Vicipedia lfnwiki https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paje_xef MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.13 first-letter Media Spesial Discute Usor Usor Discute Vicipedia Vicipedia Discute Fix Fix Discute MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Model Model Discute Aida Aida Discute Categoria Categoria Discute TimedText TimedText talk Modulo Modulo Discute Event Event talk 0 693 43416 42118 2026-08-03T21:57:59Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43416 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Articles bon}} {{Popla| |nom=Y Wladfa |otra nomes= |imaje=[[File:Flag of the Welsh colony in Patagonia.svg|241px]]<br>Bandera de la colonia cimrica en Patagonia. |popla=72 685 |loca=[[Provinse Chubut]] |relijio=[[Protestantisme]] (xef metodisme e presbiterianisme) e catolicisme |lingua=[[Espaniol (lingua)|Espaniol]], cimrica de Patagonia (10%) |relatada = [[Cimricas]] }} '''Y Wladfa''' (pronunsiada /ə ˈwladva/ en cimrica, sinifiante "La Colonia"<ref>National Library of Wales' bibliography for [http://www.llgc.org.uk/index.php?id=239&L=1 'The Welsh settlement in Patagonia']</ref>) e, a veses, '''''Y Wladychfa Gymreig''''',<ref>''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140203012056/http://www.glaniad.com/index.php?lang=en&id=34192 Gwladychfa Gymreig]'', un esajo par Rev. Michael D. Jones probable scriveda en la temprana de la desenio de 1860, resomante sua revela de un Colonia Cimrica.</ref><ref>''Banner Cymru'', Mercher, Mawrth 4, 1857, Cyf. I, Rhif 1, p. 7, col. C, article sur un encontra en Caernarfon per discute la vantajes e nonvantajes de Patagonia como un loca per institui “Y Wladychfa Gymreig”; vide ance Williams, R. Bryn, ''Gwladfa Patagonia: The Welsh Colony in Patagonia 1865–1965'' (Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru, Caerdydd, 1965), plata fasante p. 33, mostrante biletas de mone primida per “Gwladychfa Gymreig Patagonia”, de cual un porta ance la marca “Y Wladychfa Gymreig”.</ref> es un colonia cimrica en Arjentina, cual ia comensa en 1865 e ia aveni xef longo la costa de la provinse Chubut en la rejion de Patagonia. En la sentenio 19 e la sentenio 20 temprana, la governa arjentina ia promove migra de Europa per popla la rejion estra Buenos Aires, e entre 1856 e 1875, 34 colonias de nasionalias diversa ia es instituida en Santa Fe e Entre Ríos. En ajunta a la colonia xef en Chubut, un colonia plu peti ia es instituida en Santa Fe per 44 cimricas ci ia abandona Chubut, e un otra grupo ia coloni Coronel Suárez en la sude de la provinse Buenos Aires<ref>{{cite book | editor= Diarmuid Ó Néill | first=Paul W. | last=Birt | year=2005 | title=Rebuilding the Celtic Languages | url= https://archive.org/details/rebuildingceltic0000unse | publisher=Y Lolfa | location=Talybont | pages=[https://archive.org/details/rebuildingceltic0000unse/page/146 146] | chapter=Welsh (in Argentina) | isbn=0-86243-723-7}}</ref> En la temprana de la sentenio 21, sirca 50 000 abitores de Patagonia ia es desendentes cimrica<ref name="WAG">{{cite web|title=Wales and Argentina|url=http://www.wales.com/en/content/cms/English/International_Links/Wales_and_the_World/wales_argentina/wales_argentina.aspx |publisher=[[Welsh Assembly Government]]|year=2008 |accessdate=24 December 2010 |work=Wales.com website }}</ref>. La comunia cimrica-arjentina es sentrida en Gaiman, Trelew e Trevelin<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfQRcvqSW7UC&pg=PA176 | first=Peter |last=Berresford Ellis |authorlink=Peter Berresford Ellis | year=1983 | title=The Celtic revolution: a study in anti-imperialism | publisher=[[Y Lolfa]] |location=Talybont | pages=175–178 |isbn=0-86243-096-8}}</ref>. Chubut estima ce la cuantia de parlores de cimrica patagonian es 1500; par contrasta otras estima ce lo es 5000<ref>''Western Mail'', 27 Dec 2004</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-29611380|title=Viewpoint: The Argentines who speak Welsh|date=16 October 2014|accessdate=16 October 2014|publisher=BBC News}}</ref>. == Istoria == === Colonistes prima (1865) === [[File:Una casa de té en Gaiman.jpg|thumb|Una casa de te cimrica en Chubut.]] [[File:20230906183052!The Rev. Michael D. Jones (1822-98).jpg|thumb|La onorable Michael D. Jones (1822–98)]] La idea de un colonia cimrica en America Sude ia es avansada par Profesor Michael D. Jones, un sermonor nonconformiste nasionaliste cimrica<ref name="Glyn Williams">{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Glyn|title=The desert and the dream: A study of Welsh colonization in Chubut 1865 – 1915|date=1975|publisher=University of Wales Press|location=Cardiff|isbn=0-7083-0579-2}}</ref>{{rp|23}} ci ia abita en Bala e ci ia recomenda crea un "Cimri peti ultra Cimri". El ia pasa alga anios en la Statos Unida, do el ia vide ce la migrores cimrica es multe rapida asorbeda en compara con otra poplas e ce frecuente los ia perde sua identia cimrica<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>{{rp|22}}. El ia proposa institui un colonia de parlores de cimrica a via de la influe de la lingua engles. El ia enscrive colonistes e ia furni finansia; Australia, Zeland Nova e an Filastin ia es considerada, ma Patagonia ia es elejeda per sua isoli e la ofre de la arjentinas de 260 km² de tera longo la rio Chubut per intercambia per abita la tera ancora no concistada de Patagonia per Arjentina<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>{{rp|23–30}}. Michael D Jones ia parla par letera con la governa arjentina sur coloni un area conoseda como Bahía Blanca do la migrores cimrica ta pote manteni sua lingua e cultur. La governa arjentina ia aseta e ia dona a los un area grande per controla. Un comite de migra cimrica ia asembla en Liverpool e ia publici un manual ''Llawlyfr y Wladfa'' per anunsia la scema per crea un colonia cimrica en Patagonia, cual ia es distribuida a tota partes de Cimri. A la fini de 1862, la capitan Love Jones-Parry e Lewis Jones (per ci Trelew ia es nomida) ia parti en dirije a Patagonia per deside esce lo es un area conveninte per la migrores cimrica. Los ia visita prima Buenos Aires, do los ia discute con la ministro de internas Guillermo Rawson e, pos un acorda, ia dirije se a plu sude. Los ia ariva a Patagonia en un barco peti nomida la ''Candelaria'', e ia es dirijeda par un tempesta a un baia cual los ia nomi "Porth Madryn", per la imobila de Jones-Parry en Cimri. La site cual ia crese sirca la loca do los ia ariva es oji nomida Puerto Madryn. En sua reveni a Cimri los ia declara ce la area es multe conveninte per coloni. La colonia european permanente en la Vale de Chubut e sua ambiente ia comensa a 28 julio 1865 cuando 153 colonistes cimrica ia ariva sur la ''Mimosa'', un cliper-de-te convertida. La custa de lua la ''Mimosa'' e converti lo per pasajores ia es 2500 paundes, e la custa de viaja de Liverpool a Patagonia ia es 12 paundes per adultes e 6 per enfantes, ma cualcun ci ia desira viaja ia es asetada an si el no ia pote paia. La colonistes de la ''Mimosa'', incluinte taliores, sapatores, carpentores, fabricores de brices e escavores, ia es composada de 56 adultes sposida, 33 nonsposida o vidua, 12 femes nonsposida (xef sores o servores de la migrores sposida) e 52 enfantes; la majoria ia veni de la rejion nomida South Wales Coalfield e de sentros urban engles<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>{{rp|35}}. On ia ave poca cultivores, cual ia es spesial nonfortunosa cuando on ia descovre ce la atraes de la area ia es tro lodada e los ia ariva a un deserto semiseca con poca comeda; on ia informa los ce la area es como la tereno basa de Cimri. En la costa on ia ave poca acua bevable, e la grupo ia comensa un pasea traversante la plano con sola un careta de jardin per porta sua posesedas. Algas ia mori e un bebe, Mary Humphries, ia nase en la pasea. John Williams ia es la sola coloniste con cualce sabes medical simple. Cuando los ia ariva a la vale de la rio Chubut, la colonia prima ia es un fortres peti cual ia deveni plu tarda la site Rawson, oji la capital de la provinse Chubut<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>{{rp|45}}. Lo ia es nomida ''Yr Hen Amddiffynfa'' (La Fortres Vea)<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>{{rp|44}}. La casas prima, construida de tera, ia es destruida per un deluvia subita en 1865, e casas nova de cualia superior ia es construida per recambia los<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>. La inondas ia destrui ance la cultivas de patatas e mais<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>{{rp|52}}. La pluve en la area ia es multe min ca los colonistes ia espeta, gidante a falis de cultivas. === Solidi === [[File:Welshpeople.jpg|thumb|Tradisiones cimrica en Rawson.]][[File:Y Drafod.jpg|thumb|Y Drafod]] La colonistes ia contata prima la popla tehuelche local a un anio pos sua ariva. Pos alga anios temprana difisil de suspeta e alga violentia, la popla tehuelche ia institui un relata cortes con la cimricas e ia aida la colonistes a survive la manca de comeda temprana. La colonistes, gidada par Aaron Jenkis (de ci sua sposa Rachel ia es la prima ci ia leva la idea de usa sistemosa canales de iriga), ia institui pronto la sistem prima de iriga fundida en la rio Chubut (en cimrica ''Afon Camwy''), irigante un area de 5 o 6 cilometres a cada lado de la estende de 80 cilometres de la rio, e creante la teras de trigo la plu fertil de Arjentina. En la comensa la colonistes ia es autonom, e tota la omes e femes con 18 anios o plu ia ave la direto de vota. En 1885 la produi de trigo ia ateni 6000 tones, e la trigo produida par la colonia ia gania la medalia de oro en esibis internasional en Paris e Chicago. [[File:Harvest time in Patagonia.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Tempo de recolie en Patagonia, s 1880.]] La boca de la rio Chubut ia es difisil per naviga, esente profonda e con bancos de arena nonstable, e on ia deside ce un ferovia es nesesada per lia la vale basa de Chubut con Puerto Madryn (orijinal Porth Madryn) en la Golfo Nuevo en la parte sude de la Peninsola de Valdés<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>{{rp|80–81}}. Lewis Jones ia es la forsa propulsante, e en 1884 la Congresa de Arjentina ia autori la construi de un ferovia, la Ferrocarril Central de Chubut, par Lewis Jones e Compania. Recolie reservas per la projeta ia es difisil, donce Lewis Jones ia vade a la Rena Unida per xerca suporta finansial, do el ia enscrive la aida de Asahel P. Bell, un injenior. La labora sur la ferovia ia comensa en 1886, aidada par la ariva de 465 plu colonistes cimrica en ''Vesta'', un barcon de vapor. La site cual ia apare en la stasion final ia es nomida Trelew (Site de Trelew) en onora de Lewis Jones<ref name="Glyn Williams"/>{{rp|86}}. La site ia crese rapida e en 1888 ia deveni la xeferia de la "Compañía Mercantil del Chubut". En janero 1868, la jornal prima de la colonia ''Y Brut'' (La Nara), ia apare; ''Ein Breiniad'' (Nosa Vantaje) ia segue en 1878. Los no ia vive longa, con 6 sola numeros de cada titulo. Lewis Jones ia fundi ''Y Dravod'' (Discute) en 1891, e esta ia dura plu longa: un numero semanal ia es produida asta 1961<ref name=NLW>{{cite web|title=The Welsh colony in Patagonia|url=https://www.llgc.org.uk/collections/learn-more/printedmaterials/the-press-of-the-welsh-colony-in-patagonia/|website=Collections: Printed materials|publisher=The National Library of Wales|accessdate=19 June 2015|date=2015}}</ref>. === Espande a la Andes === [[File:GaimanWelshSchool.JPG|thumb|Un scola cimrica en Patagonia.]] En la media de la desenio de 1880, la plu de la tera de cultiva en la vale basa de Chubut ia es reclamada, e la colonistes ia organiza alga misiones per esplora otra partes de Patagonia per trova tera cultivable. En 1885 la cimricas ia demanda a la governor de Chubut, Luis Jorge Fontana, ce el permete organiza un mision per esplora la parte de la Andes de Chubut. Fontana ia deside acompania personal la mision. A la fini de novembre 1885, los ia ateni un area fertil cual la cimricas ia nomi "Cwm Hyfryd" (Vale Plasente). En 1888, esta loca en la pede de la Andes ia deveni un plu colonia cimrica<ref name=NLW/>, nomida en espaniol "Colonia 16 de Octubre". Cuando la cuantia de abitores ia crese asi, la sites de Esquel e Trevelin ia es fundida. Esta area ia deveni un tema de disputa entre Arjentina e Txile. En la comensa la frontera ia es definida par un linia liante la montes la plu alta de la area, ma plu tarda lo ia deveni clar ce esta linia no es la mesma como la linia separante la basines idrografial, car alga de la rios de la area flue a ueste. Arjentina e Txile ia acorda ce la Rena Unida debe arbitra e on ia solisita la opinas de la colonistes cimrica. En 1902, an con un ofre par Txile de un lega de tera per cada familia, los ia vota per resta en Arjentina. === Problemes en la Vale basa de Chubut, 1899-1915 === Multe dana ia es causada par inondas en la desenios de 1890 e 1900, cual ia ruina Rawson e (a grado min grande) Gaiman, ma Trelew no ia es afetada. On ia ave ance un desacorda entre la colonistes e la governa arjentina, cual ia introdui enscrive militar e ia insiste ce omes de eda militar es instruida a soldis. Esta ia es contra la prinsipes sabadiste de la colonistes e ia causa multa odia; la problem ia es solveda par la interveni de Julio Argentino Roca, la presidente arjentin. Esta elementos, e la manca de teras cultivable nonreclamada, ia causa ce 234 ia parti per Liverpool, embarcante la ''Orissa'' a 14 maio 1902; a pos, 208 de los ia viaja a Canada, arivante a Saltcoats, Saskatchewan, a fini de junio<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/ecp/content/welsh.html |title=Multicultural Canada — Welsh |accessdate=2007-07-01 |last=Williams |first=Colin H. |work=Multicultural Canada Project, Simon Fraser University |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070626222921/http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/ecp/content/welsh.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-06-26}}</ref> an si alga de esta familias ia reveni plu tarda a Chubut. Alga otra colonistes ia move a la provinse Rio Negro en Arjentina. Multe de los ci ia lasa Chubut ia es arivores tarda ci no ia oteni la posese de tera, e plu migrores de Cimri ia sustitui per los. A la fini de la sentenio 19, 4000 persones de orijina cimrica ia abita en Chubut. La migra sustantial ultima de Cimri ia aveni corta ante la Gera Mundal Prima, cual ia preveni plu migras. Sirca 1000 migrores cimrica ia ariva a Patagonia entre 1886 e 1911, e sur funda de esta e otra statisticas, Glyn Williams ia estima ce en soma cisa no plu ca 2300 migrores cimrica ia migra direta a Patagonia<ref>{{cite journal | author=Glyn Williams | year=1969 | title=The Welsh in Patagonia: A Demographic Note | journal=Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap | pages=238 }}</ref>. === Developa tarda === Pos alga tempo la colonia ia mostra se como susedosa, an si migras pos 1914 ia veni xef de Italia e de paises de la sude de Europa; per esta razona la cimricas ia deveni un minoria. Como ance la sistem de iriga, la crea de un Sosia Cooperante (Compañía Mercantil de Chubut) ia es esensal. La Sosia ia comersia per la colonistes en Buenos Aires e ia ata como un banco con 14 ramos. La sosia fundida en eglesetas ia es importante, asentuante la suporta mutua e aida, ativias sosial e scemas de asecura. Par contrata, la Sosia Cooperante ia colasa en la Depresa Grande de la desenio de 1930, e multe ia perde sua reservas. La construi de un parario en la rio Chubut a 120 km a ueste de Trelwe, induida a 19 april 1963, ia redui la risca de inonda en la Vale Basa de Chubut. La cimricas ia lasa sua marca a la vista, con molines de venta e eglesetas tra la provinse, incluinte la Egleseta Salem e la Salon San David en Trelw, un atenta de reprodui la Catedral de San David en Pembrokeshire. Multe de la colonias en la vale ave nomes cimrica. [[File:Capel Bethel.jpg|thumb|Un egleseta cimrica en Gaiman.]] Tra la anios la usa de la lingua cimrica ia declina, e on ia ave poca contata entre Cimri e Chubut per multe anios pos 1914. La cosas ia comensa cambia cuando un cuantia grande de cimricas ia visita Patagonia en 1965 per selebra la aniversario 100 de la colonia. De alora la cuantia de visitores de Cimri ia crese. Enseniores ia es enviada per manteni la lingua vivente, e alga prestijia sosial esiste en parla la lingua — an entre persones sin asendentes cimrica. On ave ancora ativias cultural importante, incluinte tes cimrica e poesia en casa de te a lado la rio en Gaiman e Dolavon. En 2006, la lia entre la Vale de Chubut e Cimri ia es sulinida, a esta ves en un contesto de sporte. La prima max de un turi de du maxes Test a Arjentina par la ecipo de rugbi nasional cimrica ia es juada en Puerto Madryn, ganiada con 27–25 par Arjentina. La imnos de ambos paises ia es cantada par la cimrica-arjentina Billy Hughes. Un otra esemplo de la lia entre Arjentina e Cimri es ce la Sentro Cimrica en Londres ia es tra multe anios la loca xef per dansa tango arjentina. La colonias xef en la area es Puerto Madryn, Trevelin, Rawson, Trelew, Dolavon e Gaiman. == Nomes en cimrica per locas arjentinian == [[File:Beach at Puerto Madryn.jpg|thumb|La plaia en Puerto Madryn.]] [[File:Patagonia Anthem.JPG|thumb|Un varia de la imno nasional cimrica per la cimricas de Patagonia. Lewis Evans (Meudwy), 1875.]] {| class="wikitable sortable" ! [[Espaniol (lingua)|Espaniol]] ! [[Cimrica (lingua)|Cimrica]] ! la sinfia de la cimrica |- | [[Argentina]] |data-sort-value="Ariannin"| Yr Ariannin |data-sort-value="Argentine"| la arjentin |- | [[Villa La Angostura]] | Lle Cul | loca streta |- | [[Arroyo Pescado]] | Nant y Pysgod | la riete de la pexes |- | [[Colonia 16 de Octubre]] | Cwm Hyfryd / Bro Hydref | vale bela / rejion de octobre |- | [[Fuerte Aventura]] | Caer Antur | la fortres de aventura |- | [[Paso de Indios]] | Rhyd yr Indiaid | la vado de la nativas |- |data-sort-value="Plumas"| [[Las Plumas]] | Dôl y Plu | la prado de la plumas |- | [[Puerto Madryn]] | Porth Madryn | la porto de Madryn |- | [[Rawson, Chubut|Rawson]] | Trerawson | la vila de Rawson |- | [[Chubut River|Río Chubut]] (de la lingua tehuelche 'Chupat', sinifiante 'briliante') | Afon Camwy | rio curvida |- | [[Río Corrintos]] | Aber Gyrants | la rio de corentes |- | [[Valle de los Mártires]] | Dyffryn y Merthyron | la vale de la martires |- | [[Valle Frío]] | Dyffryn Oer | vale fria |- | [[Trelew]] | Tre Lew(is) | la vila de Lew(is) |- | [[Dolavon]] | Dôl Afon | la prado de rio |- | [[Trevelin]] | Tre Felin | la vila de molin |} == Mapa == [[File:Colonias cimrica en Chubut.png|497px|center|thumb|Loca de la colonias cimrica en la provinse Chubut (Arjentina).]]<br> == Referes == <div style="height: 200px; overflow:auto; border: 1px solid gray; padding-right: 12px; background-color: #EEEEEE; "> <references/> </div> == Bibliografia == *''[[Western Mail (Wales)|Western Mail]]'' (Cardiff, Wales). 27 Dec 2004. [http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/tm_objectid=15015947&method=full&siteid=50082&headline=hola--plans-for-patagonia-welsh-to-watch-gente-de-valle-and-other-s4c-shows-to-improve-their-language-skills-name_page.html Patagonia Welsh to watch S4C shows.] *{{cite book | author=Glyn Williams | title=The desert and the dream: a study of Welsh colonization in Chubut 1865–1915 | publisher=University of Wales Press | year=1975 | isbn=0-7083-0579-2 }} *{{cite book | author=R. Bryn Williams | title=Gwladfa Patagonia 1865–2000 = La colonia galesa de Patagonia 1865–2000 = The Welsh colony in Patagonia 1865–2000 | url=https://archive.org/details/gwladfapatagonia0000will | publisher=Gwasg Carreg Gwalch | year=2000 | isbn=0-86381-653-3 }} == Lias esterna == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181023152730/http://www.project-hiraeth.com/ Project-Hiraeth – Documeti la naras de la colonia cimrica en Patagonia, Arjentina, tra filma, testo e imaje.] * [http://www.glaniad.com/ Glaniad – Un paje ueb cual nara la istoria de la colonias cimrica en Patagonia] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1163503 Y Wladfa — La cimrica en Patagonia] sur h2g2 * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/migration/pages/patagonia.shtml BBC Wales History sur la migra cimrica a Patagonia] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170917174822/http://andesceltig.com/ Andes Celtig] Un paje ueb trilingual con informa, mapas e fotos de colonias cimrica en Patagonia * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120426062713/http://www.teithiautango.co.uk/index.php/en_US/home/argentina Teithiau Tango] Un paje ueb bilingual con la istoria cimrica de Patagonia. * ''[http://aplaceofmeadowsandtalltrees.blogspot.co.uk/ A Place of Meadows and Tall Trees]'': un novela fundida sur la prima anios de la coloni de Patagonia par Clare Dudman. * [http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29611380 BBC News: Viewpoint – La arjentinas ci parla cimrica] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094157/http://www.culture24.org.uk/history-and-heritage/art531163-a-song-for-a-new-welsh-nation-patagonian-welsh-national-anthem-discovered-in-19th-century-pamphlet Imno nasional cimrica patagonian descovreda en un libreto de la sentenio 19] [[Category:Arjentina]] 7k9mb9s3w4wjo6gfbmztgixsdes1j0z 0 987 43402 23326 2026-08-03T21:16:40Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43402 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Macule and Patch.svg|thumb|Manxeta e manxa]] [[File:Papule and Plaque.svg|thumb|Papula e placa]] [[File:Nodules.svg|thumb|Nodulos]] [[File:Vesicles and Bulla.svg|thumb|Vesicula e bula]] [[File:Ulcers, fissures, and erosions.svg|thumb|Ulsera, fesur, e erode]] Un '''problem cutanea''' es un problem medical cual afeta la sistem de pel (la sistem cual inclui la pelo, ungias, musculos e glandes relatada). Esta sistem funsiona xef como un ostaculo contra la ambiente esterna. == Maladias == Maladias de la pel inclui [[infetas de pel]] e [[neoplasmas de pel]] (incluinte canser de pel). Per plu, vade a esta articles. == Lesiones == === Lesiones prima === * [[Manxa]]: un cambia de color de la pel, sin desformi clar. * [[Papula]]: un bulteta, tipal un parte de un eruta inflamada de la pel. * [[Placa]]: un lesion surfasal composada de conflue de multe peti papulas. * [[Nodulo]]: un infla peti o un agrega de selulas en la corpo, tipal nonormal. * [[Tumor]]: un infla de un parte de corpo, jeneral sin inflama, causada par un crese nonormal de texeda. * [[Bula]]: un pox peti de fluida (limfa, sero, sangue, o pus su la stratos alta de la pel * [[Vesicula]]: un bula peti, un eleva epidermal plenida con aira o licuida, min ca 5–10 mm de diametre. * [[Pustula]]: un bula peti sur la pel cual conteni pus. * [[Siste]]: un caveta nonormal conteninte un secrete licuida. * [[Eritema]]: rojin de la pel o membranas mucosa, causada par un iperemia en capilares surfasal * [[Erode]]: un abri de la pel con perde noncompleta de la epiderma, moida, limitada, e tipal depresada. * [[Ulcera]]: dana sur la pel o membrana mucosa, con desintegra de la texeda. * [[Fesur]]: un abri lineal de la pel, tipal profunda. === Lesiones du === * [[Crosta]]: sebo, pus o sangue seca, usual miscada con detrito epitelial e a veses baterial. * [[Atrofia]]: refere a perde de texeda, e pote es epidermal o sucutanea. * [[Scama]]: seca o grasosa masas de laminida ceratin, simil a la scamas de un retil. * [[Ceratose]]: un crese de ceratin sur la pel o membranas mucosa. * [[Escara]]: un peso de texeda necrosica cual ia es perdeda de la surfas de la pel. * [[Ragade]]: fesures o sicatrises linial en la pel, spesial a la angulos de la boca e nas. * [[Sicatris]]: pel normal pos dana, la resulta de la repara de pel. * [[Contusa]]: un tipo de ematoma de texeda en cual capilares surfasal es danada, tipal de un colpa. {| |- | [[File:Inflamed epidermal inclusion cyst.jpg|thumb|siste ]] || [[File:Actinic keratosis on the lip.JPEG|thumb|ceratose]] || [[File:Psoriasis2010a.JPG|thumb|scama (psoriase)]] |- | [[File:Angular Cheilitis.JPG|thumb|ragade]] || [[File:Erythema migrans - erythematous rash in Lyme disease - PHIL 9875.jpg|thumb| eritema (maladia de Lyme)]] || [[File:Aphtha2.jpg|thumb|erode]] |- | [[File:Pferdekuss.jpg|thumb|contusa]] || [[File:Scab.jpg|thumb|sicatris]] || [[File:8-day-old-3rd-degree-burn.jpg|thumb|escar (lesion de arde grado tre)]] |} == Bibliografia == * {{cite book |last=Miller|first=Jeffrey H.|last2=Marks|first2=James G. |title=Lookingbill and Marks' Principles of Dermatology |url=https://archive.org/details/lookingbillmarks0000mark_4thed|publisher=Saunders |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=1-4160-3185-5 |oclc= |accessdate=}} * Géraut C, Frimat P. ''Dermatoses des utilisateurs de ciments''; Arch Mal Prof 1993 ; 54 : 312-314 *{{cite book||last=Paolo Fabbri, Carlo Gelmetti, Giorgio Leigheb|title=Manuale di dermatologia medica|publisher=Elsevier Masson|city=Torino - Milano|year=2010|isbn=978-88-214-3122-7}} [[Categoria:Maladias]] [[Categoria:Medica]] [[Categoria:Problemes cutanea‎]] gpo1x0qsmh7u83ywwpugzhyc8iu6fbi 0 1184 43398 43184 2026-08-03T21:02:28Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43398 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Articles bon}} [[File:Aristotle, Metaphysics, Incunabulum.jpg|thumb|alt=Incunabulum showing the beginning of Aristotle's ''Metaphysics''| La comensa de la [[Metafisica (Aristotele)|''Metafisica'' de Aristotele]], un de la testos fundal de la campo]] '''Metafisica''' es la ramo de [[filosofia]] cual esamina la strutur fundal de [[realia]]. Lo es frecuente nomida la '''filosofia prima''', cual sujesta ce lo es plu fundal ca otra formas de investiga filosofial. Metafisica es tradisional videda como la studia de cualias de la mundo nondependente de la mente, ma alga teoristes moderna comprende lo como un investiga de la scemas consetal cual suporta la pensa e esperia umana. Multe temas jeneral e astrata parteni a la sujeto de metafisica. Lo investiga la natur de es, la cualias cual tota cosas ave en comun, e sua divide en categorias. Un contrasta influente es entre [[Spesifiada|spesifiadas]], cual es cosas individua e unica, como un poma spesifiada, e [[Universal (metafisica)|universales]], cual es cosas jeneral e repetable cual distingui spesifiadas, como la color roja. [[Metafisica modal]] esamina cual lo sinifia ce alga cosa es posible o nesesada. La [[Filosfia de spasio e tempo|natur de spasio, tempo e cambia]] es ance discuteda par metafisicistes. Un tema prosima relatada conserna la esense de [[causalia]] e sua relata a la [[Lege siensal|leges de natur]]. Otra temas inclui como mente e materia es relatada, esce tota en la mundo es [[Determinisme|predeterminada]], e esce on ave [[volunta libre]]. Metafisicistes emplea metodos variosa per condui sua investiga. Tradisional, los depende de [[Intui|intuis]] razonal e [[Razona lojical|razona]] [[Astrati|astrata]] ma plu resente inclui ance prosimis [[Demostra empirical|empirical]] asosiada con teorias siensal. Par causa de la natur astrata de sua tema, metafisica reseta criticas cual espresa duta sur la fidablia de sua metodos e la sinifia de sua teorias. Metafisica es pertinente a multe campos de investiga cual depende frecuente nondireta de consetas e suposas metafisical. La [[Istoria de metafisica|orijina de metafisica]] es en la [[eda antica]] con divinas sur la natur de realia e la universo, como trovada en la [[Upanixades]] en [[Barat antica]], dauisme en [[Istoria de Xina|Xina antica]], e [[filosofia presocratiste]] en [[Elas antica]]. La [[Eda medieval|periodo medieval]] seguente en la Ueste ia discute la [[Problem de universales|natur de universales]] como formulada par la filosofistes elinica antica [[Platon]] e [[Aristotele]]. La [[Eda moderna|periodo moderna]] ia vide la emerji de sistemes variosa e completa de metafisica, multe de cual ia aseta [[idealisme]]. En la sentenio 20 e la periodo [[Filosofia contempora|contempora]], un "revolta contra idealisme" ia aveni, e metafisica ia es a un ves declarada como sin sinifia, alora reviveda con criticas variosa de teorias plu temprana e prosimis nova a la investiga metafisical. == Definis == Metafisica es la studia de la cualias la plu jeneral de realia, cual inclui [[Esiste (state)|esiste]], [[Ojeto|ojetos]] e sua [[Cualia (filosofia)|cualias]], posiblia e nesesadia, [[spasio]] e [[tempo]], cambia, [[causalia]], e la relata entre [[materia]] e [[mente]]. Lo es un de la ramos la plu vea de [[filosofia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=1–3}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|loc=§ 0.3 An Overview of Metaphysics and Other Areas of Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ What Is an Introduction?}} }}</ref> La natur esata de metafisica es disputada e sua defini ia cambia en la curso de istoria. Alga prosimis vide metafisica como un campo unida e dona un defini vasta par comprende lo como la studia de "demandas fundal sur la natur de realia" o como un investiga de la [[Esense|esenses]] de cosas. Un otra prosimi duta ce la areas diferente de metafisica comparti un colie de cualias fundal e furni en loca un defini refinada par lista tota la temas xef investigada par metafisicistes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|loc=§ 0.3 An Overview of Metaphysics and Other Areas of Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10 What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=9–10}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Alga definis es descrivente par furni un conta de cual metafisicistes fa e otras es norminte e prescrive cual metafisicistes debe fa.<ref>{{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|p=2}}</ref> Du definis istorial influente en [[filosofia antica]] e [[filosofia medieval|medieval]] comprende metafisica como la siensa de la [[causa prima|causas prima]] e como la studia de es ''qua'' es, per dise, la tema de cual tota cosas ave en comun e a cual categorias fundal los parteni. En la periodo moderna, la estende de metafisica ia estende per covre temas como la distingui entre mente e corpo e [[volunta libre]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Alga filosofistes segue [[Aristotele]] en descrive metafisica como "filosofia prima", cual sujesta ce lo es la investiga la plu fundal e ce tota otra ramos de filosofia depende de lo en alga modo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=8–10}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=2–3}} }}</ref>{{efn|Per esemplo, la problem metafisical de causalia es pertinente a ambos [[epistemolojia]], como un fator envolveda en sabe persepal, e [[etica]], en relata con respondosia moral per la resultas causada par la [[Ata (filosofia)|atas]] de un person.<ref>{{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=8–10}}</ref>}} [[File:Kant gemaelde 1.jpg|thumb|alt=Depinta de Immanuel Kant|[[Immanuel Kant]] ia conseta metafisica critica como la studia de la prinsipes cual suporta tota pensa e esperia umana.]] Metafisica es tradisional comprendeda como un studia de cualias de realia nondependente de la mente. Comensante con la [[filosofia critica]] de [[Immanuel Kant]], un conseta alternativa ia gania importa cual foca a scemas consetal en loca de realia esterna. Kant distingui metafisica transendente, cual atenta descrive la cualias ojetal de realia ultra esperia sensal, de metafisica critica, cual descrive la aspetas e prinsipes cual suporta tota pensa e esperia umana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=1–2, 6}} | {{harvnb|Bengtson|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pUHvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 35]}} | {{harvnb|Wood|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i7PG-Vk824UC&pg=PA354 354]}} }}</ref> En relata con la analise de scemas consetal, la filosofiste [[P. F. Strawson]] contrasta metafisica descrivente, cual espresa scemas consetal comun usada per comprende la mundo, con metafisica revisante, cual atenta produi scemas consetal plu bon.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1967|pp=105–106}} | {{harvnb|Haack|1979|pp=361–362}} | {{harvnb|MacDonald|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JjRG56XeyIcC&pg=PA21 21]}} }}</ref> Metafisica difere de la siensas individua par studia aspetas multe jeneral e astrata de realia. La siensas individua, en contrasta, esamina cualias plu spesifiada e concreta e restrinje se a alga clases de cosas, como la foca a cosas fisical en [[fisica]], cosas vivente en [[biolojia]], e cultures en [[antropolojia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10 What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|p=xiii}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=206–207}} }}</ref> Lo es disputada a cual grado esta contrasta es un dicotomia sever en loca de un continua gradal.<ref>{{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=203–205}}</ref> Filosofistes trata metafisica es nomida ''metafisicistes''. Estra discutes academial, la terma ''metafisica'' es a veses usada per sinifia la studia de fenomenos [[oculta]] e [[paranormal]], como cura metafisical, [[aura]]s, e la [[potia de piramides]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|p=1}} | {{harvnb|Turner|1911|loc=[[:s:Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Metaphysics]]}} }}</ref> === Etimolojia === La parola "metafisica" ave sua orijina en la parolas elinica antica ''metá'' (μετά, sinifiante 'pos', 'supra', e 'ultra') e ''phusiká'' (φυσικά) como un forma corta de ta metá ta phusiká: pd, lo cual veni pos la fisica. Esta es frecuente interpreteda per sinifia ce metafisica discute temas cual, par causa de sua jeneralia e completia, es ultra la rena de fisica e sua foca a oserva empirical.<ref name=":0"/> Metafisica ia oteni sua nom par un asidente istorial<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pols|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sv84Gi7C9jgC&pg=PA203 203]}} | {{harvnb|White|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dCWEDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT33 33]}} | {{harvnb|Lowe|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Las3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}} }}</ref> cuando la [[Metafisica (Aristotele)|libro de Aristotele]] sur esta tema ia es publicida. Aristotele no ia usa la terma metafisica ma lo es posible ce sua editor (probable [[Andronico de Rodos]]) ia crea lo per sua titulo per indica ce on debe studia esta libro pos la libro de Aristotele publicida sur [[Fisica (Aristotele)|fisica]]: leteral "pos fisica".<ref name=":0">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|pp=291, 351}} | {{harvnb|Cohen|Reeve|2021|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10. What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Veldsman|2017|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Heidegger|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqXDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 39]}} | {{harvnb|Politis|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d-GjOoZNnGsC&pg=PA1 1]}} }}</ref> === Ramos === La natur de metafisica pote ance es descriveda en relata con sua ramos xef. Un divide influente de la [[filosofia moderna]] temprana distingui entre metafisica jeneral e metafisica spesial o spesifiada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=3–5, 10}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Craig|1998}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> Metafisica jeneral, ance nomida ''[[ontolojia]]'',{{efn|La terma ''[[ontolojia]]'' es a veses ance usada como un sinonim de metafisica ''in toto''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2016|p=166}}</ref>}} adota la perspetiva la plu larga e studia la aspetas la plu fundal de es. Lo investiga la cualias cual tota cosas ave en comun e como cosas pote es divideda en categorias diferente. Categorias es la tipos la plu jeneral, como sustantia, cualia, [[relata (filosofia)|relata]], e [[fato]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=10–14}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=The Categories Of Being}} }}</ref> Ontolojistes rexerca cual categorias esiste, como los depende de lunlotra, e como los formi un sistem de categorias cual furni un clasi incluinte de tota cosas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hofweber|2023|loc=§ 3. Ontology}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=The Categories Of Being}} | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Metafisica spesial considera es de perspetivas plu streta e es divideda en sucampos fundida sur la perspetiva cual los prende. [[Cosmolojia]] metafisical esamina cosas cambiable e investiga como los es liada per formi un [[mundo]] como un totalia de cosas cual estende tra spasio e tempo.<ref name="Loux 2017 3–5, 10">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=3–5, 10}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Psicolojia razonal limita se a esplora fundas e problemes metafisical consernante la mente, como sua relata con materia e la libria de la volunta. Teolojia natural studia la divin e sua rol como la causa prima.<ref name="Loux 2017 3–5, 10"/> La estende de metafisica spesial covre partal sujetos de otra disiplinas filosofial e lo es frecuente nonclar esce un tema parteni a lo en loca de disiplinas como [[filosofia de mente]] e [[teolojia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=10–11}} | {{harvnb|Craig|1998|loc=§ 2. Specific Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Metafisica aplicada es un sucampo joven. Lo parteni a [[filosofia aplicada]] e studia la aplicas de metafisica, ambos en filosofia e otra campos de investiga. En [[etica]] e [[filosofia de relijio]], lo conserna temas como la funda ontolojial de afirmas moral e dotrinas relijiosa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hawley|2016|pp=165–168}} | {{harvnb|Brumbaugh|1966|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20124133 647–648]}} }}</ref> Aplicas estra filosofia inclui la usa de ontolojias en [[inteleto artifis]], [[economia]], e [[sosiolojia]] per clasi cosas<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2016|pp=168–169, 171–172}}</ref> e ance demandas en [[psiciatria]] e [[medica]] sur la state metafisical de [[maladia]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2016|p=174}}</ref> '''Metametafisica'''{{efn|Alga filosofistes usa la terma ''[[metaontolojia]]'' como un sinonim ma otras descrive metaontolojia como un sucampo de metametafisica.<ref>{{harvnb|Tahko|2018|loc=Lead Section}}</ref>}} es la [[metateoria]] de metafisica e investiga la natur e metodos de metafisica. Lo esamina ance como metafisica difere de otra campos filosofial e siensal e como lo es pertinente a los. An con ce la discutes de sua temas ave un istoria longa en metafisica, lo ia developa sola resente a un campo sistemosa de investiga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|loc=§ 7 Meta-metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2018|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> == Temas == === Esiste e categorias === Metafisicistes frecuente vide esiste o es como un de la consetas la plu fundal e jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-828 277]}} | {{harvnb|White|2019|pp=135, 200}} | {{harvnb|Gibson|1998|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Jubien|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uoCh8mpbZO4C&pg=PA47 47–48]}} | {{harvnb|Vallicella|2010|p=16}} }}</ref> Esiste sinifia formi un parte de [[realia]] e esiste marca la difere entre cosas real e los imajinal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-828 277]}} | {{harvnb|AHD staff|2022}} }}</ref> Seguente la vista ortodox, esiste es un cualia de ordina du o un cualia de cualias: si un cosa esiste alora sua cualias es instansida.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Casati|Fujikawa|loc=Lead Section, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification}} |2={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095804522;jsessionid=AEB41DBFF0B3EBCDCCB8A1E0DAFD4EB0 existence]}} }}</ref> Un vista diferente afirma ce esiste es un cualia de ordina un, sinifiante ce lo es simil a otra cualias de cosas, como forma o grandia.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Casati|Fujikawa|loc=Lead Section, §2. Existence as a First-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification}} |2={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095804522;jsessionid=AEB41DBFF0B3EBCDCCB8A1E0DAFD4EB0 existence]}} }}</ref> Esce tota cosas ave esta cualia es controversa. Seguente [[Alexius Meinong]], on ave [[ojeto nonesistente|ojetos nonesistente]], incluinte ojetos mera posible como [[Papa Natal]] e [[Pegaso]].<ref name="auto">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Van Inwagen|2023}} |2={{harvnb|Nelson|2022|loc=Lead Section, §2. Meinongianism}} |3={{harvnb|Jubien|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uoCh8mpbZO4C&pg=PA49 49]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Seguente Meinong, esiste no es un sinonim de es: tota cosas ave es ma no tota cosas ave esiste.<ref name="auto"/>}} Un demanda relatada es esce esiste es la mesma per tota cosas o esce on ave modos o grados diferente de esiste.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Casati|Fujikawa|loc=Lead Section, §3. How Many Ways of Being Existent?}} |2={{harvnb|McDaniel|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8F0vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 77]}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, Platon ia crede ce la [[teoria de formas|formas platonica]], cual es ideas perfeta e nonmutable, ave un grado plu alta de esiste ca materia, cual es capas sola de nonperfeta refleta la formas platonica.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Poidevin|Peter|Andrew|Cameron|2009|pp=227–228}} |2={{harvnb|Van Inwagen|2023}} }}</ref> Un otra conserna clavin en metafisica es la divide de cosas en grupos diferente fundida sur cualias fundal cual los ave en comun. Teorias de categorias furni un sistem de la tipos la plu fundal o la jeneros la plu alta de es par crea un lista completa de tota.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=11–12}} | {{harvnb|Wardy|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Un de la teorias la plu temprana de categorias ia es furnida par Aristotele, ci ia proposa un [[Categorias (Aristotele)|sistem de 10 categorias]]. [[Sustantia (filosofia)|Sustantias]] (pe om e cavalo), es la categoria la plu importante car tota otra categorias como [[cuantia]] (pe cuatro), [[cualia]] (pe blanca), e loca (pe en Atina) es diseda de sustantias e depende de los.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=§ 1.1 Aristotelian Realism}} | {{harvnb|Studtmann|2024|loc=§ 2. The Ten-Fold Division}} | {{harvnb|Wardy|1998|loc=§ 1. Categories in Aristotle}} }}</ref> Kant ia comprende categorias como prinsipes fundal cual suporta la comprende umana e ia developa un [[Categoria (Kant)|sistem de 12 categorias]], cual es divideda en la cuatro clases cuantia, cualia, relata, e modalia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=§ 1.2 Kantian Conceptualism}} | {{harvnb|Wardy|1998|loc=§ 1. Categories in Kant}} }}</ref> Teorias plu resente de categorias ia es proposada par [[C. S. Peirce]], [[Edmund Husserl]], [[Samuel Alexander]], [[Roderick Chisholm]], e [[E. J. Lowe]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=§ 1.3 Husserlian Descriptivism, § 1.4 Contemporary Category Systems}} | {{harvnb|Grim|Rescher|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KgPPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT39 39]}} }}</ref> Multe filosofistes depende de la contrasta entre [[astrata e contreta|ojetos concreta e astrata]]. Seguente un vista comun, ojetos concreta, como rocas, arbores, e umanas, esiste en spasio e tempo, esperia cambias, e afeta lunlotra como causa e efeto, ma ojetos astrata, como [[numero]]s e [[colie]]s, esiste estra spasio e tempo, es nonmutable, e no entra a relatas causal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Falguera|Martínez-Vidal|Rosen|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Introduction, § 3.5 The Ways of Negation}} | {{harvnb|Erasmus|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ze5FDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 93]}} | {{harvnb|Macnamara|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pvKD5fvyLXIC&pg=PA94 94]}} }}</ref> === Spesifiadas === [[Spesifiada]]s es cosas individua e inclui ambos ojetos concreta, como Aristotele, la Tore Eiffel, o un poma spesifiada, e ojetos astrata, como la numero 2 o un colie spesifiada en matematica. Los es cosas unica e nonrepetable e contrasta con [[universal]]es, como la color roja, cual pote a la mesma tempo esiste en alga locas e marca alga spesifiadas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=683}} | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section, § 1a. The Nature of Universals}} | {{harvnb|Bigelow|1998|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=§ Particularity and Individuality}} | {{harvnb|Maurin|2019|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Un vista vasta pensada es ce spesifiadas instansi universales ma no es se mesma instansida par alga cosa, sinifiante ce los esiste en se mesma ma universales esiste en alga cosa. La teoria de sustrato analise spesifiadas como un sustrato, ance nomida un spesifiada nuda, con alga cualias. La sustrato dona individualia a la spesifiada ma la cualias espresa sua cualias cualial o como lo es. Esta prosimi es rejetada par [[teoria de faxos|teoristes de faxos]], ci afirma ce spesifiadas es sola faxos de cualias sin un sustrato fundal. Alga teoristes de faxos inclui en la faxo un esense individua, nomida ''[[haecceitas]]'', per serti ce cada faxo es unica. Un otra proposa per spesifiadas concreta es ce los es individualida par sua loca en spasiotempo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maurin|2019|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=§ Particularity and Individuality}} | {{harvnb|Bigelow|1998|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Bundles of Properties}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=82–83}} }}</ref> Spesifiadas concreta encontrada en la vive dial, como rocas, tables, e organismes, es cosas complicada composada de partes variosa. Per esemplo, un table es composada de un surfas de table e gamas, cada de cual es se mesma composada de spesifiadas nonumerable. La relata entre partes e interas es studiada par [[merolojia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=250–251}} | {{harvnb|Varzi|2019|loc=Lead Section, § 1. 'Part' and Parthood}} | {{harvnb|Cornell|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Special Composition Question}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=19–21}} }}</ref> La problem de la multe es sur cual grupos de cosas formi interas merolojial, per esemplo, esce un particula de polvo sur la surfas de table formi un parte de la table. Seguente universalistes merolojial, cada colie de cosas formi un intera, sinifiante ce la partes de la table sin la particula de polvo formi un intera ma los con lo formi un intera du. Moderadistes merolojial crede ce alga nesesadas debe es sasiada per un grupo de cosas composa un intera, per esemplo, ce la cosas toca lunlotra. [[nihilisme meolojial|Nihilistes merolojial]] rejeta la idea ce on ave cualce interas. Seguente los, on ave no tables e sejas ma sola spesifiadas cual es ordinada en modo de table e en modo de seja.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=82–83}} | {{harvnb|Cornell|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Special Composition Question}} | {{harvnb|Brenner|2015|p=1295}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=19–21, 23–24, 32–33}} }}</ref> Un problem merolojial relatada es esce on ave cosas simple cual ave no partes, como [[atomisme|atomistes]] afirma, o no, como teoristes de continua argumenta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berryman|2022|loc=§ 2.6 Atomism and Particle Theories in Ancient Greek Sciences}} | {{harvnb|Varzi|2019|loc=§ 3.4 Atomism, Gunk, and Other Options}} }}</ref> === Universales === Universales es cosas jeneral, incluinte ambos [[cualia]]s e [[relata]]s, cual espresa como spesifiadas es e como los sembla lunlotra. Los es repetable, sinifiante ce los no es limitada a un esistente unica ma pote es instansida par particulas diferente a la mesma tempo. Per esemplo, la particulas [[Nelson Mandela]] e [[Mahatma Gandhi]] instansi la universal ''umania'', simil a como un frambosa e un rubi instansi la universal ''roja''. Un tema discuteda de filosofia antica, la problem de universales es la difisilia de descrive la state ontolojial de universales.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section, § 1c. The Problem of Universals}} | {{harvnb|Rodriguez-Pereyra|2000|pp=255–256}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=17–19}} }}</ref> Realistes argumenta ce universales es cosas real e nondependente de la mente cual esiste en ajunta a spesifiadas. Seguente realistes platonica, universales esiste ance nondependente de spesifiadas, cual implica ce la universal ''roja'' ta continua esiste an si on ta ave no cosas roja. Un forma plu moderada de realisme, inspirada par Aristotele, afirma ce universales depende de spesifiadas, sinifiante ce los es sola real si los es instansida. [[Nominalisme|Nominalistes]] rejeta la idea ce universales esiste en cualce forma. Per los, la mundo es sola composada de spesifiadas. La vista de [[consetalisme|consetalistes]] representa un punto media: los afirma ce universales esiste, ma sola como [[conseta]]s en la mente usada per ordina esperia par clasi cosas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Versions of Realism, § 3. Versions of Anti-Realism}} | {{harvnb|Bigelow|1998a|loc=§ 4. Nominalism and Realism}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=17–19, 45}} }}</ref> [[Tipo natural|Tipos natural]] e sosial es frecuente comprendeda como tipos spesial de universales. Cosas cual parteni a la mesma tipo natural comparti alga cualias fundal cual marca la strutur de la mundo natural. En esta modo, tipos natural no es un clasi artifis creada ma es descovreda,{{efn|La cosas clasida no nesesa aveni natural e pote inclui produidas artifis, como cimicales sintesal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brzović|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref>}} tipal par la siensas natural, e inclui tipos como [[eletron]]es, [[acua|H₂O]], e [[tigre]]s. [[Realisme siensal|Realistes siensal]] e antirealistes no acorda esce tipos natural esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brzović|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Metaphysics of Natural Kinds}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=Lead Section, § 1.2 Natural Kind Realism}} | {{harvnb|Liston|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Tipos sosial es studiada par [[ontolojia sosial|metafisica sosial]] e es descriveda como construis sosial usosa cual, an si no pur imajinal, fali refleta la strutur fundal de realia nondependente de la mente.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=259–263}}|{{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=185–186}}}}</ref> Esemplos noncontroversa inclui [[mone]] o [[basebal]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ásta|2017|pp=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315768571-27/social-kinds-%C3%A1sta 290–291]}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=§ 2.4 Natural Kinds and Social Science}} }}</ref> === Posiblia e nesesadia === La consetas de posiblia e nesesadia comunica cual pote o nesesa es la caso, espresada en declaras como "lo es posible per trova un cura per canser" e "lo es nesesada ce du plu du egali cuatro". Los parteni a metafisica modal, cual investiga la prinsipes metafisical cual suporta los, spesial, perce lo es la caso ce alga declaras modal es vera ma otras es falsa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Parent|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=149–150}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=154–155}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 8. What Is Possible?}} }}</ref>{{efn|Un otra tema conserna tipos diferente de modalia, como la contrasta entre nesesadia fisical, metafisical, e lojical, fundida sur esce la nesesadia ave sua fonte en la [[lege siensal|leges de natur]], la esenses de cosas, o la leges de lojica.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hanna|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ka9BhOL1ev8C&pg=PA196 196]}} | {{harvnb|Hale|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OSvsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142]}} }}</ref>}} Alga metafisicistes crede ce modalia es un aspeta fundal de realia, sinifiante ce estra fatos sur lo cual es la caso, on ave fatos ajuntada sur lo cual pote o nesesa es la caso.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goswick|2018|pp=97–98}} | {{harvnb|Wilsch|2017|pp=428–429, 446}} }}</ref> Un vista diferente argumenta ce verias modal no es sur un aspeta nondependente de realia ma pote es reduida a cualias nonmodal, per esemplo, a fatos sur cual cualias o descrives lingual es acordable con lunlotra o a declaras imajinal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goswick|2018|pp=97–98}} | {{harvnb|Parent|loc=§ 3. Ersatzism, § 4. Fictionalism}} | {{harvnb|Wilsch|2017|pp=428–429}} }}</ref> Emprestante un terma de la [[teodisia]] de la filosofiste deutx [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], multe metafisicistes usa la conseta de [[mundo posible|mundos posible]] per analise la sinifia e la resultas ontolojial de declaras modal. Un mundo posible es un modo completa e coerente de como cosas ia ta es.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Menzel|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Possible Worlds and Modal Logic}} | {{harvnb|Berto|Jago|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Pavel|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OF7ZA54UpYYC&pg=PA50 50]}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=§ Possible Worlds}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, la [[dinosauro]]s ia es eliminada en la mundo vera ma on ave mundos posible en cual los es ancora vivente.<ref>{{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=luc-Hf_bEOIC&pg=PT135 135]}}</ref> Seguente semantica de mundos posible, un declara es posible vera si lo es vera en a la min un mundo posible ma lo es nesesada vera si lo es vera en tota mundos posible.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Menzel|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Possible Worlds and Modal Logic}} | {{harvnb|Kuhn|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c_eYe6NVaDMC&pg=PA13 13]}} }}</ref> [[Realisme modal|Realistes modal]] argumenta ce mundos posible esiste como cosas concreta en la mesma sensa como la mundo vera, con la difere xef esente ce la mundo vera es la mundo en cual nos vive ma otra mundos posible es abitada par [[teoria de duales|duales]]. Esta vista es controversa e alternativas variosa ia es sujestada, per esemplo, ce mundos posible esiste sola como ojetos astrata o ce los es simil a naras contada en obras de nara.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Parent|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Lewis' Realism, § 3. Ersatzism, § 4. Fictionalism}} | {{harvnb|Menzel|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Three Philosophical Conceptions of Possible Worlds}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=§ Modal Realism}} }}</ref> === Spasio, tempo e cambia === [[Spasio]] e [[tempo]] es dimensiones cual cosas ocupa. Realistes de spasiotempo afirma ce spasio e tempo es aspetas fundal de realia e esiste nondependente de la mente umana. Esta vista es rejetada par idealistes de spasiotempo, ci crede ce spasio e tempo es construis de la mente umana en sua atenta per organiza e comprende realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dainton|2010|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/time-and-space/spatial-antirealism/CE284C8D3088AF598998951618D4867D 245–246]}} | {{harvnb|Janiak|2022|loc=§ 4.2 Absolute/Relational Vs. Real/Ideal}} | {{harvnb|Pelczar|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tkjTBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 115]}} }}</ref> Asolutisme o sustantialisme de spasiotempo comprende spasiotempo como un ojeto diferente, con alga metafisicistes consetante lo como un caxa cual conteni tota otra cosas en lo. [[Relatisme spasiotempal]], en contrasta, vide spasiotempo no como un ojeto ma como relatas entre ojetos, como la relata spasial de ''es a lado de'' e la relata tempal de ''veni ante''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hoefer|Huggett|Read|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Benovsky|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KHWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–20]}} | {{harvnb|Romero|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5wJ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135 135]}} }}</ref> En la metafisica de tempo, un contrasta importante es entre la [[serie A e seria B|serie A e la serie B]]. Seguente la teoria de la serie A, la [[flue de tempo]] es real, sinifiante ce avenis es categorida como la pasada, la presente, e la futur. La presente continua move a ante en tempo e avenis cual es en la presente aora va cambia sua state e es en la pasada plu tarda. De la perspetiva de la teoria de la serie B, tempo es statical e avenis es ordinada par la relatas tempal plu temprana ca e plu tarda ca sin cualce difere esensal entre la pasada, la presente, e la futur.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dyke|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IxIlqbSWg4gC&pg=PA138 138]}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=182–185}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=160–161}} }}</ref> [[Eternalisme (filosofia de tempo)|Eternalisme]] afirma ce la pasada, la presente, e la futur es egal real ma seguente [[Presentisme (filosofia de tempo)|presentistes]], sola cosas en la presente esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=179–181}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=206, 214–215}} | {{harvnb|Romero|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5wJ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135 135]}} }}</ref> Ojetos material persiste tra tempo e cambia en la prosede, como un arbor cual crese o perde folias.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2018|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Costa|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Simons|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ql27m77IveQC&pg=PA166 166]}} }}</ref> La modos xef de conseta la persiste tra tempo es [[endurantisme]] e [[perdurantisme]]. Seguente endurantisme, ojetos material es cosas tridimensional cual es intera presente a cada momento. Cuando los cambia, los gania o perde cualias ma resta la mesma en otra modos. Perdurantistes vide ojetos material como cosas cuatrodimensional cual estende tra tempo e es composada de [[partes tempal]] diferente. A cada momento, sola un parte de la ojeto es presente ma no la ojeto intera. Cambia sinifia ce un parte plu temprana es cualial diferente de un parte plu tarda. Per esemplo, si un banana maturi alora on ave un parte nonmatur segueda par un parte matur.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2018|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Costa|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Theories of Persistence}} | {{harvnb|Simons|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ql27m77IveQC&pg=PA166 166]}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2023|loc=3. Change and Temporal Parts}} }}</ref> === Causalia === Causalia es la relata entre causa e efeto en cual un cosa produi o afeta un otra cosa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=20–22}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=218–219}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, si un person colpa un vitro e versa sua contenidas alora la colpa es la causa e la versa es la efeto.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|p=20}}</ref> Estra la causalia de un sola caso entre spesifiadas en esta esemplo, on ave ance causalia de la caso jeneral espresada en declaras jeneral como "fuma causa canser".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Williamson|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yWWEIvNgUQ4C&pg=PA186 186]}} }}</ref> La terma causalia de ajente es usada si persones e sua atas causa alga cosa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=219, 252–253}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=233–234}} }}</ref> Causalia es tipal interpreteda deterministe, sinifiante ce un causa sempre produi sua efeto. Esta vista es rejetada par [[causalia probablial|teorias probablial]], cual afirma ce la causa mera aumenta la probablia ce la efeto aveni. Esta vista pote es usada per esplica ce fuma causa canser an si esta no es vera en cada caso.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=228–231}} | {{harvnb|Williamson|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yWWEIvNgUQ4C&pg=PA185 185–186]}} }}</ref> La teoria de normalia de causalia, inspirada par la filosofia de [[David Hume]], afirma ce causa es no plu ca un [[junta constante]] en cual la mente comprende ce un fenomeno, como pone sua mano en un foco, es sempre segueda par un otra fenomeno, como un senti de dole.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lorkowski|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Necessary Connections and Hume’s Two Definitions, § 4. Causal Reductionism}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=24–25}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=220–221}} }}</ref> Seguente teorias de normalia regulada, la normalia adota la formas de [[lege siensal|leges de natur]] studiada par siensa.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=223–224}}</ref> Teorias contrafatal foca no a normalias ma a como efetos depende de sua causas. Los afirma ce efetos debe sua esiste a la causa e no ta es presente sin los.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|p=26}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=221–222}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=224–225}} }}</ref> Seguente primitivisme, causa es un conseta fundal cual no pote es analiseda en termas de consetas noncausal, como regulas o relatas de depende. Un forma de primitivisme identifia potias causal inerente en cosas como la macina fundal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=231–232}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2009|pp=94–95}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|Anjum|2013}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=63–64}} }}</ref> Eliminatistes rejeta la teorias a supra par afirma ce on ave no causalia.<ref>{{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=231–232}}</ref> === La mente e volunta libre === La mente inclui fenomenos como [[pensa]], [[persepi]], [[senti]], e [[desira]] e ance la capasias fundal cual causa esta fenomenos.<ref>{{harvnb|Morton|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1608?rskey=jqUtkA&result=1601 603]}}</ref> La [[problem de mente-corpo]] es la difisilia de clari la relata entre fenomenos fisical e mental. Seguente [[dualisme cartesian]], mentes e corpos es sustantias diferente. Los interata causal con lunlotra en modos variosa ma pote, a la min en prinsipe, esiste solitar.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McLaughlin|1999|pp=684–685}} | {{harvnb|Kim|2005|p=608}} }}</ref> Esta vista es rejetada par [[monisme|monistes]], ci argumenta ce realia es composada de un sola tipo. Seguente [[idealisme]], tota es mental, incluinte ojetos fisical, cual pote es comprendeda como ideas o persepis de mentes consensa. Materialistes, en contrasta, afirma ce tota realia es material. Alga nega ce mente esiste ma la prosimi plu comun es esplica mente en termas de alga aspetas de materia, como states de serebro, [[disposa]]s condual, o roles funsional.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McLaughlin|1999|pp=685–691}} | {{harvnb|Kim|2005|p=608}} | {{harvnb|Ramsey|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> [[Monisme neutra|Monistes neutra]] argumenta ce realia es fundal no material e no mental e sujesta ce materia e mente es ambos fenomenos derivada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stubenberg|Wishon|2023|loc=Lead Section; § 1.3 Mind and Matter Revisited}} | {{harvnb|Griffin|1998}} }}</ref> Un aspeta clavin de la problem de mente-corpo es la [[problem difisil de consensia]], cual conserna la demanda de como sistemes fisical como serebros pote produi consensia fenomenal.<ref>{{harvnb|Weisberg|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Stating the Problem}}</ref> La state de volunta libre–la capasia de un person per eleje sua atas–es un aspeta sentral de la problem de mente-corpo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Timpe|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Olson|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mind-body-problem Mind–Body Problem]}} | {{harvnb|Armstrong|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uf7EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94]}} }}</ref> Metafisicistes es interesada en la relata entre volunta libre e [[determinisme causal]], la vista ce tota en la universo, incluinte condui umana, es determinada par avenis presedente e leges de natur. Lo es controversa si determinisme causal es vera, e, si lo es, esce esta ta implica ce on ave no volunta libre. Seguente [[nonacordablisme]], volunta libre no pote esiste en un mundo deterministe car on ave no eleje o controla vera si tota es determinada.{{efn|Per esemplo, la [[argumenta de resulta]] par [[Peter van Inwagen]] dise ce persones ave no potia sur la futur si tota es determinada par la pasada con la leges de natur.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Vihvelin|2022|loc=§ 5. Choice and the Consequence Argument}} | {{harvnb|Züricher|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kLQ6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} }}</ref>}} Deterministes dur dedui de esta oserva ce on ave no volunta libre ma [[libertarisme (metafisica)|libertaristes]] conclui ce determinisme nesesa es falsa. [[Acordablisme|Acordablistes]] adota un prosimi tre par argumenta ce determinisme e volunta libre no esclui lunlotra, per esemplo, car un person pote ancora ata en acorda con sua motiva e elejes an si los es determinada par otra fortes. Volunta libre jua un rol clavin en etica en relata con la [[respondosia moral]] cual persones ave per lo cual los fa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|O’Connor|Franklin|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Nature of Free Will}} | {{harvnb|Timpe|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Free Will, Free Action and Moral Responsibility, § 3. Free Will and Determinism}} | {{harvnb|Armstrong|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uf7EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94]}} }}</ref> === Otras === [[Identia (filosofia)|Identia]] es un relata cual cada cosa ave a se mesma como un forma de identicia. Lo refere a identia numeral cuando la mesma cosa es envolveda, como en la declara "la stela de matina es la stela de sera" (ambos es la planeta [[Venus]]). En un sinifia pico diferente, lo inclui identia cualial, ance nomida ''similia esata'' e ''nondistinguablia'', cual es la caso cuando du cosas diferente es esata simil, como jemelos identica perfeta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kirwan|2005|pp=417–418}} | {{harvnb|Noonan|Curtis|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> La prinsipe de la nondistinguablia de identicas es vasta asetada e afirma ce cosas numeral identica sembla esata lunlotra. La prinsipe oposante, conoseda como la [[identia de nondistinguibles]] o la Lege de Leibniz, es plu controversa e afirma ce du cosas es numeral identica si los sembla esata lunlotra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sleigh|2005|p=418}} | {{harvnb|Kirwan|2005|pp=417–418}} | {{harvnb|Noonan|Curtis|2022|loc=§ 2. The Logic of Identity}} }}</ref> Un otra distingui es entre identia sincrona e diacrona. Identia sincrona relata un cosas con se mesma a la mesma tempo ma identia diacrona es sur la mesma cosa a tempos diferente, como en declaras como "la table cual me ia compra a la anio pasada es la mesma como la table en mea sala de come aora".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gallois|2016|loc=§ 2.1 Diachronic and Synchronic Identity}} | {{harvnb|Noonan|Curtis|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 5. Identity Over Time}} }}</ref> [[Identia personal]] es un tema relatada en metafisica cual usa la terma ''identia'' con un sinifia pico diferente e conserna demandas como cual fa ce algun es un person.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Noonan|Curtis|2022|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Olson|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Problems of Personal Identity}} | {{harvnb|Korfmacher}} }}</ref> Metafisicistes contempora variosa depende de la consetas de [[veria]], [[portaveria]], e [[causaveria]] per fa sua investigas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=15–17}} }}</ref> Veria es un cualia de es en acorda con realia. Portaverias es cosas cual pote es vera o falsa, como declaras lingual e representas mental. Un causaveria de un declara es la cosa de cual sua esiste fa ce la declara es vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005a|p=926}} | {{harvnb|Imaguire|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X4dnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=15–17}} | {{harvnb|Asay|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nRXeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|MacBride|2022}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, la declara "un tomate es roja" es vera car on ave un tomate roja como sua causaveria.<ref>{{harvnb|Tallant|2017|p=1}}</ref> Fundida sur esta oserva, lo es posible per persegue rexerca metafisical par demanda cual la causaverias de declaras es, con campos diferente de metafisica esente dedicada a tipos diferente de declaras. Seguente esta vista, metafisica modal demanda cual fa ce declaras sur lo cual es posible e nesesada es vera e la metafisica de tempo es interesada en la causaverias de declaras tempal sur la pasada, la presente, e la futur.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=1–4, 163–165}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=15–17, 154}} }}</ref> == Metodolojia == Metafisicistes usa un varia de metodos per ariva a teorias metafisical e formula argumentas per e contra los.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=xi, 2}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> Tradisional, metodos ''a priori'' es la prosimi dominante. Los depende de intui razonal e razona astrata de prinsipes jeneral en loca de [[esperia]] sensal. Prosimis ''a posteriori'', en contrasta, fundi teorias metafisical en oservas empirical e teorias siensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10. What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=151–152}} | {{harvnb|Jaksland|2023|pp=198–199}} }}</ref> Alga metafisicistes usa perspetivas de campos como [[fisica]], [[psicolojia]], [[linguistica]] e istoria per fa sua investiga.<ref>{{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}}</ref> La du prosimis no es escluinte e lo es posible per combina elementos de ambos.<ref>{{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=151–152, 172–173}}</ref> La metodo cual un metafisiciste usa depende frecuente de sua conseta de la natur de metafisica, per esemplo, esce los vide lo como un investiga de la strutur de realia nondependente de la mente, como realistes metafisical afirma, o la prinsipes cual suporta pensa e esperia, como alga antirealistes metafisical afirma.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10. What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}} | {{harvnb|Effingham|Beebee|Goff|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BBKsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} | {{harvnb|Khlentzos|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 3. The Anti-Realist Challenges to Metaphysical Realism}} }}</ref> Prosimis ''a priori'' depende frecuente de intuis, pd, impresas nondeduinte sur la coretia de afirmas spesifiada o prinsipes jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 11–12]|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} | {{harvnb|Duignan|2009a}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=177–180}}}}</ref>{{efn|La terma ''intui'' ave un varia de otra sinifias en filosofia. Lo pote refere a un opina simple, un disposa per crede, lo cual pare es la caso, o un relata entre la mente e ojetos astrata.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pust|2019|loc=§ 1. The Nature of Intuitions}} | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1255 442]}} }}</ref> La conseta jua un rol sentral en la filosofia de [[Immanuel Kant]], ci comprende intuis como representas consensa e ojetiva prosima asosiada con la sensa de spasio e tempo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Janiak|2022|loc=§ 2.2 Kant's Understanding of Representation}} | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1255 442]}} }}</ref>}} Per esemplo, argumentas per la teoria A de tempo, cual afirma ce tempo flue de la pasada tra la presente e a en la futur, depende frecuente de intuis preteorial asosiada con la sensa de la pasa de tempo.<ref>{{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=188–190}}</ref> Alga prosimis usa intuis per crea un colie peti de prinsipes fundal e [[autoevidentia|autoevidente]], conoseda como [[axiom]]es, e usa [[razona deduinte]] per construi sistemes metafisical complicada par fa concluis de esta axiomes.<ref>{{harvnb|Goldenbaum|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Geometrical Method}}</ref> Prosimis fundida sur intui pote es combinada con [[esperimenta de pensa|esperimentas de pensa]], cual aida evoca e clari intuis par lia los a situas imajinada en cuando on usa [[pensa contrafatal]] per evalua la resultas posible de esta situas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=177–178}} | {{harvnb|Brown|Fehige|2019|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Goffi|Roux|2011|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV 165, 168–169]}} | {{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|pp=915–916}} }}</ref> Per esplora la relata entre materia e consensia, alga teoristes compara umanas a [[zombi filosofial|zombis filosofial]], pd, viventes ipotesal identica a umanas ma sin [[consensia|esperia consensa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kirk|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Zombies and Physicalism}}</ref> Un metodo relatada depende de credes comun asetada en loca de intuis per formula argumentas e teorias. La prosimi de [[sensa comun]] es frecuente usada per critica teorias metafisical cual devia multe de como la person promedia pensa sur un tema. Per esemplo, filosofistes de sensa comun ia argumenta ce [[nihilisme merolojial]] es falsa car lo implica ce cosas comun asetada, como tables, no esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lawson|2020|pp=185–186}} | {{harvnb|Jaksland|2023|pp=198–199}} }}</ref> [[Analise filosofial|Analise consetal]], un metodo spesial importante en [[filosofia analisal]], atenta desconstrui consetas metafisical a partes composante per clari sua sinifia e identifia relatas esensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Jackson|1998|pp=28–30}} | {{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|p=915}} | {{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26602327 555–556]}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy § Philosophical Methods]}} }}</ref> En [[fenomenolojia]], la metodo de [[redui eidetica|varia eidetica]] es usada per investiga strutures esensal cual suporta [[fenomeno]]s. Per studia la cualias esensal de cualce tipo de ojeto, lo prosede par imajina esta ojeto e varia sua cualias per identifia los cual es esensal e no pote es cambiada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Drummond|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VQ9hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} | {{harvnb|Ryckman|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FI1JCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142–144]}} }}</ref> La metodo [[argumenta transendente|transendente]] es un otra prosimi e esamina la strutur metafisical de realia par oserva cual cosas esiste e studia la [[Nesesada de posiblia|nesesadas de posiblia]] sin cual esta cosas no ta pote esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Coelho|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P518M0X_zakC&pg=PA128 128]}} | {{harvnb|Körner|1984|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eAA4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA183 183–184]}} | {{harvnb|Pihlström|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=srGLpb7pWdkC&pg=PA60 60–61]}} | {{harvnb|Stern|Cheng|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Alga prosimis dona min importa a razona ''a priori'' e vide metafisica como un pratica continuante con la siensas empirical cual jenerali sua intuis en cuando los fa ce sua suposas fundal deveni nonambigua. Esta prosimi es conoseda como ''metafisica naturalida'' e es prosima asosiada con la obra de [[Willard Van Orman Quine]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=30–31}}|{{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics}}|{{harvnb|Jaksland|2023|pp=198–199}}}}</ref> El depende de la idea ce frases vera de la siensas e otra campos ave [[obligas ontolojial]], pd, los implica ce alga cosas esiste.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=37–38, 40}}|{{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics}}}}</ref> Per esemplo, si la frase "alga eletrones es liada a protones" es vera alora lo pote es usada per justi ce eletrones e protones esiste.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|p=41}}</ref> Quine ia usa esta intui per argumenta ce on pote aprende sur metafisica par atendente analise{{efn|La metodo de analise de Quine depende de [[tradui lojical]] a [[lojica de ordina prima]] per espresa afirmas tan esata como posible e depende de [[cuantador esistal|cuantadores esistal]] per identifia sua obligas ontolojial.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=40–41}}</ref>}} afirmas siensal per comprende cual tipo de imaje metafisical de la mundo los presuposa.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=40–43}}|{{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics}}}}</ref> En ajunta a metodos de investiga metafisical, on ave alga prinsipes metodolojial usada per deside entre teorias competente par compara sua virtuas teorial. La [[Rasador de Ockham]] es un prinsipe bon conoseda cual dona prefere a teorias simple, spesial, a teorias cual suposa ce poca cosas esiste. Otra prinsipes considera la [[potia esplicante]], la usosia teorial, e la prosimia a credes fundida.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3tDaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217–221]}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=48–49}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10. What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> == Critica == [[File:Allan Ramsay - David Hume, 1711 - 1776. Historian and philosopher - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of David Hume|[[David Hume]] ia critica metafisicistes per atenta ariva a sabe sur cosas estra la campo de esperia sensal.]] An si sua state como un de la ramos xef de filosofia, metafisica ia reseta criticas diversa cual pone en duta sua state como un campo valida de investiga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?}} | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> Un tipo de critica afirma ce investiga metafisical es nonposible car umanas no ave la capasias cognisial nesesada per asede la natur ultima de realia.<ref>{{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?}}</ref> Esta linia de pensa gida a un forma de [[seticisme]] sur la posible de sabe metafisical. Lo es frecuente segueda par empiricalistes como Hume, ci argumenta ce on ave no [[sabe|fonte bon de sabe metafisical]] car metafisica es estra la campo de [[demostra empirical|sabe empirical]] e depende de intuis dutable sur la rena ultra esperia sensal. Un conserna prosima relatada sur la nonfidablia de teorias metafisical es ce on ave desacordas profonda e durante sur temas metafisical, indicante un manca de progresa jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=211–212}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=16–17}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=4–5}} }}</ref> Un otra critica afirma ce la problem no es con la capasias cognisial umana ma con la declaras metafisical mesma, cual es afirmada como no vera e no falsa ma sin [[sinifia (filosofia)|sinifia]]. Seguente [[positivisme lojical|positivistes lojical]], per esemplo, la sinifia de un declara es donada par la prosede usada per serti lo, tipal en termas de la [[oserva]]s cual ta confirma lo. Fundida sur esta suposa controversa, los argumenta ce declaras metafisical es sin sinifia car los no fa predises sur esperia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?}} | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|p=4}} | {{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=212–215}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|p=5}} }}</ref> Un vista pico plu debil permete ce declaras metafisical ave sinifia ma afirma ce desacordas metafisical es mera disputas verbal sur modos diferente de descrive la mundo. Seguente esta vista, la desacorda en la metafisica de composa sur esce on ave tables o sola particulas ordinada en modo de table es un debate trivial sur preferes lingual sin cualce resultas sustantial per la natur de realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=213–215}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=71–72}} }}</ref> La vista ce disputas metafisical ave no sinifia o no punto sinifiante es nomida '''''deflaisme metafisical''''' o '''''ontolojial'''''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|pp=4, 15, 32}} | {{harvnb|Sider|2009|pp=386–387}} }}</ref> Esta vista es oposada par metafisicistes seria, ci argumenta ce disputas metafisical es sur cualias sustantial de la strutur fundal de realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|pp=28, 36}} | {{harvnb|Kriegel|2016|pp=272–273}} }}</ref> Un debate prosima relatada entre [[realisme filosofial|realistes]] ontolojial e antirealistes conserna la demanda de esce on ave cualce fatos ojetal cual determina cual teorias metafisical es vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chalmers|2009|pp=77–78}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=304–305}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=65–66, 68}} }}</ref> Un critica diferente, formulada par [[practicalisme|praticalistes]], vide la fali de metafisica no en sua aspiras cognisial o la nonsinifia de sua declaras, ma en sua nonpertine pratical e manca de usosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|p=5}} | {{harvnb|Macarthur|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ra7QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 166]}} }}</ref> [[Martin Heidegger]] ia critica metafisica tradisional, disente ce lo fali distingui entre cosas individua e es como sua funda ontolojial. Sua atenta revela la suposas e limitas fundal en la istoria de metafisica per "vinse metafisica" ia influe la metodo de [[desconstrui]] de [[Jacques Derrida]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wheeler|2020|loc=§ 1. Biographical Sketch, § 2.2.1 The Question, § 3.3 Technology}} | {{harvnb|Gilje|Skirbekk|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_I00e3SQAwMC&pg=PA463 463–464]}} | {{harvnb|Holland|1999|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Beaulieu|Kazarian|Sushytska|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d4PzBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3–4]}} }}</ref> Derrida ia usa esta prosimi per critica testos metafisical per depende de termas oposante, como presentia e asentia, cual el ia pensa ia es inerente nonstable e contradisente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Reynolds|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Deconstructive Strategy}} | {{harvnb|Gilje|Skirbekk|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_I00e3SQAwMC&pg=PA463 463–464]}} | {{harvnb|Holland|1999|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Lo es dutable esce la criticas de metafisica afeta la disiplina como un intera o sola alga temas o prosimis en lo. Per esemplo, lo ta es la caso ce alga disputas metafisical es mera verbal ma otras es sustantial.<ref>{{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=215–216, 223–224}}</ref> == Relata con otra campos == Metafisica relata con multe campos de investiga par esamina sua consetas fundal e sua relata con la strutur fundal de realia. Per esemplo, siensistes depende frecuente de consetas como [[lege siensal|lege de natur]], causalia, nesesadia, e spasiotempo per formula sua teorias e predise o esplica la resultas de esperimentas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Göhner|Schrenk|loc=Lead Section, § 1. What Is Metaphysics of Science?}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|Tugby|2013|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2018|pp=187–188}} }}</ref> An si la foca xef de siensistes es la aplica de esta consetas a situas spesifiada, metafisica esamina sua natur jeneral e como los depende de lunlotra. Fisicistes formula leges spesifiada de natur, como [[lege de Newton de gravita universal|leges de gravita]] e [[leges de termodinamica|termodinamica]], per descrive como sistemes fisical condui en ambientes variosa. Metafisicistes, en contrasta, demanda cual tota leges de natur ave en comun, per esemplo, esce los descrive mera normalias dependente o espresa relatas nesesada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Göhner|Schrenk|loc=§ 3. Why Do We Need Metaphysics of Science?, § 4c. Laws of Nature}} | {{harvnb|Roberts|2016|pp=337–338}} }}</ref> A la mesma tempo, trovas siensal nova ia influe ance teorias metafisical esistente e ia inspira novas. La [[teoria de relativia]] de Einstein, per esemplo, ia stimula alga metafisicistes a conseta spasio e tempo como un dimension unida en loca de como dimensiones nondependente.<ref>{{harvnb|Healey|2016|pp=356–357}}</ref> Metafisicistes con foca empirical depende frecuente de teorias siensal per fundi sua teorias sur la natur de realia en oservas empirical.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2018|pp=187–188}}</ref> Temas simil pertine a la [[siensas sosial]] do metafisicistes investiga sua consetas fundal e analise sua implicas metafisical. Esta inclui demandas como esce fatos sosial veni de fatos nonsosial, esce grupos e instituidas sosial ave esiste nondependente de la mente, e como los persiste tra tempo.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2018|pp=188–189}}</ref> Suposas e temas metafisical en [[psicolojia]] e [[psiciatria]] inclui la demandas sur la relata entre corpo e mente, esce la natur de la mente umana es istorial fisada, e cual es la state metafisical de maladias.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dafermos|2021|pp=1–2, 6–7}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2016|p=174}} }}</ref> Metafisica es simil a ambos [[cosmolojia fisical]] e [[teolojia]] en sua interesa en la causas prima e la universo como un intera. Diferes clavin es ce metafisica depende de investiga razonal ma cosmolojia fisical dona plu pesa a oservas empirical e teolojia es fundida sur [[revela]] divin e dotrinas fundida sur crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Van Inwagen|2024|pp=6–8}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|p=10}} }}</ref> Istorial, cosmolojia e teolojia ia es regardada como sucampos de metafisica.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dryer|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S8weDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA490 490]}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|p=10}} }}</ref> {{cladogram |title=Suggested Upper Merged Ontology |caption=<p style="text-align: center;">Categorias fundal en la <br/>[[Suggested Upper Merged Ontology]]<ref>{{harvnb|Heckmann|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e5adLEi4gYgC&pg=PA42 42]}}</ref></p> |cladogram={{clade |label1=Cosa{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}} |1={{clade |label1={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Fisical{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}} |1={{clade |label1={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Ojeto |1={{spaces}} |label2={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Prosede |2={{spaces}} }} |label2={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Astrata{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}} |2={{clade |label1={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Cuantia |1={{spaces}} |label2={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Proposa |2={{spaces}} |label3={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Cualia |3={{spaces}} |label4={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Relata |4={{spaces}} |label5={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Colie o Clase |5={{spaces}} }} }} }} }} Metafisica en la forma de ontolojia jua un rol sentral en [[informatica]] per clasi ojetos e representa formal informa sur los. No como metafisicistes, informaticistes no es tipal interesada en furni un sola descrive incluinte de tota realia como un intera ma en loca los usa multe ontolojias diferente, cada consernada sola con un campo limitada de cosas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goy|Magro|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MJd_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7456 7456–7457]}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2016|pp=168–170}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, un [[banco de datos]] de un universia ta usa un ontolojia con categorias como ''person'', ''ensenior'', ''studiante'', e ''esamina'' per representa informa sur ativias academial.<ref>{{harvnb|Goy|Magro|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MJd_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7457 7457]}}</ref> Ontolojias furni normas o consetas per codigi e reteni informa en un modo struturida, cual capasi usa e cambia la informa par prosedes computante.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goy|Magro|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MJd_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7456 7456–7457]}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2016|pp=168–169}} }}</ref> Alga bancos de sabe integra informa cual parteni a campos variosa, cual introdui la difisilia de maneja datos cual ia es formida usante ontolojias diferente. On vinse lo par furni un [[ontolojia superior]] cual defini consetas a un nivel plu alta de astratia per aplica a tota campos. Ontolojias superior influente inclui la ''Suggested Upper Merged Ontology'' (Ontolojia Superior Fusada Sujestada) e la ''Basic Formal Ontology'' (Ontolojia Formal Fundal).<ref>{{harvnb|Gopalakrishnan Nair|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MJd_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4594 4594]}}</ref> [[Lojica]] – la studia de razona coreta<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|MacFarlane|2017}}|{{harvnb|Corkum|2015|pp=753–767}}|{{harvnb|Blair|Johnson|2000|pp=93–95}}|{{harvnb|Magnus|2005|loc=1.6 Formal Languages|pp=12–14}}}}</ref> – es frecuente usada par metafisicistes como un util per fa sua investigas e espresa intuis usante formulas lojical esata.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=1–2, 18–20}}</ref> Un otra relata entre la du campos conserna la suposas metafisical asosiada con [[Sistem formal|sistemes lojical]]. Multe sistemes lojical como [[lojica de ordina prima]] depende de [[Cuantador esistal|cuantadores esistal]] per espresa declaras esistal. Per esemplo, en la formula lojical <math display="inline">\exists{x{\text{Cavalo}}(x)}</math> la cuantador esistal <chem display="inline">\exists</chem> es aplicada a la predica <math>\text{Cavalo}</math> per espresa ce on ave cavalos. Seguente Quine, metafisicistes variosa suposa ce cuantadores esistal porta [[obligas ontolojial]], sinifiante ce declaras esistal implica ce la cosa supra cual on cuanti formi un parte de realia.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022|loc=§2.1 Building Blocks}}|{{harvnb|Cook|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JfaqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111]}}|{{harvnb|Kind|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oDhjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT236 236]}}|{{harvnb|Casati|Fujikawa|loc=Lead Section, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification}}}}</ref> == Istoria == [[File:Yin yang.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|alt=Symbol de yin e yang|La simbol de [[taijitu]] mostra [[yin-yang|yin e yang]], cual es du fortes corelatada discuteda en metafisica xines per esplora la natur e motifes de esiste. <ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Perkins|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 5. Fundamental Concepts in the Daodejing}} }}</ref>]] La istoria de metafisica esamina como la investiga de la strutur fundal de realia ia evolui en la curso de istoria. Metafisica ave sua orijina en divinas sur la natur e orijina de la cosmo cual ia comensa en la eda antica.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=183}}|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=590}}}}</ref> En Barat antica, comensante en la sentenio 7 aec, la [[Upanixades]] ia es scriveda como testos relijiosa e filosofial cual esamina como realia ultima es la funda de tota es. Los esplora plu la natur de la se e como lo pote ateni libria par comprende realia ultima.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Perrett|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7–10]}}|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Andrea|Overfield|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 70–71]}}}}</ref> Esta periodo ia vide ance la emerji de [[budisme]] en la sentenio 6 aec,{{efn|La data esta es disputada.<ref>{{harvnb|Velez|loc=§ 1a. Dates}}</ref>}} cual nega la esiste de un se nondependente e comprende la mundo como un prosede sicle.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Perrett|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7–10]}}|{{harvnb|Velez|loc=Lead Section, § 3. The Buddha's Cosmology and Metaphysics}}|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}}}}</ref> Sirca la mesma tempo{{efn|Seguente naras tradisional, [[Laozi]] como la fundor de dauisme ia vive en la sentenio 6 ace ma otra naras ia dise ce lo es posible ce el ia vive en la senentios 4 o 3 aec.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dynes|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pxjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2. Classical Sources for Our Understanding of Daoism}} }}</ref>}} en [[Xina antica]], la scola de [[dauisme]] ia es fundida e ia esplora la ordina natural de la universo, conoseda como [[Dau]], e como lo es marcada par la interata de [[Yin-yang|yin e yang]] como du fortes corelatada.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 5. Fundamental Concepts in the Daodejing}}|{{harvnb|Dynes|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pxjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60–61]}}}}</ref> En [[Elas antica]], metafisica emerji en la sentenio 6 aec con la filosofistes presocratiste, ci dona esplicas razonal de la cosmo intera par esamina la [[Prinsipe prima|prinsipes prima]] de cual tota veni. Seguente los, [[Platon]] (427-347 aec) ia formula sua [[teoria de formas]], cual afirma ce formas o ideas eterna posese la tipo la plu alta de realia e la mundo material es sola un refleta nonperfeta de los.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=184–185}}|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=590}}|{{harvnb|Graham|loc=§ 3b. Metaphysics}}}}</ref> [[Aristotele]] (384-322 aec) ia aseta la idea de Platon ce on ave formas universal ma ia crede ce los no pote esiste solitar e depende de materia. El ia proposa ance un sistem de categorias e ia developa un strutur completa de la mundo natural con sua teoria de la [[cuatro causas]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=185–187}}|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=590}}|{{harvnb|Graham|loc=§ 4a. Terminology, § 4f. Metaphysics}}}}</ref> Comensante en la sentenio 4 aec, [[filosofia eliniste]] ia esplora la ordina razonal cual suporta la cosmo e la idea ce lo es composada de [[Atomisme|atomes nondividable]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=590}}|{{harvnb|Graham|loc=§ 5a. Epicureanism, § 5c. The Stoics}}}}</ref> [[Neoplatonisme]] ia emerji a la fini de la periodo antica en la sentenio 3 ec e ia introdui la idea de "la Un" como un cosa transendente e nonespresable cual es la fonte de tota crea.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=187–188}}|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|pp=590–591}}|{{harvnb|Graham|loc=§ 5. Post-Hellenistic Thought}}}}</ref> Entretempo, en [[budisme barati]], la [[Madhyamaka|scola Madhyamaka]] ia developa la idea ce tota fenomenos es [[Sunyata|inerente vacua]] sin un esense permanente e la dotrina de sola consensia de la [[Yogācāra|scola Yogācāra]] ia afirma ce ojetos esperiada es mera cambias de consensia cual no refleta realia eterna.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Depraz|Varela|Vermersch|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iYJy_2909NAC&pg=PA212 212]}}|{{harvnb|Shun'ei|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4qAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5–6]}}}}</ref> La scola indu de filosofia [[Samkhya]]{{efn|La ideas cual suporta la filosofia Samkhya ia emerji tan temprana como la sentenios 7 e 6 aec ma sua formula clasica e sistemosa es datida a 350 ec. <ref name="auto1">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruzsa|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}} }}</ref>}} ia introdui un dualisme metafisical con [[Purusha|consensia pur]] e [[Prakṛti|materia]] como sua categorias fundal.<ref name="auto1" /> En Xina, la scola de [[Xuanxue]] ia esplora problemes metafisical como la contrasta entre es e no es.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Chai|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LSAAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}}|{{harvnb|Robinet|2013|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Sp6TfzhpIC&pg=PA274 Chongxuan]}}}}</ref> [[File:Boethius.jpeg|thumb|alt=Desinia de Boethius|La teoria de universales de [[Boethius]] ia influe multe metaficistes ci ia veni a pos.]] Filosofia ueste medieval ia es forte influeda par filosofia elinica antica. [[Boethius]] (477–524 ec) ia atenta armoni la teorias de universales de Platon e Aristotele par afirma ce universales pote esiste ambos en materia e mente. Sua teoria ia inspira la filosofias de nominalisme e consetalisme, como en la pensa de [[Peter Abelard]] (1079–1142 ec).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=188–189}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Boethius, § Abelard}} | {{harvnb|Marenbon|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DYSVbvnDL8IC&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Sweeney|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=orIYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10–11]}} }}</ref> [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1224–1274 ec) ia comprende metafisica como la disiplina cual investiga la sinifias diferente de ''es'', como la contrasta entre sustantia e cualias nonesensal, e prinsipes cual aplica a tota cosas, como la [[lege de identia|prinsipe de identia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|loc=§ 5. Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=189}} }}</ref> [[William de Ockham]] (1285–1347 ec) ia proposa la prinsipes metodolojial de la Rasador de Ockham como un util per deside entre teorias metafisical competente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=190}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Ockham}} }}</ref> Filosofia arabi-persian, cual ia ave sua apico de la temprana de la sentenio 9 ec a la tarda de la sentenio 12 ec, ia usa multe ideas de la filosofistes elinica antica per interprete e clari la ensenias de la [[Curan]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Arabic–Persian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Adamson|Taylor|2004|pp=1–3}} }}</ref> [[Avicenna]] (980–1037 ec) ia developa un sistem filosofial completa cual ia esamina la contrasta entre esiste e esense e ia distingui entre esiste dependente e nesesada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Ibn Sina (Avicenna)}} | {{harvnb|Lizzini|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Essence and Existence, § 4. Modality and Existence}} }}</ref> [[Barat medieval]] ia vide la emerji de la scola [[monisme|moniste]] de [[Advaita Vedanta]] en la sentenio 8 ec, cual afirma ce tota es un e ce la idea de multe cosas esiste nondependente es un ilude.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=§ The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Dalal|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 2.3 Two-Tiered Reality}} }}</ref> En Xina, [[neoconfuzisme]] ia emerji en la sentenio 9 ec e ia esplora la [[li (neoconfuzisme)|conseta de li]] como la prinsipe razonal cual es la funda de es e refleta la ordina de la universo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berthrong|loc=Lead Section, § 4. Traits, Themes and Motifs}} | {{harvnb|Wu|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zRVmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} | {{harvnb|Smart|2008|p=99}}}}</ref> En la periodo moderna temprana, [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650) ia developa un dualisme de sustantia en cual corpo e mente esiste como cosas nondependente cual interata causal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=591}} | {{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cU7cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 51]}} }}</ref> Esta idea ia es rejetada par [[Baruch Spinoza]] (1632–1677), ci ia formula un filosofia moniste en cual on ave sola un sustantia cual ave ambos cualias fisical e mental cual developa con lado a lado sin interata.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=190}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=591}} }}</ref> [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (1646–1716) ia introdui la conseta de mundos posible e ia crea un sistem metafisical, conoseda como [[monadolojia]], cual comprende la universo como un colie de sustantias simple cual es sincronida sin interata causal con lunlotra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=190–191}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=591}} | {{harvnb|Look|2020|loc=§ 4. Metaphysics: A Primer on Substance}} | {{harvnb|Menzel|2023|loc=1. Possible Worlds and Modal Logic}} }}</ref> [[Christian Wolff]] (1679–1754), ia conseta la estende de metafisica par introdui la distingui entre metafisica jeneral e spesial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Svare|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=60MsUE3K2ekC&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Hettche|Dyck|2019|loc=§ 5. Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Seguente la [[idealisme]] de [[George Berkeley]] (1685–1753), tota es mental, incluinte ojetos material, cual es ideas persepida par la mente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=192}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=591}} }}</ref> [[David Hume]] (1711–1776) ia fa contribuis variosa a metafisica, incluinte la teoria de normalia de causalia e la idea ce on ave no lias nesesada entre cosas diferente. A la mesma tempo, sua perspetiva [[empiricalisme|empirical]] ia gida el a formula un critica sever de teorias metafisical cual atenta ariva a prinsipes ultima cual es nonasedable par esperia sensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Morris|Brown|2023|loc=§ 3. Philosophical Project, § 5. Causation, § 6. The Idea of Necessary Connection}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|pp=591–592}} }}</ref> Esta perspetiva setica ia es asetada par [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804). El ia atenta reconseta metafisica como un investiga de la prinsipes e categorias fundal de pensa e comprende en loca de vide lo como un atenta per comprende realia nondependente de la mente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=192–193}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Wood|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i7PG-Vk824UC&pg=PA354 354]}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=1–2, 6}} }}</ref> Multe developas en la periodo moderna tarda ia es formida par la filosofia de Kant. [[Idealisme deutx|Idealistes deutx]] ia usa sua perspetiva idealiste en sua atenta per trova un prinsipe uninte como la funda de tota realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=193}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Critchley|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=syhsLJ1eMOEC&pg=PA31 31]}} }}</ref> [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (1770–1831) ia developa un sistem completa de filosofia cual esamina como spirito asoluta mostra se.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Green|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gu6YVfL58OQC&pg=PA172 172]}} }}</ref> El ia inspira la [[idealisme brites]] de [[Francis Herbert Bradley]] (1846–1924), ci ia interprete spirito asoluta como la totalia cual inclui tota es.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=193}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Idealism}} }}</ref> [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] (1788–1860) ia es un critica forte de idealisme deutx e ia espresa un vista metafisical diferente cual prende un [[voluntaisme|volunta sieca e nonrazonal como la prinsipe fundal de realia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Schopenhauer}} | {{harvnb|Janaway|1999|pp=[https://academic.oup.com/book/2954/chapter-abstract/143638920?redirectedFrom=fulltext 248–249]}} }}</ref> Praticalistes como [[C. S. Peirce]] (1839–1914) e [[John Dewey]] (1859–1952) ia conseta metafisica como un siensa oservante de la cualias la plu jeneral de realia e esperia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=194}} | {{harvnb|Misak|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p30osmyc2xoC&pg=PA406 Scientific Realism, Anti-Realism, and Empiricism]}} }}</ref> [[File:ANWhitehead.jpg|thumb|alt=Foto de Alfred North Whitehead|[[Alfred North Whitehead]] fundi la [[filosofia de prosedes]] en sua obra ''[[Prosede e Realia]]''.]] A la cambia de la sentenio 20 en [[filosofia analisal]], filosofistes como [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970) e [[George Edward Moore]] (1873–1958) ia gida un "revolta contra idealisme". [[Atomisme lojical|Atomistes lojical]], como Russell e [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] a la comensa de sua carera (1889–1951), ia conseta la mundo como un multia de fatos atomal, cual ia inspira metafisicistes plu tarda como [[D. M. Armstrong]] (1926–2014).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Proops|2022|loc=Lead Section}}|{{harvnb|Klement|2019|loc=Lead Section}}|{{harvnb|Mumford|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kGGmBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 100]}}}}</ref> Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) ia developa [[filosofia de prosedes|metafisica de prosedes]] como un atenta per furni un descrive oliste de ambos la mundos ojetal e sujetal.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Desmet|Irvine|2022|loc=§ 6. Metaphysics}}|{{harvnb|Palmer|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZT2pI9IMiYUC&pg=PA175 175]}}}}</ref> [[Rudolf Carnap]] (1891–1970) e otra [[positivisme lojical|positivistes lojical]] ia formula un critica vasta de declaras metafisical par afirma ce los es sin sinifia car on ave no modo per serti los.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Hart|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Otra criticas de metafisica tradisional ia identifia malcomprendes de [[filosofia de lingua comun|lingua comun]] como la fonte de multe problemes metafisical tradisional o ia pone en duta deduis metafisical complicada par depende de sensa comun.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=194–195}} | {{harvnb|Morris|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfElDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Baldwin|2010|loc=§ 2. The Refutation of Idealism, § 6. Common Sense and Certainty}} }}</ref> La declina de positivisme lojical ia vide un revive de teori metafisical.<ref>{{harvnb|Broadbent|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_GSFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 145]}}</ref> [[Willard Van Orman Quine]] (1908–2000) ia atenta naturali metafisica par lia lo a la siensas empirical. Sua studiante [[David Lewis (filosofiste)|David Lewis]] (1941–2001) ia usa la conseta de mundos posible per formula sua [[realisme modal]]. [[Saul Kripke]] (1940–2022) ia aida revive discutes de identia e [[esensalism siensal|esensalisme]], e ia distingui [[nesesadia metafisical|nesesadia]] como un idea metafisical de la idea [[epistemolojia]]l de ''a priori''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ahmed|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dkkdCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} | {{harvnb|Gutting|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4WuaB_0nu8wC&pg=PA31 31–32]}} }}</ref> En [[filosofia continental]], [[Edmund Husserl]] (1859–1938) ia partisipa en ontolojia par un descrive fenomenolojial de esperia e sua studiante [[Martin Heidegger]] (1889–1976) ia developa [[ontolojia fundal]] como un atenta per clari la sinifia de es.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ryckman|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FI1JCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142–144]}} | {{harvnb|McLean|2003|p=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/metaphysics 550]}} | {{harvnb|Taminiaux|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kcJzeXpHctYC&pg=PA154 154]}} }}</ref> La filosofia de Heidegger ia inspira criticas jeneral de metafisica par pensores [[posmodernisme|posmoderniste]] como [[Jacques Derrida]] (1930–2004).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gilje|Skirbekk|2017|loc=Derrida, Foucault, and Rorty – Deconstruction and Critique}} | {{harvnb|Reynolds|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> La prosimi de [[Gilles Deleuze]] (1925–1995) a metafisica ia defia consetas tradisional influente como sustantia, esense, e identia par reconseta la campo en termas de ideas alternativa como multia, aveni, e difere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smith|Protevi|Voss|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Roberts|2016a|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UKW5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA149 149]}} }}</ref> == Vide ance == * [[Demanda fundal de metafisica]] * [[Lista de metafisicistes]] * [[Teorias de Metafisica]] == Referes == === Notas === {{notelist}} === Sitas === {{Reflist}} === Fontes === {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last1=Adamson |first1=Peter |last2=Taylor |first2=Richard C. |title=The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-49469-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFMiAwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=7 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |author1=AHD staff |title=The American Heritage Dictionary Entry: Existence |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=existence&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |website=American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=HarperCollins |access-date=10 August 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811074250/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=existence&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Arif |title=Saul Kripke |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4411-9399-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dkkdCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |language=en |date=2010 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Andrea |first1=Alfred J. |last2=Overfield |first2=James H. |title=The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-305-53746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ |language=en |date=2015 |access-date=4 April 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Armstrong |first1=D. 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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240326130932/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315768571-27/social-kinds-%C3%A1sta |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald M. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott – Presupposition |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-02-865787-5 |edition=2. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214235128/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy |archive-date=14 February 2022 |chapter=Philosophy |access-date=10 November 2023 }} * {{cite web |last1=Baldwin |first1=Tom |title=George Edward Moore |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=30 April 2024 |date=2010 }} * {{cite book |last1=Beaulieu |first1=Alain |last2=Kazarian |first2=Edward |last3=Sushytska |first3=Julia |editor1-last=Beaulieu |editor1-first=Alain |editor2-last=Kazarian |editor2-first=Edward |editor3-last=Sushytska |editor3-first=Julia |title=Gilles Deleuze and Metaphysics |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-7476-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4PzBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |language=en |chapter=Introduction: Gilles Deleuze and Metaphysics |date=2014 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Bengtson |first1=Josef |title=Explorations in Post-Secular Metaphysics |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-55336-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pUHvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 |language=en |access-date=21 March 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Benovsky |first1=Jiri |title=Meta-metaphysics: On Metaphysical Equivalence, Primitiveness, and Theory Choice |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-25334-3 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|chapter=Categories |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/categories/v-1 |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |access-date=22 March 2024 |language=en |date=1998 |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-N005-1 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6 |archive-date=22 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322183105/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/categories/v-1 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Weisberg |first1=Josh |title=Hard Problem of Consciousness |url=https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719172212/https://iep.utm.edu/hard-problem-of-conciousness/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Wheeler |first1=Michael |title=Martin Heidegger |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heidegger/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=11 August 2024 |date=2020 }} * {{cite book |last1=White |first1=Alan |title=Methods of Metaphysics |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-51427-2 |language=en }} * {{cite book |last1=White |first1=Peter A. |title=Psychological Metaphysics |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-47355-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCWEDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT33 |language=en |date=2017 |chapter=1. Introduction to Psychological Metaphysics }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Williamson |first1=John |editor1-last=Beebee |editor1-first=Helen |editor2-last=Hitchcock |editor2-first=Christopher |editor3-last=Menzies |editor3-first=Peter |title=The Oxford Handbook of Causation |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-162946-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWWEIvNgUQ4C&pg=PA186 |language=en |chapter=Probabilistic Theories |date=2012 |access-date=29 March 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite journal |last1=Wilsch |first1=Tobias |title=Sophisticated Modal Primitivism |journal=Philosophical Issues |date=2017 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=428–448 |doi=10.1111/phis.12100 }} * {{cite book |last1=Wood |first1=Allen W. |editor1-last=Kim |editor1-first=Jaekwon |editor2-last=Sosa |editor2-first=Ernest |editor3-last=Rosenkrantz |editor3-first=Gary S. |title=A Companion to Metaphysics |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-0853-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i7PG-Vk824UC&pg=PA354 |language=en |chapter=Kantianism |access-date=21 March 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Wu |first1=Guo |title=An Anthropological Inquiry Into Confucianism: Ritual, Emotion, and Rational Principle |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-7936-5432-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zRVmEAAAQBAJ |language=en |date=2022 |access-date=4 April 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Züricher |first1=Tobias |editor1-last=Trachsel |editor1-first=Manuel |editor2-last=Biller-Andorno |editor2-first=Nikola |editor3-last=Gaab |editor3-first=Jens |editor4-last=Tekin |editor4-first=Şerife |editor5-last=Sadler |editor5-first=John Z. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Psychotherapy Ethics |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-881733-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLQ6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |language=en |chapter=Free Will, Responsibility, and Blame in Psychotherapy |date=2021 }}{{cbignore}} {{Refend}} [[Categoria:Filosofia]] [[Categoria:Siensas umana]] jb06mxamlpxosr2g38c4i9jmock523t 0 1280 43405 43365 2026-08-03T21:48:35Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 45 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43405 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Biografia | imaje = Spas vsederzhitel sinay (cropped1).jpg | descrive = La [[Cristo Pantocrator (Sinai)|Cristo Pantocrator]] de la [[Monceria de San Catalina de Monte Sinai]] a [[Monte Sinai]], sentenio 6 ec | nase = 6 a 4 aec, [[rena de Herod]], Impero Roman | mori = 30 o 33 ec, [[Ieruxalim]], [[Iudea]], Impero Roman | profesa = carpentor, predicor iudi }} '''Jesus''' (s 6 a 4 aec - 30 o 33 ec),{{efn|{{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς}}, {{peti|romanida:}} {{transleteri|grc|Iēsoús}}, probable de {{langx|he|יֵשׁוּעַ|label=[[ivri (lingua)|ivri]] o [[arami (lingua)|arami]]}}, {{peti|romanida:}} {{transleteri|und|[[Yeshua|Yēšūaʿ]]}} }} ci on nomi ance '''Jesus Cristo''',{{efn|[[copta (lingua)|copta]]: {{lang|cop|Ⲓⲏⲥⲟⲩⲥ Ⲡⲓⲭ́ρⲓⲥτⲟⲥ}}; [[itiopica]]: {{lang|gez|መሲህ ኢየሱስ}}; [[coine|elinica]]: {{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς Χριστός}}; [[ivri (lingua)|ivri]]: {{lang|hbo|ישוע המשיח}}; [[latina (lingua)|latina]]: {{lang|la|Iesus Christus}}; [[slavonica vea eglesal|slavonica]]: {{lang|cu|І҆исоу́съ Хрїсто́съ}}; [[siriaca clasica|siriaca]]: {{lang|syc|ܝܫܘܥ ܡܫܺܝܚܳܐ}}}}, '''Jesus de Nazaret''' e otra nomes e titulos variosa, ia es un predicor [[iudisme|iudi]] e [[Jesus en cristianisme|xef relijiosa]] de la sentenio prima en la provinse roman [[Iudea]].{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} El es la figur sentral de [[cristianisme]], la relijio la plu grande de la mundo. La plu de ramos de cristianisme regarda Jesus como la [[incarne (cristianism)|incarne]] de [[Dio la Fio]] e la [[Maxia]] o [[Cristo]] espetada. La [[Evanjelio]]s, spesial la cuatro Evanjelios canonal de la [[Atesta Nova]], conteni la naras de la vive de Jesus. De la [[Lumina]], rexerca academial ia produi vistas diversa sur la fidablia istorial de la Evanjelios e la grado a cual los refleta la Jesus istorial,{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=168–173}}{{efn|Ehrman scrive: "La mundo academial comparti jeneral la idea ce la naras de la evanjelios no es intera esata ma remane importante per la verias relijiosa cual los atenta comunica, an si persones estra de lo no conose o crede lo tan vasta."<ref>Bart D. Ehrman. [http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html Historical Jesus. 'Prophet of the New Millennium']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123155853/https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html |date=23 January 2019 |arcivo=1}} Course handbook, p. 10 (Lecture Three. V. B.), The Teaching Company, 2000, Lecture 24</ref><br />Sanders scrive: "La cristianes la plu temprana no ia scrive un nara de la vive de Jesus, ma plu esata los ia usa, e donce ia conserva, unias individua - pasajes corta sur sua parolas e atas. Plu tarda, autores e editores ia move e ordina esta unias. [...] Cristianes temprana ia revisa alga materias e ia crea otras."{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=57}}}}{{Sfn|Bowman Jr.|Komoszewski|2019|p=22–23}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author-first1=Craig A. |author-last1=Evans|url=https://theologicalstudies.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/54.1.1.pdf|title=Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology|journal=Theological Studies |volume=54 |year=1993|pages= 13–14|quote=First, the New Testament Gospels are now viewed as useful, if not essentially reliable, historical sources. Gone is the extreme skepticism that for so many years dominated gospel research. Representative of many is the position of E. P. Sanders and Marcus Borg, who have concluded that it is possible to recover a fairly reliable picture of the historical Jesus.}}</ref> ma cuasi tota eruditas moderna de [[anticia clasica|anticia]] acorda ce Jesus ia esiste istorial.{{efn |name=exist|En un resenia de 2011 sur la state de eruditia moderna, [[Bart D. Ehrman]] ia scrive: "Sin duta el ia esiste, como cuasi cada erudita capas de la antica clasica, cristian o noncristian, acorda."{{sfn|Ehrman|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376/page/n298 285]}} [[Richard A. Burridge]] declara: "Algas argumenta ce Jesus es mera un produida de la imajina de la Eglesa, e ce Jesus is esiste nunca. Me debe dise ce me conose no erudita criticante e respetable ci dise acel ancora."<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus Now and Then |first1=Richard A. |last1=Burridge |first2=Graham |last2=Gould |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8028-0977-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34 34] |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34}}</ref> [[Robert M. Price]] no crede ce Jesus ia esiste, ma el acorda ce esta perspetiva oposa la opinas de la majoria de eruditas. <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Robert M. |last=Price |title=Jesus at the Vanishing Point |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus: Five Views |editor-last1=Beilby |editor-last2=Eddy |year=2009 |publisher=InterVarsity |isbn=978-0-8308-7853-6 |editor-first=James K. |pages=55, 61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55 |editor2-first=Paul R. |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907112540/https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[James D. G. Dunn]] nomi la teorias sur la nonesiste de Jesus "un tese intera mor".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus |encyclopedia=Sacrifice and Redemption |first=Stephen W. |last=Sykes |year=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-04460-8 |pages=35–36}}</ref> Longo [[Michael Grant]] (un clasiciste): "En anios resente [de 2004], 'no erudita seria ia osa proposa la nonesiste istorial de Jesus', o a la min vera poca ia fa lo, e los no ia susede refuta la indicas multe plu forte e vera abundante per la oposada."<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Grant |title=Jesus|publisher=Phoenix |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-684-14889-2 |page=200}}</ref> [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] declara ce eruditas biblial e istoristes clasica opina ce on ia refuta eficas la teorias sur la nonesiste de Jesus.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=16}} Scrivente en ''[[The Daily Beast]]'', [[Candida Moss]] e [[Joel Baden]] declara ce "on ave un consensa cuasi universal entre eruditas biblial – a la min la eruditas autentica – ce Jesus ia es, en fato, un om real."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth |title=So-Called 'Biblical Scholar' Says Jesus a Made-Up Myth |newspaper=The Daily Beast |date=5 October 2014 |author-first2=Joel |author-last2=Baden |author-link1=Candida Moss|author-first1=Candida |author-last1=Moss |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=5 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205210029/https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth |url-status=live}}</ref>}} Longo la tradision cristian, como la Evanjelios e la [[Atas de la Apostoles]] representa lo, sua jenitores ia [[sircoside de Jesus|sircoside Jesus]] a eda de oto dias e ia [[presenta de Jesus|presenta]] el a la [[Templo de Ieruxalim]] a 40 dias. [[Joan la Batizor]] ia [[batiza de Jesus|batiza]] el cuando el ia es un adulte joven, e, pos [[tenta de Jesus|40 dias e notes]] de juna en la tera savaje, el ia comensa sua servi publica. El ia es un ensenior vagante ci, longo la credes de sua seguores, ia posese autoria divin per interprete la lege iudi. Frecuente Jesus ia debate con otra iudis, la plu comun la [[fariseos]] e [[saduseos]], sur la modo la plu bon per segue Dio. El ia remedia maladas, ia ensenia par parabolas, e ia colie seguores, de ci el ia asinia 12 per es sua apostoles. Longo la naras de la Atesta Nova, la autoriosas ia aresta el en Ieruxalim e la [[Sanhedrin]] ia litiga el.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} Los ia dona el a la autoriosas roman, e [[Pontio Pilato]], la prefeto roman de Iudea, ia comanda ce on [[crusi de Jesus|crusi]] el. En la [[teolojia cristian]], Cristo ia [[revive de Jesus|revive de la mores]] a la dia tre pos sua mori, e esta funda de crede ia developa a la [[cristianisme primitiva|Eglesa cristian temprana]], cual ia estende a un [[sperde de cristianisme|promove mundal]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=11, 14}} La teolojia cristian inclui la credes ce la [[Spirito Santa]] ia consepi Jesus, ce un virjin nomida [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|Maria]] ia [[nase virjinal de Jesus|pari]] el, ce el ia fa [[miracles de Jesus|miracles]], ia fundi la [[Eglesa]] cristian, ia mori par crusi como un sacrifia per espia pecas, ia revive de la mores a la dia tre, e ia [[asende de Jesus|asende]] a [[Sielo en cristianisme|Sielo]], de do el va reveni. Cristianes crede comun ce Jesus capasi ce la popla reconsilia con [[Dio en cristianisme|Dio]]. La [[Crede de Nisea]] afirma ce Jesus va [[judi final|judi la viventes e la mores]], o ante o pos lor [[revive universal|revive corpal]], un aveni cual [[escatolojia cristian]] asosia con la [[Ariva Du]] de Jesus. Multe ramos de cristianisme regarda Jesus como la incarne de Dio la Fio, la person du de la tre persones de la [[Trinia]]. A cada anio, tipal a 25 desembre, on selebra la nase de Jesus en Betlehem como [[natal]].{{efn|La plu de cristianes e [[alauistes]] selebra natal. Un parte de la eglesas de [[cristianes este|cristian este]] selebra natal a 25 desembre de [[calendario julian]]. Selebras natal comensa la [[vijila de natal]], tipal a 24 desembre.}} On onora sua [[crusi]] a [[venerdi santa]] e sua revive a soldi de [[pascua]]. La eda de calendario cual la mundo usa la plu vasta, en cual la anio presente es {{CURRENTYEAR}} [[eda comun|ec]], es fundida tradisional sur la data aprosima de la nase de Jesus. [[Iudisme]] tradisional rejeta la crede ce Jesus ia es la maxia espetada, afirmante ce el no ia reali la predises maxial, ce nun ia [[unje|unje legal]] el, e ce el ia es no divin no reviveda. Par contrasta, [[Jesus en islam|islam regarda Jesus]]{{efn|Frecuente nomida par sua nom curanal, {{transleteri|ar|ISO|[[Isa (nom)|ʿĪsā]]}}}} como la maxia e un [[profetas de islam|profeta]] de [[Dio en Islam|Dio]], ci Dio ia envia a la ivris e ci va reveni a Tera ante la [[Dia de Judi en Islam|Dia de Judi]]. [[Muslim]]es crede ce la virjin [[Maria en Islam|Maria]] ia pari Jesus, ma ce el ia es no Dio no la fio de Dio. La plu de muslimes no crede ce on ia mata o ia crusi el, ma ce Dio ia leva el a Sielo en cuando el ia es ancora vivente. {{efn|Alga muslimes medieval ia crede ce on ia crusi Jesus, como ance la membros de la promove moderna Ahmadiyya}} La credores de [[bahaisme]], [[durzi]] e [[rastafarisme]] venera ance Jesus. == Nom == Un person iudi en la tempo de Jesus ia ave tipal sola un nom, pos cual on ia ajunta a veses un espresa padral en la forma "fio de [nom de padre]", o la vila de orijina de la person.<!--<ref name="Britannica" />--> Donce, en la Atesta Nova, on nomi comun Jesus como "Jesus de [[Nazaret]]". La visinas de Jesus en Nazaret ia nomi el "la carpentor, la fio de [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|Maria]] e frate de [[Jacobo (frate de Jesus)|Jacobo]] e [[Josef (frate de Jesus)|Joses]] e [[Judas (frate de Jesus)|Judas]] e [[Simon (frate de Jesus)|Simon]]", "la fio de la carpentor", o "la fio de [[San Josef|Josef]]"; en la [[Evanjelio de Joan]], la disiplo [[Filipo la Apostol|Filipo]] refere a el como "Jesus, fio de Josef, de Nazaret". La nom Jesus es la transleteri (tra la latina ''Iesus'') de la [[elinica antica]] {{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς}}, cual es la varia elinica de la nom [[ivri]] Joxua (יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ ''Yehoxua'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Greek: 2424. Ἰησοῦς (Iésous) -- Jesus |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2424.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''The Greek name corresponds to the Hebrew "Joshua."''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''The name Jesus, in Greek, answers to Joshua, or rather, Jehoshuah, in Hebrew, which signifies Jehovah shall save;''}}</ref> La nom ivri/[[arami (lingua)|arami]] ia es comun entre iudis judean a la tempo de la nase de Jesus,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Barnes' Notes |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/barnes/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''It was a very common name among the Jews.''}}</ref> an si a acel periodo popla ia corti ja lo de יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ (''Yehoxua'') a יֵשׁוּעַ (''Yexua''); la corti ia aveni ja en libros biblial plu tarda como [[Nehemia]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=H3442 - yēšûaʿ - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (KJV) |url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/gen/1/1/s_1001 |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=Blue Letter Bible |language=en |quote=''Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon: יֵשׁוּעַ [Jeshua] a contracted form of the proper name יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ used in the later Hebrew ... proper name of other men, mentioned in the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah''}}</ref> en cual on nomi [[Joxua]] como Yexua.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nehemiah 8:17 Hebrew Interlinear: ... for the sons of Israel had not done, from the days of '''Jeshua [יֵשׁוּעַ, Yeshua] son of Nun''' ... |url=https://biblehub.com/interlinear/nehemiah/8-17.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com}}</ref> La nom sinifia "Dio salva" en ivri, leteral "[[Iaue]] salva",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 3091. יְהוֹשׁ֫וּעַ (Yehoshua) -- Joshua |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/3091.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Both Joshua son of Nun and Jesus of Nazareth bear the name "Yahweh saves"''}}</ref> de la radis ישׁע (''y-š-ʿ,'' 'salva') e la nom יְשׁוּעָה (''yexuah'', 'salva'). La [[Evanjelio de Mateo]] afirma direta la sinifia etimolojial de la nom de Jesus en la predise de la anjel a Josef sur sua nase: "tu va nomi el Jesus (Ἰησοῦς), car el va salva sua popla de lor pecas". Comentores ia dona un sinifia teolojial a la fato ce [[Joxua]], la susedor de [[Moxe]], porta la mesma nom como Jesus en la elinica, ivri, e arami orijinal, car on trasa frecuente un paralel entre la du xefes e la etimolojia de lor nom compartida ('salva'): Joxua gida la iudis a en la Tera Prometeda, en cuando la teolojia cristian dise ce Jesus salva e iudis e noniudis de lor pecas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Matthew Poole's Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/poole/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Joshua had his name from the same word, because he was to be a temporal saviour to save the Jews, the whole body of the Jews, from the Canaanites their enemies. This Jesus was to save his people, all that should believe in his name, whether Jews or Gentiles, from their sins.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Vincent's Word Studies |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/vws/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Under Joshua the enemies of Israel were conquered, and the people established in the Promised Land. So Jesus leads his people in the fight with sin and temptation.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''It was not without reason that the successor of Moses was called by this name; for, by subduing the Canaanites, and putting the tribes of Israel in possession of the promised land, he showed himself to be, under God, the Saviour of his people. But this name agrees much better to our Jesus, who both delivers his followers from much more dangerous enemies, and divides unto them a much more glorious inheritance.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Joshua who led the Israelites into the Promised Land, and Joshua or Jeshua, who was high priest at the time of the return from the Babylonish Captivity, are types of Jesus Christ in respect both of work and name.''}}</ref> === Jesus Cristo === De la sentenio prima, cristianes nomi comun Jesus como "Jesus Cristo".{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=212}} La parola Cristo no es un nom individual ma ia es orijinal un titulo o posto ("la Cristo"), sinifiante "la [[Maxia]]".{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=30–31}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Theology of the New Testament |first=Rudolf K. |last=Bultmann |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-932792-93-5 |page=80 |publisher=Baylor University Press}}</ref> La terma deriva de la elinica {{lang|grc|[[wikt:Χριστός|Χριστός]]}} ({{transleteri|grc|Christos}}),<ref>{{CathEncy |wstitle= Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ |first=Anthony J. |last= Maas}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Heil |first=John P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |title=Philippians: Let Us Rejoice in Being Conformed to Christ |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-58983-482-8 |page=66 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907173832/https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> un tradui prestada de la parola ivri {{lang|he|[[wikt:מָשִׁיחַ|משיח]]}} ({{transleteri|he|maxiakh}}), transleteri a elefen como ''maxia''.{{sfn|Vine|1940|pp=274–275}} La terma ivri sinifia "[[unjeda]]", de la verbo מָשַׁח (''maxaḥ''), "frota con olio, unje". En la [[Septuajinta]], la traduores ia usa la parola elinica χριστός (''christos''), sinifiante "unjeda",<ref>{{Cite web |title=χριστός Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=χριστός&la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2026-01-21|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|quote=of persons, anointed}}</ref> de la verbo χρίω (''chrio''), "frota con olio, unje".<ref>{{Cite web |title=χρίω Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=χρίω&la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2026-01-21|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|quote=Autenrieth: smear with oil, anoint, LSJ: rub, anoint with scented unguents or oil}}</ref> En iudisme biblial, pretes ia usa olio santa per unje persones e ojetos spesial santa como parte de lor indui relijiosa. Cristianes temprana ia nomi Jesus como "la Cristo" car los ia crede ce el es la Maxia de ci la ariva es prediseda en la [[Biblia ivri]] (Atesta Vea). En usa posbiblial, la popla ia comensa regarda ''Cristo'' como un nom — un parte de "Jesus Cristo". La parola ''[[cristian]]'', sinifiante un seguor de Cristo, es en usa de la sentenio prima.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA142 142]}} == Vive e instruis en la Atesta Nova == === Evanjelios canonal === [[File:Dublin, Chester Beatty Ms Papyrus 45 BP I ff.13-14 Luke 11.50-12.12; 12.18-37; 12.42-13.1; 13.jpg|alt=Un manoscrito de papiro de cuatro pajes cual es laserada en multe locas.|thumb|Un [[papiro]] elinica de sentenio 3 de [[Evanjelio de Lucas]]]] La cuatro [[evanjelios canonal]] ([[Evanjelio de Mateo|Mateo]], [[Evanjelio de Marco|Marco]], [[Evanjelio de Lucas|Lucas]], e [[Evanjelio de Joan|Joan]]) es la fontes xef per la vive e mesaje de Jesus.<!-- <ref name="Britannica" /> --> Otra partes de la Atesta Nova inclui ance referes a episodios clavin en sua vive, como la [[Come Ultima]] en 1 Corintianes 11:23-26. [[Atas de la Apostoles]] refere a la servi temprana de Jesus e la previde de lo par [[Joan la Batizor]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Book of the Acts|url=https://archive.org/details/bookofacts0000bruc|series=New International Commentary on the New Testament|first=Frederick F. |last=Bruce |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-2505-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bookofacts0000bruc/page/362 362] |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref>{{sfn|Rausch|2003|p=77}}{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} Atas 1:1-11 furni plu detalias sur la [[Asende de Jesus]] ca la evanjelios canonal.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}} En la leteras nondisputada de Paulo, cual el ia scrive plu temprana ca la evanjelios, el sita a alga veses la parolas o instruis de Jesus. Alga grupos cristian temprana ia ave descrives separada de la vive e instruis de Jesus cual la Atesta Nova no inclui. Estas inclui la [[Evanjelio de Tomas]], la [[Evanjelio de Petro]], la [[Evanjelio de Judas]], la [[Apocrifa de Jacobo]], e multe otra scrivedas apocrifa. La plu de eruditas conclui ce autores ia scrive esta testos plu tarda, e ce los es min istorial fidable ca la evanjelios canonal.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=835–840}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=C. A. |title=Exploring the Origins of the Bible |date=2008 |publisher=Baker |page=154}}</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009|p=56}} ==== Autoria, data, e fidablia ==== La evanjelios canonal es cuatro naras, e la tradision atribui cada a un autor diferente. La eruditas regarda jeneral la autores de la evanjelios como usante nomes falsa. La tradision atribui los a la [[cuatro evanjelistes]], cada asosiada con Jesus o sua seguores prosima:{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} Marco a [[Joan Marco]], un acompanior de [[San Petro|Petro]];<!-- <ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> --> [[Mateo (apostol)|Mateo]] a un de la disiplos de Jesus;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} [[Lucas (evanjeliste)|Lucas]] a un acompanior de [[Paulo (apostol)|Paulo]] notada en alga leteras;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} e Joan a un otra de la disiplos de Jesus,{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} la "[[disiplo amada]]".{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, St.}} Seguente la [[primia de Marco]], la evanjelio prima cual on ia scrive ia es la [[Evanjelio de Marco]] (60-75 ec), segueda par la Evanjelio de Mateo (65-85 ec), la Evanjelio de Lucas (65-95 ec), e la Evanjelio de Joan (75-100 ec).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 |title=Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John |publisher=Crossway |year=2007 |page=58 |isbn=978-1-4335-1978-9 |first=Mark D. |last=Roberts |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174109/https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 |url-status=live}}</ref> La plu de eruditas acorda ce la autores de Mateo e Lucas ia usa Marco como un fonte per lor evanjelios. Car Mateo e Lucas comparti ance alga contenida no trovada en Marco, multe eruditas dedui ce los ia usa un [[fonte Q|fonte ipotesal Q]] en ajunta a Marco, en cuando un cuantia cresente suporta la [[ipotese de Farrer]] o la Posterioria Matean, en cual Mateo e Lucas ia usa direta lunlotra.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Runesson|first=Anders|title=Jesus, New Testament, Christian Origins|date=2021|publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=9780802868923}}</ref><ref name="TSP20222">{{Cite book |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference|publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers|year=2023|isbn=9789042950344|pages=5|editor-first1=Olegs|editor-last1=Andrejevs|editor-first2=Simon J. |editor-last2=Joseph|editor-first3=‎Edmondo|editor-last3=Lupieri|editor-first4=Joseph|editor-last4=Verhayden}}</ref>{{sfn|Licona|2010|pp=210–221}} Lucas e Mateo trata lor fontes plu conservante ca otra istoristes antica como [[Diodoro de Sisilia]], an si la paraleles e varias de la evanjelios sinotica es tipal de biografias istorial antica.<ref name="Kloppenborg 49–79">{{Cite journal |last=Kloppenborg|first=John|title=Variation in the Reproduction of the Double Tradition and an Oral Q?|journal=Ephemerides Theologicae Lovaniensis|volume=83|issue=1|pages=49–79}}</ref><ref name="Licona 2016 XIII-XIV">{{Cite book |last=Licona |first=Mike |title=Why are there Differences in the Gospels? What we can Learn from Ancient Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/whyaretherediffe0000mich |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0190264260 |pages=XIII-XIV}}</ref> Un aspeta importante de la studia de la evanjelios es la [[jenero leteratural]] a cual los parteni. La jenero "es un costum clavin cual gida e la composa e la interprete de scrivedas".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Burridge|first1=R. A. |year=2006|chapter=Gospels|editor-first1=J. W. |editor-last1=Rogerson|editor-first2=Judith M. |editor-last2=Lieu|title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_i2h4|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_i2h4/page/433 433]}}</ref> Esce la autores de la evanjelios ia intende scrive novelas, mitos, istorias, o biografias ave un efeto sinifiante sur como on debe interprete lor obras. Alga studias ia sujesta ce on debe regarda la evanjelios como un forma de biografia antica.<ref>Talbert, C. H. (1977). ''What is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels''. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press.</ref><ref>Wills, L. M. (1997). ''The Quest of the Historical Gospel: Mark, John and the Origins of the Gospel Genre''. London: Routledge. p. 10.</ref><ref>Burridge, R. A. (2004). ''What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography''. revised updated edn. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans.</ref> An si criticistes esiste,<ref>e.g. Vines, M. E. (2002). ''The Problem of the Markan Genre: The Gospel of Mark and the Jewish Novel''. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 161–162.</ref> la vista ce la evanjelios es un tipo de biografia antica representa la acorda jeneral entre la eruditas oji.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Graham N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |title=Jesus and Gospel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-00802-0 |page=192 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226005236/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogerson |first1=J. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies |last2=Lieu |first2=Judith M. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-925425-5 |page=437 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225204746/https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |archive-date=25 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Consernante la esatia de la naras, la puntos de vista varia entre regarda los como descrives nonerante de la vive de Jesus,{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=90–91}} asta duta lor fidablia istorial a puntos diversa,{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} e asta regarda ce los furni multe poca informa istorial sur sua vive ultra la fatos fundal.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–125}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}} ==== Strutur e contenida comparativa ==== On nomi Mateo, Marco e Lucas la Evanjelios Sinotica, de la elinica {{lang|grc|σύν}} ({{transleteri|grc|syn}}, 'en junta') e {{lang|grc|ὄψις}} ({{transleteri|grc|opsis}}, 'vista'),<ref name="Haffner-2008" /><ref name="Scroggie-1995" /><ref>{{OED|synoptic}}</ref> car los es simil en contenida, ordina de nara, lingua e strutur de paragrafes, e on pote pone fasil los a lado de lunlotra per un compara sinotica.<ref name="Haffner-2008">{{cite book |title=New Testament Theology |first=Paul |last=Haffner |year=2008 |isbn=978-88-902268-0-9 |page=135 |publisher=Gracewing}}</ref><ref name="Scroggie-1995">{{cite book |title=A Guide to the Gospels |first=W. Graham |last=Scroggie |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8254-9571-7 |page=128 |publisher=[[Kregel Publications]]}}</ref><ref>{{Britannica URL |title=Synoptic Gospels |url=topic/Synoptic-Gospels}}</ref> Eruditas acorda tipal ce lo es nonposible trova cualce relata leteratural direta entre la Evanjelios Sinotica e la Evanjelio de Joan.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Gospel of John |first1=Francis J. |last1=Moloney |first2=Daniel J. |last2=Harrington |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8146-5806-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3 3] |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3}}</ref> Multe avenis — como la batiza de Jesus, sua crusi, e la interatas con sua apostoles — apare en la Evanjelios Sinotica, ma avenis como la [[muta de Jesus|muta]] e la [[esorsi]] de demones{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}} par Jesus no apare en Joan, cual difere ance sur otra temas, como la [[purga de la Templo]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ladd |first=George E. |title=A Theology of the New Testament |year=1993 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0680-2 |page=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907103156/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251 |url-status=live}}</ref> La Sinoticas asentua aspetas diferente de Jesus. En Marco, Jesus es la [[Fio de Dio (cristianisme)|Fio de Dio]], de ci sua obras potiosa demostra la presentia de la [[Rena de Dio]].<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> La autor portrae el como un faor nonfatigable de miracles e la servor de e Dio e umanas.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits">{{Cite book|editor-last1=Thompson|editor-first1=Frank Charles|title=The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible|url=https://archive.org/details/thompsonchainref0000fran_q7b3|publisher=Kirk Bride Bible Company & Zondervan Bible Publishers|year=1983|pages= [https://archive.org/details/thompsonchainref0000fran_q7b3/page/1563 1563]–1564}}</ref> Esta evanjelio corta rejistra un cuantia relativa peti de la parolas o instruis estendeda de Jesus.<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> La Evanjelio de Mateo asentua ce Jesus es la reali de la vole de Dio como revelada en la Atesta Vea e la Senior de la Eglesa.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ATJ-927|year=1977|chapter=Matthew|pages=1171–1212}}</ref> Lo presenta el como la "Fio de David", un "re", e la Maxia.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" />{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Lucas presenta Jesus como la salvor divin-umana ci mostra compatia a la povres.<ref name="May Metzger Luke">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ATJ-927|year=1977|chapter=Luke|pages=1240–1285}}</ref> La testo depinta el como la ami de pecores e escluidas, ci ia veni per xerca e salva la perdedas.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" /> Esta evanjelio inclui parabolas bon conoseda, como la [[Bon Samaritan]] e la [[Fio Perosa]].<ref name="May Metzger Luke" /> La [[prologa de la Evanjelio de Joan]] identifia Jesus como un incarne de la Parola divin ([[Logos (cristianism)|Logos]]).<ref name="MayMetzgerJohn">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ATJ-927|year=1977|chapter=John|pages=1286–1318}}</ref> Como la Parola, la testo descrive Jesus como eterna presente con Dio, ativa en tota la crea, e la fonte de la natur moral e spirital de umanas.<ref name="MayMetzgerJohn" /> En esta evanjelio, Joan portrae Jesus como no sola plu grande ca cualce profeta umana pasada, ma plu grande ca cualce profeta ta pote es: el no sola parla la Parola de Dio; el es la Parola de Dio.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} En la Evanjelio de Joan, Jesus revela publica sua rol divin e on depinta el como la [[Pan de Vive]], la [[Lus de la Mundo]], la [[Vite Vera]], e plu. La autores de la Atesta Nova ia mostra jeneral poca interesa a fundi un cronolojia asoluta de la vive de Jesus o a sincroni la episodios de sua vive con la istoria secular de la eda.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–731}} Como Joan 21:25 declara, la evanjelios no alega furni un lista completa de la avenis de la vive de Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Collins |first=Gerald |title=Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/christologybibli0000ocol_k7l8 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955787-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/christologybibli0000ocol_k7l8/page/1 1]–3}}</ref> La autores ia scrive la naras xef como documentos teolojial en la contesto de [[cristianisme temprana]], considerante la linias de tempo como minor.<ref name="Wiarda75">{{cite book |title=Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology |url=https://archive.org/details/interpretinggosp0000wiar |first=Timothy |last=Wiarda |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8054-4843-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/interpretinggosp0000wiar/page/75 75]–78 |publisher=B&H}}</ref> La evanjelios dedica sirca un tri de lor testo a la semana final de la vive de Jesus en [[Ieruxalim]], cual on nomi la [[Pasion (cristianisme)|Pasion]].<ref name="Turner613">{{cite book |title=Matthew |url=https://archive.org/details/matthew0000turn |first=David L. |last=Turner |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8010-2684-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/matthew0000turn/page/613 613] |publisher=Baker}}</ref> Los no furni sufisinte detalias per sasia la esijes de istoristes moderna consernante datas esata, ma on pote estrae de los un imaje jeneral de la istoria de la vive de Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} === Jenealojia e nase === {{Xef|Nase de Jesus}} Jesus ia es iudi,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} e [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|Maria]], la sposa de [[San Josef|Josef]], ia pari el. La Evanjelios de Mateo e Lucas ofre du naras diferente de sua [[jenealojia]]. Mateo trasa la asendentes de Jesus a [[Abraham]] tra [[David]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} en cuando Lucas trasa la asendentes de Jesus tra [[Adam]] a Dio.{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA163 163]}} La listas es identica entre Abraham e David ma difere forte pos acel punto; Mateo ave 27 jeneras de David a Josef, en cuando Lucas ave 42, cuasi sin coaveni entre la nomes en la du listas. Eruditas ia proposa teorias variosa per esplica perce la du jenealojias es tan diferente. [[File:Gerard van Honthorst - Adoration of the Shepherds (1622).jpg|thumb|left|''Adora par la Pastores'' par [[Gerard van Honthorst]], 1622|alt=Un sena natal; omes e animales ensirca Maria e la Jesus nova naseda, ci es covreda en lus]] E Mateo e Lucas descrive la nase de Jesus, spesial ce un virjin nomida Maria ia pari el en [[Betlehem]] per reali la [[profeti|profetida]]. La nara de Lucas asentua la avenis ante la [[nase de Jesus Cristo|nase de Jesus]] e foca a Maria, en cuando lo de Mateo covre xef avenis pos la nase e foca a Josef.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=556}}<ref name="marsh37">{{cite book |title=Jesus and the Gospels |last=Marsh |first=Clive |author-last2=Moyise|author-first2= Steve |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-567-04073-2 |page=37 |publisher=Clark International |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907095218/https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Morris|1992|page=26}} Ambos naras declara ce Maria ia es prometeda a un om nomida Josef, ci ia es un desendente de la Re David e no ia es la padre biolojial de Jesus. Ambos suporta la dotrina de la [[nase virjin de Jesus]], longo cual la [[Spirito Santa]] ia consepi miraclosa Jesus en la utero de Maria cuando el ia es ancora un virjin.<ref name="Jeffrey">{{cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |title=A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-85244-224-1 |pages=538–540 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=30–37}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinnewtest0000brow_x9y1 |last=Brownrigg |first=Ronald |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-26036-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinnewtest0000brow_x9y1/page/96 96]–100 |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> A la mesma tempo, on ave atestas, a la min en la ''Atas de la Apostoles'' par Lucas, ce persones ia pensa ce Jesus ia ave, como multe figures en anticia, un padria dual, car on declara ala ce el ia desende de la seme de David.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew T. |date=2013 |title=Luke and Jesus' Conception: A Case of Double Paternity? |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=132 |issue=3 |pages=639–658 |jstor=23487891 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref> Par aseta Jesus como sua propre fio, on comprende ce Josef dona a el la desende nesesada de David.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |last1=Lincoln|first1=Andrew T. |title=Conceiving Jesus: re-examining Jesus' conception in canon, Christology, and creed|publisher=The Severn Forum|date=5 March 2015|page= 4 |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510100248/http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Alga eruditas sujesta ce Jesus ia ave un erita levita de Maria, fundida sur sua relata de sangue con [[Elizabeth (madre de Joan la Batizor)|Elizabeth]].<ref>For example, {{citation |title=Carmen 18}}</ref> [[File:Bellini-circumcision-NG1455-fm.jpg|thumb|alt=74.9 × 102.2&nbsp;cm|''La sircoside'' par [[Giovanni Bellini]], sirca 1500. La obra depinta la [[sircoside de Jesus]].]] En Mateo, Josef es turbada car Maria, sua prometeda, es ensinta,<ref>[[Mateo 1:19]]–[[Mateo 1:20|20]].</ref> ma en la prima de la [[sonias de San Josef|cuatro sonias de Josef]], un anjel serti a el ce el no debe teme sposi Maria, car la Spirito Santa ia consepi sua enfante.<ref name="Talbert">{{cite book |title=Matthew |first=Charles H. |last=Talbert |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8010-3192-2 |publisher=Baker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |pages=29–30 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |url-status=live}}</ref> En Mateo 2:1-12, sajas o majos de la Este trae donadas a la Jesus joven como la Re de la Iudis. Los trova el en un casa en Betlehem. [[Herode la Grande]] oia sur la nase de Jesus e, volente mata el, [[masacra de la inosentes|comanda la mata de tota bebes mas]] en Betlehem e sua visineria. An tal, un anjel averti Josef en sua sonia du, e la familia [[fuji a Ejipte]], plu tarda reveninte e abitante en Nazaret.<ref name="Talbert" />{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Schnackenburg |first=Rudolf |title=The Gospel of Matthew |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-4438-5 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |pages=9–11 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052207/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |url-status=live}}</ref> En Lucas 1:31-38, Maria aprende de la anjel [[Gabriel]] ce el va consepi e pari un enfante nomida Jesus tra la ata de la Spirito Santa.<ref name="marsh37" /><ref name="Jeffrey" /> Cuando Maria es a punto de pari, el e Josef viaja de Nazaret a la casa asendente de Josef en Betlehem per enscrive en la conta de abitores comandada par [[Cesar Augusto]]. Ala, Maria pari Jesus, e car los ia trova no sala en la otel, el pone la bebeta en un [[portafeno de natal|portafeno]]. Un [[anusia a la pastores|anjel anunsia la nase a un grupo de pastores]], ci vade a Betlehem per vide Jesus e a pos sperde la novas sirca la rejion. Lucas 2:21 raconta como Josef e Maria fa ce on [[sircoside de Jesus|sircoside lor bebe a la dia oto pos la nase]] e nomi el Jesus, como Gabriel ia comanda a Maria. Pos la [[presenta de Jesus a la Templo]], Josef, Maria, e Jesus reveni a Nazaret.<ref name="marsh37" /><ref name="Jeffrey" /> === Vive temprana, familia e profesa === [[File:William Holman Hunt - The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[Trova de la Salvor en la Templo]]'' par [[William Holman Hunt]], 1860|alt=Maria e Josef trova Jesus en la Templo]] La Evanjelios de Lucas e Mateo identifia la site de la enfantia de Jesus como Nazaret, un vila en [[Galilea]] en la [[Israel]] moderna, do el ia abita con sua familia. An si Josef apare en descrives de la enfantia de Jesus, la testos no nota el a pos.<ref>{{cite book |last=Perrotta |first=Louise B. |title=Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today |url=https://archive.org/details/saintjosephhisli0000perr |publisher=Our Sunday Visitor Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87973-573-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/saintjosephhisli0000perr/page/21 21], 110–112}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Reverend Archdeacon Kinane |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138 |title=Saint Joseph: His Life, His Virtues, His Privileges, His Power |page=138 |chapter=Section VI – The perpetual virginity of St. Joseph |publisher=Aeterna Press|access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230526/https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> La Evanjelios e otra fontes nota sua otra membros de familia, incluinte sua madre Maria; sua cuatro [[frates de Jesus|frates]], [[Jacobo (frate de Jesus)|Jacobo]], [[Josef (frate de Jesus)|Joses]] (o Josef), [[Judas (frate de Jesus)|Judas]], e [[Simon (frate de Jesus)|Simon]]; e sua sores nonomida.<ref>{{cite book |title=Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth |last=Aslan |first=Reza |author-link=Reza Aslan |year=2013 |publisher=Random House |page=[https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756 36] |isbn=978-1-4000-6922-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756}}</ref> La [[Evanjelio de Jacobo]] nomi la avis madral de Jesus como Joachim e Ana.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brownrigg |first=Ronald |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim |page=194 |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-1-134-50949-2 |access-date=31 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230540/https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim#v=snippet&q=joachim&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> La Evanjelio de Lucas rejistra ce Maria ia es un relatada de Elizabeth, la madre de Joan la Batistor. Alga fontes contempora e estrabiblial regarda Jesus e Joan la Batistor como cusinos de grado du, fundida sur la crede ce Elizabeth ia es la fia de [[Sobe (sore de San Ana)|Sobe]], la sore de Ana.<ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 97.1325.</ref><ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 120.189.</ref><ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 145.760 ([[Nicephorus Callistus]], ''Historia ecclesiastica'', 2.3).</ref> La Evanjelio de Marco reporta ce, a la comensa de sua servi, Jesus ave un conflita con sua visinas e familia.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} La madre e frates de Jesus veni per prende el car la popla dise ce el es [[Sania mental de Jesus|loco]]. Jesus responde ce sua seguores es sua familia vera. En la Evanjelio de Joan, Jesus e sua madre atende un [[rituo de sposi en Cana]], do el fa sua miracle prima pos la solisita de sua madre. Plu tarda, el es presente a sua crusi, e Jesus espresa conserna per sua bonstate. En Marco 6:3 on nomi Jesus un {{lang|grc|τέκτων}} ({{transleteri|grc|tektōn}}), un terma cual on comprende tradisional como "carpentor" ma cual pote ance refere a fabricores de ojetos en materias diversa, incluinte construores.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry G. |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |title=An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1889 |page=797}}</ref>{{sfn|Dickson|2008|pp=68–69}} Considerante la estende semantical larga de la terma e "la realia sosioistorial de un τέκτων comun nazaretan", Matthew K. Robinson, un prete e erudita, prefere tradui τέκτων como 'construor-artisan'.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Matthew K. |title="Is This Not the Τέκτων?": Revisiting Jesus's Vocation in Mark 6:3 |journal=Neotestamentica |date=2021 |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=431–445 |doi=10.1353/neo.2021.0038}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Matthew Robinson |url=https://www.theology.ox.ac.uk/people/matthew-robinson |publisher=[[University of Oxford]] |access-date=1 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref> La Evanjelios indica ce Jesus ia pote leje, parafrase e debate testos santa, ma esta no sinifia nesesada ce el ia reseta instrui formal de scrivistes.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Context, family and formation |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |pages=14, 21 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907175830/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live|doi=10.1017/CCOL0521792614.002}}</ref> La Evanjelio de Lucas reporta du viajas de Jesus e sua jenitores en Ieruxalim en sua enfantia. Los veni a la [[Templo en Ieruxalim]] per la [[presenta de Jesus]] como un bebe, acordante con la Lege iudi, do un om nomida Simeon profeti sur Jesus e Maria. Cuando Jesus, a la eda de des-du anios, perde se a un peregrina a Ieruxalim per pesah, sua jenitores [[trova en la Templo|trova el en la Templo]], sentante entre la instruores, escutante los e fante demandas, e la popla es stonada par sua comprende e respondes. Maria reproxa Jesus per perde se, a cual Jesus responde ce el debe "es en la casa de sua Padre". === Batiza e tenta === [[File:El bautismo de Jesús, por José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''[[Batiza de Jesus|La Batiza de Cristo]] par [[Joan la Batizor]]'', par [[Almeida Júnior]], 1895|alt=Jesus ia es batizada par Joan. La Spirito Santa en la forma de un pijon es a supra.]] La [[evanjelios sinotica]] descrive la [[batiza de Jesus]] en la [[Rio Urdun]] e la [[tenta de Jesus|tentas]] cual el ia fasa tra 40 dias en la [[Deserto Iudean]] como un prepara per sua servi publica.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheen |first=Fulton J. |title=Life of Christ |year=2008 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-385-52699-9 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165309/https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65 |url-status=live}}</ref> En cada de esta naras, informa sur Joan la Batizor presede la naras de la batiza de Jesus.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=141–143}}{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}} Los portrae Joan predicante la repenti per la pardona de pecas, corajinte carita a la povres, batizante persones en la rejion de la Rio Urdun sirca [[Perea]], e predisente la ariva de algun "plu potiosa" ca el.<ref>{{cite book |title=Eerdmans commentary on the Bible |first1=James D. G. |last1=Dunn |first2=John W. |last2=Rogerson |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8028-3711-0 |page=1010 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref> [[File:Ary Scheffer - The Temptation of Christ (1854).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Jesus e la Diablo depintida en ''[[Tenta de Jesus|La tenta de Jesus]]'', par [[Ary Scheffer]], 1854]] En la Evanjelio de Marco, Joan la Batizor batiza Jesus, e cuando Jesus sorti de la acua el vide la Spirito Santa desendente a el como un pijon, e un vose veni de la sielo e declara el como la Fio de Dio. Esta es un de la du avenis descriveda en la Evanjelios en cual un vose de Sielo refere a Jesus como "Fio", e la otra es la Muta. A pos, la Spirito forsa el a en la tera savaje, do Satan tenta el. Pos la aresta de Joan, Jesus comensa sua servi en Galilea. En la Evanjelio de Mateo, cuando Jesus veni a Joan per reseta la batiza, Joan protesta, disente, "Me nesesa ce tu batiza me." Jesus instrui el a continua con la batiza "per reali tota la virtua". A pos, Mateo nara tre tentas spesifiada cual Satan ofre a Jesus en la tera savaje. En la Evanjelio de Lucas, la Spirito Santa desende en forma fisical como un pijon pos cuando Joan ia batiza ja tota la persones e en cuando Jesus prea. Plu tarda, Joan reconose nonesplicada Jesus par envia sua seguores per fa demandas sur el. Lucas descrive ance tre tentas cual Jesus ia esperia en la tera savaje ante el comensa sua servi en Galilea. La Evanjelio de Joan no nara la batiza e tenta de Jesus. En loca, Joan la Batizor atesta ce el ia vide la Spirito desende e resta sur Jesus. Joan proclama publica Jesus como la Ovea de Dio, e alga seguores de Joan deveni disiplos de Jesus. Ante cuando la autoriosas prisoni Joan, Jesus gida sua seguores per batiza, e los batiza plu persones ca Joan. === Servi publica === [[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|''Sermon sur la Monte'', par [[Carl Bloch]], 1877, depinta [[Sermon sur la Monte|la parla importante de Jesus]].|alt=Jesus senta sur un monte, predicante a un fola]] La Sinoticas depinta du locas jeografial xef en la servi de Jesus. La prima aveni en Galilea, a norde de [[Iudea]], do Jesus gida un servi multe susedosa; la du aveni en Ieruxalim, do la autoriosas rejeta e mata el.<ref name="ISBEO">{{cite web |year=1939 |editor-last=Orr |editor-first=James |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online |url=http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817024703/http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |archive-date=17 August 2016 |access-date=30 July 2016 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref> Frecuente nomida "rabi",<ref name="ISBEO" /> Jesus presenta sua mesaje par parla.<ref name="Dunn2013">{{cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |title=The Oral Gospel Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/oralgospeltradit0000dunn |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2013 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oralgospeltradit0000dunn/page/290 290]–291}}</ref> En esta naras, el proibi ce los ci reconose el como la maxia — incluinte persones ci el remedia e demones cual, como on dise, el esorsi — parla sur lo (vide Secreta Maxial).{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}} Par contrasta, la Evanjelio de Joan portrae la servi de Jesus como aveninte xef en e sirca Ieruxalim en loca de en Galilea, e on proclama e reconose plu abrida sua natur divin.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} Eruditas divide comun la servi de Jesus a grados variosa. La servi galilean comensa cuando Jesus reveni a Galilea de la [[Deserto Iudean]] pos resiste la tentas de [[Satan]]. A pos el predica tra Galilea, e en Mateo 4:18-20, sua disiplos prima — ci va formi plu tarda la nucleo de la Eglesa temprana — encontra el e comensa segue el.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–130}} Esta periodo inclui la Sermon sur la Monte, un de la parlas major de Jesus,{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–130}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation |url=https://archive.org/details/sermononmountthe0000vaug |first=Carl G. |last=Vaught |year=2001 |publisher=Baylor University Press |isbn=978-0-918954-76-3 |pages=xi–xiv}}</ref> como ance la [[calmi de la tempesta]], la [[nuri de la 5000]], [[Jesus pasea sur acua|pasea sur acua]], e otra miracles e parabolas diversa.{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=143–160}} Lo conclui con la [[Confesa de Petro]] e la [[Muta]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Transfiguration, The |encyclopedia=The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Thought: Son of Man-Tremellius V11 |isbn=978-1-4286-3189-2 |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |year=1909 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 |page=493 |last=Nash |first=Henry S. |editor-first=Samuel M. |editor-last=Jackson |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052036/https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Barton132">{{cite book |last=Barton |first=Stephen C. |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels |date=23 November 2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80766-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994/page/n138 132]–133 |url-access=limited}}</ref> En cuando Jesus viaja en dirije a Ieruxalim, en lo cual on nomi frecuente la servi perean, el reveni a la rejion do el ia es batizada, a sirca un tri de la distantia a su de la [[Mar de Galilea]] longo la Rio Urdun.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=137}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=211–229}} La fase final de sua servi, en Ieruxalim, comensa con sua entra vinsal a en la site a [[soldi de palmas]].{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} En la Evanjelios Sinotica, en acel semana Jesus [[Puri de la Templo|espulsa la intercambiores]] de la [[Templo Du]], e [[Tradi de Judas|Judas negosia per tradi]] el. Esta periodo culmina en la [[Come Ultima]] e, en la nara par Joan, la [[Parla de Adio]].{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=257–274}} ==== Disiplos e seguores ==== [[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Exhortation to the Apostles (Recommandation aux apôtres) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|''La recomenda a la apostoles'', par [[James Tissot]], portrae Jesus parlante a sua des-du disiplos.]] Prosima a la comensa de sua servi, Jesus asinia des-du apostoles. En Mateo e Marco, Jesus clama sua cuatro apostoles prima, ci es pexores, e la testo descrive ce los abandona direta lor redes per segue el. En Joan, la du apostoles prima de Jesus es a prima disiplos de Joan la Batizor; la Batizor vide Jesus e nomi el la Ovea de Dio, e la du, oiante esta, comensa segue Jesus.{{sfn|Brown|1988|pp=25–27}}{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=292–293}} En ajunta a la Des-du Apostoles, la introdui a la Sermon sur la Plano en Lucas identifia un grupo multe plu grande de persones como disiplos. En Lucas 10:1-16, Jesus envia [[setedes disiplos|70 o 72 de sua seguores]] en duples per prepara vilas per sua visitas futur; el instrui los a aseta ospitia, remedia maladas, e proclama la [[Rena de Dio]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=The Gospel According to Luke |encyclopedia=New Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 |page=255 |first=Michael F. |last=Patella |editor-first=Daniel |editor-last=Durken |isbn=978-0-8146-3260-4 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910044704/https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Instruis e miracles ==== [[File:Hoffman-ChristAndTheRichYoungRuler.jpg|thumb|''[[Jesus e la joven rica]]'' par [[Heinrich Hofmann (pintor)|Heinrich Hofmann]], 1889]] En la Sinoticas, Jesus ensenia multe — comun en parabolas{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=316–346}} — sur la Rena de Dio. Jesus parla ance sur la "Fio de Umana", un figur [[Apocalise|apocalisal]] ci va veni per colie la elejedas.<ref name="Britannica" /> Jesus clama la popla a repenti de lor pecas e dedica se intera a Dio.<ref name="Britannica">{{Britannica |id=303091 |title=Jesus Christ |first1=E.&nbsp;P. |last1=Sanders |first2=Jaroslav J. |last2=Pelikan}}</ref> El instrui sua seguores a obedi la [[lege iudi]], an si alga contemporas persepi ce el mesma ia rompe la lege, per esemplo en relata a la obedi a la sabat.<ref name="Britannica" /> Cuando on demanda de el cual es la comanda la plu grande, Jesus responde: "Tu va ama la Senior tua Dio con tota tua cor, e con tota tua spirito, e con tota tua mente... E la du es simil: 'Tu va ama tua visina como tu mesma.'" Otra instruis etical cual on atribui a Jesus inclui ama enemis, asteni de odia e desira sesal, ofre la otra jena, e pardona los ci ia peca contra on.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stassen |first1=Glen H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |title=Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context |last2=Gushee |first2=David P. |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8308-2668-1 |pages=102–103, 138–140, 197–198, 295–298 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226062140/https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> La Evanjelio de Joan presenta la instruis de Jesus no mera como sua propre predica ma como revela divin. Joan la Batizor, per esemplo, declara en Joan 3:34: "El ci Dio ia envia parla la parolas de Dio, car el dona la Spirito sin mesura." En Joan 7:16, Jesus dise, "Mea instrui no es de me ma de el ci ia envia me." El repete esta en Joan 14:10: "Tu no crede ce me es en la Padre e la Padre es en me? La parolas cual me dise a tu, me no dise de me mesma; ma la Padre ci abita en me fa sua obras."<ref name="Osborn-1993" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Köstenberger |first=Andreas J. |title=The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel |url=https://archive.org/details/missionsofjesusd0000kost |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8028-4255-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/missionsofjesusd0000kost/page/108 108]–109}}</ref> [[File:Pompeo Batoni 003.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|''[[Parabola de la Fio Perosa|La reveni de la fio perosa]]'' par [[Pompeo Batoni]], 1773]] Sirca 30 parabolas composa sirca un tri de la instruis rejistrada de Jesus.<ref name="Osborn-1993">{{cite book |first=Eric F. |last=Osborn |year=1993 |title=The emergence of Christian theology |url=https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo |url-access=limited |isbn=978-0-521-43078-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo/page/n115 98] |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=J. Dwight |last=Pentecost |year=1998 |title=The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher |url=https://archive.org/details/parablesofjesusl0000pent |isbn=978-0-8254-9715-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/parablesofjesusl0000pent/page/10 10] |publisher=Kregel}}</ref> La parabolas apare e en sermones plu longa e a locas diversa en la nara.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah |url=https://archive.org/details/sermonsofjesusme0000howi |first=E. Keith |last=Howick |year=2003 |publisher=WindRiver |isbn=978-1-886249-02-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sermonsofjesusme0000howi/page/7 7]–9}}</ref> Los conteni comun simbolisme e relata tipal aspetas de la mundo fisical a realias spirital.<ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich G. |last=Lisco |year=1850 |title=The Parables of Jesus |publisher=Daniels and Smith Publishers |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ/page/n12 9]–11 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Ashton |last=Oxenden |year=1864 |title=The parables of our Lord? |publisher=William Macintosh Publishers |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ/page/n15 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> Temas comun inclui la compatia e jenerosia de Dio, como ance la periles e resultas de peca.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |title=Interpreting the Parables |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2012 |page=448 |isbn=978-0-8308-3967-4 |first=Craig L. |last=Blomberg |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175429/https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |url-status=live}}</ref> Alga parabolas, como lo de la Fio Perosa, es relativa simple, en cuando otras, como la [[Parabola de la Seme Cresente|Seme Cresente]], es plu complicada, profonda, e difisil per interprete.<ref>{{cite web |first=Madeleine I. |last=Boucher |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html |title=The Parables |website=Frontline|publisher=PBS |access-date=3 June 2013 |archive-date=10 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810144100/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Cuando sua disiplos demanda perce el parla a la popla en parabolas, Jesus responde ce Dio ia permete ce la disiplos elejeda "sabe la secretas de la rena de sielo", no como la resta, ajuntante: "Car a el ci ave, on va dona plu e el va ave en abunda. Ma a el ci no ave, on va priva el an plu", e el continua par dise ce la plu de lor jenera ia developa "cores lente" e no es donce capas de comprende. [[File:Christ cleans leper man.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''[[Jesus remediante la leprosa]]'', [[mosaica]] medieval de la [[Catedral de Monreale]], de sentenios 12 a 13|alt=Jesus, sua testas areolada, pone sua manos sur un leprosa, remediante el]] En la naras de evanjelio, Jesus dedica un parte major de sua servi a fa [[miracle]]s, spesial remedias.{{sfn|Green|McKnight |Marshall|1992|p=299}} On clasi comun esta miracles a du categorias xef: miracles de remedia e miracles natural.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=350}}{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |title=The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide |date=2008 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-1-4267-2475-6 |page=113 |access-date=29 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> La miracles de remedia inclui la remedia de maladias fisical, [[esorsi]]s,{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=298}} e la revive de mores.{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=300}}<ref name="Oxford Companion" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Tabor |first=James |date=22 March 2013 |title=What the Bible Says About Death, Afterlife, and the Future |url=https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823115040/https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |archive-date=23 August 2016 |access-date=13 June 2015 |publisher=UNCC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hoekema |first=Anthony A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |title=The Bible and the Future |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-85364-624-2 |pages=88–89 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> La miracles natural demostra autoria supra la mundo natural e inclui [[muta acua a vino]], pasea sur acua, e calmi un tempesta, entre otras. Jesus atribui sua miracles a un fonte divin. Cuando oposores acusa el de espulsa demones par la potia de Belzebub, la prinse de demones, el responde ce el fa esta par la "Spirito de Dio" (Mateo 12:28) o la "dito de Dio", argumentante ce lo ta es nonlojical ce Satan dana sua propre rena; el ance demanda, si el esorsi par [[Belzebub]], "par ci vosa fios espulsa los?"<ref name="Britannica" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100 |title=Zondervan King James Version Commentary: New Testament |last2=Mitchell |first2=Daniel R. |publisher=Zondervan |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-310-25150-7 |page=100 |first1=Edward E. |last1=Hindson |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910171333/https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100 |url-status=live}}</ref> En Mateo 12:31-32, el declara ance ce, an si Dio pote pardona tota spesies de peca, incluinte "insultas contra Dio" o "insultas contra la Fio de Umana", Dio va pardona nunca blasfema contra "La [[Spirito Santa]]", e los ci es culpable de lo porta permanente lor peca.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 12:31-32 - New International Version|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2012%3A31-32&version=NIV|website=Bible Gateway|access-date=2026-01-30|language=en}}</ref> En Joan, la testo descrive la miracles de Jesus como "sinias", fada per evidenti sua mision e identia.<ref name="Sign" />{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/84 84]}} En la Evanjelios Sinotica, cuando alga instruores de la lege e fariseos demanda de el un sinia miraclosa per validi sua autoria, Jesus refusa,<ref name="Sign">{{cite book |title=Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature and Theology |year=2001 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3717-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198 198] |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198 |first1=Paul J. |last1=Achtemeier |first2=Joel B. |last2=Green |first3=Marianne M. |last3=Thompson}}</ref> disente ce Dio va dona no sinia a un jenera mal e dejenerada, con eseta de la sinia de la profeta [[Jona]]. En la Sinoticas, la folas responde tipal a sua miracles con stona e presa el per remedia lor maladas, ma en Joan, on depinta Jesus como min restrinjeda par la folas, ci responde frecuente a sua sinias con crede e fida.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=236}} Un cualia comun a tota naras de miracles es ce Jesus fa los libre e no solisita o aseta paia.<ref>{{cite book |last=van der Loos |first=Hendrik |title=The Miracles Of Jesus |year=1965 |publisher=Brill |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165838/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |url-status=live}}</ref> Frecuente la naras de miracles es entretexeda con instruis, e la miracles mesma porta comun un dimension instruinte.<ref>{{cite book |title=The words and works of Jesus Christ |first=J. Dwight |last=Pentecost |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-310-30940-6 |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |publisher=Zondervan |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910063513/https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Twelftree|1999 |p=95}} Multe asentua la importa de fida: en la [[remedia de des leprosas]] e la revive de la fia de Iairo, per esemplo, Jesus dise a la beneficadas ce lor fida es la causa de lor remedia.{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington |2002|p=182}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |year=1988 |title=All the Miracles of the Bible |url=https://archive.org/details/allmiraclesofbib0000lock |isbn=978-0-310-28101-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/allmiraclesofbib0000lock/page/235 235] |publisher=Zondervan}}</ref> En ''A Marginal Jew'', erudita [[John P. Meier]] argumenta ce "la tradisiones de miracles sur la servi publica de Jesus es ja atestada tan vasta en fontes diversa" ce cualce "fabrica intera par la eglesa temprana es, en modo pratical, nonposible". El fundi esta alega sur fontes leteratural como la Evanjelios de Mateo, Lucas, e Joan, como ance sur la scrivedas de la istoriste Josefo. Meier argumenta ce la "criterio de atestas multiple de fontes e formas" suporta la conclui ce Jesus ia fa "obras estracomun" cual sua contemporas ia regarda como miracles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=John Meier |url=http://archive.org/details/Marginal-Jew_vol-2_Meier_1994 |title=A Marginal Jew/Маргинальный еврей |date=November 1994}}</ref> Erudita [[Paul J. Achtemeier]] argumenta ce tal miracles no ia es unica a Jesus en la mundo antica e ce an atestores ia persepi los como ambigua. El nota ce probable Jesus ia fa atas cual on ia comprende como esorsis, cual "ia es asetada como realia par sua contemporas", ma ce on no debe vide estas como avente "valua demostrante consernante Jesus," car atestores ia pote alega ce el ia labora o con Satan o con Dio.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Achtemeier |first=Paul J. |date=1975 |title=Miracles and the Historical Jesus: A Study of Mark 9:14-29 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43714056 |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=471–491 |issn=0008-7912}}</ref> Erudita [[Gregory Sterling]] oserva ce, en la caso de la esorsis alegada fada par Jesus, "Per galileanes de la sentenio prima ci ia crede a la presentia personal de malia en forma de demones, la ata de Jesus ia es un validi de sua servi."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sterling |first=Gregory E. |date=1993 |title=Jesus as Exorcist: An Analysis of Matthew 17:14-20; Mark 9:14-29; Luke 9:37-43a |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43721315 |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=467–493 |issn=0008-7912}}</ref> ==== Proclama, Muta, e Semana de Pasion ==== [[File:Transfigurationbloch.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|La [[Muta de Jesus]], depintida par [[Carl Bloch]], sentenio 19]] Aprosima a la media de cada de la tre Evanjelios Sinotica, la autores nara du avenis sinifiante: la Confesa de [[San Petro|Petro]] e la Muta de Jesus — cual la Evanjelio de Joan no nota.<ref name="Barton132" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Christology of Mark's Gospel |url=https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king |url-access=limited |first=Jack D. |last=Kingsbury |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-4514-1007-5 |publisher=Fortress Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king/page/91 91]–95}}</ref>{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs" />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, Gospel of}} En la Confesa de Petro, Petro declara a Jesus, "Tu es la Maxia, la Fio de la Dio vivente";<ref>{{cite book |last=Karris|first=Robert J.|title=The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament|url=https://archive.org/details/collegevillebibl0000unse|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8146-2211-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/collegevillebibl0000unse/page/885 885]–886}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology|url=https://archive.org/details/whodoyousaythati0000unse_i0j9|first1=Jack D.|last1=Kingsbury|first2=Mark A.|last2=Powell|first3=David R.|last3=Bauer|year=1999|isbn=978-0-664-25752-1|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|page=xvi}}</ref>{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington|2002|p=336}} Jesus afirma ce esta es un veria divin revelada.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yieh|first=John Y. H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC|title=One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2004|isbn=978-3-11-018151-7|pages=240–241|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC|archive-date=8 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=53–54}} Pos esta confesa, Jesus comensa parla a sua disiplos sur sua sufri, mori, e revive prosiminte. En la Muta,{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs" /><ref name="Barton132" /> Jesus trae Petro e du otra apostoles a la culmina de un monte nonomida, do "el ia es mutada ante los, e sua fas ia brilia como la sol, e sua vestes ia deveni briliante blanca".{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=72–76}} Un nube briliante covre los, e un vose de la nube proclama, "Esta es mea Fio, la Amada; con el me es multe plaseda; escuta a el."{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}} La descrive de la semana final de la vive de Jesus — comun nomida la [[Semana de Pasion]] — ocupa aprosima un tri de la nara en la evanjelios canonal. Esta parte comensa con la entra vinsal de Jesus a Ieruxalim e conclui con sua crusi.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} ==== Fadas en Ieruxalim ==== [[File:Gérôme - L'entrée du Christ à Jérusalem - cadre.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Un depinta de la [[entra vinsal de Jesus a Ieruxalim|la entra ultima de Jesus a Ieruxalim]], par [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1897|alt=Jesus, montante un asineta, viaja a Ieruxalim. Un fola grande bonveni el estra la murones.]] En la Evanjelios Sinotica, la semana final en Ieruxalim conclui la viaja tra Perea e Iudea cual Jesus ia comensa en Galilea.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} Jesus entra a Ieruxalim montante un asino joven, evocante la motif de la asino de la Maxia de la [[Zecaria|Libro de Zecaria]], en cual la re umil de la Iudis ariva a la site en esta modo.<ref name="May Metzger Mark">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ATJ-927|year= 1977|chapter=Mark|pages= 1213–1239}}</ref> En cuando el avansa, popla sperde capas e ramos peti de arbores (plumas de palma) sur la strada ante el e canta linias de Salmo 118:25-26.{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=256–258}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–395}} Pos esta, Jesus espulsa la intercambiores de la Templo, acusante los de cambia lo a un asconderia de furores par lor comersia. La plu de eruditas acorda ce lo es multe probable ce Jesus ia fa alga cosa en la templo e ia nota sua destrui.<ref>{{cite book |last= Sanders |first= E.P. |author-link= E.P. Sanders |year= 1985 |title= Jesus and Judaism |publisher= Fortress Press |page= [https://archive.org/details/jesusjudaism0000sand/page/61 61] |isbn= 978-0800620615|title-link=Jesus and Judaism}}</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}} En Joan, la Purga de la Templo aveni a la comensa de la servi de Jesus en loca de a la fini.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} Praticas antica de composa ia inclui tal deslocas e compresas cronolojial, e an biografistes fidable como [[Plutarco]] ia usa los.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vytlačilová |first=Magdalena |date=2023 |title=Jesus, the Gospels, and the Galilean Crisis by Tucker S. Ferda (review) |journal=Neotestamentica |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=197–202 |doi=10.1353/neo.2023.a938405}}</ref> Jesus ave conflitas con la veas iudi, per esemplo cuando los demanda sur sua autoria e cuando el critica los e nomi los ipocritas.{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=256–258}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–395}} [[Judas Iscariot]], un de la des-du apostoles, fini un negosia secreta con la veas iudi, prometente tradi Jesus a los per 30 monetas de arjento.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |title=All the Apostles of the Bible |publisher=Zondervan |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-310-28011-8 |pages=106–111 |access-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229044027/https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts |first=Doremus A. |last=Hayes |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-313-53490-1 |page=88 |publisher=HardPress}}</ref> La Evanjelio de Joan raconta du otra festas en cual Jesus ia ensenia en Ieruxalim ante la Semana de Pasion.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} En Betania, un vileta prosima a Ieruxalim, Jesus [[revive de Lazaro|revive Lazaro de la mores]]. Esta sinia potiosa{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} grandi la tensa con la autoriosas,{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} ci conspira per mata el.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} [[Maria de Betania]] unje la pedes de Jesus, predisente sua entera.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=401–470}} A pos, Jesus fa sua entra maxial a Ieruxalim.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} La folas aclamante ci saluta Jesus cuando el entra a Ieruxalim grandi la enemia entre el e la xefes ofisial.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} En Joan, Jesus ia purga ja la Templo Du en un visita a Ieruxalim en un pesah plu temprana. A pos, Joan raconta la Come Ultima de Jesus con sua disiplos.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} ==== Come Ultima ==== [[File:Última Cena - Juan de Juanes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|La [[Come Ultima]], depintida par [[Juan de Juanes]], sirca 1562|alt=Un depınta de la Come Ultıma. Jesus senta en la sentro, sua apostoles asemblada a ambos lados.]] La Come Ultima es la come final cual Jesus ia comparti con sua des-du apostoles en Ieruxalim ante sua crusi. Tota cuatro evanjelios canonal nota la Come Ultima; la Epistola Prima a la Corintianes par Paulo refere ance a lo.<ref name="Fahlbusch52">{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |volume=4 |first=Erwin |last=Fahlbusch |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |pages=53–56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907101720/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–477}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=180–191}} En la come, Jesus predise ce un de sua apostoles va tradi el.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} An pos ce cada Apostol afirma ce el no va tradi el, Jesus repete ce la trador va es un de los ci es presente ala. Mateo 26:23-25 e Joan 13:26-27 identifia Judas como la trador.<ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–477}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} En la Sinoticas, Jesus prende pan, rompe lo, e dona lo a la disiplos, disente, "Esta es mea corpo, cual es donada per vos." A pos el fa ce los tota bevi de un copa, disente, "Esta copa cual es versada per vos es la alia nova en mea sangue."<ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Eucharist}} La rituo cristian de la [[Eucaristia]] es fundida sur esta avenis. An si la Evanjelio de Joan no inclui un descrive de la rituo de pan-e-vino en la Come Ultima, la plu de eruditas acorda ce Joan 6:22-59 (la [[Parla sur la Pan de Vive]]) ave un natur eucaristial e resona con la naras de institui en la Evanjelios Sinotica e en la scrivedas de Paulo sur la Come Ultima.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=792}} En tota cuatro evanjelios, Jesus predise ce Petro va nega conose el a tre veses ante la [[gal]] cria en la matina seguente.<ref name="Denial">{{cite book |title=Peter: apostle for the whole church |first=Pheme |last=Perkins |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-4514-1598-8 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Gospel according to Matthew |volume=1 |first=Johann P. |last=Lange |year=1865 |publisher=Scribner |page=499}}</ref> En Lucas e Joan, el fa la predise en la Come. En Mateo e Marco, el fa la predise pos la Come; Jesus predise ance ce tota sua disiplos va abandona el.{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}} La Evanjelio de Joan furni la sola nara de Jesus lavante la pedes de sua disiplos pos la come.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}} Joan inclui ance un sermon longa par Jesus, preparante sua disiplos (aora sin Judas) per sua parti. Capitoles 14-17 de la Evanjelio de Joan es conoseda como la [[Parla de Adio]] e es un fonte sinifiante de contenida cristolojial.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Day |first1=Gail R. |title=John |url=https://archive.org/details/john0000oday |last2=Hylen |first2=Susan |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-664-25260-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/john0000oday/page/142 142]–168}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ridderbos |first=Herman |title=The Gospel of John: A Theological Commentary|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8028-0453-2 |pages=546–576}}</ref> ==== Angusa en la Jardin, tradi, e aresta ==== [[File:Caravaggio - The Taking of Christ restored.jpg|thumb|Un depinta de la [[besa de Judas]] e [[aresta de Jesus]], par [[Caravaggio]], sirca 1602|alt=Judas besa Jesus, e soldatos core per saisi esta.]] En la Sinoticas, Jesus e sua disiplos vade a la jardin [[Getsemani]], do Jesus prea per evita sua esperia difisil prosiminte. A pos Judas veni con un fola armada, enviada par la pretes xef, scrivistes e veas. El [[besa de Judas|besa Jesus]] per identifia el a la fola, cual aresta alora Jesus. En un atenta a para los, un disiplo nonomida de Jesus usa un spada per talia a via la orea de un om en la fola. Pos la aresta de Jesus, sua disiplos vade per asconde, e Petro, cuando demandada, nega a tre veses ce el conose Jesus. Pos la nega tre, Petro oia la gal cria e recorda la predise de Jesus sur sua nega. Alora Petro plora amarga.{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}}<ref name="Denial" /> En Joan 18:1-11, Jesus no prea per evita sua crusi, car la evanjelio portrae el como apena tocada par tal debilia umana.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus}} La persones ci aresta el es soldatos roman e gardores de la Templo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Michaels |first1=J. Ramsey |title=John |series=Understanding the Bible Commentary Series |date=2011 |publisher=Baker Books |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187 |isbn=978-1-4412-3659-3 |access-date=7 September 2017 |archive-date=26 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226071102/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187 |url-status=live}}</ref> En loca de es tradida par un besa, Jesus proclama sua identia, e cuando el fa esta, la soldatos e ofisiales cade a la tera. La evanjelio identifia Petro como la disiplo ci ia usa la spada, e Jesus reproxa el per lo. ==== Litigas par la Sanhedrin, Herodes, e Pilato ==== Pos sua aresta, la fola prende Jesus tarda en la note a la casa privata de la prete xef, [[Caiafas]], ci la presedor de Pilato, la procurator roman [[Valerio Grato]], ia instala a ante.<ref>[[Josephus]] Antiquities 18.2.2.</ref> La [[Sanhedrin]] ia es un asembla judal iudi.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=146}} La naras de evanjelio difere sur la detalias de la litigas.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Bromiley |editor-first1=Geoffrey W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-3782-0 |pages=1050–1052 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182833/https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> En Mateo 26:57, Marco 14:53, e Lucas 22:54, la gardores prende Jesus a la casa de la prete xef, Caiafas, do persones burla e bate el a acel note. Temprana en la matina seguente, la pretes xef e scrivistes gida Jesus a en lor consilio.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608">{{cite book |title=Holman Concise Bible Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/concisebibledict0000unse |publisher=B&H Publishing Group|lccn=97-22283|year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8054-9548-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/concisebibledict0000unse/page/608 608]–609}}</ref> Joan 18:12-14 declara ce la gardores prende Jesus a prima a Anas, la padre par sposi de Caiafas, e a pos a la prete xef.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608" /> [[File:Ecce homo by Antonio Ciseri (1).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Ecce homo!'' la depinta de 1871 par [[Antonio Ciseri]] de [[Pontio Pilato]] presentante Jesus a la publica|alt=Un depinta de la litiga publica de Jesus]] En la litigas Jesus parla multe poca, presenta no defende, e dona respondes multe rara e nondireta a la demandas de la pretes, causante ce un ofisial palmi el. En Mateo 26:62, la asentia de responde de Jesus causa ce Caiafas demanda el, "Tu ave no responde?".{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608" /> En Marco 14:61, la prete xef demanda alora a Jesus, "Esce tu es la Maxia, la Fio de la Bon-Diseda?". Jesus responde, "Me es", e alora predise la ariva de la Fio de Umana.<ref name="Britannica" /> Esta provoca ce Caiafas lasera sua propre roba con coleria e acusa Jesus de blasfema. En Mateo e Lucas, la responde de Jesus es plu ambigua:<ref name="Britannica" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|p=495}} en Mateo 26:64, el responde, "Tu ia dise tal", e en Lucas 22:70 el dise, "Tu dise ce me es."{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–398}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology |url=https://archive.org/details/lukespresentatio0000otoo |first=Robert F. |last=O'Toole |year=2004 |isbn=978-88-7653-625-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lukespresentatio0000otoo/page/166 166] |publisher=Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico|series=Subsidia Biblica}}</ref> La veas iudi prende Jesus a la Corte de Pilato e demanda a la governor roman, [[Pontio Pilato]], ce el judi e condena Jesus per alegas variosa: suverti la nasion, oposa la paia de tribui, alega es Cristo, un re, e alega es la fio de Dio.<ref name="Holman608" /> La usa de la parola "re" es sentral a la discute entre Jesus e Pilato. En Joan 18:36, Jesus declara, "Mea rena no es de esta mundo", ma el no nega sin ambiguia ce el es la Re de la Iudis.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications |title=The Names of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/namesofjesus0000binz |first=Stephen J. |last=Binz |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-58595-315-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/namesofjesus0000binz/page/81 81]–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ironside |first=H. A. |title=John |publisher=Kregel |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8254-9619-6 |page=454}}</ref> En Lucas 23:7-15, Pilato reali ce Jesus es galilean, e donce veni su la autoria de [[Herodes Antipas]], la tetrarca de Galilea e Perea.{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|p=181}} Pilato envia Jesus a Herodes per litiga,{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–121}} ma Jesus dise cuasi no cosa en responde a la demandas de Herodes. Herodes e sua soldatos burla Jesus, pone un roba custosa sur el per fa ce el aspeta como un re, e redona el a Pilato,{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}} ci clama alora en junta la veas iudi e anunsia ce el ia "no trova esta om culpable".{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–121}} Oservante un costum de pesah de la tempo, Pilato permete la relasa de un prisonida elejeda par la fola. El dona a la popla un eleje entre Jesus e un omisidor nomida [[Barabas]] ({{lang|he|[[wikt:בר-אבא|בר-אבא]]}} o Bar-abbâ, "fio de la padre", de la nom comun Abba: 'padre'). Convinseda par la veas, la fola eleje relasa Barabas e crusi Jesus.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=400–401}} Pilato scrive un sinia en ivri, latina, e elinica cual dise "Jesus de Nazaret, la Re de la Iudis" (cortida como INRI en depintas) per es afisada a la crus de Jesus,{{sfn|Brown|1988|p=93}} e alora flajeli Jesus e envia el per es crusida. La soldatos pone un [[corona de spinas]] sur la testa de Jesus e burla el como la Re de la Iudis. Los bate e burla el ante prende el a [[Calvario]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew |first=Donald |last=Senior |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8146-5460-6 |publisher=Liturgical Press |page=124}}</ref> ance nomida Golgota, per crusi.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}<ref name="Holman608" />{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|p=402}} ==== Crusi e entera ==== [[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|alt=Un depinta de Jesus sur la crus.|thumb|La depinta de [[Diego Velázquez]] de la [[crusi de Jesus|crusi]], sirca 1632]] Tota cuatro evanjelios canonal descrive la crusi de Jesus. Pos la litigas, la gardores gida Jesus a Calvario en cuando el porta sua crus; on nomi la via cual el ia prende probable la Via Dolosa. La tre Evanjelios Sinotica indica ce [[Simon de Cirene]] aida el, forsada par la romanes a fa tal.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–214}} En Lucas 23:27-28, Jesus dise a la femes en la fola grande ci segue el ce los no debe plora per el ma per se mesma e lor enfantes.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}} A Calvario, un person ofre a Jesus un sponja empapada en un misca tipal ofreda per lejeri dole. Longo Mateo e Marco, el refusa lo.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–214}} Alora la soldatos crusi Jesus e lansa dados per sua vestes. Supra la testa de Jesus a la crus, on pone la enscrive multilingual par Pilato, "Jesus de Nazaret, la Re de la Iudis." Soldatos e pasores burla el sur lo. Soldatos crusi du furores condenada con Jesus. En Mateo e Marco, ambos furores burla Jesus. En Lucas, un de los reproxa Jesus, en cuando la otra defende el.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=271}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/82 82]}} Jesus dise a la seguor: "oji tu va es con me en Paradiso." La cuatro evanjelios nota la presentia de un grupo de disiplos fema de Jesus a la crusi. En Joan, Jesus vide sua madre Maria e la disiplo amada e dise a el a cura el. En Joan 19:33-34, soldatos roman rompe la gamas de la du furores per aselera lor mori, ma no los de Jesus, car el es ja mor. En loca, un soldato perfora la lado de Jesus con un lansia, e sangue e acua flue a estra.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=271}} La Sinoticas reporta un periodo de oscuria, e la cortina pesosa en la Templo lasera cuando Jesus mori. En Mateo 27:51-54, un trematera abri tombas. En Mateo e Marco, asustada par la avenis, un [[senturion]] roman declara ce Jesus ia es la Fio de Dio.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=213–214}} A la mesma dia, [[Josef de Arimatea]], con la permete de Pilato e con la aida de [[Nicodemo]], sutrae la corpo de Jesus de la crus, envolve lo en un stofa limpa, e entera lo en un tomba nova escavada en roca.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}} En Mateo 27:62-66, a la dia seguente la pretes xef iudi demanda a Pilato per securi la tomba, e con la permete de Pilato la pretes pone selos sur la roca grande cual covre la entra.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Morris|1992|p=727}} === Revive e asende === [[File:Alexander Ivanov - Christ's Appearance to Mary Magdalene after the Resurrection - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Jesus aparente a Maria Magdalena pos sua [[Revive de Jesus|Revive]], depintida par [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]].|''Apare de Jesus Cristo a Maria Magdalena'' par [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]], 1835]] La Evanjelios no descrive la momento de la [[revive de Jesus]]. Los descrive la descovre de sua [[tomba vacua]] e alga apares de Jesus, con diferes clar en cada nara.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vermes |first=Geza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |title=The Resurrection |publisher=Penguin |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-191263-9 |place=London |page=141 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231513/https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |url-status=live}}</ref> En la cuatro Evanjelios, [[Maria Magdalena]] vade a la tomba a soldi matina, solitar o con un o plur otra femes.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=308–309}} La tomba es vacua, con la roca rolada a via, e on ave un o du anjeles, dependente de la naras. En la Sinoticas, un anjel dise a la femes ce Jesus no es asi e ce el ia revive. En Marco e Mateo, la anjel instrui ance ce los dise a la disiplos a encontra Jesus en Galilea. En Lucas, Petro visita la tomba pos cuando algun dise a el ce lo es vacua. En Joan, el vade ala con la disiplo amada. Mateo nota gardores roman a la tomba, ci reporta a la pretes de Ieruxalim lo cual ia aveni. La pretes soborna los afin los dise ce la disiplos ia fura la corpo de Jesus en la note. Poi la cuatro Evanjelios descrive apares diversa de Jesus en sua corpo reviveda. Jesus revela se prima a Maria Magdala en Marco 16:9 e Joan 20:14-17, con "la otra Maria" en Mateo 28:9, en cuando en Lucas la apare prima reportada es a du disiplos viajante a [[Emaus]]. Poi Jesus revela se a la des-un disiplos, en Ieruxalim o en Galilea. En Lucas 24:36-43, el come e mostra a los sua feris tocable per demostra ce el no es un spirito. El mostra ance los a Tomas per fini sua dutas, en Joan 20:24-29. En la Sinoticas, Jesus comanda la disiplos a sperde la mesaje de la evanjelio a tota nasiones,{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=297–301}} en cuando en Joan 21, el dise a Petro a cura sua oveas.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=216–226}} Lucas 24:50-53, Atas 1:1-11, e 1 Timoteo 3:16 nota o descrive la asende de Jesus a Sielo. En la Atas de la Apostoles, 40 dias pos la Revive, cuando la disiplos regarda, "un potia ia leva el a supra, e un nube ia prende el a estra lor vide". 1 Petro 3:22 declara ce Jesus ia "entra a sielo e es a la destra de Dio".{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}} La Atas de la Apostoles descrive alga apares de Jesus pos sua Asende. En Atas 7:55, Stefano regarda la sielo e vide "Jesus stante a la destra de Dio" apena ante sua mori.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=Frederick F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |title=The Acts of the Apostles |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8028-0966-7 |page=210 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222000/https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sur la via a [[Dimaxco]], la Apostol Paulo converti a cristianisme pos vide un lus abliante e oia un vose disente, "Me es Jesus, ci tu persegue." En Atas 9:10-18, Jesus comanda Ananias de Dimaxco en un revela a remedia Paulo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Luke T. |title=The Acts of the Apostles |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles0000john |last2=Harrington |first2=Daniel J. |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8146-5807-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles0000john/page/164 164]–167}}</ref> La [[Libro de Revela]] inclui un revela de Jesus consernante la dias final de Tera.<ref>{{CathEncy |wstitle=Apocalypse |last=Van den Biesen |first=Christian}}</ref> == Cristianisme temprana == [[File:Good shepherd 02b close slightly improved.jpg|thumb|Depinta de Jesus de la sentenio 3 de Jesus como la [[Bon Pastor]]]] Pos la vive de Jesus, sua seguores, como descriveda en la capitoles prima de la [[Atas de la Apostoles]], ia es tota iudis par nase o par converti, per cual la testo usa la terma biblial "[[proselite]]", e istoristes refere a los como cristianes iudi. La mesaje temprana de la Evanjelio ia es sperdeda par parla, probable en arami,{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=87–90}} ma cuasi direta ance en elinica.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jaeger |first1=Werner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |title=Early Christianity and Greek Paideia |date=1961 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-22052-2 |pages=6, 108–109 |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217042345/https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=17 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> La Atas de la Apostoles e la [[Epistola a la Galatianes]] en la [[Atesta Nova]] rejistra ce la comunia cristian prima ia es sentrida en Ieruxalim e sua xefes ia inclui Petro, [[Jacobo (frate de Jesus)|Jacobo, la frate de Jesus]], e [[Joan (Apostol)| Joan la Apostol]]. Pos sua converti, Paulo la Apostol ia sperde la instruis de Jesus a comunias noniudi diversa tra la rejion este de la Mediteraneo. On dise ce la influe de Paulo sur la pensa cristian es plu sinifiosa ca lo de cualce otra autor de la Atesta Nova.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_f0e0 |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |edition=3rd rev. |chapter=Paul}}</ref> A la fini de la sentenio prima, cristianisme ia comensa es interna e esterna reconoseda como un relijio separada de iudisme cual mesma ia es refinada e ia developa plu en la sentenios pos la destrui de la Templo Du.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |title=From the Maccabees to the Mishnah |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |publication-place=Philadelphia |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-664-25017-1 |pages=224–225}}</ref> Sitas cuantiosa en la Atesta Nova e otra scrivedas cristian de la sentenios prima indica ce cristianes temprana ia usa e amira jeneral la Biblia ivri (la [[Tanakh]]) como un testo relijiosa, xef en la traduis elinica ([[Septuajinta]]) o arami ([[Targum]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fee |first1=Gordon |author-link1=Gordon Fee |last2=Stuart |first2=Douglas |author-link2=Douglas Stuart (biblical scholar) |title=How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: Fourth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-310-51783-2 |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626225710/https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Cristianes temprana ia scrive multe obras relijiosa, incluinte los incluida en la canon de la Atesta Nova. Autores ia scrive probable la testos canonal, cual ia deveni la fontes xef usada par istoristes per atenta comprende la Jesus istorial e testos santa en cristianisme, entre 50 e 120 ec.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |page=8 |quote=The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 C.E. (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books were written by Jesus' own disciples. |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416082406/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vistas istorial == Ante la [[Lumina]], eruditas ia regarda usual la Evanjelios como naras istorial esata, ma de alora eruditas ia emerje ci duta la fidablia de la Evanjelios e distingui entre la Jesus descriveda en la Evanjelios e la Jesus de istoria.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=5}} De la sentenio 18, tre xercas erudita separada per la Jesus istorial ia aveni, cada con cualias distinguinte e fundida sur criterios de rexerca diferente, cual eruditas ia developa comun en la xerca cual ia aplica los.{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=19–23}} An si un acorda vasta erudita esiste sur la esiste de Jesus,{{efn|name=exist}} e un acorda fundal sur la contorno jeneral de sua vive,{{efn|[[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate."<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|2006|p=4}}</ref>}} la portraes de Jesus construida par eruditas diversa difere comun de lunlotra, e de la imaje portraeda en la naras de evanjelio.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=James H. |last2=Pokorny |first2=Petr |title=Jesus Research |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusresearchint0000prin |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |place=Grand Rapids, Michigan |date=15 September 2009 |isbn=978-0-8028-6353-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jesusresearchint0000prin/page/1 1]–2}}</ref> Prosimis a la reconstrui istorial de la vive de Jesus ia varia de la prosimis "masimaliste" de la sentenio 19, en cual eruditas ia aseta la naras de evanjelio como atestas fidable a cada loca posible, a la prosimis "minimaliste" de la temprana de la sentenio 20, do los ia aseta cuasi no cosa sur Jesus como istorial.{{sfn|Keener|2012|p=163}} En la desenio de 1950, cuando la xerca du per la Jesus istorial ia aselera, la prosimis minimaliste ia desapare, e en la sentenio 21, minimalistes como [[Robert M. Price|Price]] es un minoria peti.{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p=27}}{{sfn|Evans|2012a|pp=4–5}} An si on no pote suporta istorial un crede en la natur nonerante de la Evanjelios, multe eruditas de la desenio de 1980 manteni ce, ultra la poca fatos regardada como istorial serta, alga otra elementos de la vive de Jesus es "istorial probable".{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p=27}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship |first=Marcus J. |last=Borg |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56338-094-5 |publisher=Continuum |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4 4–6] |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4}}</ref>{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=142–143}} Rexerca erudita moderna sur la Jesus istorial foca donce a la identifia de la elementos la plu probable.{{sfn|Anderson|Just|Thatcher|2007|p=131}}{{sfn|Meier|2006|p=124}} === Iudea e Galilea en la sentenio prima === [[File:The Ministry of Jesus.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Iudea]], [[Galilea]] es sua visineria a la tempo de Jesus|alt=Mapa topografica de Filastin en la sentenio 1 cual asentua la locas mensionada en la evanjelios canonal.]] En 6 ec, Iudea, [[Idumea]], e [[Samaria]] ia es mutada de un stato-cliente de la [[Impero Roman]] a un provinse imperal, ance nomida Iudea. Un [[prefeto]] roman, no un renor-cliente, ia governa la tera. La prefeto ia governa de [[Cesarea Maritimal]], lasante ce la Prete Xef de Israel gida Ieruxalim.<ref name="horsley">{{Cite book |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-293-5 |last=Horsley |first=Richard A. |title=Jesus and the politics of Roman Palestine |location=Columbia, SC |date=2014 |pages=26–53}}</ref> Con la eseta ce la prefeto ia veni a Ieruxalim en festas relijiosa, cuando zelo relijiosa e patriota ia inspira a veses turba o revoltas. [[Galilea]] con [[Perea]] ia es un stato-cliente herodian su la rena de [[Herodes Antipas]] de 4 aec.<ref name="horsley" /> Evidente Galilea ia es florinte, e povria ia es sufisinte limitada ce lo no ia menasa la ordina sosial.<ref name="Britannica" /> Filipo (m 34 ec), duifrate de Herodes Antipas, ia rena como Tetrarca an un otra stato-cliente herodian a norde e este de la mar de Galilea cual ia inclui Gaulanitis, Batanea, e Iturea; lo ia es xef noniudi.<ref>{{Cite book |edition=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05438-6 |volume=10 |pages=737–781 |editor-first1=Alan K. |editor-last1=Bowman |editor-first2=Edward |editor-last2=Champlin |editor-first3=Andrew |editor-last3=Lintott |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |chapter=Judaea |access-date=16 December 2024 |year=1996 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139054386A034/type/book_part}}</ref> A sude de esta a la riva este de la Urdun ia es la Decapoli; un colie de site-statos eliniste cual ia es clientes de la Impero Roman. A norde de Galilea ia es la sites de Tiro e Sidon cual ia es en la provinse roman de Suria. An si teras noniudi ia ensirca la teritorios xef iudi de Iudea e Galilea, lege e pratica roman ia permete ce iudis resta separada legal e cultural.<ref name="Britannica" /> Esta ia es la eda de [[Iudisme eliniste]], cual ia combina la tradision relijiosa iudi con elementos de la cultur eliniste. Asta la cade de la Impero Roman Ueste e la concistas muslim de la Mediteraneo Este, la sentros xef de Iudisme eliniste ia es [[Alexandria]] (Ejipte) e [[Antiocia]] (aora Turcia Sude), la du colonias elinica xef de la area de Asia Sude-Ueste e Africa Norde, ambos fundida a la fini de la sentenio 4 aec pos la concistas de [[Alexandro la Grande]]. Iudisme eliniste ia esiste ance en Ieruxalim en la Periodo de la Templo Du, do conflita ia aveni entre elinistes e tradisionalistes (a veses nomida iudistes). Traduores ia tradui la Biblia ivri de Ivri Biblial e Arami Biblial a la Elinica Iudi Coine; traduores ia crea ance la traduis Targum a arami en esta eda, ambos par causa de la declina de sabe de ivri.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barr |first1=James |title=The Cambridge history of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic Age |date=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05512-3 |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=W. D. |pages=79–114 |chapter=Chapter 3 – Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek in the Hellenistic age |editor2-last=Finkelstein |editor2-first=Louis}}</ref> Iudis ia fundi lor fe e pratica relijiosa sur la [[Tora]], sinco libros de cual los ia dise ce Dio ia dona los a [[Moxe]]. La tre partitos relijiosa importante ia es la [[fariseos]], la [[esenios]], e la [[saduseos]]. En junta esta partitos ia representa sola un frato peti de la popla. La plu de iudis ia espeta un tempo cuando Dio ta libri los de lor renores pagan, cisa par gera contra la romanes.<ref name="Britannica" /> === Fontes === [[File:Flavius Josephus 1582 by Froben.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Un edita de 1582 de la obras de [[Josefo]], un iudi roman e istoriste ci ia refere a Jesus{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–436}}]] Eruditas de la Atesta Nova fasa un defia enorme cuando los analise la Evanjelios canonal.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} La Evanjelios no es biografias en la sensa moderna, e la autores esplica la sinifia teolojial de Jesus e raconta sua servi publica ma omete multe detalias de sua vive.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} James Dunn ia argumenta ce transmete bocal ia conserva a prima la naras de sua instruis e vive, cual ia es la fonte de la Evanjelios scriveda.<ref name="Dunn2013" /> Eruditas regarda comun la Evanjelios como leteratur cual fundi se sur tradisiones bocal, predica cristian, e esejese de la Atesta Vea con la acorda ce los es un varia de biografia elinica-roman; simil a otra obras antica como la Memorias de Socrate par Xenofonte.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gray |editor1-first=Patrick |title=The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000patr |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108437707 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000patr/page/98 98]-99}}</ref> La reportas de avenis supranatural asosiada con la mori e revive de Jesus fa ce la defia es an plu difisil.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} Eruditas regarda la Evanjelios como fontes de informa suminada car la scrivores ia es atentante glori Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} Ed Sanders argumenta ce fontes testal survivente furni detalias plu fidable per la pensas de Jesus ca per la pensas de [[Alexandro la Grande]], car la testos discutente Jesus ia es scriveda plu prosima en tempo a la avenis a cual los refere. Obras de biografistes scriveda sur Alexandro la Grande en sua propre vive (ci ia vive 330 anios plu temprana) ia es tota perdeda, ma on conose los tra referes en biografias scriveda par autores plu tarda. An si la testos sur Jesus conteni ideas de e Jesus e sua seguores plu tarda, lo es posible distingui cual partes orijina de la vista propre de Jesus, e cual ia es ideas de sua seguores plu tarda.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} Eruditas usa criterios diversa, como la criterio de atesta nondependente, la criterio de coere, e la criterio de noncontinua per judi la veria istorial de avenis.{{sfn|Rausch|2003|pp=36–37}} La veria istorial de un aveni depende ance de la fidablia de la fonte; serta, la Evanjelios es rejistras no nondependente e no coerente de la vive de Jesus. Eruditas regarda la Sinoticas, spesial Marco, la evanjelio scriveda la plu temprana, como la fontes de informa la plu fidable sur Jesus tra multe desenios.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=71}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}}<ref name="Britannica" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=291 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Joan, la evanjelio scriveda la plu tarda, difere multe de la Evanjelios Sinotica, e on regarda lo como min fidable, an si alga eruditas regarda la evanjelio de Joan como avente plu fidablia ca los ia pensa a ante o a veses an plu fidable ca la sinoticas pos la xerca tre.{{sfn|Anderson|Just|Thatcher|2007|p=292}}<ref name="rout">{{cite book |title=The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/routledgeencyclo0000unse_r7z9 |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415880886 |page=[https://archive.org/details/routledgeencyclo0000unse_r7z9/page/283 283] |chapter=Historical Criticism}}</ref><ref name="john JH">{{cite book |title=The Jesus Handbook |date=2022 |publisher=William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=9780802876928 |pages=138–140}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blomberg |first1=Craig |title=The Historical Reliability of John's Gospel: Issues and Commentary |date=2011 |publisher=IVP Academic |isbn=978-0830838714}}</ref> Alga eruditas (como la [[Seminar de Jesus]]) crede ce la [[Evanjelio de Tomas]] noncanonal ta pote es un atestor nondependente per multe de la parabolas e aforismes de Jesus. Per esemplo, Tomas confirma ce Jesus ia bondise la povres e ce esta diseda ia sirculi nondependente ante es combinada con disedas simil en la fonte Q.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=471–532}} La majoria de eruditas es setica sur esta testo e crede ce on debe dati lo a la sentenio 2 ec.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casey |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC |title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching |date=30 December 2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-64517-3 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232056/https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231638/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Otra testos cristian noncanonal elejeda pote ance ave valua per rexerca sur la Jesus istorial.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} Fontes noncristian temprana cual atesta la esiste istorial de Jesus inclui la obras de la istoristes [[Josefo]] e [[Tasito]].{{efn|Tuckett writes: "All this does at least render highly implausible any far-fetched theories that even Jesus' very existence was a Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and that he had a band of followers who continued to support his cause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |title=Sources and methods |first=Christopher |last=Tuckett |year=2001 |encyclopedia=Cambridge Companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |pages=123–124}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–436}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|pp=39–53}} La erudita sur Josefo, [[Louis Feldman]], ia declara ce "poca persones ia duta la autenticia" de la refere de Josefo a Jesus en libro 20 de la Anticias de la Iudis, e sola un cuantia peti de eruditas disputa lo.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=83}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Maier |first=Paul L. |year=1995 |title=Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war |isbn=978-0-8254-3260-6 |page=285 |publisher=Kregel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907111405/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285 |url-status=live}}</ref> Tasito ia refere a Cristo e sua esecuta par Pilato en libro 15 de sua obra Anales. Eruditas regarda jeneral la refere de Tasito a la esecuta de Jesus como e autentica e de valua istorial como un fonte roman nondependente.<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies |first=Craig A. |last=Evans |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-391-04118-9 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42 |publisher=Brill |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42 |url-status=live}}</ref> Fontes noncristian es valuosa car los mostra ce an partitos neutra o enemin ia mostra nunca cualce duta ce Jesus ia esiste. Los presenta un imaje ru de Jesus cual es acordable con trovadas en la fontes cristian: ce Jesus ia es un ensenior, ia ave un reputa como faor de miracles, ia ave un frate Jacobo, e ia mori violente.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998}} Arceolojia aida eruditas a comprende plu bon la mundo sosial de Jesus.{{sfn|Reed|2002|p=18}} Per esemplo, lo indica ce Capernaum, un site importante en la servi de Jesus, ia es povre e peti, an sin un foro o un agora.<ref name="Gowler">{{cite book |title=What are they saying about the historical Jesus? |url=https://archive.org/details/whataretheysayin0000gowl |first=David B. |last=Gowler |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8091-4445-7 |publisher=Paulist Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/whataretheysayin0000gowl/page/102 102]}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Agoras and commercial structures |encyclopedia=Jesus and archaeology |editor-first=James H. |editor-last=Charlesworth |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8028-4880-2 |page=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182047/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live}}</ref> Esta descovre arceolojial resona bon con la vista erudita ce Jesus ia promove la comparti mutua entre la povres en acel area de Galilea.<ref name="Gowler" /> === Cronolojia === Jesus ia es un iudi galilean,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} naseda sirca la comensa de la sentenio prima, ci ia mori en 30 o 33 ec en Iudea.{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington|1992|p=340}} La acorda jeneral erudita es ce Jesus ia es un contempora de Joan la Batistor e ce la governor roman Pontio Pilato,{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} ci ia ocupa ofisia de 26 a 36 ec, ia comanda ce on crusi el.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} La Evanjelios ofre alga indicas consernante la anio de la nase de Jesus. Mateo 2:1 asosia la nase de Jesus con la rena de Herodes la Grande, ci ia mori sirca 4 aec, e Lucas 1:5 nota ce Herodes ia es sur la trono pico ante la nase de Jesus,{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=115–118}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–122}} an si esta evanjelio asosia ance la nase con la Conta de Quirinius cual ia aveni a des anios plu tarda.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=137–138}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=122–124}} Lucas 3:23 declara ce Jesus ia ave "sirca tredes anios" a la comensa de sua servi, cual longo Atas 10:37-38 la servi de Joan la Batistor ia presede, cual Lucas 3:1-2 ia rejistra como comensante en la anio 15 de la rena de Tiberio (28 o 29 ec).{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–122}}<ref name="Vermes-2010">{{cite book |first=Géza |last=Vermes |title=The Nativity: History and Legend |publisher=Random House Digital |year=2010 |pages=81–82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 |isbn=978-0-307-49918-9 |access-date=25 January 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503100006/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 |url-status=live}}</ref> Par ordina la naras de evanjelio longo datos istorial e usante otra metodos diversa, la plu de eruditas conclui un data de nase per Jesus entre 6 e 4 aec, ma alga persones proposa estimas cual inclui un estende plu larga.{{efn|Per esemplo, John P. Meier declara ce la anio de nase de Jesus es sirca 7/6 aec,{{sfn|Meier|1991|p=407}} ma Finegan prefere sirca 3/2 aec.<ref name=Finegan />}} Eruditas ia calcula la estende de datas per la servi de Jesus usante prosimis diversa.{{sfn|Köstenberger |Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} Un de estas aplica la refere en Lucas 3:1-2, Atas 10:37-38, e la datas de la rena de Tiberio, cual es bon conoseda, per dona un data de sirca 28-29 ec per la comensa de la servi de Jesus.{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=120–121}} Un otra prosimi calcula un data sirca 27-29 ec par usa la declara sur la templo en Joan 2:13-20, cual afirma ce construores ia es construinte la templo en Ieruxalim en sua anio 46 a la comensa de la servi de Jesus,<ref>{{Citation |last=Josephus |title=Book XV |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |work=The Antiquities of the Jews |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724214731/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |url-status=live}}.</ref> con la declara de Josefo ce Herodes la Grande ia comensa reconstrui la templo en la anio 18 de sua rena.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Maier|1989|p=123}} Un otra metodo usa la data de la mori de Joan la Batistor e la sposi de Herodes Antipas e Herodias, fundida sur la scrivedas de Josefo, e corelata lo con Mateo 14:4 e Marco 6:18.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Josephus on John the Baptist |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |access-date=25 January 2016 |last=Evans |first=Craig |editor-last1=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |pages=55–58 |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503120729/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |editor2-first=Dale C. |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Herodias: at home in that fox's den |url=https://archive.org/details/herodiasathomein0000gill |first=Florence M. |last=Gillman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8146-5108-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/herodiasathomein0000gill/page/25 25]–30 |publisher=Liturgical Press}}</ref> Vidente ce la plu de eruditas dati la sposi de Herodes e Herodias a 28-35 ec, esta furni un data de sirca 28-29 ec.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} Eruditas ia usa prosimis diversa per estima la anio de la crusi de Jesus. La plu de eruditas acorda ce el ia mori en 30 o 33 ec.{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington |1992|p=340}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles |2009|p=398}} La Evanjelios declara ce la aveni ia aveni en la prefetia de Pilato.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=81–83}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Green |first=Joel B. |title=The gospel of Luke: New International Commentary on the New Testament Series |year=1997 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2315-1 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425204312/https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=44–45}} La data per la converti de Paulo (calculada como 33-36 ec) ata como un limita masima per la data de Crusi. On pote determina la datas per la converti e servi de Paulo par analise la epistolas paulal e la Atas de la Apostoles.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=398–400}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Barnett |title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21 |publisher=InterVarsity |page=21 |access-date=25 January 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503144441/https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21 |url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomistes ia atenta estima la data esata de la Crusi par analise move lunal e calcula datas istorial de [[pesah]], un festa fundida sur la calendario ivri lunisolal. La datas la plu vasta asetada derivada de esta metodo es 7 april 30 ec, e 3 april 33 ec (ambos julian).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |url=http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116085454/http://johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |archive-date=16 January 2010 |access-date=17 May 2013}}</ref> === Veria istorial de avenis === Cuasi tota istoristes (e moderna e istorial) acorda ce Jesus ia es un person real ci ia esiste istorial.{{efn|name=exist}} Eruditas ia ateni un acorda limitada sur la fundas de la vive de Jesus.<ref name="White">{{cite book |title=Scripting Jesus: The Gospels in Rewrite |url=https://archive.org/details/scriptingjesusgo0000whit |first=L. Michael |last=White |year=2010 |publisher=HarperOne}}</ref> ==== Familia ==== Multe eruditas incluinte eruditas biblial acorda ce Josef, la padre de Jesus, ia mori ante Jesus comensa sua servi. La evanjelios no nota Josef en la servi de Jesus. La mori de Josef ta esplica perce en Marco 6:3, la visinas de Jesus refere a Jesus como la "fio de Maria" (la sosia ia identifia tipal fios par lor padres).{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA64 64]}} Longo Theissen e Merz, lo es comun per xefes carismosa estracomun, como Jesus, veni a conflita con lor familias normal.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} En Marco, la familia de Jesus veni per prende el, temente ce el es loco (Marco 3:20-34), e eruditas opina ce esta nara es istorial car cristianes temprana ta no inventa probable lo.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Mark |pages=[https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe/page/n84 51]–161}}</ref> Pos la mori de Jesus, multe membros de sua familia ia junta se a la promove cristian.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} La frate de Jesus, Jacobo, ia deveni un xef de la Eglesa de Ieruxalim.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=James, St.}} [[Géza Vermes]] dise ce la dotrina de la nase virjin de Jesus ia orijina de developa teolojial en loca de de avenis istorial.{{sfn|Vermes|1981|p=283}} Otra eruditas regarda como sinifiosa ce du evanjelios separada, Mateo e Lucas, atesta la nase virjin.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Bromiley |editor-first1=Geoffrey William |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |publication-place=Grand Rapids, Michigan|volume=4 |date=1979 |isbn=978-0-8028-3784-4 |page=991}}</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C2Y_HaL5W0C&pg=PA83 83]}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hagner |first=Donald A. |title=Matthew 1-13 |publisher=Paternoster |publication-place=Nashville |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-8499-0232-1 |pages=14–15}} cited in the preceding.</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |page=761 |title=Christian Theology |isbn=978-1-4412-0010-5 |last1=Erickson |first1=Millard J. |date=August 1998 |publisher=Baker |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913031951/https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Christmas – Philosophy for Everyone: Better Than a Lump of Coal |first=Scott C. |last=Lowe |publisher=Wiley |date=20 September 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |page=28 |isbn=978-1-4443-3090-8 |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913014940/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruner |first=Frederick Dale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |title=Matthew a Commentary: The Christbook, Matthew 1–12 |volume=1 |date=30 April 2004 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-1118-9 |page=41 |author-link=F. Dale Bruner |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913024157/https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live|edition=Revised & Expanded}}</ref> [[E. P. Sanders]] e Marcus Borg nota ce la naras de nase en Mateo e Lucas es nonistorial e la casos la plu clar de inventa en la naras de evanjelio sur la vive de Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Borg |first=Marcus |author-link=Marcus Borg |year=2007 |title=The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions |url=https://archive.org/details/meaningofjesustw0000borg |publisher=HarperOne |page=[https://archive.org/details/meaningofjesustw0000borg/page/179 179] |isbn=978-0-06-128554-7}}</ref> [[Dale Allison]] e [[[W. D. Davies]] argumenta ce Mateo presenta un nara de enfantia unida e preesistente fundida sur lejendas agadica sur [[Moxe]], an si los manteni ce elementos en la nara como la nomes de Maria e Josef e Jesus esente en Nazaret en la rena de Herodes es istorial.{{sfn|Crossan|Watts|1999|pp=[https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros/page/11 11–12]}} Ambos naras inclui ce Jesus nase en Bethlehem, en acorda con istoria de salva iudi, e ambos inclui ce el crese en Nazaret, ma Sanders indica ce la du naras reporta esplicas diferente sur como acel ia aveni. La nara par Lucas de un conta de abitores mundal no es credable, en cuando la nara par Mateo es plu credable, ma la nara leje como si un autor ia inventa lo per identifia Jesus como un Moxe nova, e la istoriste [[Josefo]] reporta la violentia de Herodes la Grande sin nota ce el ia masacra xicos peti. Eruditas incluinte [[Gerd Theissen]] e [[Annette Merz]] conclui ce Jesus ia nase en Nazaret, e cristianes temprana ia developa la nara de nase en Bethlehem per alinia la istoria de Jesus con scrivedas santa predisente ce on ta pari la maxia en Bethlehem.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=191|ps=: "Our conclusion must be that Jesus came from Nazareth. The shift of his birthplace to Bethlehem is a result of religious fantasy and imagination: because according to scripture the messiah had to be born in Bethlehem, Jesus' birth is transferred there."}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Piñero |first1=Antonio |title=Guía para Entender el Nuevo Testamento |date=2006 |publisher=Trotta, Editorial S.A |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-8164-832-4 |page=174 |edition=1st |language=es |quote=Lo más probable es que Jesús fuera oriundo de Nazaret y sólo luego se plasmara la historia de que nació en Belén para dar plena justificación a sus pretensiones mesiánicas, de acuerdo con las Escrituras. |trans-quote=It is most likely that Jesus was originally from Nazareth and only later was the story of his birth in Bethlehem added to fully justify his messianic claims, according to the Scriptures.}}</ref> La diferes trovada en la naras de evanjelio es tipal de biografias istorial antica.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Licona |first=Mike |title=Why are there Differences in the Gospels? What we can Learn from Ancient Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/whyaretherediffe0000mich |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0190264260 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyaretherediffe0000mich/page/2 2]}}</ref> La contradises ia es clar a cristianes temprana, con armonis presente en la evanjelios de enfantia de Tomas e la Evanjelio de Jacobo, cual on dati a la sentenio 2 ec.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cousland |first=J. R. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Holy Terror: Jesus in the Infancy Gospel of Thomas |date=16 November 2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-66817-2 |access-date=17 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232719/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gambero |first=Luigi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church |title=Mary and the Fathers of the Church: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Patristic Thought |date=1999 |publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=978-0-89870-686-4 |access-date=17 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232541/https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church#v=snippet&q=L.%20Gambero%2C%20Mary%20and%20the%20Fathers%20of%20the%20Church&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Eruditas conservaliste argumenta ce an con la nonsertia de la detalias, la naras de nase en la evanjelios trasa a retro a tradisiones istorial, o a la min multe plu temprana, pre-evanjelio.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/nt-wright-history-scepticism-and-virgin-birth/13686186 |title=History, scepticism, and the question of the virgin birth|first1=N. T. |last1=Wright|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=21 December 2021}}</ref><ref>[[R. T. France]] (2008), Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary, p.&nbsp;81–82</ref>{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=243–244}}{{sfn|Brown|1977|pages=104-121}} Per esemplo, seguente Ben Witherington: Lo cual nos trova en Mateo e Lucas no es la nara de ... un [dio] desendente a tera e, en la forma de un om, copulante con un fem umana, ma vera la nara de un consepi miraclosa sin la aida de cualce om, divin o otra. Tal, esta nara es sin presedente en o leteratur iudi o pagan. Sanders dise ce la jenealojias de Jesus fundi se no sur informa istorial ma sur la desira de la autor per mostra ce Jesus ia es la salvor universal iudi.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} A cualce caso, pos cuando la dotrina de la nase virjin de Jesus ia deveni instituida, acel tradision ia recambia la tradision plu temprana ce el ia desende de David tra Josef.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=196}} La Evanjelio de Lucas reporta ce Jesus ia es un relatada de sangue de Joan la Batistor, ma eruditas regarda jeneral esta lia como inventada.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}}<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Birth & Infancy Stories |pages=[https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe/page/497 497]–526}}</ref> == Notas == {{notelist}} {{notelist|30em}} == Referes == {{reflist|colwidth=20em}} === Fontes === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |first=Douglas |last=Hare |title=Matthew |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |language=en|year=1993 |isbn=978-0-664-23433-1}} * {{cite book |first=Craig L. |last=Blomberg |author-link=Craig Blomberg |title=Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey |year=2009 |language=en|isbn=978-0-8054-4482-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC |publisher=B&H |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222031/https://books.google.com/books?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The People's New Testament Commentary |first1=M. Eugene |last1=Boring |first2=Fred B. |last2=Craddock |author-link2=Fred Craddock |language=en|year=2004 |isbn=978-0-664-22754-8 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104165219/http://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |title=The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke |url=https://archive.org/details/birthofmessiahco0000brow_u5l1 |year=1977 |language=en|isbn=978-0-385-05907-7 |publisher=Doubleday}} * {{cite book |title=Mary in the New Testament |first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-8091-2168-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC |publisher=Paulist Press |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=17 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917011141/http://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary |first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |language=en|author-link=Raymond E. Brown |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8146-1283-5 |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelepistleso00brow}} * {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Raymond E. |title=An Introduction to the New Testament |publisher=Doubleday |language=en|year=1997 |isbn=978-0-385-24767-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00brow_0}} * {{cite book |last=Carter |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Carter |title=Pontius Pilate: Portraits of a Roman Governor |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8146-5113-1 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvhHcXKK0UEC |publisher=Liturgical Press |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222031/https://books.google.com/books?id=mvhHcXKK0UEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research |first1=Bruce |last1=Chilton |author-link1=Bruce Chilton |first2=Craig A. |last2=Evans |author-link2=Craig A. Evans |year=1998 |isbn=978-90-04-11142-4 |publisher=Brill |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004084608/https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Bowman Jr. |first=Robert M. |title=Jesus, Skepticism & The Problem of History: Criteria and Context in the Study of Christian Origins |last2=Komoszewski |first2=J. Ed |date=2019 |language=en|publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-310-53476-1 |editor1-last=Komoszewski |editor1-first=J. Ed |pages= |quote= |editor2-last=Bock |editor2-first=Darrell L.}} * {{cite book |first1=Steven L. |last1=Cox |first2=Kendell H. |last2=Easley |year=2007 |title=Harmony of the Gospels |isbn=978-0-8054-9444-0 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC |publisher=B&H |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222032/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor-first1=Frank L. |editor-last1=Cross |language=en |editor-first2=E. A. |editor-last2=Livingstone |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515065637/https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |first1=John D. |last1=Crossan |author-link1=John Dominic Crossan |first2=Richard G. |language=en |last2=Watts |title=Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-664-25842-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros}} * {{cite book |last=De Smet |first=Daniel |year=2016 |chapter=Les racines docétistes de l'imamologie shi'ite |language=fr |editor1-last=Amir-Moezzi |editor1-first=Mohammad Ali |editor2-last=De Cillis |editor2-first=Maria |editor3-last=De Smet |editor3-first=Daniel |editor4-last=Mir-Kasimov |editor4-first=Orkhan |title=L'Ésotérisme shi'ite, ses racines et ses prolongements – Shi'i Esotericism: Its Roots and Developments |series=Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Sciences Religieuses |volume=177 |location=Turnhout |publisher=Brepols |pages=87–112 |doi=10.1484/M.BEHE-EB.4.01163 |isbn=978-2-503-56874-4}} * {{cite book |last=Dickson |first=John |author-link=John Dickson (author) |title=Jesus: A Short Life |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2008 |language=en|isbn=978-0-8254-7802-4}} * {{cite book |last=Dillenberger |first=John |author-link=John Dillenberger |title=Images and Relics: Theological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/imagesrelicstheo0000dill |language=en|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-976146-3}} * {{cite book |first1=John R. |last1=Donahue |first2=Daniel J. |last2=Harrington |author-link2=Daniel J. Harrington |title=The Gospel of Mark |publisher=Liturgical Press |language=en|year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZAIsUZOwSQC |isbn=978-0-8146-5804-8 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103010742/http://books.google.com/books?id=xZAIsUZOwSQC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Doninger |first=Wendy |year=1999 |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0}} * {{cite book |first=James D. G. |last=Dunn |author-link=James Dunn (theologian) |title=Jesus Remembered |language=en|year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8028-3931-2 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC}} * {{cite book |last1=Eddy |first1=Paul R. |last2=Boyd |first2=Gregory A. |author-link2=Greg Boyd (theologian) |year=2007 |title=The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus tradition |language=en|publisher=Baker |isbn=978-0-8010-3114-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U26_85NmwPUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222033/https://books.google.com/books?id=U26_85NmwPUC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium |first=Bart |last=Ehrman |author-link=Bart D. Ehrman |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-983943-8 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusapocalyptic00ehrm |url-access=registration}} * {{cite book |title=Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why We Don't Know About Them) |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |year=2009 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/ |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0-06-117393-6}} * {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |title=How Jesus Became God |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2014 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmspAgAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-06-225219-7}} * {{cite book |first=Bart |last=Ehrman |year=2011 |title=Forged: Writing in the Name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are |isbn=978-0-06-207863-6 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376 |url-access=registration |publisher=HarperCollins}} * {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |title=Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth |year=2012 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0-06-208994-6 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803200020/https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |author-link=Craig A. Evans |year=2003 |title=The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew–Luke |isbn=978-0-7814-3868-1 |language=en|publisher=Victor (Cook Communications Ministries)|url=https://archive.org/details/bibleknowledgeba00crai}} * {{cite book |first=Craig A. |last=Evans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87x8TqW6MJQC |title=Jesus and His World: The Archaeological Evidence |year=2012a |language=en|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-23413-3 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222033/https://books.google.com/books?id=87x8TqW6MJQC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |title=Matthew (New Cambridge Bible Commentary) |date=2012b |language=en|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01106-8}} * {{cite book |last=Finegan |first=Jack |title=Handbook of Biblical Chronology |year=1998 |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |isbn=978-1-56563-143-4 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine |url-access=limited}} * {{cite book |first=David N. |last=Freedman |author-link=David Noel Freedman |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |year=2000 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |language=en|isbn=978-0-8028-2400-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803133406/https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Friedmann |first=Yohanan |year=1989 |title=Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background |location=Berkeley |language=en|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05772-2}} * {{cite book |first1=Robert W. |last1=Funk |first2=Roy W. |last2=Hoover |author3=The Jesus Seminar |author-link3=Jesus Seminar |title=The Five Gospels |language=en|publisher=Scribner |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-02-541949-0}} * {{cite book |first1=Joel B. |last1=Green |first2=Scot |last2=McKnight |first3=I. Howard |last3=Marshall |author-link1=Joel B. Green |author-link2=Scot McKnight |author-link3=I. Howard Marshall |title=Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |language=en|publisher=InterVarsity |year=1992 |page=442 |isbn=978-0-8308-1777-1 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine |last=Grudem |first=Wayne |author-link=Wayne Grudem |year=1994 |publisher=Zondervan |language=en|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |isbn=978-0-310-28670-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0}} * {{cite book |first=Stephen L. |last=Harris |language=en|title=Understanding the Bible |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingbib0000harr_w2l8 |publisher=Mayfield |year=1985}} * {{cite book |last=Houlden |first=J. Leslie |title=Jesus: The Complete Guide |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8264-8011-8 |publisher=Continuum |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey8mZKV_jfkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey8mZKV_jfkC |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Humphreys |first1=Colin J. |last2=Waddington |first2=W. G. |date=1992 |language=en|url=https://legacy.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/Library/TynBull_1992_43_2_06_Humphreys_DateChristsCrucifixion.pdf |title=The Jewish Calendar, a Lunar Eclipse and the Date of Christ's Crucifixion |journal=Tyndale Bulletin |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=331–151 |doi=10.53751/001c.30487 |s2cid=189519018 |access-date=21 April 2019 |archive-date=21 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421091510/https://legacy.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/Library/TynBull_1992_43_2_06_Humphreys_DateChristsCrucifixion.pdf |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary |language=en|date=2009b |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-6498-7}} * {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Historical Jesus of the Gospels |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaljesuso0000keen |date=2009 |language=en|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}} * {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Historical Jesus of the Gospels |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaljesuso0000keen |year=2012 |language=en|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-6292-1}} * {{cite book |first1=Andreas J. |last1=Köstenberger |first2=L. Scott |last2=Kellum |first3=Charles L. |last3=Quarles |title=The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament |language=en|year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8054-4365-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C |publisher=B&H |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727131059/https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Lawson |first=Todd |year=2009 |title=The Crucifixion and the Qur'an: A Study in the History of Muslim Thought |language=en|location=Oxford |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-635-3}} * {{cite book |title=Transfiguration |first=Dorothy A. |last=Lee |author-link=Dorothy Lee (theologian) |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8264-7595-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYWwEefwCegC |publisher=Continuum |language=en|access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=cYWwEefwCegC |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Introduction |first=Amy-Jill |last=Levine |author-link=Amy-Jill Levine |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |editor-last1=Levine |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |language=en|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |year=2006 |editor1-first=Amy-Jill |editor2-first=Dale C. |editor2-link=Dale Allison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=10 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410102712/http://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Misunderstood Jew: The Church and the Scandal of the Jewish Jesus |first=Amy-Jill |last=Levine |author-link=Amy-Jill Levine |year=2007 |language=en|isbn=978-0-06-174811-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMisunderstoodJewTheChurchAndTheScandalOfTheJewishJesus |publisher=HarperCollins}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8xNoRBtxMC |title=The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8308-2719-0 |first=Michael R. |last=Licona |language=en|access-date=29 July 2015 |archive-date=18 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218101307/https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8xNoRBtxMC |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Paul L. |last=Maier |author-link=Paul L. Maier |title=The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus |encyclopedia=''Chronos'', ''Kairos'', ''Christos'': Nativity and Chronological Studies |editor-last1=Finegan |editor-first2=Jerry |editor-last2=Vardaman |editor-first3=Edwin M. |editor-last3=Yamauchi |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-931464-50-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC&pg=PA113 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |editor-first=Jack |editor1-link=Jack Finegan |editor3-link=Edwin M. Yamauchi |language=en|access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907110057/https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC&pg=PA113 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke |first1=Ján |last1=Majerník |first2=Joseph |last2=Ponessa |first3=Laurie W. |last3=Manhardt |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-931018-31-9 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC |publisher=Emmaus Road |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819025434/https://books.google.com/books?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&pg=PA4 |title=Christianity: An Introduction |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |author-link=Alister McGrath |year=2006 |language=en|pages=4–6 |isbn=978-1-4051-0899-7 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910073956/https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&pg=PA4 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Meier |first=John P. |author-link=John P. Meier |title=A Marginal Jew: The Roots of the Problem and the Person |url=https://archive.org/details/marginaljewrethi0000john |year=1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |language=en|isbn=978-0-300-14018-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Meier |first=John P. |title=How do we decide what comes from Jesus |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |editor-last1=Dunn |editor-last2=McKnight |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-57506-100-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC |editor1-first=James D. G. |publisher=Eisenbrauns |editor2-first=Scot |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |year=2010 |chapter=Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam Hazrat |editor1-last=Melton |editor1-first=J. Gordon |editor2-last=Baumann |editor2-first=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |language=en|volume=1 |pages=54–56 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1-59884-203-6 |location=Santa Barbara |publisher=ABC-CLIO |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA55 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=21 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021175959/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA55 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Watson E. |last2=Bullard |first2=Roger A. |year=1998 |title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-86554-373-7 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018095243/https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Leon |author-link=Leon Morris |year=1992 |title=The Gospel According to Matthew |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-85111-338-8 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802002134/https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Niswonger |first=Richard L. |title=New Testament History |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-310-31201-7 |language=en|publisher=Zondervan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyAXaNnz9sUC}} * {{cite book |last=Pannenberg |first=Wolfhart |author-link=Wolfhart Pannenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC |title=Jesus: God and Man |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-334-00783-8 |language=en|publisher=S. C. M. Press |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark Allan Powell |title=Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee |year=1998 |language=en|isbn=978-0-664-25703-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusasfigureinh0000powe |url-access=registration |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}} * {{cite book |last=Rahner |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Rahner |title=Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise ''Sacramentum Mundi'' |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-86012-006-3 |publisher=Continuum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC |language=en|access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115653/https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Who Is Jesus? An Introduction to Christology |first=Thomas P. |last=Rausch |author-link=Thomas Rausch |language=en|year=2003 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-5078-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Redford |first=Douglas |title=The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels |year=2007 |language=en|isbn=978-0-7847-1900-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC |publisher=Standard Publishing |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-examination of the Evidence |first=Jonathan L. |last=Reed |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-56338-394-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC |language=en|publisher=Continuum |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504050031/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Neal |year=1991 |title=Christ in Islam and Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/christinislamchr0000robi |location=Albany |language=en|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0559-8}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Robinson |first=Neal |year=2005 |title=Jesus |editor1-last=McAuliffe |editor1-first=Jane Dammen |language=en|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00099}} * {{cite book |last=Sanders |first=E.&nbsp;P. |author-link=E. P. Sanders |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus |language=en|publisher=Allen Lane Penguin Press |year=1993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |isbn=978-0-14-192822-7 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418040039/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Theissen |first1=Gerd |author-link1=Gerd Theissen |last2=Merz |first2=Annette |author-link2=Annette Merz |year=1998 |title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide |isbn=978-1-4514-0863-8 |language=en|publisher=Fortress Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805091805/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria |first1=Gerd |last1=Theissen |first2=Dagmar |last2=Winter |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-664-22537-7 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |first=Graham H. |last=Twelftree |author-link=Graham Twelftree |title=Jesus the Miracle Worker: A Historical & Theological Study |isbn=978-0-8308-1596-8 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 |year=1999 |publisher=InterVarsity |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 95]}} * {{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |year=2000 |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-4368-5 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819143206/https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words |last=Vine |first=William E. |author-link=William Edwy Vine |orig-year=1940 |language=en|year=1985|publisher=Fleming H. Revell |isbn=978-0-916441-31-9|ref={{SfnRef|Vine|1940}} }} * {{cite book |title=Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels |last=Vermes |first=Geza |author-link1=Geza Vermes |year=1981 |publisher=First Fortress |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8006-1443-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament |first1=John F. |last1=Walvoord |author-link1=John Walvoord |first2=Roy B. |last2=Zuck |year=1983 |language=en|isbn=978-0-88207-812-0 |publisher=David C. Cook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth |first=Ben |last=Witherington |author-link=Ben Witherington III |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8308-1544-9 |publisher=InterVarsity |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222039/https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC |url-status=live}} {{refend}} [[Categoria:Jesus Cristo]] [[Categoria:Cristianisme]] n0dtvlfth5yulh4gu6gedfh5u452554 0 1340 43419 42569 2026-08-03T22:01:30Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43419 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Articles bon}} {{Biografia |imaje = Statue of Leonardo da Vinci (Uffizi).jpg |grandia = 250px |descrive = |nase = 15 april 1452 |mori = 2 maio 1519 |pais = [[Italia|Italia]] |profesa = Depintor, scultor, construidor, inventor e injenior |move = [[Renase|Renase]] }} '''Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci''' (Italian: [[Alfabeta_Fonetical_Internasional|[leoˈnardo di ˌsɛr ˈpjɛːro da (v)ˈvintʃi]]] [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/It-Leonardo_di_ser_Piero_da_Vinci.ogg escuta]; 15 april 1452 - 2 maio 1519), plu comun '''Leonardo da Vinci''' o simple '''Leonardo''', ia es un erudita [[Italianes|italian]], de ci sua areas de interesa ia inclui [[Inventa|inventa]], [[Depinta|depinta]], [[Sculta|sculta]], [[Arciteta|arciteta]], [[Siensa|siensa]], [[Musica|musica]], [[Matematica|matematica]], [[Injenia|injenia]], [[Leteratur|leteratur]], [[Anatomia|anatomia]], [[Jeolojia|jeolojia]], [[Astronomia|astronomia]], [[Botanica|botanica]], [[Scrive|scrive]], [[Istoria|istoria]] e [[Cartografia|cartografia]]. El ia es diversa nomida la padre de [[Paleontolojia|paleontolojia]], [[Icnolojia|icnolojia]] e arciteta, e es comun regardada como un de la depintores la plu eselente de tota tempo. Alga persones atribui a el la inventas de la [[Paracade|paracade]], la [[Elicotor|elicotor]] e la [[Tance|tance]].<ref name="Lynn White 1968, 466">White 1968, p 466</ref><ref name="flight-1">Rumerman, Judy. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170703132508/http://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Rotary/early_helicopters/HE1.htm "Early Helicopter Technology."] ''Centennial of Flight Commission,'' 2003. Retraeda en 12 desembre 2010.</ref><ref name="aerial screw">Pilotfriend.com [http://www.pilotfriend.com/photo_albums/helicopters/Leonardo%20Da%20Vinci's%20Helical%20Air%20Screw.htm "Leonardo da Vinci's Helical Air Screw."] ''Pilotfriend.com''. Retraeda en 12 desembre 2010.</ref>. El ia esempli la ideal de la [[Umanisme|umanisme]] de la [[Renase|Renase]]. Multe istoristes e eruditas regarda Leonardo como la esemplo ultima de la "[[Erudita|jenio universal]]" o "om de la Renase", un individua de "curiosia nonsasiable" e "imajina febrosa inventosa".<ref name=HG>Gardner, Helen (1970). ''Art through the Ages.'' p 450–456.</ref> Diseda par la istoriste de arte [[Helen_Gardner|Helen Gardner]], la estende e profondia de sua interesas ia es sin presedente en istoria rejistrada, e "sua mente e personalia pare supraumana a nos, en cuando la om mesma pare misteriosa e distante".<ref name=HG /> Marco Rosci comenta ce en cuando multe divinas aveni en relata con sua vive e personalia, sua vista de la mundo ia es lojical en loca de misteriosa, e ce la metodos empirical cual el ia usa ia es nonortodox en sua tempo.<ref>Rosci, Marco (1977). ''Leonardo.'' p 8.</ref> Ia nase estra sposi a un [[Notario|notario]], Piero da Vinci, e un fem campanial, Caterina, en [[Vinci|Vinci]] en la rejion de [[Firenze|Firenze]], Leonardo ia reseta sua instrui en la studio de la depintor famosa fiorentin [[Andrea_del_Verrocchio|Andrea del Verrocchio]]. El ia pasa multe de la temprana de sua vive de labora en la servi de [[Ludovico_il_Moro|Ludovico il Moro]] en [[Milano|Milano]]. A pos, el ia labora en [[Roma|Roma]], [[Bologna|Bologna]] e [[Venezia|Venezia]], e ia pasa sua anios final en [[Frans|Frans]] a un casa donada a el par [[François_1_de_Frans|François 1 de Frans]]. Leonardo ia es, e aora es, famosa xef como un depintor. Entre sua obras, la ''[[Mona_Lisa|Mona Lisa]]'' es la depinta personal la plu famosa e la plu parodiada,<ref>John Lichfield, [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/the-moving-of-the-mona-lisa-6149165.html "The Moving of the Mona Lisa"], ''The Independent'', 2 April 2005 (asededa 2012-03-09)</ref> e la ''[[Come_de_Sera_Ultima_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|Come de Sera Ultima]]'' es la depinta relijial la plu reproduida de tota tempo.<ref name=HG /> Sua desinia de la ''[[Om_de_Vitruvio|Om de Vitruvio]]'' es ance regardada como un [[Icon_cultural|icon cultural]];<ref>On refere a la Om de Vitruvio como "iconin" (engles: "iconic") a la pajerias seguente e multe otras:[http://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Vitruvian-Man.html Vitruvian Man], [http://artpassions.com/art/1109-Fine-Art-Classics/0000067329-Leonardo-Da-Vinci-Vitruvian-Man.html Fine Art Classics], [http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=403230&sectioncode=26 Key Images in the History of Science]; [http://www.ingenious.org.uk/read/identity/bodyimage/Curiosityanddifference/ Curiosity and difference] [https://web.archive.org/web/20090130113435/http://ingenious.org.uk/read/identity/bodyimage/Curiosityanddifference/ arcivida] 30 janero 2009 a la [[Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]; [https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2006/aug/30/art1 "The Guardian: The Real da Vinci Code"]</ref> lo es reproduida sur ojetos tan diversa como la moneta de euro, libros de aprende e camisas T. Cisa des-sinco de sua depintas survive.<ref group="nb">La plu de istoristes de arte atribui Leonardo con 15 obras importante de arte. La plu de estas es depintas sur panel, ma un es un depinta mural, un es un desinia grande sur paper, e du es obras en la grados prima de prepara. On ance ia atribui variosa alga otra obras a Leonardo.</ref> An tal, esta obras poca, con sua libros de notas, cual conteni desinias, scemas siensal, e sua pensas sur la natur de depinta, composa un contribui a jeneras de artistes seguente, egalida sola par acel de sua contempora, [[Michelangelo_Buonarroti|Michelangelo Buonarroti]]. Leonardo es onorada per sua injenia tecnical. El ia conseti macinas de vola, un tipo de [[Veculo_blindada_de_combate|veculo blindada de combate]], [[Enerjia_solal_de_consentra|enerjia solal de consentra]], un [[Macina_de_soma|macina de soma]],<ref name="AddingMachine">Kaplan, Erez (1996). [http://192.220.96.166/leonardo/leonardo.html Roberto Guatelli's Controversial Replica of Leonardo da Vinci's Adding Machine]. Arcivida de [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529140741/http://192.220.96.166/leonardo/leonardo.html la orijinal] en 29 maio 2011. Retraeda en 19 agosto 2013.</ref> e la [[Casco_duple|casco duple]] de barcones. Relativa poca de sua desinias ia es construida o an posible en sua vive intera, si on recorda ce la modos moderna siensal de [[Metalurjia|metalurjia]] e injenia ia es mera comensante en la Renase. Alga de sua inventas plu peti, par contrasta, per esemplo un enrolador automata de [[Bobin|bobin]] e un macina per proba la [[Tensa_de_rompe|tensa de rompe]] de filo, ia entra nonespetada a la mundo. Alga de sua inventas la plu pratical es corente mostrada como esemplos operante a la Museo de Vinci. El ia fa descovres sustantial en anatomia, injenia sivil, jeolojia, [[Otica|otica]] e [[Idrodinamica|idrodinamica]], ma el no ia publici sua trovas e los no ia influe direta la siensa a pos.<ref>Capra, p 5–6</ref> Aora, Leonardo es comun regardada como un de la persones con talentos la plu diversa de cualce tempo.<ref name="genius">Regarda la sitas de la autores seguente, en la parte '''Fama e reputa''': Vasari, Boltraffio, Castiglione, "Anonimo" Gaddiano, Berensen, Taine, Fuseli, Rio, Bortolon.</ref> == Biografia == === Enfantia, 1452-1466 === [[File:Vinci_casa_Leonardo.jpg|thumb|La casa do Leonardo ia nase en [[Anchiano|Anchiano]]]] Leonardo ia nase a 15 april 1452 "en la ora tre de la note"{{Refn|On rejistra sua nase en la jornal de sua avo padral Ser Antonio, como sitada par Angela Ottino della Chiesa en ''Leonardo da Vinci'', e par Reynal e otras, ''Leonardo da Vinci'' (William Morrow and Company, 1956): "Un neto de me ia nase en 15 april, saturdi, tre oras a en la note". On ia rejistra la data en la calendario julian; considerante ce lo ia es tempo fiorentin e la reposa de sol ia es a 6:40 pm, tre oras pos la reposa de sol ia es a sirca 9:40 pm, cual ia es ancora 14 april par calcula moderna. La converti a la calendario de moda nova ajunta nove dias; donce Leonardo ia nase en 23 april seguenta la calendario moderna.<ref name=AV />|group=nb}} en la site [[Vinci|Vinci]], en [[Toscana|Toscana]], en la vale basa de la rio [[Arno|Arno]] en la [[Republica_de_Firenze|Republica de Firenze]],<ref name= SerA>On rejistra la nase de Leonardo en la jornal personal de sua avo padral Ser Antonio, como sita par Angela Ottino della Chiesa en ''Leonardo da Vinci'', p 83</ref> cual la [[Casa_de_la_Medicis|Medicis]] ia governa. El ia es un fio naseda estra sposi de la rica Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, un notario legal, e Caterina, un campanian.<ref name=AV>Vezzosi, Alessandro (1997). ''Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Man.''</ref><ref name=Chiesa83>della Chiesa, Angela Ottino (1967). ''The Complete Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci.'' p 83.</ref><ref group="nb">On ia sujesta ce Caterina ia es posible un sclavo de Asia sude-ueste "o a la min, de la Mediteraneo". Como diseda par Alessandro Vezzosi, xef de la Museo de Leonardo en Vinci, on ave confirma cual Piero ia posese un sclavo de Asia sude-ueste nomida Caterina. On alega ce la reconstrui de un impresa de dito demostra ce Leonardo ia ave sangue de Asia sude-ueste, como reportada par Falconi, Marta (12 desembre 2006) [1 desembre 2006]. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/01/AR2006120100961.html "Experts Reconstruct Leonardo Fingerprint"] (publici de novas). Washington Post. Associated Press. Retraeda en 6 maio 2013. La confirma, como declarada en la article, es ce 60% de persones con linias de familia de Asia sude-ueste comparti la motif de jiras ce on ia trova en la impresa reconstruida de dito. La article ance declara ce Simon Cole, profesor asosia de criminolojia, lege, e sosia a la Universia de California a Irvine, ia refuta la alega: "On no pote predise la raza de un person par esta tipos de avenis, spesial si on esamina sola un dito." Vide ance Hooper, John (12 april 2008). [https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2008/apr/12/art.italy "Da Vinci's mother was a slave, Italian study claims"]. ''The Guardian'' (publici de novas). Retraeda en 16 agosto 2015.</ref> Leonardo ia ave no nom familial en la modo moderna; "da Vinci" ia sinifia simple "de Vinci". Sua nom cuando el ia nase ia es "Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci", cual sinifia "Leonardo, (fio) de (Mes)ser Piero de Vinci".<ref name=SerA /> La inclui de la titulo "ser" ia indica ce la padre de Leonardo es un senior. On sabe poca sur la temprana de la vive de Leonardo. El ia pasa la sinco anios prima de sua vive en la vileta [[Anchiano|Anchiano]] en la casa de sua madre, e de 1457, el ia abita en la casa de sua padre, avis e tio en la vila peti Vinci. Sua padre ia sposi un xica de des-ses anios nomida Albiera Amadori, ci ia ama Leonardo, ma ia mori joven<ref name="LB">Bortolon, Liana (1967). ''The Life and Times of Leonardo.'' London: Paul Hamlyn.</ref> en 1465 sin fies. Cuando Leonardo ia ave des-ses anios (en 1468), sua padre ia sposi un fem de dudes anios nomida Francesca Lanfredini, ci ance ia mori sin fies. La eritores legal de Piero ia nase de sua sposa tre, Margherita di Guglielmo (ci ia pari ses fies:<ref>[https://www.geni.com/people/Margherita/6000000022836749865 ''Margherita (da Vinci)'' en: geni.com] [retraeda en 15 junio 2016].</ref> Antonio, Giulian, Maddalena, Lorenzo, Violante e Domenico), e sua sposa cuatro e final, Lucrezia Cortigiani (ci ia pari ses plu fies per Piero:<ref>[https://www.geni.com/people/Lucrezia-Cortigiani/6000000011018546847 ''Lucrezia Cortigiani'' en: geni.com] [retraeda en 15 junio 2016].</ref> Margherita, Benedetto, Pandolfo, Guglielmo, Bartolomeo e Giovanni).<ref>Rosci, p 20.</ref><ref name="Magnano">Magnano, p 138.</ref> En tota, Leonardo ia ave des-du duiconasedas, de ci cada ia es multe plu joven ca el, e de ci la final ia nase cuando Leonardo ia ave cuatrodes anios; el ia ave poca contata con los, ma los ia causa difisiles a el sur la erita pos la mori de sua padre.<ref name="Magnano"/> Leonardo ia reseta instruis nonformal en latina, [[Jeometria|jeometria]] e matematica. En la tarda de sua vive, Leonardo ia rejistra sola du avenis de sua enfantia. Un, cual el ia regarda como un indica, ia es cuando un [[Milan_(avia)|milan]] ia tufa de la sielo e ia flota supra sua cuna, con sua plumas de coda tanjente sua fas.<ref>Rosci, p 21.</ref> La du ia aveni cuando el ia esplora en la montania: el ia descovre un cava e ia es no sola asustada ce cisa alga monstro grande asconde se ala, ma ance motivada par curiosia a descovre cual es a interna de la cava.<ref name=LB /> La temprana de la vive de Leonardo ia es la sujeto de divina istorial.<ref>Brigstoke, Hugh (2001). ''The Oxford Companion the Western Art.'' Oxford, ENG, UK.</ref> [[Giorgio_Vasari|Giorgio Vasari]], la biografiste de depintores de la Renase, ia nara un raconta sur Leonardo como om multe joven: Un campanian local ia crea un scermo ronda per se e ia demanda ce Ser Piero fa ce on depinta lo per el. Leonardo ia responde con un [[Medusa_(Leonardo_da_Vinci_|depinta de un monstro]] sputante foco cual ia es tan terorinte ce Ser Piero ia vende lo a un vendor fiorentin de arte, ci ia vende lo a la [[Duxe_de_Milano|duxe de Milano]]. Entretempo, pos fa un profita, Ser Piero ia compra un scermo ornada con un cor perforada par un flexa, cual el ia dona a la campanian.<ref>Vasari, Giorgio (1568). ''Lives of the Artists.'' Penguin Classics. p 258–59.</ref> === La laboreria de Verrocchio, 1466-1476 === [[File:Andrea_del_Verrocchio,_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg|left|thumb| ''[[Batiza_de_Cristo_(Verrocchio_e_Leonardo)|La Batiza de Cristo]]'' (1472-1475), [[Galleria_degli_Uffizi|Uffizi]], par [[Andrea_del_Verrocchio|Verrocchio]] e Leonardo]] En 1466, cuando el ia ave des-cuatro anios, Leonardo ia es stajiada a la artiste Andrea di Cione, nomida [[Andrea_del_Verrocchio|Verrocchio]], de ci sua ''bottega'' (laboreria) ia es "un de la plu amirables en Firenze".<ref name="Rosci">Rosci, p 13</ref> El ia stajia como un ''garzone'' (xico de studio) a Andrea del Verrocchio, la depintor e scultor fiorentin la plu importante de sua tempo, e ia continua esta per sete anios.<ref name="refseek.com">[http://www.refseek.com/data/cache/en/1/Leonardo_da_Vinci.html Leonardo da Vinci – Encarta (copiada)] Retraeda en 8 novembre 2015</ref> Otra depintores famosa stajiada o asosiada con la laboreria inclui [[Domenico_Ghirlandaio|Domenico Ghirlandaio]], [[Pietro_Perugino|Pietro Perugino]], [[Sandro_Botticelli|Sandro Botticelli]] e [[Lorenzo_di_Credi|Lorenzo di Credi]].<ref name=LB /><ref name=DA /> Leonardo ia es esposada a e instruis teorial e un varia vasta de capasias tecnical,<ref>Rosci, p 27</ref> incluinte desinia tecnical, cimica, metalurjia, fabrica metal, moldi de jeso, fabrica de cuoro, mecanica e carpenta, como ance la capasias artal de desinia, depinta, sculta e modeli.<ref name=AM>Martindale, Andrew (1972). ''The Rise of the Artist.''</ref><ref group="nb">On descrive en detalia la "artes diversa" e capasias tecnical de laborerias de la eda media e de la Renase en la testo de la sentenio 12, ''On Divers Arts'' par [[Teofilo Presbiter|Teofilo Presbiter]] e en la testo de la comensa de la sentenio 15, ''Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della Pittui'' par [[Cennino Cennini|Cennino Cennini]].</ref> Multe de la produis depintada de la laboreria de Verrocchio ia es fada par sua empleadas. Diseda par Vasari, Leonardo ia colabora con Verrocchio sur sua [[Batiza_de_Cristo_(Verrocchio_e_Leonardo)|Batiza de Cristo]], ia depinta la anjel joven teninte la roba de Jesus en un modo cual ia es tan superior a la modo de sua mestre ce Verrocchio ia pone sua brosa e ia depinta nunca denova, ma esta es crededa es apocrifa.<ref>Vasari, p 258</ref> Un esamina atendente mostra areas cual ia es depintada o ajustada sur la [[Tempera|tempera]] usante la tecnica nova de [[pinta_de_olio|pinta de olio]]; la vista, la rocas como videda tra la rieta brun de monte e la plu de la figur de Jesus ia es ajustada par Leonardo.<ref>della Chiesa, p 88</ref> Leonardo ia es cisa la model per du de la obras par Verrocchio: la sculta de bronze de ''[[David_(Verrocchio)|David]]'' en [[Bargello|Bargello]] e la [[Rafael_(arcanjel)|arcanjel Rafael]] en ''[[Tobias_e_la_anjel|Tobias e la anjel]]''.<ref name=Chiesa83 /> Ante la fini de 1472, cuando el ia ave dudes anios, Leonardo ia cuali como un mestre en la [[Corpora_de_San_Lucas|Corpora de San Lucas]], la corpora de artistes e dotores de medica,{{Refn|On pote dedui ce Leonardo ia junta se a la corpora par regarda la arcivo de paia en la arcivo de la corpora cual on fa a la Compagnia di San Luca (Corpora de San Lucas), Libro Rosso A, 1472-1520, Accademia di Belle Arti.<ref name=Chiesa83 />|group=nb}} ma an pos cuando sua padre ia institui el en sua propre laboreria, sua lia con Verrocchio ia es tan forte ce el ia continua colabora con el.<ref name=LB /> La obra conoseda la plu temprana de Leonardo es un desinia par pen e inca de la vale de la [[Arno|Arno]] ce el ia desinia en 5 agosto 1473.<ref group="nb">Esta obra es aora en la colie de la [[Galleria_degli_Uffizi|Uffizi]], Desinia Numero 8P.</ref><ref name= DA /> === Vive profesal, 1476-1513 === [[File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Adorazione_dei_Magi_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb| ''[[Adora_de_Majos_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|La Adora de la Majos]]'' (1481), [[Galleria_degli_Uffizi|Uffizi]]]] Arcivos de la corte fiorentin de 1476 mostra ce Leonardo e tre otra omes joven ia es acusada de [[Sodomia|sodomia]], ma los ia es desculpada; atas omosesal ia es nonlegal en Firenze en la Renase.<ref name=Chiesa83 /> De alora, asta 1478, on ave no indica de sua labora o an sua loca.<ref name="everything">Priwer, Shana; Phillips, Cynthia (2006). ''The Everything Da Vinci Book.'' p 245.</ref> En 1478, el ia parti de la studio de Verrocchio e ia es no plu un abitor a la casa de sua padre. Un autor, la "Anonimo" Gaddiano, alega ce en 1480 Leonardo ia abita con la Medicis e ia labora en la Jardin de la Piazza San Marco en Firenze, un academia neoplatoniste de artistes, poesistes e filosofistes cual la Medicis ia fundi.<ref name=Chiesa83 /> En janero 1478, el ia reseta un comision nondependente per depinta un arte de altar per la Egleseta de San Bernardo en la [[Palazzo_Vecchio|Palazzo Vecchio]], e en marto 1481 el ia reseta un otra comision nondependente per ''[[Adora_de_Majos_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|La Adora de la Majos]]'' per la monces de San Donato a Scopeto.<ref name=Wasser1>Wasserman, Jack (1975). Leonardo da Vinci. p 77–78.</ref> No la un e no la otra ia es completida, e la numero du ia es interompeda cuando Leonardo ia vade a Milano. En 1482, Leonardo, ci ia es un musiciste talentosa (como diseda par Vasri),<ref>Winternitz, Emanuel (1982). ''Leonardo Da Vinci As a Musician.''</ref> ia crea un lira arjento en la forma de la testa de un cavalo. [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo de' Medici]] ia envia Leonardo a Milano, portante la lira como un donada, per securi pas con [[Ludovico_Sforza|Ludovico Sforza]], la [[Duxe_de_Milano|duxe de Milano]].<ref>Rossi, Paolo (2001). ''The Birth of Modern Science.'' p 33.</ref> A esta ves, Leonardo ia scrive un letera frecuente sitada, descrivente la multe cosas merveliosa e diversa cual el pote ateni en la campo de injenia e informante Ludovico ce el pote ance depinta.<ref name=DA /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190603002006/http://www.leonardo-history.com/life.htm?Section=S5 "Leonardo's Letter to Ludovico Sforza"]. Leonardo-History. Retraeda en 5 janero 2010.</ref> Leonardo ia labora en Milano de 1482 asta 1499. El ia es encargada per depinta la ''[[Virjin_de_la_rocas|Virjin de la rocas]]'' per la Frateria de la Consepi sin Manxa e la ''[[Come_de_Sera_Ultima_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|Come de Sera Ultima]]'' per la monceria de [[Santa_Maria_delle_Grazie_(Milano)|Santa Maria delle Grazie]].<ref name=Kemp>Kemp, Martin (2004). ''Leonardo.''</ref> En la primavera de 1485, Leonardo ia viaja a [[Magiar|Magiar]] per Ludovico per encontra [[Matthias_Corvinus|Matthias Corvinus]], per ci on crede ce el ia depinta un [[Santa_Familia|Santa Familia]].<ref>Franz-Joachim Verspohl, ''Michelangelo Buonarroti und Leonardo Da Vinci: Republikanischer Alltag und Künstlerkonkurrenz in Florenz zwischen 1501 und 1505'' (Wallstein Verlag, 2007), p. 151.</ref><span style="font-size:85%">[no en sita (augusto 2013)]</span> Entre 1493 e 1495, Leonardo ia lista un fem nomida Caterina como un de sua dependentes en sua documentos de imposta. Cuando Caterina ia mori en 1495, la lista de spendes de la funera sujesta ce el ia es la madre de Leonardo.<ref>Codex II, 95 r, Victoria and Albert Museum, como sitada par della Chiesa p 85</ref> [[File:Study_of_horse.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cavalo_de_Leonardo|Studia de un cavalo de la jornales de Leonardo]] - Biblioteca real, [[Castel_de_Windsor|Castel de Windsor]]]] Leonardo ia es empleada sur multe projetas diferente per Ludovico, incluinte la prepara de caros de carnaval e spetaculos per veses spesial, desinias per un cupola per la [[Catedral_de_Milano|catedral de Milano]], e un model per un monumento cavaloral per [[Francesco_Sforza|Francesco Sforza]], la presedor de Ludovico. Setedes tones de [[Bronze|bronze]] ia es reservada per lo. La monumento ia resta bruta tra alga anios, lo cual ia no es nonusual per Leonardo. En 1492, la model de la cavalo en arjila ia es completida. Sua grandia ia esede la sola du scultas cavaloral grande de la Renase, ''[[Monumento_cavaloral_de_Gattamelata|Gattamelata]]'' en Padua par Donatello e ''[[Bartolomeo_Colleoni|Bartolomeo Colleoni]]'' en Venezia par Verrocchio, e ia deveni conoseda como la "''[[Cavalo_de_Leonardo|Gran Cavallo]]''".<ref name=DA /><ref group="nb">On no ia moldi la sculta de Bartolomeo Colleoni par Verrocchio asta cuando 1488, pos la mori de Verrocchio, e pos Leonardo ia comensa ja labora sur la sculta per Ludovico.</ref> Leonardo ia comensa crea desinias per la moldi de lo;<ref name=DA /> an tal, Michelangelo ia insulta Leonardo par implica ce el es noncapas de moldi lo.<ref name=LB /> En novembre 1494, Ludovico ia dona la bronze per usa per canones per defende la site de invade par [[Charles_8_de_Frans|Charles 8]].<ref name=DA /> A la comensa de la [[Gera_de_Italia_de_1499-1504|gera italian du]] en 1499, la soldatos franses ci ia es invadeda ia usa la model de arjila de grandia vera per la ''Gran Cavallo'' como un blanco de eserse. Cuando Ludovico Sforza ia es suvertida, Leonardo, con sua aidor Salai e sua ami, la matematiciste [[Luca_Pacioli|Luca Pacioli]], ia fuji de Milano a [[Venezia|Venezia]],<ref name=Chiesa85>della Chiesa, p 85</ref> do el ia es empleada como un arcitetor e injenior militar, inventante metodos per defende la site de ataca marinal.<ref name=LB /> Cuando el ia revade a Firenze en 1500, el e sua familia ia es invitadas de la monces de la [[Ordina_de_la_servores_de_Maria|ordinia de la servores de Maria]] a la monceria de [[Basilica_della_Santissima_Annunziata|Santissima Annunziata]] e ia es furnida con un laboreria do, diseda par Vasari, Leonardo ia crea la cartun de ''[[La_Virjin_e_la_Enfante_con_San_Anna_e_San_Joan_Batiste|La Virjin e la Enfante con San Anna e San Joan Batiste]]'', un obra cual ia gania tan amira ce "omes e femes, joven e vea" ia vade per vide lo "como si los es presente a un festa grande".<ref>Vasari, p 256</ref>{{Refn |En 2005, on redescovre la studio en cuando la restora de un parte de un construida cual la Departe de jeografia militar ia ocupa per 100 anios.<ref>Owen, Richard (12 janero 2005). [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article411195.ece "Found: the studio where Leonardo met Mona Lisa"]. London: The Times. Retraeda en 5 janero 2010.</ref> |group=nb}} [[File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Plan_of_Imola_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|La mapa multe esata de [[Imola|Imola]] par Leonardo, creada per [[Cesare_Borgia|Cesare Borgia]]]] En [[Cesena|Cesena]] en 1502, Leonardo ia entra a la servi de [[Cesare_Borgia|Cesare Borgia]], la fio de [[Pape_Alexandro_6|pape Alexandro 6]], laborante como un arcitetor e injenior militar, e viajante tra Italia con sua sponsor.<ref name=Chiesa85 /> Leonardo ia crea un mapa de la fortres de Cesare Borgia, un scema de la vila de [[Imola|Imola]], per gania sua sponsoria. Mapas ia es estrema rara en esta tempo, e lo ia pare como un idea nova. Cuando el ia vide lo, Cesare ia emplea Leonardo como sua arcitetor e [[Injenior_militar|injenior militar]] xef. Plu tarda en la anio, Leonardo ia produi un plu mapa per sua sponsor, de la [[Val_di_Chiana|Val di Chiana]] en Toscana, per dona a sua sponsor un vista plu bon de la tera e un posa stratejial plu bon. El ia crea esta mapa en junta con sua otra projeta de construi un parario entre la mar e Firenze per permete ce un furni de acua susta la canal tra tota saisones. Leonardo ia revade a Firenze, do el ia rejunta se a la [[Corpora_de_San_Lucas|Corpora de San Lucas]] en 18 otobre 1503. El ia spende du anios en desinia e pinti un depinta mural de ''[[La_batalia_de_Anghiari_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|la batalia de Anghiari]]'' per la Signoria,<ref name=Chiesa85 /> con Michelangelo desiniante sua peso acompanial, ''[[La_batalia_de_Cascina_(Michelangelo)|la batalia de Cascina]]''.{{Refn |On ia perde ambos de la obras. On sabe de la composa intera de la depintas par Michelangelo sola de un copia par Aristotole da Sangallo, 1542.<ref>Goldscheider, Ludwig (1967). ''Michelangelo: paintings, sculptures, architecture''. Phaidon Press. [[ISBN|ISBN]] 978-0-7148-1314-1.</ref> On sabe de la depinta par Leonardo sola de desinias comensal e alga copias de la sesion sentral, de cual la un la plu conoseda, e probable la min esata, es par [[Peter Paul Rubens|Peter Paul Rubens]].<ref>della Chiesa, p 106–107</ref> |group=nb}} En Firenze en 1504, el ia es un membro de un comite grupida per reloca la sculta de ''[[David_(Michelangelo)|David]]'' par Michelangelo, contra la vole de la artiste.<ref>Gaetano Milanesi, ''Epistolario Buonarroti'', Florence (1875), como sitada par della Chiesa.</ref> En 1506, Leonardo ia revade a Milano. Multe de sua seguores e aprendores la plu importante en depinta o ia conose el o ia labora con el en Milano,<ref name=LB /> inclui [[Bernardino_Luini|Bernardino Luini]], [[Giovanni_Antonio_Boltraffio|Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio]] e [[Marco_d'Oggiono|Marco d'Oggiono]].<ref group="nb">On sabe de D'Oggiono partal per sua copias contempora de la ''Come de Sera Ultima''.</ref> A esta ves, el ia comensa cisa un projeta per un figur cavaloral de [[Charles_2_d'Amboise|Charles 2 d'Amboise]], la [[Rena_de_Frans|governor franses]] de Milano.<ref>"Achademia Leonardi Vinci". ''Journal of Leonardo Studies & Bibliography of Vinciana.'' VIII: 243–244. 1990.</ref> Un [[Cavalo_e_cavalor_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|model de sira]] survive, e si lo es autentica, lo es la sola esemplo esistente de sua sculta. Leonardo no ia resta longa en Milano car sua padre ia mori en 1504, e en 1507 el ia es en Firenze per atenta solve problemes con sua frates sur la propria de sua padre. En 1508, Leonardo ia es en Milano, abitante en sua propre casa en Porta Orientale en la parocia de Santa Babila.<ref name=Chiesa86>della Chiesa, p 86</ref> === Veia, 1513–19 === De setembre 1513 asta 1516, su [[Pape_Leo_10|pape Leo 10]], Leonardo ia pasa multe de sua tempo abitante en la [[Cortile_del_Belvedere|Cortile del Belvedere]] en la Vatican en Roma, do [[Rafaello_Sanzio|Rafaello Sanzio]] e [[Michelangelo_Buonarroti|Michelangelo Buonarroti]] ia es alora ativa.<ref name=Chiesa86 /> En otobre 1515, [[François_1_de_Frans|re François 1 de Frans]] ia recatura Milano.<ref name=Wasser1 /> A 19 desembre, Leonardo ia es presente a la encontra de François 1 e pape Leo 10, cual ia aveni en Bologna.<ref name=LB /><ref>Georges Goyau, ''François I'', Transcriveda par Gerald Rossi. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VI. Publici en 1909. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retraeda en 4 otobre 2007</ref><ref>Miranda, Salvador (1998–2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110825134702/http://www2.fiu.edu/~mirandas/bios1527-ii.htm "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church: Antoine du Prat"]. Retraeda en 4 otobre 2007.</ref> Leonardo ia es encargada per crea per François un leon mecanical cual pote pasea a ante e abri sua peto per mostra un grupo de liles.<ref name="Vasari, p 265">Vasari, p 265</ref>{{Refn|On no sabe per cual ves on ia crea la leon, ma on crede ce lo ia saluta la re cuando el ia entra a en [[Lyon|Lyon]] e posible on usa lo per discutes de pas entre la re franses e [[Pape_Leo_10|pape Leo 10]] en [[Bologna|Bologna]]. On ia crea un recrea divinal de la leon cual on mostra aora en la Museo de Bologna.<ref>[http://www.ancientandautomata.com/ita/lavori/leone.htm "Reconstrui de la leon paseada par Leonardo"] (en italian). Retraeda en 5 janero 2010.</ref>|group=nb}} En 1516, el ia entra a la servi de François. On ia dona a el la usa de la casa [[Clos_Lucé|Clos Lucé]], cual es aora un museo publica, prosima a la abiteria de la re a la [[Château_d'Amboise|Château d'Amboise]] real. El ia pasa ala la tre anios final de sua vive, acompaniada par sua ami e aprendor, conte [[Francesco_Melzi|Francesco Melzi]], e suportada par un pension de 10 000 [[Scudo_(mone)|scudos]].<ref name=Chiesa86 /> [[File:Clos_luce_04_straight.JPG|thumb|[[Clos_Lucé|Clos Lucé]] en Frans, do Leonardo ia mori en 1519]] Leonardo ia mori a [[Clos_Lucé|Clos Lucé]] en 2 maio 1519. François 1 ia deveni un ami prosima de el. Vasari rejistra ce la re ia teni la testa de Leonardo en sua brasos en cuando el ia mori, ma esta nara, amada par la franseses e representada en depintas romantica par [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres|Ingres]], [[François-Guillaume_Ménageot|Ménageot]] e otra artistes franses, como ance [[Angelica_Kauffman|Angelica Kauffman]], pote es un lejenda e no un fato.<ref group="nb">En la dia cuando Leonardo ia mori, la re ia proclama un proclama real a [[Saint-Germain-en-Laye|Saint-Germain-en-Laye]], cual ia es un viaja de du dias de [[Clos Lucé|Clos Lucé]]. On considera esta como confirma ce re François no ia es presente a la leto de mori de Leonardo. Contra esta, White indica en ''Leonardo: The First Scientist'' ce la re no ia suscrive la proclama.</ref> Vasari ia declara ce en sua dias final, Leonardo ia clama un prete per fa sua confesa e per reseta la [[Sacramento_(catolicisme)|sacramentos]].<ref>Vasari, p 270</ref> En acorda con sua atesta final, sesdes mendicores ia segue sua caxon funeral.<ref group="nb">Esta ia es un lega carital car cada de la sesdes povres ia reseta un paia per lamentores seguente la acorda formal de la atesta final de Leonardo.</ref> Melzi ia es la eritor xef e esecutor, resetante, como ance mone, la depinta, utiles, biblioteca e posesedas personal de Leonardo. Leonardo ia recorda ance sua otra aprendor e acompanior longa, Salai, e sua servor Battista di Vilussis, de ci cada ia reseta un dui de la [[Viteria|viterias]] de Leonardo. Sua frates ia reseta tera, e la fem ci ia atende el ia reseta un capa negra "de bon materia" con un borda de pelo.<ref group="nb">La capa negra de materia de bon cualia ia es un ojeto ja preparada par la stofor, e la borda de pelo ia es un luso ajuntada. La posese de esta veste ia permete ce la manejor de casa de Leonardo ia pote atende la funeral en vestes "restetable" sin spende.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161009231650/http://www.leonardo-history.com/life.htm?Section=S6 "Leonardo's will"]. Leonardo-history. Retraeda en 28 setembre 2007.</ref> Leonardo da Vinci ia es enterada en la egleseta de San Hubert en la Château d'Amboise en Frans. A sirca 20 anios pos la mori de Leonardo, la oror e scultor [[Benvenuto_Cellini|Benvenuto Cellini]] ia reporta ce François ia dise: "Nunca un otra om ia nase en la mundo ci ia sabe tan multe como Leonardo, no tan multe sur depinta, sculta e arciteta, como ce el ia es un filosofiste multe eselente".<ref>Lucertini, Mario; Gasca, Ana Millan; Nicolo, Fernando (2004). ''[https://books.google.com/?id=YISIUycS4HgC&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=leonardo+cellini+francois+philosopher Technological Concepts and Mathematical Models in the Evolution of Modern Engineering Systems]''. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-6940-8. Retraeda en 3 otobre 2007.</ref> == Relatas e influes == === Firenze: La esperias artiste e sosial de Leonardo === [[File:Gylleneportarna.jpg|thumb|left|La ''Portones de paradiso'' (1425-1452) par [[Lorenzo_Ghiberti|Lorenzo Ghiberti]] ia es un fonte de orgulo comunial. Multe artistes ia aida sua crea]] Firenze en la tempo de la jovenia de Leonardo ia es la sentro de pensa e cultur [[Umanisme_de_la_Renase|umaniste]] cristian.<ref name="Rosci" /> Leonardo ia comensa sua stajia su Verrocchio en 1466, la anio cuando la mestre de Verrocchio, la scultor eselente [[Donatello|Donatello]], ia mori. La depintor [[Paolo_Uccello|Paolo Uccelo]], de ci sua esperimentas prima con perspetiva ia influe la developa de depinta de vistas, ia es alora un om multe vea. La depintores [[Piero_della_Francesca|Piero della Francesca]] e [[Filippo_Lippi|Filippo Lippi]], la scultor [[Luca_della_Robbia|Luca della Robbia]], e la arcitetor e scrivor [[Leon_Battista_Alberti|Leon Battista Alberti]] ia es en sua desenios sete. La artistes susedosa de la jenera seguente ia es Verrocchio ci ia es la mestre de Leonardo, [[Antonio_del_Pollaiuolo|Antonio del Pollaiuolo]], e la scultor de scultas personal [[Mino_da_Fiesole|Mino da Fiesole]], de ci sua bustos vivin mostra la representas la plu fidable de Piero e Giovanni, la padre e tio de Lorenzo de Medici.<ref name=Hartt>Hartt, Frederich (1970). ''A History of Italian Renaissance Art.'' p 127–333.</ref><ref name=Rosci1>Rosci, ''Leonardo'', capitol 1, ''the historical setting'', p 9–20</ref><ref name=Bruck>Brucker, Gene A. (1969). ''Renaissance Florence.''</ref><ref name=Rach>Rachum, Ilan (1979). ''The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia.''</ref> La jovenia de Leonardo ia es pasada en un Firenze cual ia es ornada par la obras de esta artistes e par la contemporas de Donatello: [[Masaccio|Masaccio]], de ci sua [[Fresco|frescos]] ia es permeada con realisme e emosia, e [[Lorenzo_Ghiberti|Lorenzo Ghiberti]], de ci sua ''Portones de paradiso'', briliante con [[Folia_de_oro|folia de oro]], ia mostra la arte de combina composas de figures complicada con fondos detaliosa de arciteta. Piero della Francesca ia fa un studia detaliosa de perspetiva<ref>Piero della Francesca, ''De Prospectiva Pingendi (De la perspetiva de depinta)''</ref> e ia es la depintor prima ci ia fa un studia siensal de lus. Esta studias, e la tese ''[[De_pictura|De pictura]]''<ref>Leon Battista Alberti, ''De Pictura'', 1435. [http://www.noteaccess.com/Texts/Alberti/ ''On Painting'', en engles], [http://www.liberliber.it/mediateca/libri/a/alberti/de_pictura/html/depictur.htm ''De Pictura'', en latina]</ref> par [[Leon_Battista_Alberti|Leon Battista Alberti]] ia ave un efeto profonda a artistes joven de la tempo, e spesial a la oservas e obras de Leonardo.<ref name=Hartt /><ref name=Bruck /><ref name=Rach /> La ''[[Espulsa_de_Eden|Espulsa de Eden]]'' par Massaccio, representante [[Adam_e_Eva|Adam e Eva]] nuda e turbada, ia crea un imaje potiosa espresosa de la forma umana, mostrada en tre dimensiones par la usa de [[Chiaroscuro|claroscur]] cual Leonardo ia developa en sua obras en un modo cual ia influe la curso de depinta. La influe umaniste de "''David''" par Donatello pote es videda en la depintas tarda de Leonardo, spesial en ''[[San_Joan_Batiste_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|San Joan Batiste]]''.<ref name=Hartt /><ref name= Rosci1 /> [[File:Andrea del Verrocchio - Mary with the Child - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Imaje peti de dedica par [[Andrea_del_Verrocchio|Verrocchio]], sirca 1470]] Un tradision comun en Firenze ia es artes peti de altar mostrante la [[Madona_(arte)|Virjin e Enfante]]. Multe de estas ia es creada en [[Tempera|tempera]] o [[Teracota|teracota]] glasada par la laborerias de Filippo Lippi, Verrocchio, e la familia produosa [[Luca_della_Robbia|della Robbia]].<ref name=Hartt /> La madonas prima de Leonardo, pe la ''[[Madona_de_la_Cariofilo|Madona de la Cariofilo]]'' e la ''[[Madona_Benois|Madona Benois]]'', ia segue esta tradision ma ia mostra diferes unica, spesial la Madona Benois en cual la Virjin es poneda a un angulo apoiada a la spasio de la imaje con la enfante Cristo a la angulo oposada. Esta tema composal ia emerji en la depintas tarda de Leonardo, pe ''[[La_Virjin_e_la_Enfante_con_San_Ana|La Virjin e la Enfante con San Ana]]''.<ref name=LB /> Leonardo ia es un contempora de [[Sandro_Botticelli|Sandro Botticelli]], [[Domenico_Ghirlandaio|Domenico Ghirlandaio]] e [[Pietro_Perugino|Pietro Perugino]], de ci tota la tre ia es pico plu vea ca el.<ref name=Rosci1 /> El ia encontra los a la laboreria de Verrocchio, con ci los ia ave asosias, e a la [[Academia|Academia]] de la [[Casa_de_la_Medicis|Medicis]].<ref name=LB /> Botticelli ia es un om spesial prefereda par la Medicis, donce sua susede como un depintor ia es sertida. Ghirlandaio e Perugino ia es produosa e ia maneja laborerias grande. Los ia trae capas obras a clientes sasiada ci ia es grasiosa per la capasia de Ghirlandaio de representa la sitadanes rica de Firenze en frescos relijial grande, e la capasia de Perugino de representa un multia de santas e anjeles con dulsia e virtua nonerante.<ref name=Hartt /> [[File:Hugo_van_der_Goes_006.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Tritico_Portinari|La Tritico Portinari]]'', par [[Hugo_van_der_Goes|Hugo van der Goes]] per un familia fiorentin]] Esta tre omes ia es alga de la omes ci ia es encargada per depinta la mures de la [[Elgeseta_Sistina|Egleseta Sistina]]; la labora ia comensa cuando Perugino ia es empleada per lo en 1497. Leonardo no ia partisipa en esta encarga prestijiosa. Sua encarga prima sinifiosa, la ''[[Adora_de_Majos_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|Adora de la Majos]]'' per la monces de Scopeto, ia es nunca completida.<ref name=LB /> En 1476, en la tempo ce Leonardo ia es asosiada con la laboreria de Verrocchio, la [[Tritico_Portinari|Tritico Portinari]] par [[Hugo_van_der_Goes|Hugo van der Goes]] ia ariva en Firenze, cual ia trae [[Primitivas_Flames|tecnicas nova de depinta]] de Europa norde cual ia afeta profonda Leonardo, Ghirlandaio, Perugino, e otras.<ref name=Rosci1 /> En 1497, la depintor sisilian [[Antonello_da_Messina|Antonello da Messina]], ci ia depinta sola depintas de olio, ia viaja norde a [[Venezia|Venezia]], do la depintor la plu bon [[Giovanni_Bellini|Giovanni Bellini]] ia adota la tecnica de depinta con olio; donce esta deveni rapida la metodo prefereda en Venezia. Leonardo ance ia visita Venezia a pos.<ref name=Rosci1 /><ref name=Rach /> Como la du arcitetores contempora [[Donato_Bramante|Donato Bramante]] e [[Antonio_da_Sangallo_la_Vea|Antonio da Sangallo la Vea]], Leonardo ia esperimenta con desinias per eglesas cual on desinia sentral, alga de cual apare en sua jornales, an si on reali zero de los.<ref name=Rosci1 /><ref>Hartt, p 391–92</ref> [[File:Ghirlandaio_a-pucci-lorenzo-de-medici-f-sassetti_1.jpg|thumb|Lorenzo de' Medici entre Antonio Pucci e Francesco Sassetti, con Giulio de' Medici, fresco par [[Domenico_Ghirlandaio|Ghirlandaio]]]] La contemporas political de Leonardo ia es [[Lorenzo_de'_Medici|Lorenzo de' Medici]] (il Magnifico), ci ave tre plu anios, e sua frateta Giuliano, ci on ia mata en la [[Conspira_de_la_Pazzi|Conspira de la Pazzi]] en 1478. On ia envia Leonardo como un ambasador par la corte de Medici a [[Ludovico_il_Moro|Ludovico il Moro]], ci ia governa [[Milano|Milano]] entre 1479 e 1499.<ref name=Rosci1 /> Con Alberti, Leonardo ia visita la casa de la Medicis, e par los el ia encontra la filosofistes umaniste plu vea, la xef de ci ia es [[Marsilio_Ficino|Marsilio Ficino]], un suportor de [[Psicolojia_roman#Neoplatonisme|neoplatonisme]]; [[Cristoforo_Landino|Cristoforo Landino]], autor de comentas sur scrivedas clasica; e [[Ioannis_Argiropoulos|Ioannis Argiropoulos]], ensenior de [[Elinica_(lingua)|elinica]] e traduor de [[Aristotele|Aristotele]]. Ance asosiada con la Academia de la Medicis ia es un contempora de Leonardo, la poesiste e filosofiste joven briliante [[Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola|Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]].<ref name=Rosci1 /><ref name=Rach /><ref>Williamson, Hugh Ross (1974). ''Lorenzo the Magnificent.''</ref> A pos Leonardo ia scrive en la marjin de un jornal, "La Medicis ia crea me e la Medicis ia destrui me." En cuando la atas de Lorenzo ia capasi Leonardo reseta sua emplea a la corte de Milano, on no sabe esata cual Leonardo ia intende con esta comenta misteriosa.<ref name=LB /> An si on considera usual los como la tre grandes de la [[Alta_Renase|Alta Renase]], Leonardo, Michelangelo, e Rafaello no ia es de la mesma jenera. Leonardo ia ave dudes-tre anios cuando Michelangelo ia nase e tredes-un cuando Rafaello ia nase.<ref name=Rosci1 /> Rafaello ia vive asta cuando el ia ave mera tredes-sete anios e ia mori en 1520, la anio ante Leonardo ia mori, ma Michelangelo ia continua crea per 45 plu anios.<ref name=Bruck /><ref name=Rach /> === Vive personal === En la vive de Leonardo, sua capasia estracomun de inventa, sua "belia fisical eselente", "sofistica infinita", "fortia e jenerosia grande", "spirito real e estende enorme de mente", como diseda par Vasari,<ref>Vasari, p 253</ref> como ance tota otra aspetas de sua vive, ia atrae la curiosia de otras. Un tal aspeta ia es sua respeta per vive, evidenti par sua vejetalisme e par sua abitua, como diseda par Vasari, de compra avias cajida e relesa los.<ref>Vasari, p 257</ref><ref>Müntz, Eugène (1898). ''[https://archive.org/stream/gri_33125000944930#page/n47/mode/2up/ Leonardo da Vinci. Artist, Thinker, and Man of Science. Volume 1.]'' London: William Heinemann. p 17.</ref> [[File:Da Vinci Isabella d'Este.jpg|thumb|left|Desinia per un depinta de [[Isabella_d'este|Isabella d'este]] (1500) [[Museo_de_la_Louvre|Louvre]]]] Leonardo ia ave multe amis ci aora es famosa en sua campos o per sua importa istorial. On de ci ia es la matematiciste [[Luca_Pacioli|Luca Pacioli]],<ref>Bambach, Carmen (2003). [http://www.metmuseum.org/special/Leonardo_Master_Draftsman/draftsman_left_essay.asp "Leonardo, Left-Handed Draftsman and writer"]. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Arcivida de [https://web.archive.org/web/20091110221047/http://www.metmuseum.org/special/leonardo_master_draftsman/draftsman_left_essay.asp la orijinal] en 10 novembre 2009. Retraeda en 18 otobre 2009.</ref> con ci el ia colabora sur la libro ''[[De_divina_proportione|De divina proportione]]'' en la desenio de 1490. Leonardo ia pare ave no relatas prosima con femes con eseta de sua amia con [[Cecilia_Gallerani|Cecilia Gallerani]] e la du sores d'Este, [[Beatrice_d'Este|Beatrice]] e [[Isabella_d'Este|Isabella]].<ref>Cartwright Ady, Julia. ''Beatrice d'Este, Duchess of Milan, 1475–1497.'' Publicor: J.M. Dent, 1899; Cartwright Ady, Julia. ''Isabella D'Este, Marchioness of Mantua, 1474–1539.'' Publicor; J.M. Dent, 1903.</ref> Cuando en un viaja cual ia prende el tra [[Mantova|Mantova]], el ia desinia un depinta personal de Isabella. On ia pare usa esta per crea un depinta, ma on ia perde la desinia.<ref name=LB /> Esetante amia, Leonardo ia reteni sua vive privata como un secreta. Sua sesia ia es la sujeto de satira, analise, e divina. On ia comensa esta tende en la media de la sentenio 16 e on ia revide esta en la sentenios 19 e 20, notable la plu par [[Sigmund_Freud|Sigmund Freud]].<ref>Sigmund Freud, ''Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da Vinci'', (1910)</ref> La relatas de Leonardo la plu intima ia es cisa con sua aprendores Salai e Melzi. Melzi, cuando el ia scrive per informa la frates de Leonardo de la mori de Leonardo, ia descrive la sentis de Leonardo per sua aprendores como e amante e pasionosa. On ia dise de cuando la sentenio 16 cual esta relatas ia es sesal o erotica. Arcivos de corte de 1476, cuando Leonardo ia ave dudes-cuatro anios, mostra ce on ia acusa Leonardo e tre otra omes de [[Sodomia|sodomia]] en un aveni cual ia envolve un prostituida mas multe conoseda. On ia refusa la acusa par causa de un manca de indica, e on devina ce car un de la acusada, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, ia es un relatada de [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo de' Medici]], cual la familia ia forsa sua influe per securi la refusa.<ref>[http://www.bnl.gov/bera/activities/globe/leonardo_da_vinci.htm How do we know Leonardo was gay?] Bnl.gov. 3 maio 2001. Retraeda 29 otobre 2011.</ref> De pos esta data, on ia scrive multe sur la omosesalia suposada de Leonardo e la rol esta ave en sua arte, spesial en la androjinia e eroticia mostra en ''[[San_Joan_Batiste_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|San Joan Batiste]]'' e ''[[Baco_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|Baco]]'', e plu clar en alga desinias erotica.<ref>Michael Rocke, ''Forbidden Friendships'' epigraf, p 148 & N120 p 298</ref> === Aidores e aprendores === [[File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Saint_John_the_Baptist_C2RMF_retouched.jpg|thumb|''[[San_Joan_Batiste_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|San Joan Batiste]]'' (a sirca 1513-16), [[Museo_de_la_Louvre|Louvre]]. On pensa ce Leonardo ia usa Salaì como la model.]] [[Gian Giacomo Caprotti|Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno]], nometada ''Salaì'' o ''Il Salaino'' ("La un peti e nonpur", pd la diablo), ia entra la casa de Leonardo en 1490. Pos sola un anio, Leonardo fa un lista de la pecetas de Salaì. Leonardo ia nomida el un "furor, un mentor, ostinosa, e un gloton" car el ia fura mone e valuadas en sinco veses separada e ia spende un monton de mone per vestes.<ref>Leonardo, Codex C. 15v, Institut de Frans. Tradui a en engles par Richter</ref> An tal, Leonardo ia regala el con favore grande, e el ia permane en la casa de Leonardo per tredes plu anios.<ref>della Chiesa, p 84</ref> Salaì ia depinta alga depintas usa la nom Andrea Salai, ma an si Leonardo "ia ensenia el multe sur depinta",<ref>Vasari, p 265"</ref> on comun considera ce sua obras ave min valua artal ca otra de la aprendores de Leonardo, pe [[Marco d'Oggiono|Marco d'Oggiono]] e [[Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio|Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio]]. En 1515, Salaì ia depinta un varia nuda de la ''[[Mona_Lisa|Mona Lisa]]'', nomida la ''[[Monna_Vanna|Monna Vanna]]''.<ref>Gross, Tom. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070403073656/http://www.paintingsdirect.com/content/artnews/032001/artnews1.html "Mona Lisa Goes Topless"]. Paintingsdirect.com. Arcivida de [http://www.paintingsdirect.com/content/artnews/032001/artnews1.html la orijinal] en 3 april 2007. Retraeda en 27 setembre 2007.</ref> Salaì ia posese la ''Mona Lisa'' cuando el ia mori en 1525, e en sua atesta final on ia evalua lo a 505 liras, un valua spesial alta per un depinta personal peti.<ref name=NR>Rossiter, Nick (4 julio 2003). [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2003/04/07/banr.xml "Could this be the secret of her smile?"] Daily Telegraph. London. Retraeda en 3 otobre 2007.</ref> En 1506, Leonardo ia aseta un otra aprendor, conte [[Francesco_Melzi|Francesco Melzi]], la fio de un aristocrata [[Lombardia|lombard]], e on considera ce el ia es la aprendor la plu prefereda de Leonardo. El ia viaja a Frans con Leonardo e permane con el asta la mori de Leonardo.<ref name=LB /> Melzi ia erita la obras artal e siensal, manoscritos, e colies de Leonardo, e Melzi ia maneja la propria de Leonardo. == Depinta == [[File:Leonardo da Vinci - Annunciazione - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|350px|''[[Anunsiasion_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|Anunsiasion]]'' (1475-1480) - [[Galleria_degli_Uffizi|Uffizi]]. On pensa ce esta es la obra completa ce Leonardo ia fini prima]] An con la consensia e amira resente de Leonardo como un siensiste e inventor, per cuasi cuatrosento anios sua fama ia depende sur sua atenis como un depintor. Alga obras cual on ia autentici o atribui a el on ia considera como alga de la obras la plu bon de tota tempo. Esta depintas es famosa per un diversia de cualias ce studiantes ia imita multe e ce conosores e criticistes ia discute a longia grande. Ante fini de la desenio de 1490, on ja ia descrive Leonardo como un depintor "divin".<ref>Daniel Arasse discute la fama de Leonardo en ''Leonardo da Vinci'', p 11–15</ref> Entre la cualias ce fa la unicia de la obras de Leonardo es sua tecnicas inovosa per pone la pinta; sua sabe detaliosa de anatomia, lus, botanica, e jeolojia; sua interesa en [[Aspeta_de_fas|aspeta de fas]] e la modo en cual umanas mostra emosia en espresa e jesti; sua usa inovosa de la forma umana en composa nonastrata; e sua usa de gradasion sutil de tinje. Tota de esta cualias asembla en sua obras pintida la plu famosa, la ''Mona Lisa'', la ''Come de Sera Ultima'', e la ''Virjin de la rocas''.<ref>Frederick Hartt discute esta cualias de la obras de Leonardo en ''A History of Italian Renaissance Art'', p 387–411.</ref> === Obras prima === [[File:Leonardo, san girolamo.jpg|left|thumb|Depinta bruta de ''[[San_Jeronimo_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|San Jeronimo]]'' (1480), [[Palazzo_Apostolico|Vatican]]]] Leonardo ia deveni prima famosa per sua labora sur ''[[Batiza_de_Cristo_(Verrocchio_e_Leonardo)|La Batiza de Cristo]]'', cual el ia depinta con Verrocchio. Du otra depintas dati pare de cuando Leonardo ia es a la laboreria de Verrocchio, ambos de cual es [[Anunsiasion|anunsiasiones]]. Un es peti; lo ave 59 sentimetres (23 ditones) de longia e 14 sentimetres (5.5 ditones) de altia. Lo es un "predella" ce on debe pone a la basa de un composa plu grande, un depinta par [[Lorenzo_di_Credi|Lorenzo di Credi]], de cual on ia separa lo. La otra es un obra multe plu grande; lo ave 217 seintimetres (85 ditones) de longia.<ref>della Chiesa, p 88, 90</ref> En ambos de esta anunsiasiones, Leonardo ia usa un aranja formal, como du imajes bon conoseda par [[Fra_Angelico|Fra Angelico]] de la sujeto mesma, cual es de la [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|virjin Maria]] sentante o ajenante a la destra de la imaje; un anjel en profil con un veste lusosa e fluente, alas levada, e teni un lil, prosimi a el. An si on ia atribui la obra plu grande a [[Domenico_Ghirlandaio|Ghirlandaio]] en la pasada, aora on atribui comun lo a Leonardo.<ref name="Berti">Berti, Luciano (1971). ''The Uffizi''. p 59–62.</ref> En la depinta plu peti, Maria regarda a via e plia sua manos en un jesti cual ia simboli sede a la vole de Dio. Par contrasta, Maria no es sedente en la depinta plu grande. La xica, un mesajor nonespetada ia interompe ci, pone sua dito en sua Biblia per reteni sua loca e alti sua mano en un jesti formal de saluta o surprende.<ref name=Hartt /> Esta fem joven calma pare aseta sua rol como la [[Madre de Dio|Madre de Dio]], no con resinia ma con sertia. En esta depinta, Leonardo presenta la fas umaniste de la Virjin Maria, tal Leonardo ia reconose la rol de umanas en la incarne de Dio.{{Refn |Michael Baxandall ia lista 5 "states lodable" o reatas ce Maria ave a la presentia e proclama de la anjel. Estas es: Ansia, Refleta, Demanda, Sede, e Merita. En esta depinta, la disposa de Maria obedi zero de la tradisiones asetada.<ref>Baxandall, Michael (1974). ''Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy''. p 49–56.</ref> |group=nb}} === Depintas de la desenio de 1480 === [[File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_(National_Gallery_London).jpg|thumb|''[[Virjin_de_la_rocas|Virjin de la rocas]]'', [[National_Gallery_(London)|National Gallery]], London, mostra la interesa en natur cual Leonardo ia ave]] En la desenio de 1480, Leonardo ia reseta du comisiones e ia comensa un otra obra cual ia es multe importante per composa. On nunca ia completi du de la tre, e la completi de la obra tre ia es tan longa ce lo ia es la sujeto de negosias longa sur sua completi e paia. Un de esta depintas ia es ''[[San_Jeronimo_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|San Jeronimo]]'', cual Bortolon ia asosia con un periodo difisil de la vive de Leonardo, como mostrada par sua jornal personal: "Me ia pensa ce me ia aprende como me pote vive; me ia aprende sola como me pote mori."<ref name=LB /> An si on comensa apena la depinta, on pote vide la composa e lo es multe nonusual.{{Refn|[[Angelica_Kauffman|Angelica Kauffman]] ia posese la depinta en la sentenio 18, e pos on ia trinxa lo. On ia trova la du partes xef en un bricabraceria e un sapateria, e on ia reuni los.<ref name=Wasser2 /> La partes esterna de la depinta es probable asente.|group=nb}} [[San Jeronimo|San Jeronimo]], como un [[Repentor|repentor]], es en la media de la imaje, cual on ia anguli pico diagonal e a alga grado de a supra. Sua forma ajenante ave un forma trapezial; el estende un braso a la borda esterna de la depinta e regarda a la otra dirije. J Wasserman ia mostra la lia entre esta depinta e la studias anatomial par Leonardo.<ref name=Wasser2>Wasserman, p 104–6</ref> Sua simbol, un leon grande, senta en la fronte, la corpo e coda de cual formi un spiral duple traversante la basa de la spasio de la imaje. La otra cualia notable, cual on silueta la figur contra, es la vista concompleta de rocas ru. La mostra osante de composa de figur, la cualias de la vista, e la drama personal apare ance en la obra bruta, la ''[[Adora_de_Majos_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|Adora de la Majos]]'', cual ia es un comision per la monces de San Donato a Scopeto. Lo es un obra complicada, e lo es aprosima 250 x 250 sentimetres. Leonardo ia crea multe desinias e fa multe studias de perpara, incluinte un desinia detaliosa en perspetiva linial de la arciteta clasica ruinada cual formi un parte de la fondo. En 1482, Leonardo ia vade a Milano par la comanda de [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo de' Medici]] afin gania la favore de [[Ludovico_il_Moro|Ludovico il Moro]], e alora la depinta ia es abandonada.<ref name=Chiesa83 /><ref name=Berti /> La tre de la obras importante de esta periodo es la ''[[Virjin_de_la_rocas|Virjin de la rocas]]'', cual ia es encargada en Milano per la Frateria de la Consepi sin Manxa. La depinta, cual ia es creada con la aida de la frates de Predis, ta pleni un arte complicada e grande de altar.<ref>Wasserman, p.108</ref> Leonardo ia eleje depinta un momento apocrifa de la bebia de Cristo en cuando la bebe [[San Joan Batiste]], sur la proteje de un anjel, ia encontra la Familia Santa en la via a Egipte. La depinta mostra un belia strana en cuando la figures refinada ajena en adora sirca la bebe Cristo en un vista savaje de rocas rolante e acua jirante.<ref>{{cite web | title =The Mysterious Virgin | work = | publisher =[[National Gallery, London]] | url =http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/collection/features/potm/2006/may/feature1.htm | accessdate =27 September 2007 | deadurl =yes | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20071015062743/http://nationalgallery.org.uk/collection/features/potm/2006/may/feature1.htm | archivedate =15 October 2007 | df =dmy-all }}</ref> An cuanda la depinta es alga grande, sirca 200×120 sentimetres, lo no ave la complica ce la monces de San Donato ia encarga; lo ave mera cuatro figures en loca de sirca sincodes, e un vista rocosa en loca de detalias arcitetal. La depinta ia es finida ultima; en fato, du revisas de la depinta ia es finida: un ia resta a la egleseta de Frateria, en cuando Leonardo ia trae la otra a Frans. La frates no ia reseta sua depinta, e la familia de Predis no ia reseta sua paia asta la sentenio seguente.<ref name=DA>{{cite book |first=Daniel |last=Arasse |title=Leonardo da Vinci |url=https://archive.org/details/leonardodavincir0000aras |year=1998 }}</ref><ref name="Chiesa85" /> === Depintas de la desenio de 1490 === La depinta la plu famosa par Leonardo en la desenio de 1490 es la ''[[Come_de_Sera_Ultima_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|Come de Sera Ultima]]'', cual ia es encargada per la refetorio de la Soreria de Santa Maria delle Grazie en Milano. Lo representa la come final de Jesus e sua disiplos ante la catura e mori de Jesus, e mostra la momento esata pos Jesus ia dise "un de vos va tradi me", e la angusa cual esta declara ia crea.<ref name=DA /> La novelor [[Matteo Bandello]] ia oserva Leonardo cuano Leonardo ia labora. El ia scrive ce en alga dias, Leonardo ia depinta entre la matini e la noti, sin pausa per come, e a pos no depinta per tre o cuatro dias.<ref>Wasserman, p.124</ref> Esta ia es estra comprende per la prior de la soreria, ci ia disturba el asta Leonardo ia demanda ce Ludovico interveni. Vasari ia descrive como Leonardo, ci ia es ajitada par sua capasia per depinta sufisinte la fases de Cristo e la trador Judas, ia informa la duxe ce el ta es obligada per usa la prior como sua model.<ref>Vasari, p.263</ref> Cuando lo ia es finida, on ia aclama la depinta como un obra mestral de desinia e representa, ma lo ia dejenera rapida; sento anios a pos, un regardor ia descrive lo como "ruinada completa".<ref>della Chiesa, p.97</ref> Leonardo, en loca de usa la tecnica fidable de fresco, ia usa tempera sur un tera cual ia es xef jeso; esta ia resulta ce la surfas ia es afetable par mofo e floci.<ref>della Chiesa, p.98</ref> An tal, la depinta resta como un de la obras de arte cual es la plu reproduida; copias ultra conta ia es creada en cada media, incluinte tapetos e cameos. === Depintas de la sentenio 16 === [[File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|thumb|''[[Mona Lisa]]'' o ''La Gioconda'' (1503-05/07)-[[Louvre]], Paris, Frans]] Un de la obras ce Leonardo ia crea en la sentenio 16 es la depinta personal conoseda como la ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' o "la Gioconda", la on ci rie. En la eda presente, lo es posible la depinta la plu famosa en la mundo. Sua fama es spesial la resulta de la surie evitante sur la fas de la fem; la cualia misteriosa de la surie es causa posible par la angulos de la boca cual es sutil ombrida e par la oios, tal ce on no determina la natur esata de la surie. La cualia ombrosa, par cual la obra es famosa, es nomida "[[sfumato]]", o la fuma de Leonardo. Vasari, ci on pesa ce el conose la depinta sola par reputa, ia dise ce "la surie ia es tan plasente ce lo pare divin en loca de umana; e aceles ci ia vide lo ia es merveliada per descovre ce lo ia es como vivente como la orijinal".<ref>Vasari, p.267</ref>{{refn|Si Vasari ia vide la Mona Lisa es la sujeto de debate. La opina ce el ''no'' ia vide la depinta es fundida en la fato ce el ia descrive la Mona Lisa como ave suprasiles. Daniel Arasse en ''Leonardo da Vinci'' ia discute la posible ce Leonardo cisa ia depinta la figur con suprasiles cual ia es sutraeda a pos. (Los no ia es a la moda en la media de la sentenio 16.)<ref name=DA /> Pascal Cotte ia dise en 2007 ce, como diseda par sua analise de scanes de densia grande, la Mona Lisa ia ave suprasiles e siles cual ia es sutraeda a pos.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7056041.stm "The Mona Lisa had brows and lashes"]. BBC News. 22 otobre 2007. Retraeda en 22 febrero 2008.</ref>|group=nb}} Otra cualias de la depinta es la vestes nondecorada, en cual la oios e manos ave no compete par otra detalias; la vista dramosa en cual la mundo pare en un state de flue; la colores suave; e la natur estrema suave de la tecnica depintal, cual usa olios como [[tempera]] e misca sur la surfas afin la brosis es nondistinguable.{{refn|Jack Wasserman ia scrive de "la trata nonimitable de la surfases" de la depinta.<ref>Wasserman, p. 144</ref>|group=nb}} Vasari ia espresa la opina ce la metodo de depinta cual fa ce an "la mestre la plu serta ... despera e perde cor."<ref>Vasari, p.266</ref> La state perfeta de manteni e la fato ce lo es no sinia de repara o surdepinta es rara en un depinta de panel de esta data.<ref>della Chiesa, p.103</ref> En la depinta ''[[La_Virjin_e_la_Enfante_con_San_Ana|La Virjin e la Enfante con San Ana]]'', la composa ave denova la tema de figures en un vista, cual Wasserman ia descrive como "encantante bela"<ref>Wasserman, p.150</ref>, e evoca la imaje de San Jeronimo cual ave la figur a un angulo apoiada. Esta depinta es nonusual par causa de la du figures cual es posada apoiada e supraponeda. Maria senta sur la jeno de sua madre, San Ana. El apoia a ante per restrinje la Enfante Cristo en cuanto la Enfante jua bruta con un oveta; esta es un sinia de sua sacrifia.<ref name=DA /> Esta depinta, cual ia es multe copiada, ia influe Michelangelo, Rafaello, e [[Andrea del Sarto]],<ref>della Chiesa, p.109</ref> e tra los, [[Pontormo]] e [[Antonio da Corregio]]. La modas en composa ia es adotada spesial par la depintores venezian [[Tintoretto]] e [[Paolo Veronese]]. === Depintas mural === {{imaje multiple | align = right | direction = horizontal | header_align = center | header = | image1 = Leonardo da vinci, The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne 01.jpg | width1 =175 | alt1 = | caption1 = <center>''[[La Virjin e la Enfante con San Ana]]'' (s 1510)-[[Louvre]]</center> | image2 =Leonardo da Vinci - Virgin and Child with Ss Anne and John the Baptist.jpg | width2 = 200 | alt2 = | caption2 = <center>''[[La Virjin e la Enfante con San Anna e San Joan Batiste]]'' (s 1499-1500)-[[National Gallery (London)|National Gallery, London]]</center> }} ''[[La_batalia_de_Anghiari_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)|La batalia de Anghiari]]'' par Leonardo ia es un fresco cual ia es encargada en 1505 per la [[Salone dei Cinquecento]] (Salon de Sincosento) en la [[Palazzo Vecchio]], Firenze. La sena sentral de esta ia imaji cuantro omes ci ia monta cavalos furiosa de gera en batalia per posese de un bandera, a la batalia de Anghiari en 1440. A la mesma ves, sua competor Michelangelo, ci ia completi resente sua ''[[David_(Michelangelo)|David]]'', ia es asiniada a la mur oposada. La sola cosa cual permane de la obra de Leonardo es un copia par [[Peter Paul Rubens]], ma [[Maurizio Seracini]] crede ce on pote trova lo e ia pasa un vive intera xerca per lo. On permete a el per fora alga foras en un depinta mural en la [[Salone dei Cinquecento]], [[Palazzo Vecchio]], [[Firenze]], e sua ecipo ia trova indica de un depinta de olio a su.<ref>{{cite web |author= |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/06/science/06tier.html |title=A High-Tech Hunt for Lost Art |date=6 October 2009 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=19 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Seracini|first1=Maurizio|title=The Secret Lives of Paintings|url=https://www.ted.com/talks/maurizio_seracini_the_secret_lives_of_paintings?language=en#t-48953|format=leson|date=2012}}</ref> === Desinias === Leonardo no ia es un depintor produosa, ma ia es un desinior multe produosa. El ia reteni jornales cual ia es plen de desinias peti e desinias detaliosa cual arcivo multe cosas cual ave sua interesa. En ajunta a la jornales, on ave multe studias per depintas, alga de pote es identifiada como perpara per obras como la ''Adora de la Majos'' e la ''Come de Sera Ultima''.<ref name=Popham /> La desinia cual ia es datida como la plu prima es un ''Vista de la Vale Arno'', 1473, cual mostra la rio, la montes, Castel Montelupo e la teras cultivada a ultra en detalia grande.<ref name=LB /><ref name=Popham>{{cite book |first=A.E. |last=Popham |title=The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci |url=https://archive.org/details/drawingsofleonar0000aepo_h6h3 |year=1946 }}</ref> Alga de la plu famosa de sua desinias es la ''[[Om_de_Vitruvio|Om de Vitruvio]]'', cual es un studia de la proportios de la corpo umana; la ''Testa de un anjel'', per la ''[[Virjin_de_la_rocas|Virjin de la rocas]]'' en la Louvre; un studia botanical de ''Stela de Betlehem''; e un desinia grande (160×100 sentimetres) par creta negra sur paper colorida de ''[[La_Virjin_e_la_Enfante_con_San_Anna_e_San_Joan_Batiste|La Virjin e la Enfante con San Anna e San Joan Batiste]]'' en la National Gallery, London.<ref name=Popham /> Esta desinia mostra la tecnica sutil de tinje, ''[[sfumato]]'', en la metodo de la ''Mona Lisa''. On pensa ce Leonardo nunca ia crea un depinta de lo, e ce la similia la plu prosima es ''[[La_Virjin_e_la_Enfante_con_San_Ana|La Virjin e la Enfante con San Ana]]'' en la Louvre.<ref>della Chiesa, p. 102</ref> Otra desinias de interesa inclui multe studias cual es refere comun a como "imajes esajerada" par causa de los pare es fundida sur oservas de modeles vivente, an si los es esajerada. Vasari ia dise ce si Leonardo ia vide un person con un fas interesante, el ia segue la person per la dia e oserva el.<ref>Vasari, p. 261</ref> Leonardo ia fa multe studias de omes joven e bela, cual on asosia comun con Salai, cual ave la cualia rara e amirada de fas nomida la "profil elinica".<ref group="nb">La "profil elinica" ave un linia reta entre la fronte e la punto de la nas, e un ponte de nas cual es spesial alta. Lo es un spesifada de multe [[Sculta de Elas antica|scultas antica elinica]].</ref> On contrasta comun esta fases con la fases de gerores.<ref name=Popham /> Salai es comun imajida en vestes fantasin. On sabe ce Leonardo ia desinia spetaculos con cual estas pote es asosiada. Otra desinias, comun atendosa, mostra studias de cortinas. Un crese marcada en la capasia de Leonardo per desinia cortinas ia aveni en sua obras temprana. Un otra desinia cual on comun reprodui es un desinia macabre cual Leonardo ia desinia en Firenze en 1497. Esta mostra la corpo de [[Bernando Bandini Baroncelli|Bernando Baroncelli]], ci on ia pende en lia con la omiside de Giuliano, la frate de Lorenzo de' Medici, en la [[Conspira de Pazzi]].<ref name=Popham /> Con solidia nonpasionosa, Leonardo ia arcivi, en scrive ordinada mirorida, la colores de vestes cual Baroncelli ia porta cuando el ia mori. == Fama e reputa == == Notas basa == <div style="height: 200px; overflow:auto; border: 1px solid gray; padding-right: 12px; background-color:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color:inherit"> <references group="nb" /> </div> == Referes == <div style="height: 200px; overflow:auto; border: 1px solid gray; padding-right: 12px; background-color:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color:inherit"> <references /> <references /> </div> == Lias esterna == * [https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Leonardo+da+Vinci Obras par Leonardo da Vinci] a [[Project Gutenberg|Project Gutenberg]] [[Category:Biografia|Da Vinci, Leonardo]] [[Category:Depintor|Da Vinci, Leonardo]] [[Category:Depinta]] [[Category:Italianes|Da Vinci, Leonardo]] 8fceuvpoo9ygij2u5tp6t7mw5it2lzo 0 1344 43406 40921 2026-08-03T21:49:03Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43406 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Esta es la article sur leteratur. La [[:Category:Leteratur|categoria Leteratur]] conteni plu articles sur leteratur.'' [[Fix:20000_squid_holding_sailor.jpg|thumb|''Dudes Mil Legas Su la Mares'' par [[Jules Verne]]]] '''Leteratur''' es cualce colie de obras [[scrive]]da, ma lo es ance usada plu streta per scrivedas spesifada considerada como un forma de [[arte]], spesial [[novela]]s, [[teatral]]es, e [[poesia]]s. Lo inclui ambos scriveda primida e dijital.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rettberg|first=Scott|title=Electronic literature|url=https://archive.org/details/electroniclitera0000rett|date=2019|publisher=Polity press|isbn=978-1-5095-1677-3|location=Cambridge, UK Medford, MA}}</ref> En sentenios resente, la defini ia estende per inclui [[leteratur parlada]], de cual multe ia es transcriveda.<ref name = archive>{{cite web |last=Goody |first=Jack |title=Oral literature |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/oral-literature |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214104037/https://www.britannica.com/art/oral-literature |archive-date=14 December 2019 |access-date=2020-07-27 |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]}}; see also [[Homer]].</ref> Leteratur es un metodo de rejistra, conserva, e transmete sabe e diverti. Lo pote ance ave un rol sosial, psicolojial, spirital, o political. La terma es a veses usada como un sinonim de la [[nara leteratural]], cual enclui naras scriveda con la gol de [[merita artosa|merita leteratural]].<ref>[https://nybookeditors.com/2018/07/what-is-literary-fiction/ A Beginner's Guide to Literary Fiction" | NY Book Editors].</ref><ref>Girolimon, Mars. [https://www.snhu.edu/about-us/newsroom/liberal-arts/types-of-genres "Types of Genres: A Literary Guide",] [[Southern New Hampshire University]], 11 December 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2024.</ref> Leteratur, como un forma de arte, pote ance inclui obras en jeneros variosa de [[libro de fato|libros de fato]], como [[biografia]], [[jornal personal|jornales personal]], memorias, [[letera (mesaje)|leteras]], e [[esajo]]s. En sua defini larga, leteratur inclui [[libro]]s, articles, o otra informa scriveda fatal sur un sujeto spesifada.<ref name="EB">{{Cite web |last=Rexroth |first=Kenneth |title=literature &#124; Definition, Characteristics, Genres, Types, & Facts |url= https://www.britannica.com/art/literature |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729030437/https://www.britannica.com/art/literature |archive-date=29 July 2020 |access-date=27 July 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Etimolojial, la terma deriva de [[latina (lingua)|latina]] ''literatura/litteratura'', "aprende, scrive, gramatica," orijinal "scrive formida con leteras," de ''litera/littera'', "letera." An con esta, la terma ia ance es aplicada a testos parlada o cantada.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Finnegan|first=Ruth|title=How Oral Is Oral Literature?|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1974|volume=37|issue=1|pages=52–64|jstor=614104|doi=10.1017/s0041977x00094842 |s2cid=190730645}}</ref> [[Istoria de primi|Developas en tecnolojia de primi]] ia permete un distribui e sperde sempre cresente de obras scriveda, cual aora inclui [[leteratur eletronical]]. ==Scrivores famosa de leteratur== *[[William Shakespeare]] *[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] *[[Dante Alighieri]] *[[Miguel de Cervantes]] *[[Vergilio]] *[[Victor Hugo]] *[[Moliere]] *[[Hans Christian Andersen]] == Novelas == * [[The Hobbit]] == Poesia == *[[Omar Khayyam]] *[[Ilia Abu Madi]] *[[Gibran Khalil Gibran]] *[[Sitas de Shakespeare]] == Lias esterna == * [http://elefen.org/vici/leteratur/xef Testos traduida a elefen] == Referes == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Leteratur]] ciyw2i1j26jamwemg2boe7ax755seqf 0 1566 43396 31357 2026-08-03T20:58:01Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43396 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Socrates Louvre.jpg|thumb|Socrate]] : ''Esta es la article Filosofia. La [[:Category:Filosofia|categoria Filosofia]] teni plu articles de Filosofia.'' '''Filosofia''' (de elinica φιλοσοφία, philosophia, leteral "ama de sajia") es la studia de problemes jeneral e fundal consernante materias como esiste, conose, valua, razona, mente e lingua. La terma ia es probable creada par Pitagora (s 570-495 aec). Metodos filosofial inclui interoga, discute esensal, disputa razonal, e presenta sistemosa. Demandas filosofial clasica inclui: Esce lo es posible conose alga cosa e demostra lo? Cual es plu real? Filosofistes ance demanda demandas plu concreta como: Lo esiste la forma la plu bon de vive? La areas major inclui... *[[Metafisica]], la studia de la natur de la universo. **[[Teorias de Metafisica]] *[[Epistemolojia]], la studia de conose. **[[Teorias de Epistemolojia]] *[[Etica]], la studia de la natur de bon e mal. **[[Teorias de Etica]] *[[Estetica]], la studia de la natur de belia e feia. *[[Lojica]], la studia de bon razona. *Filosofistes ** Filosofistes xines *** [[Laozi]] (sentenio ses aec) *** [[Confuzi]] (551?-479 aec) ** Filosofistes de Elas antica *** [[Tales]] (624 - 546 aec) *** [[Anaximandro]] (611 - 549 aec) *** [[Pitagora]] (582-500 aec) *** [[Parmenide]] (540-470 aec) *** [[Xenofane]] (570-475 aec) *** [[Heraclito]] (540 - 475 aec) *** [[Zeno de Elea]] (490-430 aec) *** [[Socrate]] (s. 469 – 399 aec) *** [[Platon]] (424 ace – 347 aec) *** [[Aristotele]] (384 – 322 aec) *** [[Epicuro]] (341 ace – 270 aec) ** Filosofistes de la Ueste plu moderna *** [[Blaise Pascal]] (1623-1662) *** [[Voltaire]] (1694-1778) *** [[Immanuel Kant]] (22 april 1724 - febrero 1804) *** [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (27 agosto 1770 -14 novembre 1831) *** [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970) == Bibliografia == * {{cite book|editor1-first=Paul |editor1-last=Edwards|editorlink=Paul Edwards (philosopher)|title=The Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofph0005paul|year=1967|publisher=Macmillan & Free Press |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first=Immanuel |last=Kant|title=Critique of Pure Reason|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924092291065|year=1881|publisher=Macmillan |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first=John |last=Bowker|title=The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|url=|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press, Incorporated|isbn=978-0-19-866242-6 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|editor-first=Thomas |editor-last=Baldwin|title=The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0000unse_y2q0|date=27 November 2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-59104-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first1=Brian P. |last=Copenhaver|first2=Charles B. |last2=Schmitt|title=Renaissance philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/renaissancephilo0000cope|date=24 September 1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-219203-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first=Steven |last=Nadler|authorlink=Steven Nadler|title=A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/companiontoearly0000stev|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-99883-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first=Donald |last=Rutherford|title=The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_r8d4|date=12 October 2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-82242-8|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|editor-first1=C. B. |editor-last1=Schmitt|editor-first2=Quentin |editor-last2=Skinner|title=The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy|url=|year=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-39748-3|ref=harv}} {{Siensa}} [[Categoria:Filosofia]] [[Categoria:Siensas umana]] e5kxvfuvbj0xp0v5hqcp52yg74nu3ff 0 1592 43400 41049 2026-08-03T21:15:19Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43400 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Biografia |imaje = none.jpg |grandia = 90px |descrive = |nase = 19 novembre 1906, Westerheim (Baden-Wurtemberg) |mori = 1 maio 1945, Berlin |pais = Deutxland |profesa = Militar |move = }} '''Franz Schädle''' (Westerheim, Baden-Wurtemberg; 19 novembre 1906 - Berlin 1 maio 1945) ia es la comandor ultima de la gardacorpos personal de Adolf Hitler (Begleitkommando SS des Führers) de 5 janero 1945 asta sua mori en 2 maio 1945. == Bibliografia == * {{cite book | last = Fischer | first = Thomas | title = Soldiers of the Leibstandarte | year = 2008 | publisher = [[J.J. Fedorowicz Publishing]], Inc | isbn = 978-0921991915}} * {{cite book | last = Hoffmann | first = Peter | title = Hitler's Personal Security: Protecting the Führer 1921-1945 | url = https://archive.org/details/hitlerspersonals0000hoff_g6m9 | year = 2000 | origyear = 1979 | publisher = Da Capo Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-30680-947-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Joachimsthaler | first = Anton|authorlink=Anton Joachimsthaler | others = Trans. Helmut Bögler | title = The Last Days of Hitler: The Legends, the Evidence, the Truth | url = https://archive.org/details/lastdaysofhitler0000joac_o3a8 | year = 1999 | origyear = 1995 | publisher = Brockhampton Press | location = London | isbn = 978-1-86019-902-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Misch | first = Rochus | title = Hitler's Last Witness: The Memoirs of Hitler's Bodyguard | url = https://archive.org/details/hitlerslastwitne0000misc | publisher = Frontline Books-Skyhorse Publishing, Inc| location = London | year = 2014 | origyear = 2008 | isbn = 978-1848327498 }} * {{cite book | last = O'Donnell | first = James P. | authorlink = James P. O'Donnell | year = 1978 | title = [[The Bunker (book)|The Bunker: The History of the Reich Chancellery Group]] | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston | isbn = 978-0-395-25719-7 }} [[Categoria:Biografia]] [[Categoria:Deutxes]] [[Categoria:Nazis]] ln7kx1v8u639mfuyzd9a3qbcuw3eyuz 0 1619 43415 41046 2026-08-03T21:56:23Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43415 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Francois Dubois 001.jpg|291px|thumb|right|Depinta de la Masacra de San Bartelemi, par François Dubois.]] La '''geras de relijio''' es un serie de oto disputas cual ia ruina la rena de Frans en la dui du de la sentenio 16. Lo ia oposa catolicas e protestantes, ance nomida ugonotes. La masacra ia comensa en la note de 23–24 agosto 1572, a du dias pos la asasina atentada de la amiral Gaspard de Coligny, la gidor militar e political de la ugonotes. La re ia ordina la mata de un colie de gidores ugonote, incluinte Coligny, e la masacra ia estende tra Paris. Tra alga semanas, la masacra ia estende a otra sentros urban e la campania. La estima moderna de la cuantia de mores en Frans varia vasta de 5000 a 30 000. La masacra ia marca un punto de cambia en la geras de relijio en Frans. La promove political ugonote ia es debilida par la perde de multe de sua gidores aristocrata, e multe reconvertidas ci ia resta ia deveni plu estrema. An si lo ia es serta no unica, lo "ia es la plu mal de la masacras relijial de la sentenio"<ref>{{cite book|last1=Koenigsburger|first1=H. G.|last2=Mosse|first2=George|last3=Bowler|first3=G. Q.|authorlink2=George L. Mosse|title=Europe in the sixteenth century|date=1999|publisher=Longman|isbn=0582418631|edition=2}}</ref>. Tra Europa, lo ia "impresa en la mentes protestante la convinse permanente ce catolicisme es un relijio sanguosa"<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chadwick|first1=Henry|last2=Evans|first2=G. R.|authorlink1=Henry Chadwick (theologian)|title=Atlas of the Christian church|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofchristian0000unse_t2l6|date=1987|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|isbn=0-333-44157-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/atlasofchristian0000unse_t2l6/page/113 113]}}</ref>. == Referes == <references/> [[Categoria:Istoria de Frans]] d1kgkmhdrxevyioc04csiz1fiqexwds 0 1629 43401 42013 2026-08-03T21:16:19Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43401 wikitext text/x-wiki La '''cultur de [[Europa|Europa]]''' es fundida en la arte, arciteta, musica, leteratur e filosofia cual es orijinal de la rejion european<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mason|first1=D.|title=A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0000maso_u5t5|date=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0000maso_u5t5/page/2 2]}}</ref> e on refere frecuente a lo como sua "erita cultural comun"<ref>Cf. Berting (2006:51).</ref>. ==Elementos== Car la grande numero de perspetivas cual pote es elejeda en la sujeto, lo es nonposible formi un conseti singular de la cultur european.<ref>Cederman (2001:2) remarks: "Given the absence of an explicit legal definition and the plethora of competing identities, it is indeed hard to avoid the conclusion that Europe is an essentially contested concept." Cf. also Davies (1996:15); Berting (2006:51).</ref>. An tal, on ave elementos xef cual on acorda cual formi un funda cultural de la Europa moderna<ref>Cf. Jordan-Bychkov (2008:13), Davies (1996:15), Berting (2006:51-56).</ref>. Un lista de esta elementos donada per K. Bochmann inclui<ref>K. Bochmann (1990) ''L'idée d'Europe jusqu'au XXè siècle'', quoted in Berting (2006:52). Cf. Davies (1996:15): "No two lists of the main constituents of European civilization would ever coincide. But many items have always featured prominently: from the roots of the Christian world in Greece, Rome and Judaism to modern phenomena such as the Enlightenment, modernization, romanticism, nationalism, liberalism, imperialism, totalitarianism."</ref>: * Un erita spirital e cultural comun derivada de la anticia elinica-roman, la [[cristianisme]], la [[Renase]] e sua [[umanisme]], la pensa political de la Lumina e la [[Revolui Franses]], e la developa de la Modernia, incluinte tota tipos de sosialisme;<ref name="Berting 2006 page=52">{{harvnb|Berting|2006|page=52}}</ref> * Un cultur material rica e dinamica cual ia estende a otra continentes como resulta de industri e ''colonialism'' durante la "Grande Diverje";<ref name="Berting 2006 page=52"/> * Un conseta spesifada de la individua espresada per la esiste de un legalia cual garantia la diretos umana e la libria de la individuas;<ref name="Berting 2006 page=52">{{harvnb|Berting|2006|page=52}}</ref> * Un varia de statos con ordes political diferente, cual es condenada a vive juntada en un forma u otra;<ref name="Berting 2006 page=52"/> * Respeta per la poplas, statos e nasiones estra Europa.<ref name="Berting 2006 page=52"/> La conseta de cultur european es jeneral liada a la defini clasica de la [[mundo oeste]]. En esta defini, la cultur ueste es la colie de prinsipes leteratural, siensal, political, artal e filosofal cual separa Europa de otra sivilias. La premio Nobel de leteratur [[Thomas Stearns Eliot]] en sua libro de 1948 ''Notes Towards the Definition of Culture'', ia reconose la [[Rol de cristianisme en sivilia|influe cristian sur la cultur european]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210507164126/https://www3.dbu.edu/mitchell/eliotpas.htm Selected T.S. Eliot on Tradition, Poetry, Faith, and Culture]</ref>: {{Dise|Me parla sur la tradision comun de cristianisme cual ia fa ce Europa deveni lo cual lo es, e sur la elementos cultural comun cual esta cristianisme comun ia trae. Si Asia ta es convertida oji, lo no ta causa ce lo deveni un parte de Europa. Lo es en cristianisme ce la leges de Europa ia es radisida, a min asta resente. Lo es de la contesto de cristianisme cual tota de nos pensas deriva sua sinifia. Un european individua pota no crede ce la fide de cristianisme es vera, ma ancora tota de lo cual el dise, e crea, e fa, va leva de sua erita de la cultur cristian, e depende de acel cultur per sua sinifia. Sola un cultur cristian ia pote produi un Voltaire o un Nietzsche. Me no crede ce la cultur de Europa ta pote survive la desapare completa de cristianisme.... La mundo ueste ave sua unia en esta erita, en cristianisme, e en la sivilia antica de Elas, Roma, e Israel, de cual, tra du mil anios de cristianisme, nos calcula nosa desende''.<ref group=nota>I am talking about the common tradition of Christianity which has made Europe what it is, and about the common cultural elements which this common Christianity has brought with it. If Asia were converted to Christianity tomorrow, it would not thereby become a part of Europe. It is in Christianity that our arts have developed; it is in Christianity that the laws of Europe have--until recently--been rooted. It is against a background of Christianity that all our thought has significance. An individual European may not believe that the Christian Faith is true, and yet what he says, and makes, and does, will all spring out of his heritage of Christian culture and depend upon that culture for its meaning. Only a Christian culture could have produced a Voltaire or a Nietzsche. I do not believe that the culture of Europe could survive the complete disappearance of the Christian Faith.[. . .] The Western World has its unity in this heritage, in Christianity and in the ancient civilisations of Greece, Rome, and Israel, from which, owing to two thousand years of Christianity, we trace our descent.</ref>}} == Arte == {{AX|Arte european}} [[File:Leonardo da Vinci.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]. Entre sua obras on trova la ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' e ''[[La Ultima Come de Sera]]''. La sola obra plu famosa es ''[[La Crea de Adan]]'' par Michelangelo.]] === Istoria === La arte roman ia es influeda par Elas e pote es videda con un desendente de la sculta e la depinta elinica, mas ia es multe influeda par la arte etrusca de Italia. Sculta ia es cisa considerada la forma de arte plu importante par la romanes, ma la depinta de figures ance ia es importante regardada bon. === Depinta === {{AX|Depinta european}} La depinta plu vea conoseda es locada en la cava El Castillo (Espania), plu vea ca 40 800 anios<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18449711 | work=BBC News | title=Red dot becomes 'oldest cave art' | date=15 June 2012}}</ref>. La istoria de la depinta ueste representa un tradision continuante de la Anticia. Asta media la sentenio 19, ia es consernada con la manera de produi e la representa clasica e pos otra formas plu astrata e consetal ia es favoreda. === [[Sculta]]=== {{AX|Sculta}} La prima sculta european representa un fem, e ave 35 000 anios. Vide ance [[sculta clasica]], [[Sculta de Elas antica]], [[Arte gotica]], [[Renase]], [[Mannerist]], [[Baroca]], [[Neoclassicism]], [[Modernism]], [[Postminimalism]], [[found art]], [[Postmodern art]], [[arte consetal]]. === [[Musica]] === *'''[[Musica clasica]]''' : Composores clasica importante de Europa inclui [[Hildegard von Bingen]], [[J.S. Bach]], [[Handel]], [[Beethoven]], [[Brahms]], [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]], [[Wagner]], [[Richard Strauss]], von Weber, Offenbach, Stockhausen, Mendelssohn (Deutxland), [[Mikhail Glinka|Glinka]], [[Rimsky-Korsakov]], [[Alexander Borodin|Borodin]], [[Tchaikovsky]], [[Mussorgsky]], [[Rachmaninov]], [[Scriabin]], [[Prokofiev]], [[Stravinsky]], [[Shostakovich]], (Rusia), [[Schubert]], [[Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Bruckner]], [[Mahler]], [[Schoenberg]] (Osteraic), [[Berlioz]], [[Guillaume de Machaut|Machaut]], [[Pérotin]], [[François Couperin]], [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]], [[Rameau]], [[Saint-Saëns]], [[Bizet]], [[Debussy]], [[Ravel]] (Frans), [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]], [[Monteverdi]], [[Vivaldi]], [[Giovanni Battista Pergolesi]], [[Donizetti]], [[Cavalli]], [[Paganini]], [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]], [[Verdi]], [[Puccini]], [[Rossini]] (Italia), [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]], [[Manuel de Falla|Falla]], [[Enrique Granados|Granados]], [[Isaac Albéniz|Albéniz]], [[Joaquín Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] (Espania), [[Smetana]], [[Dvořák]], [[Janáček]], [[Martinů]] (Txesco), [[Guillaume Du Fay|Dufay]], [[Josquin des Prez|des Prez]], [[Orlande de Lassus|Lassus]] (Beljia), [[Edvard Grieg|Grieg]] (Noria), [[Liszt]], [[Bartók]] (Magiar), [[Henry Purcell|Purcell]], [[Edward Elgar|Elgar]], [[Benjamin Britten|Britten]], [[Gustav Holst|Holst]] (Rena Unida), [[Carl Nielsen|Nielsen]] (Danmarc), [[Jean Sibelius| Sibelius]] (Suomi), [[Chopin]], [[Penderecki]] (Polsca), [[George Enescu]], [[Sergiu Celibidache]] (Romania). [[Luciano Pavarotti]] was a contemporary popular [[opera]] singer. Orchestras such as the [[Berliner Philharmoniker]], the [[Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra]], the Amsterdam [[Concertgebouw Orchestra]] and the [[London Symphony Orchestra]] are considered to be among the finest ensembles in the world. The [[Salzburg Festival]], the [[Bayreuth Festival]], the [[Edinburgh International Festival]] and the [[BBC Proms]] are major European classical music festivals, and [[International Chopin Piano Competition]] is the world's oldest monographic music competition. *'''[[Musica de folclor]]''' : Europa ave un vasta grupo de musica nonativa, compartinte cualias comun en comunias campanial e maral. La musica de folclor es caxida en un tradision oreal e nonscriveda ma ia es cresente transcriveda de la sentenio 19. Multe composores clasica ia usa melodias de folclor, e la folclor ia influe alga musica popular en Europa. *'''[[Musica popular]]''': Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from the United States, ranging from Blues, Jazz, Soul, Pop, Rap, Hip-Hop, R'n'B and Dance. The UK has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music and also creating many of its own genres via notable movements including the [[British Invasion]], the [[New Wave of British Heavy Metal]] (that has been compared to [[Beatlemania]].<ref name="ulrich">{{cite web|url={{Allmusic|class=album|id=r23566|pure_url=yes}} |title=allmusic ((( New Wave of British Heavy Metal '79 Revisited - Overview ))) |last=Rivadavia |first=Eduardo |accessdate=}}</ref>) and [[Britpop]]. #Some major UK acts include [[Tears for Fears]], [[The Beatles]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Pink Floyd]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Elton John]], [[David Bowie]], [[Deep Purple]], [[Sex Pistols]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[The Clash]], [[Van Morrison]], [[Dire Straits]], [[The Police]], [[Fleetwood Mac]], [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]], [[George Michael]], [[Pet Shop Boys]], [[Phil Collins]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[The Who]], [[Eurythmics]], [[Dusty Springfield]], [[The Cure]], [[Black Sabbath]], [[Iron Maiden]], [[Judas Priest]], [[Def Leppard]], [[Duran Duran]], [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]], [[Radiohead]], [[Coldplay]], [[Mumford & Sons]], [[The Smiths]], [[Muse (band)|Muse]], [[Gorillaz]], [[Bonnie Tyler]], [[Seal (musician)|Seal]], [[Elvis Costello]], [[Bee Gees]], [[Spice Girls]], [[Depeche Mode]], [[The Kinks]], [[The Animals]], [[Motörhead]], [[UB40]], [[One Direction]], [[Cheryl Cole]], [[Adele]], [[Amy Winehouse]];<br> #[[U2]], [[Thin Lizzy]], [[The Pogues]], [[The Script]], [[The Undertones]], [[Sinéad O'Connor]] (Ireland),<br> #[[Kraftwerk]], [[Can (band)|Can]], [[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]], [[Nina Hagen]], [[Trio (band)|Trio]], [[Rammstein]], [[Modern Talking]], [[James Last]], [[Paul Kalkbrenner]], [[Felix Jaehn]], [[Kay One]], [[Alex Christensen|Alex C]], [[Alle Farben]], [[Eko Fresh]], [[Bausa]], [[Capital Bra]], [[Kitsch krieg]], [[Robin Schulz]], [[Bushido]], [[Namika]], [[Scooter]], [[MoTrip]], [[Zedd]], [[Bonez MC]], [[Gzuz]] (Germany),<br> #[[ABBA]], [[The Cardigans]], [[The Hives]], [[Roxette]], [[Swedish House Mafia]], [[Avicii]], [[Icona Pop]], [[Zara Larsson]] (Sweden),<br> # [[Alan Walker]], [[Madcon]], [[Sigrid]], [[a-ha]] (Norway),<br> #[[Björk]], [[Sigur Rós]] (Iceland),<br> #[[Lepa Brena]], [[Ceca Ražnatović]], [[Jelena Karleuša]], [[Seka Aleksić]], [[Indira Radić]], [[Dragana Mirković]] (Serbia),<br> #[[Giorgio Moroder]], [[Andrea Bocelli]], [[Benny Benassi]], [[The Bloody Beetroots]], [[Mina (singer)|Mina]], [[Adriano Celentano]], [[Patty Pravo]], [[Toto Cutugno]], [[Laura Pausini]], [[Eros Ramazzotti]], [[Zucchero Fornaciari]], [[Domenico Modugno]], [[Lucio Battisti]], [[Giorgia Todrani|Giorgia]], [[Sabrina Salerno]], [[Ivana Spagna]], [[Eiffel 65]], [[Alexia (Italian singer)|Alexia]], [[Francesco Gabbani]], [[J-ax]], [[Gue Pequeno]], [[Sfera Ebbasta]] (Italy),<br> #[[Soulwax]], [[Deus (band)|dEUS]], [[Absynthe Minded]], [[The Black Box Revelation]], [[Selah Sue]], [[Girls in Hawaii]], [[Stromae]], (Belgium),<br> #[[Luis Eduardo Aute]], [[Julio Iglesias]], [[The Pinker Tones]], [[Lluis Llach]], [[Enrique Iglesias]] (Spain),<br> #[[Édith Piaf]], [[Serge Gainsbourg]], [[Daft Punk]], [[David Guetta]], [[Justice (band)|Justice]], [[Bob Sinclar]], [[Martin Solveig]], [[Étienne de Crécy]], [[Yelle]], [[Phoenix (band)|Phoenix]], [[Air (French band)|Air]], [[M83 (band)|M83]], [[Alizée]], [[C2C (group)|C2C]], [[Jean Michel Jarre]], [[Black M]], [[Kenji Girac]] (France),<br> #[[Nana Mouskouri]], [[Celine Dion]] (Greece/France), [[Helena Paparizou]] (Greece),<br> #[[Preslava]], [[Krisko]], [[Malkata]], [[Tsvetelina Yaneva]], [[Galena]], [[Deni]], [[Suzanitta]] (Bulgaria),<br> #[[Kati Wolf]] (Hungary),<br> #[[Timati]], [[Feduk]], [[T.A.T.u.]], [[Gorky Park]], [[Allj]], [[Algie & Kravtsov]] (Russia),<br> #[[Sitek]], [[Ewelina Lisowska]], [[Sokół]], [[Tede]], [[Margaret]], [[Donatan]], [[C-BooL]], [[Doda (singer)|Doda]] (Poland),<br> #[[Rasmus Seebach]], [[The Raveonettes]], [[MQ]], [[Agnes Obel]], [[WhoMadeWho]] (Denmark),<br> #[[The Legendary Tigerman]], [[The Gift (band)|The Gift]] (Portugal),<br> #[[Alexandra Stan]], [[Inna]], [[Edward Maya]], [[Morandi]], [[Sandu Ciorba]] (Romania),<br> #[[HIM (Finnish band)|HIM]], [[The Rasmus]], [[Nightwish]], [[Alma]], [[Lordi]] (Finland),<br> #[[Nits (band)|The Nits]], [[Golden Earring]], [[zZz]], [[Nicky Romero]], [[Armin van Buuren]], [[Fedde le Grand]], [[Tiësto]], [[Hardwell]], [[Martin Garrix]], [[Afrojack]] (Netherlands). === Arciteta === {{AX|Istoria de arciteta}} [[Arciteta neolitica]]: Naseda en la este, la arciteta de la neolitica ia estende a Europa. La cultures neolitica mediteranean de Malta ia adora en templos megalitica. En Europa, casas construida de acasia ia es construida e ance tombas detaliosa per la mores. Esta tombas es multe numerosa en Er, do multe tombas esiste oji. La poplas neolitica ia construi grande tumulos. Vide ance: [[arciteta de Elas clasica]], [[arciteta de Roma antica]], [[arciteta medieval]], [[arciteta de la Renase]], [[arciteta baroca]]. === Leteratur === [[File:Homer British Museum.jpg|180px|right|thumb|[[Homero]]]] [[File:Shakespeare.jpg|180px|right|thumb|[[William Shakespeare]]]] Europa ia produi alga de la plu importante scrivores de la istoria: *[[Homero]], [[Hesiodo]], [[Safo]], [[Escilo]], [[Sofocle]], [[Euripide]], [[Xenofane]], [[Aristofane]], [[Menandro]], [[Polibio]], [[Arriano]], [[Plutarco]], [[Longo]] (Elas antica) *[[Plautus]], [[Terentio]], [[Marco Tullio Cicero]], [[Cesar]], [[Salustio]], [[Vergilio]], [[Tito Livio]], [[Ovidio]], [[Tacito]], [[Horatio]], [[Catulo]], [[Plinio la Vea]], [[Quintilian]], [[Seneca]], [[Pliny the Younger]] (Roma antica) *[[Francesco Petrarca]], [[Dante Alighieri]], [[Giovanni Boccaccio]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Ludovico Ariosto]], [[Torquato Tasso]], [[Carlo Goldoni]], [[Carlo Gozzi]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]], [[Giosuè Carducci]], [[Italo Svevo]], [[Luigi Pirandello]], [[Italo Calvino]], [[Eugenio Montale]], [[Salvatore Quasimodo]], [[Umberto Eco]], [[Dario Fo]] (Italia) *[[Chrétien de Troyes]], [[François Rabelais]], [[Montaigne]], [[Alexandre Dumas]], [[Pierre Corneille]], [[Jean Racine|Racine]], [[Molière]], [[Voltaire]], [[Jean de La Fontaine]], [[Rousseau]], [[Jules Verne]], [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Gustave Flaubert]], [[Stendhal]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[Albert Camus]], [[JMG Le Clézio]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[Charles Baudelaire]], [[Arthur Rimbaud]], [[Stéphane Mallarmé]], [[Anatole France]], [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]], [[Apollinaire]], [[Simone de Beauvoir]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Romain Rolland]], [[Denis Diderot]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Théophile Gautier]], [[Alain Robbe-Grillet]], [[François Mauriac]], [[André Gide]] (Frans) *[[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Nikolai Gogol]], [[Ivan Goncharov]], [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[Mikhail Lermontov]], [[Ivan Turgenev]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], [[Peter Kropotkin]], [[Anton Chekhov]], [[Maxim Gorky]], [[Ivan Bunin]], [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]], [[Boris Pasternak]], [[Anna Akhmatova]], [[Mikhail Bulgakov]], [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], [[Sergei Yesenin]], [[Vladimir Nabokov]], [[Mikhail Sholokhov]], [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], [[Joseph Brodsky]] (Rusia) *[[Jorge Manrique]], [[Garcilaso de la Vega (poet)|Garcilaso de la Vega]], [[Miguel de Cervantes]], [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Francisco de Quevedo]], [[Luis de Góngora]], [[Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer]], [[Leopoldo Alas]], [[Juan Ramón Jiménez]], [[Pío Baroja]], [[José Echegaray]], [[Miguel de Unamuno]], [[Federico García Lorca]], [[Vicente Aleixandre]], [[Camilo José Cela]], [[Mario Vargas Llosa]] (Espania) *[[Luís de Camões]], [[José Maria de Eça de Queiroz]], [[Fernando Pessoa]], [[José Saramago]] (Portugal) *[[William Shakespeare]], [[Charles Dickens]], [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], [[Jane Austen]], [[H. G. Wells]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], [[J. K. Rowling]], [[Beatrix Potter]], [[J. M. Barrie]], [[Walter Scott]], [[D. H. Lawrence]], [[George Orwell]], [[Virginia Woolf]], [[C. S. Lewis]], [[John Milton]], [[Terry Pratchett]], [[Mary Shelley]], [[Roald Dahl]], [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson|Lewis Carroll]], [[Agatha Christie]], [[Daniel Defoe]], [[Alan Moore]], [[Rudyard Kipling]], [[Aldous Huxley]], [[Harold Pinter]] (Rena Unida) *[[Salvador Espriu]], [[Mercè Rodoreda]], [[Joan Salvat-Papasseit]], [[Josep Carner]] (Lingua catalan) *[[Laurence Sterne]], [[Bram Stoker]], [[James Joyce]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Jonathan Swift]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Seamus Heaney]] (Er) *[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Heinrich von Kleist]], [[Frates Grimm|Jacob e Wilhelm Grimm]], [[Heinrich Heine]], [[Gerhart Hauptmann]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Bertolt Brecht]], [[Rudolf Christoph Eucken]], [[Anne Frank]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Nelly Sachs]], [[Günter Grass]], [[Patrick Süskind]] (Deutxland) *[[Adam Mickiewicz]], [[Juliusz Słowacki]], [[Zygmunt Krasiński]], [[Joseph Conrad]], [[Czesław Miłosz]], [[Zbigniew Herbert]], [[Witold Gombrowicz]], [[Jan Kochanowski]], [[Mikołaj Rej]], [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]], [[Wisława Szymborska]], [[Stanisław Lem]], [[Andrzej Sapkowski]] (Polsca) *[[Arnaut Daniel]], [[Frédéric Mistral]] (Ositan) *[[Lajos Kossuth]], [[Imre Kertész]] (Magiar) *[[Franz Kafka]], [[Jaroslav Seifert]], [[Milan Kundera]] (Czech Republic) *[[Karl Adolph Gjellerup]], [[Hans Christian Andersen]], [[Johannes Vilhelm Jensen]] (Denmark) *[[Georges Simenon]], [[Emile Verhaeren]], [[Maurice Maeterlinck]] (Belgium) *[[Sigrid Undset]], [[Henrik Ibsen]], [[Knut Hamsun]], [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]] (Norway) *[[Ivo Andric]] (Yugoslavia) *[[Frans Eemil Sillanpää]] (Suomi) *[[Elfriede Jelinek]] (Osteraic) *[[Halldór Laxness]] (Island) *[[Taras Shevchenko]], [[Ivan Franko]] (Ucraina) *[[Verner von Heidenstam]], [[Stieg Larsson]], [[Pär Lagerkvist]], [[August Strindberg]], [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], [[Eyvind Johnson]] (Sveria) *[[Eugène Ionesco]], [[Mircea Eliade]], [[Mihai Eminescu]], [[Paul Celan]], [[Emil Cioran]], [[Herta Muller]], [[Elie Wiesel]] (Romania) *[[Joost van den Vondel]], [[Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft]], [[Multatuli]], [[Louis Couperus]], [[Gerard Reve]], [[Martinus Nijhoff]], [[Gerard Reve]] (Nederland) == Siensa == {{AX|Istoria de siensa}} *'''[[CERN]]''': La Organiza European per Rexerca Nucleal es la loca de nase de la WWW (la ueb) e la loca de la macina la plu grande en la mundo: la Colidador Grande de Hadrones. Lo es la laboreria la plu grande de la fisica de particulas, locada en la suburbes norde-ueste de Geneve sur la frontera entre Frans e Suiz, instituida en 1954. En novembre de 2010, la colides otenida ia pote jenera la temperatures e densias la plu alta produida en un esperimenta a cualce ves, creante un "Buma Grande" miniatur plu calda par milion veses ca la sentro de la sol.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11711228 | work=BBC News | title=Large Hadron Collider (LHC) generates a 'mini-Big Bang' | date=8 November 2010}}</ref> [[File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg|thumb|[[Albert Einstein]]]] [[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|[[Isaac Newton]]]] Europa ia produi alga de la plu importante siensistes e inteletosas de la istoria. * Deutxland: [[Albert Einstein]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Johannes Gutenberg]], [[Gottfried Leibniz]], [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]], [[Max Planck]], [[Karl Benz]]. * Rena Unida: [[Isaac Newton]], [[Charles K. Kao]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[James Joule]], [[Edward Jenner]], [[John Dalton]], [[George Stephenson]], [[Florence Nightingale]], [[George Cayley]], [[Frank Whittle]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Tim Berners Lee]], [[James Watt]], [[Alexander Fleming]], [[Alexander Graham Bell]], [[John Logie Baird]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Adam Smith]], [[John Maynard Keynes]]. * Rusia: [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], [[Ivan Pavlov]], [[Ilya Mechnikov]], [[Nikolai Lobachevsky]], [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], [[Lev Landau]], [[Aleksandr Butlerov]], [[Alexander Stepanovich Popov]], [[Igor Sikorsky]], [[Sergey Korolyov]]. * Suomi: [[Artturi Ilmari Virtanen]], [[Ragnar Granit]], [[Johan Gadolin]], [[Pekka Pyykkö]], [[Gustav Elfving]], [[Arvo Ylppö]], [[Linus Torvalds]], [[Anders Chydenius]], [[Elias Lönnrot]], [[Herman Spöring, Jr.]]. * Frans: [[Pierre Abelard]], [[Michel de Montaigne]], [[Louis Pasteur]], [[Antoine Lavoisier]], [[Henri Becquerel]], [[René Descartes]], [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], [[Pierre de Fermat]], [[Blaise Pascal]], the [[Montgolfier brothers]], [[Denis Diderot]], [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]], [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], [[Léon Foucault]], [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], [[Pierre Curie]], [[Marie Curie]], [[Jacques Lacan]], [[Luc Montagnier]], [[Albert Jacquard]]. * Italia: [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Evangelista Torricelli]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Guglielmo Marconi]], [[Enrico Fermi]]. * Polonia: [[Sendivogius]], [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], [[Johannes Hevelius]], [[Ignacy Łukasiewicz]], [[Maria Skłodowska-Curie]], [[Rudolf Weigl]]. * Elas: [[Arcimede]], [[Euclide]], [[Ptolemeo]]. * Magiar: [[Ottó Bláthy]], [[Ányos Jedlik]], [[John von Neumann]], [[Leó Szilárd]], [[Edward Teller]]. * Osteraic: [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Kurt Gödel]]. * Er: [[Lord Kelvin]], [[Robert Boyle]], [[William Rowan Hamilton]]. * Espania: [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]], [[Isaac Peral]], [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]]. * Svedia: [[Alfred Nobel]], [[Anders Celsius]]. * Denmarc: [[Niels Bohr]]. * Serbia: [[Nikola Tesla]], [[Mihajlo Pupin]], [[Milutin Milanković]], [[Miomir Vukobratović]]. * Suiz: [[Carl Jung]]. * Nederland: [[Christiaan Huygens]], [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]], [[C. H. D. Buys Ballot]], [[Hendrik Lorentz]], [[Jan Oort]]. == Linguas == [[Image:Indo-European branches map.png|thumb|250px|Distribui de la ramos de la linguas indoeuropean en Eurasia: {{Début de colonnes|nombre=2}} [[Elinica (lingua)|<span style="color:#FFD800">Elinica</span>]] [[Linguas romanica|<span style="color:#7F6A00">Linguas italica</span>]] [[Linguas indoiranian|<span style="color:#00269F">Linguas indoiranian</span>]]<br> [[Linguas celta|<span style="color:#FFAA00">Linguas celta</span>]] [[Linguas germanica|<span style="color:#CD0000">Linguas germanica</span>]]<br> [[Haieren|<span style="color:#57007F">Haieren</span>]]<br> [[Linguas baltica|<span style="color:#4CC200">Linguas baltica</span>]] [[Linguas slavica|<span style="color:#007F0E">Linguas slavica</span>]] [[Xcip (lingua)|<span style="color:#00D4FF">Xcip</span>]] <span style="color:#A3A3A3">Linguas nonindoeuropean</span> {{Fin de colonnes}} ]] De la milenio un aec, Europa ia es dominada par poplas indoeuropean, ci ia parla varia linguas ma unida par cualis comun. A en la linguas indoeuropean, de la milenio 1 aec on pote distingui la plu parte de la grupos moderna: la linguas italica, germanica, slavica, celta, baltica e elinica e xcip. Entre la poplas moderna de Europa on ave ance parlores de linguas nonindoeuropean como euscara, suomi, esti e magiar ma euscara es la sola lingua preindoeuropean parlada oji. De la introdui de scrive en Europa, la linguas european ia es scriveda usante alfabetas derivada de la alfabeta fenisia. Esta alfabetas inclui la alfabeta elinca, la latina o la cirilica entre otras. En alga paises, spesial a norde e este de la continente, la varias local de la alfabeta latina ave sinietas per marca la sonas local. En la limitas este e sude on ave ance la alfabeta jorjian e la alfabeta haieren. ==Relijio== {{AX|Relijio en Europa}} La '''relijios indo-european''' ia es: mitolojias uralica, politeisme celta, paganisme germanica, relijio elinica antica, relijio etrusca e mitolojia slavica. La ''Eurobarometer Poll 2005''<ref name="eurobarometer 2005">http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf</ref> ia trova ce, per promedia, la 52% de la sitadanes de la [[Uni European]] afirma cual ''crede en Dio'', 27% crede ce on ave un tipo de spirito en cuando 18% no crede en alga spirito o Dio. 3% ia refusa responde. Seguente sondas nova sur Relijiosia en la Uni European en 2012 para la Eurobarometre, cristianisme es la relijo plu grande en la Uni European con 72% de la sitadanes de la UE. Agnosticas es un 16% e ateistes un 7%. Muslimes es un 2%.<ref>{{citation|title=Discrimination in the EU in 2012|work=[[Eurobarometer|Special Eurobarometer]] |year=2012 |series=383 |page=233 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |accessdate=14 August 2013 |publisher=[[European Commission]] |location=[[European Union]]}} The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.</ref> == Cosina == {{AX|Cosina de Europa}} La cosinas de europa ueste es diversa, an si on ave cualis comun cual distingue la cosina de Europa de la de paises asian. comparada con la cultures asian, carne es plu importante e apare en un cuantia plu grande. Staca es un plato comun tra la Ueste. La fonte xef de amidon es la pan fada con farina blanca , junta a pasta, bales de pasta e pastas dulse, an si la patata ia deveni un amidon xef en la dieta de la europeanes e sua diaspora pos la colini european de America. == Notas == <references group="nota"/> ==Referes== <div style="height: 200px; overflow:auto; border: 1px solid gray; padding-right: 12px; background-color: #EEEEEE; "> <references /> </div> == Lias esterna == * [http://www.eurolinguistix.com/ Eurolinguistix.com] * [http://www.europe.org.uk/culture Europe.org.uk] - online European culture magazine (EU London Office) * [http://www.europeana.eu/ Europeana.eu] European Digital Library * [http://ec.europa.eu/culture/portal Europa.eu], EU Culture Portal (archived) {{Cultur de Europa}} [[Category:Cultur de Europa]] 37f3waxtwcsdxm6dugj1cy5lcpgqv7i 0 1711 43412 41030 2026-08-03T21:54:18Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43412 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:British kingdoms c 800.svg|190px|right]] En la istoria de Britan, la terma '''England anglosason''' refere a la pais istorial prosima a England moderna, cual ia esiste de la sentenio 5 a la 11, ma sin inclui la rena de Dumnonia (Devon e Cerneu) asta la sentenio 9. La anglosasones ia es membros de la grupos parlante linguas germanica ci ia migra a la dui sude de Europa continental, e sua desendentes cultural. La istoria anglosason comensa en la periodo de [[Britan posroman]] pos la [[Fini de la domina roman en Britan|fini de la controla roman]], trasa la stabli de la renas anglosason en la sentenios 5 e 6 (normal identifiada como sete renas xef (Northumbria, Mercia, Anglia este, Essex, Kent, Sussex, e Wessex), sua cristiani en la sentenio 7, la menasa de la vicinges e la colonistes dansce, la uni gradal de England su la ejemonia de Wessex en la sentenios 9 e 10, e fini con la concista normande de England par William la concistor en 1066. La identia anglosason ia survive ultra la concista normande, e ia es conoseda como ''Englishry'' su la domina normande, ultima developante a la popla engles moderna. == Terminolojia == Beda ia completa sua libro ''Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum'' en 731. Tal la termo per la popla engles ([[Latina (lingua)|latina]]: ''gens Anglorum'', anglosason: ''Anglecynn'') ia es alora usada per distingui la grupos germanica en Britan de los en la continente. La istoriste James Campbell ia sujesta ce on no pote descrive England como un nasion-stato ante la fini de la periodo anglosason. Lo es serta ce la conseta de "englia" (''Englishness'') ia developa sola multe lenta. == Contesto istorial == {{AX|Britan posroman|Fini de la domina roman en Britan}} Cuando la ocupa roman de Britan ia es fininte, Constantino 3 ia retira la soldatos restante, como un reata a la invade barbar de Europa. La gidores roman-brites ia fronti un problem cresente de securia par causa de atacas de la mar, spesial la [[pictos]] a la costa este de England. La solve de la gidores roman-brites ia es demanda per aida de la mersenarios anglosason (conoseda como ''foederati''), a ci los ia sede teritorio. En 442 la anglosasones ia rebela, parente car on no ia paia los. La romanes-briteses ia responde par apela a la comandor roman de la Impero ueste, Aetio (un documento conoseda como la ''Jemi de la brites''), an si Honorio, la imperor de la Impero Roman Ueste, ia scrive a la ''civitas'' brites en 410 ce los debe xerca sua propre modo de defende. A pos, alga anios de luta entre la brites e la anglosasones ia segue. La luta ia continua asta la anio 500, cuando, en la batalia de la Monte Badaon, la brites ia vinse la anglosasones. == Migra e forma de renas (400-600) == [[File:Invasions of the Roman Empire 1.png|190px|right|thumb|Model de la migras entre la sentenios 2 e 5.]] Arcivos esiste de infiltra germanica en Britan de ante la colasa de la Impero Roman. On crede ce la visitores germanica prima ia es oto grupos de batavianes unida a la Armada 14 en la forte de invade orijinal su Aulo Plautio en 43. On ia ipotese ce alga de la tribus nativa, identifiada como briteses par la romanes, ia parla un lingua germanica, ma la plu de la eruditas moderna desacorda con esta. Lo ia es multe comun ce Roma ia infla sua armadas con ''foederati'' enscriveda de la teras germanica. Esta pratica ia estende ance a la armada servinte en Britan, e on pote identifia tombas de esta mersenarios, liada a sua familias, en la semeteros roman de la periodo. La migra ia continua con la parti de la armada roman, cuando la anglosasones ia es enscriveda per defende Britan, e ance en la periodo de la rebela anglosason prima de 442. Si on crede la Arcivo Anglosason, la renas anglosason diversa cual ia fusa final per deveni England ia es fundida cuando marinetas peti de tre o sinco barcos de invadores ia ariva a locas diversa a la costa de England per luta contra la briteses posroman e ia concista sua teras. Como diseda par Margaret Gelling, en la contesto de atestas en la nomes de locas, lo cual ia aveni entre la parti de la romanes e la ariva de la normandes es un tema de desacorda entre la istoristes. [[File:Britonia6hcentury2.svg|190px|right|thumb|Mapa de la colonias briton en la sentenio 6<ref name="morrisch14">{{harvnb|Morris|1973|pp=}}</ref>.]] On pote vide la ariva de la anglosasones a Britan en la contesto de un move jeneral de la poplas germanica sirca Europa entre la anios 300 e 700, conoseda como la Periodo de Migras o ''Völkerwanderung''. En la mesma periodo on ia ave la migras de briteses a la penisola Armorica ([[Bres]] e [[Normandia]] en Frans moderna): sirca 393 en la governa roman, ma ance sirca 460 e en la desenios de 550 e 560; on crede ce la migra de la desenio de 460 es un reata a la luta en la rebela anglosason entre 450 e 500, como ance la migra a Britonia (oji Galisia, en Espania) en la mesma tempo. La istoriste Peter Hunter-Blair ia esplica lo cual oji es la opina tradisional sur la ariva anglosason a Britan. El ia proposa un migra coletiva, cual ia afeta la brites posroman e ia esclui los a la ueste de la isolas, e a la penisolas Bres e Iberian. Esta opina ia es probable influeda par fontes como Beda, do on dise ce la briteses ia es masacrada o ia vade a "sclavia eterna". Seguente Härke la opina la plu moderna es de coesiste entre la briteses e la anglosasones. El sujesta ce arceolojistes moderna diversa ia reevalua la model de invade e ia developa un model de coesiste fundida sur la Leges de Ine. Esta leges inclui proposas diversa cual furni ses niveles de ''[[uergeld]]'' per la briteses, de cual cuatro es su lo de la omes libre. An si lo es posible ce la Brites ia es omes rica, en la sosia anglosason, lo pare ce los ia ave un prestijia plu basa ca la anglosasones. Discutes e analises continua ancora sur la cuantia de migrores, e esce los ia es un grupo peti de anglosasones elejeda ci ia vade e ia prende e governa la pais, o un migra coletiva cual ia inonda la britones. Seguente Gildas, un resiste enerjiosa inisial brites ia es gidada par Ambrosio Aureliano, e de esta tempo la vinse ia flutua entre ambos nasiones. Gildas ia rejistra un vinse "final" de la Britones en la batalia de Monte Badon sirca 500, e esta sinia la punto cuando la migra anglosason ia es tempora dejetada. Gildas ia dise ce esta batalia ia aveni a "44 anios e un mense" pos la ariva de la sasones, e ia es la anio de sua nase. El ia dise ce un tempo de ricia grande ia segue. Ma, an con la calmia, la anglosasones ia prende Sussex, Kent, Anglias Este e un parte de Yorkshire, en cuando la sasones ueste ia fundi un rena en Hampshire su la gida de Cerdic, sirca 520. Par contrasta, a 50 anios a pos, la anglosasones ia comensa plu avansas. En la anios de interveni, la britones ia fatiga se con gera sivil, disputas interna e turbas jeneral: esta ia inspira Gildas a scrive ''De Excidio Britanniae'' (Sur la ruina de Britan). La campania major seguente contra la britones ia es en 577, gidada par Cealin, re de Wessex, de ci sua campanias ia susede prende Cirencester, Gloucester e Bath (conoseda como la batalia de Dyrham). Esta crese de Wessex ia fini subita cuando la anglosasones ia comensa luta entre se e ia causa ce Cealin ia retira a sua teritorio orijinal. El ia es recambiada par Ceol (posible sua sobrino): Cealin ia es matada en la anio seguente, ma la arcivos anial no spesifa par ci. A pos, Cirencester ia deveni un rena anglosason su la xefia suprema de la popla de Mercia, en loca de Wessex. == Referes == <references /> == Fontes == {{Refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book|title=The Age of Arthur|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofarthurhisto0000morr_i1v8|last=Morris|first=John|year=1973|publisher=Phoenix|location=London|language=en|ISBN=1-84212-477-3}} {{Refend}} [[Categoria:Istoria de England]] [[Categoria:Anglosasones]] nzfjontj2c9pxegzzbkk6lswb0uu4sd 0 1799 43403 42086 2026-08-03T21:17:52Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43403 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Anatomia |nom = Cor |image = [[Image:Cor -LFN.png|297px|right]] |sistem = [[Sistem de sirculi|Sistem de sirculi]] |nom1 = Arteria |nom_1 =Aorta, tronco pulmonal e arterias pulmonal destra e sinistra, arteria destra de cor, arteria sinistra xef de cor. |nom2 = Vena |nom_2 = Vena cava superior, vena cava inferior, venas pulmonal destra e sinistra, vena cardial grande, vena cardial media, vena cardial peti, vena cardial anterior }} La '''cor''' es un [[Organo (anatomia)|organo]] [[Musculo|musculal]] en multe animales, cual pompi sangue tra la dutos sangual de la [[Sistem de sirculi|sistem de sirculi]]. La sangue furni la corpo con osijen e nurintes, e aida ance en la sutrae de dejetas metabolal. En la umanas, la cor es locada entre la pulmones, en la comparte media de la peto. En umanas, otra mamales e avias, la cor es divideda en cuatro cavetas: atrios superior destra e sinistra, e ventriculos inferior destra e sinistra. En contrasta con esta, la pexes ave du cavetas, un atrio e un ventriculo, e la retiles ave tre cavetas. En un cor sana la sangue core en un dirije tra la cor par causa de la valvas de la cor, cual preveni retroflue. La cor es encluida en un saco protejente, la pericardio, cual conteni ance un cuantia peti de fluente. La mur de la cor es composada de tre stratos: epicardio, miocardio e endocardio. La maladias cardiovascular ia es la causa la plu comun de mori en la mundo en 2008, con 30% de moris. De estas, plu ca tre cuatris es un resulta de ataca de cor e ataca serebral. Fatores de risca es: fumi, obesia, poca eserse, colesterol alta, e diabete no controlada entre otras. Maladias cardiovascular ave frecuente no sintomes o ta pote causa dole en la peto. La diagnose de la maladias de cor es frecuente fada usante la istoria medical, escutante la sonas de la cor con un stetoscopio, ecg e ultrasona. La spesialistes ci foca a la maladias de la cor es nomida cardiolojistes, an si multe spesialis de medica pote es envolveda en la trata. == Vide ance == * [[Sindrom de Skumin]] == Bibliografia == *{{cite book|last=Hall|first=John|title=Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology|year=2011|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=978-1-4160-4574-8|edition=12th| ref={{harvid|Guyton & Hall|2011}}}} *{{cite book|last1=Longo|first1=Dan|last2=Fauci|first2=Anthony|last3=Kasper|first3=Dennis|last4=Hauser|first4=Stephen|last5=Jameson|first5=J.|last6=Loscalzo|first6=Joseph|title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|date=August 11, 2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-174889-6|edition=18|ref={{harvid|Harrison's|2011}}}} * {{cite book|editor=Susan Standring |editor2=Neil R. Borley|title=Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse_c5d4 |date=2008|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|location=London|isbn=978-0-8089-2371-8|edition=40th|ref={{harvid|Gray's Anatomy|2008}}|display-editors=etal}} * {{cite book |editor=Nicki R. Colledge |editor2=Brian R. Walker |editor3=Stuart H. Ralston |title=Davidson's principles and practice of medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/davidsonsprincip0000unse_p2i4_21ed |date=2010|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|location=Edinburgh|isbn=978-0-7020-3085-7|edition=21st |ref={{harvid|Davidson's|2010}}}} {{Sistemes e organos umana}} [[Categoria:Anatomia]] 4kh7cc4flienhuftcx58z1o4afwcqg3 0 1804 43414 41048 2026-08-03T21:54:56Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43414 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Human Body.jpg|197px|right]] La '''corpo umana''' es la strutur intera de la umanas. Lo es composada de multe tipos diferente de selulas cual junta crea texedas e a pos sistemes de organos. Los garantia la omeostase e la viablia de la corpo umana. Lo es composada de testa, colo, tronco (cual inclui la torax e la adomen), brasos e manos, gamas e pedes. La studia de la corpo umana envolve la anatomia, fisiolojia, istolojia e embriolojia. La corpo varia anatomial en formas conoseda. La fisiolojia foca en la sistemes e organos de la corpo umana e sua funsionas. Multe sistemes e mecanicismes interata per manteni la omeostase, con niveles secur de sustantias como zucar e osijen en la sangue. La corpo umana es studiada par fisiolojistes, anatomistes e par artistes per aida los en sua labora. == Composa == [[File:Sistemes de organos 1.jpg|thumb|Sistemes de organos umana.]] [[File:Sistemes de organos 2.jpg|thumb|Sistemes de organos umana]] La corpo umana es composada de elementos como idrojen, osijen, carbono, calsio e fosfor. Esta elementos abita en triliones de selulas e en composantes nonselulal en la corpo. Si nos analise la corpo umana a elementos cimical, nos trova la mesuras a su: (Un person de 70 kg – tota numeros es aprosima) <!--Nach HElDERMANNS 1969, KLEIBER 1977--> <font size="-1"> <table border="0"> <tr><td> {| |----- | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | Elemento | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | % Pesa | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | Pesa |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Osijen]] (O) | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 63 || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 44 kg |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Carbono]] (C) | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 20 || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 14 kg |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Idrojen]] (H) | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 10 || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 7 kg |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Nitrojen]] (N) | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 3 || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 2.1 kg |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Calsio]] (Ca) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 1.5 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 1 kg |} </td> <td> {| |----- | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | Elemento | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | % Pesa | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | Pesa |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Fosfor]] (P) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 1 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 700 g |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Potasio]] (K) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.25 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 170 g |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Sulfur]] (S) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.2 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 140 g |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Cloro]] (Cl) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.1 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 70 g |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Sodio]] (Na) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.1 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 70 g |} </td> <td> {| |----- | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | Elemento | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | % Pesa | bgcolor="lightgoldenrodyellow" | Pesa |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Magnesio]] (Mg) | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.04 || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 30g |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Fero]] (Fe) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.004 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 3 g |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Cupre]] (Cu) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.0005 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 300 mg |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Manganes]] (Mn) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.0002 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 100 mg |----- | bgcolor="honeydew" | [[Iodo]] (I) || bgcolor="mistyrose" | 0.00004 | bgcolor="mistyrose" | 30 mg |} </td></tr></table> </font> === Selulas === La corpo es composada de triliones de selulas, la unia fundal de vive. En maturia, on ave aprosima 30-37 triliones de selulas en la corpo, un estima de tota la selulas de tota la organos de la corpo. La corpo ance ave la mesma numero de selulas nonumana como ance organismes multiselulal cual es locada en la curso gastrointestinal e en la pel. No tota la partes de la corpo es formida par selulas. La selulas es locada en un matris estraselulal cual es composada de protenas como colajen, ensircada par fluentes estraselulal. DE la 70 kg de pesa de un corpo umana promedia, cuasi 25 kg es selulas nonumana o material nonselulal como osos e texeda juntante. La selulas en la corpo funsiona par causa de la adn. La adn es locada en la nucleo de la selula. Asi, partes de la adn es copiada e enviada a la corpo de la selula par la arn. La arn es usada per crea protenas cual forma la funda de la selulas, sua ativia e sua produidas. La protenas determina la funsionas de la selulas e sua espresa jenal, un selula pote autoregula par la cuanto de protenas produida. An tal, no tota la selulas ave adn. === Texedas === La corpo es composada de tipos diferente de texedas, definida como selulas cual ata con un funsiona spesifada. La studia de la texedas es nomida istolojia e frecuente aveni con un microscopio. La corpo es composada de cuatro tipos xef de texedas: epitelio, texeda juntante, texeda nerval e texeda musculal. La selulas cual es locada sur surfases esposada a la mundo esterna o la curso gastrointestinal (epitelio) o la cavetas interna (endotelio) apare en multe formas (de un strato de selulas plata a selulas con silios como capeles en la pulmones, de selulas como colonas en la stomaco. La selulas endotelial es selulas cual alinia cavetas interna incluinte la dutos sangual e la glandes. La selulas interna regula cual porte e no pote pasa tra los, protejente strutures interna e funsiona como surfases sensal. === Organos === La organos, colies struturida de selulas con un funsiona spesifada, es locada en la corpo. Esemplos inclui la cor, pulmones, e figato. Multe organos abita en cavetas en la corpo. Esta cavetas inclui la adomen e la pleura. === Sistemes === * '''Sistem de sirculi''': La sistem de sirculi es composada de la cor e la dutos sangual (arterias, venas e capilares). La cor propulsa la sirculi de la sangue, cual servi como un "sistem de transporta" per move osijen, nuri, dejetadas e selulas imune de un parte de la corpo a otra. La sangue es un fluente cual porta selulas en la sirculi, incluinte alga cual move de texeda a dutos sangual e retro, como ance la spleno e la medula de oso. * '''Sistem de dijesta''': La sistem de dijesta es composada de la boca incluinte la lingua e la dentes, la esofago, la stomaco como ance la figato, la pancreas, la vesica bilal, e la glandes salival. Lo converti la comeda en moleculas nonosiva, nural e peti per distribui e es asorbeda par la corpo. * '''Sistem endocrin''': Lo es composada de la glandes endocrin xef: la ipofise, la tiroide, la suprarenal, la pancreas, la paratiroide e la gonadas, ma cuasi tota la organos e texedas produi ormones endocrin spesifada. La ormones endocrin servi como siniales de un sistem de la corpo a otra consernante un estende enorme de restrinjes, e resultante en un varia de cambias de funsiona. * '''Sistem imunial''': La sistem imunial es composada de la selulas de sangue blanca, la timo, la nodas limfal e la canales limfal, cual ance es parte de la sistem limfal. La sistem imunial furni un mecanicisme per ce la corpo ta distingui sua selulas e texedas propre de selulas e sustantias esterna e per neutri o destrui la ultimas usante protenas spesial como anticorpos. * '''Sistem de pel''': La sistem de pel es composada de la covrente de la corpo (la pel), incluinte la capeles e la ungias como ance otra strutures importante como la glandes de suo e la glandes sebosa. La pel furni conteni, strutur e proteje per otra organos, e servi como un interfas sensal major con la mundo esterna. * '''Sistem limfal''': La sistem limfal estrae , transporta e metaboli limfa, la fluente trovada entre la selulas. La sistem limfal es simil a la sistem de sirculi en sua strutur e sua funsiona fundal : transporta un fluente corpal. * '''Sistem musculosceletal''': La sistem musculosceletal es composada de la sceleto umana (cual inclui osos, ligamentos, tendones e cartilaje) e la musculos afisada. Lo dona a la corpo la strutur fundal e la capasia de move. En ajunta a sus rol strutural, la osos plu grande en la corpo conteni medulas de oso, la loca de produi de selulas sangual. Ance, tota la osos es un loca per reserva calsio e fosfato. Esta sistem pote es divideda en la sistem musculal e la sistem sceletal. * '''Sistem de nervos''': Lo es composada de la sistem de nervos sentral (la serebro e la medula spinal) e la sistem de nervos periferial composada de la nervos e la ganglios estra la serebro e la medula spinal. La serebro es la organo de pensa, emosia, memoria e prosedes sensal, e servi multe aspetas de comunica e controla varia sistemes e funsionas. La sensas spesial es la vide, oia, sensa de sabor e ole. La oios, oreas, lingua e nas reuni informa sur la ambiente de la corpo. * '''Sistem de reprodui''': La sistem de reprodui es composada de la gonadas e la organos sesal interna e esterna. La sistem de reprodui produi gametas en cada seso, un mecanicisme per sua combina, e en la fem un ambiente curante per la prima nove menses de developa de la enfante. * '''Sistem de respira''': Lo es composada de la nas, la farinje nasal, la tracea e la pulmones. Lo trae osijen de la aira e escrete diosido de carbono e acua a la aira. * '''Sistem urinal''': Lo es composada de la renes, la ureter, la vesica e la uretra. Lo sutrae la materias venenosa de la sangue per produi urina, cual porta un varia de moleculas de dejeta e iones de esede e acua estra la corpo. == Anatomia == La anatomia umana es la studio de la forma de la corpo umana. La corpo umana ave cuatro membros (du brasos e du gambas), un testa e un colo cual coneta a la dorso. La forma de la corpo es determinada par un sceleto forte fada de oso e cartilaje, ensircada par gras, musculo, texeda juntante, organos e otra strutures. La dorso ave un colona vertebral flexable cual ensirca la medula spinal, cual es un colie de fibres de nervos liante la serebro a la resta de la corpo. == Bibliografia == * {{cite book|title=Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology|year=2016|isbn=978-0-07-182510-8|ref={{harvid|Ganong's|2016}}}} * {{cite book|editor=Susan Standring|title=Gray's anatomy: the anatomical basis of clinical practice|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse_c5d4|date=2008|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|location=London|isbn=978-0-8089-2371-8|edition=40|ref={{harvid|Gray's Anatomy|2008}}}} {{Sistemes e organos umana}} [[Categoria:Medica]] [[Categoria:Anatomia]] 7ym6z3pyjipep4iph034hzzj62jtkr0 0 3635 43397 40882 2026-08-03T20:59:35Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43397 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Forhead 01 ies.jpg|194px|right]] La '''fronte''' es la parte de la [[fas]] supra la [[suprasiles]]. En ''Terminologia Anatomica'', ''sinciput'' es la nom donada en [[Latina (lingua)|latina]] como corespondente a "fronte". La etimolojia es semi- "dui" + caput "testa"<ref name=KnizeDrisko>{{cite book|title=The Forehead and Temporal Fossa: Anatomy and Technique|url=https://archive.org/details/foreheadtemporal0000unse|author1=David M. Knize |author2=Mel Drisko |lastauthoramp=yes |publisher=Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins|year=2001|isbn=9780781720748|pages=[https://archive.org/details/foreheadtemporal0000unse/page/4 4]}}</ref><ref name=Nouri1>{{cite book|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071472562/page/523 523]|chapter=Reconstructive surgery of Skin Cancer defects|author1=Valencia D. Thomas |author2=Wendy Long Mitchell |author3=Neil A. Swanson |author4=Thomas E. Rohrer |author5=Ken K. Lee |last-author-amp=yes |title=Skin Cancer|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071472562|editor=Keyvan Nouri|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|year=2007|isbn=9780071472562}}</ref>. == Referes == <references/> {{Anatomia rejional umana}} {{Sistemes e organos umana}} [[Categoria:Anatomia]] 6hicpg46ib7yek6hxim5cyotsbw7xts 0 3664 43411 35442 2026-08-03T21:53:44Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43411 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Rub al Khali 002.JPG|thumb|Dunas en la Rub al Khali ("cuarti vacuida") en la Amirias Arabi Unida]] Un '''deserto''' es un area nonfertil en cual poca presipita aveni e donce la constrinjes a vive es dur per plantas e animales. La asentia de plantas esposa la surfas nonprotejeda a la prosede de denuda. Sirca un tri de la surfas solida de la tera es seca o semiseca. Esta inclui la plu de la areas sirca la polos en cual poca presipita aveni e cual es nomida a veses desertos polal o desertos fria. Desertos pote es clasida par la cuantia de presipita, par la temperatur, par la causas de la deserti, o par sua loca jeografial. ===Desertos la plu grande de Tera=== {| class="sortable wikitable" ! Ordina !! Nom !! Tipo !! Imaje !! Area<br>(km²) !! Area<br>(miles cuadrida) !! Loca |- | 1 || [[Antartica]] || Inverno fria || [[File:Antarctica_surface.jpg|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:14000000|8|0}}}} </span>14,000,000 || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:5400000|8|0}}}} </span>5,500,000 || [[Antartica]] |- |2 |[[Artica]] |Inverno fria | |13,985,000 |5,400,000 |[[Artica]] ([[Alaska]], [[Canada]], [[Suomi]], [[Gronland]], [[Island]], [[Noria]], [[Rusia]] and [[Sveria]]) |- | 3 || [[Sahara]] || Sutropical || [[File:Sahara satellite hires.jpg|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:12000000|8|0}}}} </span>9,000,000+ || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:3300000|8|0}}}} </span>3,300,000+ || [[Africa norde]] ([[Jazair]], [[Txad]], [[Misre]], [[Ertra]], [[Libia]], [[Mali]], [[Muritania]], [[Magrib]], [[Nijer]], [[Sudan]], [[Tunis]] e [[Sahara Ueste]]) |- | 4 || [[Deserto Arabi]] || Sutropical || [[File:Arabian Desert.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:2330000|8|0}}}} </span>2,330,000<ref name="britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110527/Arabian-Desert|title=Arabian Desert|accessdate=2007-12-28}}</ref> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:900000|8|0}}}} </span>900,000 || [[Asia sude-ueste]] ([[Irac]], [[Urdun]], [[Cuait]], [[Uman]], [[Catar]], [[Arabia Saudi]], [[Amirias Arabi Unida]] e [[Iaman]]) |- | 5 || [[Deserto Gobi]] || Inverno fria || [[File:Gobi.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:1300000|8|0}}}} </span>1,000,000 || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:500000|8|0}}}} </span>500,000 || [[Asia sentral]] ([[Xina]] e [[Mongol]]) |- | 6 || [[Deseto Kalahari]] (calahari) || Sutropical || [[File:Kalahari.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:900000|8|0}}}} </span>900,000<ref name="uchicago">{{cite web|url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/9780226471549_blad.pdf|title=Nature's Great Events:The Okavango Delta, Kalahari Desert|last=Bass|first=Karen|work=press.uchicago.edu|publisher=University of Chicago Press|date=2009-02-01|accessdate=2012-04-26}}</ref>|| <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:360000|8|0}}}} </span>360,000 || [[Africa sude]] ([[Angola]], [[Botsuana]], [[Namibia]] e [[Sudafrica]]) |- | 7 || [[Deserto Grande Victoria]] || Subtropical || [[File:IBRA 6.1 Great Victoria Desert.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:647000|8|0}}}} </span>647,000<ref name="geology.com">{{cite web|url=http://geology.com/records/largest-desert.shtml|title=Largest Desert in the World|accessdate=2011-12-27}}</ref> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:250000|8|0}}}} </span>220,000 || [[Australia]] |- | 8 || [[Deserto Patagonia]] || Inverno Fria ||[[File:Patagonian.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:673000|8|0}}}} </span>620,000 || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:260000|8|0}}}} </span>200,000 || [[America Sude]] ([[Arjentina]] e [[Txile]]) |- | 9 || [[Deserto Surian]] || Sutropical || [[File:Syrian Desert.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:520000|8|0}}}} </span>520,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:200000|8|0}}}} </span>200,000 || [[Asia sude-ueste]] ([[Irac]], [[Urdun]], e [[Suria]]) |- | 10 || [[Basin Grande]] || Inverno Fria || [[File:greatbasinmap.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:492000|8|0}}}} </span>492,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:190000|8|0}}}} </span>190,000 || [[SUA]] |- | 11 || [[Deserto Chihuahua]] (Txiuaua) || Sutropical || [[File:Chihuahua desert.jpg|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:450000|8|0}}}} </span>450,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:175000|8|0}}}} </span>175,000 || [[America Norde]] ([[Mexico]] e la [[SUA]]) |- | 12 || [[Deserto Grande Arenosa]] || Sutropical || [[File:IBRA 6.1 Great Sandy Desert.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:400000|8|0}}}} </span>400,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:150000|8|0}}}} </span>150,000 || [[Australia]] |- | 13 || [[Deserto Caracum]] || Inverno fria || [[File:Karakum.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:350000|8|0}}}} </span>350,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:135000|8|0}}}} </span>135,000 || [[Turcmenistan]] |- | 14 || [[Plato Colorado]] || Inverno fria || [[File:four corners.jpg|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:337000|8|0}}}} </span>337,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:130000|8|0}}}} </span>130,000 || [[SUA]] |- | 15 || [[Deserto Sonora]] || Sutropica || [[File:Mojave-sonoran deserts.png|100px]] || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:310000|8|0}}}} </span>310,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:120000|8|0}}}} </span>120,000 || [[America Norde]] ([[Mexico]] e la [[SUA]]) |- | 16 || [[Deserto Cizilcum]] || Inverno fria || [[File:Kyzyl Kum.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:300000|8|0}}}} </span>300,000<ref name="geology.com" /> ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:115000|8|0}}}} </span>115,000 || [[Asia sentral]] ([[Cazacstan]], [[Turcmenistan]] e [[Uzbecistan]]) |- | 17 || [[Deserto Takelamagan]] || Inverno fria || [[File:Taklamakan.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:270000|8|0}}}} </span>270,000 || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:105000|8|0}}}} </span>105,000 || [[Xina]] |- | 18 || [[Deserto Thar]] (Tar) || Sutropical || [[File:Thar Desert satellite.jpg|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:200000|8|0}}}} </span>200,000<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071941/Thar-Desert Thar Desert - Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:77000|8|0}}}} </span>77,000 || [[Asia sude]] ([[India]] e [[Pacistan]]) |- | 19 || [[Deserto Gibson]] || Sutropical || [[File:IBRA 6.1 Gibson Desert.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:155000|8|0}}}} </span>156,000<ref name="landgate">{{cite web|url=http://www.landgate.wa.gov.au/corporate.nsf/web/Interesting+Facts+About+Western+Australia|title=Interesting facts about Western Australia|work=landgate.wa.gov.au|publisher=Western Australian Land Information Authority|accessdate=2012-04-26|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/68gNf5aQG?url=http://www.landgate.wa.gov.au/corporate.nsf/web/Interesting+Facts+About+Western+Australia|archivedate=2012-06-25|df=}}</ref>|| <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:60000|8|0}}}} </span>60,000 || [[Australia]] |- | 20 || [[Dasht-e Margo]] (Daxte Margo)|| Sutropical || [[File:Kavir.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:150000|8|0}}}} </span>150,000 || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:58000|8|0}}}} </span>58,000 || [[Afganistan]] |- | 21 || [[Deserto Registan]] || Sutropical || [[File:Kavir.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:146000|8|0}}}} </span>146,000 || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:56400|8|0}}}} </span>56,400 || [[Afganistan]] |- | 22 || [[Deserto Simpson]] || Sutropical || [[File:Simpson-Desert-2007-12-16-NASA.jpg|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:145000|8|0}}}} </span>145,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:56000|8|0}}}} </span>56,000 || [[Australia]] |- | 23 || [[Deserto Atacama]] || Coastal Fresca || [[File:Atacama.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:140000|8|0}}}} </span>140,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:54000|8|0}}}} </span>54,000 || [[America Sude]] ([[Txile]] e [[Peru]]) |- | 24 || [[Deseto Mojave]] (Mohave) || Sutropical || [[File:Mojave-sonoran deserts.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:124000|8|0}}}} </span>124,000<ref name="mojaveusgs">{{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2011/3077/fs2011-3077.pdf|title=Mapping Perennial Vegetation Cover in the Mojave Desert|work=pubs.usgs.gov|publisher=USGS Western Geographic Science Center|date=2011-06-01|accessdate=2012-04-08}}</ref><ref name="mojaveusgs2">{{cite web|url=http://mojave.usgs.gov/rvde/|title=Recoverability and Vulnerability of Desert Ecosystems|website=mojave.usgs.gov|publisher=USGS|date=2006-03-03|accessdate=2012-04-14|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501082256/http://mojave.usgs.gov/rvde/|archivedate=2012-05-01|df=}}</ref> || <span style="display:none">{{formtnum:{{padleft:48000|8|0}}}} </span>48,000 || [[SUA]] |- | 25 || [[Deserto Namib]] || Costal Fresca || [[File:Namib desert MODIS.jpg|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:81000|8|0}}}} </span>81,000<ref name="geology.com" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:31000|8|0}}}} </span>31,000 || [[Africa sude]] ([[Angola]] e [[Namibia]]) |- | 26 || [[Dasht-e Kavir]] (Daxte Cavir) || Sutropical || [[File:Kavir.png|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:77000|8|0}}}} </span>77,000<ref name="nyt">{{cite book |editor-first=John W. |editor-last=Wright | year=2006 | title=The New York Times Almanac |url=https://archive.org/details/newyorktimes200700newy | edition=2007 | publisher=Penguin Books | location=New York, New York | isbn=0-14-303820-6 | page=[https://archive.org/details/newyorktimes200700newy/page/736 456]}}</ref> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:30000|8|0}}}} </span>30,000 || [[Iran]] |- | 27 || [[Dasht-e Lut]] (Daxte Lut) || Sutropical || [[File:Dasht-e Lut Iran 2006-02-28 ISS012-E-18779.jpg|100px]] ||<span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:52000|8|0}}}} </span>52,000<ref name="nyt" /> || <span style="display:none">{{formatnum:{{padleft:20000|8|0}}}} </span>20,100 || [[Iran]] |- |} == Referes == <references/> {{Model:Tera}} [[Category:Deserto]] [[Category:Jeografia]] 7wy6ss7pqq1o4syim066s6sczcvh0ji 0 3801 43399 42621 2026-08-03T21:14:15Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 22 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43399 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Articles bon}} '''Epistemolojia''' es la ramo de [[filosofia]] cual esamina la natur, orijina e limitas de [[sabe]]. Lo esplora tipos diferente de sabe, como [[sabe proposal]] sur fatos, [[sabe pratical]] en la forma de capasias, e [[sabe par conose]] como un conose par esperia. Epistemolojistes studia la consetas de [[crede]], [[veria]] e [[justi]] per comprende la natur de sabe. Per descovre como sabe emerji, los investiga fontes de justi, como [[persepi]], [[introspeta]], [[memoria]], [[razona]] e [[atesta]]. La scola de [[seticisme]] pone en duta la capasia umana per ateni sabe e [[falibilisme]] dise ce sabe es nunca serta. [[empiricalisme|Empiricaliste]]s afirma ce tota sabe veni de esperia sensal, ma [[razonalisme|razonaliste]]s afirma ce alga sabe no depende de lo. [[coerentisme|Coerentiste]]s argumenta ce un crede es justida si lo coere con otra credes. [[fundalisme|Fundaliste]]s, en contrasta, manteni ce la justi de credes fundal no depende de otra credes. [[Internisme e esternisme]] no acorda esce justi es determinada sola par [[state mental|states mental]] o ance par situas esterna. Ramos separada de epistemolojia es dedicada a sabe trovada en campos spesifada, como sabe siensal, matematical, moral e relijiosa. [[Epistemolojia naturalida]] depende de metodos e descovres empirical, ma [[epistemolojia formal]] usa utiles formal de [[lojica]]. [[Epistemolojia sosial]] investiga la aspeta comunial de sabe e [[epistemolojia istorial]] esamina sua situa istorial. Epistemolojia es prosima relatada a [[psicolojia]], cual descrive la credes cual persones teni, ma epistemolojia studia la normas cual governa la evalua de credes. Lo crusa ance con campos como la [[teoria de deside]], [[educa]] e [[antropolojia]]. Refletas temprana sur la natur, fontes e estende de sabe es trovada en [[filosofia elinica antica|filosofia elinica]], [[filosofia barati antica|barati]] e [[filosofia xines antica|xines antica]]. La relata entre razona e crede relijiosa ia es un tema sentral en la [[eda medieval|periodo medieval]]. La [[eda moderna]] ia es marcada par la perspetivas contrastante de empiricalisme e razonalisme. Epistemolojistes en la sentenio 20 ia esamina la composantes, strutur e valua de sabe e integra intuis de la [[siensa natural|siensas natural]] e [[linguistica]]. == Definis == Epistemolojia es la studia filosofial de [[sabe]]. Ance nomida la teoria de sabe, lo esamina cual sabe es e cual tipos de sabe esiste. Lo investiga ance la fontes de sabe, como [[persepi]], [[dedui]] e [[atesta]] per determina como sabe es creada. Un otra tema es la estende e limitas de sabe, frontinte demandas sur cual persones pote e no pote sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=49–50}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=Introduction: 1. What Is Epistemology?}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5NJjAwAAQBAJ 3]}} }}</ref> Otra consetas sentral inclui [[crede]], [[veria]], [[justi]], [[demostra]] e [[razona]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fumerton|2006|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5NJjAwAAQBAJ 4]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia es un de la ramos xef de filosofia estra campos como [[etica]], [[lojica]] e [[metafisica]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brenner|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DFoFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}} |2={{harvnb|Palmquist|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NOKjGp7NHtUC&pg=PA800 800]}} |3={{harvnb|Jenicek|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kWC1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} }}</ref> La terma es ance usada con un sinifia pico diferente per refere no a la ramo de filosofia ma a un loca spesifada en acel ramo, como en la epistemolojia de [[Platon]] e la epistemolojia de [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Moss|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Dq8SEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> Como un campo normida de investiga, epistemolojia esplora como persones debe oteni credes. En esta modo, lo determina cual credes sasia la normas o goles epistemolojial de sabe e cual fali, tal furninte un evalua de credes. Campos descrivente de investiga, como [[psicolojia]] e [[sosiolojia cognisial]], es ance interesada en credes e prosedes cognisial relatada. No como epistemolojia, los studia la credes cual persones ave e como persones oteni los en loca de esamina la normas evaluante de esta prosedes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=Introduction: 1. What Is Epistemology?}} }}</ref>{{efn|An con esta contrasta, epistemolojistes pote depende de trovadas de la siensas empiricaliste per formula sua teorias norminte.<ref>{{harvnb|O′Donohue|Kitchener|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T7uYSFSxxVkC&pg=PA2 2]}}</ref> Seguente un interprete, la gol de epistemolojia naturalida es responde demandas descrivente, ma esta interprete es disputada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=192}} | {{harvnb|Mi|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wDx1SG8tS5oC&pg=PA113 113, 115]}} }}</ref>}} Epistemolojia es pertinente a multe campos descrivente e normida, como la otra ramos de filosofia e la siensas, par esplora la prinsipes de como los pote ariva a sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Audi|2003|pp=258–259}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=3–4}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> La parola ''epistemolojia'' veni de la termas elinica antica ἐπιστήμη (episteme, sinifiante ''sabe'' o ''comprende'') e λόγος (logos, sinifiante ''studia de'' o ''razona''), leteral, la studia de sabe. Ma, an si filosofistes elinica antica ia pratica cual es oji considerada como epistemolojia, los no ia comprende sua investigas en esta termas. La parola ia es sola creada en la sentenio 19 per eticeta esta campo e conseta lo como un ramo diferente de filosofia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Scott|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G8aOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 30]}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=3}} }}</ref>{{efn|Como un nom per un ramo de filosofia, la terma "epistemolojia" ia es prima usada en engles en 1854 par James E. Ferrier.<ref>{{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=3}}</ref> En un contesto diferente, la parola ia es usada tan temprana como 1847 en ''Eclectic Magazine'' de New York per tradui ''Wissenschaftlehre'' (siensa de sabe) de filosofiste [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Oxford University Press|2024}}|{{harvnb|Vető|1993|p=48}}}}</ref> Car la terma no esiste ante la sentenio 19, filosofistes temprana no ia usa lo per descrive sua teorias e ia esplora lo frecuente en combina con [[psicolojia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Alston|2006|pp=1–2}}</ref> Longo la filosofiste Thomas Sturm, cuanto pertinente problemes tratada par filosofistes pasada es a la filosofia contempora es un demanda abrida.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturm|2011|pp=308–309}}</ref>}} == Consetas sentral == === Sabe === {{AX|Sabe}} Sabe es un consensia, conose, comprende, o capasia. Sua formas variosa inclui tota un susede cognisial tra cual un person fa contata epistemolojial con realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|p=109}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=Lead section, § 1. The Varieties of Cognitive Success}} | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022a}}}}</ref> Sabe es tipal comprendeda como un aspeta de individuas, jeneral como un [[state mental]] cognisial cual aida los comprende, interprete, e interata con la mundo. An si esta sensa nucleal es de interesa spesial a epistemolojistes, la terma ance ave otra sinifias. Comprendeda a un nivel sosial, sabe es un cualia de un grupo de persones ci comparti ideas, comprende, o [[cultur]] en jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Klausen|2015|pp=[https://portal.findresearcher.sdu.dk/da/publications/bbee5873-28f2-46d5-94b6-49ef5b18a38b 813–818]}} | {{harvnb|Lackey|2021|pp=111–112}} }}</ref> La terma pote ance refere a [[informa]] retenida en documentos, como "sabe retenida en la biblioteca"<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022a}} | {{harvnb|Magee|Popper|1971|pp=[https://archive.org/details/modernbritishphi0000mage/page/74 74–75]}} }}</ref> o sabe retenida en computadores en la forma de la [[banco de sabe]] de un [[sistem esperta]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022b}} | {{harvnb|Walton|2005|pp=59, 64}} }}</ref> Sabe contrasta con [[nonsabe]], cual es frecuente simple definida como la asentia de sabe. Sabe es usual acompaniada par nonsabe car persones rara ave sabe completa de un campo, cual forsa los a depende de informa noncompleta o nonserta cuando los fa desides.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gross|McGoey|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D75hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–4]}} | {{harvnb|Haas|Vogt|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D75hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17–18]}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=79}} }}</ref> An si multe formas de nonsabe pote es diminuida par educa e rexerca, on ave alga limitas a la comprende umana cual causa nonsabe nonevitable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Markie|Folescu|2023|loc=§ 1. Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009|pp=2, 6}} | {{harvnb|Stoltz|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pTkqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}} }}</ref> Alga limitas es inerente en la [[cognisio|capasias cognisial]] umana mesma, como la noncapasia de sabe fatos tro complicada per la [[mente|mente umana]] a conseta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009|pp=10, 93}} | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009a|pp=x–xi, 57–58}} | {{harvnb|Dika|2023|p=163}} }}</ref> Otras depende de situas esterna cuando no asede a la informa pertinente esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009|pp=2, 6}} | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009a|pp=140–141}} }}</ref> Epistemolojistes no acorda sur cuanto persones sabe, per esemplo, esce credes falable sur cosas dial pote deveni sabe o esce sertia asoluta es nesesada. La vista la plu sever es afirmada par [[seticisme filosofial|seticas radical]], ci argumenta ce on ave tota no sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wilson|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b8n609PDSrsC&pg=PA314 314]}} | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DGVcCIDbUQ8C&pg=PA18 18]}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|loc=Lead section, § 8. Implications of Fallibilism: No Knowledge?}} }}</ref> ====Tipos==== Epistemolojistes distingui entre tipos diferente de sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1. Kinds of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Barnett|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTjlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 40]}} | {{harvnb|Lilley|Lightfoot|Amaral|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HT8VDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162–163]}} }}</ref> Sua interesa prima es en sabe de fatos, nomida sabe proposal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Klein|1998|loc=§ 1. The Varieties of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1b. Knowledge-That}} | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ The Nature of Knowledge}} }}</ref>{{efn|Alga sinonimes inclui ''sabe declarante'' e ''sabe descrivente''.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1b. Knowledge-That}}</ref>}} Lo es un sabe teorial cual on pote espresa en frases declarante usante un proposa con "ce", como "Ravi sabe ce cangarus salta".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1b. Knowledge-That}} | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ The Nature of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|p=92}} }}</ref> Epistemolojistes frecuente comprende lo como un relata entre el ci sabe e un proposa sabeda, en la caso a supra entre la person Ravi e la proposa "cangarus salta".<ref name="auto"/> Lo es nondependente de usa car lo no es liada a un intende spesifada. Lo es un representa mental cual depende de consetas e ideas per depinta realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Morrison|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&pg=PA371 371]}} | {{harvnb|Reif|2008|p=33}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|p=93}} }}</ref> Par causa de sua natur teorial, on frecuente crede ce sola viventes relativa sofisticada, como umanas, posese sabe proposal.<ref>{{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref> Sabe proposal contrasta con sabe nonproposal en la forma de [[sabe prosedal]] e [[conose]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1. Kinds of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ The Nature of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Stanley|Willlamson|2001|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/WILKHV 411–412]}} }}</ref> Sabe prosedal es un capasia pratical, como sabe leje o prepara [[lasanie]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1d. Knowing-How}} | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} }}</ref> Lo es usual liada a un gol spesifada e no mestrida en la astrata sin pratica concreta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merriënboer|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o0I3IXLfXuAC&pg=PA32 32]}} | {{harvnb|Klauer|Manstetten|Petersen|Schiller|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YjglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 105–6]}} | {{harvnb|Pavese|2022|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-how/ Lead section]}} }}</ref> Conose alga cosa sinifia es familiarida con lo par causa de contata esperial. Esemplos es conose la site [[Perth]], conose la sabor de [[tsampa]], e conose [[Marta Vieira da Silva]] personal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1a. Knowing by Acquaintance}} | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ St. Anselm of Canterbury}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|p=92}} | {{harvnb|Benton|2024|p=4}} }}</ref> Un otra distingui influente es entre sabe ''a posteriori'' e ''a priori''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ A Priori and a Posteriori Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|ref=Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Russell|2020|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Sabe ''a posteriori'' es sabe de fatos empirical fundida sur esperia sensal, como vide ce la sol brilia e ole ce un peso de carne es putrida.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|ref=Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2016|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Sabe cual parteni a la siensas empirical e sabe de cosas dial parteni a sabe ''a posteriori''. Sabe ''a priori'' es sabe de fatos nonempirical e no depende de demostra de esperia sensal. Lo parteni a campos como [[matematica]] e [[lojica]], como sabe ce <math>2 + 2=4</math>.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Russell|2020|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|ref=Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|loc=Lead section, § 1. An Initial Characterization}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2016|loc=Lead section}}}}</ref> La contrasta entre sabe ''a posteriori'' e ''a priori'' jua un rol sentral en la debate entre [[empiricalisme|empiricaliste]]s e [[razonalisme|razonaliste]]s sur esce tota sabe depende de esperia sensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w98mEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 § 3. The Apriori]}} | {{harvnb|Popper|2014|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pXd9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 2. Deductivism and Inductivism]}} }}</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant portrait c1790.jpg|upright=0.8|alt=Depinta de Immanuel Kant|thumb|La distingui analisal-sintesal ave sua orijina en la filosofia de [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{harvnb|Juhl|Loomis|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8kiPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref>]] Un contrasta prosima relatada es entre verias analisal e sintesal. Un frase es analisal vera si sua veria depende sola de la sinifia de la parolas cual lo usa. Per esemplo, la frase "tota orfanes ave jenitores mor" es analisal vera car la parola "orfan" inclui ja la sinifia "ave jenitores mor". Un frase es sintesal vera si sua veria depende de fatos ajuntada. Per esemplo, la frase "neva es blanca" es sintesal vera car sua veria depende de la color de neva en ajunta a la sinifias de la parolas ''neva'' e ''blanca''. Sabe ''a priori'' es prima asosiada con frases analisal ma sabe ''a posteriori'' es prima asosiada con frases sintesal. Ma, lo es controversa esce esta es vera per tota casos. Alga filosofistes, como [[Willard Van Orman Quine]], rejeta la distingui, disente ce on ave no verias analisal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Juhl|Loomis|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8kiPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix–x, 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Russell|2023}} }}</ref> ====Analise==== {{AX|Definis de sabe}} La analise de sabe es la atenta identifia la composantes esensal o nesesadas de tota e sola states de sabe proposal. Seguente la analise tradisional,{{efn|La nom ''analise tradisional'' es disputada car lo sujeta aseta vasta en la istoria de filosofia, un idea no compartida par tota espertas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=54–55}} | {{harvnb|Ayers|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qt-RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} }}</ref>}} sabe ave tre composantes: lo es un crede cual es justida e vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=53–54}} }}</ref> En la dui du de la sentenio 20, esta vista ia es poneda en duta par un serie de esperimentas de pensa cual ia atenta mostra ce alga credes justida e vera no es sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=61–62}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 3. The Gettier Problem}} }}</ref> En un de los, un person no conose tota la granerias falsa en sua area. Par coaveni, el para ante la sola graneria vera e formi un crede justida e vera ce lo es un graneria vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rodríguez|2018|pp=29–32}} | {{harvnb|Goldman|1976|pp=771–773}} | {{harvnb|Sudduth|loc=§ 2b. Defeasibility Analyses and Propositional Defeaters}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 10.2 Fake Barn Cases}} }}</ref> Multe epistemolojistes acorda ce esta no es sabe car la justi no es direta pertinente a la veria.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=61–62}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 8. Epistemic Luck}} }}</ref> Plu spesifada, esta e contraesemplos simil envolve alga forma de fortuna epistemolojial, pd un susede cognisial cual resulta de situas fortunosa en loca de capasia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DGVcCIDbUQ8C&pg=PA1 1–4]}} | {{harvnb|Broncano-Berrocal|Carter|2017|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> [[File:Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg|thumb|alt=Scema de composantes de sabe|La ''analise tradisional'' dise ce sabe es crede justida e vera. [[Edmund Gettier]] ia atenta mostra ce alga credes justida e vera no es sabe.]] Seguente esta [[esperimenta de pensa|esperimentas de pensa]], filosofistes ia proposa definis variosa e alternativa de sabe par cambia o estende la analise tradisional.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=65}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=Lead section, § 3. The Gettier Problem}} }}</ref> Seguente un vista, la fato conoseda debe causa la crede en la modo coreta.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=67–68}}</ref> Un otra teoria afirma ce la crede es la produida de un prosede fidable de formi credes.<ref>{{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 6.1 Reliabilist Theories of Knowledge}}</ref> Otra prosimis nesesa ce la person no ta ave la crede si lo ta es falsa,<ref>{{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 5.1 Sensitivity}}</ref> ce la crede no es deduida de un falsia,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=75}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 4. No False Lemmas}} }}</ref> ce la justi no pote es suminida,<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=69}}</ref> o ce la crede es nonfalable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 5c. Questioning the Gettier Problem, § 6. Standards for Knowing}} | {{harvnb|Kraft|2012|pp=49–50}} }}</ref> On ave no consensa sur cual de la cambias e reconsetas proposada es coreta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 3. The Gettier Problem, § 7. Is Knowledge Analyzable?}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|pp=93–94, 104–105}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=§ 2.3 Knowing Facts}} }}</ref> Alga filosofistes, como [[Timothy Williamson]], rejeta la suposa fundal cual suporta la analise de sabe par argumenta ce sabe proposal es un state unica cual no pote es divideda en composantes plu simple.<ref>{{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 7. Is Knowledge Analyzable?}}</ref> ====Valua==== La valua de sabe es la merita cual lo teni par estende comprende e gida ata. Sabe pote ave [[valua strumental]] par aida un person ateni sua goles.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Degenhardt|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FuCsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–6]}} | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10–11]}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2011|pp=874–875}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, sabe de un maladia aida un dotor a cura sua pasiente, e sabe de cuando un intervisa de emplea comensa aida un aspiror a ariva a tempo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|McCormick|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3BAhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 42]}} }}</ref> La usosia de un fato conoseda depende de la situa. Sabe de alga fatos pote ave poca o no usas, como memori numeros de telefon acaso de un libro de telefon desvalidida.<ref>{{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11–12]}}</ref> Es capas de evalua la valua de sabe importa en eleje cual informa on debe oteni e transmete a otras. Lo afeta desides como cual temas on debe ensenia a scola e como asinia mone a projetas de rexerca.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stehr|Adolf|2016|pp=483–485}} | {{harvnb|Powell|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GYdnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 132–133]}} | {{harvnb|Meirmans|Butlin|Charmantier|Engelstädter|2019|pp=754–756}} | {{harvnb|Degenhardt|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FuCsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–6]}} }}</ref> De interesa spesial a epistemolojistes es la demanda de esce sabe es plu valuada ca un mera opina cual es vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|Turri|Carter|2022|loc=§ 1. Value Problems}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2011|pp=874–875}} | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ The Value of Knowledge}} }}</ref> Sabe e opina vera ave frecuente un usosia simil car ambos es representas esata de realia. Per esemplo, si un person vole vade a [[Larissa]], un opina vera sur como ariva ala pote aida el en la mesma modo como sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Olsson|2011|pp=874–875}} | {{harvnb|Pritchard|Turri|Carter|2022|loc=§ 1. Value Problems}} | {{harvnb|Plato|2002|pp=[https://archive.org/details/fivedialogueseut00plat/page/89 89–90, 97b–98a]}} }}</ref> Platon ia considera ja esta problem e ia sujesta ce sabe es plu bon car lo es plu stable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Olsson|2011|p=875}} | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ The Value of Knowledge}} }}</ref> Un otra sujesta foca a [[razona pratical]]. Lo proposa ce persones pone plu fida en sabe ca en mera credes vera cuando los fa concluis e deside cual los debe fa.<ref>{{harvnb|Pritchard|Turri|Carter|2022|loc=§ 6. Other Accounts of the Value of Knowledge}}</ref> Un responde diferente dise ce sabe ave valua inerente, sinifiante ce lo es bon en se mesma nondependente de sua usosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15–16]}} | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ The Value of Knowledge}} }}</ref> ===Crede e veria=== {{AX|Crede|Veria}} Credes es states mental sur cual es la caso, como crede ce neva es blanca o ce [[esiste de Dio|Dio esiste]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Braddon-Mitchell|Jackson|2011|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2008|pp=80–81}} | {{harvnb|Dretske|2005|p=85}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=18}} }}</ref> En epistemolojia, los es frecuente comprendeda como [[disposa proposal|disposas sujetal cual afirma o nega un proposa]], cual pote es espresada en un frase declarante. Per esemplo, crede ce neva es blanca es afirma la proposa "neva es blanca". Seguente esta vista, credes es representas de como la mundo es. Los es retenida en memoria e pote es reprendeda cuando on pensa ativa sur realia o cuando on deside como ata.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Braddon-Mitchell|Jackson|2011|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2024|loc=Lead section, § 1.1 Representationalism}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2011|pp=14–15}} }}</ref> Un vista diferente comprende credes como modeles condual o disposas per ata en loca de como cosas represental retenida en la mente. Esta vista dise ce crede ce on ave acua mineral en la friador es no plu ca un grupo de disposas condual relatada a acua mineral e la friador. Esemplos es la disposas per responde a demandas sur la presentia de acua mineral afirmante e vade a la friador cuando on sidi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2024|loc=§ 1.2 Dispositionalism}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2011|pp=17–18}} }}</ref> Alga teoristes nega la esiste de credes, disente ce esta conseta emprestada de [[psicolojia popular]] es un suprasimpli de prosedes psicolojial multe plu complicada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2024|loc=§ 1.5 Eliminativism, Instrumentalism, and Fictionalism}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2011|p=20}} }}</ref> Credes jua un rol sentral en debates epistemolojial variosa, cual covre sua state como un composante de sabe proposal, la demanda de esce persones ave controla sur e es respondosa per sua credes, e la tema de esce on ave grados de crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=14–15}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2024|loc=§ 2.3 Degree of Belief, § 2.5 Belief and Knowledge}} }}</ref> Como disposas proposal, credes es vera o falsa dependente de esce los afirma un proposa vera o falsa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dretske|2005|p=85}} | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=926}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=18}} }}</ref> Seguente la [[teoria de veria como coresponde]], es vera sinifia sta en la relata coreta a la mundo par descrive esata como lo es. Esta sinifia ce veria es ojetal: un crede es vera si lo coresponde a un [[fato]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=926}} | {{harvnb|Dowden|Swartz|loc=§ 3. Correspondence Theory}} | {{harvnb|Lynch|2011|pp=3–5}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=58}} }}</ref> La [[teoria de veria como coere]] dise ce un crede es vera si lo parteni a un sistem coerente de credes. Un resulta de esta vista es ce veria es relativa car lo depende de otra credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Glanzberg|2023|loc=§ 1.2 The Coherence Theory}} | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|pp=926–927}} | {{harvnb|Lynch|2011|p=3}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=58}} }}</ref> Otra teorias de veria inclui teorias pratical, semantical, pluraliste, e deflaiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lynch|2011|pp=5–7, 10}} | {{harvnb|Glanzberg|2023|loc=§ 1. The Neo-classical Theories of Truth, § 2. Tarski’s Theory of Truth, § 4.4 Truth Pluralism, § 5. Deflationism}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=148–149}} }}</ref> Veria jua un rol sentral en epistemolojia como un gol de prosedes cognisial e un composante de sabe proposal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lynch|2011|p=5}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=148}} }}</ref> ===Justi=== {{AX|Justi (epistemolojia)}} En epistemolojia, justi es un cualia de credes cual sasia alga normas sur lo cual un person debe crede.<ref name="auto6">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goldman|Bender|2005|p=465}} | {{harvnb|Kvanvig|2011|pp=25–26}} }}</ref> Seguente un vista comun, esta sinifia ce la person ave razonas sufisinte per ave esta crede car los ave informa cual suporta lo.<ref name="auto6"/> Un otra vista afirma ce un crede es justida si lo es formida par un prosede fidable de formi credes, como persepi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=83–84}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2016}} }}</ref> La termas ''razonal'', ''meritante'' e ''suportada'' es prosima relatada a la idea de justi e es a veses usada como sinonimes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvanvig|2011|p=25}} | {{harvnb|Foley|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Justi es lo cual distingui credes justida de [[superstisio]] e divina fortunosa.<ref>{{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 1.3 The Justification Condition}}</ref> Ma, justi no garantia veria. Per esemplo, si un person ave demostra forte ma malgidante, los pote formi un crede justida cual es falsa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=149}} | {{harvnb|Comesaña|Comesaña|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LaFhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT44 44]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojistes identifia frecuente justi como un composante de sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=92–93}}</ref> Usual, los no es sola interesada en esce un person ave un razona sufisinte per ave un crede, conoseda como ''justi proposal'', ma ance en esce la person ave la crede car o fundida sur{{efn|La relata entre un crede e la razona cual suporta lo es nomida un ''relata fundinte.''<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Oliveira|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=99FkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 1–4]}}</ref>}} esta razona, conoseda como ''justi doxastica''. Per esemplo, si un person ave un razona sufisinte per crede ce un visineria es perilosa ma formi esta crede fundida sur superstisio alora los ave justi proposal ma manca de justi doxastica.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 1.3.2 Kinds of Justification}} | {{harvnb|Silva|Oliveira|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=99FkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 1–4]}} }}</ref> ====Fontes==== Fontes de justi es modos o capasias cognisial tra cual persones oteni justi. Fontes frecuente discuteda inclui [[persepi]], [[introspeta]], [[memoria]], [[razona]] e [[atesta]], ma on ave no acorda universal a cual grado tota los furni justi valida.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kern|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eyh5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–10, 133]}} | {{harvnb|Smith|2023|p=3}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 3. Ways of Knowing}}}}</ref> Persepi depende de [[sensa|organos sensal]] per oteni informa empirical. On ave formas variosa de persepi corespondente a stimulas fisical diferente, como [[vide|persepi vidal]], [[oia|oreal]], [[palpa|palpal]], [[ole|olal]], e [[proba (sensa)|probal]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.1 Perception}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 3. Ways of Knowing}} }}</ref> Persepi no es mera la reseta de impresas sensal ma un prosede ativa cual eleje, organiza e interprete siniales sensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Khatoon|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ha1KBZm9CXQC&pg=PA104 104]}} | {{harvnb|Martin|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Introspeta es un prosede prosima relatada focada no a ojetos fisical esterna ma a states mental interna. Per esemplo, vide un bus a un stasion de bus parteni a persepi ma senti fatiga parteni a introspeta.<ref>{{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.2 Introspection}}</ref> Razonalistes comprende razona como un fonte de justi per fatos nonempirical. Lo es frecuente usada per esplica como persones pote sabe verias matematical, lojical e consetal. Razona es la fonte de sabe deduinte, en cual un o alga credes es usada como premisas per suporta un otra crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 3d. Knowing by Thinking-Plus-Observing}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.4 Reason}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2002|pp=85, 90–91}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-YPTEeIhOXYC&pg=PA38 38]}} }}</ref> Memoria depende de informa furnida par otra fontes, cual lo reteni e recorda, como recorda un numero de telefon persepida plu temprana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.3 Memory}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2002|pp=72–75}} | {{harvnb|Gardiner|2001|pp=1351–1352}} | {{harvnb|Michaelian|Sutton|2017}} }}</ref> Justi par atesta depende de informa cual un person comunica a un otra person. Esta pote aveni par parla a lunlotra ma pote ance aveni en otra formas, como un letera, un jornal e un blog.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.5 Testimony}} | {{harvnb|Leonard|2021|loc=Lead section, § 1. Reductionism and Non-Reductionism}} | {{harvnb|Green|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> === Otra consetas === [[Razonalia]] es prosima relatada a justi e la termas ''crede razonal'' e ''crede justida'' es a veses usada como sinonimes. Ma, razonalia ave un estende plu larga cual enclui ambos un lado teorial, covrente credes, e un lado pratical, covrente [[teoria de desides|desides]], [[intende]]s e atas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=123–124}} | {{harvnb|Foley|2011|pp=37, 39–40}} | {{harvnb|Harman|2013|loc=§ Theoretical and Practical Rationality}} | {{harvnb|Mele|Rawling|2004|pp=3–4}} }}</ref> On ave consetas diferente sur cual lo sinifia ce alga cosa es razonal. Seguente un vista, un state mental es razonal si lo es fundida sur o responde a razonas bon. Un otra vista asentua la rol de coere, afirmante ce razonalia nesesa ce la states mental diferente de un person es coerente e suporta lunlotra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Heinzelmann|2023|pp=312–314}} | {{harvnb|Kiesewetter|2020|pp=332–334}} }}</ref> Un prosimi pico diferente afirma ce razonalia es sur la ateni de alga goles. Du goles de razonalia teorial es esatia e completia, sinifiante ce un person ave tan poca credes falsa e tan multe credes vera como posible.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Foley|2011|pp=39–40}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=123–124}} }}</ref> Normas epistemolojial es criterios per evalua la cualia cognisial de credes, como sua justi e razonalia. Epistemolojistes distingui entre normas deontica, cual es prescrives sur lo cual persones debe crede o lo cual credes es coreta, e normas axiolojial, cual identifia la goles e valuas de credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=109}} | {{harvnb|Engel|2011|p=47}} }}</ref> Normas epistemolojial es prosima relatada a [[virtua epistemolojial|virtuas epistemolojial]] o inteletal, cual es cualias de carater como [[abridia de mente]] e [[consiensosia]]. Virtuas epistemolojial aida individuas a formi credes vera e oteni sabe. Los contrasta con mal abituas epistemolojial e ata como consetas fundal de la [[epistemolojia de virtua]]. [[Demostra]] cual suporta un crede es informa cual suporta lo. Epistemolojistes comprende demostra prima en termas de states mental, per esemplo, como impresas sensal o como otra proposas cual un person sabe. Ma en un sensa plu larga, lo pote ance inclui ojetos fisical, como manxas de sangue esaminada par analisores forense o rejistras finansial studiada par jornalistes investigosa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=50–51}} | {{harvnb|DiFate|loc=Lead section, § 1. The Nature of Evidence: What Is It and What Does It Do?}} | {{harvnb|Kelly|2016|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|McGrew|2011|pp=58–59}} }}</ref> Demostra es frecuente comprendeda en termas de [[probablia]]: demostra suportante un crede fa ce lo es plu probable ce la crede es vera.<ref>{{harvnb|McGrew|2011|p=59}}</ref> Un vinsor es demostra cual refuta un crede o demostra cual sumina otra demostra suportante. Per esemplo, [[atesta]] cual lia un suspetada a un crimin es demostra suportante sua culpablia ma un [[alibi]] es un vinsor.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sudduth|loc=Lead section, § 2c. Constraints on Propositional Defeaters}} | {{harvnb|McPherson|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6I7fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}} }}</ref> Evidentialistes analise justi en termas de demostra par dise ce per es justida, un crede nesesa la suporta de demostra sufisinte.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=51}} | {{harvnb|Kelly|2016|loc=§ 1. Evidence as That Which Justifies Belief}} }}</ref> La presentia de demostra afeta tipal [[duta]] e [[sertia]], cual es disposas sujetal a proposas cual difere en relata a sua nivel de fida. Duta envolve nonconvinsedia sur la validia o veria de un proposa. Sertia, en contrasta, es un disposa afirmante forte, sinifiante ce la person no duta la veria de la proposa. En epistemolojia, duta e sertia jua roles sentral en atentas per trova un funda secur de tota sabe e en projetas setica cual atenta demostra ce no crede es imune a duta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=18–19, 44}} | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005a|p=134}} | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005b|p=220}} }}</ref> An si sabe proposal es la tema xef en epistemolojia, alga teoristes foca a [[comprende]] en loca de sabe. Comprende es un idea plu oliste cual envolve un teni mental plu larga de un sujeto. Per comprende alga cosa, un person nesesa consensia de como cosas diferente es liada e perce los es como los es. Per esemplo, sabe de fatos isolida memorida de un libro de testo no es comprende. Seguente un vista, comprende es un bonia epistemolojial spesial cual, no como sabe, es sempre inerente valuada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=150}} | {{harvnb|Grimm|2011|pp=84, 88}} | {{harvnb|Gordon|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> [[Sajia]] es simil en esta modo e es a veses considerada la bonia epistemolojial la plu alta. Lo inclui un comprende refletante con aplicas pratical. Lo aida persones teni mental e evalua situas complicada e vive un bon vive.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kekes|2005|p=959}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=157}} | {{harvnb|Whitcomb|2011|p=95}} }}</ref> == Scolas de pensa == === Seticisme, falablisme e relativisme === {{AX|Seticisme|Falablisme|Relativisme epistemolojial}} [[Seticisme filosofial]] pone en duta la capasia umana per ariva a sabe. Alga seticas limita sua critica a alga campos de sabe. Per esemplo, [[seticisme relijiosa|seticas relijiosa]] dise ce lo es nonposible per ave sabe serta sur la esiste de divines o otra dotrinas relijiosa. Simil, seticas moral pone en duta la esiste de sabe moral e seticas metafisical dise ce umanas no pote sabe realia ultima.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cohen|1998|loc=§ Article Summary}} | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005|p=838}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1ETRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA200 200]}} }}</ref> Seticisme global es la forma la plu larga de seticisme, afirmante ce on ave no sabe en cualce campo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005|p=838}} | {{harvnb|Bergmann|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T7EzEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} }}</ref> En [[filosofia antica]], esta vista ia es asetada par [[Seticisme academial|seticas academial]] ma [[Seticisme pironian|seticas pironian]] ia recomenda la suspende de crede per ateni un state de calmia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazlett|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4INnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 18]}} | {{harvnb|Levine|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=umYHtjvOhwIC&pg=PA11 11]}} }}</ref> En tota, no multe epistemolojistes defende direta seticisme global. La influe de esta vista deriva xef de atentas par otra filosofistes per mostra ce sua teoria vinse la difisilia de seticisme. Per esemplo, [[René Descartes]] ia usa [[Duta cartesian|duta metodolojial]] per trova fatos cual no pote es dutada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005|p=838}} | {{harvnb|Comesaña|Klein|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Un considera cual suporta seticisme global es la [[argumenta de sonia]]. Lo comensa de la oserva ce, cuando persones sonia, los es usual nonsabente de esta. Esta noncapasia de distingui entre sonia e esperia normal es usada per argumenta ce on ave no sabe serta car un person es nunca serta ce el no es soniante.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Windt|2021|loc=§ 1.1 Cartesian Dream Skepticism}} | {{harvnb|Klein|1998|loc=§ 8. The Epistemic Principles and Scepticism}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 4. Sceptical Doubts About Knowing}} }}</ref>{{efn|La [[serebro en un tance]] es un [[esperimenta de pensa]] similar cual suposa ce un person no ave un corpo ma es sola un serebro cual reseta stimulas eletrical nondistinguable de la stimulas cual un serebro en un corpo ta reseta. Esta argumenta gida ance a la conclui de seticisme global fundida sur la afirma ce lo no es posible per distingui stimulas cual representa la mundo vera de stimulas simulada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005|p=838}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 6.1 General Skepticism and Selective Skepticism}} }}</ref>}} Alga criticas afirma ce seticisme global es un idea cual refuta se mesma car nega la esiste de sabe es un afirma sur sabe. Un otra refuta dise ce la razona astrata cual gida a seticisme no es sufisinte convinsente per nega sensa comun.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 6.2 Responses to the Closure Argument}} | {{harvnb|Reed|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=geSrCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} }}</ref> Falablisme es un otra responde a seticisme.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|1998|loc=§ 1. The Philosophical Problem of Scepticism, § 2. Responses to Scepticism}}</ref> Falablistes acorda con seticas ce sertia asoluta es nonposible. La plu de falablistes no acorda con seticas sur la esiste de sabe, disente ce on ave sabe car lo no nesesa sertia asoluta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|loc=Lead section, § 9. Implications of Fallibilism: Knowing Fallibly?}} | {{harvnb|Rescher|1998|loc=§ Article Summary}} }}</ref> Los asentua la nesesa de manteni un mente abrida e demandante car duta no pote nunca es intera escluida, an per alegas de sabe bon instituida como teorias siensal bon probada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|1998|loc=§ Article Summary}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|loc=§ 9. Implications of Fallibilism: Knowing Fallibly?}} }}</ref> Relativisme epistemolojial es un vista relatada. Lo no nega la esiste de sabe en jeneral ma rejeta la idea ce on ave normas epistemolojial universal o prinsipes asoluta cual aplica egal a tota persones. Esta sinifia ce lo cual un person sabe depende de la criterios sujetal o convenis sosial usada per evalua la state epistemolojial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carter|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzslDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA292 292]}} | {{harvnb|Luper|2004|pp=271–272}} }}</ref> === Empiricalisme e razonalisme === {{AX|Empiricalisme|Razonalisme}} {{multiple image |perrow=2 |total_width=350 |image1=John Locke.jpg |alt1=Depinta de John Locke |image2=David_Hume_2.jpg |alt2=Depinta de David Hume |footer=[[John Locke]] e [[David Hume]] ia formi la filosofia de empiricalisme. }} La debate entre empiricalisme e razonalisme es consentrada sur la orijinas de sabe umana. Empiricalisme asentua ce [[demostra empirical|esperia sensal]] es la fonte prima de tota sabe. Alga empiricalistes espresa esta vista par afirma ce la mente es un [[tabula rasa|tableta vacua]] cual developa sola ideas sur la mundo esterna de la datos sensal cual lo reseta de la organos sensal. Seguente los, la mente pote ariva a alga intuis ajuntada par compara impresas, combina los, jenerali per ariva a ideas plu astrata, e dedui concluis nova de los. Empiricalistes dise ce tota esta operas mental depende de materia de la sensas e no funsiona nondependente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005|p=242}} | {{harvnb|Markie|Folescu|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1.2 Empiricism}} }}</ref> An si razonalistes aseta tipal esperia sensal como un fonte de sabe,{{efn|Alga formas de razonalisme estrema, trovada en [[filosofia elinica antica]], comprende razona como la sola fonte de sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Lacey|2005a|p=783}}</ref>}} los dise ce formas importante de sabe veni ance direta de [[razona]] sin esperia sensal,<ref name="auto2">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005a|p=783}} | {{harvnb|Markie|Folescu|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1. Introduction}} }}</ref> como sabe de verias matematical e lojical.<ref>{{harvnb|Tieszen|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgQ_fuCcKAC&pg=PA175 175]}}</ref> Seguente alga razonalistes, la mente posese [[inatisme|ideas inata]] cual lo pote asede sin la aida de la sensas. Otras afrima ce on ave un capasia cognisial ajuntada, a veses nomida [[intui lojical|intui razonal]], par cual persones oteni sabe nonempirical.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005a|p=783}} | {{harvnb|Markie|Folescu|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1. Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Hales|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sINRmT4rZ5wC&pg=PA29 29]}} }}</ref> Alga razonalistes limita sua discute a la orijina de consetas, disente ce la mente depende de [[teoria de categorias|categorias]] inata per comprende la mundo e organiza esperia.<ref name="auto2"/> === Fundalisme e coerentisme === {{AX|Fundalisme epistemolojial|Coerentisme}} Fundalistes e coerentistes no acorda sur la strutur de sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Audi|1988|pp=407–408}} | {{harvnb|Stairs|2017|pp=155–156}} | {{harvnb|Margolis|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BeyuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 214]}} }}</ref>{{efn|On pote comprende ambos como respondes a la [[regresa infinita|problem de regresa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bradley|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qKXDCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 170]}}</ref>}} Fundalisme distingui entre credes fundal e nonfundal. Un crede es fundal si lo es direta justida, sinifiante ce sua validia no depende de la suporta de otra credes.{{efn|La teoria de fundalisme clasical ave un nesesada plu forte cual dise ce credes fundal es [[autoevidente]] o nondutable.<ref>{{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=64}}</ref>}} Un crede es nonfundal si lo es justida par un otra crede.<ref name="auto7">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stairs|2017|pp=155–156}} | {{harvnb|Margolis|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BeyuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 214]}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, la crede ce lo ia pluve a la note pasada es un crede nonfundal si lo es deduida de la oserva ce la strada es moiada.<ref>{{harvnb|Stairs|2017|p=155}}</ref> Seguente fundalisme, credes fundal es la funda sur cual tota otra sabe es construida ma credes nonfundal constitui la suprastrutur cual reposa sur esta funda.<ref name="auto7"/> Coerentistes rejeta la distingui entre credes fundal e nonfundal, disente ce la justi de cualce crede depende de otra credes. Los afirma ce un crede debe es en acorda con otra credes per deveni sabe. Esta es la caso si la credes es coerente e suporta lunlotra. Seguente coerentisme, justi es un aspeta [[Olisme|oliste]] determinada par la sistem intera de credes, cual sembla un rede interliada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stairs|2017|pp=156–157}} | {{harvnb|O'Brien|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TOQcebWMstwC&pg=PA77 77]}} }}</ref> La vista de [[fundcoerentisme]] es un loca media cual combina elementos de ambos fundalisme e coerentisme. Lo aseta la distingui entre credes fundal e nonfundal ma afirma ce la justi de credes nonfundal depende de coere con otra credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruppert|Schlüter|Seide|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nF2mCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 59]}} | {{harvnb|Tramel|2008|pp=215–216}} }}</ref> [[Infinitisme]] presenta un otra prosimi a la strutur de sabe. Lo acorda con coerentisme ce on ave no credes fundal ma rejeta la vista ce credes pote suporta lunlotra en un [[razona circulo|modo sirculo]]. En loca, lo argumenta ce credes formi cadenas infinita de justi, en cual cada lia de la cadena suporta la crede seguente lo e es suportada par la crede presedente lo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bradley|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qKXDCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 170–171]}} | {{harvnb|Stairs|2017|pp=155–156}} }}</ref> === Internisme e esternisme === [[File:Alvin Goldman 1966.jpg|thumb|alt=Foto de Alvin Goldman|[[Alvin Goldman]] ia es un defendor influente de esternisme.{{efn|BonJour|2016}}]] La desacorda entre internisme e esternisme es sur la fontes de justi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=159–160}} | {{harvnb|Fumerton|2011|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>{{efn|La debate interniste-esterniste es diferente de la debate sur internisme-esternisme de [[filosofia de mente]], cual demanda esce states mental depende sola de la individua o ance de sua ambiente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bernecker|2013|loc=Note 1}} | {{harvnb|Wilson|2023}} }}</ref>}} Internistes dise ce justi depende sola de fatores en la individua. Esemplos de tal fatores inclui esperia persepal, memorias, e la posese de otra credes. Esta vista asentua la importa de la perspetiva cognisial de la individua en la forma de sua states mental. Lo es comun asosiada con la idea ce la fatores pertinente es asededa, sinifiante ce la individua pote deveni consensa de sua razonas per teni un crede justida con introspeta e refleta.<ref name="auto4">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Poston|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=159–160}} }}</ref> Esternisme rejeta esta vista, disente ce a la min alga fatores pertinente es esterna a la individua. Esta sinifia ce la perspetiva cognisial de la individua es min sentral en cuando otra fatores, spesial la relata a veria, deveni plu importante.<ref name="auto4"/> Per esemplo, cuando on considera la crede ce un tas de cafe es sur la table, esternistes no es sola interesada en la esperia persepal cual ia gida a esta crede ma considera ance la cualia de la vide de la person, sua capasia de distingui cafe de otra bevidas, e la situas su cual el ia oserva la tas.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=160}}</ref> [[Demostralisme]] es un vista interniste influente. Lo dise ce justi depende de la posese de [[demostra]]. En esta contesto, demostra suportante un crede es cualce informa en la mente de la individua cual suporta la crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=99, 298}} | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=§ 9.3.3 An Evidentialist Argument}} | {{harvnb|Mittag|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, la esperia persepal de pluve es demostra suportante la crede ce lo pluve. Demostralistes ia sujesta otra formas variosa de demostra, incluinte memorias, intuis, e otra credes.<ref>{{harvnb|Mittag|loc=§ 2b. Evidence}}</ref> Seguente demostralisme, un crede es justida si la demostra de la individua suporta la crede e los manteni la crede par causa de esta demostra.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=99, 298}}</ref> [[Fidablisme]] es un teoria esterniste cual afirma ce un lia fidable entre crede e veria es nesesada per justi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=83, 301}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2016}} }}</ref> Alga fidablistes esplica esta en termas de prosedes fidable. Seguente esta vista, un crede es justida si lo es produida par un prosede fidable de formi credes, como persepi. Un prosede de formi credes es fidable si la plu de la credes cual lo causa es vera. Un vista pico diferente foca a credes en loca de prosedes de formi credes, disente ce un crede es justida si lo es un indicador fidable de la fato cual lo presenta. Esta sinifia ce la crede segue la fato: la person crede lo car lo es un fato ma no ta crede lo en otra modo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=84}} | {{harvnb|Lyons|2016|pp=160–162}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2016}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia de virtua]] es un otra tipo de esternisme e es a veses comprendeda como un forma de fidablisme. Lo dise ce un crede es justida si lo mostra virtuas inteletal. Virtuas inteletal es capasias o cualias cual fa funsionas cognisial e aida persones formi credes vera. Esemplos sujestada inclui capasias como vide, memoria, e introspeta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=175–176}} | {{harvnb|Baehr, "''Virtue Epistemology''"|ref=Baehr, "''Virtue Epistemology''"|loc=Lead section, § 1. Introduction to Virtue Epistemology}} }}</ref> === Otras === En la epistemolojia de persepi, [[realisme direta e nondireta|realistes direta e nondireta]] no acorda sur la lia entre la persepor e la ojeto persepida. Realistes direta dise ce esta lia es direta, sinifiante ce on ave no difere entre la ojeto presente en la esperia persepal e la ojeto fisical cual causa esta esperia. Seguente realisme nondireta, la lia es nondireta car on ave cosas mental, como ideas o datos sensal, cual media entre la persepor e la mundo esterna. La contrasta entre realisme direta e nondireta es importante per esplica la natur de iludes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|1992|p=341}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=268–269, 277–278, 300–301}} }}</ref> [[Construintisme (filosofia de siensa)|Construintisme]] en epistemolojia es la teoria ce como persones vide la mundo no es un refleta simple de realia esterna ma un inventa o un construi sosial. Esta vista asentua la rol creosa de interprete ma sumina ojetalia car construis sosial pote difere de sosia a sosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chiari|Nuzzo|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CrqNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=215–216, 301}} }}</ref> Seguente [[contrastisme]], sabe es un terma comparativa, sinifiante ce sabe alga cosa envolve distingui lo de alternativas pertinente. Per esemplo, si un person vide un avia en la jardin, el pote sabe ce lo es un pasaro en loca de un agila ma el pote no sabe ce lo es un pasaro en loca de un ologram nondistinguable de un pasaro.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cockram|Morton|2017}} | {{harvnb|Baumann|2016|pp=59–60}} }}</ref> [[Conservalisme epistemolojial]] es un vista sur la [[revisa de credes]]. Lo dona prefere a la credes cual un person ave ja, afirmante ce un person debe sola cambia sua credes si el ave un razona bon per fa lo. Un motiva per adota conservalisme epistemolojial es ce la recursos cognisial de umanas es limitada, sinifiante ce lo no es posible reesamina constante cada crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Foley|1983|p=165}} | {{harvnb|Vahid|loc=Lead section, § 1. Doxastic Conservatism: The Debate}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[practicalisme|praticaliste]] es un forma de falablisme cual asentua la relata prosima entre sabe e ata. Lo vide la persegue de sabe como un prosede continuante gidada par sensa comun e esperia ma sempre abrida a revisa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=Lead section, § 4. Pragmatist Epistemology}} | {{harvnb|Kelly|Cordeiro|2020|p=1}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia bayesian]] es un prosimi formal fundida sur la idea ce persones ave grados de crede cual representa cuanto serta los es. Lo usa la teoria de probablia per defini normas de razonalia cual governa cuanto serta persones debe es sur sua credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Titelbaum|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AiFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3, 31–32]}} | {{harvnb|Cozic|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RCxhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 Confirmation and Induction]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[fenomenolojia|fenomenolojial]] asentua la importa de esperia de person prima. Lo distingui entre la disposas natural e fenomenolojial. La disposa natural foca a ojetos cual parteni a sensa comun e siensa natural. La disposa fenomenolojial foca a la esperia de ojetos e atenta furni un descrive sin presuposa de como ojetos apare a la oservor.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pietersma|2000|pp=3–4}} | {{harvnb|Howarth|1998|loc=§ Article Summary}} }}</ref> Spesifadisme e jeneralisme no acorda sur la [[metodolojia filosofial|metodo coreta de condui rexerca epistemolojial]]. Spesifadistes comensa sua investiga par regarda casos spesifada. Per esemplo, per trova un defini de sabe, los depende de sua intuis sur casos concreta de sabe e esperimentas de pensa spesial. Los usa esta oservas como constrinjes metodolojial cual cualce teoria de prinsipes plu jeneral nesesa segue. Jeneralistes prosede en la dirije oposante. Los dona prefere a prinsipes epistemolojial jeneral, disente ce lo no es posible esata identifia e descrive casos spesifada sin un comprende de esta prinsipes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ 1. Methodology in Epistemology: Particularism and Generalism}} | {{harvnb|Lemos|2005|pp=488–489}} | {{harvnb|Dancy|2010|pp=532–533}} }}</ref> Otra metodos en epistemolojia contempora atenta estrae [[filosofia de lingua comun|intuis filosofial de lingua comun]] o regarda la rol de sabe en fa afirmas e gida atas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ 2. Methodology in Epistemology: Beyond Particularism}} | {{harvnb|Gardiner|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xn2ECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31, 33–35]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[posmodernisme|posmoderna]] critica la situas de sabe en sosias avansada. Esta conserna spesial la [[metanara]] de un progresa constante de sabe siensal cual gida a un comprende universal e fundal de realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sharpe|2018|pp=318–319}} | {{harvnb|Best|Kellner|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vZBKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 165]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[femisme|femiste]] critica la efeto de [[jenero]] sur sabe. Entre otra temas, lo esplora como preconsetas sur jenero influe ci ave asede a sabe, como sabe es produida, e cual tipos de sabe es valuada en sosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anderson|1995|p=50}} | {{harvnb|Anderson|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Eruditia descoloninte critica la influe global de sistemes de sabe ueste, frecuente con la gol de [[descoloni de sabe|descoloni sabe]] per suverti la ejemonia ueste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lee|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtArDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67 67]}} | {{harvnb|Dreyer|2017|pp=1–7}} }}</ref> Scolas variosa de epistemolojia es trovada en [[Āstika e nāstika|filosofia barati tradisional]]. Multe de los foca a la fontes diferente de sabe, nomida pramāṇa. [[Pratyaksha|Persepi]], dedui e [[Shabda|atesta]] es fontes discuteda par la plu de scolas. Otra fontes considerada sola par alga scolas es [[Anupalabdhi|nonpersepi]], cual gida a sabe de asentias, e suposa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1998|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Phillips|Vaidya|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Bhatt|Mehrotra|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D4kwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12–13]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[budisme|budiste]] tende foca a esperia direta, comprendeda como la presenta de spesifadas unica sin la envolve de prosedes cognisial du, como pensa e desira.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1998|loc=§ 1. Buddhist Pragmatism and Coherentism}} | {{harvnb|Siderits|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YzhCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA332 332]}} }}</ref> La epistemolojia de [[Nyāya]] discute la relata causal entre la sabente e la ojeto de sabe, cual aveni par prosedes fidable de formi sabe. Lo vide persepi como la fonte prima de sabe, identifiante un lia prosima entre lo e ata susedosa.<ref>{{harvnb|Phillips|1998|loc=§ 2. Nyāya Reliabilism}}</ref> La epistemolojia de [[Mīmāṃsā]] comprende la scrivedas santa conoseda como la [[Vedas]] como un fonte clavin de sabe e discute la problem de sua interprete coreta.<ref>{{harvnb|Phillips|1998|loc=§ 2. Mīmāṃsā Self-certificationalism}}</ref> [[Epistemolojia jain]] afirma ce realia es [[Anekantavada|multifasal]], sinifiante ce no vista singular pote catura la intera de veria.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Webb|loc=§ 2. Epistemology and Logic}} | {{harvnb|Sethia|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC&pg=PA93 93]}} }}</ref> == Ramos == Alga ramos de epistemolojia foca a la problemes de sabe en disiplinas academial spesifada. La [[filosofia de siensa|epistemolojia de siensa]] esamina como sabe siensal es jenerada e cual problemes emerji en la prosede de valida, justi, e interprete alegas siensal. Un tema clavin conserna la problem de como [[problem de indui|oservas individua pote suporta leges siensal universal]]. Otra temas inclui la natur de demostra siensal e la goles de siensa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McCain|Kampourakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wlAPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii–xiv]}} | {{harvnb|Bird|2010|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40801354 5]}} | {{harvnb|Merritt|2020|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophical-approach-to-mond/epistemology-of-science/065BF49E6DE64BA37364BA90542815D0 1–2]}} }}</ref> La epistemolojia de matematica studia la orijina de sabe matematical. En esplora como teorias matematical es justida, lo investiga la rol de demostras e esce on ave fontes empirical de sabe matematical.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Murawski|2004|pp=571–572}} | {{harvnb|Sierpinska|Lerman|1996|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-1465-0_23 827–828]}} }}</ref> Problemes epistemolojial es trovada en la plu de areas de filosofia. La [[lojica|epistemolojia de lojica]] esamina como persones sabe ce un [[argumenta]] es [[Validia (lojica)|valida]]. Per esemplo, lo esplora como lojicistes justi ce [[modus ponens]] es un regula de dedui coreta o ce tota [[contradise]]s es falsa.<ref>{{harvnb|Warren|2020|loc=§ 6. The Epistemology of Logic}}</ref> [[metafisica|Epistemolojistes de metafisica]] investiga esce sabe de realia ultima es posible e cual fontes esta sabe ta ave.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|loc=§ 7.2 The Epistemology of Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?}} }}</ref> Sabe de afirmas moral, como la afirma ce menti es mal, parteni a la [[etica|epistemolojia de etica]]. Lo studia la rol de [[intuisme etical|intuis etical]], [[coerentisme|coere]] entre credes moral, e la problem de desacorda moral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section, § 6. Epistemological Issues in Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=§ 5. Moral Epistemology}} }}</ref> La [[etica de crede]] es un campo prosima relatada cual trata la interelata entre epistemolojia e [[etica]]. Lo esamina la normas cual governa la formi de credes e demanda esce viole los es moral mal.<ref>{{harvnb|Chignell|2018|loc=Lead section}}</ref> [[Epistemolojia relijial]] studia la rol de sabe e justi per dotrinas e praticas relijiosa. Lo evalua la pesa e fidablia de demostra de [[esperia relijial]] e [[testo relijial|scrivedas santa]] ma demanda ance esce la normas de razona debe es aplicada a [[fida]] relijial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNabb|2019|pp=1–3, 22–23}} | {{harvnb|Howard-Snyder|McKaughan|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5LTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96–97]}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia sosial]] foca a la dimension sosial de sabe. An si epistemolojia tradisional es xef interesada en sabe poseseda par individuas, epistemolojia sosial trata la oteni, transmete e evalua de sabe en grupos, con asentua spesial a como persones depende de lunlotra cuando los xerca sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanesini|2017|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|O’Connor|Goldberg|Goldman|2024|loc=Lead section, § 1. What Is Social Epistemology?}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia istorial]] esamina como la comprende de sabe e consetas relatada ia cambia tra tempo. Lo demanda esce la temas xef en epistemolojia es perene e a cual grado teorias epistemolojial pasada es pertinente a debates contempora. Lo es spesial consernada con sabe siensal e praticas asosiada con lo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ávila|Almeida|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFTaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA235 235]}} | {{harvnb|Vermeir|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hKqCD5U_ba8C&pg=PA65 65–66]}} | {{harvnb|Sturm|2011|pp=303–304, 306, 308}} }}</ref> Lo contrasta con la istoria de epistemolojia, cual presenta, reconstrui e evalua teorias epistemolojial de filosofistes en la pasada.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturm|2011|pp=303–304, 08–309}}</ref>{{efn|La natur esata de la contrasta es disputada.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturm|2011|p=304}}</ref>}} [[Epistemolojia naturalida]] es prosima asosiada con la [[siensas natural]], dependente de sua metodos e teorias per esamina sabe. Epistemolojistes naturaliste foca a oserva empirical per formula sua teorias e critica frecuente prosimis epistemolojial cual prosede par razona ''a priori''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=183–184, 188–189, 300}} | {{harvnb|Wrenn|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Rysiew|2021|loc=§ 2. 'Epistemology Naturalized'}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia evolual]] es un prosimi naturaliste cual comprende cognisio como un produida de [[evolui]], esaminante sabe e la capasias cognisial cual capasi lo de la perspetiva de [[eleje natural]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bradie|Harms|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gontier|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Epistemolojistes de lingua esplora la natur de sabe lingual. Un de sua temas es la rol de sabe induinte, per esemplo, cuando parlores nativa mestre la regulas de [[gramatica]] ma no es capas de espresa clar acel regulas..<ref>{{harvnb|Barber|2003|pp=1–3, 10–11, 15}}</ref> Epistemolojistes de modalia esamina sabe sur lo cual es posible e nesesada.<ref>{{harvnb|Vaidya|Wallner|2021|pp=1909–1910}}</ref> Problemes epistemolojial cual emerji cuando du persones ave opinas diverjente sur un tema es tratada par la epistemolojia de desacorda.<ref>{{harvnb|Croce|2023|loc=Lead section}}</ref> Epistemolojistes de nonsabe es interesada en falias e bucos epistemolojial en sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Maguire|2015|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9309-4_4 33–34]}}</ref> On ave areas distinguida de epistemolojia dedicada a fontes spesifada de sabe. Esemplos es la epistemolojia de persepi, la epistemolojia de memoria e la [[filosofia de atesta|epistemolojia de atesta]]. Alga ramos de epistemolojia es marcada par sua metodo de rexerca. [[Epistemolojia formal]] emplea utiles formal trovada en lojica e matematica per investiga la natur de sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Douven|Schupbach|2014|loc=Lead section}}</ref>{{efn|Lo es prosima relatada a [[epistemolojia computal]], cual esamina la interelata entre sabe e prosedes computal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Segura|2009|pp=557–558}} | {{harvnb|Hendricks|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bjnje5u2q9cC&pg=PA115 115]}} }}</ref>}} [[Filosofia esperimental|Epistemolojistes esperimental]] depende en sua rexerca de demostra empirical sur praticas comun de sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Beebe|2017|loc=Lead section}}</ref> [[Epistemolojia aplicada]] foca a la aplica pratical de prinsipes epistemolojial a problemes diversa de la mundo real, como la fidablia de afirmas de sabe en la interede, como evalua alegas de [[ataca sesal]], e como [[razisme]] pote gida a [[nonjustia epistemolojial]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lackey|2021|pp=3, 8–9, 13}}</ref>{{efn|Nonjustia epistemolojial aveni cuando afirmas valida de sabe es rejetada o malrepresentada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fricker|2007|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Crichton|Carel|Kidd|2017|pp=65–66}} }}</ref>}} [[metaepistemolojia|Metaepistemolojistes]] esamina la natur, goles e metodos de rexerca de epistemolojia. Como un [[metateoria]], lo no defende direta un vista sur cual teorias epistemolojial es coreta ma esamina sua consetas fundal e suposas fondal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gerken|2018|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Mchugh|Way|Whiting|2019|pp=1–2}} }}</ref>{{efn|An tal, intuis metaespistemolojial pote ave efetos nondireta variosa sur disputas en epistemolojia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gerken|2018|loc=Lead section}}</ref>}} == Campos relatada == Epistemolojia e [[psicolojia]] no ia es definida como campos diferente asta la sentenio 19; investigas plu temprana sur sabe frecuente no conveni esata a la categorias academial de oji.<ref>{{harvnb|Alston|2006|p=2}}</ref> Ambos campos contempora studia credes e la prosedes mental cual formi e cambia los. Un contrasta importante es ce psicolojia descrive cual credes persones ave e como los oteni los, e en esta modo, lo esplica perce algun ave un crede spesifada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kitchener|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q_MxOPSqRjYC&pg=PA119 119]}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Schmitt|2004|pp=841–842}} }}</ref> La foca de epistemolojia es a la evalua de credes, gidante a un judi sur esce un crede es justida e razonal en un caso spesifada. Epistemolojia ave un lia simil intima a [[siensa cognisial]], cual comprende avenis mental como prosedes cual transformi [[informa]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schmitt|2004|pp=841–842}} | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> [[Inteleto artifis]] depende de la intuis de epistemolojia e siensa cognisial per reali solves concreta a problemes asosiada con la [[representa de sabe]] e [[razona automata]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wheeler|Pereira|2004|pp=469–470, 472, 491}}</ref> [[Lojica]] es la studia de razona coreta. Per epistemolojia, lo es pertinente a sabe deduinte, cual emerji cuando un person razona de un fato conoseda a un otra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rosenberg|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8UgVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 184]}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 4.1 Foundationalism}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2002|p=90}} }}</ref> Esta es la caso, per esemplo, si un person no sabe direta ce <math>572+382=954</math> ma dedui lo car el sabe ce <math>2+2=4</math>, <math>8+7=15</math> e <math>5+3=8</math>.<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i1tNI9646Q4C&pg=PA516 516]}}</ref> Esce un crede deduinte deveni sabe depende de la forma de [[razona lojical|razona]] usada, spesial, esce la prosede no viole la leges de lojica.<ref>{{harvnb|Stairs|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Km1QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 156]}}</ref> Un otra tema compartida par la du campos es trovada en la prosimi epistemolojial a la teoria de [[falasia]]s.<ref name="auto3">{{harvnb|Hansen|2023|loc=§ 3.5 The Epistemic Approach to Fallacies}}</ref> Falasias es argumentas defetosa fundida sur razona noncoreta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hansen|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Chatfield|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6Xg4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194]}} }}</ref> La prosimi epistemolojial a falasias esplica perce los es defetosa, afirmante ce argumentas atenta estende sabe. Seguente esta vista, un argumenta es un falasia si lo fali fa tal. Un otra crusa es trovada en lojica epistemolojial, cual usa aparatos lojical formal per studia consetas epistemolojial como ''sabe'' e ''crede''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o7m3amAbDEsC&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Rendsvig|Symons|Wang|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Ambos [[teoria de deside]] e epistemolojia es interesada en la fundas de pensa razonal e la rol de credes. No como multe prosimis en epistemolojia, la foca xef de teoria de deside es min en la lado teorial e plu en la lado pratical, esplorante como credes es traduida a ata.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kaplan|2005|pp=434, 443–444}} | {{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=Lead section, § 7. Concluding Remarks}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|Leach|McClennen|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7fntCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii–xiv]}} }}</ref> Teoristes de deside esamina la razona envolveda en fa desides e la normas de desides bon.<ref>{{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=Lead section}}</ref> Los identifia credes como un aspeta sentral de fa desides. Un de sua inovas es distingui entre credes plu debil e plu forte. Esta aida los a atende la efeto de nonsertias sur desides.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kaplan|2005|pp=434, 443–444}} | {{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=§ 7. Concluding Remarks}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia e [[educa]] ave un interesa compartida en sabe, con un difere esente ce educa foca a la transmete de sabe, esplorante la roles de ambos la aprendor e la ensenior.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chazan|2022|p=15}} | {{harvnb|Leong|2007|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/epistemology-and-education § Abstract, § Some Implications for Educators]}} }}</ref> [[Teoria de aprende]] esamina como persones oteni sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kelly|2004|pp=183–184}} | {{harvnb|Harasim|2017|p=4}} }}</ref> Teorias de aprende [[conduisme|condual]] esplica la prosede en termas de cambias de condui, per esemplo, par [[condisiona clasical|asosia un responde spesifada con un stimula spesial]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harasim|2017|p=11}}</ref> Teorias de aprende [[cognisialisme|cognisial]] studia como la prosedes cognisial cual afeta la oteni de sabe transformi informa.<ref>{{harvnb|Harasim|2017|pp=11–12}}</ref> [[Pedagojia]] regarda la transmete de sabe de la lado de la ensenior, esplorante la [[metodo de ensenia|metodos de ensenia]] cual los pote usa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Watkins|Mortimore|1999|pp=1–3}} | {{harvnb|Payne|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=abocsyBzTMMC&pg=PA264 264]}} | {{harvnb|Gabriel|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PreYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}} | {{harvnb|Turuthi|Njagi|Chemwei|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5JE3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA365 365]}} }}</ref> En metodos consentrada a la ensenior, la ensenior jua la rol de la autoria xef cual furni sabe e gida la prosede de aprende. En [[aprende consentrada a la studiante|metodos consentrada a la studiante]], la ensenior xef suporta e fasili la prosede de aprende en cuando la studiantes jua un rol plu ativa.<ref>{{harvnb|Emaliana|2017|pp=59–61}}</ref> La credes cual studiantes ave sur sabe, nomida epistemolojia personal, afeta sua developa inteletal e susede de aprende.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hofer|2008|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6596-5_1 3–4]}} | {{harvnb|Hofer|2001|pp=353–354, 369–370}} }}</ref> La [[antropolojia]] de sabe esamina como sabe es otenida, retenida, reprendeda, e comunicada. Lo studia la situas sosial e cultural cual afeta como sabe es reproduida e cambia, tratante la rol de instituidas como departes de universia e jornales siensal e ance discutes con fas a fas e comunicas enlinia. Lo comprende sabe con un sinifia larga cual inclui formas variosa de comprende e cultur, como capasias pratical. No como epistemolojia, lo no es interesada en esce un crede es vera o justida ma en como comprende es reproduida en sosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}} | {{harvnb|Barth|2002|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> La [[sosiolojia de sabe]] es un campo prosima relatada con un conseta simil de sabe. Lo esplora como fatores fisical, demografial, economial e sosiocultural afeta sabe. Lo esamina en cual contestos sosioistorial sabe emerji e la efetos cual lo ave a persones, per esemplo, como situas sosioeconomial es relatada a la [[ideolojia dominante]] en un sosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Coser|2009|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/sociology-knowledge Knowledge, Sociology of]}} | {{harvnb|Tufari|2003|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4C0KAQAAMAAJ Knowledge, Sociology of]}} | {{harvnb|Scheler|Stikkers|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pFqrO7Lxiw4C&pg=PA23 23]}} }}</ref> == Istoria == Refletas temprana sur la natur e fontes de sabe es trovada en istoria antica. En [[filosofia elinica antica]], [[Platon]] (427–347 aec) ia studia [[episteme|lo cual sabe es]], esaminante como lo difere de [[doxa|opina]] vera par es fundida sur razonas bon.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=260}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Ancient Philosophy}} }}</ref> Seguente el, la prosede de aprende alga cosa es [[Anamnese|un forma de recorda]] en cual la spirito recorda lo cual lo ia sabe ja a ante.<ref name="auto5">{{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Ancient Philosophy}}</ref>{{efn|Per argumenta per esta punto, Platon ia usa la esemplo de un xico slavida, ci susede responde a un serie de demandas sur jeometria an con ce el no ia studia jeometria a ante.<ref name="auto5"/>}} Aristotele (384–322 aec) ia es spesial interesada en sabe siensal, esplorante la rol de esperia sensal e como fa deduis de prinsipes jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Ancient Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=260}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=7}} }}</ref> La [[filosofia eliniste|scolas eliniste]] ia comensa emerji en la sentenio 4 aec. La [[epicurisme|epicuristes]] ia ave un perspetiva [[empiricalisme|empiricaliste]], afirmante ce sensas es sempre esata e servi como la norma suprema de judis.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|pp=287–288}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=8}} }}</ref> La [[stoicisme|stoicas]] ia defende un vista simil ma ia limita se a sensas clar e spesifada, cual los ia regarda como vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|p=288}} | {{harvnb|Vogt|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4s-X8wfhemsC&pg=PA44 44]}} }}</ref> La seticas ia ave duta sur esce sabe es posible, recomendante en loca la suspende de judi per ariva a un state de calmia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=8}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Ancient Philosophy}} }}</ref> [[File:Tibet, c. 15th-16th century - Portrait of Dharmakirti - 2010.474 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|alt=Statua de Dharmakirti|La filosofiste budiste [[Dharmakirti]] ia developa un teoria causal de sabe.<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Dunne|2006|p=753}}</ref>]] La [[Upanixades]], scrivedas filosofial composada en [[Barat antica]] entre 700 e 300 aec, ia esamina como persones oteni sabe, incluinte la rol de introspeta, compara e dedui.<ref>{{harvnb|Black|loc=Lead section}}</ref> En la sentenio 6 aec, la scola de [[Ajñana]] ia developa un seticisme radical cual pone en duta la posiblia e usosia de sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fountoulakis|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xGtREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23]}} | {{harvnb|Warder|1998|pp=43–44}} | {{harvnb|Fletcher|Romero|Talbot|Warburton|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=drX4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 46]}} }}</ref> La scola de [[Nyāya]] ia emerji en la sentenio 2 aec e ia furni un trata sistemosa de como persones oteni sabe, distinguinte entre fontes valida e nonvalida.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Prasad|1987|p=48}} | {{harvnb|Dasti|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Bhatt|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=upIQgJhpmsIC&pg=PA72 72]}} }}</ref> Cuando [[filosofia budiste|filosofistes budiste]] ia deveni plu tarda interesada en epistemolojia, los ia depende de consetas developada en Nyāya e otra tradisiones.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Prasad|1987|p=6}} | {{harvnb|Dunne|2006|p=753}} }}</ref> La filosofiste budiste [[Dharmakirti]] (sentenio 6 o 7 ec)<ref>{{harvnb|Bonevac|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=neDwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR18 xviii]}}</ref> ia analise la prosede de sabe como un serie de avenis causal relatada.<ref name="auto1"/> [[Filosofia xines|Filosofistes xines]] antica ia comprende sabe como un fenomeno interliada fundal liada a condui etical e envolve sosial. Multe ia vide sajia como la gol de ateni sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rošker|2021|loc=Lead section, § 2.1 Relational Epistemology}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|pp=215–216, 219}} }}</ref> [[Mozi]] (470–391 aec) ia proposa un prosimi praticaliste a sabe usante rejistras istorial, demostra sensal, e resultas pratical per validi credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2a. The Mozi, Later Mohists and Debaters (bianshi)}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|p=216}} }}</ref> [[Mencius]] (sirca 372–289 aec) ia esplora razona analoja como un otra fonte de sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2c. Mencius (Mengzi, c. 372-289 B.C.E.) and Analogical Reasoning}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|p=216}} }}</ref> [[Xunzi (filofiste)|Xunzi]] (sirca 310-220 aec) ia atenta combina oserva empirical e investiga razonal. El ia asentua la importa de claria e normas de razona sin esclui la rol de senti e emosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2d. Xunzi (310-220 B.C.E.): Dispelling Obsessions}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|p=216}} }}</ref> La relata entre [[razona]] e [[fida]] ia es un tema sentral en la [[filosofia medieval|periodo medieval]]. En [[filosofia muslim|filosofia arabi-persian]], [[al-Farabi]] (sirca 870–950) e [[Averroes]] (1126–1198) ia discute como filosofia e [[teolojia]] interata e cual es la veculo plu bon a veria. [[Al-Ghazali]] (sirca 1056–1111) ia critica multe de la ensenias xef de filosofistes muslim presedente, disente ce los depende de suposas nonprobada cual no deveni sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Griffel|2020|loc=Lead section, § 3. Al-Ghazâlî's 'Refutations' of Falsafa and Ismâ'îlism}} | {{harvnb|Vassilopoulou|Clark|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bI59DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 303]}} }}</ref> En filosofia ueste, Anselmo de Canterbury (1033–1109) ia proposa ce ensenia teolojial e demanda filosofial es en armonia e completi lunlotra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=11}} | {{harvnb|Holopainen|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x5FiMR3kd_8C&pg=PA75 75]}} }}</ref> [[Peter Abelard]] (1079–1142) ia argumenta contra autorias teolojial nondemandada e ia dise ce tota cosas es abrida a duta razonal.<ref>{{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=11}}</ref> Influeda par [[Aristotele]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274) ia developa un teoria empiricaliste, afirmante ce "no cosa es en la inteleto estra si lo ia prima apare en la sensas".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=11}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|pp=289–290}} }}</ref> Seguente un forma temprana de realisme direta proposada par William de Ockham (sirca 1285–1349), persepi de ojetos nondependente de la mente aveni direta sin medias.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kaye|loc=Lead section, § 4a. Direct Realist Empiricism}} | {{harvnb|Antognazza|2024|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MzATEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 86]}} }}</ref> Entretempo, en la sentenio 14 en Barat, [[Gaṅgeśa]] ia developa un teoria fidabliste de sabe e ia considera la problemes de atesta e falasias.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Prasad|1987|pp=2, 8, 200–202}} }}</ref> En Xina, [[Wang Yangming]] (1472–1529) ia esplora la unia de sabe e ata, credente ce sabe moral es inata e pote es atenida par vinse interesa personal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2g. Wang Yangming on liangzhi: Direct, Clear, Universal Knowledge, § 3h. Wang Yangming: Moral Willing as Knowing}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|pp=219–222}} }}</ref> [[File:Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes.jpg|thumb|alt=Depinta de René Descartes|[[René Descartes]] ia usa [[duta cartesian|duta metodolojial]] per xerca fundas serta per filosofia.]] La curso de [[filosofia moderna]] ia es formida par [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), ci ia afirma ce filosofia debe comensa de un loca de sabe nondutable de prinsipes prima. Inspirada par seticisme, el ia atenta trova sabe asoluta serta par identifia verias cual no pote es dutada. El ia pensa ce esta es la caso per la afirma "[[me pensa, donce me es]]", de cual el ia construi la resta de sua sistem filosofial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=14–15}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|p=291}} }}</ref> Descartes, con [[Baruch Spinoza]] (1632–1677) e [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (1646–1716), ia parteni a la scola de [[razonalisme]], cual afirma ce la mente posese [[inatisme|ideas inata]] nondependente de esperia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=261}} | {{harvnb|Evans|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Oo9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA298 298]}} }}</ref> [[John Locke]] (1632–1704) ia rejeta esta vista en favore de un empiricalisme cual afirma ce la mente es un [[tableta vacua]]. Esta sinifia ce tota ideas depende de esperia sensal, o como "ideas de sensa", cual es direta presentada par la sensas, o como "ideas de refleta", cual la mente crea par refleta sur ideas de sensa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=17–18}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|pp=298–299}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=261}} }}</ref> [[David Hume]] (1711–1776) ia usa esta idea per esplora la limitas de lo cual persones pote sabe. El ia dise ce sabe de fatos es nunca serta, ajuntante ce sabe de relatas entre ideas, como verias matematical, ta pote es serta ma conteni no informa sur la mundo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Coventry|Merrill|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X950DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=22–23}} }}</ref> [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) ia atenta trova un vista media entre razonalisme e empiricalisme par identifia un tipo de sabe cual ia manca de Hume. Per Kant, esta es sabe sur prinsipes cual suporta tota esperia e struturi lo, como relatas spasial e tempal e categorias fundal de comprende.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=27–30}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce}} }}</ref> En la sentenio 19, [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (1770–1831) ia argumenta contra empiricalisme, disente ce impresas sensal solitar no pote deveni sabe car tota sabe es ativa struturida par la sujeto sabente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=262}} }}</ref> [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873) ia defende un forma vasta de empiricalisme e ia esplica sabe de verias jeneral con [[razona induinte]]. [[Charles Peirce]] (1839–1914) ia pensa ce tota sabe es [[falable]], asentuante ce xercores de sabe debe sempre es preparada per revisa sua credes si [[demostra]] nova es encontrada. El ia usa esta idea per argumenta contra fundalisme cartesian cual xerca verias asoluta serta.<ref>{{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce}}</ref> En la sentenio 20, falablisme ia es plu esplorada par [[J. L. Austin]] (1911–1960) e [[Karl Popper]] (1902–1994).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Twentieth Century}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|Zeleňák|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R3aywtFIKKsC&pg=PA71 71]}} }}</ref> En [[filosofia continental]], [[Edmund Husserl]] (1859–1938) ia aplica la idea setica de suspende judi a la [[fenomenolojia (filosofia)|studia de esperia]]. Par no judi esce un esperia es esata o no, el ia atenta descrive la strutur interna de esperia en loca.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rockmore|2011|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=44}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|p=312}} }}</ref> [[positivisme lojical|Positivistes lojical]], como [[A. J. Ayer]] (1910–1989), ia dise ce tota sabe es o empirical o analisal.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=262}}</ref> [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970) ia developa un teoria empiricaliste de datos sensal, distinguinte entre sabe direta par conose de datos sensal e sabe nondireta par descrive, cual es deduida de sabe par conose.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Twentieth Century}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|p=315}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=48–49}} }}</ref> [[Sensa comun]] ia ave un loca sentral en la epistemolojia de [[G. E. Moore]] (1873–1958). El ia usa oservas trivial, como la fato ce el ave du manos, per argumenta contra teorias filosofial astrata cual devia de sensa comun.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Baldwin|2010|loc=§ 6. Common Sense and Certainty}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=49}} }}</ref> [[Filosofia de lingua comun]], como praticada par [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] (1889–1951), es un prosimi simil cual atenta estrae intuis epistemolojial de como lingua comun es usada.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|pp=317–318}}</ref> [[Edmund Gettier]] (1927–2021) ia conseta contraesemplos contra la idea ce sabe es la mesma como crede justida e vera. Esta contraesemplos ia stimula multe filosofistes a sujesta [[definis de sabe|definis alternativa de sabe]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=262}} | {{harvnb|Beilby|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=omdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Twentieth Century}} }}</ref> Un de la alternativas considerada ia es [[fidablisme]], cual dise ce sabe nesesa fontes fidable, movente la foca a via de justi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goldman|Beddor|2021|loc=Lead section, § 1. A Paradigm Shift in Analytic Epistemology}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Twentieth Century, § Recent Issues}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia de virtua]], un responde prosima relatada, analise la formi de credes en termas de la virtuas inteletal o capasias cognisial envolveda en la prosede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goldman|Beddor|2021|loc=§ 4.1 Virtue Reliabilism}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=175}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia naturalida]], como consetada par [[Willard Van Orman Quine]] (1908–2000), usa consetas e ideas de la siensas natural per formula sua teorias.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=183–184, 188–189}}</ref> Otra developas en la tarda de la sentenio 20 en epistemolojia ia es la emerji de [[epistemolojia sosial]], [[epistemolojia femiste|femiste]] e [[epistemolojia itorial|istorial]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Recent Issues}} | {{harvnb|Vagelli|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hT33DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96]}} }}</ref> == Vide ance == * [[Teorias de Epistemolojia]] == Referes == ===Notas=== {{Notelist}} ===Sitas=== {{reflist}} ===Fontes=== <div style="height: 200px; overflow:auto; border: 1px solid gray; padding-right: 12px; background-color: var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit"> <small> {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book |last1=Allwood |first1=Carl Martin |title=The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural Psychology |date=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-1-118-33989-3 |pages=69–72 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 |language=en |chapter=Anthropology of Knowledge |doi=10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926085332/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Alston |first1=William Payne |title=Beyond Justification: Dimensions of Epistemic Evaluation 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|editor1-last=Greco |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Sosa |editor2-first=Ernest |title=The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology |publisher=Blackwell |pages=92–116 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ZAGWIK |isbn=978-0-631-20290-5 |oclc=39269507 |doi=10.1002/9781405164863.ch3 |s2cid=158886670 |access-date=12 June 2022 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215147/https://philpapers.org/rec/ZAGWIK |url-status=live }} {{Refend}} </small> </div> [[Categoria:Filosofia]] 9a60volp8mcpq2ykwdwzjsacbk54z3z 0 4619 43404 23209 2026-08-03T21:18:29Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43404 wikitext text/x-wiki La '''Revolui siensal''' ia es un serie de aveni cual ia marca la emerji de siensa moderna en la [[eda moderna]], cuando developas en [[matematica]], [[fisica]], [[astronomia]], [[biolojia]] (incluinte anatomia umana) e [[cimica]] ia cambia la vide de sosia sur natur<ref name="Galileo">Galilei, Galileo (1974) ''Two New Sciences'', trans. [[Stillman Drake]], (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr. pp. 217, 225, 296–7.</ref><ref name="Clagett">Clagett, Marshall (1961) ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages''. Madison, Univ. of Wisconsin Pr. pp. 218–19, 252–5, 346, 409–16, 547, 576–8, 673–82</ref><ref>Maier, Anneliese (1982) "Galileo and the Scholastic Theory of Impetus," pp. 103–123 in ''On the Threshold of Exact Science: Selected Writings of Anneliese Maier on Late Medieval Natural Philosophy''. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Pr. {{ISBN|0812278313}}</ref><ref name="Hannam, James 2011 p342">[[#Hannam|Hannam]], p. 342</ref>. La Revolui siensal ia aveni en Europa a la fini de la [[Renase]] e ia continua tra la [[sentenio 18]] tarda, influente la promove sosial inteletal conoseda como [[Lumina]]. En cuando sua datas es debateda, la publica en 1543 de Nicolas Copernico ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' es frecuente sitada como marcante la comensa de la Revolui siensal. La conseta de un revolui siensal aveninte sur un periodo estendeda ia emerji en la sentenio 18 con la labora de [[Jean Sylvain Bailly]], ci ia vide un prosede en du pasos de destrui la vea e institui la nova. La comensa de la Revolui siensal, la ''Renase siensal'', ia foca en la recovre de la conose de la anticas; e es jeneral considerada como fininte en 1632 con la publica de la ''[[Dialogos pertinente a la du siensas nova]]'' de [[Galileo Galilei]]. La completa de la Revolui siensal es atribuida a la "sintese grande" de la ''Prinsipes'' de [[Isaac Newton]] (1687). La obra ia formula la leges de move e gravita universal donce completinte la sintese de un cosmolojia nova. A la fini de la sentenio 18, la Revolui siensal ia sede a la "Eda de refleta". == Referes == <references/> == Bibliografia == * {{cite book|title=The Genesis of Science|url=https://archive.org/details/genesisofscience0000hann_h4g8|year=2011|isbn=1-59698-155-5|ref=Hannam|author=Hannam, James}} [[Categoria:Revolui siensal]] fzd1k6dgwamwlxi9v38wkeu55kin58m 0 4702 43410 41054 2026-08-03T21:53:09Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43410 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Politiciste | Nom = José Calvo Sotelo | Imaje = [[File:José Calvo Sotelo.JPG|180px]] | Titulo political = Ministro | Pais = Finansia | Periodo de governa = 3 desembre 1925 – 21 janero 1930 | Presedor1 = José Corral Larre | Seguor1 = Francisco Moreno Zuleta | Data de nase = 6 maio 1893 | Loca de nase = Tui, Espania | Data de mori = 13 julio 1936 | Loca de mori = Madrid, Espania | Spos = Enriqueta Grondona (1892-1971) | Profesa = Politiciste e legiste | Partito = }} '''José Calvo Sotelo''' (Tuy, 6 maio 1893 – Madrid, 13 julio 1936) ia es un politiciste e legiste [[Espanioles|espaniol]] ministro de Finansia entre 1925 e 1930, en la Autocratia de Primo de Rivera. == Asasina == Pos la gidor de la ''Guardia de Asalto'' ("Garda de Ataca") José Castillo ia es asasinada par falanjistes a 10 pm, un grupo de omes de la ''Guardia de Asalto'' e otra militiores gidada par la gardor sivil Fernando Condés ia vade a la casa de Calvo Sotelo en la ora temprana de la 13 julio en un mision de venja. Soleto ia es arestada e asasinada en un camion de polisia. Sua corpo ia es abandonada en la entra de un de la semeteros de la site. Seguente la investigas a pos, la esecutor ia es un pistolor sosialiste, Luis Cuenca, ci ia es conoseda per es la gardacorpo de la gidor sosialiste Indalecio Prieto. == Bibliografia == * {{Cite book|first=Luis|last1=Romero|title=Por qué y cómo mataron a Calvo Sotelo|url=https://archive.org/details/porqueycomomatar0000rome|publisher=Planeta|location=Barselona|year=1982|isbn=84-320-5678-2}} [[Categoria:Biografia]] [[Categoria:Espanioles]] hioc59lnk9vm4y41kwb0w5g1ao2i4wn 0 5305 43395 41056 2026-08-03T20:55:36Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43395 wikitext text/x-wiki La '''gramatica de espaniol''' es un corpo de regulas cual descrive la strutur de espresas en [[Espaniol (lingua)|espaniol]], cual es un [[lingua romanica]] cual ia orijina en la norde de [[Espania]] e cual oji es parlada en Espania, America e Gine Ecuatoral. Espaniol es un lingua infletada. La verbos es potensial marcada per tempo, aspeta, modo, person e numero (resultante en alga sincodes formas conjugada per verbo). La nomes ave un sistem de du jeneros e es marcada per numero. La pronomes pote es infletada per person, numero, jenero (incluinte un neutra restante) e un caso multe reduida. Espaniol es la prima lingua demotica european cual ia ave un tese gramatical, la ''Gramática de la lengua castellana'', scriveda en 1492 par Antonio de Nebrija e presentada a la rea Isabel de Castelia en Salamanca. La [[Real Academia Española]] (RAE, Academia Real Espaniol) determina la regulas e la ortografia de la lingua. == Morfolojia == === Determinantes === Espaniol usa la determinantes de un forma simil a lingua franca nova. La difere xef es ce los es infletada per ambos numero (singular/plural) e jenero (masin/femin). Determinantes comun include ''el'' ("la"), ''un'' ("un"), ''este'' ("esta"), ''mucho'' ("multe"), ''alguno'' ("alga") etc. ==== Articles ==== La article de defini ('''la''' en lfn) ave formas masin, femin, singular e plural. Ance la article de nondefini ('''un''' en lfn) ave formas masin e femin en singular e plural. {|cellPadding=7 cellSpacing=0 border=1 !ROWSPAN=2 BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|ARTICLES||BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB" COLSPAN=2|Defini !COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Nondefini |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Singular||BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Plural||BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Singular||BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Plural |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Mas||el||los||un||unos |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Fema||la||las||una||unas |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Neutra||lo||—||—||— |} ==== Determinantes de mostra ==== Espaniol ave tre tipos de determinantes de mostra. {|cellPadding=7 cellSpacing=0 border=1 |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|DETERMINANTES DE MOSTRA !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Prosima !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Distantia medial !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Distante |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Mas singular||este||ese||aquel |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Mas plural||estos||esos||aquellos |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Fema singular||esta||esa||aquella |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Fema plural||estas||esas||aquellas |} ==== Determinantes de posese ==== {|cellPadding=7 cellSpacing=0 border=1 |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|DETERMINANTES DE POSESE !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|persona un singular (posesor) !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|persona du singular (posesor) !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|persona tre singular (posesor) !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|persona un plural (posesor) !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|persona du plural (posesor) !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|persona tre plural (posesor) |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Mas singular<br />(cosa poseseda)||mi,<br />el mío||tu,<br />el tuyo||su,<br />el suyo ||nuestro,<br />el nuestro||vuestro,<br />el vuestro||su,<br />el suyo |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Mas plural (cosas poseseda)||mis,<br />los míos||tus,<br />los tuyos||sus,<br />los suyos||nuestros,<br />los nuestros||vuestros,<br />los vuestros||sus,<br />los suyos |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Fema singular<br />(cosa poseseda)||mi,<br />la mía||tu,<br />la tuya||su,<br />la suya||nuestra,<br />la nuestra||vuestra,<br />la vuestra||su,<br />la suya |- !BGCOLOR="#DBDBDB"|Fema plural<br />(cosas poseseda)||mis,<br />las mías||tus,<br />las tuyas||sus,<br />las suyas||nuestras,<br />las nuestras||vuestras,<br />las vuestras||sus,<br />las suyas |} ==== Determinantes de demanda ==== * ''Quién'' ('Ci') * ''Qué'' ('Cual') * ''Cuál'' ('Cual') * ''Cómo'' ('Como') * ''Dónde'' ('Do') * ''Cuándo'' ('Cuando') * ''Por qué'' ('Perce') ==== Otra determinantes ==== * Cuantia nondefinida: ''poco'' ('poca'), ''mucho'' ('multe'), ''bastante'' ('bastante')... * Cardinales: ''un''/''una'' ('un'), ''dos'' ('du'), ''tre'' ('tre')... * Ordinales: ''primero'' ('un'), ''segundo'' ('du'), ''tercero'' ('tre')... === Nomes === En la gramatica de espaniol, la nom es un categoria sintatical abrida, la clase de la nomis es definida semantical, car sintatical la ajetivo e la nom funsiona de forma mutable. Un sustantivo es la nucleo de la frase nomin e pote reseta un determinante. De un punto de vista morfolojial, lo es formida par un o plu monemes jeneral un lexem plu morfemes de jenero e numero, e morfemes derivada o afisas no constituinte. Desde un punto de vista instruinte lo es definida como la tipo de parola cual sinifia person, animal o cosa concreta o astrata, defini cual no servi per tota nomis ("carrera", "caminata", "actuación", "acción", pd). ==== Jenero ==== La nom forma la masin con la morfem -o e rara -e ("cliente", "héroe") e la femin con la morfem -a, e alga veses con la morfemes -triz, -esa, -isa o -ina (actor, actriz; abad, abadesa; poeta, poetisa; héroe, heroína). On ave esetas, como mano, dinamo o seo cual es femin an si los fini par -o; alga nomes finida par -a no es de jenero femin, ma masin, spesial aceles finida par la sufisa elinica -ma: fantasma, estigma, magma, apotegma, etc., an si en la lingua clasica de la ''Siglo de Oro'' lo ia es cambiante. A la otra lado, alga numero de profesas finidas par la sufisa -ista es ambigua, car on debe ajunta la article par spesifa cuando on parla sur la femin: la especialista, la electricista. Ance on debe marca la parolas de cual la jenero es ambigua: ''mar'' en sua usa educada es masin ma en otra casos lo es femin: otras es de jenero androjine, car sua jenero no es relevante per indica sua seso, cuasi sempre nomes de animales: a perdiz, el milano, el elefante, la jirafa, la liebre, el águila, la cabra... A esta clase on ajunta la parola ''macho'' per mas e ''hembra'' per fema per distingui sua seso. On ave nomis con sua femin noncoerente, nomida eteronimes: ''el hombre / la mujer''; ''el caballo / la yegua''; ''el yerno / la nuera''; ''el carnero / la oveja''; ''el padre, la madre''; ''el toro / la vaca''; ''macho / hembra''; ''marido / mujer''; ''padrino / madrina''; ''caballero / dama''; ''el jinete / la amazona''. Alga parolas cambia sua sinifia si los cambia de jenero: ''el mañana / la mañana''; ''el vocal / la vocal''; ''el clave / la clave''; ''el trompeta / la trompeta''; ''el corte / la corte''; ''el cámara / la cámara''; ''el capital / la capital''; ''el cólera / la cólera''; ''el cometa / la cometa''; / ''el cura / la cura''; ''el frente / la frente''; ''el espada / la espada''; ''el Génesis / la génesis''; ''el guardia / la guardia''; ''el guía / la guía''; ''el orden / la orden''; ''el ordenanza / la ordenanza''; ''el coral / la coral''; ''el parte / la parte''; ''el pendiente / la pendiente''; ''el pez / la pez''; ''la radio / el radio''. Los es femin la nomes finida par '''-dad''', '''-tad''', '''-ción''', '''-sión''', '''-xión''', '''-tud''', '''-ies''', '''-icie''', '''-umbre''', '''-sis''', '''-ez''' e '''–triz''', como la ''verdad'', la ''libertad'', la ''calvicie'', la ''infección'', la ''tesis'', la ''vejez'', la ''actriz'', la ''cantidad'', la ''amistad'', la ''televisión'', la ''lentitud'', la ''mies'', la ''superficie'', la ''pesadumbre''; on ave esetas como el ''análisis'', el ''énfasis'', el ''pez'', el ''juez'', el ''almirez'' e el ''ajedrez''. A la otra lado, la varia de jenero dona alga sutiles semantical> la femines es jeneral ojetos plu grande (''anillo / anilla, cubo / cuba'') o on prefere fa los ojetos o cosas (''el cosechador / la cosechadora; el impresor / la impresora'') o ave un valua despetosa: ''zorro / zorra''; on nota ance la difere sur la valua coletiva de femin en alga oposas (''leño /leña'') e ance, femin indica en la plu casos (ma no en tota) la fruta, e la masin, la arbor corespondente: ''manzana / manzano''; ''pera / peral''... La normas per distingui o cambia la jenero de la nomes es: # Si la nom masin fini par '''-o''', en femin fini con la morfem de jenero '''-a'''. # La nomis cual en masin no ave morfem de jenero o fini par consonante, en femin on ajunta la morfem '''–a''', per esemplo: profesor - profesora, león – leona, escultor - escultora. # La numeros cardinal es masin. # La nomes cual fini par '''-esa''', '''-isa''', '''-ina''' o '''–triz''' es femin, de cual la nomes masin no ave morfem de jenero masin. Per esemplo príncipe - princesa, poeta - poetisa, héroe - heroína, emperador – emperatriz, gallo – gallina, actor – actriz, conde - condesa. # Eteronimes. La masin e la femin es parolas diferente, per esemplo hombre - mujer, toro - vaca, caballo - yegua, padre - madre, yerno - nuera. # Nomes con forma nonvariable per ambos jeneros: La article e la alterante indica la jenero: el - la artista, el - la astronauta, el - la atleta, el - la ciclista, el - la guía, el - la estudiante, el - la intérprete, el - la modelo, el - la periodista, el - la testigo, el - la turista, el - la pianista. # Nomes cual refere a profesas ave formas diferente: el abogado/la abogada, el doctor/la doctora, el ingeniero/la ingeniera, el jefe/la jefa, el secretario/la secretaria, el traductor/la traductora, el presidente/la presidente, el chico/la chica. # Nomes cual cambia de sinifia dependente de la jenero, per esemplo: el capital - la capital, el cometa - la cometa, el corte - la corte, el cura - la cura, el frente - la frente, el orden - la orden, el Papa - la papa. # Mpmes de cual la jenero es ambigua: el azúcar - la azúcar, el mar - la mar, el calor - la calor, el margen - la margen. En multe casos, lo es causada par diferes dialetal. # Nomes de ambos sesos. Jeneral, cuando on ave un sola masin, tota la colie es considerada masin, lo no importa la cuantia de elementos femin. # ''Androjines''. La nomes de animales cual no ave parolas diferente refere a ambos sesos: hormiga, liebre, lagarto. ==== Numero ==== On formi la singular de la nom con la morfem zero e la plural con la morfem '''-s''' si lo fini par vocal, o '''-es''' si lo fini par consonante o vocal asentuada, an si esta caso ultima es cambiante: ''maniquís'' o ''maniquíes''. Alga parolas usa sola la plural (''pluralia tantum'') como ''víveres'', ''comestibles'', ''resultas'', ''andurriales'', ''anales'', ''aledaños'', ''gárgaras'', ''trizas'', ''tinieblas'', ''modales'', ''trébedes'', ''enseres'', ''exequias'', ''afueras'', ''alrededores'', ''nupcias'', ''entendederas'', ''facciones'', ''vituallas'', ''honorarios'', ''andas'', ''añicos'', ''arras'', ''albricias'', ''esponsales'', ''maitines'', ''creces'', ''alicates'', ''fauces'', e otras sola la singular (''[[singularia tantum]]''): ''cariz'', ''oeste'', ''este'', ''tez'', ''caos'', ''cenit'', ''salud'', ''sed'', ''grima'', ''fénix'', ''vejez'', ''vulgo'', ''virus'' etc. Jeneral, la numero indica ante otra tipo de informas; la plural alterna con la singular cuando on refere a ojetos cual ave du duis:''espalda / espaldas''; ''pantalón / pantalones''; ''nariz / narices''; ''tijera / tijeras''; otra veses esta altranas ia eleje la plural an si lo es un sola ojeto, ma con du medias pd ''gafas''. Ance lo ia es spesialida la ''plural de varia o spesia'', cual nomi clases diferente de un mesma materia ''vino / vinos''; ''madera / maderas''. La plural ave ance, a veses, conotas despetada e pote indica abunda de alga cosas, como en la poema de [[Garcilaso de la Vega]]: "Corrientes aguas puras, cristalinas". Lo es plu difisil esplica la usa de alga plurales como en ''Carnaval / Carnavales''; ''funeral / funerales''; ''boda / bodas''; ''Navidad / Navidades'' (pd on pote dise "árbol de Navidad" ma no "árbol de Navidades". === Adjetivos === === Pronomes === === Verbos === Cada verbo espaniol parteni a un de tre clases, marcada par la coda de infinitiva: -''ar'', -''er'', -''ir'', a veses nomida la conjuga un, du e tre en ordina. ==== Presente ==== La presente de indicativa es usada per espresa atas o statos en la presente. Per esemplo: * Yo ''soy'' alto (Me ''es'' alta). * Ella ''canta'' en el club (Ela ''canta'' en la club). * Todos nosotros ''vivimos'' en un submarino amarillo (Tota nos ''vive'' en un sumarina jala). * ''Son'' las diez y media ([Lo] ''es'' des oras e tredes minutos). {|class="wikitable" |+Presente de indicativa de un verbo coerente finida par ''-ar'' ''hablar'' ('parla') |- ! !Singular !Plural |- !Person un |(yo) habl'''o'''||(nosotros/-as) habl'''amos''' |- !Person du familial |(tú) habl'''as'''<br />(vos) habl'''ás'''/habl'''áis'''||(vosotros/-as) habl'''áis''' |- !Person du formal |(usted) habl'''a'''||(ustedes) habl'''an''' |- !Person tre |(él, ella) habl'''a'''||(ellos, ellas) habl'''an''' |} {|class="wikitable" |+Presente de indicativa de un verbo coerente finida par ''-er'' ''comer'' ('come') |- ! !Singular !Plural |- !Person un |(yo) com'''o'''||(nosotros/-as) com'''emos''' |- !Person du familial |(tú) com'''es'''<br/>(vos) com'''és'''/com'''éis'''||(vosotros/-as) com'''éis''' |- !Person du formal |(usted) com'''e'''||(ustedes) com'''en''' |- !Person tre |(él, ella) com'''e'''||(ellos, ellas) com'''en''' |} {|class="wikitable" |+Presente de indicativa de un verbo coerente finida par ''-ir'' ''vivir'' ('vive') |- ! !Singular !Plural |- !Person un |(yo) viv'''o'''||(nosotros/-as) viv'''imos''' |- !Person du familial |(tú) viv'''es'''<br/>(vos) viv'''ís'''||(vosotros/-as) viv'''ís''' |- !Person du formal |(usted) viv'''e'''||(ustedes) viv'''en''' |- !Person tre |(él, ella) viv'''e'''||(ellos, ellas) viv'''en''' |} ==== Pasada ==== Espaniol ave un numero de tempos verbal per espresa atas o statos en la pasada. La du cual es "simple " en sua forma (pd formida par un sola parola en locada de es un verbo composada) es la pasada e la nonperfeta. === Adverbos === Espaniol, como lingua franca nova, ave un clase de adverbos cual es adverbos fundal, pd, parolas cual sola es adverbos: muy ("multe"), poco ("pico"), lejos ("distante"), mucho ("multe"), casi ("cuasi"), etc. Per crea adverbos de ajetivos, la sufisa averbal -''mente'' es ajuntada a la forma femin singular de la ajetivo. === Preposadas === === Juntas === Las juntas espaniol ''y'' ('e') e ''o'' ('o') cambia sua forma en la lingua parlada e scriveda a ''e'' e ''u'' en ordina cuando es segueda par un sona vocal identica. Tal, ''padre '''e''' hijo'' ('padre e fio'), ''Fernando '''e''' Isabel'' ('Fernando e Isabela'), ''sujeto '''u''' objeto'' ('sujeto o ojeto'), ''vertical u horizontal'' ('vertical o orizonal'). La cambia no aveni ante la ''(h)i'' de un diftongo, como en ''acero '''y''' hierro'' ('aser e fero'). No la conjunta ''y'' cambia cuando apare a la comensa de un demanda (cuando lo servi per introdui o reintrodui un nom como un tema, en loca de lia un elemento con otra), como en ''¿'''Y''' Inés?'' ('E Ines?') Cuando la conjunta ''o'' apare entre numeros, lo es usual speleda con un sinieta (''ó''), per distingui lo de zero (0); tal, ''2 '''ó''' 3'' ('2 o 3') en contrasta con 203 ('dusento tre'). == Sintatica == === Formulas === ==== Formula nomin ==== ==== Formula verbin ==== ==== Acorda ==== == Bibliografia == ;Engles *{{cite book|last=Batchelor|first=R[onald] E[rnest]|last2=San José|first2=Miguel Ángel|year=2010|title=A Reference Grammar of Spanish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xFZkaXZrjIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22A+Reference+Grammar+of+Spanish%22#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-42961-0}} *{{cite book|last=Butt|first=John|last2=Benjamin|first2=Carmen|year=2011|title=A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish|url=https://archive.org/details/newreferencegram0005butt|edition=5|publisher=Hodder Education|isbn=978-1-4441-3769-9}} *{{cite book|last=DeBruyne|first=Jacques|year=1996|title=A Comprehensive Spanish Grammar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkohIvfer3cC&dq=%22A+Comprehensive+Spanish+Grammar%22&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-19087-5}} * Pérez, Ángeles; Rafael Sala; and Manuel Santamarina. 1994. ''Cassell's Contemporary Spanish''. MacMillan. {{ISBN|978-0-02-595915-6}}. * Roque Mateos, Ricardo. 2017. ''A Good Spanish Book!: Basic Spanish Course for Foreigners''. University Academic Editions. {{ISBN|978-15-4269-745-3}}. ;Espaniol * {{cite book| last= Seco| first= Manuel | author-mask = 1 | title= Gramática esencial del español| year = 2005| publisher= Espasa Calpe| isbn = 84-239-9206-3 }} == Lias esterna == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180630152607/http://aplica.rae.es/grweb/cgi-bin/buscar.cgi Gramatica nova de la lingua espaniol (xercador)] * [http://www.rae.es/sites/default/files/Gramatica_RAE_1771_reducida.pdf ''Gramática de la lengua castellana'' de 1771] {{Lista de gramaticas‎}} [[Categoria:Espaniol]] [[Category:Lingua]] [[Category:Linguistica]] [[Category:Gramaticas]] py1szoppyt6asp2doew9akzfoxvre1h 0 6053 43407 41057 2026-08-03T21:51:07Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43407 wikitext text/x-wiki La '''Congresa de Verona''' en novembre 1943 ia es la sola congresa de la [[Partito Faxiste Republiciste]] Italian, seguor de la [[Partito Nasional Faxiste]]. En acel tempo, la Partito Faxiste Republiciste ia governa la Republica Sosial Italian, un stato faxiste comensada en Italia norde a pos la governa italian ia suscrive un sesaspara con la Aliadas e ia fuji a Italia sude. La Republica de Saló ia es un stato pupetin deutx e la plu de la politicas interna e esterna ia es ditada par comandores militar deutx. An tal, faxistes italian ia es permeteda ave autonomia. Lo ia es su esta condisionas ce los ia organiza la Congresa de Verona, parente per desinia un via political nova e per rejoveni la promove faxiste. La disposa de la faxistes italian a la iudis ia cambia pos la Congresa de Verona, cuando la autoria faxiste ia declara los como "nasionalia enemin" e ia comensa partisipa ativa en sua persegue e aresta. == Proposas fada == La Congresa ia produi declaras, proposa e desides variosa, plu de cual nunca ia es enforsada par causa de la gera e de la ocupa deutx. Seguente la istoriste Peter Neville, la delegadas faxiste en la congresa ia conose sua manca de potia political real, donce los ia fa prometes nonrealiste intendente, sabente ce los nunca va pote reali los<ref name="Neville">Neville, p. 189.</ref>. [[Benito Mussolini]], fundor e gidor de la faxisme italian, no ia es presente en la congresa. El sola ia envia un letera a la delegadas, cual ia es lejeda en la rituo de abri<ref name="Neville"/>. De la desides fada en la Congresa de Verona, la plu importante ia es la muta de faxisme italian a un promove republiciste, a pos lo ia suporta la monarcia de la Re [[Vittorio Emmanuele 3]]per 21 anios. La deside ia es motivada par la fato ce la re la aresta Mussolini e ia suscrive la pas con la Aliadas alga menses ante la Congresa; en fato, lo ia es acel ata cual ia forsa la faxistes fuji a Italia norde per comensa un stato nova. La rea ia es, donce, un trador per los. La Congresa de Verona ance ia fa alga prometes cual ia representa un cambia intera en relata a sua politica faxiste anterior. Lo ia promete introdui un governa democrata elejeda sur la funda de autonomia popular, reuni un Asembla Constituinte cual ta desinia un constituida nova, permete libria de jornalisme, crea un juderia nova cual ta investiga froda e malusas su la governa faxiste anterior, dona teras noncultivada a cultivores povre, trae alga industrias xef su propria statal e institui comparti de profita en multe otra industrias privata<ref>Neville, p. 188.</ref>. Esta politicas economial ultima ia representa un "posa tre" entre la plutocratia capitaliste e la sosialisme marxiste. Seguente la filosofiste italian Julius Evola, la Manifesto de Verona "ia es forte sosialiste e prolabora en orienta"<ref>{{cite book|title=Fascism Viewed from the Right |author= Evola, Julius | publisher = Arktos Media Ltd. |location= United Kingdom | date =2013| page= 83}}</ref>. Un de la plances insertada en la Declara de Verona ia presa per "aboli la sistem capitaliste e luta contra la plutocratias mundal"<ref>{{cite book|title=The Ideology of Fascism: The Rationale of Totalitarianism | author = Gregor, A.J. | location = New York | publisher = Free Press | date = 1969 | page = 388, pp. 356f}}</ref>. An tal, zero de esta prometes ia es mantenida. La xef de stato ia resta nonelejeda, la Asembla Constituinte nunca ia asembla, libria de parla ia es restrinjeda como ante, e la Juderia Spesial ia es instituida per condena enemis de faxisme en loca de investiga malusa governal. La "via tre" proposada ia fali en reali. En industrias clave asionores privata ia ave un rol sentral, la diretos de laborores ia es multe limitada, e sindicatistes ia ave no potia<ref>Neville, pp. 188-189.</ref>. En 12 febrero 1944, la governa de Mussolini ia aproba la projeta legal de "Sosiali" gidada par la Declara de Verona, clamante per la "Enforsa de la conseti mussolonian sur sujetos como; justia sosial plu alta, distribui plu egal de ricia e partisipa de labora en la vive statal"<ref>{{cite book|title=Revolutionary Fascism | author = Norling, Erik | location =Lisbon | publisher =Finis Mundi Press | date =2011 | page =103 }}</ref>. Mussoloni ia clama ce el nunca ia abandona intera sua influes sosialiste, insistente ce ia atenta nasionali propria en 1939-1940 ma ia es forsada a pospone per razonas tatical relatada con la gera<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Denis Mack |title=Mussolini: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack_m0l4 |location=New York |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1983 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack_m0l4/page/311 311] |isbn=0-394-71658-2 }}</ref>. Con la suverti de monarcia, Mussolini ia clama ce la ideolojia intera de faxisme ia pote es realida e ia comanda nasionali tota companias con plu ca 100 empleadas<ref name="multiref2">{{Harvnb|Smith|1983|p=312}}.</ref>. Mussolini ia ance demanda aida a la excomuniste Nicola Bombacci, un exstudiante de [[Vladimir Lenin]], per aida el estende la imaje ce faxisme ia es un promove progresiste<ref name="multiref2"/> . Istoristes desacorda sur la ojeto de la prometes fada en Verona. Un teoria es ce la Partito Faxiste Republiciste ia vole mostra confusa sur sua politicas e ojetos; car on ia ave un contrareata forte en Italia sude e sentral contra cualce cosa relatada con faxisme, e la faxistes en la norde ia pote atenta dirije coleria popular en la sude contra un idea o politica liante los mesma con acel idea o politica<ref>Neville, p. 190.</ref>. == Declara de Verona == La Declara de Verona (''Manifesto di Verona'' en italian) ia es un documento de 18 puntos cual ia resoma la politicas futur de la Republica Sosial Italian. La documento, un atenta confusante de reveni a la estremisme de la faxiste inisial e, a la mesma tempo, per pasi Deutxland Nazi, cual aora ia controla la republica. Lo ia reafirma sua promete con sua aliadas deutx e nion. En ajunta a sua prometes de cambias en politica interna e de libria, la declara ia nota la puntos clave seguente<ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=J6mAGsjaH_IC&pg=PA191&lpg=PA191&dq=manifesto+di+verona&source=bl&ots=smVWdrzJII&sig=cW02dzlouw_Uk0kvImBQK61bHsQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj_7trkzcvdAhUGA4gKHYrfAdM4HhDoATAFegQIBRAB#v=onepage&q=manifesto%20di%20verona&f=false |title=Italian Fascism and Anti-Fascism: A Critical Anthology| author=Stanislao G. Pugliese| publisher= |date= |website=Google books |access-date=21 September 2018 |language= |trans-title=}}</ref>: * Punto 1: Aboli de monarcia e proclama de la republica sosial. Denunsia de la "re trador e fujor" ultima". * Punto 6: Catolicisme ia es declarada relijio statal ma otra relijios ia es tolerada. * Punto 7: La membros de la raza iudi es stranjer. En la gera corente los es considerada nasionalia enemin. Esta ia cambia la situa de la iudis en Italia, ci ia es protejeda en compara con la areas controlada par la nazis. Aora los ia es arestada e deportada a campas de consentra con la aida de la polisia faxiste italian. Esta persegue no ia estende a persones desendente de sposis miscada. * Punto 18: Continua en la gera per vinse la Aliadas e defende la teritorios italian ganiada. == Referes == <references/> == Fontes == * Peter Neville, ''Mussolini.'' Routledge Historical Biographies, 2003. {{ISBN|9780415249904}} * {{Cite book| author=Carlo Gentile |title=The Police Transit Camps in Fossoli and Bolzano - Historical report in connection with the trial of Manfred Seifert| url=https://www.academia.edu/1351730/The_Police_Transit_Camps_in_Fossoli_and_Bolzano |publisher= |language=| location=[[Cologne]] | year= |isbn=}} * {{Cite book| author=Denis Mack Smith|title=Mussolini: A Biography | url=https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack_m0l4|location=New York |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1983 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack_m0l4/page/311 311] |isbn=0-394-71658-2 }}</ref> [[Categoria:Faxisme]] [[Categoria:Istoria de Italia]] 4igdd4m498yhasvjh2u6huiqsz269ns 0 7354 43418 41059 2026-08-03T22:00:55Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43418 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ole''' es la sensa spesial par cual on persepi [[Odor|odores]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wolfe|first1=J|title=Sensation & perception|url=https://archive.org/details/sensationpercept0000unse_o8u3|last2=Kluender|first2=K|last3=Levi|first3=D|publisher=Sinauer Associates|year=2012|isbn=978-0-87893-572-7|edition=3|page=[https://archive.org/details/sensationpercept0000unse_o8u3/page/7 7]|language=en}}</ref> La sensa ave multe funsionas, incluinte deteta comeda desirable, periles, [[Feromon|feromones]], e jua un rol en [[Proba (sensa)|proba]]. En umanas, lo aveni cuando un [[odor]] lia se a un resetador en la [[caveta nasal]], transmetente un sinial tra la [[sistem olal]]. [[Glomerulo|Glomerulos]] agrega siniales de esta resetadores e transmete los a la [[bulbo olal]], do la enflue sensal va comensa interata con partes de la serebro encargada con la identifia de odores, la [[memoria]] e la [[emosia]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schacter|first1=D|title=Psychology|last2=Gilbert|first2=D|last3=Wegner|first3=D|publisher=Worth Publishers|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha/page/166 166–171]|chapter=Sensation and Perception|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000scha|chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref> On ave multe cosas diferente cual pote interfere con un sensa normal de ole, incluinte dana a la [[nas]] o la resetadores de ole, la [[anosmia]], infetas de la sistem de respira alta, feris traumal de la serebro, e [[Maladia neurodejenerante|maladias neurodejenerante]]. ==Refere== <references /> [[Categoria:Anatomia]] [[Categoria:Ole]] [[Categoria:Sensa]] 0ive0zrypujou1pna9k5wkjys1r815w 0 7363 43394 41060 2026-08-03T20:54:56Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43394 wikitext text/x-wiki La '''nucleo atomal''' es la rejion peti e densa composada de [[Proton|protones]] e [[Neutron|neutrones]] a la sentro de un atom, descovreda en 1911 par [[Ernest Rutherford]]. Pos la descovre de la neutron en 1932, modeles per un nucleo composada de protones e neutrones ia es rapida developada par [[Dmitri Ivanenko]] e [[Werner Heisenberg]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=|author2=|name-list-style=|chapter-url=|isbn=9781461441809|first=Bernard|last=Fernandez|first2=Ripka|last2=Georges|year=2012|chapter=Nuclear Theory After the Discovery of the Neutron|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4PxRBakqFIUC&pg=PA263|title=Unravelling the Mystery of the Atomic Nucleus: A Sixty Year Journey 1896 — 1956|url=https://archive.org/details/unravellingmyste0000fern|publisher=Springer}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=A. I.|last=Miller|year=1995|title=Early Quantum Electrodynamics: A Sourcebook|location=Cambridge|pages=84-88|isbn=0521568919|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Un atom es composada de un nucleo positiva cargada, con un nube de [[Eletron|eletrones]] negativa cargada sirca lo, liada en junta par la [[fortia eletrostatical|forte eletrostatical]]. Cuasi tota la masa de un atom es locada en la nucleo, con un contribui multe peti de la nube de eletrones. Protones e neutrones es liada en junta per formi un nucleo par la [[fortia nucleal|forte nucleal]]. == Referes == <references/> [[Categoria:Fisica]] 73m6fmbdejbxigzfaf3rq8x5nl53o1p 0 7365 43408 40237 2026-08-03T21:51:57Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43408 wikitext text/x-wiki Un '''molecula''' es un grupo de du o plu [[Atom|atomes]] liada par fortes de atrae conoseda como [[Lia cimical|lias cimical]]; dependente de la contesto, la terma pote o no inclui [[Ion|iones]] cual sasia esta criterio.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ebbin, Darrell D.|title=General Chemistry|url=https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry0000geor|edition=3|date=1990|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co.|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-395-43302-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Brown, T.L.|author2=Kemp|author3=Theodore L. Brown|author4=Harold Eugene LeMay|author5=Bruce Edward Bursten|title=Chemistry – the Central Science|url=https://archive.org/details/studentlectureno00theo|url-access=registration|edition=9|date=2003|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=New Jersey|isbn=978-0-13-066997-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chang|first=Raymond|title=Chemistry|url=https://archive.org/details/chemistry00chan_0|edition=6|date=1998|publisher=McGraw Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-115221-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Zumdahl, Steven S.|title=Chemistry|url=https://archive.org/details/chemistry0004zumd|edition=4|date=1997|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-669-41794-4}}</ref> En [[fisica cuantal]], [[cimica organica]], e [[biocimica]], on abandona frecuente la distingui de iones e usa molecula per refere a [[Ion poliatomal|iones poliatomal]]. Un molecula pote es omonucleal, pd. lo es composada de atomes de un sola [[elemento cimical]], per esemplo la du atomes en la molecula de [[osijen]] (O₂); o lo pote es eteronucleal, un composada cimical composada de plu ca un elemento, per esemplo [[acua]] (du atomes de [[idrojen]] e un atom de osijen; H₂O). En la teoria cinetica de gases, on usa frecuente la terma ''molecula'' per cualce [[particula]] gasosa, no dependente de sua composa. Esta relaxi la nesesada ce un molecula conteni du o plu atomes, car la [[gases nobil]] es atomes individua.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chandra|first=Sulekh|title=Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry|date=2005|publisher=New Age Publishers|isbn=978-81-224-1512-4}}</ref> Atomes e complesos liada par [[Interata noncovalente|interatas noncovalente]], como [[Lia de idrojen|lias de idrojen]] o [[Lia ionica|lias ionica]], no es tipal considerada como moleculas singular. On ia discute consetas simil a moleculas de tempos antica, ma la investiga moderna de la natur de moleculas e sua lias ia comensa en la sentenio 17. Refinada tra tempo par siensistes como [[Robert Boyle]], [[Amedeo Avogadro]], [[Jean Perrin]], e [[Linus Pauling]], la studia de moleculas es oji conoseda como [[fisica moleculal]] o cimica moleculal. == Referes == {{reflist}} [[Categoria:Cimica]] 5dp3npeepjx7xfh3up9bi2od5jg9gse 0 7573 43393 40928 2026-08-03T20:54:15Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43393 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Rosetta Stone.JPG|thumb|La [[Petra de Rosetta]] (196&nbsp;aec) porta scriveda usante tre sistem de scrive diferente: [[ieroglifos]] e la [[scrive demotica]] rejistra la mesma testo en la lingua [[egiptian (lingua)|ejiptian]], en cuando un pasaje egal en [[elinica (lingua)|elinica]] usa la [[alfabeta elinica]]. Esta corespondes ia es clavin en la [[desifri de ieroglifos ejiptian]] en la temprana de la sentenio 19.]] '''Scrive''' es la ata de crea un representa persistente de lingua umana. Un [[Sistemes de scrive|sistem de scrive]] usa un colie de simboles e regulas per codigi aspetas de lingua parlada, como sua [[vocabulo]] e [[sintatica]]. Ma, [[lingua scriveda]] pote ave cualias diferente de los de cualce lingua parlada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Roy |title=Rethinking Writing |url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingwritin0000harr |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-253-33776-4 |location=Bloomington |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rethinkingwritin0000harr/page/185 185]}}</ref> Scrive es un ativia [[Cognisio|cognisial]] e [[sosial]] cual envolve prosedes [[Neuropsicolojia|neuropsicolojial]] e [[Prosede de scrive|fisical]]. La resulta de esta ativia, nomida "scriveda", e a veses un "testo", es un serie de simboles fisical enscriveda, mecanical copiada, o dijital representada. La interpretor de un testo es nomida un "lejor".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Dorothy E. |url=https://archive.org/details/institutionaleth0000smit/page/105 |title=Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7591-0502-7 |location=Lanham, MD |pages=[https://archive.org/details/institutionaleth0000smit/page/105 105–108]}}</ref> En jeneral, sistemes de scrive no constitui linguas en se mesma, ma un modo de codigi lingua tal ce lo pote es lejeda par otras tra tempo e spasio.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ong |first=Walter |url=https://archive.org/details/oralityliteracyt00ongw |title=Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word |publisher=Methuen |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-415-02796-0 |location=London |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haas |first=Christina |title=Writing technology: Studies on the Materiality of Literacy |url=https://archive.org/details/writingtechnolog0000haas |publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8058-1306-7 |location=Mahwah, NJ}}</ref> An con ce no tota linguas usa un sistem de scrive, los cual fa lo pote completi e estende la capasias de [[lingua parlada]] par crea formas durante de lingua cual pote es transmeteda tra spasio (pe [[Letera (mesaje)|coresponde scriveda]]) e retenida tra tempo (pe [[Biblioteca|bibliotecas]] o otra rejistras publica).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schmandt-Besserat |first1=Denise |title=Handbook of Research on Writing: History, Society, School, Individual, Text |last2=Erard |first2=Erard |publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-135-25111-6 |editor-last=Bazerman |editor-first=Charles |publication-place=New York |page=21 |chapter=Origins and Forms of Writing}}</ref> Scrive pote ance ave efetos cual cambia sabe, car lo permete ce umanas esterni sua pensa en formas sur cual lo es plu fasil per refleta, developa, reconsidera, e revisa.<ref name="Emig (1994)">{{Cite book |title=Landmark Essays: On Writing Across the Curriculum |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-003-05921-9 |editor-last=Bazerman |editor-first=Charles |chapter=Writing as a mode of learning |doi=10.4324/9781003059219 |editor-last2=Russell |editor-first2=David}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Naming What We Know: Threshold Concepts of Writing Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/namingwhatweknow0000unse |publisher=Utah State University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-87421-989-0 |editor-last=Adler-Kassner |editor-first=Linda |location=Logan |pages=[https://archive.org/details/namingwhatweknow0000unse/page/55 55]–56 |jstor=j.ctt15nmjt7 |editor-last2=Wardle |editor-first2=Elizabeth A.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winsor |first=Dorothy A. |year=1994 |title=Invention and Writing in Technical Work: Representing the Object |journal=Written Communication |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=227–250 |doi=10.1177/0741088394011002003 |s2cid=145645219}}</ref> ==Referes== {{Reflist}} pb2uz9js980q10euqs934r4o5om4a01 0 7615 43413 41082 2026-08-03T21:54:23Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43413 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:3D coordinate system.svg|thumb|right|Un sistem de [[coordinadas cartesian]] tridimensional e a mano destra usada per indica locas en spasio]] '''Spasio''' es un continua [[Spasio tridimensional|tridimensional]] cual conteni locas e dirijes.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9068962/space|title=Space – Physics and Metaphysics|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=28 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506121655/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9068962/space|archive-date=6 May 2008|url-status=live|language=en}}</ref> En [[fisica clasica]], spasio fisical es frecuente consetada en tre dimensiones linial. [[Fisica moderna|Fisicistes moderna]] usual considera lo, con tempo, como un parte de un continua cuatrodimensional sin bordas conoseda como [[Spasiotempo|''spasiotempo'']].<ref name="metafizika">{{cite journal|last1=Bunyadzade |first1=Konul |title=Thoughts of Time |url=https://metafizikajurnali.az/yukle/files/Vol.1-8%281%29.pdf |journal=[[Metafizika Journal]] |publisher=AcademyGate Publishing |access-date=2018-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405102207/https://metafizikajurnali.az/yukle/files/Vol.1-8(1).pdf |archive-date=5 Apr 2019 |pages=8–29 |language=az |doi=10.33864/MTFZK.2019.0 |date=2018-03-15 |volume=1 |url-status=live}}</ref> La conseta de spasio es considerada como de importa fundal a un comprende de la [[universo]] fisical. Ma, desacorda continua entre [[Filosofia|filosofistes]] sur esce lo es se mesma un cosa, un relata entre cosas, o un parte de un strutur consetal. En la sentenios 19 e 20, matematicistes ia comensa esamina jeometrias cual es [[Jeometria noneuclidal|noneuclidal]], en cual spasio es consetada como curva, en loca de plata, como en la [[spasio euclidal]]. Seguente la teoria de [[relativia jeneral]] de [[Albert Einstein]], spasio sirca [[Campo gravital|campos gravital]] devia de spasio euclidal.<ref>{{cite book|author=Carnap, R.|title = An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoph0000carn_k4h3|origyear=1966|year=1995|location=New York|publisher=Dove|language=en}}</ref> [[Probas de relativia jeneral|Probas esperimental de relativia jeneral]] ia confirma ce jeometrias noneuclidal furni un model plu bon per la forma de spasio. == Referes == {{reflist}} [[Categoria:Jeometria]] stk7ddgs1lszwxp4eom42ecnb0xchnz 0 7617 43409 41091 2026-08-03T21:52:48Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43409 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:De architectura.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Un edita [[italian (lingua)|italian]] de 1521 de ''{{lang|la|De architectura}}'', traduida par [[Cesare Cesariano]] ci ia crea desinias ance per lo.]] '''''{{lang|la|De architectura}}''''' ('''''Sur arciteta''''', publicida como '''''Des Libros sur Arciteta''''') es un tese sur arciteta scriveda par la [[arcitetor]] e injenior militar [[Roma antica|roman]] [[Vitruvio|Marco Vitruvio Pollio]] e dedicada a sua patron, la imperor [[Augusto|Cesar Augusto]], como un gida per projetas de construi. Como la sola tese sur arciteta cual ia survive de anticia, lo ia es regardada de la Renase como la libro conoseda prima sur teoria arcitetal, e ance un fonte major sur la canon de [[arciteta clasica]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kruft|first=Hanno-Walter|title=A History of Architectural Theory from Vitrivius to Present|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarchite0000kruf|trans-title=Un istoria de teoria arcitetal de Vitruvio asta la presente |location=New York|publisher=Princeton Architectural Press|year=1994}}</ref> Lo conteni un varia de informa sur construidas elinica e roman, e ance prescrives per la projeta e desinia de campas militar, sites, e strutures e grande (acuadutos, construidas, banios, portos) e peti (macinas, aparatos de mesura, strumentos).<ref>{{cite book|author=Vitruvio|title=Ten Books on Architecture|trans-title=Des Libros de Arciteta|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|editor=Ingrid Rowland}}</ref> Car Vitruvius ia publica ante la developa de voltas crusada, cupolas, [[beton]], e otra inovas asosiada con arciteta roman imperal, sua des libros dona no informa sur esta inovas distinguinte de desinia e tecnolojia de [[arciteta roman antica|construi roman]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Architecture of the Roman Empire: An Introductory Study|trans-title=La arciteta de la impero roman: Un studia introduinte|location=New Haven|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1982|pp=10-11}}</ref> De referes a los en la testo, nos sabe ce on ia ave a la min alga desinias en copias orijinal (posible oto o des), ma posible sola un de estas ia survive en cualce copia de manoscrito medieval. Esta nonsufisi ia es remediada en editas primida de la sentenio 16, cual ave desinias de multe platas grande. == Referes == {{reflist}} [[Categoria:Arciteta de Roma antica]] bxszr1m3463sdccf7asafqe8exdi59s 0 7701 43417 42455 2026-08-03T21:59:27Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260803)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43417 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Young_woman_at_the_beach_(2).jpg|thumb|Un [[fem]] portante bicini violeta a plaia en 2009.]] Un bicini es [[veste de nada]] de du pesos acel es cualida un peso sur la alta acel covre [[Seno|senos]], e peso du sur la basa: la fronte covrente la [[pelvis]] ma esposa normal la [[ombilico]], e la dorso covre jeneral fesur intergluteo e alga o tota de la [[Gluteo|gluteos]]. La bicini moderna es introduida par desinior de veste franses [[Louis Réard]] en julio 1946, e es nomi per [[Bicini Atol]], do la proba publica prima de [[bomba nucleal]] es fada cuatro dias a ante.<ref name="weisgall">{{cite book|last=Weisgall|first=Jonathan M.|title=Operation Crossroads: The atomic tests at Bikini Atoll|url=https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1994|pages=[https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis/page/263 263]–264}}</ref> == Etimolojia e terminolojia == En cuando la vestes de du pesos como desinia esiste en [[eda antica]],<ref name=Agrawala>{{cite book|last=Agrawala|first=P.K.|title=Goddesses in Ancient India|year=1983|publisher=Humanities Press|location=Atlantic Highlands, N.J.|isbn=978-0-391-02960-6|edition=first |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BmDIbNuD0gC&pg=PA12}}</ref> la desinia moderna atrae interesa publica en [[Paris]] a 5 de julio, 1946.<ref name="BBCW">{{Cite news |last=Westcott |first=Kathryn |date=2006-07-05 |title=The bikini: Not a brief affair |language=en-GB |work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |url-status=live |access-date=2023-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721185042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |archive-date=July 21, 2008}}</ref> [[File:Able_crossroads.jpg|right|thumb|[[Opera Crus de Vias]] es un serie de probi nucleal, e la inspira per nomi de du vestes de nada franses a la tempo, incluinte bicini]] En maio 1946, modiste de Paris [[Jacques Heim]] relasa veste de nada de du pesos acel el nomi {{lang|fr|Atome}} ('Atom') e comersia como "la vestes de nada masima peti en la mundo".<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas G. II |last=Cole |url=http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901063358/http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-09-01 |title=(The) Bikini: EmBodying the Bomb |publisher=Genders Journal}}</ref> Como vestes de nada de la eda, lo asconde de ombilico de portante, e lo fali atrae multe atende. Injenia automobilial franses [[Louis Réard]] introdui a desinia cual el nomi la "Bicini", adota la nom de [[Bicini Atol]] en Mar Pasifica,<ref name="HistC">{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bikini-introduced |title=Bikini Introduced |access-date=September 17, 2008 |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]]}}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |first=Paula |last=Cocozza |title=A little piece of history |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=June 10, 2006 |access-date=September 17, 2008 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080927104351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips?gusrc=rss&feed=travel| archive-date= September 27, 2008| url-status= live}}</ref> cual es la colonial nom acel deutxes dona a la atol, impresta de la majel nom per isola, {{lang|mh|Pikinni}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocP.htm#Pikinni|title=Marshallese-English Dictionary – Place Name Index|website=www.trussel2.com|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref> == Istoria == === En anticia === [[File:Villa Romana del Casale BW 2025-04-28 11-11-12.jpg|thumb|La antica Roman [[Villa Romana del Casale]] (286–305&nbsp;EC) en [[Sisilia]] ave un de la maxim temprana konoseda imaje de tipo de bicini.]] Como diseda par arceolojiste [[James Mellaart]], un mural de la eda de carbon de linio (sirca 5600&nbsp;AEC) en [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Anatolia]] depinta un diva madre goddess montante du leopardos portante un costum alga simil a bicini.<ref name=Agrawala /><ref>{{cite book |first1=Lucy |last1=Goodison |author1-link=Lucy Goodison |first2=Christine E. |last2=Morris |author2-link=Christine E. Morris |title=Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204/page/46 46] |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-299-16320-4 }}</ref> La veste de du pesos pove es trasa retro a la [[ilinica-roman mundo]], do vestes similar a bicini porta par atletas fema es depinta sur [[Vaso|vasos]] e depintas paintings datida retro a 1400&nbsp;AEC.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Peter J. |last1=James |first2=I. J. |last2=Thorpe |first3=Nick |last3=Thorpe |title=Ancient Inventions |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279 279] |publisher=Ballantine Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-345-40102-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279}}</ref> En ''Coroni de la Campion'', un [[mosaica]] a la solo de un [[casa campainal roman]] en [[Sisilia]] cual es datida de la periodo diocletia (286–305&nbsp;EC), fem joven partisipa en leva de pesas, lansa de disco, e esecita juas bal games vestida en veste simila a bicini.<ref name=BBCW /><ref name=VilCas>{{cite web |url=http://www.valdinoto.com/english/villa_romana_del_casale.htm |title=Villa Romana del Casale|publisher=Val di Noto|access-date=2013-08-29}}</ref> La mosaica, trova en la [[Villa Romana del Casale]] de Sisilia, ave des fem joven ci ia es nomida anacron la "Xicas de Bicini".<ref name="Guttmann 1991 38">{{cite book |first=Allen |last=Guttmann |title=Women's Sports: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle/page/38 38] |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1991 |isbn= 978-0-231-06957-1}}</ref><ref name="Villa Romana del Casale">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |title=Villa Romana del Casale |publisher=World Heritage Sites |access-date=2015-03-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223110444/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref> Otra [[Imperi Roman|roman]] trovadas arceolojial depinta la diva Venera en un veste simila. En [[Pompeii]], depintadas de Venera porte un bicini ia es descovreda en la Casa della Venere,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|title=Pompeian Households: Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205075357/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|archive-date=2016-02-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|title=Stoa Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015205200/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|archive-date=2015-10-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Penelope M. |last=Allison |url=http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|title=Pompeian Households: Information concerning the rooms in Casa della Venere in Bikini|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318124125/http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|archive-date=2015-03-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> en la ''[[tablinum]]'' de la [[Casa de Julia Felix]],<ref>{{cite book |first1= Mary |last1= Beard |first2= John |last2= Henderson |title= Classical Art |page=116 |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalartfrom00bear/page/116 |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-19-284237-4 }}</ref> e en un atrium de la [[Casa de Loreius Tiburtinus|Via Dell'Abbondanza]].<ref>{{cite book |first1= Elisabeth B. |last1= MacDougall |first2=Wilhelmina Mary |last2= Feemster |title= Ancient Roman Gardens |page=38 |publisher= Dumbarton Oaks |year= 1979 |isbn=978-0-88402-100-1}}</ref> === En tempos moderna === En 1913, desinior [[Carl Jantzen]] ia fa la veste de nada prima funsional. Inspirada par la introdui de femes a nada Olympia el ia desinia un costum abrasante con pantala per la basa e corta mangas per la alta.<ref name=heritage>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml|access-date=November 13, 2007|publisher=American Heritage Inc.|title=60 Years of Bikinis|author=Hoover, Elizabeth D.|date=July 5, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909195749/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml |archive-date=September 9, 2007}}</ref> [[File:Women in bikinis at an aerobics class at Hietaniemi beach.jpg|thumb|Femes en bicinis a la [[Hietaniemi Plaia]] en [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], en 2014.]] Como diseda par Beth Dincuff Charleston, asosia rexersa de la Instituida Aponeda de la Museo Urban de Arte, "La bicini representa salta social envolventa concluia de corpo, consernas moral, e altias sesal."<ref name="heritage" /> == Spesies == [[File:Red_bikini,_beach.jpg|thumb|Un bicini, simil a orijina]] An si terma "bicini" ia es at prima aplika meta a veste de nada acel revela ombilico de usente, oji la industria de moda konsidera alga veste de nada de du pesos como bicini.<ref name=patton>{{cite web|last=Patton|first=Susan Ruiz|title=A Bikini Isn't The Choice Of Miss Pa. For The First Time In 77 Years, Contestants In Miss America Pageant Can Choose Their Swimwear. Heather Busin Prefers One-piece|url=https://www.mcall.com/1997/09/11/a-bikini-isnt-the-choice-of-miss-pa-for-the-first-time-in-77-years-contestants-in-miss-america-pageant-can-choose-their-swimwear-heather-busin-prefers-one-piece/|publisher=McCalls|date=September 11, 1997|access-date=August 27, 2013|archive-date=October 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013191926/http://articles.mcall.com/1997-09-11/news/3155841_1_swimsuit-competition-bikini-pageant|url-status=live}}</ref> == Bicinis en sporte == [[File:USA_Italy_London_2012.jpg|thumb|Bicinis es uniforma ofisial per volibal de plaia]] Bicinis ia deveni un composante major de comersiali de varia de [[sporte de femes]].<ref name="Kilborn">Laura Grae Kilborn, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190116200751/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DP&p_theme=dp&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF44E9A0508C03&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D The Marketing Of Female Athletes]", ''The Denver Post'', August 11, 1998</ref> Lo es uniforma ofisial per [[volibal de plaia]] e es usada comun en [[sporte atletal]] e otra sportes. Bicinis de sporte ia gania popularia de pos la 1990s.<ref>Gertrud Pfister and Mari Kristin Sisjord, ''Gender and Sport: Changes and Challenges'', page 142, Waxmann Verlag, 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-8309-7873-2}}</ref> Nadores fema no usa bicinis comun en nada competosa.<ref>Harvey S. Wiener, ''Total swimming'', page 125, Simon & Schuster, 1981, {{ISBN|978-0-671-42807-5}}</ref><ref>Barry Wilner, Art Seiden, Sam Freas, and Dan Helms, ''Swimming'', page 12, Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-8114-6596-0}}</ref> La Federal Internasional de nada (FINA) vota a proibi nadores fema de corsa en bicinis en sua asembla a Roma en 1960,<ref>David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'', page 75, Simon & Schuster, 2008, {{ISBN|978-1-4391-0267-1}}</ref> ma rugulas presente no ave tal proibinte.<ref name="Proswimwear">https://www.proswimwear.co.uk/blog/what-is-fina-approved-swimwear</ref> [[File:Successful capture of a wave.jpg|thumb|On ance usa bicini per surfa]] == Referes == [[Categoria:Bicinis]] mjdm63mne3hc9yvdks3p2az0jxh2igr