neɣ agi n usfukel.
|}

=== Iɣewwaṛen yezdin d laman ===
Kra n yinagrawen semrasen ''common reference string (CRS)'': d azrar n yisefka izuyaz i ttsemrasen sin yiwudam. Deg kra n talɣiwin, aheggi yeslalay-d daɣen talɣut tuffirt i ilaq ad tettwakkes; ma teqqim ɣer kra n umdan, yezmer ad tesruḥ taɣara n tɣellist. D ta i wumi qqaren ''trusted setup''.

'''Aheggi''' s waṭas n yimttekkiyen yezmer ad yesneɣṣ laman i nettara deg yiwen umdan, ilmend n tewtilin n tarrayt. Kra n yiɣewwaṛen zemren ad ttwasemrsen i waṭas n leḥsabat, yerna ad ttwalqamen s lmendad n yimttekkiyen imaynuten; PLONK aneṣli d amedya n uheggi amatu i izemren ad yettwalqem. 

=== Aheggi ibanen (transparent setup) ===
Deg kra n twaculin, ulac talɣut tuffirt n uheggi i ilaq ad tettwakkes. Iɣewwaṛen zemren add-ttwasnulfun s tarrayt ibanenn neɣ s yimḍanen ugacuranen izuyaz. '''STARK''' d '''Bulletproofs''' d sin n yimedyaten yemgaraden n tarrayin war &quot;''trusted setup&quot;''. Aya ur yekkesara ilugan n tusnakt d turdiwin n uwgelhan iɣef bḍan. 

=== Fiat-Shamir ===
Tarrayt n '''Fiat-Shamir''' tettbeddil, i kra n yisfukal s usdiwen i iwulmen, asteqsi agacuran n V s ugmuḍ n tesɣent n ugeddeḥ. Tanfalit, aḥric amezwaru n usfukel d usatal ilaq ad qqnen ɣer usiḍen-a. Taɣellist tettwasenqed deg umedya n &quot;''random oracle&quot;''; ur ilaq ara adnerr yal asdiwen d NIZK s ubeddel-a war asfukel n tɣellist.

=== Tugna 3. S usdiwen d war asdiwen ===
Aḥric afellay yeskanay amedya s kraḍ n yiznan; aḥric n wadda yeskanay asfukel NIZK

==== A · S usdiwen ====
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-11 10-42-52.png|710x710px]]

==== B · War asdiwen (NIZK) ====
[[Tugna:Tuṭṭfa n ugdil seg 2026-10-11 10-45-37.png|763x763px]]

&lt;small&gt;'''Tugna 3.''' Deg NIZK, win yesneqden ur d-yettazen ara asteqsi deg tallit n usfukel. Maca iɣewwaṛen yezdin&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;zemren ad ttwaheggin uqbel. « War asdiwen » ur d-yemmal ara « war tuzzna n usfukel » neɣ « war uheggi ».&lt;/small&gt;

== 6. Amedya s wudem n tusnakt: tarrayt n Schnorr ==
Schnorr yessemras agraw '''G''' s umḍan amezwaru '''q''' n yiferdisen, d uferdis '''g''' i d-yeslalayen agraw-a. Tasarut tuffirt d '''s'''; tasarut tazayezt d '''y = gs'''. Ugur n tifin n '''s''' seg '''y''' d '''g''' yettusemma ''discrete logarithm''. Dag i asfukel n tmusni n '''s''', mačči kan n tilin-is. 

=== Kraḍ n yiznan ===
1. '''P''' yefren amḍan agacuran '''r''' modulo '''q''', isiḍen '''a = gr''', syin ad yazen '''a''' i '''V'''.

2. '''V''' yefren asteqsi agacuran '''c''' modulo '''q''', ad t-yazen i '''P'''.

3. '''P''' yerr-d '''z = r + cs''' (mod q). '''V''' yesneqed asekkil-a:

'''&lt;math&gt;g{z} = a \cdot y^{c}&lt;/math&gt;'''


Aqbal n win yeḍfren ilugan yettban seg: &lt;math&gt;g^{r+cs} = g^{r} \cdot (g^{s})^{c}&lt;/math&gt;. Talɣa-a tessemras « + » deg z;

&lt;nowiki&gt;RFC 8235&lt;/nowiki&gt; yessemras talɣa tagdazalt s « − » d useggem n uselken. 

=== Asiḍen ameẓyan i ussegzi ===
Ad neddem p = 23, q = 11, g = 2. Leḥsab n yiferdisen n ugraw yettawi-d agmuḍ modulo

23. Ma s = 3, ad naf y = 8. Ma r = 4, ad naf a = 16. Ma c = 2, ad naf z = 10 modulo 11.

Ihi:

&lt;math&gt;2^{10} \bmod 23 = 12&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;16 \cdot 8^{12} \bmod 23 = 12&lt;/math&gt;

Sin yidisawen d yiwen, ihi aselken yeqbel. Imḍanen-a d imeẓyanen nezzeh: kul yiwen yezmer ad yaf s s usenqed n kra n wazalen. Amedya-a d win n uselmed kan, ur yesɛi ara taɣellist n usemres ilaw.

=== Aserwes d allus n r ===
I win yesneqden s laman, aserwas yezmer ad yefren '''c''' d '''z''', syin ad isiḍen &lt;math&gt;a = g^{z} \cdot y^{-c}&lt;/math&gt; . Yewwi-d kraḍ n wazalen i yeqbel uselken, war '''s'''. Maca deg leqdic ilaw, '''P''' ilaq ad yefk '''a''' uqbel ma yessen '''c'''. D umizwer-a i yessemgiriden aserwes d uɣuccu.

Ma P yessemres yiwen '''r''' i sin n yisteqsiyen yemgaraden '''c₁''' d '''c₂''', s tririyin '''z₁''' d '''z₂''', tasarut tezmer ad tettwaf: '''s = (z₁ − z₂) · (c₁ − c₂)−1 modulo q'''. D asfukel usrid n wazal n yimḍanen igacuranen d yibeddilen-nsen.

&lt;small&gt;Deg talɣa war asdiwen, '''c''' yettwasiḍen seg '''H''' n yiɣewwaṛen, '''y''', '''a''' d isutal. Aselken n ugraw d umasal n yisefka d aḥric n tɣellist, ɣas ur d-yettwasegzi ara meṛṛa dagi.&lt;/small&gt;

== 7. Tiwaculin n yisfukal ==

=== zk-SNARK d Groth16 ===
zk-SNARK d agzul n &quot;''zero-knowledge Succinct Non-interactive ARgument of Knowledge&quot;''. «Succinct » yemmal belli asfukel d aselken-is zemren ad ilin d iwezlan ilmend n leḥsab i yettwasenqaden; « of knowledge » teqqen ɣer tewtilt n tmusni n uselkin. '''Groth16''', i d-yefka '''Jens Groth''' deg 2016, d tarrayt s &quot;''pairings''&quot; deg yigrawen tusnakt. Asfukel-is yesɛa kraḍ n yiferdisen n ugraw. Aheggi-is yettwasnen yeqqen ɣer leḥsab i yebɣa ad yesneqed.

=== PLONK ===
PLONK, i d-yefɣen deg 2019, yessemras iɣewwaṛen yezdin i waṭas n leḥsabat, s talast n teɣzi i yettwasbadun, yerna iɣewwaṛen-a zemren ad ttwalqamen. Yesseqdec assaɣen gar igetfulen akked usfukel n ubeddel n umizwer n yiferdisen. Isem « PLONK » yettwasemras daɣen i tarrayin i d-yekkan seg-s, maca ur ilaq ara ad nerr meṛṛa talɣiwin-nni sɛant yiwen uheggi neɣ yiwet n tɣellist.

=== zk-STARK ===
zk-STARK d &quot;''zero-knowledge Scalable Transparent ARgument of Knowledge&quot;''. Leqdic n '''Ben-Sasson''' d yimdukal-is deg 2018 yeskanay tarrayt i leḥsab ameqqran s uheggi ibanen. Tiwaculin-a ttsemrasent tarrayin n yigatfulen, asenqed n kra n yiferdisen d tesɣunin n ugeddeḥ. Taɣellist-nsent mgal iselkimen ikwantiyen teqqen ɣer turdiwin i yettwasemrasen, mačči ɣer yisem « STARK » kan. 

=== Bulletproofs ===
Bulletproofs d tarrayt war &quot;''trusted setup&quot;'', tettwasemras s waṭas i usfukel belli azal uffir yella gar snat n tlisa (range proof). Teɣzi n usfukel tettnerni s wudem alugaritman; maca akud n usnulfu d uselken, deg tarrayt taneṣlit, yettnerni s wudem imzireg ilmend n tiddi nugur. Ihi, « asfukel awezlan » ur d-yemmal ara dima « aselken awezlan ».

=== Halo d usdukkel n yisfukal ===
'''Halo''' yeskanay deg 2019 asdukkel n yisfukal s tuɣalin ɣer yiman-is (recursive proof

composition) war ''trusted setup''. Asfukel amaynut yezmer ad yesneqed asfukel aqbur d kra n leḥsab nniḍen, iwakken ad tili teɣzi n leqdic yettwasenqaden meqqret, ɣas asfukel i neḥrez d awezlan. Aya d tarrayt i usemẓi n tmara n uselken n umezrar n leḥsabat.

== 8. Iseqdacen ==

=== Asesteb d yiselkinen umḍinen ===
Asfukel n tmusni n tsarut tuffirt yezmer ad yili d aḥric n usesteb. Anagraw yezmer ad yiselken belli win i as-d-yettmeslayen yesɛa tasarut, war ma t-id-yefka. Iwakken ad yettwakkes usemres n usfukel aqbur, ilaq tuqqna ɣer usatal, asteqsi amaynut neɣ tallit nusemres. Asfukel i izemren ad yettwasenqed sɣur yal yiwen ur yettuɣal ara d asesteb amaynut s yiman-is. 

Deg yiselkinen umḍinen, ZK yezmer ad yesseḥbiber ɣef talɣut ur neḥwaǧ ara i wuskan:

amḍan n yiseggasen, tilin deg yiwet n tegrumma, neɣ tasiregt i kra n leqdic. Maca anagraw ilaq ad isenqed daɣen azmul n win i d-yefkan aselkin, azemz n taggara n usemres-is d wamek ara tettwakkes tsiregt ma tbeddel tegnit.

=== Tidrimin tumḍinin d Zerocash ===
'''Zerocash''', i d-yettwabedren deg 2014, yessemras zk-SNARKs iwakken ad yettwasenqed tanigawt(lexlaṣ) war asban n kra n yisefka n win i d-yettaken, win yettawin d wazal n yidrimen.

Asfukel yezmer ad yesdukkel tilin n yidrimen, tasiregt n usemres-nsen d uḥraz n wazal.

Anagraw ummid yessemras daɣen allalen nniḍen iwakken ad yagi lexlaṣ snat n tikkal s yiwen n uḥric n yidrimen. 

=== Aselken n usiḍen(leḥsab) d yimesdukklen n temhal(rollups) ===
Deg wannar n yizurar n yiḥedren(blockchains), '''amesdukkel n temhal aneɣbal''' &quot;'''''validity rollup'''''&quot;, deg-s aṭas n temhal ttwaseqdacent berra n uzrar agejdan. Asfukel yeseɣtay abeddel n waddad seg S ɣer S′; tezrart tagejdant tesneqad asfukel ilmend n yilugan-is. Aya yezmer ad isneɣṣ leḥsab i ilaq ad xedmen meṛṛa yimttekkiyen. Maca aṭas n yiseqdacen i wumi qqaren « ZK-rollups » semrasen asfukel n tidet, war ma ffren meṛṛa isefka n temhal. 

Tilin n usfukel ur tefru ara s yiman-is ugur n unekcum ɣer yisefka (data availability). Ilaq ad tili tarrayt i win iḥwaǧen isefka n waddad iwakken ad t-id-yales, ad yiselken tazmert n usuffeɣ neɣ ad iḥrez izerfan-is deg unagraw. 

=== Asenqed, afran d usemres n yisefka ===
ZK yezmer ad yekki deg yinagrawen n ufran, usenqed n usiḍen(leḥsab) neɣ uselken n leqdic n yiwen wahil ɣef yisefka uffiren. Deg yal amedya, ilaq ad yettwasbadu wayen i yettwasfukulen s ṣṣfa: asfukel n kra n tneqqiḍin ur yettuɣal ara d asfukel n tɣellist n unagraw meṛṛa. Aḥraz n tuffirt d aselken n leḥsab zemren ad myekmalen, maca yal yiwen yesɛa tiwtilin-is.

== 9. Tilisa, taɣellist d tmara n usiḍen(leḥsab) ==

=== Tidet n yisefka n tazwara ===
Asfukel yesneqed assaɣ i yettwasbadun deg wahil. Ma assaɣ-nni yella deg-s useɣti ur nemmid ara, neɣ isefka n tazwara d ikerkas, asfukel yezmer ad yettwaqbel ɣas agmuḍ i nettmenni deg tilawt ur iṣeḥḥa ara. S umedya n &quot;18 n yiseggasen&quot;, ilaq aselkin n tlalit iṣeḥḥan; ZK ur yettbeddil ara azal ur neṣṣiḥ ara ɣer tidet.

=== Tuffirt n uselkin d talɣut i d-yettbanen ===
Isefka izuyaz d ugmuḍ n uselken zemren ad d-mmalen kra n talɣut. Ma anagraw yesfukel « amḍan n yiseggasen yugar 18 », talɣut-a teffeɣ-d s lebɣi. Ma anagraw yefka aṭas n tririyin ɣef waṭas n tlisa, yezmer ad yesban ugar. Ihi, afran n tenfalit yezmer ad yili azal-is am wazal n tarrayt n usfukel. Uffir n uselkin ur d-yettawi ara s yiman-is uffir n tansa IP, akud n usemres, tuqqna gar yiḍrisen neɣ isem n umseqdac. Anadi ɣef [[Zcash]] yeskanay amek kra n tarrayin n usemres d yisefka izuyaz zemrent ad ɛawnent i tuqqna gar temhal, ɣas allalen n uwgelhan llan.

=== Tamara d yiseɣẓanen ===
Asnulfu n usfukel yezmer ad yeḥwaǧ ugar n wakud d tkatut n leḥsab aneṣli. Aselken yezmer ad yili d arurad, maca aya yettbeddil ilmend n tarrayt, teɣzi n yisefka izuyaz, talɣa n wahil d warraten n uselkim. Asenqed n tarrayin ilaq ad yefrez gar akud n uheggi,n usnulfu, d uselken d teɣzi n usfukel. Tuccḍa deg useɣẓan, asenqed ur nemmid ara n yiɣewwaṛen, neɣ asnulfu ur neṣṣiḥ ara n yimḍanen ugacuranen zemren ad sruḥen taɣellist. Deg '''Schnorr''', allus n yiwen '''r''' yezmer ad yesban tasarut. Deg yinagrawen n leḥsab imatu, tiwtilin i yettwanṭṭan deg tbadut n ugur zemrent ad ǧǧent asfukel ad yeqbel ayen ur nettraju ara. Iselkimen ikwantiyen bden ɣef Kra n tarrayin yebḍan ɣef ugur n &quot;''discrete logarithm&quot;'' neɣ &quot;''pairings''&quot;, ur ttwaḥsabent ara d tiɣellsanin mgal aselkim akwanti ameqqran iwatan. Tiwaculin ibedden ɣef tesɣunin n ugeddeḥ zemrent ad sɛunt turdiwin yemgaraden. Ilaq ad yettwasenqed unagraw meṛṛa, seg usfukel ɣer yizmal d tsura; isem n twacult ur yekfi ara i usfukel n tɣellist akwantiyant.

=== Iselkimen ikwantiyen ===
Kra n tarrayin bḍant ɣef ugur n &quot;''discrete logarithm''&quot; neɣ &quot;''pairings''&quot;, ur ttwaḥsabent ara d tiɣellsanin mgal aselkim akwanti ameqqran i iwatan. Tiwaculin ibedden ɣef tesɣunin n ugeddeḥ zemrent ad sɛunt turdiwin yemgaraden. Ilaq ad yettwasenqed unagraw meṛṛa,seg usfukel ɣer yizmal d tsura; isem n twacult ur yekfi ara i usfukel n tɣellist akwantiyant.</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Qusṭantin Amezwaru</title>
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      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="20325" sha1="63hbndrwqhgona4st8jf7eu8sjyqael" xml:space="preserve">'''Qusṭantin Amezwaru''', i yettwassnen daɣen s yisem n '''Qusṭantin Ameqqran''' (''Constantinus Magnus s tlatinit''), d yiwen seg 

{{Infobox biography|item=Q8413|image=[[File:0 Gaius Flavius Valerius Constantinus, Palatino.jpg|thumb|Asebdad n Qusṭantin Amezwaru|300px]]|caption=Qusṭantin Amezwaru.}}

yimenkaden irumanen i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg umezruy n umaḍal aqdim.

Yella d amenkad n Tgelda Tarumanit seg useggas 306 armi d 337, maca ur yuɣal d amenkad awḥid n tgelda meṛṛa alamma d aseggas 324.

Deg 31 n yiseggasen n udabu-is, Qusṭantin yessaweḍ ad ibeddel aṭas n tɣawsiwin deg tsertit, deg tedbelt, deg tsertit taserdasit, deg tdamsa, ladɣa deg wassaɣ gar uwanek arumani d tmeslayt tamasiḥit.

Gar wayen i t-yeskanayen deg umezruy:

- Yerbeḥ ṭṭradat imeqqranen mgal imenkaden i t-yettnaɣen ɣef udabu.

- Yerr-a tamurt tarumanit meṛṛa ddaw yiwen n umenkad deg 324.

- Yesnerna tasertit n tsureft d uḥraz n tilelli n ddin i yimasḥiyen.

- Yefka afus n tallelt i tmeslayt tamasiḥit, armi tuɣal d yiwet n tɣessa timeqqranin n tmetti tarumanit.

- Yebna tamezdeɣt tamanekdat tamaynut deg Qusṭanṭiniya, ɣef wakal n temdint taqdimt n Byzantion.

- Yesdukkel amussu n uselḥu n tmeslayt tamasiḥit deg ugraw n Nikiya, deg 325.

- Yesnerna yiwet n tsertit tamaynut n tedrimt, taserdast d tedbelt.

S wakka, Qusṭantin ur yelli ara kan d amenkad i yerbeḥ ṭṭradat. Yella daɣen d yiwen n yimdanen i d-yeslulfen tallit tamaynut deg umezruy n Tgelda Tarumanit, tin ara yessiwḍen sya ɣer temsalt tarumanit n usamar, i yettwassnen deg umezruy am Tgelda Tabizantin.

== 1. Talalit d temẓi n Qusṭantin ==

=== 1.1. Talalit-is ===
Qusṭantin ilul, ilmend n tɣbula i d-yewḍen ɣur-neɣ, ɣef useggas 272 neɣ deg kra n yiseggasen i t-id-yezwaren, deg temdint n ''Naissus'', i d-yeqqimen ass-a d Nič deg [[Ṣerbya]].

Isem-is arumani yella d ''Flavius Valerius Constantinus''.

Baba-s d [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] (Constantius Chlorus), yiwen n yimeqqranen iserdasiyen irumanen i yuɣalen d imenkaden.

Yemma-s d [[Helena (yemma-s n Qusṭantin Amezwaru)|Helena]], tameṭṭut i yuɣalen sya ɣer zdat d yiwet n tuqdisin timeqqranin n umezruy amasiḥi.

Ur nessin ara s tidet meṛṛa ma [[Helena (yemma-s n Qusṭantin Amezwaru)|Helena]] d tameṭṭut tamezwarut n Qusṭantin Klurus s uzref, neɣ d tameṭṭut i yesɛa yid-s assaɣ uqbel zwaǧ-is ameskaran. Tameṭṭut-a ur tesɛi ara tazmert n tsertit deg tazwara, maca mmi-s mi yuɣal d amenkad, ad as-yefk azal ameqqran.

=== 1.2. Axxam-is d tugna n tmetti n wakud-nni ===
Deg tazwara n tasut tis IV, Tgelda Tarumanit d tamurt tameqqrant i yeṭṭfen aḥric ameqqran n Tuṛuft, Tafriqt n ugafa d Asya n umalu.

Deg tallit-a, aṭas n yimenkaden ur d-ttilalen ara deg temdint n Ruma. Llan-d seg temnaḍin n Danub, Illyricum d Balkans, anda taserdast tesɛa azal ameqqran deg usefru n udabu.

Qusṭantin yella seg tɣiwant-a n tsertit taserdasit. Ihi, talalit-is deg Naissus ur telli ara d ayen iweɛren ad nefhem, imi taserdast tarumanit tuɣal d yiwen n yigejdan n tɣessa n tgelda.

=== 1.3. Tamẓi deg yixxamen n yimenkaden ===
Qusṭantin yessaweḍ ad ikker deg tɣiwant n yimenkaden. Yedder deg yixxamen n udabu deg usamar n tgelda, anda yella Dyuklisyan d amenkad.

Yelmed amek tettwaselḥu tgelda, amek tettwasebdad taserdast, akked wamek tteddun wassaɣen gar yimenkaden.

Yexdem daɣen deg teserdast, yedda deg kra n yikabar iserdasiyen, yessen tamsalt n usefrek n yimukan d uselḥu n yimrigen.

Tudert-is deg tallit-a tefka-yas tirmit i as-yettunefken kan i kra n yimeqqranen irumanen.

== 2. Tagnit n Tgelda Tarumanit uqbel ad d-yili Qusṭantin ==

=== 2.1. Tazɣent n tasut tis III ===
Deg tasut tis III, Tgelda Tarumanit tɛedda ɣef yiwet n tallit iweɛren aṭas.

Llan aṭas n yimenkaden i d-ttilin s tallelt n teserdast, maca ur ttɣimin ara deg udabu aṭas n wakud.

Ṭṭradat n daxel, tazɣent n tedrimt, asenqes n uselḥu n temnaḍin, akked ṭṭradat ɣef tilisa rnan-d ccwal i tgelda.

Seg 235 armi d 284, aṭas n yimenkaden uɣalen-d ɣer udabu, kra seg-sen ttwaneɣan neɣ ttwakksen deg wakud ameẓẓyan.

=== 2.2. Aɣelluy n tetrarkiya ===
Dyuklisyan, mi yuɣal d amenkad deg 284, yeɛreḍ ad yefru ugur-a.

Yesbed tasertit n tetrarkiya, anda tgelda tettwasefru s ukuẓ n yimeqqranen: sin n yimenkaden imeqqranen (Augusti) d sin n yimenkaden imawlan n lɛehd (Caesares).

Iswi n tetrarkiya yella d:

- Asefru n tgelda s wudem iqriben ɣer temnaḍin-is.

- Aḥraz n tilisa seg iɣerfan ibarbaren.

- Asenqes n ṭṭradat n udabu gar yimeqqranen.

- Aḍman n usemḍfer n udabu war ṭṭradat.

Maca tarrayt-a ur tessawaḍ ara ad teḥrez talwit i lebda.

Mi Dyuklisyan d Maximian ǧǧan adabu deg 305, tamukrist(ugur) n wamek ara d-yilin yimenkaden imaynuten tebda tettban-d.

Qusṭantin ad yuɣal d yiwen n yimdanen i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg uɣelluy n tetrarkiya.

=== 3. Abrid n Qusṭantin ɣer udabu (305–306) ===
Deg 305, baba-s [[Qusṭantin Klurus]] yuɣal d amenkad ameqqran n umalu n tgelda.

Qusṭantin, i yellan deg usamar, yuɣal ɣer baba-s, yedda yid-s deg yigrawen iserdasiyen n Britanya.

Deg 25 Yulyu 306, Qusṭantin Klurus yemmut deg temdint n Eboracum, i d-yuɣalen ass-a d York deg Ngliz.

Deffir tmettant-is, iserdasen-is ssutren ad yili mmi-s Qusṭantin d amenkad.

Deffir tmettant n baba-s, iserdasen-is sbedden Qusṭantin d amenkad deg 306, maca Galerius, amenkad ameqqran n usamar, ur iqbil ara ad t-yessisem d Augustus s tazwara. Yefka-yas kan azwel n Caesar.

Tamsalt-a tessekcem Qusṭantin deg yiwet n tɣawsa tameqqrant: anadi ɣef adabu arumani s tallelt n teserdast.

Deg yiseggasen i d-iteddun, Qusṭantin isnerna adabu-is deg Galiya, Britanya d kra n temnaḍin n Uṛupa n umalu.

Yesbed daɣen assaɣen n tsertit s yimenkaden nniḍen.

Deg 307, yezweǧ Fausta, yell-is n umenkad aqdim Maximian. Zwaǧ-a yella daɣen d yiwet n tarrayt n usdukkel n yiɛeggalen n udabu.

== 4. Ṭṭradat n Qusṭantin akked Maxentius (312) ==

=== 4.1. Anwa i yellan d ''Maxentius''? ===
''Maxentius'' d mmi-s n ''Maximian'', yiwen n yimenkaden iqburen n tetrarkiya. Yuɣal d amenkad deg Ruma deg 306, yerna yeṭṭef kra n temnaḍin n ṭṭelyan d Tafriqt Tarumanit. Qusṭantin d ''Maxentius'' uɣalen d imnaɣen ɣef udabu n umalu. Deg 312, Qusṭantin yefren ad yessekcem taserdast-is ɣer ṭṭelyan iwakken ad yernu Maxentius.

=== 4.2. Akabar n Itelya ===
Qusṭantin yessufeɣ taserdast-is seg ''Galiya'', yezger idurar n ''Alpes'', yerna kra n isedasen n yigen n ''Maxentius'' deg temdinin n usamar n ṭṭelyan. Yerbeḥ deg ''Turin'', ''Verona'' d yimukan nniḍen, syin yuɣal ɣer [[Roma|Ruma]].

Maxentius yefren ad yessuffeɣ taserdast-is seg Ruma iwakken ad yemmager Qusṭantin.

=== 4.3. Ṭṭrad n Teqenṭert n Milvius ===
[[Tugna:Ponte Milvio-side view-antmoose.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Tiqenṭart n Milvius, anda i d-yeḍra amennuɣ gar Qusṭantin d Maxentius.]]


Deg 28 Kṭuber 312, sin n yimeqqranen mmagren ɣef teqenṭert n Milvius (Pons Milvius), deg ugafa n Ruma. Tarrayt n Qusṭantin, akked udabu-s ɣef yigen, teǧǧa-t ad yerbeḥ ṭṭrad. Deg trewla-ines ɣer Ruma, Maxentius yeɣli deg wasif n Tiber, yemmut deg waman.

Tameɣra n Qusṭantin tebna ɣef rbeḥ-a, imi seg wass-nni yuɣal d amenkad yesɛan adabu ɣef umalu n Tgelda Tarumanit.

Ṭṭrad-a ad yesɛu daɣen azal ameqqran deg umezruy n tmeslayt tamasiḥit.

== 5. Tirgit n Qusṭantin d uqerrub-is ɣer usɣan(ddin) amasiḥi ==

=== 5.1. D acu i d-yellan uqbel ṭṭrad? ===
Imezrayen n tallit taqdimt ḥkan-d belli Qusṭantin yeẓra azamul deg yigenni neɣ yurga tirgit uqbel ṭṭrad n Milvius.

Maca iɣbula ur msefhamen ara ɣef wamek i yeḍra. '''''Lactantius''''', ameskar amasiḥi n tasut tis IV, yura belli Qusṭantin yettwawelleh deg targit iwakken ad yerr azamul amasiḥi ɣef yiwen seg yizamulen n teserdast-is.

Eusebius n Qaysariya, i yuran Vita Constantini, yefka-d taḥkayt nniḍen, anda Qusṭantin yeẓra, ilmend n wayen i d-yenna, azamul n ufus amasiḥi(amidag) deg yigenni. Deg yiɣbula n tmasiḥit, taḥkayt-a tettwaqqen ɣer wawal alatini:

'''In hoc signo vinces — «S uzamul-a ara terbeḥeḍ.»'''

Maca ur nezmir ara ad nini s tidet belli ayen i d-yettwaḥkan deg yiɣbula-a yeḍra akken i t-id-uran. Imezrayen imiranen kkaten-d deg taḥkayat-a imi tella deg-sent tmuɣli n ddin, tazerfa n udabu-s d usnulfu n tugna n umenkad.

Amgired gar ''Lactantius'' d ''Eusebius'', akked wakud anda ttwarun iɣbula-nsen, yettaǧǧa tamsalt-a d tin ɣef mazal yettili unadi n umezruy. 

=== 5.2. Qusṭantin d amasiḥi neɣ d afagan? ===
Tamsalt-a ur tefru ara s yiwet n tririt tafessast.

Qusṭantin yella deg tmetti tarumanit anda llan aṭas n yisɣanen d leɛwayed n wafagan. Deg tazwara n udabu-is, yella yesskanay-d assaɣen d ddin n yiṭij, ladɣa d Sol Invictus. Maca seg 312 d asawen, aselḥu-s yesɛa ugar n wassaɣen d tmeslayt [[tamasiḥit]].

Yebda yettak-as tallelt, yettqabal imrabḍen-is, yerna yebna tallelt-is tasertant ɣef tɣessa-s. Ihi, nezmer ad nini belli Qusṭantin yuɣal yettak afus i ddin amasiḥi, maca '''ur nezmir ara ad nẓer s tidet''' melmi i tbeddel tikti-s n ddin, neɣ amek i tella taflest-is tagensant.

Tamsalt n ddin-is tban-d daɣen deg wayen i yeḍran ɣer taggara n tudert-is, imi ur yettwaɣḍes ara deg waman n lebni amasiḥi (baptême) alamma d aseggas 337, deg wakud i yella yettwaḍen.

== 6. Asaḍuf n Milan (313): abeddel ameqqran deg umezruy n ddin ==
Deg useggas 313, Qusṭantin yemlal d ''Licinius'', amenkad n usamar n Tgelda Tarumanit, deg temdint n Milan. Sin n yimenkaden msefhamen ɣef yiwet n tsertit tamaynut i yeɛnan tilelli n ddin deg tgelda. Tizrawin n umezruy semman-as '''Asaḍuf n Milan''' (Edictum Mediolanense).

=== 6.1. D acu i d-yella deg talwit-a? ===
Iswi-is yella d aḥraz n tilelli n ddin i yimdanen n Tgelda Tarumanit. Imasḥiyen, i yellan d wid i yettwaḥebsen neɣ yettwaneɣan deg kra n talliyin yezrin, uɣalen sɛan azref ad ɛebden ddin-nsen war aḥebbes seg tmenkda.

Adabu yessuter daɣen ad ttwaldin kra n yixxamen n usɣan [[Tamasiḥit|amasiḥi]] akked wayen i as-yettwakkesen deg tallit n uqehher. Maca ilaq ad nefhem yiwet n tɣawsa:

Asaḍuf n Milan ur yerr ara ddin amasiḥi d ddin unṣib n Tmenkda Tarumanit. Tefka tilelli n ddin, ur teḥbis ara meṛṛa leɛwayed n wafagan, ur tessekcem ara akk imdanen deg usɣan amasiḥi. Ddɣa, deg tallit n Qusṭantin, isɣanen iqburen mazal llan deg tmetti tarumanit. 

=== 6.2. Amgired gar Qusṭantin d Dyuklisyan ===
Deg 303, deg wakud n [[Dyuklisyan]], tella yiwet n tsertit taẓayant mgal yimasḥiyen. Kra n tklizin ttwamdlent, idlisen n ddin ttwaseṛɣen, yerna aṭas n yimasḥiyen ɛeddan ɣef lmeḥna. Deg tallit n Qusṭantin, tamsalt-a tbeddel.

Anekcum n ddin amasiḥi deg tsertit n uwanek yella d yiwen n yiberdan imeqqranen n ubeddel n tmetti tarumanit.

Maca anamek n ubeddel-a ur d-yemmal ara belli Tmenkda Tarumanit tuɣal d tamasiḥit deg yiwen wass. Abeddel yella s leɛqel, yerna yedda deg waṭas n tasutin.

== 7. Ṭṭradat d Licinius d usdukkel n Tgelda Tarumanit (316–324) ==
Deffir talwit n Milan, Qusṭantin d ''Licinius'' llan d sin n yimenkaden imeqqranen. Qusṭantin yeṭṭef amalu n tgelda, Licinius yeṭṭef aḥric ameqqran n usamar. Assaɣen-nsen llan d wid iweɛren, ɣas akken Licinius yezweǧ Kunsṭantiya, ultma-s n Qusṭantin.

=== 7.1. Ṭṭrad n Cibalae ===
Deg 316, neɣ 314 ilmend n kra n yiɣbula, ṭṭrad amezwaru ameqqran gar-asen yeḍra deg ''Cibalae'', deg temnaḍt n Karwasya n wass-a.

Qusṭantin yerbeḥ ṭṭrad-a. Deffir-s, ṭṭrad nniḍen yeḍra ɣef temnaḍt n ''Mardia''.

Sin n yimenkaden msefhamen ɣef talwit, maca assaɣen-nsen warǧǧin llan rakden.

=== 7.2. Ṭṭrad aneggaru deg 324 ===
Deg 324, Qusṭantin yessufeɣ agraw aserdasi ameqqran mgal Licinius.

Ṭṭradat imeqqranen ḍran deg:

- ''Adrianopolis'', deg [[Tturk|Tturkya]] n wass-a.

- ''Hellespont'', deg yilel gar Uṛupa d Asya.

- ''Chrysopolis'', i d-yeqqimen ass-a deg tama tasya n Istanbul.

Qusṭantin yerbeḥ Licinius deg Kṭuber 324. Licinius yeqbel ad yefk adabu, maca deg useggas 325 yettwanɣa s unamek n uḥraz n udabu n Qusṭantin. Sya ɣer zdat, Qusṭantin yuɣal d amenkad awḥid n Tmenkda Tarumanit meṛṛa. Ayen ur nessawaḍ ara ad yeg Dyuklisyan s tetrarkiya, Qusṭantin yessaweḍ ad t-yeg s ṭṭradat d wassaɣen n udabu.

== 8. Asbeddi n Qusṭanṭiniya: tamdint tamaynut n tgelda ==
[[Tugna:Theodosian Walls in Constantinople 2.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Iɣraben iqburen n Qusṭanṭiniya.]]

=== 8.1. Ayɣer Qusṭantin yefren Byzantion? ===
Deffir rbeḥ-is ɣef Licinius, Qusṭantin yebɣa ad yesbed yiwet n temdint tamanaɣt i udabu-is. Yefren temdint taqdimt n Byzantion, i yellan deg uḍiq agensu gar ilel Aberkan d ilel n Marmara. Tamnaḍt-a tesɛa azal ameqqran deg umezruy, deg ttjara d tsertit taserdasit.

''Byzantion'' teṭṭef amkan gar Uṛupa d Asya. Tella ɣef teqenṭert n yiberdan n ttjara i d-yettasen seg usamar ɣer umalu. Aman n Bosphorus, akked ufran n umkan-is, teǧǧa-tt d yiwet n temdint yezmer ad ttwaḥrez s shala ugar n waṭas n temdinin.

=== 8.2. Asbeddi n Qusṭanṭiniya ===
Deg 11 Mayyu 330, Qusṭantin yessekcem tamdint tamaynut deg wudmawen n udabu.

Yefka-yas azal n yiwet n temdint tanamkant n tgelda.

Tamdint-a tettwasemma Constantinopolis, anamek-is «Tamdint n Qusṭantin».

Tettwafren daɣen s yisem n Ruma Tamaynut (Nova Roma).

Maca ilaq ad nẓer belli Qusṭantin ur yebni ara tamdint-a seg ulac. Yessnerna tamezdeɣt n Byzantion, isbedd deg-s iberdan imeqqranen, tigejda n tedbelt, imukan n tɣuri, isayesen, temsirin d yixxamen n udabu.

=== 8.3. Tamsalt n Qusṭanṭiniya deg umezruy ===
Tamdint-a tuɣal sya ɣer zdat d yiwet n temdinin timeqqranin n umaḍal. Deffir tmettant n Qusṭantin, ad teqqim d amkan agejdan n udabu arumani deg usamar. Deg 395, mi tbeddel tɣessa n udabu gar umalu d usamar, Qusṭanṭiniya tuɣal d tamezdeɣt n udabu n tgelda tarumanit n usamar. Deffir aɣelluy n udabu arumani deg umalu deg 476, tamdint-a teqqim d amkan agejdan n tgelda i d-yettkemmilen amezruy arumani.

Deg umezruy amiran, tgelda-a tettwasemma aṭas Tgelda Tabizantin. Maca imezdaɣ-is ur semman ara i yiman-nsen «Bizantiyen» deg unamek amiran. Ttwalin iman-nsen d Irumanen, yerna ssawalen i tgelda-nsen tagelda tarumanit.

== 9. Agraw n Nikiya (325) d ubeddel n tmeslayt tamasiḥit ==
[[Tugna:Nicea.jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Agraw n Nikiya.]]


Deg useggas 325, Qusṭantin yessuter ad yemlil ugraw ameqqran n yimrabḍen imasiḥiyen deg temdint n Nikiya, i d-yeqqimen ass-a d ''İznik'' deg [[Tturk|Turkya]].

Agraw-a yettwassnen s yisem n Agraw Amezwaru n Nikiya.

=== 9.1. D acu i d-ugur i yellan? ===
Deg tallit-a, tella temgarda tameqqrant gar yimasḥiyen ɣef tɣawsa n tɣessa n Yasuɛ Lmasiḥ d wassaɣ-is d Rebbi. [[Aryus]] yella d yiwen n yimrabḍen(argaz n ddin neɣ n usɣan) n temdint n Aleksandriya.

Yella yettwali belli Mmi-s n Rebbi ur yelli ara d aqdim am Baba-s, imi tella tallit anda ur yelli ara. Imrabḍen nniḍen ur qbilen ara tikti-a. Llan ttwalin belli Mmi-s d aqdim am Baba-s, yerna d yiwen n ugama n tɣellist tarrabanit. Tamsalt-a tessekcem imasiḥiyen deg yiwen n ccwal ameqqran.

=== 9.2. D acu i yexdem Qusṭantin? ===
Qusṭantin, i yebɣan ad yesɛu talwit deg tmeslayt tamasiḥit, yessuter ad yemlil ugraw n yimrabḍen.

Ur yelli ara d amrabḍ, ur yelli ara d ameqqran n tussna n ddin, maca yella d amenkad i yesɛan tazmert ad yesdukkel imdanen deg yiwen n ugraw.

Agraw n Nikiya yefka azal i tikti n ''homoousios'', i d-yemmalen belli Mmi-s d Baba-s sɛan yiwet n tɣessa n ugama n yillu(agama n ṛebbi). Agraw yefren daɣen kra n yilugan i yesɛan assaɣ d ddin, d uselḥu n tmeslayt s tmuɣli tamasiḥit.

=== 9.3. Azal n ugraw-a ===
Agraw n Nikiya yesɛa azal ameqqran deg umezruy amasiḥi, imi d yiwen seg yigrawen imeqqranen imezwura i yebnan tikti tamasiḥit n tmeslayin d tmuɣliwin timeqqranin n usɣan-agi. Maca ur yelli ara d taggara n ccwal. Amgired gar yimasḥiyen ɣef tamsalt n Aryus akked taluft n [[Tadunatit|yidunatiden]] tekkemmel deg yiseggasen i d-iteddun, ɣas akken Qusṭantin yeɛreḍ ad yefru.

Ilaq daɣen ad nẓer belli agraw-a ur d-yessnulfa ara ddin amasiḥi. Ddin-a yella uqbel Qusṭantin s waṭas n tasutin. Agraw yeɛreḍ ad yefru amgired gar yimasḥiyen ɣef kra n tɣawsiwin n lmendad n ddin.

== 10. Tasertit n Qusṭantin deg Tafriqt n Ugafa ==
Aḥric-a yesɛa azal ameqqran i umezruy n yimaziɣen, imi Tafriqt n Ugafa tella d yiwet seg temnaḍin timeqqranin n Tgelda Tarumanit.

=== 10.1. Tafriqt deg tallit n Qusṭantin ===
Deg tazwara n tasut tis IV, Tafriqt n Ugafa tella d tamnaḍt i yesɛan azal ameqqran deg tdamsa, deg tsertit d ddin.

Gar temdinin-is timeqqranin:

- '''Qerṭaj''' (Carthago), tamdint tameqqrant n Tafriqt Tarumanit.

- '''Sirta'''(Kirtan), i yettwasemman sya ɣer zdat Constantine.

- '''Hippo Regius''', i d-yeqqimen ass-a deg temnaḍt n Ɛennaba.

- '''Kwikul'''(Cuicul), i d-yuɣalen ass-a d Ǧmila.

- '''Tamugadi''', i d-yuɣalen ass-a d Timgad.

- '''Tivest'''(Theveste), i d-yeqqimen ass-a d Tebessa.

Amezruy n temnaḍin-a yella d amezruy n tdukli d umgired gar tmetti tarumanit, timettiyin timaziɣin tiqburin, ddin amasiḥi d leɛwayed n wafagan.

=== 10.2. Qusṭantin d temdint n Kirtan(Sirta) ===
Tamdint n Sirta tella d yiwet seg temdinin timeqqranin n Numidya. Deg tallit n Qusṭantin, tamdint-a tettwaseggem deffir kra n yimenɣiyen iserdasiyen i d-yeḍran. Yettwassnen belli deg 313, Sirta tuɣal tettwasemma Qunṭantin, s yisem n umenkad Qusṭantin.

Tamdint-a teqqim tesɛa isem-is armi d tallit tamirant: Qusṭanṭina. Abeddel n yisem-a yeskanay-d azal i yesɛa Qusṭantin deg tsertit n Numidya n tallit-nni.

=== 10.3. Tazɣent n Dunatus deg Tafriqt ===
Deg tallit-a tella yiwen n umgirred ameqqran gar yimasḥiyen n Tafriqt. Deg taggara n tallit n uqehher n [[Dyuklisyan]], kra n yimrabḍen ttwaccahden belli fkan idlisen n ddin i udabu arumani. Deffir uqehher, tella taluft-a: ma yezmer umrabḍ i yellan deg ugur-a ad yuɣal ɣer tmasiḥit s wudem n wargaz n ddin, neɣ ilaq ad yettwakks seg umkan-is? Tamsalt-a teǧǧa imasiḥiyen n Tafriqt ad bḍun ɣef sin n yiberdan.

Yiwen n uḥric yella yedda d ''Caecilianus'', amrabḍ n Qerṭaj.

Aḥric nniḍen yella yedda d ''Majorinus'', syin d [[Dunatus Maɣnus|Dunatus]], i d-yuɣalen d yiwen n yimeqqranen n umussu-a. Amussu-a yettwassnen deg umezruy s yisem [[Tadunatit]](Donatisme).

=== 10.4. Anekcum n Qusṭantin deg taluft-a ===
Qusṭantin yeɛreḍ ad yefru amgirred-a. Deg 313, yessuter ad yemlil ugraw n yimrabḍen deg Ruma. Agraw-a yefka afus i ''Caecilianus'', maca imdukkal n Dunatus ur qbilen ara taɣtas-is. Deg 314, Qusṭantin yessuter agraw nniḍen deg Arles, deg Galiya. Agraw-a yesbedd daɣen taɣtas i d-yefka ugraw n Ruma.

Maca amgirred ur yefru ara. Deg 316, Qusṭantin yessekcem adabu-is iwakken ad iḥbes imdukkal n Dounatus. Kra n yixxamen n ddin ttwakksen, kra n yimrabḍen ttwassenɣen seg temnaḍin-nsen. Tasertit-a ur tessawaḍ ara ad teḥbes uamussu-a. Deg 321, Qusṭantin yessers aḥric ameqqran n tsertit n uḥebbes, maca Tadunatit ikemmel ad yettnerni deg Tafriqt. Imezrayen n ddin sneqdacen tazɣent-a am yiwet n tɣawsa tameqqrant deg umezruy n usɣan amasiḥi n Tafriqt ugafa. 

10.5. Tadunatit d yimaziɣen

Tella yiwet n tamsalt i ilaq ad d-nessuter deg umezruy-a: assaɣ gar Tadunatit d yimaziɣen. Deg kra n temnaḍin n Numidya, Tadunatit tesɛa imdukkal aṭas, ladɣa deg temnaḍin n berra n temdinin timeqqranin. Maca ur nezmir ara ad nini belli Tadunatit tella d ddin n yimaziɣen kan, neɣ belli tella deg-s tagrawla n yimaziɣen mgal Ruma. Yella deg-s umgirred n ddin, assaɣen n udabu, timsal n leḥkem n yimrabḍen, akked kra n yimgirrden n tmetti. Imezrayen ttwalin belli assaɣ gar Tadunatit, timettiyin timaziɣin d tsertit tarumanit yella d tin iweɛren ad yettwafhem s yiwet n tekti kan. Aḥric ameqqran n umezruy-a ad ikemmel deg tasut tis IV d tis V, ladɣa deg tallit n [[Agerram Augustin (Saint Augustin)|Uɣustin n Hippo]].</text>
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  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;logo_name&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;symbol&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azamul&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;label&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tabzimt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},

&quot;services&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imeẓla&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;key_people&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imdanen igejdanen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;employees&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ixeddamen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;revenue&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amaduf&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;profit&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tagenfit&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;net_income&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tigenfit n taggara&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;subsidiaries&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiṛmisin tinaddawin&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;resources&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiɣbula&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;expenses&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɛkwamt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
}

  }
}
&lt;/templatedata&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>t7j076xn7a6gcdxpxjptof4c4cungza</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>117651</id>
      <parentid>117650</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-14T13:39:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>117651</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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&lt;includeonly&gt;{{Infobox
| name = {{{name|{{PAGENAME}}}}}
| image = &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{logo|}}}|{{{logo}}}|{{{image|}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
| caption = &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{logo|}}}|{{{logo_caption|}}}|{{{image_caption|}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
| data1 = &lt;div style=&quot;background:#eaecf0; padding:0.45em; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; margin-bottom:0.5em;&quot;&gt;Talɣut ɣef termist&lt;/div&gt;{{#if:{{{logo|}}}|{{#if:{{{image|}}}|&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;{{{image}}}&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%; color:#54595d; margin-top:0.3em;&quot;&gt;{{{image_caption|}}}&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;}}}}
| label2 = Isem unṣib
| data2 = {{{official_name|}}}
| label3 = Alugu
| data3 = {{{logo_name|}}}
| label4 = Azamul
| data4 = {{{symbol|}}}
| label5 = Tabzimt
| data5 = {{{label|}}}
| label6 = Anaw n teṛmist
| data6 = {{{type|}}}
| label7 = Azemz n usbeddi
| data7 = {{{founded|}}}
| label8 = Amesbedday
| data8 = {{{founder|}}}
| label9 = Tasɣimt tagejdant
| data9 = {{{headquarters|}}}
| label10 = Tamurt
| data10 = {{{country|}}}
| label11 = Taɣult n urmud
| data11 = {{{industry|}}}
| label12 = Ifarisen
| data12 = {{{products|}}}
| label13 = Imeẓla
| data13 = {{{services|}}}
| label14 = Imḍebbren
| data14 = {{{key_people|}}}
| label15 = Ixeddamen
| data15 = {{{employees|}}}
| label16 = Amaduf
| data16 = {{{revenue|}}}
| label17 = Tagenfit
| data17 = {{{profit|}}}
| label18 = Tigenfit n taggara
| data18 = {{{net_income|}}}
| label19 = Tiṛmisin tinaddawin
| data19 = {{{subsidiaries|}}}
| label20 = Tiɣbula
| data20 = {{{resources|}}}
| label21 = Taɛkwamt
| data21 = {{{expenses|}}}
| label22 = Asmel unṣib
| data22 = {{{website|}}}
}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;
== Aseqdec ==
&lt;pre&gt;
{{Infobox company
| name =
| logo =
| logo_caption =
| official_name =
| logo_name =
| symbol =
| label =
| type =
| founded =
| founder =
| headquarters =
| country =
| industry =
| products =
| services =
| key_people =
| employees =
| revenue =
| profit =
| net_income =
| subsidiaries =
| resources =
| expenses =
| website =
}}
&lt;/pre&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

&lt;noinclude&gt;
&lt;templatedata&gt;
{
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Talɣa n yisallen ɣef termist.&quot;,
  &quot;format&quot;: &quot;block&quot;,
  &quot;params&quot;: {
    &quot;name&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Isem n termist.&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;,
      &quot;suggested&quot;: true
    },
    &quot;official_name&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;image&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tugna&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Tugna n termist.&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
    },

    &quot;image_caption&quot;: {
    &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n tugna&quot;,
    &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n tugna n termist.&quot;,
    &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;type&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Anaw n termist&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founded&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azemz n usebddi&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founder&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amesbedday&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;headquarters&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tasɣimt tagejdant&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;country&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tamurt&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;industry&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɣult n urmud&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;products&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ifarisen&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;website&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asmel unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;url&quot;
    },
    
&quot;logo&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Alugu&quot;,
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Alugu n termist.&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
},
&quot;logo_caption&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;logo_name&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;symbol&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azamul&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;label&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tabzimt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},

&quot;services&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imeẓla&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;key_people&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imdanen igejdanen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;employees&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ixeddamen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;revenue&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amaduf&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;profit&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tagenfit&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;net_income&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tigenfit n taggara&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;subsidiaries&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiṛmisin tinaddawin&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;resources&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiɣbula&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;expenses&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɛkwamt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
}

  }
}
&lt;/templatedata&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>h8gtl6dzv56tk83g83c702rqr552d93</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>117652</id>
      <parentid>117651</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-14T13:52:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>117652</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4265" sha1="49y1f2p0yt7o8ed6f2poeh62tiye53o" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;includeonly&gt;{{Infobox
| name = {{{name|{{PAGENAME}}}}}
| image = &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}|[[File:{{{logo_file}}}|frameless|200px]]|{{#if:{{{logo|}}}|{{{logo}}}|{{{image|}}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
| caption = &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}{{{logo|}}}|{{{logo_caption|}}}|{{{image_caption|}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
| data1 = &lt;div style=&quot;background:#eaecf0; padding:0.45em; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; margin-bottom:0.5em;&quot;&gt;Talɣut ɣef termist&lt;/div&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}{{{logo|}}}|{{#if:{{{image|}}}|&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;{{{image}}}&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%; color:#54595d; margin-top:0.3em;&quot;&gt;{{{image_caption|}}}&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;}}}}

| label2 = Isem unṣib
| data2 = {{{official_name|}}}
| label3 = Alugu
| data3 = {{{logo_name|}}}
| label4 = Azamul
| data4 = {{{symbol|}}}
| label5 = Tabzimt
| data5 = {{{label|}}}
| label6 = Anaw n teṛmist
| data6 = {{{type|}}}
| label7 = Azemz n usbeddi
| data7 = {{{founded|}}}
| label8 = Amesbedday
| data8 = {{{founder|}}}
| label9 = Tasɣimt tagejdant
| data9 = {{{headquarters|}}}
| label10 = Tamurt
| data10 = {{{country|}}}
| label11 = Taɣult n urmud
| data11 = {{{industry|}}}
| label12 = Ifarisen
| data12 = {{{products|}}}
| label13 = Imeẓla
| data13 = {{{services|}}}
| label14 = Imḍebbren
| data14 = {{{key_people|}}}
| label15 = Ixeddamen
| data15 = {{{employees|}}}
| label16 = Amaduf
| data16 = {{{revenue|}}}
| label17 = Tagenfit
| data17 = {{{profit|}}}
| label18 = Tigenfit n taggara
| data18 = {{{net_income|}}}
| label19 = Tiṛmisin tinaddawin
| data19 = {{{subsidiaries|}}}
| label20 = Tiɣbula
| data20 = {{{resources|}}}
| label21 = Taɛkwamt
| data21 = {{{expenses|}}}
| label22 = Asmel unṣib
| data22 = {{{website|}}}
}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;
== Aseqdec ==
&lt;pre&gt;
{{Infobox company
| name =
| logo =
| logo_caption =
| official_name =
| logo_name =
| symbol =
| label =
| type =
| founded =
| founder =
| headquarters =
| country =
| industry =
| products =
| services =
| key_people =
| employees =
| revenue =
| profit =
| net_income =
| subsidiaries =
| resources =
| expenses =
| website =
}}
&lt;/pre&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

&lt;noinclude&gt;
&lt;templatedata&gt;
{
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Talɣa n yisallen ɣef termist.&quot;,
  &quot;format&quot;: &quot;block&quot;,
  &quot;params&quot;: {
    &quot;name&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Isem n termist.&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;,
      &quot;suggested&quot;: true
    },
    &quot;official_name&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;image&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tugna&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Tugna n termist.&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
    },

    &quot;image_caption&quot;: {
    &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n tugna&quot;,
    &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n tugna n termist.&quot;,
    &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;type&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Anaw n termist&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founded&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azemz n usebddi&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founder&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amesbedday&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;headquarters&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tasɣimt tagejdant&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;country&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tamurt&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;industry&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɣult n urmud&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;products&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ifarisen&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;website&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asmel unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;url&quot;
    },
    
&quot;logo&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Alugu&quot;,
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Alugu n termist.&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
},
&quot;logo_caption&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;logo_name&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;symbol&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azamul&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;label&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tabzimt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},

&quot;services&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imeẓla&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;key_people&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imdanen igejdanen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;employees&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ixeddamen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;revenue&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amaduf&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;profit&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tagenfit&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;net_income&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tigenfit n taggara&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;subsidiaries&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiṛmisin tinaddawin&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;resources&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiɣbula&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;expenses&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɛkwamt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
}

  }
}
&lt;/templatedata&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>49y1f2p0yt7o8ed6f2poeh62tiye53o</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>117653</id>
      <parentid>117652</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-14T14:00:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>117653</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4409" sha1="5664mc3mkrsjg4gl8mqiekv077iodxy" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;includeonly&gt;{{Infobox
| name = {{{name|{{PAGENAME}}}}}
| image = &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}|[[File:{{{logo_file}}}|frameless|200px]]|{{#if:{{{logo|}}}|{{{logo}}}|{{{image|}}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
| caption = &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}{{{logo|}}}|{{{logo_caption|}}}|{{{image_caption|}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
| data1 = &lt;div style=&quot;background:#eaecf0; padding:0.45em; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; margin-bottom:0.5em;&quot;&gt;Talɣut ɣef termist&lt;/div&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}{{{logo|}}}|{{#if:{{{image|}}}|&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;{{{image}}}&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%; color:#54595d; margin-top:0.3em;&quot;&gt;{{{image_caption|}}}&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;}}}}

| label2 = Isem unṣib
| data2 = {{{official_name|}}}
| label3 = Alugu
| data3 = {{{logo_name|}}}
| label4 = Azamul
| data4 = {{{symbol|}}}
| label5 = Tabzimt
| data5 = {{{label|}}}
| label6 = Anaw n teṛmist
| data6 = {{{type|}}}
| label7 = Azemz n usbeddi
| data7 = {{{founded|}}}
| label8 = Amesbedday
| data8 = {{{founder|}}}
| label9 = Tasɣimt tagejdant
| data9 = {{{headquarters|}}}
| label10 = Tamurt
| data10 = {{{country|}}}
| label11 = Taɣult n urmud
| data11 = {{{industry|}}}
| label12 = Ifarisen
| data12 = {{{products|}}}
| label13 = Imeẓla
| data13 = {{{services|}}}
| label14 = Imḍebbren
| data14 = {{{key_people|}}}
| label15 = Ixeddamen
| data15 = {{{employees|}}}
| label16 = Amaduf
| data16 = {{{revenue|}}}
| label17 = Tagenfit
| data17 = {{{profit|}}}
| label18 = Tigenfit n taggara
| data18 = {{{net_income|}}}
| label19 = Tiṛmisin tinaddawin
| data19 = {{{subsidiaries|}}}
| label20 = Tiɣbula
| data20 = {{{resources|}}}
| label21 = Taɛkwamt
| data21 = {{{expenses|}}}
| label22 = Asmel unṣib
| data22 = {{{website|}}}
}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;
== Aseqdec ==
&lt;pre&gt;
{{Infobox company
| name =
| logo =
| logo_caption =
| official_name =
| logo_name =
| symbol =
| label =
| type =
| founded =
| founder =
| headquarters =
| country =
| industry =
| products =
| services =
| key_people =
| employees =
| revenue =
| profit =
| net_income =
| subsidiaries =
| resources =
| expenses =
| website =
}}
&lt;/pre&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

&lt;noinclude&gt;
&lt;templatedata&gt;
{
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Talɣa n yisallen ɣef termist.&quot;,
  &quot;format&quot;: &quot;block&quot;,
  &quot;params&quot;: {
    &quot;name&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Isem n termist.&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;,
      &quot;suggested&quot;: true
    },
    &quot;official_name&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;image&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tugna&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Tugna n termist.&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
    },

    &quot;image_caption&quot;: {
    &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n tugna&quot;,
    &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n tugna n termist.&quot;,
    &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;type&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Anaw n termist&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founded&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azemz n usebddi&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founder&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amesbedday&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;headquarters&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tasɣimt tagejdant&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;country&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tamurt&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;industry&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɣult n urmud&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;products&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ifarisen&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;website&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asmel unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;url&quot;
    },
    
&quot;logo&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Alugu&quot;,
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Alugu n termist.&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
},

&quot;logo_file&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Afaylu n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Isem n ufaylu n ulugu, war tira n [[File:...]].&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;wiki-file-name&quot;
},

&quot;logo_caption&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;logo_name&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;symbol&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azamul&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;label&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tabzimt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},

&quot;services&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imeẓla&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;key_people&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imdanen igejdanen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;employees&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ixeddamen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;revenue&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amaduf&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;profit&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tagenfit&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;net_income&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tigenfit n taggara&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;subsidiaries&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiṛmisin tinaddawin&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;resources&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiɣbula&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;expenses&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɛkwamt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
}

  }
}
&lt;/templatedata&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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      <id>117654</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-10-14T14:09:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
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&lt;includeonly&gt;{{Infobox
| name = {{{name|{{PAGENAME}}}}}
| image = &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}|[[File:{{{logo_file}}}|frameless|200px]]|{{#if:{{{logo|}}}|{{{logo}}}|{{#if:{{{image_file|}}}|[[File:{{{image_file}}}|frameless|280px]]|{{{image|}}}}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
| caption = &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:90%;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}{{{logo|}}}|{{{logo_caption|}}}|{{{image_caption|}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
| data1 = &lt;div style=&quot;background:#eaecf0; padding:0.45em; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; margin-bottom:0.5em;&quot;&gt;Talɣut ɣef termist&lt;/div&gt;{{#if:{{{logo_file|}}}{{{logo|}}}|{{#if:{{{image_file|}}}{{{image|}}}|&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;{{#if:{{{image_file|}}}|[[File:{{{image_file}}}|frameless|280px]]|{{{image|}}}}}&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%; color:#54595d; margin-top:0.3em;&quot;&gt;{{{image_caption|}}}&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;}}}}
| label2 = Isem unṣib
| data2 = {{{official_name|}}}
| label3 = Alugu
| data3 = {{{logo_name|}}}
| label4 = Azamul
| data4 = {{{symbol|}}}
| label5 = Tabzimt
| data5 = {{{label|}}}
| label6 = Anaw n teṛmist
| data6 = {{{type|}}}
| label7 = Azemz n usbeddi
| data7 = {{{founded|}}}
| label8 = Amesbedday
| data8 = {{{founder|}}}
| label9 = Tasɣimt tagejdant
| data9 = {{{headquarters|}}}
| label10 = Tamurt
| data10 = {{{country|}}}
| label11 = Taɣult n urmud
| data11 = {{{industry|}}}
| label12 = Ifarisen
| data12 = {{{products|}}}
| label13 = Imeẓla
| data13 = {{{services|}}}
| label14 = Imḍebbren
| data14 = {{{key_people|}}}
| label15 = Ixeddamen
| data15 = {{{employees|}}}
| label16 = Amaduf
| data16 = {{{revenue|}}}
| label17 = Tagenfit
| data17 = {{{profit|}}}
| label18 = Tigenfit n taggara
| data18 = {{{net_income|}}}
| label19 = Tiṛmisin tinaddawin
| data19 = {{{subsidiaries|}}}
| label20 = Tiɣbula
| data20 = {{{resources|}}}
| label21 = Taɛkwamt
| data21 = {{{expenses|}}}
| label22 = Asmel unṣib
| data22 = {{{website|}}}
}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;
== Aseqdec ==
&lt;pre&gt;
{{Infobox company
| name =
| logo =
| logo_caption =
| official_name =
| logo_name =
| symbol =
| label =
| type =
| founded =
| founder =
| headquarters =
| country =
| industry =
| products =
| services =
| key_people =
| employees =
| revenue =
| profit =
| net_income =
| subsidiaries =
| resources =
| expenses =
| website =
}}
&lt;/pre&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

&lt;noinclude&gt;
&lt;templatedata&gt;
{
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Talɣa n yisallen ɣef termist.&quot;,
  &quot;format&quot;: &quot;block&quot;,
  &quot;params&quot;: {
    &quot;name&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Isem n termist.&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;,
      &quot;suggested&quot;: true
    },
    &quot;official_name&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;image&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tugna&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Tugna n termist.&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
    },
    
     &quot;image_file&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Afaylu n tugna&quot;,
      &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Isem n ufaylu n tugna, war tira n           [[File:...]].&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;wiki-file-name&quot;
    },

    &quot;image_caption&quot;: {
    &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n tugna&quot;,
    &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n tugna n termist.&quot;,
    &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;type&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Anaw n termist&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founded&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azemz n usebddi&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;founder&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amesbedday&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;headquarters&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tasɣimt tagejdant&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;country&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tamurt&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;industry&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɣult n urmud&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
    },
    &quot;products&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ifarisen&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
    },
    &quot;website&quot;: {
      &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asmel unsib&quot;,
      &quot;type&quot;: &quot;url&quot;
    },
    
&quot;logo&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Alugu&quot;,
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Alugu n termist.&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;content&quot;
},

&quot;logo_file&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Afaylu n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;description&quot;: &quot;Isem n ufaylu n ulugu, war tira n [[File:...]].&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;wiki-file-name&quot;
},

&quot;logo_caption&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Asegzi n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;logo_name&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Isem n ulugu&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;symbol&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Azamul&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;label&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tabzimt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},

&quot;services&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imeẓla&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;key_people&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Imdanen igejdanen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;employees&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Ixeddamen&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;revenue&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Amaduf&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;profit&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tagenfit&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;net_income&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tigenfit n taggara&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
},
&quot;subsidiaries&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiṛmisin tinaddawin&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;resources&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Tiɣbula&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;string&quot;
},
&quot;expenses&quot;: {
  &quot;label&quot;: &quot;Taɛkwamt&quot;,
  &quot;type&quot;: &quot;line&quot;
}

  }
}
&lt;/templatedata&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ovid</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117658</id>
      <parentid>117647</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-15T00:06:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117658</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="3043" sha1="ap53su4wow7bh87hyd63b961tyt1p2n" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q7198|image=[[File:Ovid by an anonymous sculptor.jpg|thumb|Ovid sɣur yiwen umserɣta udrig]]|caption=Ovid.}}

'''Ovid''', s yisem-is ummid '''Publius Ovidius Naso''', d yiwen seg yimedyazen irumanen imeqqranen n tallit taɣustit. Yella d amedyaz, amaru n tmucuha timiṭulujiyin, d win i yerran tayri, tuttya, tafekka, tamagit, lḥif akked unejli d isental igejdanen n tsekla-s.

Yettwassen ladɣa s udlis-is Metamorphoses (tuttyiwin), yiwen seg yedlisen i yesɛan tazrirt tameqqrant ɣef tsekla, tasugna, tasertit n tfekka d tẓuriwin n Umaḍal n Utrim.

Tudert-is tbeddel s wudem ameqqran deg useggas 8 mbaɛd talalit n Ɛisa, mi t-yessufeɣ umenkad Uɣustus seg Ruma, yerra-t ɣer Tomis, ɣef yiri n Yilel Aberkan. Dinna i yemmut, war ma yuɣal ɣer temdint i iḥemmel.

Yettwaḥsab Ovid gar kraḍ n yimedyazen irumanen i d-yettwabedren s waṭas deg tsekla talaṭinit, akked '''Virgil''' (Vergilius) d '''Horace''' (Horatius). Maca yal yiwen deg-sen yesɛa aɣanib d yisental yemgaraden. 

== 2. Talalit d twacult-is ==

=== 2.1. Sulmo, tamdint n Ovid ===
[[Tugna:PanoramaSulmona.JPG|centré|vignette|550x550px|Tamdint Sulmona deg ṭṭelyan.]]
Ovid ilul ass n 20 Meɣres, deg useggas 43 send Ɛisa, di Sulmo, i d-yettwasemman ass-a Sulmona, deg temnaḍt n Abruzzo, di [[ṭṭelyan]] n wass-a.

Sulmo tella d tamdint tarumanit di tmurt n Peligni, yiwen seg yiɣerfan n ṭṭelyan alqayan i yellan uqbel asnerni n Ruma. Tamnaḍt-a tettwassen s yidurar-is, izuɣar-is d wakal-is n tfellaḥt.

Ovid yesɛa tawacult taɣerfant, d tin yesɛan idrimen. Baba-s yebɣa ad yili mmi-s d amdan n uẓayer deg tedbelt tarumanit, ladɣa deg uɣerbaz n uzref d tsnukyest n wawal.

Deg yisefra-s, Ovid yessefk-d amek i ilul deg yiwen n useggas ara d-yeglun s ubeddel ameqqran deg umezruy arumani: d aseggas n tmettant n ''Cicero'', '''amesnukyes''' d '''amsesten''' arumani ameqqran.

Deg tallit-a, Tagduda Trumanit tella tettɛeddi seg tazɣent tasertant ɣer tallit n usdukel n tezmert deg ufus n yiwen n umdan, ''Octavianus'', win ara yuɣalen d Uɣust.

=== 2.2. Tawacult-is d watmaten-is ===
Ovid yesɛa gma-s ameqqran fell-as s yiwen n useggas, i yemmuten d ameẓẓyan, mi yesɛa azal n 20 n yiseggasen. Tamettant n gma-s tella d lḥif ameqqran i twacult-is.

Yella d amezwaru? Ala, Ovid yella d amecṭuḥ deg sin n watmaten.

Yella diɣen d win i d-yettwabedren deg yisefra-s s tikkelt ɣer tayeḍ, imi yettmeslay ɣef tlalit-is, baba-s, yemma-s d tmurt-is.

Maca ilaq ad nefrez gar wayen i d-yenna Ovid s timmad-is d wayen i nezmer ad nesseɣti s yizirigen imezruyanen: aṭas n yisallen ɣef tudert-is d netta i ten-id-yefkan.

== 3. Tamẓi d uselmed-is ==

=== 3.1. Azraw deg Ruma ===
Mi yella d ameẓẓyan, Ovid iruḥ ɣer Ruma akked gma-s iwakken ad lemden tasnukyest, tira, timawit d uzref.

Ruma tella deg tallit-a d yiwet seg temdinin timeqqranin n umaḍal agrakal.
[[Tugna:Forum romanum 6k (5760x2097).jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Ayen i d-yeqqimen seg ufurum(anmager) n ruma taqburt.]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>117659</id>
      <parentid>117658</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-15T00:12:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117659</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4359" sha1="li54q5p7s9g68xj7kh23rx8ie2csfbw" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography|item=Q7198|image=[[File:Ovid by an anonymous sculptor.jpg|thumb|Ovid sɣur yiwen umserɣta udrig]]|caption=Ovid.}}

'''Ovid''', s yisem-is ummid '''Publius Ovidius Naso''', d yiwen seg yimedyazen irumanen imeqqranen n tallit taɣustit. Yella d amedyaz, amaru n tmucuha timiṭulujiyin, d win i yerran tayri, tuttya, tafekka, tamagit, lḥif akked unejli d isental igejdanen n tsekla-s.

Yettwassen ladɣa s udlis-is Metamorphoses (tuttyiwin), yiwen seg yedlisen i yesɛan tazrirt tameqqrant ɣef tsekla, tasugna, tasertit n tfekka d tẓuriwin n Umaḍal n Utrim.

Tudert-is tbeddel s wudem ameqqran deg useggas 8 mbaɛd talalit n Ɛisa, mi t-yessufeɣ umenkad Uɣustus seg Ruma, yerra-t ɣer Tomis, ɣef yiri n Yilel Aberkan. Dinna i yemmut, war ma yuɣal ɣer temdint i iḥemmel.

Yettwaḥsab Ovid gar kraḍ n yimedyazen irumanen i d-yettwabedren s waṭas deg tsekla talaṭinit, akked '''Virgil''' (Vergilius) d '''Horace''' (Horatius). Maca yal yiwen deg-sen yesɛa aɣanib d yisental yemgaraden. 

== 2. Talalit d twacult-is ==

=== 2.1. Sulmo, tamdint n Ovid ===
[[Tugna:PanoramaSulmona.JPG|centré|vignette|550x550px|Tamdint Sulmona deg ṭṭelyan.]]
Ovid ilul ass n 20 Meɣres, deg useggas 43 send Ɛisa, di Sulmo, i d-yettwasemman ass-a Sulmona, deg temnaḍt n Abruzzo, di [[ṭṭelyan]] n wass-a.

Sulmo tella d tamdint tarumanit di tmurt n Peligni, yiwen seg yiɣerfan n ṭṭelyan alqayan i yellan uqbel asnerni n Ruma. Tamnaḍt-a tettwassen s yidurar-is, izuɣar-is d wakal-is n tfellaḥt.

Ovid yesɛa tawacult taɣerfant, d tin yesɛan idrimen. Baba-s yebɣa ad yili mmi-s d amdan n uẓayer deg tedbelt tarumanit, ladɣa deg uɣerbaz n uzref d tsnukyest n wawal.

Deg yisefra-s, Ovid yessefk-d amek i ilul deg yiwen n useggas ara d-yeglun s ubeddel ameqqran deg umezruy arumani: d aseggas n tmettant n ''Cicero'', '''amesnukyes''' d '''amsesten''' arumani ameqqran.

Deg tallit-a, Tagduda Trumanit tella tettɛeddi seg tazɣent tasertant ɣer tallit n usdukel n tezmert deg ufus n yiwen n umdan, ''Octavianus'', win ara yuɣalen d Uɣust.

=== 2.2. Tawacult-is d watmaten-is ===
Ovid yesɛa gma-s ameqqran fell-as s yiwen n useggas, i yemmuten d ameẓẓyan, mi yesɛa azal n 20 n yiseggasen. Tamettant n gma-s tella d lḥif ameqqran i twacult-is.

Yella d amezwaru? Ala, Ovid yella d amecṭuḥ deg sin n watmaten.

Yella diɣen d win i d-yettwabedren deg yisefra-s s tikkelt ɣer tayeḍ, imi yettmeslay ɣef tlalit-is, baba-s, yemma-s d tmurt-is.

Maca ilaq ad nefrez gar wayen i d-yenna Ovid s timmad-is d wayen i nezmer ad nesseɣti s yizirigen imezruyanen: aṭas n yisallen ɣef tudert-is d netta i ten-id-yefkan.

== 3. Tamẓi d uselmed-is ==

=== 3.1. Azraw deg Ruma ===
Mi yella d ameẓẓyan, Ovid iruḥ ɣer Ruma akked gma-s iwakken ad lemden tasnukyest, tira, timawit d uzref.

Ruma tella deg tallit-a d yiwet seg temdinin timeqqranin n umaḍal agrakal.
[[Tugna:Forum romanum 6k (5760x2097).jpg|centré|vignette|450x450px|Ayen i d-yeqqimen seg ufurum(anmager) n ruma taqburt.]]Deg Ruma, Ovid yella deg tneɣrit n yiselmaden yettwassnen n tsnukyest n wawal. Isallen imezruyanen bedren Arellius Fuscus akked Porcius Latro gar yiselmaden-is. Iselmad-agi llan ttselmaden amek ara d-yebnu umdan awal, amek ara yessefhem tikti-s, amek ara yessfukel tiririt-is, d wamek ara yesseqdec tafyirt s wudem yettqenɛen. Ayen akk i yelmed deg tneɣrit-a ad t-id-yaf umdan deg yisefra-s: tawsit n wawal, d ubeddel n tmuɣli, anegzum n tidet d usnulfu n yimdanen n timucuha.

=== 3.2. Tayri-s i tsekla ===
Baba-s yebɣa ad yili Ovid d amsesten n uzref neɣ d amdan n tedbelt, imi taɣulin-a ttaǧǧant amdan ad yili d ameqran deg tmetti tarumanit. Maca Ovid yella yettwajbed ɣer usefru. Deg ''Tristia'', yessefhem-d belli ula d mi yebɣa ad yaru s wudem amagnu, awalen-is ttuɣalen d isefra. D taɣawsa i d-yesskanen belli asefru yella deg tudert-is seg temẓi.

=== 3.3. Tirza-s ɣer Yunan ===
Ovid yessers imeṭṭawen-is deg kra n tmura n Yunan, anda i yella umezruy ameqqran n tfelsafit, tsekla d timiṭulujit.

Yettwabder belli yewweḍ ɣer Atina, Asia Tameẓẓyant akked Sicilia. Tirziwin-a ǧǧant-as ad yissin ugar tasekla tagrigit, ladɣa timucuha n yigelliden, irebbiten, yimeẓla d yimdanen i yettbeddilen talɣa-nsen. Timusniwin-a ad d-banent s wudem ameqqran deg Tuttya(''Metamorphoses)''.</text>
      <sha1>li54q5p7s9g68xj7kh23rx8ie2csfbw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>X (Aẓeṭṭa anmetti)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117655</id>
      <parentid>117645</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-14T15:00:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>arniɣ ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117655</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2518" sha1="rlb24v43yk5ct4jvhc57hs4qqnzwfey" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company
| name = X
| logo = [[File:X logo 2023 original.svg|thumb|300 px]]
| country = Iwunak Yeddukklen n Temrikt
| headquarters = Bastrop, Texas
| type = Taṛmist tatiknulujit
| founded = 21 maɣres 2006
| industry = Iẓedwa inmettiyen
| website = x.com
| logo_caption = Alugu n X.
}}

'''X''' (yettwassnen zik s yisem n '''Twitter''') d aẓeṭṭa anmetti amirikan d taɣerɣert tumḍint n umikrublugin (''microblogging''). S tallelt-is, zemren yiseqdacen ad d-suffɣen yerna ad bḍun iznan iwezlanen umi ttinin zik « ''tweets'' », tugniwin, tividyutin, d yimagraden. Taɣerɣert-a tella gar yizeḍwan imettiyen imeqqranen akk deg Internet, yerna tettuseqdec aṭas sɣur yineɣmasen, isertiyen, imeɣnasen, d yimdanen deg yal tamurt n umaḍal.

== 1. Amezruy ==

=== 1.1. Tazwara d usnulfu (2006–2010) ===
Yennulfa-d Twitter deg temdint n [[San Francisco]] deg [[Kalifurnya|Kalifuṛnya]], d asenfar i d-yekkan seg tkebbanit umi semman Odeo. Jack Dorsey yessumer-d tikti n yiwen n uẓeṭṭa anda yal yiwen yezmer ad d-yazen izen awezlan i yiɛeggalen n tegrawt-is. Izen amezwaru yura-t Dorsey ass n 21 Meɣres 2006: « just setting up my twttr ».

Deg tazwara, llan qqaṛen-as twttr, syin rran-as isem Twitter (awal i d-yemmalen '''ččewčew''' neɣ '''aẓewwec''' n yigḍaḍ). Talast n yisekkilen tella tebded ɣef 140 n yisekkilen kan, acku rran-tt ɣer lqis n yiznan n usawal n ufus (SMS).

=== 1.2. Gemmu d ucebbeḥ (2010–2022) ===
Seg useggas 2010 d asawen, aẓeṭṭa-a yuɣal d allal ameqqran n tɣemsa d tsertit deg umḍal meṛṛa. Yurar tamelilt d ameqqran deg « Tefsut Taɛrabt », deg tefranin timirikanin, d yisefraken n tmetti. Deg 2017, takebbant tzadd talast n tira seg 140 yuɣal d 280 n yisekkilen i yal izen i wakken ad yishil umeslay.

=== 1.3. Tiɣin sɣur Elon Musk d ubeddel ɣer X (2022–tura) ===
Deg Yebrir 2022, [[Elon Musk]] yebda tikli akken ad yaɣ takebbant. Deffir kra n tnegmiwin d yimenɣiyen izerfanen, Musk yekfa tiɣin-is ass n 27 Tuber 2022 s wazal n 44 n yimelyaren n yidulaṛen. Mi tt-yeṭṭef, yessufeɣ aṭas n yimasayen d yixeddamen, yerna yebdel tarrayt n usefqed n ugbur (content moderation).

Deg Yulyu 2023, aselway ibeddel isem unṣib n tkebbanit seg Twitter Inc. ɣer X Corp., yerna asmel yuɣal seg twitter.com ɣer x.com. Musk yessefhem d akken iswi-ines d asnulfu n « usnas n kullec » (the everything app), ara yisɛun tarrayin n tnezzut, aselkem n tedrimt, d umsawaḍ am wid yellan deg usnas acinwat '''WeChat'''.</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>117656</id>
      <parentid>117655</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-10-14T15:06:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
        <id>14292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen</comment>
      <origin>117656</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2654" sha1="1lvsl05p34kiyvldofmr6d3mogezrty" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox company
| name = X
| logo = [[File:X logo 2023 original.svg|thumb|300 px]]
| country = Iwunak Yeddukklen n Temrikt
| headquarters = Bastrop, Texas
| type = Taṛmist tatiknulujit
| founded = 21 maɣres 2006
| industry = Iẓedwa inmettiyen
| website = x.com
| logo_caption = Alugu n X.
| official_name = X Corp.
| image = [[File:X Profile on X Website while logged out.png|thumb|Amiḍan unṣib n X ɣef tɣerɣart-is.]]
}}

'''X''' (yettwassnen zik s yisem n '''Twitter''') d aẓeṭṭa anmetti amirikan d taɣerɣert tumḍint n umikrublugin (''microblogging''). S tallelt-is, zemren yiseqdacen ad d-suffɣen yerna ad bḍun iznan iwezlanen umi ttinin zik « ''tweets'' », tugniwin, tividyutin, d yimagraden. Taɣerɣert-a tella gar yizeḍwan imettiyen imeqqranen akk deg Internet, yerna tettuseqdec aṭas sɣur yineɣmasen, isertiyen, imeɣnasen, d yimdanen deg yal tamurt n umaḍal.

== 1. Amezruy ==

=== 1.1. Tazwara d usnulfu (2006–2010) ===
Yennulfa-d Twitter deg temdint n [[San Francisco]] deg [[Kalifurnya|Kalifuṛnya]], d asenfar i d-yekkan seg tkebbanit umi semman Odeo. Jack Dorsey yessumer-d tikti n yiwen n uẓeṭṭa anda yal yiwen yezmer ad d-yazen izen awezlan i yiɛeggalen n tegrawt-is. Izen amezwaru yura-t Dorsey ass n 21 Meɣres 2006: « just setting up my twttr ».

Deg tazwara, llan qqaṛen-as twttr, syin rran-as isem Twitter (awal i d-yemmalen '''ččewčew''' neɣ '''aẓewwec''' n yigḍaḍ). Talast n yisekkilen tella tebded ɣef 140 n yisekkilen kan, acku rran-tt ɣer lqis n yiznan n usawal n ufus (SMS).

=== 1.2. Gemmu d ucebbeḥ (2010–2022) ===
Seg useggas 2010 d asawen, aẓeṭṭa-a yuɣal d allal ameqqran n tɣemsa d tsertit deg umḍal meṛṛa. Yurar tamelilt d ameqqran deg « Tefsut Taɛrabt », deg tefranin timirikanin, d yisefraken n tmetti. Deg 2017, takebbant tzadd talast n tira seg 140 yuɣal d 280 n yisekkilen i yal izen i wakken ad yishil umeslay.

=== 1.3. Tiɣin sɣur Elon Musk d ubeddel ɣer X (2022–tura) ===
Deg Yebrir 2022, [[Elon Musk]] yebda tikli akken ad yaɣ takebbant. Deffir kra n tnegmiwin d yimenɣiyen izerfanen, Musk yekfa tiɣin-is ass n 27 Tuber 2022 s wazal n 44 n yimelyaren n yidulaṛen. Mi tt-yeṭṭef, yessufeɣ aṭas n yimasayen d yixeddamen, yerna yebdel tarrayt n usefqed n ugbur (content moderation).

Deg Yulyu 2023, aselway ibeddel isem unṣib n tkebbanit seg Twitter Inc. ɣer X Corp., yerna asmel yuɣal seg twitter.com ɣer x.com. Musk yessefhem d akken iswi-ines d asnulfu n « usnas n kullec » (the everything app), ara yisɛun tarrayin n tnezzut, aselkem n tedrimt, d umsawaḍ am wid yellan deg usnas acinwat '''WeChat'''.</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aɣray</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>25618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>117663</id>
      <timestamp>2026-10-15T10:17:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abillardoo</username>
        <id>16203</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Asebtar amaynut: {{databox}}  '''Aɣray''' d aseɣli n [[amgun|umgun]] Ur nekmil ara gemmu-ines deg [[isirew|yisirew]] n tyemmat, akken i d-immal afakki neɣ asali n [[tadist]] send ma ad teffeɣ ɣer tudert.   == Anawen n uɣray ==  == Tirrayin n uɣray ==  == Amezruy  n uɣray ==   == Aɣray ɣer yiɣersiwen ==  == Imniren ==</comment>
      <origin>117663</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="312" sha1="7xfqxd4n1jhb3yu8yuqsoy68xdlllug" xml:space="preserve">{{databox}}

'''Aɣray''' d aseɣli n [[amgun|umgun]] Ur nekmil ara gemmu-ines deg [[isirew|yisirew]] n tyemmat, akken i d-immal afakki neɣ asali n [[tadist]] send ma ad teffeɣ ɣer tudert. 

== Anawen n uɣray ==

== Tirrayin n uɣray ==

== Amezruy  n uɣray == 

== Aɣray ɣer yiɣersiwen ==

== Imniren ==</text>
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