Vicipedia lfnwiki https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paje_xef MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.16 first-letter Media Spesial Discute Usor Usor Discute Vicipedia Vicipedia Discute Fix Fix Discute MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Model Model Discute Aida Aida Discute Categoria Categoria Discute TimedText TimedText talk Modulo Modulo Discute Event Event talk 0 1184 43465 43398 2026-08-23T18:53:45Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43465 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Articles bon}} [[File:Aristotle, Metaphysics, Incunabulum.jpg|thumb|alt=Incunabulum showing the beginning of Aristotle's ''Metaphysics''| La comensa de la [[Metafisica (Aristotele)|''Metafisica'' de Aristotele]], un de la testos fundal de la campo]] '''Metafisica''' es la ramo de [[filosofia]] cual esamina la strutur fundal de [[realia]]. Lo es frecuente nomida la '''filosofia prima''', cual sujesta ce lo es plu fundal ca otra formas de investiga filosofial. Metafisica es tradisional videda como la studia de cualias de la mundo nondependente de la mente, ma alga teoristes moderna comprende lo como un investiga de la scemas consetal cual suporta la pensa e esperia umana. Multe temas jeneral e astrata parteni a la sujeto de metafisica. Lo investiga la natur de es, la cualias cual tota cosas ave en comun, e sua divide en categorias. Un contrasta influente es entre [[Spesifiada|spesifiadas]], cual es cosas individua e unica, como un poma spesifiada, e [[Universal (metafisica)|universales]], cual es cosas jeneral e repetable cual distingui spesifiadas, como la color roja. [[Metafisica modal]] esamina cual lo sinifia ce alga cosa es posible o nesesada. La [[Filosfia de spasio e tempo|natur de spasio, tempo e cambia]] es ance discuteda par metafisicistes. Un tema prosima relatada conserna la esense de [[causalia]] e sua relata a la [[Lege siensal|leges de natur]]. Otra temas inclui como mente e materia es relatada, esce tota en la mundo es [[Determinisme|predeterminada]], e esce on ave [[volunta libre]]. Metafisicistes emplea metodos variosa per condui sua investiga. Tradisional, los depende de [[Intui|intuis]] razonal e [[Razona lojical|razona]] [[Astrati|astrata]] ma plu resente inclui ance prosimis [[Demostra empirical|empirical]] asosiada con teorias siensal. Par causa de la natur astrata de sua tema, metafisica reseta criticas cual espresa duta sur la fidablia de sua metodos e la sinifia de sua teorias. Metafisica es pertinente a multe campos de investiga cual depende frecuente nondireta de consetas e suposas metafisical. La [[Istoria de metafisica|orijina de metafisica]] es en la [[eda antica]] con divinas sur la natur de realia e la universo, como trovada en la [[Upanixades]] en [[Barat antica]], dauisme en [[Istoria de Xina|Xina antica]], e [[filosofia presocratiste]] en [[Elas antica]]. La [[Eda medieval|periodo medieval]] seguente en la Ueste ia discute la [[Problem de universales|natur de universales]] como formulada par la filosofistes elinica antica [[Platon]] e [[Aristotele]]. La [[Eda moderna|periodo moderna]] ia vide la emerji de sistemes variosa e completa de metafisica, multe de cual ia aseta [[idealisme]]. En la sentenio 20 e la periodo [[Filosofia contempora|contempora]], un "revolta contra idealisme" ia aveni, e metafisica ia es a un ves declarada como sin sinifia, alora reviveda con criticas variosa de teorias plu temprana e prosimis nova a la investiga metafisical. == Definis == Metafisica es la studia de la cualias la plu jeneral de realia, cual inclui [[Esiste (state)|esiste]], [[Ojeto|ojetos]] e sua [[Cualia (filosofia)|cualias]], posiblia e nesesadia, [[spasio]] e [[tempo]], cambia, [[causalia]], e la relata entre [[materia]] e [[mente]]. Lo es un de la ramos la plu vea de [[filosofia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=1–3}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|loc=§ 0.3 An Overview of Metaphysics and Other Areas of Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ What Is an Introduction?}} }}</ref> La natur esata de metafisica es disputada e sua defini ia cambia en la curso de istoria. Alga prosimis vide metafisica como un campo unida e dona un defini vasta par comprende lo como la studia de "demandas fundal sur la natur de realia" o como un investiga de la [[Esense|esenses]] de cosas. Un otra prosimi duta ce la areas diferente de metafisica comparti un colie de cualias fundal e furni en loca un defini refinada par lista tota la temas xef investigada par metafisicistes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|loc=§ 0.3 An Overview of Metaphysics and Other Areas of Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10 What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=9–10}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Alga definis es descrivente par furni un conta de cual metafisicistes fa e otras es norminte e prescrive cual metafisicistes debe fa.<ref>{{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|p=2}}</ref> Du definis istorial influente en [[filosofia antica]] e [[filosofia medieval|medieval]] comprende metafisica como la siensa de la [[causa prima|causas prima]] e como la studia de es ''qua'' es, per dise, la tema de cual tota cosas ave en comun e a cual categorias fundal los parteni. En la periodo moderna, la estende de metafisica ia estende per covre temas como la distingui entre mente e corpo e [[volunta libre]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Alga filosofistes segue [[Aristotele]] en descrive metafisica como "filosofia prima", cual sujesta ce lo es la investiga la plu fundal e ce tota otra ramos de filosofia depende de lo en alga modo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=8–10}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=2–3}} }}</ref>{{efn|Per esemplo, la problem metafisical de causalia es pertinente a ambos [[epistemolojia]], como un fator envolveda en sabe persepal, e [[etica]], en relata con respondosia moral per la resultas causada par la [[Ata (filosofia)|atas]] de un person.<ref>{{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=8–10}}</ref>}} [[File:Kant gemaelde 1.jpg|thumb|alt=Depinta de Immanuel Kant|[[Immanuel Kant]] ia conseta metafisica critica como la studia de la prinsipes cual suporta tota pensa e esperia umana.]] Metafisica es tradisional comprendeda como un studia de cualias de realia nondependente de la mente. Comensante con la [[filosofia critica]] de [[Immanuel Kant]], un conseta alternativa ia gania importa cual foca a scemas consetal en loca de realia esterna. Kant distingui metafisica transendente, cual atenta descrive la cualias ojetal de realia ultra esperia sensal, de metafisica critica, cual descrive la aspetas e prinsipes cual suporta tota pensa e esperia umana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=1–2, 6}} | {{harvnb|Bengtson|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pUHvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 35]}} | {{harvnb|Wood|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i7PG-Vk824UC&pg=PA354 354]}} }}</ref> En relata con la analise de scemas consetal, la filosofiste [[P. F. Strawson]] contrasta metafisica descrivente, cual espresa scemas consetal comun usada per comprende la mundo, con metafisica revisante, cual atenta produi scemas consetal plu bon.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1967|pp=105–106}} | {{harvnb|Haack|1979|pp=361–362}} | {{harvnb|MacDonald|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JjRG56XeyIcC&pg=PA21 21]}} }}</ref> Metafisica difere de la siensas individua par studia aspetas multe jeneral e astrata de realia. La siensas individua, en contrasta, esamina cualias plu spesifiada e concreta e restrinje se a alga clases de cosas, como la foca a cosas fisical en [[fisica]], cosas vivente en [[biolojia]], e cultures en [[antropolojia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10 What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|p=xiii}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=206–207}} }}</ref> Lo es disputada a cual grado esta contrasta es un dicotomia sever en loca de un continua gradal.<ref>{{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=203–205}}</ref> Filosofistes trata metafisica es nomida ''metafisicistes''. Estra discutes academial, la terma ''metafisica'' es a veses usada per sinifia la studia de fenomenos [[oculta]] e [[paranormal]], como cura metafisical, [[aura]]s, e la [[potia de piramides]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|p=1}} | {{harvnb|Turner|1911|loc=[[:s:Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Metaphysics]]}} }}</ref> === Etimolojia === La parola "metafisica" ave sua orijina en la parolas elinica antica ''metá'' (μετά, sinifiante 'pos', 'supra', e 'ultra') e ''phusiká'' (φυσικά) como un forma corta de ta metá ta phusiká: pd, lo cual veni pos la fisica. Esta es frecuente interpreteda per sinifia ce metafisica discute temas cual, par causa de sua jeneralia e completia, es ultra la rena de fisica e sua foca a oserva empirical.<ref name=":0"/> Metafisica ia oteni sua nom par un asidente istorial<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pols|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sv84Gi7C9jgC&pg=PA203 203]}} | {{harvnb|White|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dCWEDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT33 33]}} | {{harvnb|Lowe|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Las3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}} }}</ref> cuando la [[Metafisica (Aristotele)|libro de Aristotele]] sur esta tema ia es publicida. Aristotele no ia usa la terma metafisica ma lo es posible ce sua editor (probable [[Andronico de Rodos]]) ia crea lo per sua titulo per indica ce on debe studia esta libro pos la libro de Aristotele publicida sur [[Fisica (Aristotele)|fisica]]: leteral "pos fisica".<ref name=":0">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|pp=291, 351}} | {{harvnb|Cohen|Reeve|2021|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10. What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Veldsman|2017|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Heidegger|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqXDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 39]}} | {{harvnb|Politis|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d-GjOoZNnGsC&pg=PA1 1]}} }}</ref> === Ramos === La natur de metafisica pote ance es descriveda en relata con sua ramos xef. Un divide influente de la [[filosofia moderna]] temprana distingui entre metafisica jeneral e metafisica spesial o spesifiada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=3–5, 10}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Craig|1998}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> Metafisica jeneral, ance nomida ''[[ontolojia]]'',{{efn|La terma ''[[ontolojia]]'' es a veses ance usada como un sinonim de metafisica ''in toto''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2016|p=166}}</ref>}} adota la perspetiva la plu larga e studia la aspetas la plu fundal de es. Lo investiga la cualias cual tota cosas ave en comun e como cosas pote es divideda en categorias diferente. Categorias es la tipos la plu jeneral, como sustantia, cualia, [[relata (filosofia)|relata]], e [[fato]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=10–14}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=The Categories Of Being}} }}</ref> Ontolojistes rexerca cual categorias esiste, como los depende de lunlotra, e como los formi un sistem de categorias cual furni un clasi incluinte de tota cosas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hofweber|2023|loc=§ 3. Ontology}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=The Categories Of Being}} | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Metafisica spesial considera es de perspetivas plu streta e es divideda en sucampos fundida sur la perspetiva cual los prende. [[Cosmolojia]] metafisical esamina cosas cambiable e investiga como los es liada per formi un [[mundo]] como un totalia de cosas cual estende tra spasio e tempo.<ref name="Loux 2017 3–5, 10">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=3–5, 10}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Psicolojia razonal limita se a esplora fundas e problemes metafisical consernante la mente, como sua relata con materia e la libria de la volunta. Teolojia natural studia la divin e sua rol como la causa prima.<ref name="Loux 2017 3–5, 10"/> La estende de metafisica spesial covre partal sujetos de otra disiplinas filosofial e lo es frecuente nonclar esce un tema parteni a lo en loca de disiplinas como [[filosofia de mente]] e [[teolojia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=10–11}} | {{harvnb|Craig|1998|loc=§ 2. Specific Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Metafisica aplicada es un sucampo joven. Lo parteni a [[filosofia aplicada]] e studia la aplicas de metafisica, ambos en filosofia e otra campos de investiga. En [[etica]] e [[filosofia de relijio]], lo conserna temas como la funda ontolojial de afirmas moral e dotrinas relijiosa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hawley|2016|pp=165–168}} | {{harvnb|Brumbaugh|1966|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20124133 647–648]}} }}</ref> Aplicas estra filosofia inclui la usa de ontolojias en [[inteleto artifis]], [[economia]], e [[sosiolojia]] per clasi cosas<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2016|pp=168–169, 171–172}}</ref> e ance demandas en [[psiciatria]] e [[medica]] sur la state metafisical de [[maladia]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2016|p=174}}</ref> '''Metametafisica'''{{efn|Alga filosofistes usa la terma ''[[metaontolojia]]'' como un sinonim ma otras descrive metaontolojia como un sucampo de metametafisica.<ref>{{harvnb|Tahko|2018|loc=Lead Section}}</ref>}} es la [[metateoria]] de metafisica e investiga la natur e metodos de metafisica. Lo esamina ance como metafisica difere de otra campos filosofial e siensal e como lo es pertinente a los. An con ce la discutes de sua temas ave un istoria longa en metafisica, lo ia developa sola resente a un campo sistemosa de investiga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|loc=§ 7 Meta-metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2018|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> == Temas == === Esiste e categorias === Metafisicistes frecuente vide esiste o es como un de la consetas la plu fundal e jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-828 277]}} | {{harvnb|White|2019|pp=135, 200}} | {{harvnb|Gibson|1998|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Jubien|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uoCh8mpbZO4C&pg=PA47 47–48]}} | {{harvnb|Vallicella|2010|p=16}} }}</ref> Esiste sinifia formi un parte de [[realia]] e esiste marca la difere entre cosas real e los imajinal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-828 277]}} | {{harvnb|AHD staff|2022}} }}</ref> Seguente la vista ortodox, esiste es un cualia de ordina du o un cualia de cualias: si un cosa esiste alora sua cualias es instansida.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Casati|Fujikawa|loc=Lead Section, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification}} |2={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095804522;jsessionid=AEB41DBFF0B3EBCDCCB8A1E0DAFD4EB0 existence]}} }}</ref> Un vista diferente afirma ce esiste es un cualia de ordina un, sinifiante ce lo es simil a otra cualias de cosas, como forma o grandia.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Casati|Fujikawa|loc=Lead Section, §2. Existence as a First-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification}} |2={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095804522;jsessionid=AEB41DBFF0B3EBCDCCB8A1E0DAFD4EB0 existence]}} }}</ref> Esce tota cosas ave esta cualia es controversa. Seguente [[Alexius Meinong]], on ave [[ojeto nonesistente|ojetos nonesistente]], incluinte ojetos mera posible como [[Papa Natal]] e [[Pegaso]].<ref name="auto">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Van Inwagen|2023}} |2={{harvnb|Nelson|2022|loc=Lead Section, §2. Meinongianism}} |3={{harvnb|Jubien|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uoCh8mpbZO4C&pg=PA49 49]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Seguente Meinong, esiste no es un sinonim de es: tota cosas ave es ma no tota cosas ave esiste.<ref name="auto"/>}} Un demanda relatada es esce esiste es la mesma per tota cosas o esce on ave modos o grados diferente de esiste.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Casati|Fujikawa|loc=Lead Section, §3. How Many Ways of Being Existent?}} |2={{harvnb|McDaniel|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8F0vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 77]}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, Platon ia crede ce la [[teoria de formas|formas platonica]], cual es ideas perfeta e nonmutable, ave un grado plu alta de esiste ca materia, cual es capas sola de nonperfeta refleta la formas platonica.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Poidevin|Peter|Andrew|Cameron|2009|pp=227–228}} |2={{harvnb|Van Inwagen|2023}} }}</ref> Un otra conserna clavin en metafisica es la divide de cosas en grupos diferente fundida sur cualias fundal cual los ave en comun. Teorias de categorias furni un sistem de la tipos la plu fundal o la jeneros la plu alta de es par crea un lista completa de tota.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=11–12}} | {{harvnb|Wardy|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Un de la teorias la plu temprana de categorias ia es furnida par Aristotele, ci ia proposa un [[Categorias (Aristotele)|sistem de 10 categorias]]. [[Sustantia (filosofia)|Sustantias]] (pe om e cavalo), es la categoria la plu importante car tota otra categorias como [[cuantia]] (pe cuatro), [[cualia]] (pe blanca), e loca (pe en Atina) es diseda de sustantias e depende de los.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=§ 1.1 Aristotelian Realism}} | {{harvnb|Studtmann|2024|loc=§ 2. The Ten-Fold Division}} | {{harvnb|Wardy|1998|loc=§ 1. Categories in Aristotle}} }}</ref> Kant ia comprende categorias como prinsipes fundal cual suporta la comprende umana e ia developa un [[Categoria (Kant)|sistem de 12 categorias]], cual es divideda en la cuatro clases cuantia, cualia, relata, e modalia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=§ 1.2 Kantian Conceptualism}} | {{harvnb|Wardy|1998|loc=§ 1. Categories in Kant}} }}</ref> Teorias plu resente de categorias ia es proposada par [[C. S. Peirce]], [[Edmund Husserl]], [[Samuel Alexander]], [[Roderick Chisholm]], e [[E. J. Lowe]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomasson|2022|loc=§ 1.3 Husserlian Descriptivism, § 1.4 Contemporary Category Systems}} | {{harvnb|Grim|Rescher|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KgPPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT39 39]}} }}</ref> Multe filosofistes depende de la contrasta entre [[astrata e contreta|ojetos concreta e astrata]]. Seguente un vista comun, ojetos concreta, como rocas, arbores, e umanas, esiste en spasio e tempo, esperia cambias, e afeta lunlotra como causa e efeto, ma ojetos astrata, como [[numero]]s e [[colie]]s, esiste estra spasio e tempo, es nonmutable, e no entra a relatas causal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Falguera|Martínez-Vidal|Rosen|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Introduction, § 3.5 The Ways of Negation}} | {{harvnb|Erasmus|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ze5FDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 93]}} | {{harvnb|Macnamara|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pvKD5fvyLXIC&pg=PA94 94]}} }}</ref> === Spesifiadas === [[Spesifiada]]s es cosas individua e inclui ambos ojetos concreta, como Aristotele, la Tore Eiffel, o un poma spesifiada, e ojetos astrata, como la numero 2 o un colie spesifiada en matematica. Los es cosas unica e nonrepetable e contrasta con [[universal]]es, como la color roja, cual pote a la mesma tempo esiste en alga locas e marca alga spesifiadas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=683}} | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section, § 1a. The Nature of Universals}} | {{harvnb|Bigelow|1998|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=§ Particularity and Individuality}} | {{harvnb|Maurin|2019|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Un vista vasta pensada es ce spesifiadas instansi universales ma no es se mesma instansida par alga cosa, sinifiante ce los esiste en se mesma ma universales esiste en alga cosa. La teoria de sustrato analise spesifiadas como un sustrato, ance nomida un spesifiada nuda, con alga cualias. La sustrato dona individualia a la spesifiada ma la cualias espresa sua cualias cualial o como lo es. Esta prosimi es rejetada par [[teoria de faxos|teoristes de faxos]], ci afirma ce spesifiadas es sola faxos de cualias sin un sustrato fundal. Alga teoristes de faxos inclui en la faxo un esense individua, nomida ''[[haecceitas]]'', per serti ce cada faxo es unica. Un otra proposa per spesifiadas concreta es ce los es individualida par sua loca en spasiotempo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maurin|2019|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=§ Particularity and Individuality}} | {{harvnb|Bigelow|1998|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Bundles of Properties}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=82–83}} }}</ref> Spesifiadas concreta encontrada en la vive dial, como rocas, tables, e organismes, es cosas complicada composada de partes variosa. Per esemplo, un table es composada de un surfas de table e gamas, cada de cual es se mesma composada de spesifiadas nonumerable. La relata entre partes e interas es studiada par [[merolojia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=250–251}} | {{harvnb|Varzi|2019|loc=Lead Section, § 1. 'Part' and Parthood}} | {{harvnb|Cornell|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Special Composition Question}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=19–21}} }}</ref> La problem de la multe es sur cual grupos de cosas formi interas merolojial, per esemplo, esce un particula de polvo sur la surfas de table formi un parte de la table. Seguente universalistes merolojial, cada colie de cosas formi un intera, sinifiante ce la partes de la table sin la particula de polvo formi un intera ma los con lo formi un intera du. Moderadistes merolojial crede ce alga nesesadas debe es sasiada per un grupo de cosas composa un intera, per esemplo, ce la cosas toca lunlotra. [[nihilisme meolojial|Nihilistes merolojial]] rejeta la idea ce on ave cualce interas. Seguente los, on ave no tables e sejas ma sola spesifiadas cual es ordinada en modo de table e en modo de seja.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=82–83}} | {{harvnb|Cornell|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Special Composition Question}} | {{harvnb|Brenner|2015|p=1295}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=19–21, 23–24, 32–33}} }}</ref> Un problem merolojial relatada es esce on ave cosas simple cual ave no partes, como [[atomisme|atomistes]] afirma, o no, como teoristes de continua argumenta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berryman|2022|loc=§ 2.6 Atomism and Particle Theories in Ancient Greek Sciences}} | {{harvnb|Varzi|2019|loc=§ 3.4 Atomism, Gunk, and Other Options}} }}</ref> === Universales === Universales es cosas jeneral, incluinte ambos [[cualia]]s e [[relata]]s, cual espresa como spesifiadas es e como los sembla lunlotra. Los es repetable, sinifiante ce los no es limitada a un esistente unica ma pote es instansida par particulas diferente a la mesma tempo. Per esemplo, la particulas [[Nelson Mandela]] e [[Mahatma Gandhi]] instansi la universal ''umania'', simil a como un frambosa e un rubi instansi la universal ''roja''. Un tema discuteda de filosofia antica, la problem de universales es la difisilia de descrive la state ontolojial de universales.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section, § 1c. The Problem of Universals}} | {{harvnb|Rodriguez-Pereyra|2000|pp=255–256}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=17–19}} }}</ref> Realistes argumenta ce universales es cosas real e nondependente de la mente cual esiste en ajunta a spesifiadas. Seguente realistes platonica, universales esiste ance nondependente de spesifiadas, cual implica ce la universal ''roja'' ta continua esiste an si on ta ave no cosas roja. Un forma plu moderada de realisme, inspirada par Aristotele, afirma ce universales depende de spesifiadas, sinifiante ce los es sola real si los es instansida. [[Nominalisme|Nominalistes]] rejeta la idea ce universales esiste en cualce forma. Per los, la mundo es sola composada de spesifiadas. La vista de [[consetalisme|consetalistes]] representa un punto media: los afirma ce universales esiste, ma sola como [[conseta]]s en la mente usada per ordina esperia par clasi cosas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|MacLeod|Rubenstein|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Versions of Realism, § 3. Versions of Anti-Realism}} | {{harvnb|Bigelow|1998a|loc=§ 4. Nominalism and Realism}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=17–19, 45}} }}</ref> [[Tipo natural|Tipos natural]] e sosial es frecuente comprendeda como tipos spesial de universales. Cosas cual parteni a la mesma tipo natural comparti alga cualias fundal cual marca la strutur de la mundo natural. En esta modo, tipos natural no es un clasi artifis creada ma es descovreda,{{efn|La cosas clasida no nesesa aveni natural e pote inclui produidas artifis, como cimicales sintesal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brzović|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref>}} tipal par la siensas natural, e inclui tipos como [[eletron]]es, [[acua|H₂O]], e [[tigre]]s. [[Realisme siensal|Realistes siensal]] e antirealistes no acorda esce tipos natural esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brzović|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Metaphysics of Natural Kinds}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=Lead Section, § 1.2 Natural Kind Realism}} | {{harvnb|Liston|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Tipos sosial es studiada par [[ontolojia sosial|metafisica sosial]] e es descriveda como construis sosial usosa cual, an si no pur imajinal, fali refleta la strutur fundal de realia nondependente de la mente.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=259–263}}|{{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=185–186}}}}</ref> Esemplos noncontroversa inclui [[mone]] o [[basebal]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ásta|2017|pp=[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315768571-27/social-kinds-%C3%A1sta 290–291]}} | {{harvnb|Bird|Tobin|2024|loc=§ 2.4 Natural Kinds and Social Science}} }}</ref> === Posiblia e nesesadia === La consetas de posiblia e nesesadia comunica cual pote o nesesa es la caso, espresada en declaras como "lo es posible per trova un cura per canser" e "lo es nesesada ce du plu du egali cuatro". Los parteni a metafisica modal, cual investiga la prinsipes metafisical cual suporta los, spesial, perce lo es la caso ce alga declaras modal es vera ma otras es falsa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Parent|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=149–150}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=154–155}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 8. What Is Possible?}} }}</ref>{{efn|Un otra tema conserna tipos diferente de modalia, como la contrasta entre nesesadia fisical, metafisical, e lojical, fundida sur esce la nesesadia ave sua fonte en la [[lege siensal|leges de natur]], la esenses de cosas, o la leges de lojica.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hanna|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ka9BhOL1ev8C&pg=PA196 196]}} | {{harvnb|Hale|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OSvsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142]}} }}</ref>}} Alga metafisicistes crede ce modalia es un aspeta fundal de realia, sinifiante ce estra fatos sur lo cual es la caso, on ave fatos ajuntada sur lo cual pote o nesesa es la caso.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goswick|2018|pp=97–98}} | {{harvnb|Wilsch|2017|pp=428–429, 446}} }}</ref> Un vista diferente argumenta ce verias modal no es sur un aspeta nondependente de realia ma pote es reduida a cualias nonmodal, per esemplo, a fatos sur cual cualias o descrives lingual es acordable con lunlotra o a declaras imajinal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goswick|2018|pp=97–98}} | {{harvnb|Parent|loc=§ 3. Ersatzism, § 4. Fictionalism}} | {{harvnb|Wilsch|2017|pp=428–429}} }}</ref> Emprestante un terma de la [[teodisia]] de la filosofiste deutx [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], multe metafisicistes usa la conseta de [[mundo posible|mundos posible]] per analise la sinifia e la resultas ontolojial de declaras modal. Un mundo posible es un modo completa e coerente de como cosas ia ta es.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Menzel|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Possible Worlds and Modal Logic}} | {{harvnb|Berto|Jago|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Pavel|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OF7ZA54UpYYC&pg=PA50 50]}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=§ Possible Worlds}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, la [[dinosauro]]s ia es eliminada en la mundo vera ma on ave mundos posible en cual los es ancora vivente.<ref>{{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=luc-Hf_bEOIC&pg=PT135 135]}}</ref> Seguente semantica de mundos posible, un declara es posible vera si lo es vera en a la min un mundo posible ma lo es nesesada vera si lo es vera en tota mundos posible.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Menzel|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Possible Worlds and Modal Logic}} | {{harvnb|Kuhn|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c_eYe6NVaDMC&pg=PA13 13]}} }}</ref> [[Realisme modal|Realistes modal]] argumenta ce mundos posible esiste como cosas concreta en la mesma sensa como la mundo vera, con la difere xef esente ce la mundo vera es la mundo en cual nos vive ma otra mundos posible es abitada par [[teoria de duales|duales]]. Esta vista es controversa e alternativas variosa ia es sujestada, per esemplo, ce mundos posible esiste sola como ojetos astrata o ce los es simil a naras contada en obras de nara.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Parent|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Lewis' Realism, § 3. Ersatzism, § 4. Fictionalism}} | {{harvnb|Menzel|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Three Philosophical Conceptions of Possible Worlds}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|loc=§ Modal Realism}} }}</ref> === Spasio, tempo e cambia === [[Spasio]] e [[tempo]] es dimensiones cual cosas ocupa. Realistes de spasiotempo afirma ce spasio e tempo es aspetas fundal de realia e esiste nondependente de la mente umana. Esta vista es rejetada par idealistes de spasiotempo, ci crede ce spasio e tempo es construis de la mente umana en sua atenta per organiza e comprende realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dainton|2010|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/time-and-space/spatial-antirealism/CE284C8D3088AF598998951618D4867D 245–246]}} | {{harvnb|Janiak|2022|loc=§ 4.2 Absolute/Relational Vs. Real/Ideal}} | {{harvnb|Pelczar|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tkjTBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 115]}} }}</ref> Asolutisme o sustantialisme de spasiotempo comprende spasiotempo como un ojeto diferente, con alga metafisicistes consetante lo como un caxa cual conteni tota otra cosas en lo. [[Relatisme spasiotempal]], en contrasta, vide spasiotempo no como un ojeto ma como relatas entre ojetos, como la relata spasial de ''es a lado de'' e la relata tempal de ''veni ante''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hoefer|Huggett|Read|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Benovsky|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KHWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–20]}} | {{harvnb|Romero|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5wJ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135 135]}} }}</ref> En la metafisica de tempo, un contrasta importante es entre la [[serie A e seria B|serie A e la serie B]]. Seguente la teoria de la serie A, la [[flue de tempo]] es real, sinifiante ce avenis es categorida como la pasada, la presente, e la futur. La presente continua move a ante en tempo e avenis cual es en la presente aora va cambia sua state e es en la pasada plu tarda. De la perspetiva de la teoria de la serie B, tempo es statical e avenis es ordinada par la relatas tempal plu temprana ca e plu tarda ca sin cualce difere esensal entre la pasada, la presente, e la futur.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dyke|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IxIlqbSWg4gC&pg=PA138 138]}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=182–185}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=160–161}} }}</ref> [[Eternalisme (filosofia de tempo)|Eternalisme]] afirma ce la pasada, la presente, e la futur es egal real ma seguente [[Presentisme (filosofia de tempo)|presentistes]], sola cosas en la presente esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=179–181}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=206, 214–215}} | {{harvnb|Romero|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5wJ2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135 135]}} }}</ref> Ojetos material persiste tra tempo e cambia en la prosede, como un arbor cual crese o perde folias.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2018|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Costa|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Simons|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ql27m77IveQC&pg=PA166 166]}} }}</ref> La modos xef de conseta la persiste tra tempo es [[endurantisme]] e [[perdurantisme]]. Seguente endurantisme, ojetos material es cosas tridimensional cual es intera presente a cada momento. Cuando los cambia, los gania o perde cualias ma resta la mesma en otra modos. Perdurantistes vide ojetos material como cosas cuatrodimensional cual estende tra tempo e es composada de [[partes tempal]] diferente. A cada momento, sola un parte de la ojeto es presente ma no la ojeto intera. Cambia sinifia ce un parte plu temprana es cualial diferente de un parte plu tarda. Per esemplo, si un banana maturi alora on ave un parte nonmatur segueda par un parte matur.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2018|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Costa|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Theories of Persistence}} | {{harvnb|Simons|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ql27m77IveQC&pg=PA166 166]}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2023|loc=3. Change and Temporal Parts}} }}</ref> === Causalia === Causalia es la relata entre causa e efeto en cual un cosa produi o afeta un otra cosa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=20–22}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=218–219}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, si un person colpa un vitro e versa sua contenidas alora la colpa es la causa e la versa es la efeto.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|p=20}}</ref> Estra la causalia de un sola caso entre spesifiadas en esta esemplo, on ave ance causalia de la caso jeneral espresada en declaras jeneral como "fuma causa canser".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Williamson|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yWWEIvNgUQ4C&pg=PA186 186]}} }}</ref> La terma causalia de ajente es usada si persones e sua atas causa alga cosa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=219, 252–253}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=233–234}} }}</ref> Causalia es tipal interpreteda deterministe, sinifiante ce un causa sempre produi sua efeto. Esta vista es rejetada par [[causalia probablial|teorias probablial]], cual afirma ce la causa mera aumenta la probablia ce la efeto aveni. Esta vista pote es usada per esplica ce fuma causa canser an si esta no es vera en cada caso.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=228–231}} | {{harvnb|Williamson|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yWWEIvNgUQ4C&pg=PA185 185–186]}} }}</ref> La teoria de normalia de causalia, inspirada par la filosofia de [[David Hume]], afirma ce causa es no plu ca un [[junta constante]] en cual la mente comprende ce un fenomeno, como pone sua mano en un foco, es sempre segueda par un otra fenomeno, como un senti de dole.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lorkowski|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Necessary Connections and Hume’s Two Definitions, § 4. Causal Reductionism}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=24–25}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=220–221}} }}</ref> Seguente teorias de normalia regulada, la normalia adota la formas de [[lege siensal|leges de natur]] studiada par siensa.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=223–224}}</ref> Teorias contrafatal foca no a normalias ma a como efetos depende de sua causas. Los afirma ce efetos debe sua esiste a la causa e no ta es presente sin los.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|p=26}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=221–222}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=224–225}} }}</ref> Seguente primitivisme, causa es un conseta fundal cual no pote es analiseda en termas de consetas noncausal, como regulas o relatas de depende. Un forma de primitivisme identifia potias causal inerente en cosas como la macina fundal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=231–232}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2009|pp=94–95}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|Anjum|2013}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=63–64}} }}</ref> Eliminatistes rejeta la teorias a supra par afirma ce on ave no causalia.<ref>{{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=231–232}}</ref> === La mente e volunta libre === La mente inclui fenomenos como [[pensa]], [[persepi]], [[senti]], e [[desira]] e ance la capasias fundal cual causa esta fenomenos.<ref>{{harvnb|Morton|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1608?rskey=jqUtkA&result=1601 603]}}</ref> La [[problem de mente-corpo]] es la difisilia de clari la relata entre fenomenos fisical e mental. Seguente [[dualisme cartesian]], mentes e corpos es sustantias diferente. Los interata causal con lunlotra en modos variosa ma pote, a la min en prinsipe, esiste solitar.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McLaughlin|1999|pp=684–685}} | {{harvnb|Kim|2005|p=608}} }}</ref> Esta vista es rejetada par [[monisme|monistes]], ci argumenta ce realia es composada de un sola tipo. Seguente [[idealisme]], tota es mental, incluinte ojetos fisical, cual pote es comprendeda como ideas o persepis de mentes consensa. Materialistes, en contrasta, afirma ce tota realia es material. Alga nega ce mente esiste ma la prosimi plu comun es esplica mente en termas de alga aspetas de materia, como states de serebro, [[disposa]]s condual, o roles funsional.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McLaughlin|1999|pp=685–691}} | {{harvnb|Kim|2005|p=608}} | {{harvnb|Ramsey|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> [[Monisme neutra|Monistes neutra]] argumenta ce realia es fundal no material e no mental e sujesta ce materia e mente es ambos fenomenos derivada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stubenberg|Wishon|2023|loc=Lead Section; § 1.3 Mind and Matter Revisited}} | {{harvnb|Griffin|1998}} }}</ref> Un aspeta clavin de la problem de mente-corpo es la [[problem difisil de consensia]], cual conserna la demanda de como sistemes fisical como serebros pote produi consensia fenomenal.<ref>{{harvnb|Weisberg|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Stating the Problem}}</ref> La state de volunta libre–la capasia de un person per eleje sua atas–es un aspeta sentral de la problem de mente-corpo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Timpe|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Olson|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mind-body-problem Mind–Body Problem]}} | {{harvnb|Armstrong|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uf7EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94]}} }}</ref> Metafisicistes es interesada en la relata entre volunta libre e [[determinisme causal]], la vista ce tota en la universo, incluinte condui umana, es determinada par avenis presedente e leges de natur. Lo es controversa si determinisme causal es vera, e, si lo es, esce esta ta implica ce on ave no volunta libre. Seguente [[nonacordablisme]], volunta libre no pote esiste en un mundo deterministe car on ave no eleje o controla vera si tota es determinada.{{efn|Per esemplo, la [[argumenta de resulta]] par [[Peter van Inwagen]] dise ce persones ave no potia sur la futur si tota es determinada par la pasada con la leges de natur.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Vihvelin|2022|loc=§ 5. Choice and the Consequence Argument}} | {{harvnb|Züricher|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kLQ6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} }}</ref>}} Deterministes dur dedui de esta oserva ce on ave no volunta libre ma [[libertarisme (metafisica)|libertaristes]] conclui ce determinisme nesesa es falsa. [[Acordablisme|Acordablistes]] adota un prosimi tre par argumenta ce determinisme e volunta libre no esclui lunlotra, per esemplo, car un person pote ancora ata en acorda con sua motiva e elejes an si los es determinada par otra fortes. Volunta libre jua un rol clavin en etica en relata con la [[respondosia moral]] cual persones ave per lo cual los fa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|O’Connor|Franklin|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Nature of Free Will}} | {{harvnb|Timpe|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Free Will, Free Action and Moral Responsibility, § 3. Free Will and Determinism}} | {{harvnb|Armstrong|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uf7EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94]}} }}</ref> === Otras === [[Identia (filosofia)|Identia]] es un relata cual cada cosa ave a se mesma como un forma de identicia. Lo refere a identia numeral cuando la mesma cosa es envolveda, como en la declara "la stela de matina es la stela de sera" (ambos es la planeta [[Venus]]). En un sinifia pico diferente, lo inclui identia cualial, ance nomida ''similia esata'' e ''nondistinguablia'', cual es la caso cuando du cosas diferente es esata simil, como jemelos identica perfeta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kirwan|2005|pp=417–418}} | {{harvnb|Noonan|Curtis|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> La prinsipe de la nondistinguablia de identicas es vasta asetada e afirma ce cosas numeral identica sembla esata lunlotra. La prinsipe oposante, conoseda como la [[identia de nondistinguibles]] o la Lege de Leibniz, es plu controversa e afirma ce du cosas es numeral identica si los sembla esata lunlotra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sleigh|2005|p=418}} | {{harvnb|Kirwan|2005|pp=417–418}} | {{harvnb|Noonan|Curtis|2022|loc=§ 2. The Logic of Identity}} }}</ref> Un otra distingui es entre identia sincrona e diacrona. Identia sincrona relata un cosas con se mesma a la mesma tempo ma identia diacrona es sur la mesma cosa a tempos diferente, como en declaras como "la table cual me ia compra a la anio pasada es la mesma como la table en mea sala de come aora".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gallois|2016|loc=§ 2.1 Diachronic and Synchronic Identity}} | {{harvnb|Noonan|Curtis|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 5. Identity Over Time}} }}</ref> [[Identia personal]] es un tema relatada en metafisica cual usa la terma ''identia'' con un sinifia pico diferente e conserna demandas como cual fa ce algun es un person.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Noonan|Curtis|2022|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Olson|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Problems of Personal Identity}} | {{harvnb|Korfmacher}} }}</ref> Metafisicistes contempora variosa depende de la consetas de [[veria]], [[portaveria]], e [[causaveria]] per fa sua investigas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=15–17}} }}</ref> Veria es un cualia de es en acorda con realia. Portaverias es cosas cual pote es vera o falsa, como declaras lingual e representas mental. Un causaveria de un declara es la cosa de cual sua esiste fa ce la declara es vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005a|p=926}} | {{harvnb|Imaguire|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X4dnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=15–17}} | {{harvnb|Asay|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nRXeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|MacBride|2022}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, la declara "un tomate es roja" es vera car on ave un tomate roja como sua causaveria.<ref>{{harvnb|Tallant|2017|p=1}}</ref> Fundida sur esta oserva, lo es posible per persegue rexerca metafisical par demanda cual la causaverias de declaras es, con campos diferente de metafisica esente dedicada a tipos diferente de declaras. Seguente esta vista, metafisica modal demanda cual fa ce declaras sur lo cual es posible e nesesada es vera e la metafisica de tempo es interesada en la causaverias de declaras tempal sur la pasada, la presente, e la futur.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=1–4, 163–165}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=15–17, 154}} }}</ref> == Metodolojia == Metafisicistes usa un varia de metodos per ariva a teorias metafisical e formula argumentas per e contra los.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=xi, 2}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> Tradisional, metodos ''a priori'' es la prosimi dominante. Los depende de intui razonal e razona astrata de prinsipes jeneral en loca de [[esperia]] sensal. Prosimis ''a posteriori'', en contrasta, fundi teorias metafisical en oservas empirical e teorias siensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10. What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=151–152}} | {{harvnb|Jaksland|2023|pp=198–199}} }}</ref> Alga metafisicistes usa perspetivas de campos como [[fisica]], [[psicolojia]], [[linguistica]] e istoria per fa sua investiga.<ref>{{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}}</ref> La du prosimis no es escluinte e lo es posible per combina elementos de ambos.<ref>{{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=151–152, 172–173}}</ref> La metodo cual un metafisiciste usa depende frecuente de sua conseta de la natur de metafisica, per esemplo, esce los vide lo como un investiga de la strutur de realia nondependente de la mente, como realistes metafisical afirma, o la prinsipes cual suporta pensa e esperia, como alga antirealistes metafisical afirma.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10. What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}} | {{harvnb|Effingham|Beebee|Goff|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BBKsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} | {{harvnb|Khlentzos|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 3. The Anti-Realist Challenges to Metaphysical Realism}} }}</ref> Prosimis ''a priori'' depende frecuente de intuis, pd, impresas nondeduinte sur la coretia de afirmas spesifiada o prinsipes jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 11–12]|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} | {{harvnb|Duignan|2009a}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=177–180}}}}</ref>{{efn|La terma ''intui'' ave un varia de otra sinifias en filosofia. Lo pote refere a un opina simple, un disposa per crede, lo cual pare es la caso, o un relata entre la mente e ojetos astrata.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pust|2019|loc=§ 1. The Nature of Intuitions}} | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1255 442]}} }}</ref> La conseta jua un rol sentral en la filosofia de [[Immanuel Kant]], ci comprende intuis como representas consensa e ojetiva prosima asosiada con la sensa de spasio e tempo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Janiak|2022|loc=§ 2.2 Kant's Understanding of Representation}} | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1255 442]}} }}</ref>}} Per esemplo, argumentas per la teoria A de tempo, cual afirma ce tempo flue de la pasada tra la presente e a en la futur, depende frecuente de intuis preteorial asosiada con la sensa de la pasa de tempo.<ref>{{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=188–190}}</ref> Alga prosimis usa intuis per crea un colie peti de prinsipes fundal e [[autoevidentia|autoevidente]], conoseda como [[axiom]]es, e usa [[razona deduinte]] per construi sistemes metafisical complicada par fa concluis de esta axiomes.<ref>{{harvnb|Goldenbaum|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Geometrical Method}}</ref> Prosimis fundida sur intui pote es combinada con [[esperimenta de pensa|esperimentas de pensa]], cual aida evoca e clari intuis par lia los a situas imajinada en cuando on usa [[pensa contrafatal]] per evalua la resultas posible de esta situas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=177–178}} | {{harvnb|Brown|Fehige|2019|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Goffi|Roux|2011|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV 165, 168–169]}} | {{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|pp=915–916}} }}</ref> Per esplora la relata entre materia e consensia, alga teoristes compara umanas a [[zombi filosofial|zombis filosofial]], pd, viventes ipotesal identica a umanas ma sin [[consensia|esperia consensa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kirk|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Zombies and Physicalism}}</ref> Un metodo relatada depende de credes comun asetada en loca de intuis per formula argumentas e teorias. La prosimi de [[sensa comun]] es frecuente usada per critica teorias metafisical cual devia multe de como la person promedia pensa sur un tema. Per esemplo, filosofistes de sensa comun ia argumenta ce [[nihilisme merolojial]] es falsa car lo implica ce cosas comun asetada, como tables, no esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lawson|2020|pp=185–186}} | {{harvnb|Jaksland|2023|pp=198–199}} }}</ref> [[Analise filosofial|Analise consetal]], un metodo spesial importante en [[filosofia analisal]], atenta desconstrui consetas metafisical a partes composante per clari sua sinifia e identifia relatas esensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Jackson|1998|pp=28–30}} | {{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|p=915}} | {{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26602327 555–556]}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy § Philosophical Methods]}} }}</ref> En [[fenomenolojia]], la metodo de [[redui eidetica|varia eidetica]] es usada per investiga strutures esensal cual suporta [[fenomeno]]s. Per studia la cualias esensal de cualce tipo de ojeto, lo prosede par imajina esta ojeto e varia sua cualias per identifia los cual es esensal e no pote es cambiada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Drummond|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VQ9hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} | {{harvnb|Ryckman|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FI1JCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142–144]}} }}</ref> La metodo [[argumenta transendente|transendente]] es un otra prosimi e esamina la strutur metafisical de realia par oserva cual cosas esiste e studia la [[Nesesada de posiblia|nesesadas de posiblia]] sin cual esta cosas no ta pote esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Coelho|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P518M0X_zakC&pg=PA128 128]}} | {{harvnb|Körner|1984|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eAA4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA183 183–184]}} | {{harvnb|Pihlström|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=srGLpb7pWdkC&pg=PA60 60–61]}} | {{harvnb|Stern|Cheng|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Alga prosimis dona min importa a razona ''a priori'' e vide metafisica como un pratica continuante con la siensas empirical cual jenerali sua intuis en cuando los fa ce sua suposas fundal deveni nonambigua. Esta prosimi es conoseda como ''metafisica naturalida'' e es prosima asosiada con la obra de [[Willard Van Orman Quine]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=30–31}}|{{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics}}|{{harvnb|Jaksland|2023|pp=198–199}}}}</ref> El depende de la idea ce frases vera de la siensas e otra campos ave [[obligas ontolojial]], pd, los implica ce alga cosas esiste.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=37–38, 40}}|{{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics}}}}</ref> Per esemplo, si la frase "alga eletrones es liada a protones" es vera alora lo pote es usada per justi ce eletrones e protones esiste.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|p=41}}</ref> Quine ia usa esta intui per argumenta ce on pote aprende sur metafisica par atendente analise{{efn|La metodo de analise de Quine depende de [[tradui lojical]] a [[lojica de ordina prima]] per espresa afirmas tan esata como posible e depende de [[cuantador esistal|cuantadores esistal]] per identifia sua obligas ontolojial.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=40–41}}</ref>}} afirmas siensal per comprende cual tipo de imaje metafisical de la mundo los presuposa.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=40–43}}|{{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics}}}}</ref> En ajunta a metodos de investiga metafisical, on ave alga prinsipes metodolojial usada per deside entre teorias competente par compara sua virtuas teorial. La [[Rasador de Ockham]] es un prinsipe bon conoseda cual dona prefere a teorias simple, spesial, a teorias cual suposa ce poca cosas esiste. Otra prinsipes considera la [[potia esplicante]], la usosia teorial, e la prosimia a credes fundida.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3tDaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217–221]}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=48–49}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2012|loc=§ 10. What Is Metaphysics?}} | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 4. The Methodology of Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> == Critica == [[File:Allan Ramsay - David Hume, 1711 - 1776. Historian and philosopher - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of David Hume|[[David Hume]] ia critica metafisicistes per atenta ariva a sabe sur cosas estra la campo de esperia sensal.]] An si sua state como un de la ramos xef de filosofia, metafisica ia reseta criticas diversa cual pone en duta sua state como un campo valida de investiga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?}} | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> Un tipo de critica afirma ce investiga metafisical es nonposible car umanas no ave la capasias cognisial nesesada per asede la natur ultima de realia.<ref>{{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?}}</ref> Esta linia de pensa gida a un forma de [[seticisme]] sur la posible de sabe metafisical. Lo es frecuente segueda par empiricalistes como Hume, ci argumenta ce on ave no [[sabe|fonte bon de sabe metafisical]] car metafisica es estra la campo de [[demostra empirical|sabe empirical]] e depende de intuis dutable sur la rena ultra esperia sensal. Un conserna prosima relatada sur la nonfidablia de teorias metafisical es ce on ave desacordas profonda e durante sur temas metafisical, indicante un manca de progresa jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=211–212}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=16–17}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=4–5}} }}</ref> Un otra critica afirma ce la problem no es con la capasias cognisial umana ma con la declaras metafisical mesma, cual es afirmada como no vera e no falsa ma sin [[sinifia (filosofia)|sinifia]]. Seguente [[positivisme lojical|positivistes lojical]], per esemplo, la sinifia de un declara es donada par la prosede usada per serti lo, tipal en termas de la [[oserva]]s cual ta confirma lo. Fundida sur esta suposa controversa, los argumenta ce declaras metafisical es sin sinifia car los no fa predises sur esperia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?}} | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|p=4}} | {{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=212–215}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|p=5}} }}</ref> Un vista pico plu debil permete ce declaras metafisical ave sinifia ma afirma ce desacordas metafisical es mera disputas verbal sur modos diferente de descrive la mundo. Seguente esta vista, la desacorda en la metafisica de composa sur esce on ave tables o sola particulas ordinada en modo de table es un debate trivial sur preferes lingual sin cualce resultas sustantial per la natur de realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=213–215}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=71–72}} }}</ref> La vista ce disputas metafisical ave no sinifia o no punto sinifiante es nomida '''''deflaisme metafisical''''' o '''''ontolojial'''''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|pp=4, 15, 32}} | {{harvnb|Sider|2009|pp=386–387}} }}</ref> Esta vista es oposada par metafisicistes seria, ci argumenta ce disputas metafisical es sur cualias sustantial de la strutur fundal de realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Manley|2009|pp=28, 36}} | {{harvnb|Kriegel|2016|pp=272–273}} }}</ref> Un debate prosima relatada entre [[realisme filosofial|realistes]] ontolojial e antirealistes conserna la demanda de esce on ave cualce fatos ojetal cual determina cual teorias metafisical es vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chalmers|2009|pp=77–78}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=304–305}} | {{harvnb|Tahko|2015|pp=65–66, 68}} }}</ref> Un critica diferente, formulada par [[practicalisme|praticalistes]], vide la fali de metafisica no en sua aspiras cognisial o la nonsinifia de sua declaras, ma en sua nonpertine pratical e manca de usosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|p=5}} | {{harvnb|Macarthur|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ra7QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 166]}} }}</ref> [[Martin Heidegger]] ia critica metafisica tradisional, disente ce lo fali distingui entre cosas individua e es como sua funda ontolojial. Sua atenta revela la suposas e limitas fundal en la istoria de metafisica per "vinse metafisica" ia influe la metodo de [[desconstrui]] de [[Jacques Derrida]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wheeler|2020|loc=§ 1. Biographical Sketch, § 2.2.1 The Question, § 3.3 Technology}} | {{harvnb|Gilje|Skirbekk|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_I00e3SQAwMC&pg=PA463 463–464]}} | {{harvnb|Holland|1999|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Beaulieu|Kazarian|Sushytska|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d4PzBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3–4]}} }}</ref> Derrida ia usa esta prosimi per critica testos metafisical per depende de termas oposante, como presentia e asentia, cual el ia pensa ia es inerente nonstable e contradisente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Reynolds|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Deconstructive Strategy}} | {{harvnb|Gilje|Skirbekk|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_I00e3SQAwMC&pg=PA463 463–464]}} | {{harvnb|Holland|1999|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Lo es dutable esce la criticas de metafisica afeta la disiplina como un intera o sola alga temas o prosimis en lo. Per esemplo, lo ta es la caso ce alga disputas metafisical es mera verbal ma otras es sustantial.<ref>{{harvnb|Rea|2021|pp=215–216, 223–224}}</ref> == Relata con otra campos == Metafisica relata con multe campos de investiga par esamina sua consetas fundal e sua relata con la strutur fundal de realia. Per esemplo, siensistes depende frecuente de consetas como [[lege siensal|lege de natur]], causalia, nesesadia, e spasiotempo per formula sua teorias e predise o esplica la resultas de esperimentas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Göhner|Schrenk|loc=Lead Section, § 1. What Is Metaphysics of Science?}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|Tugby|2013|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2018|pp=187–188}} }}</ref> An si la foca xef de siensistes es la aplica de esta consetas a situas spesifiada, metafisica esamina sua natur jeneral e como los depende de lunlotra. Fisicistes formula leges spesifiada de natur, como [[lege de Newton de gravita universal|leges de gravita]] e [[leges de termodinamica|termodinamica]], per descrive como sistemes fisical condui en ambientes variosa. Metafisicistes, en contrasta, demanda cual tota leges de natur ave en comun, per esemplo, esce los descrive mera normalias dependente o espresa relatas nesesada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Göhner|Schrenk|loc=§ 3. Why Do We Need Metaphysics of Science?, § 4c. Laws of Nature}} | {{harvnb|Roberts|2016|pp=337–338}} }}</ref> A la mesma tempo, trovas siensal nova ia influe ance teorias metafisical esistente e ia inspira novas. La [[teoria de relativia]] de Einstein, per esemplo, ia stimula alga metafisicistes a conseta spasio e tempo como un dimension unida en loca de como dimensiones nondependente.<ref>{{harvnb|Healey|2016|pp=356–357}}</ref> Metafisicistes con foca empirical depende frecuente de teorias siensal per fundi sua teorias sur la natur de realia en oservas empirical.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2018|pp=187–188}}</ref> Temas simil pertine a la [[siensas sosial]] do metafisicistes investiga sua consetas fundal e analise sua implicas metafisical. Esta inclui demandas como esce fatos sosial veni de fatos nonsosial, esce grupos e instituidas sosial ave esiste nondependente de la mente, e como los persiste tra tempo.<ref>{{harvnb|Hawley|2018|pp=188–189}}</ref> Suposas e temas metafisical en [[psicolojia]] e [[psiciatria]] inclui la demandas sur la relata entre corpo e mente, esce la natur de la mente umana es istorial fisada, e cual es la state metafisical de maladias.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dafermos|2021|pp=1–2, 6–7}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2016|p=174}} }}</ref> Metafisica es simil a ambos [[cosmolojia fisical]] e [[teolojia]] en sua interesa en la causas prima e la universo como un intera. Diferes clavin es ce metafisica depende de investiga razonal ma cosmolojia fisical dona plu pesa a oservas empirical e teolojia es fundida sur [[revela]] divin e dotrinas fundida sur crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Van Inwagen|2024|pp=6–8}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|p=10}} }}</ref> Istorial, cosmolojia e teolojia ia es regardada como sucampos de metafisica.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dryer|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S8weDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA490 490]}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|p=10}} }}</ref> {{cladogram |title=Suggested Upper Merged Ontology |caption=<p style="text-align: center;">Categorias fundal en la <br/>[[Suggested Upper Merged Ontology]]<ref>{{harvnb|Heckmann|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e5adLEi4gYgC&pg=PA42 42]}}</ref></p> |cladogram={{clade |label1=Cosa{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}} |1={{clade |label1={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Fisical{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}} |1={{clade |label1={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Ojeto |1={{spaces}} |label2={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Prosede |2={{spaces}} }} |label2={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Astrata{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}}{{spaces}} |2={{clade |label1={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Cuantia |1={{spaces}} |label2={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Proposa |2={{spaces}} |label3={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Cualia |3={{spaces}} |label4={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Relata |4={{spaces}} |label5={{spaces}}{{spaces}}Colie o Clase |5={{spaces}} }} }} }} }} Metafisica en la forma de ontolojia jua un rol sentral en [[informatica]] per clasi ojetos e representa formal informa sur los. No como metafisicistes, informaticistes no es tipal interesada en furni un sola descrive incluinte de tota realia como un intera ma en loca los usa multe ontolojias diferente, cada consernada sola con un campo limitada de cosas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goy|Magro|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MJd_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7456 7456–7457]}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2016|pp=168–170}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, un [[banco de datos]] de un universia ta usa un ontolojia con categorias como ''person'', ''ensenior'', ''studiante'', e ''esamina'' per representa informa sur ativias academial.<ref>{{harvnb|Goy|Magro|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MJd_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7457 7457]}}</ref> Ontolojias furni normas o consetas per codigi e reteni informa en un modo struturida, cual capasi usa e cambia la informa par prosedes computante.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goy|Magro|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MJd_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7456 7456–7457]}} | {{harvnb|Hawley|2016|pp=168–169}} }}</ref> Alga bancos de sabe integra informa cual parteni a campos variosa, cual introdui la difisilia de maneja datos cual ia es formida usante ontolojias diferente. On vinse lo par furni un [[ontolojia superior]] cual defini consetas a un nivel plu alta de astratia per aplica a tota campos. Ontolojias superior influente inclui la ''Suggested Upper Merged Ontology'' (Ontolojia Superior Fusada Sujestada) e la ''Basic Formal Ontology'' (Ontolojia Formal Fundal).<ref>{{harvnb|Gopalakrishnan Nair|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MJd_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4594 4594]}}</ref> [[Lojica]] – la studia de razona coreta<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|MacFarlane|2017}}|{{harvnb|Corkum|2015|pp=753–767}}|{{harvnb|Blair|Johnson|2000|pp=93–95}}|{{harvnb|Magnus|2005|loc=1.6 Formal Languages|pp=12–14}}}}</ref> – es frecuente usada par metafisicistes como un util per fa sua investigas e espresa intuis usante formulas lojical esata.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=1–2, 18–20}}</ref> Un otra relata entre la du campos conserna la suposas metafisical asosiada con [[Sistem formal|sistemes lojical]]. Multe sistemes lojical como [[lojica de ordina prima]] depende de [[Cuantador esistal|cuantadores esistal]] per espresa declaras esistal. Per esemplo, en la formula lojical <math display="inline">\exists{x{\text{Cavalo}}(x)}</math> la cuantador esistal <chem display="inline">\exists</chem> es aplicada a la predica <math>\text{Cavalo}</math> per espresa ce on ave cavalos. Seguente Quine, metafisicistes variosa suposa ce cuantadores esistal porta [[obligas ontolojial]], sinifiante ce declaras esistal implica ce la cosa supra cual on cuanti formi un parte de realia.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2022|loc=§2.1 Building Blocks}}|{{harvnb|Cook|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JfaqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111]}}|{{harvnb|Kind|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oDhjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT236 236]}}|{{harvnb|Casati|Fujikawa|loc=Lead Section, §1. Existence as a Second-Order Property and Its Relation to Quantification}}}}</ref> == Istoria == [[File:Yin yang.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|alt=Symbol de yin e yang|La simbol de [[taijitu]] mostra [[yin-yang|yin e yang]], cual es du fortes corelatada discuteda en metafisica xines per esplora la natur e motifes de esiste. <ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Perkins|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 5. Fundamental Concepts in the Daodejing}} }}</ref>]] La istoria de metafisica esamina como la investiga de la strutur fundal de realia ia evolui en la curso de istoria. Metafisica ave sua orijina en divinas sur la natur e orijina de la cosmo cual ia comensa en la eda antica.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=183}}|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=590}}}}</ref> En Barat antica, comensante en la sentenio 7 aec, la [[Upanixades]] ia es scriveda como testos relijiosa e filosofial cual esamina como realia ultima es la funda de tota es. Los esplora plu la natur de la se e como lo pote ateni libria par comprende realia ultima.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Perrett|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7–10]}}|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Andrea|Overfield|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 70–71]}}}}</ref> Esta periodo ia vide ance la emerji de [[budisme]] en la sentenio 6 aec,{{efn|La data esta es disputada.<ref>{{harvnb|Velez|loc=§ 1a. Dates}}</ref>}} cual nega la esiste de un se nondependente e comprende la mundo como un prosede sicle.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Perrett|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7–10]}}|{{harvnb|Velez|loc=Lead Section, § 3. The Buddha's Cosmology and Metaphysics}}|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}}}}</ref> Sirca la mesma tempo{{efn|Seguente naras tradisional, [[Laozi]] como la fundor de dauisme ia vive en la sentenio 6 ace ma otra naras ia dise ce lo es posible ce el ia vive en la senentios 4 o 3 aec.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dynes|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pxjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2. Classical Sources for Our Understanding of Daoism}} }}</ref>}} en [[Xina antica]], la scola de [[dauisme]] ia es fundida e ia esplora la ordina natural de la universo, conoseda como [[Dau]], e como lo es marcada par la interata de [[Yin-yang|yin e yang]] como du fortes corelatada.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 5. Fundamental Concepts in the Daodejing}}|{{harvnb|Dynes|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pxjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60–61]}}}}</ref> En [[Elas antica]], metafisica emerji en la sentenio 6 aec con la filosofistes presocratiste, ci dona esplicas razonal de la cosmo intera par esamina la [[Prinsipe prima|prinsipes prima]] de cual tota veni. Seguente los, [[Platon]] (427-347 aec) ia formula sua [[teoria de formas]], cual afirma ce formas o ideas eterna posese la tipo la plu alta de realia e la mundo material es sola un refleta nonperfeta de los.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=184–185}}|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=590}}|{{harvnb|Graham|loc=§ 3b. Metaphysics}}}}</ref> [[Aristotele]] (384-322 aec) ia aseta la idea de Platon ce on ave formas universal ma ia crede ce los no pote esiste solitar e depende de materia. El ia proposa ance un sistem de categorias e ia developa un strutur completa de la mundo natural con sua teoria de la [[cuatro causas]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=185–187}}|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=590}}|{{harvnb|Graham|loc=§ 4a. Terminology, § 4f. Metaphysics}}}}</ref> Comensante en la sentenio 4 aec, [[filosofia eliniste]] ia esplora la ordina razonal cual suporta la cosmo e la idea ce lo es composada de [[Atomisme|atomes nondividable]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=590}}|{{harvnb|Graham|loc=§ 5a. Epicureanism, § 5c. The Stoics}}}}</ref> [[Neoplatonisme]] ia emerji a la fini de la periodo antica en la sentenio 3 ec e ia introdui la idea de "la Un" como un cosa transendente e nonespresable cual es la fonte de tota crea.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=187–188}}|{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|pp=590–591}}|{{harvnb|Graham|loc=§ 5. Post-Hellenistic Thought}}}}</ref> Entretempo, en [[budisme barati]], la [[Madhyamaka|scola Madhyamaka]] ia developa la idea ce tota fenomenos es [[Sunyata|inerente vacua]] sin un esense permanente e la dotrina de sola consensia de la [[Yogācāra|scola Yogācāra]] ia afirma ce ojetos esperiada es mera cambias de consensia cual no refleta realia eterna.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}}|{{harvnb|Depraz|Varela|Vermersch|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iYJy_2909NAC&pg=PA212 212]}}|{{harvnb|Shun'ei|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4qAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5–6]}}}}</ref> La scola indu de filosofia [[Samkhya]]{{efn|La ideas cual suporta la filosofia Samkhya ia emerji tan temprana como la sentenios 7 e 6 aec ma sua formula clasica e sistemosa es datida a 350 ec. <ref name="auto1">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruzsa|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}} }}</ref>}} ia introdui un dualisme metafisical con [[Purusha|consensia pur]] e [[Prakṛti|materia]] como sua categorias fundal.<ref name="auto1" /> En Xina, la scola de [[Xuanxue]] ia esplora problemes metafisical como la contrasta entre es e no es.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Chai|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LSAAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}}|{{harvnb|Robinet|2013|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Sp6TfzhpIC&pg=PA274 Chongxuan]}}}}</ref> [[File:Boethius.jpeg|thumb|alt=Desinia de Boethius|La teoria de universales de [[Boethius]] ia influe multe metaficistes ci ia veni a pos.]] Filosofia ueste medieval ia es forte influeda par filosofia elinica antica. [[Boethius]] (477–524 ec) ia atenta armoni la teorias de universales de Platon e Aristotele par afirma ce universales pote esiste ambos en materia e mente. Sua teoria ia inspira la filosofias de nominalisme e consetalisme, como en la pensa de [[Peter Abelard]] (1079–1142 ec).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=188–189}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Boethius, § Abelard}} | {{harvnb|Marenbon|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DYSVbvnDL8IC&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Sweeney|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=orIYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10–11]}} }}</ref> [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1224–1274 ec) ia comprende metafisica como la disiplina cual investiga la sinifias diferente de ''es'', como la contrasta entre sustantia e cualias nonesensal, e prinsipes cual aplica a tota cosas, como la [[lege de identia|prinsipe de identia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|loc=§ 5. Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=189}} }}</ref> [[William de Ockham]] (1285–1347 ec) ia proposa la prinsipes metodolojial de la Rasador de Ockham como un util per deside entre teorias metafisical competente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=190}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Ockham}} }}</ref> Filosofia arabi-persian, cual ia ave sua apico de la temprana de la sentenio 9 ec a la tarda de la sentenio 12 ec, ia usa multe ideas de la filosofistes elinica antica per interprete e clari la ensenias de la [[Curan]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Arabic–Persian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Adamson|Taylor|2004|pp=1–3}} }}</ref> [[Avicenna]] (980–1037 ec) ia developa un sistem filosofial completa cual ia esamina la contrasta entre esiste e esense e ia distingui entre esiste dependente e nesesada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Ibn Sina (Avicenna)}} | {{harvnb|Lizzini|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Essence and Existence, § 4. Modality and Existence}} }}</ref> [[Barat medieval]] ia vide la emerji de la scola [[monisme|moniste]] de [[Advaita Vedanta]] en la sentenio 8 ec, cual afirma ce tota es un e ce la idea de multe cosas esiste nondependente es un ilude.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Indian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=§ The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Dalal|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 2.3 Two-Tiered Reality}} }}</ref> En Xina, [[neoconfuzisme]] ia emerji en la sentenio 9 ec e ia esplora la [[li (neoconfuzisme)|conseta de li]] como la prinsipe razonal cual es la funda de es e refleta la ordina de la universo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berthrong|loc=Lead Section, § 4. Traits, Themes and Motifs}} | {{harvnb|Wu|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zRVmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} | {{harvnb|Smart|2008|p=99}}}}</ref> En la periodo moderna temprana, [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650) ia developa un dualisme de sustantia en cual corpo e mente esiste como cosas nondependente cual interata causal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=591}} | {{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cU7cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 51]}} }}</ref> Esta idea ia es rejetada par [[Baruch Spinoza]] (1632–1677), ci ia formula un filosofia moniste en cual on ave sola un sustantia cual ave ambos cualias fisical e mental cual developa con lado a lado sin interata.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=190}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=591}} }}</ref> [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (1646–1716) ia introdui la conseta de mundos posible e ia crea un sistem metafisical, conoseda como [[monadolojia]], cual comprende la universo como un colie de sustantias simple cual es sincronida sin interata causal con lunlotra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=190–191}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=591}} | {{harvnb|Look|2020|loc=§ 4. Metaphysics: A Primer on Substance}} | {{harvnb|Menzel|2023|loc=1. Possible Worlds and Modal Logic}} }}</ref> [[Christian Wolff]] (1679–1754), ia conseta la estende de metafisica par introdui la distingui entre metafisica jeneral e spesial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Svare|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=60MsUE3K2ekC&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Hettche|Dyck|2019|loc=§ 5. Metaphysics}} }}</ref> Seguente la [[idealisme]] de [[George Berkeley]] (1685–1753), tota es mental, incluinte ojetos material, cual es ideas persepida par la mente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=192}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=591}} }}</ref> [[David Hume]] (1711–1776) ia fa contribuis variosa a metafisica, incluinte la teoria de normalia de causalia e la idea ce on ave no lias nesesada entre cosas diferente. A la mesma tempo, sua perspetiva [[empiricalisme|empirical]] ia gida el a formula un critica sever de teorias metafisical cual atenta ariva a prinsipes ultima cual es nonasedable par esperia sensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Morris|Brown|2023|loc=§ 3. Philosophical Project, § 5. Causation, § 6. The Idea of Necessary Connection}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|pp=591–592}} }}</ref> Esta perspetiva setica ia es asetada par [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804). El ia atenta reconseta metafisica como un investiga de la prinsipes e categorias fundal de pensa e comprende en loca de vide lo como un atenta per comprende realia nondependente de la mente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=192–193}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Wood|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i7PG-Vk824UC&pg=PA354 354]}} | {{harvnb|Loux|Crisp|2017|pp=1–2, 6}} }}</ref> Multe developas en la periodo moderna tarda ia es formida par la filosofia de Kant. [[Idealisme deutx|Idealistes deutx]] ia usa sua perspetiva idealiste en sua atenta per trova un prinsipe uninte como la funda de tota realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=193}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Critchley|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=syhsLJ1eMOEC&pg=PA31 31]}} }}</ref> [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (1770–1831) ia developa un sistem completa de filosofia cual esamina como spirito asoluta mostra se.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Green|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gu6YVfL58OQC&pg=PA172 172]}} }}</ref> El ia inspira la [[idealisme brites]] de [[Francis Herbert Bradley]] (1846–1924), ci ia interprete spirito asoluta como la totalia cual inclui tota es.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=193}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Idealism}} }}</ref> [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] (1788–1860) ia es un critica forte de idealisme deutx e ia espresa un vista metafisical diferente cual prende un [[voluntaisme|volunta sieca e nonrazonal como la prinsipe fundal de realia]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Schopenhauer}} | {{harvnb|Janaway|1999|pp=[https://academic.oup.com/book/2954/chapter-abstract/143638920?redirectedFrom=fulltext 248–249]}} }}</ref> Praticalistes como [[C. S. Peirce]] (1839–1914) e [[John Dewey]] (1859–1952) ia conseta metafisica como un siensa oservante de la cualias la plu jeneral de realia e esperia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|p=194}} | {{harvnb|Misak|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p30osmyc2xoC&pg=PA406 Scientific Realism, Anti-Realism, and Empiricism]}} }}</ref> [[File:ANWhitehead.jpg|thumb|alt=Foto de Alfred North Whitehead|[[Alfred North Whitehead]] fundi la [[filosofia de prosedes]] en sua obra ''[[Prosede e Realia]]''.]] A la cambia de la sentenio 20 en [[filosofia analisal]], filosofistes como [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970) e [[George Edward Moore]] (1873–1958) ia gida un "revolta contra idealisme". [[Atomisme lojical|Atomistes lojical]], como Russell e [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] a la comensa de sua carera (1889–1951), ia conseta la mundo como un multia de fatos atomal, cual ia inspira metafisicistes plu tarda como [[D. M. Armstrong]] (1926–2014).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Proops|2022|loc=Lead Section}}|{{harvnb|Klement|2019|loc=Lead Section}}|{{harvnb|Mumford|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kGGmBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 100]}}}}</ref> Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) ia developa [[filosofia de prosedes|metafisica de prosedes]] como un atenta per furni un descrive oliste de ambos la mundos ojetal e sujetal.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Desmet|Irvine|2022|loc=§ 6. Metaphysics}}|{{harvnb|Palmer|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZT2pI9IMiYUC&pg=PA175 175]}}}}</ref> [[Rudolf Carnap]] (1891–1970) e otra [[positivisme lojical|positivistes lojical]] ia formula un critica vasta de declaras metafisical par afirma ce los es sin sinifia car on ave no modo per serti los.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=592}} | {{harvnb|Hart|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Otra criticas de metafisica tradisional ia identifia malcomprendes de [[filosofia de lingua comun|lingua comun]] como la fonte de multe problemes metafisical tradisional o ia pone en duta deduis metafisical complicada par depende de sensa comun.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hancock|2006|pp=194–195}} | {{harvnb|Morris|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfElDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Baldwin|2010|loc=§ 2. The Refutation of Idealism, § 6. Common Sense and Certainty}} }}</ref> La declina de positivisme lojical ia vide un revive de teori metafisical.<ref>{{harvnb|Broadbent|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_GSFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 145]}}</ref> [[Willard Van Orman Quine]] (1908–2000) ia atenta naturali metafisica par lia lo a la siensas empirical. Sua studiante [[David Lewis (filosofiste)|David Lewis]] (1941–2001) ia usa la conseta de mundos posible per formula sua [[realisme modal]]. [[Saul Kripke]] (1940–2022) ia aida revive discutes de identia e [[esensalism siensal|esensalisme]], e ia distingui [[nesesadia metafisical|nesesadia]] como un idea metafisical de la idea [[epistemolojia]]l de ''a priori''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ahmed|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dkkdCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} | {{harvnb|Gutting|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4WuaB_0nu8wC&pg=PA31 31–32]}} }}</ref> En [[filosofia continental]], [[Edmund Husserl]] (1859–1938) ia partisipa en ontolojia par un descrive fenomenolojial de esperia e sua studiante [[Martin Heidegger]] (1889–1976) ia developa [[ontolojia fundal]] como un atenta per clari la sinifia de es.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ryckman|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FI1JCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142–144]}} | {{harvnb|McLean|2003|p=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/metaphysics 550]}} | {{harvnb|Taminiaux|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kcJzeXpHctYC&pg=PA154 154]}} }}</ref> La filosofia de Heidegger ia inspira criticas jeneral de metafisica par pensores [[posmodernisme|posmoderniste]] como [[Jacques Derrida]] (1930–2004).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gilje|Skirbekk|2017|loc=Derrida, Foucault, and Rorty – Deconstruction and Critique}} | {{harvnb|Reynolds|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> La prosimi de [[Gilles Deleuze]] (1925–1995) a metafisica ia defia consetas tradisional influente como sustantia, esense, e identia par reconseta la campo en termas de ideas alternativa como multia, aveni, e difere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smith|Protevi|Voss|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Roberts|2016a|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UKW5DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA149 149]}} }}</ref> == Vide ance == * [[Demanda fundal de metafisica]] * [[Lista de metafisicistes]] * [[Teorias de Metafisica]] == Referes == === Notas === {{notelist}} === Sitas === {{Reflist}} === Fontes === {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last1=Adamson |first1=Peter |last2=Taylor |first2=Richard C. |title=The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-49469-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFMiAwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=7 June 2023 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |author1=AHD staff |title=The American Heritage Dictionary Entry: Existence |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=existence&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |website=American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=HarperCollins |access-date=10 August 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811074250/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=existence&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Arif |title=Saul Kripke |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4411-9399-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dkkdCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |language=en |date=2010 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Andrea |first1=Alfred J. |last2=Overfield |first2=James H. |title=The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-305-53746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ |language=en |date=2015 |access-date=4 April 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Armstrong |first1=D. 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Introduction to Psychological Metaphysics }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Williamson |first1=John |editor1-last=Beebee |editor1-first=Helen |editor2-last=Hitchcock |editor2-first=Christopher |editor3-last=Menzies |editor3-first=Peter |title=The Oxford Handbook of Causation |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-162946-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWWEIvNgUQ4C&pg=PA186 |language=en |chapter=Probabilistic Theories |date=2012 |access-date=29 March 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite journal |last1=Wilsch |first1=Tobias |title=Sophisticated Modal Primitivism |journal=Philosophical Issues |date=2017 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=428–448 |doi=10.1111/phis.12100 }} * {{cite book |last1=Wood |first1=Allen W. |editor1-last=Kim |editor1-first=Jaekwon |editor2-last=Sosa |editor2-first=Ernest |editor3-last=Rosenkrantz |editor3-first=Gary S. |title=A Companion to Metaphysics |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-0853-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i7PG-Vk824UC&pg=PA354 |language=en |chapter=Kantianism |access-date=21 March 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Wu |first1=Guo |title=An Anthropological Inquiry Into Confucianism: Ritual, Emotion, and Rational Principle |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-7936-5432-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zRVmEAAAQBAJ |language=en |date=2022 |access-date=4 April 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Züricher |first1=Tobias |editor1-last=Trachsel |editor1-first=Manuel |editor2-last=Biller-Andorno |editor2-first=Nikola |editor3-last=Gaab |editor3-first=Jens |editor4-last=Tekin |editor4-first=Şerife |editor5-last=Sadler |editor5-first=John Z. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Psychotherapy Ethics |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-881733-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLQ6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |language=en |chapter=Free Will, Responsibility, and Blame in Psychotherapy |date=2021 }}{{cbignore}} {{Refend}} [[Categoria:Filosofia]] [[Categoria:Siensas umana]] o8sglkackptd2l22ibg5q23ogokdmln 0 1280 43460 43405 2026-08-23T18:50:39Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43460 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Biografia | imaje = Spas vsederzhitel sinay (cropped1).jpg | descrive = La [[Cristo Pantocrator (Sinai)|Cristo Pantocrator]] de la [[Monceria de San Catalina de Monte Sinai]] a [[Monte Sinai]], sentenio 6 ec | nase = 6 a 4 aec, [[rena de Herod]], Impero Roman | mori = 30 o 33 ec, [[Ieruxalim]], [[Iudea]], Impero Roman | profesa = carpentor, predicor iudi }} '''Jesus''' (s 6 a 4 aec - 30 o 33 ec),{{efn|{{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς}}, {{peti|romanida:}} {{transleteri|grc|Iēsoús}}, probable de {{langx|he|יֵשׁוּעַ|label=[[ivri (lingua)|ivri]] o [[arami (lingua)|arami]]}}, {{peti|romanida:}} {{transleteri|und|[[Yeshua|Yēšūaʿ]]}} }} ci on nomi ance '''Jesus Cristo''',{{efn|[[copta (lingua)|copta]]: {{lang|cop|Ⲓⲏⲥⲟⲩⲥ Ⲡⲓⲭ́ρⲓⲥτⲟⲥ}}; [[itiopica]]: {{lang|gez|መሲህ ኢየሱስ}}; [[coine|elinica]]: {{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς Χριστός}}; [[ivri (lingua)|ivri]]: {{lang|hbo|ישוע המשיח}}; [[latina (lingua)|latina]]: {{lang|la|Iesus Christus}}; [[slavonica vea eglesal|slavonica]]: {{lang|cu|І҆исоу́съ Хрїсто́съ}}; [[siriaca clasica|siriaca]]: {{lang|syc|ܝܫܘܥ ܡܫܺܝܚܳܐ}}}}, '''Jesus de Nazaret''' e otra nomes e titulos variosa, ia es un predicor [[iudisme|iudi]] e [[Jesus en cristianisme|xef relijiosa]] de la sentenio prima en la provinse roman [[Iudea]].{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} El es la figur sentral de [[cristianisme]], la relijio la plu grande de la mundo. La plu de ramos de cristianisme regarda Jesus como la [[incarne (cristianism)|incarne]] de [[Dio la Fio]] e la [[Maxia]] o [[Cristo]] espetada. La [[Evanjelio]]s, spesial la cuatro Evanjelios canonal de la [[Atesta Nova]], conteni la naras de la vive de Jesus. De la [[Lumina]], rexerca academial ia produi vistas diversa sur la fidablia istorial de la Evanjelios e la grado a cual los refleta la Jesus istorial,{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=168–173}}{{efn|Ehrman scrive: "La mundo academial comparti jeneral la idea ce la naras de la evanjelios no es intera esata ma remane importante per la verias relijiosa cual los atenta comunica, an si persones estra de lo no conose o crede lo tan vasta."<ref>Bart D. Ehrman. [http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html Historical Jesus. 'Prophet of the New Millennium']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123155853/https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html |date=23 January 2019 |arcivo=1}} Course handbook, p. 10 (Lecture Three. V. B.), The Teaching Company, 2000, Lecture 24</ref><br />Sanders scrive: "La cristianes la plu temprana no ia scrive un nara de la vive de Jesus, ma plu esata los ia usa, e donce ia conserva, unias individua - pasajes corta sur sua parolas e atas. Plu tarda, autores e editores ia move e ordina esta unias. [...] Cristianes temprana ia revisa alga materias e ia crea otras."{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=57}}}}{{Sfn|Bowman Jr.|Komoszewski|2019|p=22–23}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author-first1=Craig A. |author-last1=Evans|url=https://theologicalstudies.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/54.1.1.pdf|title=Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology|journal=Theological Studies |volume=54 |year=1993|pages= 13–14|quote=First, the New Testament Gospels are now viewed as useful, if not essentially reliable, historical sources. Gone is the extreme skepticism that for so many years dominated gospel research. Representative of many is the position of E. P. Sanders and Marcus Borg, who have concluded that it is possible to recover a fairly reliable picture of the historical Jesus.}}</ref> ma cuasi tota eruditas moderna de [[anticia clasica|anticia]] acorda ce Jesus ia esiste istorial.{{efn |name=exist|En un resenia de 2011 sur la state de eruditia moderna, [[Bart D. Ehrman]] ia scrive: "Sin duta el ia esiste, como cuasi cada erudita capas de la antica clasica, cristian o noncristian, acorda."{{sfn|Ehrman|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376/page/n298 285]}} [[Richard A. Burridge]] declara: "Algas argumenta ce Jesus es mera un produida de la imajina de la Eglesa, e ce Jesus is esiste nunca. Me debe dise ce me conose no erudita criticante e respetable ci dise acel ancora."<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus Now and Then |first1=Richard A. |last1=Burridge |first2=Graham |last2=Gould |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8028-0977-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34 34] |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34}}</ref> [[Robert M. Price]] no crede ce Jesus ia esiste, ma el acorda ce esta perspetiva oposa la opinas de la majoria de eruditas. <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Robert M. |last=Price |title=Jesus at the Vanishing Point |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus: Five Views |editor-last1=Beilby |editor-last2=Eddy |year=2009 |publisher=InterVarsity |isbn=978-0-8308-7853-6 |editor-first=James K. |pages=55, 61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55 |editor2-first=Paul R. |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907112540/https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[James D. G. Dunn]] nomi la teorias sur la nonesiste de Jesus "un tese intera mor".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus |encyclopedia=Sacrifice and Redemption |first=Stephen W. |last=Sykes |year=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-04460-8 |pages=35–36}}</ref> Longo [[Michael Grant]] (un clasiciste): "En anios resente [de 2004], 'no erudita seria ia osa proposa la nonesiste istorial de Jesus', o a la min vera poca ia fa lo, e los no ia susede refuta la indicas multe plu forte e vera abundante per la oposada."<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Grant |title=Jesus|publisher=Phoenix |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-684-14889-2 |page=200}}</ref> [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] declara ce eruditas biblial e istoristes clasica opina ce on ia refuta eficas la teorias sur la nonesiste de Jesus.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=16}} Scrivente en ''[[The Daily Beast]]'', [[Candida Moss]] e [[Joel Baden]] declara ce "on ave un consensa cuasi universal entre eruditas biblial – a la min la eruditas autentica – ce Jesus ia es, en fato, un om real."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth |title=So-Called 'Biblical Scholar' Says Jesus a Made-Up Myth |newspaper=The Daily Beast |date=5 October 2014 |author-first2=Joel |author-last2=Baden |author-link1=Candida Moss|author-first1=Candida |author-last1=Moss |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=5 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205210029/https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth |url-status=live}}</ref>}} Longo la tradision cristian, como la Evanjelios e la [[Atas de la Apostoles]] representa lo, sua jenitores ia [[sircoside de Jesus|sircoside Jesus]] a eda de oto dias e ia [[presenta de Jesus|presenta]] el a la [[Templo de Ieruxalim]] a 40 dias. [[Joan la Batizor]] ia [[batiza de Jesus|batiza]] el cuando el ia es un adulte joven, e, pos [[tenta de Jesus|40 dias e notes]] de juna en la tera savaje, el ia comensa sua servi publica. El ia es un ensenior vagante ci, longo la credes de sua seguores, ia posese autoria divin per interprete la lege iudi. Frecuente Jesus ia debate con otra iudis, la plu comun la [[fariseos]] e [[saduseos]], sur la modo la plu bon per segue Dio. El ia remedia maladas, ia ensenia par parabolas, e ia colie seguores, de ci el ia asinia 12 per es sua apostoles. Longo la naras de la Atesta Nova, la autoriosas ia aresta el en Ieruxalim e la [[Sanhedrin]] ia litiga el.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} Los ia dona el a la autoriosas roman, e [[Pontio Pilato]], la prefeto roman de Iudea, ia comanda ce on [[crusi de Jesus|crusi]] el. En la [[teolojia cristian]], Cristo ia [[revive de Jesus|revive de la mores]] a la dia tre pos sua mori, e esta funda de crede ia developa a la [[cristianisme primitiva|Eglesa cristian temprana]], cual ia estende a un [[sperde de cristianisme|promove mundal]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=11, 14}} La teolojia cristian inclui la credes ce la [[Spirito Santa]] ia consepi Jesus, ce un virjin nomida [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|Maria]] ia [[nase virjinal de Jesus|pari]] el, ce el ia fa [[miracles de Jesus|miracles]], ia fundi la [[Eglesa]] cristian, ia mori par crusi como un sacrifia per espia pecas, ia revive de la mores a la dia tre, e ia [[asende de Jesus|asende]] a [[Sielo en cristianisme|Sielo]], de do el va reveni. Cristianes crede comun ce Jesus capasi ce la popla reconsilia con [[Dio en cristianisme|Dio]]. La [[Crede de Nisea]] afirma ce Jesus va [[judi final|judi la viventes e la mores]], o ante o pos lor [[revive universal|revive corpal]], un aveni cual [[escatolojia cristian]] asosia con la [[Ariva Du]] de Jesus. Multe ramos de cristianisme regarda Jesus como la incarne de Dio la Fio, la person du de la tre persones de la [[Trinia]]. A cada anio, tipal a 25 desembre, on selebra la nase de Jesus en Betlehem como [[natal]].{{efn|La plu de cristianes e [[alauistes]] selebra natal. Un parte de la eglesas de [[cristianes este|cristian este]] selebra natal a 25 desembre de [[calendario julian]]. Selebras natal comensa la [[vijila de natal]], tipal a 24 desembre.}} On onora sua [[crusi]] a [[venerdi santa]] e sua revive a soldi de [[pascua]]. La eda de calendario cual la mundo usa la plu vasta, en cual la anio presente es {{CURRENTYEAR}} [[eda comun|ec]], es fundida tradisional sur la data aprosima de la nase de Jesus. [[Iudisme]] tradisional rejeta la crede ce Jesus ia es la maxia espetada, afirmante ce el no ia reali la predises maxial, ce nun ia [[unje|unje legal]] el, e ce el ia es no divin no reviveda. Par contrasta, [[Jesus en islam|islam regarda Jesus]]{{efn|Frecuente nomida par sua nom curanal, {{transleteri|ar|ISO|[[Isa (nom)|ʿĪsā]]}}}} como la maxia e un [[profetas de islam|profeta]] de [[Dio en Islam|Dio]], ci Dio ia envia a la ivris e ci va reveni a Tera ante la [[Dia de Judi en Islam|Dia de Judi]]. [[Muslim]]es crede ce la virjin [[Maria en Islam|Maria]] ia pari Jesus, ma ce el ia es no Dio no la fio de Dio. La plu de muslimes no crede ce on ia mata o ia crusi el, ma ce Dio ia leva el a Sielo en cuando el ia es ancora vivente. {{efn|Alga muslimes medieval ia crede ce on ia crusi Jesus, como ance la membros de la promove moderna Ahmadiyya}} La credores de [[bahaisme]], [[durzi]] e [[rastafarisme]] venera ance Jesus. == Nom == Un person iudi en la tempo de Jesus ia ave tipal sola un nom, pos cual on ia ajunta a veses un espresa padral en la forma "fio de [nom de padre]", o la vila de orijina de la person.<!--<ref name="Britannica" />--> Donce, en la Atesta Nova, on nomi comun Jesus como "Jesus de [[Nazaret]]". La visinas de Jesus en Nazaret ia nomi el "la carpentor, la fio de [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|Maria]] e frate de [[Jacobo (frate de Jesus)|Jacobo]] e [[Josef (frate de Jesus)|Joses]] e [[Judas (frate de Jesus)|Judas]] e [[Simon (frate de Jesus)|Simon]]", "la fio de la carpentor", o "la fio de [[San Josef|Josef]]"; en la [[Evanjelio de Joan]], la disiplo [[Filipo la Apostol|Filipo]] refere a el como "Jesus, fio de Josef, de Nazaret". La nom Jesus es la transleteri (tra la latina ''Iesus'') de la [[elinica antica]] {{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς}}, cual es la varia elinica de la nom [[ivri]] Joxua (יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ ''Yehoxua'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Greek: 2424. Ἰησοῦς (Iésous) -- Jesus |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2424.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''The Greek name corresponds to the Hebrew "Joshua."''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''The name Jesus, in Greek, answers to Joshua, or rather, Jehoshuah, in Hebrew, which signifies Jehovah shall save;''}}</ref> La nom ivri/[[arami (lingua)|arami]] ia es comun entre iudis judean a la tempo de la nase de Jesus,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Barnes' Notes |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/barnes/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''It was a very common name among the Jews.''}}</ref> an si a acel periodo popla ia corti ja lo de יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ (''Yehoxua'') a יֵשׁוּעַ (''Yexua''); la corti ia aveni ja en libros biblial plu tarda como [[Nehemia]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=H3442 - yēšûaʿ - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (KJV) |url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/gen/1/1/s_1001 |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=Blue Letter Bible |language=en |quote=''Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon: יֵשׁוּעַ [Jeshua] a contracted form of the proper name יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ used in the later Hebrew ... proper name of other men, mentioned in the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah''}}</ref> en cual on nomi [[Joxua]] como Yexua.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nehemiah 8:17 Hebrew Interlinear: ... for the sons of Israel had not done, from the days of '''Jeshua [יֵשׁוּעַ, Yeshua] son of Nun''' ... |url=https://biblehub.com/interlinear/nehemiah/8-17.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com}}</ref> La nom sinifia "Dio salva" en ivri, leteral "[[Iaue]] salva",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 3091. יְהוֹשׁ֫וּעַ (Yehoshua) -- Joshua |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/3091.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Both Joshua son of Nun and Jesus of Nazareth bear the name "Yahweh saves"''}}</ref> de la radis ישׁע (''y-š-ʿ,'' 'salva') e la nom יְשׁוּעָה (''yexuah'', 'salva'). La [[Evanjelio de Mateo]] afirma direta la sinifia etimolojial de la nom de Jesus en la predise de la anjel a Josef sur sua nase: "tu va nomi el Jesus (Ἰησοῦς), car el va salva sua popla de lor pecas". Comentores ia dona un sinifia teolojial a la fato ce [[Joxua]], la susedor de [[Moxe]], porta la mesma nom como Jesus en la elinica, ivri, e arami orijinal, car on trasa frecuente un paralel entre la du xefes e la etimolojia de lor nom compartida ('salva'): Joxua gida la iudis a en la Tera Prometeda, en cuando la teolojia cristian dise ce Jesus salva e iudis e noniudis de lor pecas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Matthew Poole's Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/poole/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Joshua had his name from the same word, because he was to be a temporal saviour to save the Jews, the whole body of the Jews, from the Canaanites their enemies. This Jesus was to save his people, all that should believe in his name, whether Jews or Gentiles, from their sins.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Vincent's Word Studies |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/vws/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Under Joshua the enemies of Israel were conquered, and the people established in the Promised Land. So Jesus leads his people in the fight with sin and temptation.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''It was not without reason that the successor of Moses was called by this name; for, by subduing the Canaanites, and putting the tribes of Israel in possession of the promised land, he showed himself to be, under God, the Saviour of his people. But this name agrees much better to our Jesus, who both delivers his followers from much more dangerous enemies, and divides unto them a much more glorious inheritance.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Joshua who led the Israelites into the Promised Land, and Joshua or Jeshua, who was high priest at the time of the return from the Babylonish Captivity, are types of Jesus Christ in respect both of work and name.''}}</ref> === Jesus Cristo === De la sentenio prima, cristianes nomi comun Jesus como "Jesus Cristo".{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=212}} La parola Cristo no es un nom individual ma ia es orijinal un titulo o posto ("la Cristo"), sinifiante "la [[Maxia]]".{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=30–31}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Theology of the New Testament |first=Rudolf K. |last=Bultmann |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-932792-93-5 |page=80 |publisher=Baylor University Press}}</ref> La terma deriva de la elinica {{lang|grc|[[wikt:Χριστός|Χριστός]]}} ({{transleteri|grc|Christos}}),<ref>{{CathEncy |wstitle= Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ |first=Anthony J. |last= Maas}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Heil |first=John P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |title=Philippians: Let Us Rejoice in Being Conformed to Christ |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-58983-482-8 |page=66 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907173832/https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> un tradui prestada de la parola ivri {{lang|he|[[wikt:מָשִׁיחַ|משיח]]}} ({{transleteri|he|maxiakh}}), transleteri a elefen como ''maxia''.{{sfn|Vine|1940|pp=274–275}} La terma ivri sinifia "[[unjeda]]", de la verbo מָשַׁח (''maxaḥ''), "frota con olio, unje". En la [[Septuajinta]], la traduores ia usa la parola elinica χριστός (''christos''), sinifiante "unjeda",<ref>{{Cite web |title=χριστός Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=χριστός&la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2026-01-21|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|quote=of persons, anointed}}</ref> de la verbo χρίω (''chrio''), "frota con olio, unje".<ref>{{Cite web |title=χρίω Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=χρίω&la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2026-01-21|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|quote=Autenrieth: smear with oil, anoint, LSJ: rub, anoint with scented unguents or oil}}</ref> En iudisme biblial, pretes ia usa olio santa per unje persones e ojetos spesial santa como parte de lor indui relijiosa. Cristianes temprana ia nomi Jesus como "la Cristo" car los ia crede ce el es la Maxia de ci la ariva es prediseda en la [[Biblia ivri]] (Atesta Vea). En usa posbiblial, la popla ia comensa regarda ''Cristo'' como un nom — un parte de "Jesus Cristo". La parola ''[[cristian]]'', sinifiante un seguor de Cristo, es en usa de la sentenio prima.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA142 142]}} == Vive e instruis en la Atesta Nova == === Evanjelios canonal === [[File:Dublin, Chester Beatty Ms Papyrus 45 BP I ff.13-14 Luke 11.50-12.12; 12.18-37; 12.42-13.1; 13.jpg|alt=Un manoscrito de papiro de cuatro pajes cual es laserada en multe locas.|thumb|Un [[papiro]] elinica de sentenio 3 de [[Evanjelio de Lucas]]]] La cuatro [[evanjelios canonal]] ([[Evanjelio de Mateo|Mateo]], [[Evanjelio de Marco|Marco]], [[Evanjelio de Lucas|Lucas]], e [[Evanjelio de Joan|Joan]]) es la fontes xef per la vive e mesaje de Jesus.<!-- <ref name="Britannica" /> --> Otra partes de la Atesta Nova inclui ance referes a episodios clavin en sua vive, como la [[Come Ultima]] en 1 Corintianes 11:23-26. [[Atas de la Apostoles]] refere a la servi temprana de Jesus e la previde de lo par [[Joan la Batizor]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Book of the Acts|url=https://archive.org/details/bookofacts0000bruc|series=New International Commentary on the New Testament|first=Frederick F. |last=Bruce |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-2505-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bookofacts0000bruc/page/362 362] |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref>{{sfn|Rausch|2003|p=77}}{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} Atas 1:1-11 furni plu detalias sur la [[Asende de Jesus]] ca la evanjelios canonal.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}} En la leteras nondisputada de Paulo, cual el ia scrive plu temprana ca la evanjelios, el sita a alga veses la parolas o instruis de Jesus. Alga grupos cristian temprana ia ave descrives separada de la vive e instruis de Jesus cual la Atesta Nova no inclui. Estas inclui la [[Evanjelio de Tomas]], la [[Evanjelio de Petro]], la [[Evanjelio de Judas]], la [[Apocrifa de Jacobo]], e multe otra scrivedas apocrifa. La plu de eruditas conclui ce autores ia scrive esta testos plu tarda, e ce los es min istorial fidable ca la evanjelios canonal.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=835–840}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=C. A. |title=Exploring the Origins of the Bible |date=2008 |publisher=Baker |page=154}}</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009|p=56}} ==== Autoria, data, e fidablia ==== La evanjelios canonal es cuatro naras, e la tradision atribui cada a un autor diferente. La eruditas regarda jeneral la autores de la evanjelios como usante nomes falsa. La tradision atribui los a la [[cuatro evanjelistes]], cada asosiada con Jesus o sua seguores prosima:{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} Marco a [[Joan Marco]], un acompanior de [[San Petro|Petro]];<!-- <ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> --> [[Mateo (apostol)|Mateo]] a un de la disiplos de Jesus;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} [[Lucas (evanjeliste)|Lucas]] a un acompanior de [[Paulo (apostol)|Paulo]] notada en alga leteras;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} e Joan a un otra de la disiplos de Jesus,{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} la "[[disiplo amada]]".{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, St.}} Seguente la [[primia de Marco]], la evanjelio prima cual on ia scrive ia es la [[Evanjelio de Marco]] (60-75 ec), segueda par la Evanjelio de Mateo (65-85 ec), la Evanjelio de Lucas (65-95 ec), e la Evanjelio de Joan (75-100 ec).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 |title=Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John |publisher=Crossway |year=2007 |page=58 |isbn=978-1-4335-1978-9 |first=Mark D. |last=Roberts |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174109/https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 |url-status=live}}</ref> La plu de eruditas acorda ce la autores de Mateo e Lucas ia usa Marco como un fonte per lor evanjelios. Car Mateo e Lucas comparti ance alga contenida no trovada en Marco, multe eruditas dedui ce los ia usa un [[fonte Q|fonte ipotesal Q]] en ajunta a Marco, en cuando un cuantia cresente suporta la [[ipotese de Farrer]] o la Posterioria Matean, en cual Mateo e Lucas ia usa direta lunlotra.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Runesson|first=Anders|title=Jesus, New Testament, Christian Origins|date=2021|publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=9780802868923}}</ref><ref name="TSP20222">{{Cite book |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference|publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers|year=2023|isbn=9789042950344|pages=5|editor-first1=Olegs|editor-last1=Andrejevs|editor-first2=Simon J. |editor-last2=Joseph|editor-first3=‎Edmondo|editor-last3=Lupieri|editor-first4=Joseph|editor-last4=Verhayden}}</ref>{{sfn|Licona|2010|pp=210–221}} Lucas e Mateo trata lor fontes plu conservante ca otra istoristes antica como [[Diodoro de Sisilia]], an si la paraleles e varias de la evanjelios sinotica es tipal de biografias istorial antica.<ref name="Kloppenborg 49–79">{{Cite journal |last=Kloppenborg|first=John|title=Variation in the Reproduction of the Double Tradition and an Oral Q?|journal=Ephemerides Theologicae Lovaniensis|volume=83|issue=1|pages=49–79}}</ref><ref name="Licona 2016 XIII-XIV">{{Cite book |last=Licona |first=Mike |title=Why are there Differences in the Gospels? What we can Learn from Ancient Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/whyaretherediffe0000mich |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0190264260 |pages=XIII-XIV}}</ref> Un aspeta importante de la studia de la evanjelios es la [[jenero leteratural]] a cual los parteni. La jenero "es un costum clavin cual gida e la composa e la interprete de scrivedas".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Burridge|first1=R. A. |year=2006|chapter=Gospels|editor-first1=J. W. |editor-last1=Rogerson|editor-first2=Judith M. |editor-last2=Lieu|title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_i2h4|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_i2h4/page/433 433]}}</ref> Esce la autores de la evanjelios ia intende scrive novelas, mitos, istorias, o biografias ave un efeto sinifiante sur como on debe interprete lor obras. Alga studias ia sujesta ce on debe regarda la evanjelios como un forma de biografia antica.<ref>Talbert, C. H. (1977). ''What is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels''. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press.</ref><ref>Wills, L. M. (1997). ''The Quest of the Historical Gospel: Mark, John and the Origins of the Gospel Genre''. London: Routledge. p. 10.</ref><ref>Burridge, R. A. (2004). ''What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography''. revised updated edn. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans.</ref> An si criticistes esiste,<ref>e.g. Vines, M. E. (2002). ''The Problem of the Markan Genre: The Gospel of Mark and the Jewish Novel''. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 161–162.</ref> la vista ce la evanjelios es un tipo de biografia antica representa la acorda jeneral entre la eruditas oji.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Graham N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |title=Jesus and Gospel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-00802-0 |page=192 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226005236/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogerson |first1=J. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies |last2=Lieu |first2=Judith M. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-925425-5 |page=437 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225204746/https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |archive-date=25 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Consernante la esatia de la naras, la puntos de vista varia entre regarda los como descrives nonerante de la vive de Jesus,{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=90–91}} asta duta lor fidablia istorial a puntos diversa,{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} e asta regarda ce los furni multe poca informa istorial sur sua vive ultra la fatos fundal.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–125}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}} ==== Strutur e contenida comparativa ==== On nomi Mateo, Marco e Lucas la Evanjelios Sinotica, de la elinica {{lang|grc|σύν}} ({{transleteri|grc|syn}}, 'en junta') e {{lang|grc|ὄψις}} ({{transleteri|grc|opsis}}, 'vista'),<ref name="Haffner-2008" /><ref name="Scroggie-1995" /><ref>{{OED|synoptic}}</ref> car los es simil en contenida, ordina de nara, lingua e strutur de paragrafes, e on pote pone fasil los a lado de lunlotra per un compara sinotica.<ref name="Haffner-2008">{{cite book |title=New Testament Theology |first=Paul |last=Haffner |year=2008 |isbn=978-88-902268-0-9 |page=135 |publisher=Gracewing}}</ref><ref name="Scroggie-1995">{{cite book |title=A Guide to the Gospels |first=W. Graham |last=Scroggie |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8254-9571-7 |page=128 |publisher=[[Kregel Publications]]}}</ref><ref>{{Britannica URL |title=Synoptic Gospels |url=topic/Synoptic-Gospels}}</ref> Eruditas acorda tipal ce lo es nonposible trova cualce relata leteratural direta entre la Evanjelios Sinotica e la Evanjelio de Joan.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Gospel of John |first1=Francis J. |last1=Moloney |first2=Daniel J. |last2=Harrington |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8146-5806-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3 3] |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3}}</ref> Multe avenis — como la batiza de Jesus, sua crusi, e la interatas con sua apostoles — apare en la Evanjelios Sinotica, ma avenis como la [[muta de Jesus|muta]] e la [[esorsi]] de demones{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}} par Jesus no apare en Joan, cual difere ance sur otra temas, como la [[purga de la Templo]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ladd |first=George E. |title=A Theology of the New Testament |year=1993 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0680-2 |page=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907103156/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251 |url-status=live}}</ref> La Sinoticas asentua aspetas diferente de Jesus. En Marco, Jesus es la [[Fio de Dio (cristianisme)|Fio de Dio]], de ci sua obras potiosa demostra la presentia de la [[Rena de Dio]].<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> La autor portrae el como un faor nonfatigable de miracles e la servor de e Dio e umanas.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits">{{Cite book|editor-last1=Thompson|editor-first1=Frank Charles|title=The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible|url=https://archive.org/details/thompsonchainref0000fran_q7b3|publisher=Kirk Bride Bible Company & Zondervan Bible Publishers|year=1983|pages= [https://archive.org/details/thompsonchainref0000fran_q7b3/page/1563 1563]–1564}}</ref> Esta evanjelio corta rejistra un cuantia relativa peti de la parolas o instruis estendeda de Jesus.<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> La Evanjelio de Mateo asentua ce Jesus es la reali de la vole de Dio como revelada en la Atesta Vea e la Senior de la Eglesa.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ATJ-927|year=1977|chapter=Matthew|pages=1171–1212}}</ref> Lo presenta el como la "Fio de David", un "re", e la Maxia.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" />{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Lucas presenta Jesus como la salvor divin-umana ci mostra compatia a la povres.<ref name="May Metzger Luke">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ATJ-927|year=1977|chapter=Luke|pages=1240–1285}}</ref> La testo depinta el como la ami de pecores e escluidas, ci ia veni per xerca e salva la perdedas.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" /> Esta evanjelio inclui parabolas bon conoseda, como la [[Bon Samaritan]] e la [[Fio Perosa]].<ref name="May Metzger Luke" /> La [[prologa de la Evanjelio de Joan]] identifia Jesus como un incarne de la Parola divin ([[Logos (cristianism)|Logos]]).<ref name="MayMetzgerJohn">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ATJ-927|year=1977|chapter=John|pages=1286–1318}}</ref> Como la Parola, la testo descrive Jesus como eterna presente con Dio, ativa en tota la crea, e la fonte de la natur moral e spirital de umanas.<ref name="MayMetzgerJohn" /> En esta evanjelio, Joan portrae Jesus como no sola plu grande ca cualce profeta umana pasada, ma plu grande ca cualce profeta ta pote es: el no sola parla la Parola de Dio; el es la Parola de Dio.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} En la Evanjelio de Joan, Jesus revela publica sua rol divin e on depinta el como la [[Pan de Vive]], la [[Lus de la Mundo]], la [[Vite Vera]], e plu. La autores de la Atesta Nova ia mostra jeneral poca interesa a fundi un cronolojia asoluta de la vive de Jesus o a sincroni la episodios de sua vive con la istoria secular de la eda.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–731}} Como Joan 21:25 declara, la evanjelios no alega furni un lista completa de la avenis de la vive de Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Collins |first=Gerald |title=Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/christologybibli0000ocol_k7l8 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955787-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/christologybibli0000ocol_k7l8/page/1 1]–3}}</ref> La autores ia scrive la naras xef como documentos teolojial en la contesto de [[cristianisme temprana]], considerante la linias de tempo como minor.<ref name="Wiarda75">{{cite book |title=Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology |url=https://archive.org/details/interpretinggosp0000wiar |first=Timothy |last=Wiarda |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8054-4843-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/interpretinggosp0000wiar/page/75 75]–78 |publisher=B&H}}</ref> La evanjelios dedica sirca un tri de lor testo a la semana final de la vive de Jesus en [[Ieruxalim]], cual on nomi la [[Pasion (cristianisme)|Pasion]].<ref name="Turner613">{{cite book |title=Matthew |url=https://archive.org/details/matthew0000turn |first=David L. |last=Turner |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8010-2684-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/matthew0000turn/page/613 613] |publisher=Baker}}</ref> Los no furni sufisinte detalias per sasia la esijes de istoristes moderna consernante datas esata, ma on pote estrae de los un imaje jeneral de la istoria de la vive de Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} === Jenealojia e nase === {{Xef|Nase de Jesus}} Jesus ia es iudi,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} e [[Maria (madre de Jesus)|Maria]], la sposa de [[San Josef|Josef]], ia pari el. La Evanjelios de Mateo e Lucas ofre du naras diferente de sua [[jenealojia]]. Mateo trasa la asendentes de Jesus a [[Abraham]] tra [[David]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} en cuando Lucas trasa la asendentes de Jesus tra [[Adam]] a Dio.{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA163 163]}} La listas es identica entre Abraham e David ma difere forte pos acel punto; Mateo ave 27 jeneras de David a Josef, en cuando Lucas ave 42, cuasi sin coaveni entre la nomes en la du listas. Eruditas ia proposa teorias variosa per esplica perce la du jenealojias es tan diferente. [[File:Gerard van Honthorst - Adoration of the Shepherds (1622).jpg|thumb|left|''Adora par la Pastores'' par [[Gerard van Honthorst]], 1622|alt=Un sena natal; omes e animales ensirca Maria e la Jesus nova naseda, ci es covreda en lus]] E Mateo e Lucas descrive la nase de Jesus, spesial ce un virjin nomida Maria ia pari el en [[Betlehem]] per reali la [[profeti|profetida]]. La nara de Lucas asentua la avenis ante la [[nase de Jesus Cristo|nase de Jesus]] e foca a Maria, en cuando lo de Mateo covre xef avenis pos la nase e foca a Josef.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=556}}<ref name="marsh37">{{cite book |title=Jesus and the Gospels |last=Marsh |first=Clive |author-last2=Moyise|author-first2= Steve |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-567-04073-2 |page=37 |publisher=Clark International |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907095218/https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Morris|1992|page=26}} Ambos naras declara ce Maria ia es prometeda a un om nomida Josef, ci ia es un desendente de la Re David e no ia es la padre biolojial de Jesus. Ambos suporta la dotrina de la [[nase virjin de Jesus]], longo cual la [[Spirito Santa]] ia consepi miraclosa Jesus en la utero de Maria cuando el ia es ancora un virjin.<ref name="Jeffrey">{{cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |title=A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-85244-224-1 |pages=538–540 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=30–37}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinnewtest0000brow_x9y1 |last=Brownrigg |first=Ronald |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-26036-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinnewtest0000brow_x9y1/page/96 96]–100 |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> A la mesma tempo, on ave atestas, a la min en la ''Atas de la Apostoles'' par Lucas, ce persones ia pensa ce Jesus ia ave, como multe figures en anticia, un padria dual, car on declara ala ce el ia desende de la seme de David.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew T. |date=2013 |title=Luke and Jesus' Conception: A Case of Double Paternity? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biblical-literature_2013_132_3/page/639 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=132 |issue=3 |pages=639–658 |jstor=23487891 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref> Par aseta Jesus como sua propre fio, on comprende ce Josef dona a el la desende nesesada de David.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |last1=Lincoln|first1=Andrew T. |title=Conceiving Jesus: re-examining Jesus' conception in canon, Christology, and creed|publisher=The Severn Forum|date=5 March 2015|page= 4 |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510100248/http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Alga eruditas sujesta ce Jesus ia ave un erita levita de Maria, fundida sur sua relata de sangue con [[Elizabeth (madre de Joan la Batizor)|Elizabeth]].<ref>For example, {{citation |title=Carmen 18}}</ref> [[File:Bellini-circumcision-NG1455-fm.jpg|thumb|alt=74.9 × 102.2&nbsp;cm|''La sircoside'' par [[Giovanni Bellini]], sirca 1500. La obra depinta la [[sircoside de Jesus]].]] En Mateo, Josef es turbada car Maria, sua prometeda, es ensinta,<ref>[[Mateo 1:19]]–[[Mateo 1:20|20]].</ref> ma en la prima de la [[sonias de San Josef|cuatro sonias de Josef]], un anjel serti a el ce el no debe teme sposi Maria, car la Spirito Santa ia consepi sua enfante.<ref name="Talbert">{{cite book |title=Matthew |first=Charles H. |last=Talbert |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8010-3192-2 |publisher=Baker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |pages=29–30 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |url-status=live}}</ref> En Mateo 2:1-12, sajas o majos de la Este trae donadas a la Jesus joven como la Re de la Iudis. Los trova el en un casa en Betlehem. [[Herode la Grande]] oia sur la nase de Jesus e, volente mata el, [[masacra de la inosentes|comanda la mata de tota bebes mas]] en Betlehem e sua visineria. An tal, un anjel averti Josef en sua sonia du, e la familia [[fuji a Ejipte]], plu tarda reveninte e abitante en Nazaret.<ref name="Talbert" />{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Schnackenburg |first=Rudolf |title=The Gospel of Matthew |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-4438-5 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |pages=9–11 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052207/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |url-status=live}}</ref> En Lucas 1:31-38, Maria aprende de la anjel [[Gabriel]] ce el va consepi e pari un enfante nomida Jesus tra la ata de la Spirito Santa.<ref name="marsh37" /><ref name="Jeffrey" /> Cuando Maria es a punto de pari, el e Josef viaja de Nazaret a la casa asendente de Josef en Betlehem per enscrive en la conta de abitores comandada par [[Cesar Augusto]]. Ala, Maria pari Jesus, e car los ia trova no sala en la otel, el pone la bebeta en un [[portafeno de natal|portafeno]]. Un [[anusia a la pastores|anjel anunsia la nase a un grupo de pastores]], ci vade a Betlehem per vide Jesus e a pos sperde la novas sirca la rejion. Lucas 2:21 raconta como Josef e Maria fa ce on [[sircoside de Jesus|sircoside lor bebe a la dia oto pos la nase]] e nomi el Jesus, como Gabriel ia comanda a Maria. Pos la [[presenta de Jesus a la Templo]], Josef, Maria, e Jesus reveni a Nazaret.<ref name="marsh37" /><ref name="Jeffrey" /> === Vive temprana, familia e profesa === [[File:William Holman Hunt - The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[Trova de la Salvor en la Templo]]'' par [[William Holman Hunt]], 1860|alt=Maria e Josef trova Jesus en la Templo]] La Evanjelios de Lucas e Mateo identifia la site de la enfantia de Jesus como Nazaret, un vila en [[Galilea]] en la [[Israel]] moderna, do el ia abita con sua familia. An si Josef apare en descrives de la enfantia de Jesus, la testos no nota el a pos.<ref>{{cite book |last=Perrotta |first=Louise B. |title=Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today |url=https://archive.org/details/saintjosephhisli0000perr |publisher=Our Sunday Visitor Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87973-573-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/saintjosephhisli0000perr/page/21 21], 110–112}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Reverend Archdeacon Kinane |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138 |title=Saint Joseph: His Life, His Virtues, His Privileges, His Power |page=138 |chapter=Section VI – The perpetual virginity of St. Joseph |publisher=Aeterna Press|access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230526/https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> La Evanjelios e otra fontes nota sua otra membros de familia, incluinte sua madre Maria; sua cuatro [[frates de Jesus|frates]], [[Jacobo (frate de Jesus)|Jacobo]], [[Josef (frate de Jesus)|Joses]] (o Josef), [[Judas (frate de Jesus)|Judas]], e [[Simon (frate de Jesus)|Simon]]; e sua sores nonomida.<ref>{{cite book |title=Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth |last=Aslan |first=Reza |author-link=Reza Aslan |year=2013 |publisher=Random House |page=[https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756 36] |isbn=978-1-4000-6922-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756}}</ref> La [[Evanjelio de Jacobo]] nomi la avis madral de Jesus como Joachim e Ana.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brownrigg |first=Ronald |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim |page=194 |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-1-134-50949-2 |access-date=31 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230540/https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim#v=snippet&q=joachim&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> La Evanjelio de Lucas rejistra ce Maria ia es un relatada de Elizabeth, la madre de Joan la Batistor. Alga fontes contempora e estrabiblial regarda Jesus e Joan la Batistor como cusinos de grado du, fundida sur la crede ce Elizabeth ia es la fia de [[Sobe (sore de San Ana)|Sobe]], la sore de Ana.<ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 97.1325.</ref><ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 120.189.</ref><ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 145.760 ([[Nicephorus Callistus]], ''Historia ecclesiastica'', 2.3).</ref> La Evanjelio de Marco reporta ce, a la comensa de sua servi, Jesus ave un conflita con sua visinas e familia.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} La madre e frates de Jesus veni per prende el car la popla dise ce el es [[Sania mental de Jesus|loco]]. Jesus responde ce sua seguores es sua familia vera. En la Evanjelio de Joan, Jesus e sua madre atende un [[rituo de sposi en Cana]], do el fa sua miracle prima pos la solisita de sua madre. Plu tarda, el es presente a sua crusi, e Jesus espresa conserna per sua bonstate. En Marco 6:3 on nomi Jesus un {{lang|grc|τέκτων}} ({{transleteri|grc|tektōn}}), un terma cual on comprende tradisional como "carpentor" ma cual pote ance refere a fabricores de ojetos en materias diversa, incluinte construores.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry G. |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |title=An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1889 |page=797}}</ref>{{sfn|Dickson|2008|pp=68–69}} Considerante la estende semantical larga de la terma e "la realia sosioistorial de un τέκτων comun nazaretan", Matthew K. Robinson, un prete e erudita, prefere tradui τέκτων como 'construor-artisan'.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Matthew K. |title="Is This Not the Τέκτων?": Revisiting Jesus's Vocation in Mark 6:3 |journal=Neotestamentica |date=2021 |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=431–445 |doi=10.1353/neo.2021.0038}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Matthew Robinson |url=https://www.theology.ox.ac.uk/people/matthew-robinson |publisher=[[University of Oxford]] |access-date=1 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref> La Evanjelios indica ce Jesus ia pote leje, parafrase e debate testos santa, ma esta no sinifia nesesada ce el ia reseta instrui formal de scrivistes.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Context, family and formation |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |pages=14, 21 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907175830/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live|doi=10.1017/CCOL0521792614.002}}</ref> La Evanjelio de Lucas reporta du viajas de Jesus e sua jenitores en Ieruxalim en sua enfantia. Los veni a la [[Templo en Ieruxalim]] per la [[presenta de Jesus]] como un bebe, acordante con la Lege iudi, do un om nomida Simeon profeti sur Jesus e Maria. Cuando Jesus, a la eda de des-du anios, perde se a un peregrina a Ieruxalim per pesah, sua jenitores [[trova en la Templo|trova el en la Templo]], sentante entre la instruores, escutante los e fante demandas, e la popla es stonada par sua comprende e respondes. Maria reproxa Jesus per perde se, a cual Jesus responde ce el debe "es en la casa de sua Padre". === Batiza e tenta === [[File:El bautismo de Jesús, por José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''[[Batiza de Jesus|La Batiza de Cristo]] par [[Joan la Batizor]]'', par [[Almeida Júnior]], 1895|alt=Jesus ia es batizada par Joan. La Spirito Santa en la forma de un pijon es a supra.]] La [[evanjelios sinotica]] descrive la [[batiza de Jesus]] en la [[Rio Urdun]] e la [[tenta de Jesus|tentas]] cual el ia fasa tra 40 dias en la [[Deserto Iudean]] como un prepara per sua servi publica.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheen |first=Fulton J. |title=Life of Christ |year=2008 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-385-52699-9 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165309/https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65 |url-status=live}}</ref> En cada de esta naras, informa sur Joan la Batizor presede la naras de la batiza de Jesus.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=141–143}}{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}} Los portrae Joan predicante la repenti per la pardona de pecas, corajinte carita a la povres, batizante persones en la rejion de la Rio Urdun sirca [[Perea]], e predisente la ariva de algun "plu potiosa" ca el.<ref>{{cite book |title=Eerdmans commentary on the Bible |first1=James D. G. |last1=Dunn |first2=John W. |last2=Rogerson |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8028-3711-0 |page=1010 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref> [[File:Ary Scheffer - The Temptation of Christ (1854).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Jesus e la Diablo depintida en ''[[Tenta de Jesus|La tenta de Jesus]]'', par [[Ary Scheffer]], 1854]] En la Evanjelio de Marco, Joan la Batizor batiza Jesus, e cuando Jesus sorti de la acua el vide la Spirito Santa desendente a el como un pijon, e un vose veni de la sielo e declara el como la Fio de Dio. Esta es un de la du avenis descriveda en la Evanjelios en cual un vose de Sielo refere a Jesus como "Fio", e la otra es la Muta. A pos, la Spirito forsa el a en la tera savaje, do Satan tenta el. Pos la aresta de Joan, Jesus comensa sua servi en Galilea. En la Evanjelio de Mateo, cuando Jesus veni a Joan per reseta la batiza, Joan protesta, disente, "Me nesesa ce tu batiza me." Jesus instrui el a continua con la batiza "per reali tota la virtua". A pos, Mateo nara tre tentas spesifiada cual Satan ofre a Jesus en la tera savaje. En la Evanjelio de Lucas, la Spirito Santa desende en forma fisical como un pijon pos cuando Joan ia batiza ja tota la persones e en cuando Jesus prea. Plu tarda, Joan reconose nonesplicada Jesus par envia sua seguores per fa demandas sur el. Lucas descrive ance tre tentas cual Jesus ia esperia en la tera savaje ante el comensa sua servi en Galilea. La Evanjelio de Joan no nara la batiza e tenta de Jesus. En loca, Joan la Batizor atesta ce el ia vide la Spirito desende e resta sur Jesus. Joan proclama publica Jesus como la Ovea de Dio, e alga seguores de Joan deveni disiplos de Jesus. Ante cuando la autoriosas prisoni Joan, Jesus gida sua seguores per batiza, e los batiza plu persones ca Joan. === Servi publica === [[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|''Sermon sur la Monte'', par [[Carl Bloch]], 1877, depinta [[Sermon sur la Monte|la parla importante de Jesus]].|alt=Jesus senta sur un monte, predicante a un fola]] La Sinoticas depinta du locas jeografial xef en la servi de Jesus. La prima aveni en Galilea, a norde de [[Iudea]], do Jesus gida un servi multe susedosa; la du aveni en Ieruxalim, do la autoriosas rejeta e mata el.<ref name="ISBEO">{{cite web |year=1939 |editor-last=Orr |editor-first=James |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online |url=http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817024703/http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |archive-date=17 August 2016 |access-date=30 July 2016 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref> Frecuente nomida "rabi",<ref name="ISBEO" /> Jesus presenta sua mesaje par parla.<ref name="Dunn2013">{{cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |title=The Oral Gospel Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/oralgospeltradit0000dunn |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2013 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oralgospeltradit0000dunn/page/290 290]–291}}</ref> En esta naras, el proibi ce los ci reconose el como la maxia — incluinte persones ci el remedia e demones cual, como on dise, el esorsi — parla sur lo (vide Secreta Maxial).{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}} Par contrasta, la Evanjelio de Joan portrae la servi de Jesus como aveninte xef en e sirca Ieruxalim en loca de en Galilea, e on proclama e reconose plu abrida sua natur divin.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} Eruditas divide comun la servi de Jesus a grados variosa. La servi galilean comensa cuando Jesus reveni a Galilea de la [[Deserto Iudean]] pos resiste la tentas de [[Satan]]. A pos el predica tra Galilea, e en Mateo 4:18-20, sua disiplos prima — ci va formi plu tarda la nucleo de la Eglesa temprana — encontra el e comensa segue el.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–130}} Esta periodo inclui la Sermon sur la Monte, un de la parlas major de Jesus,{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–130}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation |url=https://archive.org/details/sermononmountthe0000vaug |first=Carl G. |last=Vaught |year=2001 |publisher=Baylor University Press |isbn=978-0-918954-76-3 |pages=xi–xiv}}</ref> como ance la [[calmi de la tempesta]], la [[nuri de la 5000]], [[Jesus pasea sur acua|pasea sur acua]], e otra miracles e parabolas diversa.{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=143–160}} Lo conclui con la [[Confesa de Petro]] e la [[Muta]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Transfiguration, The |encyclopedia=The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Thought: Son of Man-Tremellius V11 |isbn=978-1-4286-3189-2 |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |year=1909 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 |page=493 |last=Nash |first=Henry S. |editor-first=Samuel M. |editor-last=Jackson |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052036/https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Barton132">{{cite book |last=Barton |first=Stephen C. |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels |date=23 November 2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80766-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994/page/n138 132]–133 |url-access=limited}}</ref> En cuando Jesus viaja en dirije a Ieruxalim, en lo cual on nomi frecuente la servi perean, el reveni a la rejion do el ia es batizada, a sirca un tri de la distantia a su de la [[Mar de Galilea]] longo la Rio Urdun.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=137}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=211–229}} La fase final de sua servi, en Ieruxalim, comensa con sua entra vinsal a en la site a [[soldi de palmas]].{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} En la Evanjelios Sinotica, en acel semana Jesus [[Puri de la Templo|espulsa la intercambiores]] de la [[Templo Du]], e [[Tradi de Judas|Judas negosia per tradi]] el. Esta periodo culmina en la [[Come Ultima]] e, en la nara par Joan, la [[Parla de Adio]].{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=257–274}} ==== Disiplos e seguores ==== [[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Exhortation to the Apostles (Recommandation aux apôtres) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|''La recomenda a la apostoles'', par [[James Tissot]], portrae Jesus parlante a sua des-du disiplos.]] Prosima a la comensa de sua servi, Jesus asinia des-du apostoles. En Mateo e Marco, Jesus clama sua cuatro apostoles prima, ci es pexores, e la testo descrive ce los abandona direta lor redes per segue el. En Joan, la du apostoles prima de Jesus es a prima disiplos de Joan la Batizor; la Batizor vide Jesus e nomi el la Ovea de Dio, e la du, oiante esta, comensa segue Jesus.{{sfn|Brown|1988|pp=25–27}}{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=292–293}} En ajunta a la Des-du Apostoles, la introdui a la Sermon sur la Plano en Lucas identifia un grupo multe plu grande de persones como disiplos. En Lucas 10:1-16, Jesus envia [[setedes disiplos|70 o 72 de sua seguores]] en duples per prepara vilas per sua visitas futur; el instrui los a aseta ospitia, remedia maladas, e proclama la [[Rena de Dio]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=The Gospel According to Luke |encyclopedia=New Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 |page=255 |first=Michael F. |last=Patella |editor-first=Daniel |editor-last=Durken |isbn=978-0-8146-3260-4 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910044704/https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Instruis e miracles ==== [[File:Hoffman-ChristAndTheRichYoungRuler.jpg|thumb|''[[Jesus e la joven rica]]'' par [[Heinrich Hofmann (pintor)|Heinrich Hofmann]], 1889]] En la Sinoticas, Jesus ensenia multe — comun en parabolas{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=316–346}} — sur la Rena de Dio. Jesus parla ance sur la "Fio de Umana", un figur [[Apocalise|apocalisal]] ci va veni per colie la elejedas.<ref name="Britannica" /> Jesus clama la popla a repenti de lor pecas e dedica se intera a Dio.<ref name="Britannica">{{Britannica |id=303091 |title=Jesus Christ |first1=E.&nbsp;P. |last1=Sanders |first2=Jaroslav J. |last2=Pelikan}}</ref> El instrui sua seguores a obedi la [[lege iudi]], an si alga contemporas persepi ce el mesma ia rompe la lege, per esemplo en relata a la obedi a la sabat.<ref name="Britannica" /> Cuando on demanda de el cual es la comanda la plu grande, Jesus responde: "Tu va ama la Senior tua Dio con tota tua cor, e con tota tua spirito, e con tota tua mente... E la du es simil: 'Tu va ama tua visina como tu mesma.'" Otra instruis etical cual on atribui a Jesus inclui ama enemis, asteni de odia e desira sesal, ofre la otra jena, e pardona los ci ia peca contra on.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stassen |first1=Glen H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |title=Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context |last2=Gushee |first2=David P. |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8308-2668-1 |pages=102–103, 138–140, 197–198, 295–298 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226062140/https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> La Evanjelio de Joan presenta la instruis de Jesus no mera como sua propre predica ma como revela divin. Joan la Batizor, per esemplo, declara en Joan 3:34: "El ci Dio ia envia parla la parolas de Dio, car el dona la Spirito sin mesura." En Joan 7:16, Jesus dise, "Mea instrui no es de me ma de el ci ia envia me." El repete esta en Joan 14:10: "Tu no crede ce me es en la Padre e la Padre es en me? La parolas cual me dise a tu, me no dise de me mesma; ma la Padre ci abita en me fa sua obras."<ref name="Osborn-1993" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Köstenberger |first=Andreas J. |title=The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel |url=https://archive.org/details/missionsofjesusd0000kost |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8028-4255-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/missionsofjesusd0000kost/page/108 108]–109}}</ref> [[File:Pompeo Batoni 003.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|''[[Parabola de la Fio Perosa|La reveni de la fio perosa]]'' par [[Pompeo Batoni]], 1773]] Sirca 30 parabolas composa sirca un tri de la instruis rejistrada de Jesus.<ref name="Osborn-1993">{{cite book |first=Eric F. |last=Osborn |year=1993 |title=The emergence of Christian theology |url=https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo |url-access=limited |isbn=978-0-521-43078-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo/page/n115 98] |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=J. Dwight |last=Pentecost |year=1998 |title=The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher |url=https://archive.org/details/parablesofjesusl0000pent |isbn=978-0-8254-9715-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/parablesofjesusl0000pent/page/10 10] |publisher=Kregel}}</ref> La parabolas apare e en sermones plu longa e a locas diversa en la nara.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah |url=https://archive.org/details/sermonsofjesusme0000howi |first=E. Keith |last=Howick |year=2003 |publisher=WindRiver |isbn=978-1-886249-02-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sermonsofjesusme0000howi/page/7 7]–9}}</ref> Los conteni comun simbolisme e relata tipal aspetas de la mundo fisical a realias spirital.<ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich G. |last=Lisco |year=1850 |title=The Parables of Jesus |publisher=Daniels and Smith Publishers |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ/page/n12 9]–11 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Ashton |last=Oxenden |year=1864 |title=The parables of our Lord? |publisher=William Macintosh Publishers |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ/page/n15 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> Temas comun inclui la compatia e jenerosia de Dio, como ance la periles e resultas de peca.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |title=Interpreting the Parables |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2012 |page=448 |isbn=978-0-8308-3967-4 |first=Craig L. |last=Blomberg |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175429/https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |url-status=live}}</ref> Alga parabolas, como lo de la Fio Perosa, es relativa simple, en cuando otras, como la [[Parabola de la Seme Cresente|Seme Cresente]], es plu complicada, profonda, e difisil per interprete.<ref>{{cite web |first=Madeleine I. |last=Boucher |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html |title=The Parables |website=Frontline|publisher=PBS |access-date=3 June 2013 |archive-date=10 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810144100/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Cuando sua disiplos demanda perce el parla a la popla en parabolas, Jesus responde ce Dio ia permete ce la disiplos elejeda "sabe la secretas de la rena de sielo", no como la resta, ajuntante: "Car a el ci ave, on va dona plu e el va ave en abunda. Ma a el ci no ave, on va priva el an plu", e el continua par dise ce la plu de lor jenera ia developa "cores lente" e no es donce capas de comprende. [[File:Christ cleans leper man.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''[[Jesus remediante la leprosa]]'', [[mosaica]] medieval de la [[Catedral de Monreale]], de sentenios 12 a 13|alt=Jesus, sua testas areolada, pone sua manos sur un leprosa, remediante el]] En la naras de evanjelio, Jesus dedica un parte major de sua servi a fa [[miracle]]s, spesial remedias.{{sfn|Green|McKnight |Marshall|1992|p=299}} On clasi comun esta miracles a du categorias xef: miracles de remedia e miracles natural.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=350}}{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |title=The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide |date=2008 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-1-4267-2475-6 |page=113 |access-date=29 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> La miracles de remedia inclui la remedia de maladias fisical, [[esorsi]]s,{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=298}} e la revive de mores.{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=300}}<ref name="Oxford Companion" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Tabor |first=James |date=22 March 2013 |title=What the Bible Says About Death, Afterlife, and the Future |url=https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823115040/https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |archive-date=23 August 2016 |access-date=13 June 2015 |publisher=UNCC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hoekema |first=Anthony A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |title=The Bible and the Future |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-85364-624-2 |pages=88–89 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> La miracles natural demostra autoria supra la mundo natural e inclui [[muta acua a vino]], pasea sur acua, e calmi un tempesta, entre otras. Jesus atribui sua miracles a un fonte divin. Cuando oposores acusa el de espulsa demones par la potia de Belzebub, la prinse de demones, el responde ce el fa esta par la "Spirito de Dio" (Mateo 12:28) o la "dito de Dio", argumentante ce lo ta es nonlojical ce Satan dana sua propre rena; el ance demanda, si el esorsi par [[Belzebub]], "par ci vosa fios espulsa los?"<ref name="Britannica" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100 |title=Zondervan King James Version Commentary: New Testament |last2=Mitchell |first2=Daniel R. |publisher=Zondervan |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-310-25150-7 |page=100 |first1=Edward E. |last1=Hindson |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910171333/https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100 |url-status=live}}</ref> En Mateo 12:31-32, el declara ance ce, an si Dio pote pardona tota spesies de peca, incluinte "insultas contra Dio" o "insultas contra la Fio de Umana", Dio va pardona nunca blasfema contra "La [[Spirito Santa]]", e los ci es culpable de lo porta permanente lor peca.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 12:31-32 - New International Version|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2012%3A31-32&version=NIV|website=Bible Gateway|access-date=2026-01-30|language=en}}</ref> En Joan, la testo descrive la miracles de Jesus como "sinias", fada per evidenti sua mision e identia.<ref name="Sign" />{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/84 84]}} En la Evanjelios Sinotica, cuando alga instruores de la lege e fariseos demanda de el un sinia miraclosa per validi sua autoria, Jesus refusa,<ref name="Sign">{{cite book |title=Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature and Theology |year=2001 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3717-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198 198] |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198 |first1=Paul J. |last1=Achtemeier |first2=Joel B. |last2=Green |first3=Marianne M. |last3=Thompson}}</ref> disente ce Dio va dona no sinia a un jenera mal e dejenerada, con eseta de la sinia de la profeta [[Jona]]. En la Sinoticas, la folas responde tipal a sua miracles con stona e presa el per remedia lor maladas, ma en Joan, on depinta Jesus como min restrinjeda par la folas, ci responde frecuente a sua sinias con crede e fida.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=236}} Un cualia comun a tota naras de miracles es ce Jesus fa los libre e no solisita o aseta paia.<ref>{{cite book |last=van der Loos |first=Hendrik |title=The Miracles Of Jesus |year=1965 |publisher=Brill |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165838/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |url-status=live}}</ref> Frecuente la naras de miracles es entretexeda con instruis, e la miracles mesma porta comun un dimension instruinte.<ref>{{cite book |title=The words and works of Jesus Christ |first=J. Dwight |last=Pentecost |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-310-30940-6 |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |publisher=Zondervan |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910063513/https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Twelftree|1999 |p=95}} Multe asentua la importa de fida: en la [[remedia de des leprosas]] e la revive de la fia de Iairo, per esemplo, Jesus dise a la beneficadas ce lor fida es la causa de lor remedia.{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington |2002|p=182}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |year=1988 |title=All the Miracles of the Bible |url=https://archive.org/details/allmiraclesofbib0000lock |isbn=978-0-310-28101-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/allmiraclesofbib0000lock/page/235 235] |publisher=Zondervan}}</ref> En ''A Marginal Jew'', erudita [[John P. Meier]] argumenta ce "la tradisiones de miracles sur la servi publica de Jesus es ja atestada tan vasta en fontes diversa" ce cualce "fabrica intera par la eglesa temprana es, en modo pratical, nonposible". El fundi esta alega sur fontes leteratural como la Evanjelios de Mateo, Lucas, e Joan, como ance sur la scrivedas de la istoriste Josefo. Meier argumenta ce la "criterio de atestas multiple de fontes e formas" suporta la conclui ce Jesus ia fa "obras estracomun" cual sua contemporas ia regarda como miracles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=John Meier |url=http://archive.org/details/Marginal-Jew_vol-2_Meier_1994 |title=A Marginal Jew/Маргинальный еврей |date=November 1994}}</ref> Erudita [[Paul J. Achtemeier]] argumenta ce tal miracles no ia es unica a Jesus en la mundo antica e ce an atestores ia persepi los como ambigua. El nota ce probable Jesus ia fa atas cual on ia comprende como esorsis, cual "ia es asetada como realia par sua contemporas", ma ce on no debe vide estas como avente "valua demostrante consernante Jesus," car atestores ia pote alega ce el ia labora o con Satan o con Dio.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Achtemeier |first=Paul J. |date=1975 |title=Miracles and the Historical Jesus: A Study of Mark 9:14-29 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43714056 |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=471–491 |issn=0008-7912}}</ref> Erudita [[Gregory Sterling]] oserva ce, en la caso de la esorsis alegada fada par Jesus, "Per galileanes de la sentenio prima ci ia crede a la presentia personal de malia en forma de demones, la ata de Jesus ia es un validi de sua servi."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sterling |first=Gregory E. |date=1993 |title=Jesus as Exorcist: An Analysis of Matthew 17:14-20; Mark 9:14-29; Luke 9:37-43a |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43721315 |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=467–493 |issn=0008-7912}}</ref> ==== Proclama, Muta, e Semana de Pasion ==== [[File:Transfigurationbloch.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|La [[Muta de Jesus]], depintida par [[Carl Bloch]], sentenio 19]] Aprosima a la media de cada de la tre Evanjelios Sinotica, la autores nara du avenis sinifiante: la Confesa de [[San Petro|Petro]] e la Muta de Jesus — cual la Evanjelio de Joan no nota.<ref name="Barton132" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Christology of Mark's Gospel |url=https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king |url-access=limited |first=Jack D. |last=Kingsbury |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-4514-1007-5 |publisher=Fortress Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king/page/91 91]–95}}</ref>{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs" />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, Gospel of}} En la Confesa de Petro, Petro declara a Jesus, "Tu es la Maxia, la Fio de la Dio vivente";<ref>{{cite book |last=Karris|first=Robert J.|title=The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament|url=https://archive.org/details/collegevillebibl0000unse|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8146-2211-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/collegevillebibl0000unse/page/885 885]–886}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology|url=https://archive.org/details/whodoyousaythati0000unse_i0j9|first1=Jack D.|last1=Kingsbury|first2=Mark A.|last2=Powell|first3=David R.|last3=Bauer|year=1999|isbn=978-0-664-25752-1|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|page=xvi}}</ref>{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington|2002|p=336}} Jesus afirma ce esta es un veria divin revelada.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yieh|first=John Y. H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC|title=One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2004|isbn=978-3-11-018151-7|pages=240–241|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC|archive-date=8 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=53–54}} Pos esta confesa, Jesus comensa parla a sua disiplos sur sua sufri, mori, e revive prosiminte. En la Muta,{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs" /><ref name="Barton132" /> Jesus trae Petro e du otra apostoles a la culmina de un monte nonomida, do "el ia es mutada ante los, e sua fas ia brilia como la sol, e sua vestes ia deveni briliante blanca".{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=72–76}} Un nube briliante covre los, e un vose de la nube proclama, "Esta es mea Fio, la Amada; con el me es multe plaseda; escuta a el."{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}} La descrive de la semana final de la vive de Jesus — comun nomida la [[Semana de Pasion]] — ocupa aprosima un tri de la nara en la evanjelios canonal. Esta parte comensa con la entra vinsal de Jesus a Ieruxalim e conclui con sua crusi.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} ==== Fadas en Ieruxalim ==== [[File:Gérôme - L'entrée du Christ à Jérusalem - cadre.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Un depinta de la [[entra vinsal de Jesus a Ieruxalim|la entra ultima de Jesus a Ieruxalim]], par [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1897|alt=Jesus, montante un asineta, viaja a Ieruxalim. Un fola grande bonveni el estra la murones.]] En la Evanjelios Sinotica, la semana final en Ieruxalim conclui la viaja tra Perea e Iudea cual Jesus ia comensa en Galilea.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} Jesus entra a Ieruxalim montante un asino joven, evocante la motif de la asino de la Maxia de la [[Zecaria|Libro de Zecaria]], en cual la re umil de la Iudis ariva a la site en esta modo.<ref name="May Metzger Mark">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ATJ-927|year= 1977|chapter=Mark|pages= 1213–1239}}</ref> En cuando el avansa, popla sperde capas e ramos peti de arbores (plumas de palma) sur la strada ante el e canta linias de Salmo 118:25-26.{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=256–258}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–395}} Pos esta, Jesus espulsa la intercambiores de la Templo, acusante los de cambia lo a un asconderia de furores par lor comersia. La plu de eruditas acorda ce lo es multe probable ce Jesus ia fa alga cosa en la templo e ia nota sua destrui.<ref>{{cite book |last= Sanders |first= E.P. |author-link= E.P. Sanders |year= 1985 |title= Jesus and Judaism |publisher= Fortress Press |page= [https://archive.org/details/jesusjudaism0000sand/page/61 61] |isbn= 978-0800620615|title-link=Jesus and Judaism}}</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}} En Joan, la Purga de la Templo aveni a la comensa de la servi de Jesus en loca de a la fini.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} Praticas antica de composa ia inclui tal deslocas e compresas cronolojial, e an biografistes fidable como [[Plutarco]] ia usa los.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vytlačilová |first=Magdalena |date=2023 |title=Jesus, the Gospels, and the Galilean Crisis by Tucker S. Ferda (review) |journal=Neotestamentica |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=197–202 |doi=10.1353/neo.2023.a938405}}</ref> Jesus ave conflitas con la veas iudi, per esemplo cuando los demanda sur sua autoria e cuando el critica los e nomi los ipocritas.{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=256–258}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–395}} [[Judas Iscariot]], un de la des-du apostoles, fini un negosia secreta con la veas iudi, prometente tradi Jesus a los per 30 monetas de arjento.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |title=All the Apostles of the Bible |publisher=Zondervan |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-310-28011-8 |pages=106–111 |access-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229044027/https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts |first=Doremus A. |last=Hayes |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-313-53490-1 |page=88 |publisher=HardPress}}</ref> La Evanjelio de Joan raconta du otra festas en cual Jesus ia ensenia en Ieruxalim ante la Semana de Pasion.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} En Betania, un vileta prosima a Ieruxalim, Jesus [[revive de Lazaro|revive Lazaro de la mores]]. Esta sinia potiosa{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} grandi la tensa con la autoriosas,{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} ci conspira per mata el.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} [[Maria de Betania]] unje la pedes de Jesus, predisente sua entera.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=401–470}} A pos, Jesus fa sua entra maxial a Ieruxalim.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} La folas aclamante ci saluta Jesus cuando el entra a Ieruxalim grandi la enemia entre el e la xefes ofisial.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} En Joan, Jesus ia purga ja la Templo Du en un visita a Ieruxalim en un pesah plu temprana. A pos, Joan raconta la Come Ultima de Jesus con sua disiplos.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} ==== Come Ultima ==== [[File:Última Cena - Juan de Juanes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|La [[Come Ultima]], depintida par [[Juan de Juanes]], sirca 1562|alt=Un depınta de la Come Ultıma. Jesus senta en la sentro, sua apostoles asemblada a ambos lados.]] La Come Ultima es la come final cual Jesus ia comparti con sua des-du apostoles en Ieruxalim ante sua crusi. Tota cuatro evanjelios canonal nota la Come Ultima; la Epistola Prima a la Corintianes par Paulo refere ance a lo.<ref name="Fahlbusch52">{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |volume=4 |first=Erwin |last=Fahlbusch |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |pages=53–56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907101720/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–477}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=180–191}} En la come, Jesus predise ce un de sua apostoles va tradi el.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} An pos ce cada Apostol afirma ce el no va tradi el, Jesus repete ce la trador va es un de los ci es presente ala. Mateo 26:23-25 e Joan 13:26-27 identifia Judas como la trador.<ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–477}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} En la Sinoticas, Jesus prende pan, rompe lo, e dona lo a la disiplos, disente, "Esta es mea corpo, cual es donada per vos." A pos el fa ce los tota bevi de un copa, disente, "Esta copa cual es versada per vos es la alia nova en mea sangue."<ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Eucharist}} La rituo cristian de la [[Eucaristia]] es fundida sur esta avenis. An si la Evanjelio de Joan no inclui un descrive de la rituo de pan-e-vino en la Come Ultima, la plu de eruditas acorda ce Joan 6:22-59 (la [[Parla sur la Pan de Vive]]) ave un natur eucaristial e resona con la naras de institui en la Evanjelios Sinotica e en la scrivedas de Paulo sur la Come Ultima.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=792}} En tota cuatro evanjelios, Jesus predise ce Petro va nega conose el a tre veses ante la [[gal]] cria en la matina seguente.<ref name="Denial">{{cite book |title=Peter: apostle for the whole church |first=Pheme |last=Perkins |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-4514-1598-8 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Gospel according to Matthew |volume=1 |first=Johann P. |last=Lange |year=1865 |publisher=Scribner |page=499}}</ref> En Lucas e Joan, el fa la predise en la Come. En Mateo e Marco, el fa la predise pos la Come; Jesus predise ance ce tota sua disiplos va abandona el.{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}} La Evanjelio de Joan furni la sola nara de Jesus lavante la pedes de sua disiplos pos la come.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}} Joan inclui ance un sermon longa par Jesus, preparante sua disiplos (aora sin Judas) per sua parti. Capitoles 14-17 de la Evanjelio de Joan es conoseda como la [[Parla de Adio]] e es un fonte sinifiante de contenida cristolojial.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Day |first1=Gail R. |title=John |url=https://archive.org/details/john0000oday |last2=Hylen |first2=Susan |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-664-25260-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/john0000oday/page/142 142]–168}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ridderbos |first=Herman |title=The Gospel of John: A Theological Commentary|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8028-0453-2 |pages=546–576}}</ref> ==== Angusa en la Jardin, tradi, e aresta ==== [[File:Caravaggio - The Taking of Christ restored.jpg|thumb|Un depinta de la [[besa de Judas]] e [[aresta de Jesus]], par [[Caravaggio]], sirca 1602|alt=Judas besa Jesus, e soldatos core per saisi esta.]] En la Sinoticas, Jesus e sua disiplos vade a la jardin [[Getsemani]], do Jesus prea per evita sua esperia difisil prosiminte. A pos Judas veni con un fola armada, enviada par la pretes xef, scrivistes e veas. El [[besa de Judas|besa Jesus]] per identifia el a la fola, cual aresta alora Jesus. En un atenta a para los, un disiplo nonomida de Jesus usa un spada per talia a via la orea de un om en la fola. Pos la aresta de Jesus, sua disiplos vade per asconde, e Petro, cuando demandada, nega a tre veses ce el conose Jesus. Pos la nega tre, Petro oia la gal cria e recorda la predise de Jesus sur sua nega. Alora Petro plora amarga.{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}}<ref name="Denial" /> En Joan 18:1-11, Jesus no prea per evita sua crusi, car la evanjelio portrae el como apena tocada par tal debilia umana.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus}} La persones ci aresta el es soldatos roman e gardores de la Templo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Michaels |first1=J. Ramsey |title=John |series=Understanding the Bible Commentary Series |date=2011 |publisher=Baker Books |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187 |isbn=978-1-4412-3659-3 |access-date=7 September 2017 |archive-date=26 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226071102/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187 |url-status=live}}</ref> En loca de es tradida par un besa, Jesus proclama sua identia, e cuando el fa esta, la soldatos e ofisiales cade a la tera. La evanjelio identifia Petro como la disiplo ci ia usa la spada, e Jesus reproxa el per lo. ==== Litigas par la Sanhedrin, Herodes, e Pilato ==== Pos sua aresta, la fola prende Jesus tarda en la note a la casa privata de la prete xef, [[Caiafas]], ci la presedor de Pilato, la procurator roman [[Valerio Grato]], ia instala a ante.<ref>[[Josephus]] Antiquities 18.2.2.</ref> La [[Sanhedrin]] ia es un asembla judal iudi.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=146}} La naras de evanjelio difere sur la detalias de la litigas.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Bromiley |editor-first1=Geoffrey W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-3782-0 |pages=1050–1052 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182833/https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> En Mateo 26:57, Marco 14:53, e Lucas 22:54, la gardores prende Jesus a la casa de la prete xef, Caiafas, do persones burla e bate el a acel note. Temprana en la matina seguente, la pretes xef e scrivistes gida Jesus a en lor consilio.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608">{{cite book |title=Holman Concise Bible Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/concisebibledict0000unse |publisher=B&H Publishing Group|lccn=97-22283|year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8054-9548-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/concisebibledict0000unse/page/608 608]–609}}</ref> Joan 18:12-14 declara ce la gardores prende Jesus a prima a Anas, la padre par sposi de Caiafas, e a pos a la prete xef.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608" /> [[File:Ecce homo by Antonio Ciseri (1).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Ecce homo!'' la depinta de 1871 par [[Antonio Ciseri]] de [[Pontio Pilato]] presentante Jesus a la publica|alt=Un depinta de la litiga publica de Jesus]] En la litigas Jesus parla multe poca, presenta no defende, e dona respondes multe rara e nondireta a la demandas de la pretes, causante ce un ofisial palmi el. En Mateo 26:62, la asentia de responde de Jesus causa ce Caiafas demanda el, "Tu ave no responde?".{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608" /> En Marco 14:61, la prete xef demanda alora a Jesus, "Esce tu es la Maxia, la Fio de la Bon-Diseda?". Jesus responde, "Me es", e alora predise la ariva de la Fio de Umana.<ref name="Britannica" /> Esta provoca ce Caiafas lasera sua propre roba con coleria e acusa Jesus de blasfema. En Mateo e Lucas, la responde de Jesus es plu ambigua:<ref name="Britannica" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|p=495}} en Mateo 26:64, el responde, "Tu ia dise tal", e en Lucas 22:70 el dise, "Tu dise ce me es."{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–398}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology |url=https://archive.org/details/lukespresentatio0000otoo |first=Robert F. |last=O'Toole |year=2004 |isbn=978-88-7653-625-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lukespresentatio0000otoo/page/166 166] |publisher=Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico|series=Subsidia Biblica}}</ref> La veas iudi prende Jesus a la Corte de Pilato e demanda a la governor roman, [[Pontio Pilato]], ce el judi e condena Jesus per alegas variosa: suverti la nasion, oposa la paia de tribui, alega es Cristo, un re, e alega es la fio de Dio.<ref name="Holman608" /> La usa de la parola "re" es sentral a la discute entre Jesus e Pilato. En Joan 18:36, Jesus declara, "Mea rena no es de esta mundo", ma el no nega sin ambiguia ce el es la Re de la Iudis.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications |title=The Names of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/namesofjesus0000binz |first=Stephen J. |last=Binz |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-58595-315-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/namesofjesus0000binz/page/81 81]–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ironside |first=H. A. |title=John |publisher=Kregel |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8254-9619-6 |page=454}}</ref> En Lucas 23:7-15, Pilato reali ce Jesus es galilean, e donce veni su la autoria de [[Herodes Antipas]], la tetrarca de Galilea e Perea.{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|p=181}} Pilato envia Jesus a Herodes per litiga,{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–121}} ma Jesus dise cuasi no cosa en responde a la demandas de Herodes. Herodes e sua soldatos burla Jesus, pone un roba custosa sur el per fa ce el aspeta como un re, e redona el a Pilato,{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}} ci clama alora en junta la veas iudi e anunsia ce el ia "no trova esta om culpable".{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–121}} Oservante un costum de pesah de la tempo, Pilato permete la relasa de un prisonida elejeda par la fola. El dona a la popla un eleje entre Jesus e un omisidor nomida [[Barabas]] ({{lang|he|[[wikt:בר-אבא|בר-אבא]]}} o Bar-abbâ, "fio de la padre", de la nom comun Abba: 'padre'). Convinseda par la veas, la fola eleje relasa Barabas e crusi Jesus.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=400–401}} Pilato scrive un sinia en ivri, latina, e elinica cual dise "Jesus de Nazaret, la Re de la Iudis" (cortida como INRI en depintas) per es afisada a la crus de Jesus,{{sfn|Brown|1988|p=93}} e alora flajeli Jesus e envia el per es crusida. La soldatos pone un [[corona de spinas]] sur la testa de Jesus e burla el como la Re de la Iudis. Los bate e burla el ante prende el a [[Calvario]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew |first=Donald |last=Senior |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8146-5460-6 |publisher=Liturgical Press |page=124}}</ref> ance nomida Golgota, per crusi.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}<ref name="Holman608" />{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|p=402}} ==== Crusi e entera ==== [[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|alt=Un depinta de Jesus sur la crus.|thumb|La depinta de [[Diego Velázquez]] de la [[crusi de Jesus|crusi]], sirca 1632]] Tota cuatro evanjelios canonal descrive la crusi de Jesus. Pos la litigas, la gardores gida Jesus a Calvario en cuando el porta sua crus; on nomi la via cual el ia prende probable la Via Dolosa. La tre Evanjelios Sinotica indica ce [[Simon de Cirene]] aida el, forsada par la romanes a fa tal.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–214}} En Lucas 23:27-28, Jesus dise a la femes en la fola grande ci segue el ce los no debe plora per el ma per se mesma e lor enfantes.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}} A Calvario, un person ofre a Jesus un sponja empapada en un misca tipal ofreda per lejeri dole. Longo Mateo e Marco, el refusa lo.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–214}} Alora la soldatos crusi Jesus e lansa dados per sua vestes. Supra la testa de Jesus a la crus, on pone la enscrive multilingual par Pilato, "Jesus de Nazaret, la Re de la Iudis." Soldatos e pasores burla el sur lo. Soldatos crusi du furores condenada con Jesus. En Mateo e Marco, ambos furores burla Jesus. En Lucas, un de los reproxa Jesus, en cuando la otra defende el.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=271}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/82 82]}} Jesus dise a la seguor: "oji tu va es con me en Paradiso." La cuatro evanjelios nota la presentia de un grupo de disiplos fema de Jesus a la crusi. En Joan, Jesus vide sua madre Maria e la disiplo amada e dise a el a cura el. En Joan 19:33-34, soldatos roman rompe la gamas de la du furores per aselera lor mori, ma no los de Jesus, car el es ja mor. En loca, un soldato perfora la lado de Jesus con un lansia, e sangue e acua flue a estra.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=271}} La Sinoticas reporta un periodo de oscuria, e la cortina pesosa en la Templo lasera cuando Jesus mori. En Mateo 27:51-54, un trematera abri tombas. En Mateo e Marco, asustada par la avenis, un [[senturion]] roman declara ce Jesus ia es la Fio de Dio.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=213–214}} A la mesma dia, [[Josef de Arimatea]], con la permete de Pilato e con la aida de [[Nicodemo]], sutrae la corpo de Jesus de la crus, envolve lo en un stofa limpa, e entera lo en un tomba nova escavada en roca.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}} En Mateo 27:62-66, a la dia seguente la pretes xef iudi demanda a Pilato per securi la tomba, e con la permete de Pilato la pretes pone selos sur la roca grande cual covre la entra.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Morris|1992|p=727}} === Revive e asende === [[File:Alexander Ivanov - Christ's Appearance to Mary Magdalene after the Resurrection - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Jesus aparente a Maria Magdalena pos sua [[Revive de Jesus|Revive]], depintida par [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]].|''Apare de Jesus Cristo a Maria Magdalena'' par [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]], 1835]] La Evanjelios no descrive la momento de la [[revive de Jesus]]. Los descrive la descovre de sua [[tomba vacua]] e alga apares de Jesus, con diferes clar en cada nara.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vermes |first=Geza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |title=The Resurrection |publisher=Penguin |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-191263-9 |place=London |page=141 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231513/https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |url-status=live}}</ref> En la cuatro Evanjelios, [[Maria Magdalena]] vade a la tomba a soldi matina, solitar o con un o plur otra femes.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=308–309}} La tomba es vacua, con la roca rolada a via, e on ave un o du anjeles, dependente de la naras. En la Sinoticas, un anjel dise a la femes ce Jesus no es asi e ce el ia revive. En Marco e Mateo, la anjel instrui ance ce los dise a la disiplos a encontra Jesus en Galilea. En Lucas, Petro visita la tomba pos cuando algun dise a el ce lo es vacua. En Joan, el vade ala con la disiplo amada. Mateo nota gardores roman a la tomba, ci reporta a la pretes de Ieruxalim lo cual ia aveni. La pretes soborna los afin los dise ce la disiplos ia fura la corpo de Jesus en la note. Poi la cuatro Evanjelios descrive apares diversa de Jesus en sua corpo reviveda. Jesus revela se prima a Maria Magdala en Marco 16:9 e Joan 20:14-17, con "la otra Maria" en Mateo 28:9, en cuando en Lucas la apare prima reportada es a du disiplos viajante a [[Emaus]]. Poi Jesus revela se a la des-un disiplos, en Ieruxalim o en Galilea. En Lucas 24:36-43, el come e mostra a los sua feris tocable per demostra ce el no es un spirito. El mostra ance los a Tomas per fini sua dutas, en Joan 20:24-29. En la Sinoticas, Jesus comanda la disiplos a sperde la mesaje de la evanjelio a tota nasiones,{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=297–301}} en cuando en Joan 21, el dise a Petro a cura sua oveas.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=216–226}} Lucas 24:50-53, Atas 1:1-11, e 1 Timoteo 3:16 nota o descrive la asende de Jesus a Sielo. En la Atas de la Apostoles, 40 dias pos la Revive, cuando la disiplos regarda, "un potia ia leva el a supra, e un nube ia prende el a estra lor vide". 1 Petro 3:22 declara ce Jesus ia "entra a sielo e es a la destra de Dio".{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}} La Atas de la Apostoles descrive alga apares de Jesus pos sua Asende. En Atas 7:55, Stefano regarda la sielo e vide "Jesus stante a la destra de Dio" apena ante sua mori.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=Frederick F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |title=The Acts of the Apostles |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8028-0966-7 |page=210 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222000/https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sur la via a [[Dimaxco]], la Apostol Paulo converti a cristianisme pos vide un lus abliante e oia un vose disente, "Me es Jesus, ci tu persegue." En Atas 9:10-18, Jesus comanda Ananias de Dimaxco en un revela a remedia Paulo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Luke T. |title=The Acts of the Apostles |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles0000john |last2=Harrington |first2=Daniel J. |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8146-5807-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles0000john/page/164 164]–167}}</ref> La [[Libro de Revela]] inclui un revela de Jesus consernante la dias final de Tera.<ref>{{CathEncy |wstitle=Apocalypse |last=Van den Biesen |first=Christian}}</ref> == Cristianisme temprana == [[File:Good shepherd 02b close slightly improved.jpg|thumb|Depinta de Jesus de la sentenio 3 de Jesus como la [[Bon Pastor]]]] Pos la vive de Jesus, sua seguores, como descriveda en la capitoles prima de la [[Atas de la Apostoles]], ia es tota iudis par nase o par converti, per cual la testo usa la terma biblial "[[proselite]]", e istoristes refere a los como cristianes iudi. La mesaje temprana de la Evanjelio ia es sperdeda par parla, probable en arami,{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=87–90}} ma cuasi direta ance en elinica.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jaeger |first1=Werner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |title=Early Christianity and Greek Paideia |date=1961 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-22052-2 |pages=6, 108–109 |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217042345/https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=17 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> La Atas de la Apostoles e la [[Epistola a la Galatianes]] en la [[Atesta Nova]] rejistra ce la comunia cristian prima ia es sentrida en Ieruxalim e sua xefes ia inclui Petro, [[Jacobo (frate de Jesus)|Jacobo, la frate de Jesus]], e [[Joan (Apostol)| Joan la Apostol]]. Pos sua converti, Paulo la Apostol ia sperde la instruis de Jesus a comunias noniudi diversa tra la rejion este de la Mediteraneo. On dise ce la influe de Paulo sur la pensa cristian es plu sinifiosa ca lo de cualce otra autor de la Atesta Nova.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_f0e0 |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |edition=3rd rev. |chapter=Paul}}</ref> A la fini de la sentenio prima, cristianisme ia comensa es interna e esterna reconoseda como un relijio separada de iudisme cual mesma ia es refinada e ia developa plu en la sentenios pos la destrui de la Templo Du.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |title=From the Maccabees to the Mishnah |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |publication-place=Philadelphia |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-664-25017-1 |pages=224–225}}</ref> Sitas cuantiosa en la Atesta Nova e otra scrivedas cristian de la sentenios prima indica ce cristianes temprana ia usa e amira jeneral la Biblia ivri (la [[Tanakh]]) como un testo relijiosa, xef en la traduis elinica ([[Septuajinta]]) o arami ([[Targum]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fee |first1=Gordon |author-link1=Gordon Fee |last2=Stuart |first2=Douglas |author-link2=Douglas Stuart (biblical scholar) |title=How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: Fourth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-310-51783-2 |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626225710/https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Cristianes temprana ia scrive multe obras relijiosa, incluinte los incluida en la canon de la Atesta Nova. Autores ia scrive probable la testos canonal, cual ia deveni la fontes xef usada par istoristes per atenta comprende la Jesus istorial e testos santa en cristianisme, entre 50 e 120 ec.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |page=8 |quote=The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 C.E. (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books were written by Jesus' own disciples. |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416082406/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Vistas istorial == Ante la [[Lumina]], eruditas ia regarda usual la Evanjelios como naras istorial esata, ma de alora eruditas ia emerje ci duta la fidablia de la Evanjelios e distingui entre la Jesus descriveda en la Evanjelios e la Jesus de istoria.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=5}} De la sentenio 18, tre xercas erudita separada per la Jesus istorial ia aveni, cada con cualias distinguinte e fundida sur criterios de rexerca diferente, cual eruditas ia developa comun en la xerca cual ia aplica los.{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=19–23}} An si un acorda vasta erudita esiste sur la esiste de Jesus,{{efn|name=exist}} e un acorda fundal sur la contorno jeneral de sua vive,{{efn|[[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate."<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|2006|p=4}}</ref>}} la portraes de Jesus construida par eruditas diversa difere comun de lunlotra, e de la imaje portraeda en la naras de evanjelio.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=James H. |last2=Pokorny |first2=Petr |title=Jesus Research |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusresearchint0000prin |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |place=Grand Rapids, Michigan |date=15 September 2009 |isbn=978-0-8028-6353-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jesusresearchint0000prin/page/1 1]–2}}</ref> Prosimis a la reconstrui istorial de la vive de Jesus ia varia de la prosimis "masimaliste" de la sentenio 19, en cual eruditas ia aseta la naras de evanjelio como atestas fidable a cada loca posible, a la prosimis "minimaliste" de la temprana de la sentenio 20, do los ia aseta cuasi no cosa sur Jesus como istorial.{{sfn|Keener|2012|p=163}} En la desenio de 1950, cuando la xerca du per la Jesus istorial ia aselera, la prosimis minimaliste ia desapare, e en la sentenio 21, minimalistes como [[Robert M. Price|Price]] es un minoria peti.{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p=27}}{{sfn|Evans|2012a|pp=4–5}} An si on no pote suporta istorial un crede en la natur nonerante de la Evanjelios, multe eruditas de la desenio de 1980 manteni ce, ultra la poca fatos regardada como istorial serta, alga otra elementos de la vive de Jesus es "istorial probable".{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p=27}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship |first=Marcus J. |last=Borg |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56338-094-5 |publisher=Continuum |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4 4–6] |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4}}</ref>{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=142–143}} Rexerca erudita moderna sur la Jesus istorial foca donce a la identifia de la elementos la plu probable.{{sfn|Anderson|Just|Thatcher|2007|p=131}}{{sfn|Meier|2006|p=124}} === Iudea e Galilea en la sentenio prima === [[File:The Ministry of Jesus.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Iudea]], [[Galilea]] es sua visineria a la tempo de Jesus|alt=Mapa topografica de Filastin en la sentenio 1 cual asentua la locas mensionada en la evanjelios canonal.]] En 6 ec, Iudea, [[Idumea]], e [[Samaria]] ia es mutada de un stato-cliente de la [[Impero Roman]] a un provinse imperal, ance nomida Iudea. Un [[prefeto]] roman, no un renor-cliente, ia governa la tera. La prefeto ia governa de [[Cesarea Maritimal]], lasante ce la Prete Xef de Israel gida Ieruxalim.<ref name="horsley">{{Cite book |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-293-5 |last=Horsley |first=Richard A. |title=Jesus and the politics of Roman Palestine |location=Columbia, SC |date=2014 |pages=26–53}}</ref> Con la eseta ce la prefeto ia veni a Ieruxalim en festas relijiosa, cuando zelo relijiosa e patriota ia inspira a veses turba o revoltas. [[Galilea]] con [[Perea]] ia es un stato-cliente herodian su la rena de [[Herodes Antipas]] de 4 aec.<ref name="horsley" /> Evidente Galilea ia es florinte, e povria ia es sufisinte limitada ce lo no ia menasa la ordina sosial.<ref name="Britannica" /> Filipo (m 34 ec), duifrate de Herodes Antipas, ia rena como Tetrarca an un otra stato-cliente herodian a norde e este de la mar de Galilea cual ia inclui Gaulanitis, Batanea, e Iturea; lo ia es xef noniudi.<ref>{{Cite book |edition=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05438-6 |volume=10 |pages=737–781 |editor-first1=Alan K. |editor-last1=Bowman |editor-first2=Edward |editor-last2=Champlin |editor-first3=Andrew |editor-last3=Lintott |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |chapter=Judaea |access-date=16 December 2024 |year=1996 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139054386A034/type/book_part}}</ref> A sude de esta a la riva este de la Urdun ia es la Decapoli; un colie de site-statos eliniste cual ia es clientes de la Impero Roman. A norde de Galilea ia es la sites de Tiro e Sidon cual ia es en la provinse roman de Suria. An si teras noniudi ia ensirca la teritorios xef iudi de Iudea e Galilea, lege e pratica roman ia permete ce iudis resta separada legal e cultural.<ref name="Britannica" /> Esta ia es la eda de [[Iudisme eliniste]], cual ia combina la tradision relijiosa iudi con elementos de la cultur eliniste. Asta la cade de la Impero Roman Ueste e la concistas muslim de la Mediteraneo Este, la sentros xef de Iudisme eliniste ia es [[Alexandria]] (Ejipte) e [[Antiocia]] (aora Turcia Sude), la du colonias elinica xef de la area de Asia Sude-Ueste e Africa Norde, ambos fundida a la fini de la sentenio 4 aec pos la concistas de [[Alexandro la Grande]]. Iudisme eliniste ia esiste ance en Ieruxalim en la Periodo de la Templo Du, do conflita ia aveni entre elinistes e tradisionalistes (a veses nomida iudistes). Traduores ia tradui la Biblia ivri de Ivri Biblial e Arami Biblial a la Elinica Iudi Coine; traduores ia crea ance la traduis Targum a arami en esta eda, ambos par causa de la declina de sabe de ivri.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barr |first1=James |title=The Cambridge history of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic Age |date=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05512-3 |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=W. D. |pages=79–114 |chapter=Chapter 3 – Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek in the Hellenistic age |editor2-last=Finkelstein |editor2-first=Louis}}</ref> Iudis ia fundi lor fe e pratica relijiosa sur la [[Tora]], sinco libros de cual los ia dise ce Dio ia dona los a [[Moxe]]. La tre partitos relijiosa importante ia es la [[fariseos]], la [[esenios]], e la [[saduseos]]. En junta esta partitos ia representa sola un frato peti de la popla. La plu de iudis ia espeta un tempo cuando Dio ta libri los de lor renores pagan, cisa par gera contra la romanes.<ref name="Britannica" /> === Fontes === [[File:Flavius Josephus 1582 by Froben.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Un edita de 1582 de la obras de [[Josefo]], un iudi roman e istoriste ci ia refere a Jesus{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–436}}]] Eruditas de la Atesta Nova fasa un defia enorme cuando los analise la Evanjelios canonal.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} La Evanjelios no es biografias en la sensa moderna, e la autores esplica la sinifia teolojial de Jesus e raconta sua servi publica ma omete multe detalias de sua vive.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} James Dunn ia argumenta ce transmete bocal ia conserva a prima la naras de sua instruis e vive, cual ia es la fonte de la Evanjelios scriveda.<ref name="Dunn2013" /> Eruditas regarda comun la Evanjelios como leteratur cual fundi se sur tradisiones bocal, predica cristian, e esejese de la Atesta Vea con la acorda ce los es un varia de biografia elinica-roman; simil a otra obras antica como la Memorias de Socrate par Xenofonte.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gray |editor1-first=Patrick |title=The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000patr |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108437707 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000patr/page/98 98]-99}}</ref> La reportas de avenis supranatural asosiada con la mori e revive de Jesus fa ce la defia es an plu difisil.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} Eruditas regarda la Evanjelios como fontes de informa suminada car la scrivores ia es atentante glori Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} Ed Sanders argumenta ce fontes testal survivente furni detalias plu fidable per la pensas de Jesus ca per la pensas de [[Alexandro la Grande]], car la testos discutente Jesus ia es scriveda plu prosima en tempo a la avenis a cual los refere. Obras de biografistes scriveda sur Alexandro la Grande en sua propre vive (ci ia vive 330 anios plu temprana) ia es tota perdeda, ma on conose los tra referes en biografias scriveda par autores plu tarda. An si la testos sur Jesus conteni ideas de e Jesus e sua seguores plu tarda, lo es posible distingui cual partes orijina de la vista propre de Jesus, e cual ia es ideas de sua seguores plu tarda.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} Eruditas usa criterios diversa, como la criterio de atesta nondependente, la criterio de coere, e la criterio de noncontinua per judi la veria istorial de avenis.{{sfn|Rausch|2003|pp=36–37}} La veria istorial de un aveni depende ance de la fidablia de la fonte; serta, la Evanjelios es rejistras no nondependente e no coerente de la vive de Jesus. Eruditas regarda la Sinoticas, spesial Marco, la evanjelio scriveda la plu temprana, como la fontes de informa la plu fidable sur Jesus tra multe desenios.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=71}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}}<ref name="Britannica" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=291 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Joan, la evanjelio scriveda la plu tarda, difere multe de la Evanjelios Sinotica, e on regarda lo como min fidable, an si alga eruditas regarda la evanjelio de Joan como avente plu fidablia ca los ia pensa a ante o a veses an plu fidable ca la sinoticas pos la xerca tre.{{sfn|Anderson|Just|Thatcher|2007|p=292}}<ref name="rout">{{cite book |title=The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/routledgeencyclo0000unse_r7z9 |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415880886 |page=[https://archive.org/details/routledgeencyclo0000unse_r7z9/page/283 283] |chapter=Historical Criticism}}</ref><ref name="john JH">{{cite book |title=The Jesus Handbook |date=2022 |publisher=William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=9780802876928 |pages=138–140}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blomberg |first1=Craig |title=The Historical Reliability of John's Gospel: Issues and Commentary |date=2011 |publisher=IVP Academic |isbn=978-0830838714}}</ref> Alga eruditas (como la [[Seminar de Jesus]]) crede ce la [[Evanjelio de Tomas]] noncanonal ta pote es un atestor nondependente per multe de la parabolas e aforismes de Jesus. Per esemplo, Tomas confirma ce Jesus ia bondise la povres e ce esta diseda ia sirculi nondependente ante es combinada con disedas simil en la fonte Q.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=471–532}} La majoria de eruditas es setica sur esta testo e crede ce on debe dati lo a la sentenio 2 ec.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casey |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC |title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching |date=30 December 2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-64517-3 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232056/https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231638/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Otra testos cristian noncanonal elejeda pote ance ave valua per rexerca sur la Jesus istorial.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} Fontes noncristian temprana cual atesta la esiste istorial de Jesus inclui la obras de la istoristes [[Josefo]] e [[Tasito]].{{efn|Tuckett writes: "All this does at least render highly implausible any far-fetched theories that even Jesus' very existence was a Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and that he had a band of followers who continued to support his cause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |title=Sources and methods |first=Christopher |last=Tuckett |year=2001 |encyclopedia=Cambridge Companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |pages=123–124}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–436}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|pp=39–53}} La erudita sur Josefo, [[Louis Feldman]], ia declara ce "poca persones ia duta la autenticia" de la refere de Josefo a Jesus en libro 20 de la Anticias de la Iudis, e sola un cuantia peti de eruditas disputa lo.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=83}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Maier |first=Paul L. |year=1995 |title=Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war |isbn=978-0-8254-3260-6 |page=285 |publisher=Kregel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907111405/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285 |url-status=live}}</ref> Tasito ia refere a Cristo e sua esecuta par Pilato en libro 15 de sua obra Anales. Eruditas regarda jeneral la refere de Tasito a la esecuta de Jesus como e autentica e de valua istorial como un fonte roman nondependente.<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies |first=Craig A. |last=Evans |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-391-04118-9 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42 |publisher=Brill |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42 |url-status=live}}</ref> Fontes noncristian es valuosa car los mostra ce an partitos neutra o enemin ia mostra nunca cualce duta ce Jesus ia esiste. Los presenta un imaje ru de Jesus cual es acordable con trovadas en la fontes cristian: ce Jesus ia es un ensenior, ia ave un reputa como faor de miracles, ia ave un frate Jacobo, e ia mori violente.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998}} Arceolojia aida eruditas a comprende plu bon la mundo sosial de Jesus.{{sfn|Reed|2002|p=18}} Per esemplo, lo indica ce Capernaum, un site importante en la servi de Jesus, ia es povre e peti, an sin un foro o un agora.<ref name="Gowler">{{cite book |title=What are they saying about the historical Jesus? |url=https://archive.org/details/whataretheysayin0000gowl |first=David B. |last=Gowler |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8091-4445-7 |publisher=Paulist Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/whataretheysayin0000gowl/page/102 102]}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Agoras and commercial structures |encyclopedia=Jesus and archaeology |editor-first=James H. |editor-last=Charlesworth |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8028-4880-2 |page=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182047/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live}}</ref> Esta descovre arceolojial resona bon con la vista erudita ce Jesus ia promove la comparti mutua entre la povres en acel area de Galilea.<ref name="Gowler" /> === Cronolojia === Jesus ia es un iudi galilean,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} naseda sirca la comensa de la sentenio prima, ci ia mori en 30 o 33 ec en Iudea.{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington|1992|p=340}} La acorda jeneral erudita es ce Jesus ia es un contempora de Joan la Batistor e ce la governor roman Pontio Pilato,{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} ci ia ocupa ofisia de 26 a 36 ec, ia comanda ce on crusi el.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} La Evanjelios ofre alga indicas consernante la anio de la nase de Jesus. Mateo 2:1 asosia la nase de Jesus con la rena de Herodes la Grande, ci ia mori sirca 4 aec, e Lucas 1:5 nota ce Herodes ia es sur la trono pico ante la nase de Jesus,{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=115–118}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–122}} an si esta evanjelio asosia ance la nase con la Conta de Quirinius cual ia aveni a des anios plu tarda.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=137–138}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=122–124}} Lucas 3:23 declara ce Jesus ia ave "sirca tredes anios" a la comensa de sua servi, cual longo Atas 10:37-38 la servi de Joan la Batistor ia presede, cual Lucas 3:1-2 ia rejistra como comensante en la anio 15 de la rena de Tiberio (28 o 29 ec).{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–122}}<ref name="Vermes-2010">{{cite book |first=Géza |last=Vermes |title=The Nativity: History and Legend |publisher=Random House Digital |year=2010 |pages=81–82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 |isbn=978-0-307-49918-9 |access-date=25 January 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503100006/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 |url-status=live}}</ref> Par ordina la naras de evanjelio longo datos istorial e usante otra metodos diversa, la plu de eruditas conclui un data de nase per Jesus entre 6 e 4 aec, ma alga persones proposa estimas cual inclui un estende plu larga.{{efn|Per esemplo, John P. Meier declara ce la anio de nase de Jesus es sirca 7/6 aec,{{sfn|Meier|1991|p=407}} ma Finegan prefere sirca 3/2 aec.<ref name=Finegan />}} Eruditas ia calcula la estende de datas per la servi de Jesus usante prosimis diversa.{{sfn|Köstenberger |Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} Un de estas aplica la refere en Lucas 3:1-2, Atas 10:37-38, e la datas de la rena de Tiberio, cual es bon conoseda, per dona un data de sirca 28-29 ec per la comensa de la servi de Jesus.{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=120–121}} Un otra prosimi calcula un data sirca 27-29 ec par usa la declara sur la templo en Joan 2:13-20, cual afirma ce construores ia es construinte la templo en Ieruxalim en sua anio 46 a la comensa de la servi de Jesus,<ref>{{Citation |last=Josephus |title=Book XV |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |work=The Antiquities of the Jews |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724214731/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |url-status=live}}.</ref> con la declara de Josefo ce Herodes la Grande ia comensa reconstrui la templo en la anio 18 de sua rena.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Maier|1989|p=123}} Un otra metodo usa la data de la mori de Joan la Batistor e la sposi de Herodes Antipas e Herodias, fundida sur la scrivedas de Josefo, e corelata lo con Mateo 14:4 e Marco 6:18.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Josephus on John the Baptist |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |access-date=25 January 2016 |last=Evans |first=Craig |editor-last1=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |pages=55–58 |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503120729/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |editor2-first=Dale C. |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Herodias: at home in that fox's den |url=https://archive.org/details/herodiasathomein0000gill |first=Florence M. |last=Gillman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8146-5108-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/herodiasathomein0000gill/page/25 25]–30 |publisher=Liturgical Press}}</ref> Vidente ce la plu de eruditas dati la sposi de Herodes e Herodias a 28-35 ec, esta furni un data de sirca 28-29 ec.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} Eruditas ia usa prosimis diversa per estima la anio de la crusi de Jesus. La plu de eruditas acorda ce el ia mori en 30 o 33 ec.{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington |1992|p=340}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles |2009|p=398}} La Evanjelios declara ce la aveni ia aveni en la prefetia de Pilato.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=81–83}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Green |first=Joel B. |title=The gospel of Luke: New International Commentary on the New Testament Series |year=1997 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2315-1 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425204312/https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=44–45}} La data per la converti de Paulo (calculada como 33-36 ec) ata como un limita masima per la data de Crusi. On pote determina la datas per la converti e servi de Paulo par analise la epistolas paulal e la Atas de la Apostoles.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=398–400}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Barnett |title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21 |publisher=InterVarsity |page=21 |access-date=25 January 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503144441/https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21 |url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomistes ia atenta estima la data esata de la Crusi par analise move lunal e calcula datas istorial de [[pesah]], un festa fundida sur la calendario ivri lunisolal. La datas la plu vasta asetada derivada de esta metodo es 7 april 30 ec, e 3 april 33 ec (ambos julian).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |url=http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116085454/http://johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |archive-date=16 January 2010 |access-date=17 May 2013}}</ref> === Veria istorial de avenis === Cuasi tota istoristes (e moderna e istorial) acorda ce Jesus ia es un person real ci ia esiste istorial.{{efn|name=exist}} Eruditas ia ateni un acorda limitada sur la fundas de la vive de Jesus.<ref name="White">{{cite book |title=Scripting Jesus: The Gospels in Rewrite |url=https://archive.org/details/scriptingjesusgo0000whit |first=L. Michael |last=White |year=2010 |publisher=HarperOne}}</ref> ==== Familia ==== Multe eruditas incluinte eruditas biblial acorda ce Josef, la padre de Jesus, ia mori ante Jesus comensa sua servi. La evanjelios no nota Josef en la servi de Jesus. La mori de Josef ta esplica perce en Marco 6:3, la visinas de Jesus refere a Jesus como la "fio de Maria" (la sosia ia identifia tipal fios par lor padres).{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA64 64]}} Longo Theissen e Merz, lo es comun per xefes carismosa estracomun, como Jesus, veni a conflita con lor familias normal.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} En Marco, la familia de Jesus veni per prende el, temente ce el es loco (Marco 3:20-34), e eruditas opina ce esta nara es istorial car cristianes temprana ta no inventa probable lo.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Mark |pages=[https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe/page/n84 51]–161}}</ref> Pos la mori de Jesus, multe membros de sua familia ia junta se a la promove cristian.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} La frate de Jesus, Jacobo, ia deveni un xef de la Eglesa de Ieruxalim.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=James, St.}} [[Géza Vermes]] dise ce la dotrina de la nase virjin de Jesus ia orijina de developa teolojial en loca de de avenis istorial.{{sfn|Vermes|1981|p=283}} Otra eruditas regarda como sinifiosa ce du evanjelios separada, Mateo e Lucas, atesta la nase virjin.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Bromiley |editor-first1=Geoffrey William |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |publication-place=Grand Rapids, Michigan|volume=4 |date=1979 |isbn=978-0-8028-3784-4 |page=991}}</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C2Y_HaL5W0C&pg=PA83 83]}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hagner |first=Donald A. |title=Matthew 1-13 |publisher=Paternoster |publication-place=Nashville |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-8499-0232-1 |pages=14–15}} cited in the preceding.</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |page=761 |title=Christian Theology |isbn=978-1-4412-0010-5 |last1=Erickson |first1=Millard J. |date=August 1998 |publisher=Baker |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913031951/https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Christmas – Philosophy for Everyone: Better Than a Lump of Coal |first=Scott C. |last=Lowe |publisher=Wiley |date=20 September 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |page=28 |isbn=978-1-4443-3090-8 |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913014940/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruner |first=Frederick Dale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |title=Matthew a Commentary: The Christbook, Matthew 1–12 |volume=1 |date=30 April 2004 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-1118-9 |page=41 |author-link=F. Dale Bruner |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913024157/https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live|edition=Revised & Expanded}}</ref> [[E. P. Sanders]] e Marcus Borg nota ce la naras de nase en Mateo e Lucas es nonistorial e la casos la plu clar de inventa en la naras de evanjelio sur la vive de Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Borg |first=Marcus |author-link=Marcus Borg |year=2007 |title=The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions |url=https://archive.org/details/meaningofjesustw0000borg |publisher=HarperOne |page=[https://archive.org/details/meaningofjesustw0000borg/page/179 179] |isbn=978-0-06-128554-7}}</ref> [[Dale Allison]] e [[[W. D. Davies]] argumenta ce Mateo presenta un nara de enfantia unida e preesistente fundida sur lejendas agadica sur [[Moxe]], an si los manteni ce elementos en la nara como la nomes de Maria e Josef e Jesus esente en Nazaret en la rena de Herodes es istorial.{{sfn|Crossan|Watts|1999|pp=[https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros/page/11 11–12]}} Ambos naras inclui ce Jesus nase en Bethlehem, en acorda con istoria de salva iudi, e ambos inclui ce el crese en Nazaret, ma Sanders indica ce la du naras reporta esplicas diferente sur como acel ia aveni. La nara par Lucas de un conta de abitores mundal no es credable, en cuando la nara par Mateo es plu credable, ma la nara leje como si un autor ia inventa lo per identifia Jesus como un Moxe nova, e la istoriste [[Josefo]] reporta la violentia de Herodes la Grande sin nota ce el ia masacra xicos peti. Eruditas incluinte [[Gerd Theissen]] e [[Annette Merz]] conclui ce Jesus ia nase en Nazaret, e cristianes temprana ia developa la nara de nase en Bethlehem per alinia la istoria de Jesus con scrivedas santa predisente ce on ta pari la maxia en Bethlehem.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=191|ps=: "Our conclusion must be that Jesus came from Nazareth. The shift of his birthplace to Bethlehem is a result of religious fantasy and imagination: because according to scripture the messiah had to be born in Bethlehem, Jesus' birth is transferred there."}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Piñero |first1=Antonio |title=Guía para Entender el Nuevo Testamento |date=2006 |publisher=Trotta, Editorial S.A |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-8164-832-4 |page=174 |edition=1st |language=es |quote=Lo más probable es que Jesús fuera oriundo de Nazaret y sólo luego se plasmara la historia de que nació en Belén para dar plena justificación a sus pretensiones mesiánicas, de acuerdo con las Escrituras. |trans-quote=It is most likely that Jesus was originally from Nazareth and only later was the story of his birth in Bethlehem added to fully justify his messianic claims, according to the Scriptures.}}</ref> La diferes trovada en la naras de evanjelio es tipal de biografias istorial antica.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Licona |first=Mike |title=Why are there Differences in the Gospels? What we can Learn from Ancient Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/whyaretherediffe0000mich |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0190264260 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyaretherediffe0000mich/page/2 2]}}</ref> La contradises ia es clar a cristianes temprana, con armonis presente en la evanjelios de enfantia de Tomas e la Evanjelio de Jacobo, cual on dati a la sentenio 2 ec.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cousland |first=J. R. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Holy Terror: Jesus in the Infancy Gospel of Thomas |date=16 November 2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-66817-2 |access-date=17 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232719/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gambero |first=Luigi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church |title=Mary and the Fathers of the Church: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Patristic Thought |date=1999 |publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=978-0-89870-686-4 |access-date=17 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232541/https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church#v=snippet&q=L.%20Gambero%2C%20Mary%20and%20the%20Fathers%20of%20the%20Church&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Eruditas conservaliste argumenta ce an con la nonsertia de la detalias, la naras de nase en la evanjelios trasa a retro a tradisiones istorial, o a la min multe plu temprana, pre-evanjelio.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/nt-wright-history-scepticism-and-virgin-birth/13686186 |title=History, scepticism, and the question of the virgin birth|first1=N. T. |last1=Wright|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=21 December 2021}}</ref><ref>[[R. T. France]] (2008), Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary, p.&nbsp;81–82</ref>{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=243–244}}{{sfn|Brown|1977|pages=104-121}} Per esemplo, seguente Ben Witherington: Lo cual nos trova en Mateo e Lucas no es la nara de ... un [dio] desendente a tera e, en la forma de un om, copulante con un fem umana, ma vera la nara de un consepi miraclosa sin la aida de cualce om, divin o otra. Tal, esta nara es sin presedente en o leteratur iudi o pagan. Sanders dise ce la jenealojias de Jesus fundi se no sur informa istorial ma sur la desira de la autor per mostra ce Jesus ia es la salvor universal iudi.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} A cualce caso, pos cuando la dotrina de la nase virjin de Jesus ia deveni instituida, acel tradision ia recambia la tradision plu temprana ce el ia desende de David tra Josef.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=196}} La Evanjelio de Lucas reporta ce Jesus ia es un relatada de sangue de Joan la Batistor, ma eruditas regarda jeneral esta lia como inventada.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}}<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Birth & Infancy Stories |pages=[https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe/page/497 497]–526}}</ref> == Notas == {{notelist}} {{notelist|30em}} == Referes == {{reflist|colwidth=20em}} === Fontes === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |first=Douglas |last=Hare |title=Matthew |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |language=en|year=1993 |isbn=978-0-664-23433-1}} * {{cite book |first=Craig L. |last=Blomberg |author-link=Craig Blomberg |title=Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey |year=2009 |language=en|isbn=978-0-8054-4482-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC |publisher=B&H |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222031/https://books.google.com/books?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The People's New Testament Commentary |first1=M. Eugene |last1=Boring |first2=Fred B. |last2=Craddock |author-link2=Fred Craddock |language=en|year=2004 |isbn=978-0-664-22754-8 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104165219/http://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |title=The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke |url=https://archive.org/details/birthofmessiahco0000brow_u5l1 |year=1977 |language=en|isbn=978-0-385-05907-7 |publisher=Doubleday}} * {{cite book |title=Mary in the New Testament |first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-8091-2168-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC |publisher=Paulist Press |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=17 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917011141/http://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary |first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |language=en|author-link=Raymond E. Brown |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8146-1283-5 |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelepistleso00brow}} * {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Raymond E. |title=An Introduction to the New Testament |publisher=Doubleday |language=en|year=1997 |isbn=978-0-385-24767-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00brow_0}} * {{cite book |last=Carter |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Carter |title=Pontius Pilate: Portraits of a Roman Governor |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8146-5113-1 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvhHcXKK0UEC |publisher=Liturgical Press |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222031/https://books.google.com/books?id=mvhHcXKK0UEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research |first1=Bruce |last1=Chilton |author-link1=Bruce Chilton |first2=Craig A. |last2=Evans |author-link2=Craig A. Evans |year=1998 |isbn=978-90-04-11142-4 |publisher=Brill |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004084608/https://books.google.com/books?id=AJM9grxOjjMC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Bowman Jr. |first=Robert M. |title=Jesus, Skepticism & The Problem of History: Criteria and Context in the Study of Christian Origins |last2=Komoszewski |first2=J. Ed |date=2019 |language=en|publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-310-53476-1 |editor1-last=Komoszewski |editor1-first=J. Ed |pages= |quote= |editor2-last=Bock |editor2-first=Darrell L.}} * {{cite book |first1=Steven L. |last1=Cox |first2=Kendell H. |last2=Easley |year=2007 |title=Harmony of the Gospels |isbn=978-0-8054-9444-0 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC |publisher=B&H |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222032/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor-first1=Frank L. |editor-last1=Cross |language=en |editor-first2=E. A. |editor-last2=Livingstone |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515065637/https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |first1=John D. |last1=Crossan |author-link1=John Dominic Crossan |first2=Richard G. |language=en |last2=Watts |title=Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-664-25842-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros}} * {{cite book |last=De Smet |first=Daniel |year=2016 |chapter=Les racines docétistes de l'imamologie shi'ite |language=fr |editor1-last=Amir-Moezzi |editor1-first=Mohammad Ali |editor2-last=De Cillis |editor2-first=Maria |editor3-last=De Smet |editor3-first=Daniel |editor4-last=Mir-Kasimov |editor4-first=Orkhan |title=L'Ésotérisme shi'ite, ses racines et ses prolongements – Shi'i Esotericism: Its Roots and Developments |series=Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Sciences Religieuses |volume=177 |location=Turnhout |publisher=Brepols |pages=87–112 |doi=10.1484/M.BEHE-EB.4.01163 |isbn=978-2-503-56874-4}} * {{cite book |last=Dickson |first=John |author-link=John Dickson (author) |title=Jesus: A Short Life |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2008 |language=en|isbn=978-0-8254-7802-4}} * {{cite book |last=Dillenberger |first=John |author-link=John Dillenberger |title=Images and Relics: Theological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/imagesrelicstheo0000dill |language=en|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-976146-3}} * {{cite book |first1=John R. |last1=Donahue |first2=Daniel J. |last2=Harrington |author-link2=Daniel J. Harrington |title=The Gospel of Mark |publisher=Liturgical Press |language=en|year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xZAIsUZOwSQC |isbn=978-0-8146-5804-8 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103010742/http://books.google.com/books?id=xZAIsUZOwSQC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Doninger |first=Wendy |year=1999 |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0}} * {{cite book |first=James D. G. |last=Dunn |author-link=James Dunn (theologian) |title=Jesus Remembered |language=en|year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8028-3931-2 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC}} * {{cite book |last1=Eddy |first1=Paul R. |last2=Boyd |first2=Gregory A. |author-link2=Greg Boyd (theologian) |year=2007 |title=The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus tradition |language=en|publisher=Baker |isbn=978-0-8010-3114-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U26_85NmwPUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222033/https://books.google.com/books?id=U26_85NmwPUC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium |first=Bart |last=Ehrman |author-link=Bart D. Ehrman |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-983943-8 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusapocalyptic00ehrm |url-access=registration}} * {{cite book |title=Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why We Don't Know About Them) |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |year=2009 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/ |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0-06-117393-6}} * {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |title=How Jesus Became God |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2014 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmspAgAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-06-225219-7}} * {{cite book |first=Bart |last=Ehrman |year=2011 |title=Forged: Writing in the Name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are |isbn=978-0-06-207863-6 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376 |url-access=registration |publisher=HarperCollins}} * {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |title=Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth |year=2012 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0-06-208994-6 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803200020/https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |author-link=Craig A. Evans |year=2003 |title=The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew–Luke |isbn=978-0-7814-3868-1 |language=en|publisher=Victor (Cook Communications Ministries)|url=https://archive.org/details/bibleknowledgeba00crai}} * {{cite book |first=Craig A. |last=Evans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87x8TqW6MJQC |title=Jesus and His World: The Archaeological Evidence |year=2012a |language=en|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-23413-3 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222033/https://books.google.com/books?id=87x8TqW6MJQC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |title=Matthew (New Cambridge Bible Commentary) |date=2012b |language=en|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01106-8}} * {{cite book |last=Finegan |first=Jack |title=Handbook of Biblical Chronology |year=1998 |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |isbn=978-1-56563-143-4 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine |url-access=limited}} * {{cite book |first=David N. |last=Freedman |author-link=David Noel Freedman |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |year=2000 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |language=en|isbn=978-0-8028-2400-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803133406/https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Friedmann |first=Yohanan |year=1989 |title=Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background |location=Berkeley |language=en|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05772-2}} * {{cite book |first1=Robert W. |last1=Funk |first2=Roy W. |last2=Hoover |author3=The Jesus Seminar |author-link3=Jesus Seminar |title=The Five Gospels |language=en|publisher=Scribner |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-02-541949-0}} * {{cite book |first1=Joel B. |last1=Green |first2=Scot |last2=McKnight |first3=I. Howard |last3=Marshall |author-link1=Joel B. Green |author-link2=Scot McKnight |author-link3=I. Howard Marshall |title=Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |language=en|publisher=InterVarsity |year=1992 |page=442 |isbn=978-0-8308-1777-1 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntwNm-tOogC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine |last=Grudem |first=Wayne |author-link=Wayne Grudem |year=1994 |publisher=Zondervan |language=en|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |isbn=978-0-310-28670-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0}} * {{cite book |first=Stephen L. |last=Harris |language=en|title=Understanding the Bible |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingbib0000harr_w2l8 |publisher=Mayfield |year=1985}} * {{cite book |last=Houlden |first=J. Leslie |title=Jesus: The Complete Guide |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8264-8011-8 |publisher=Continuum |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey8mZKV_jfkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey8mZKV_jfkC |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Humphreys |first1=Colin J. |last2=Waddington |first2=W. G. |date=1992 |language=en|url=https://legacy.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/Library/TynBull_1992_43_2_06_Humphreys_DateChristsCrucifixion.pdf |title=The Jewish Calendar, a Lunar Eclipse and the Date of Christ's Crucifixion |journal=Tyndale Bulletin |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=331–151 |doi=10.53751/001c.30487 |s2cid=189519018 |access-date=21 April 2019 |archive-date=21 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421091510/https://legacy.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/Library/TynBull_1992_43_2_06_Humphreys_DateChristsCrucifixion.pdf |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary |language=en|date=2009b |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-6498-7}} * {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Historical Jesus of the Gospels |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaljesuso0000keen |date=2009 |language=en|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}} * {{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |title=The Historical Jesus of the Gospels |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaljesuso0000keen |year=2012 |language=en|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-6292-1}} * {{cite book |first1=Andreas J. |last1=Köstenberger |first2=L. Scott |last2=Kellum |first3=Charles L. |last3=Quarles |title=The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament |language=en|year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8054-4365-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C |publisher=B&H |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727131059/https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Lawson |first=Todd |year=2009 |title=The Crucifixion and the Qur'an: A Study in the History of Muslim Thought |language=en|location=Oxford |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-635-3}} * {{cite book |title=Transfiguration |first=Dorothy A. |last=Lee |author-link=Dorothy Lee (theologian) |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8264-7595-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYWwEefwCegC |publisher=Continuum |language=en|access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222034/https://books.google.com/books?id=cYWwEefwCegC |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Introduction |first=Amy-Jill |last=Levine |author-link=Amy-Jill Levine |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |editor-last1=Levine |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |language=en|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |year=2006 |editor1-first=Amy-Jill |editor2-first=Dale C. |editor2-link=Dale Allison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=10 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410102712/http://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Misunderstood Jew: The Church and the Scandal of the Jewish Jesus |first=Amy-Jill |last=Levine |author-link=Amy-Jill Levine |year=2007 |language=en|isbn=978-0-06-174811-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMisunderstoodJewTheChurchAndTheScandalOfTheJewishJesus |publisher=HarperCollins}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8xNoRBtxMC |title=The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8308-2719-0 |first=Michael R. |last=Licona |language=en|access-date=29 July 2015 |archive-date=18 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218101307/https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8xNoRBtxMC |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Paul L. |last=Maier |author-link=Paul L. Maier |title=The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus |encyclopedia=''Chronos'', ''Kairos'', ''Christos'': Nativity and Chronological Studies |editor-last1=Finegan |editor-first2=Jerry |editor-last2=Vardaman |editor-first3=Edwin M. |editor-last3=Yamauchi |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-931464-50-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC&pg=PA113 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |editor-first=Jack |editor1-link=Jack Finegan |editor3-link=Edwin M. Yamauchi |language=en|access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907110057/https://books.google.com/books?id=UCBBY_O88uYC&pg=PA113 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke |first1=Ján |last1=Majerník |first2=Joseph |last2=Ponessa |first3=Laurie W. |last3=Manhardt |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-931018-31-9 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC |publisher=Emmaus Road |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819025434/https://books.google.com/books?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&pg=PA4 |title=Christianity: An Introduction |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |author-link=Alister McGrath |year=2006 |language=en|pages=4–6 |isbn=978-1-4051-0899-7 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910073956/https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&pg=PA4 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Meier |first=John P. |author-link=John P. Meier |title=A Marginal Jew: The Roots of the Problem and the Person |url=https://archive.org/details/marginaljewrethi0000john |year=1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |language=en|isbn=978-0-300-14018-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Meier |first=John P. |title=How do we decide what comes from Jesus |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |editor-last1=Dunn |editor-last2=McKnight |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-57506-100-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC |editor1-first=James D. G. |publisher=Eisenbrauns |editor2-first=Scot |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |year=2010 |chapter=Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam Hazrat |editor1-last=Melton |editor1-first=J. Gordon |editor2-last=Baumann |editor2-first=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |language=en|volume=1 |pages=54–56 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1-59884-203-6 |location=Santa Barbara |publisher=ABC-CLIO |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA55 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=21 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021175959/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA55 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Watson E. |last2=Bullard |first2=Roger A. |year=1998 |title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-86554-373-7 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018095243/https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Leon |author-link=Leon Morris |year=1992 |title=The Gospel According to Matthew |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-85111-338-8 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802002134/https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Niswonger |first=Richard L. |title=New Testament History |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-310-31201-7 |language=en|publisher=Zondervan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyAXaNnz9sUC}} * {{cite book |last=Pannenberg |first=Wolfhart |author-link=Wolfhart Pannenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC |title=Jesus: God and Man |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-334-00783-8 |language=en|publisher=S. C. M. Press |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark Allan Powell |title=Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee |year=1998 |language=en|isbn=978-0-664-25703-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusasfigureinh0000powe |url-access=registration |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}} * {{cite book |last=Rahner |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Rahner |title=Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise ''Sacramentum Mundi'' |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-86012-006-3 |publisher=Continuum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC |language=en|access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115653/https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Who Is Jesus? An Introduction to Christology |first=Thomas P. |last=Rausch |author-link=Thomas Rausch |language=en|year=2003 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-5078-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Redford |first=Douglas |title=The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels |year=2007 |language=en|isbn=978-0-7847-1900-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC |publisher=Standard Publishing |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-examination of the Evidence |first=Jonathan L. |last=Reed |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-56338-394-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC |language=en|publisher=Continuum |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504050031/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Neal |year=1991 |title=Christ in Islam and Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/christinislamchr0000robi |location=Albany |language=en|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0559-8}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Robinson |first=Neal |year=2005 |title=Jesus |editor1-last=McAuliffe |editor1-first=Jane Dammen |language=en|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00099}} * {{cite book |last=Sanders |first=E.&nbsp;P. |author-link=E. P. Sanders |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus |language=en|publisher=Allen Lane Penguin Press |year=1993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |isbn=978-0-14-192822-7 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418040039/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Theissen |first1=Gerd |author-link1=Gerd Theissen |last2=Merz |first2=Annette |author-link2=Annette Merz |year=1998 |title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide |isbn=978-1-4514-0863-8 |language=en|publisher=Fortress Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805091805/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria |first1=Gerd |last1=Theissen |first2=Dagmar |last2=Winter |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-664-22537-7 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |first=Graham H. |last=Twelftree |author-link=Graham Twelftree |title=Jesus the Miracle Worker: A Historical & Theological Study |isbn=978-0-8308-1596-8 |language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 |year=1999 |publisher=InterVarsity |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 95]}} * {{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |year=2000 |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-4368-5 |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819143206/https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words |last=Vine |first=William E. |author-link=William Edwy Vine |orig-year=1940 |language=en|year=1985|publisher=Fleming H. Revell |isbn=978-0-916441-31-9|ref={{SfnRef|Vine|1940}} }} * {{cite book |title=Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels |last=Vermes |first=Geza |author-link1=Geza Vermes |year=1981 |publisher=First Fortress |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8006-1443-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament |first1=John F. |last1=Walvoord |author-link1=John Walvoord |first2=Roy B. |last2=Zuck |year=1983 |language=en|isbn=978-0-88207-812-0 |publisher=David C. Cook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth |first=Ben |last=Witherington |author-link=Ben Witherington III |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8308-1544-9 |publisher=InterVarsity |language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222039/https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC |url-status=live}} {{refend}} [[Categoria:Jesus Cristo]] [[Categoria:Cristianisme]] op3hz3kz5z2g20gdakm5fy08tlpmmmq 0 1344 43462 43406 2026-08-23T18:51:21Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43462 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Esta es la article sur leteratur. La [[:Category:Leteratur|categoria Leteratur]] conteni plu articles sur leteratur.'' [[Fix:20000_squid_holding_sailor.jpg|thumb|''Dudes Mil Legas Su la Mares'' par [[Jules Verne]]]] '''Leteratur''' es cualce colie de obras [[scrive]]da, ma lo es ance usada plu streta per scrivedas spesifada considerada como un forma de [[arte]], spesial [[novela]]s, [[teatral]]es, e [[poesia]]s. Lo inclui ambos scriveda primida e dijital.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rettberg|first=Scott|title=Electronic literature|url=https://archive.org/details/electroniclitera0000rett|date=2019|publisher=Polity press|isbn=978-1-5095-1677-3|location=Cambridge, UK Medford, MA}}</ref> En sentenios resente, la defini ia estende per inclui [[leteratur parlada]], de cual multe ia es transcriveda.<ref name = archive>{{cite web |last=Goody |first=Jack |title=Oral literature |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/oral-literature |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214104037/https://www.britannica.com/art/oral-literature |archive-date=14 December 2019 |access-date=2020-07-27 |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]}}; see also [[Homer]].</ref> Leteratur es un metodo de rejistra, conserva, e transmete sabe e diverti. Lo pote ance ave un rol sosial, psicolojial, spirital, o political. La terma es a veses usada como un sinonim de la [[nara leteratural]], cual enclui naras scriveda con la gol de [[merita artosa|merita leteratural]].<ref>[https://nybookeditors.com/2018/07/what-is-literary-fiction/ A Beginner's Guide to Literary Fiction" | NY Book Editors].</ref><ref>Girolimon, Mars. [https://www.snhu.edu/about-us/newsroom/liberal-arts/types-of-genres "Types of Genres: A Literary Guide",] [[Southern New Hampshire University]], 11 December 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2024.</ref> Leteratur, como un forma de arte, pote ance inclui obras en jeneros variosa de [[libro de fato|libros de fato]], como [[biografia]], [[jornal personal|jornales personal]], memorias, [[letera (mesaje)|leteras]], e [[esajo]]s. En sua defini larga, leteratur inclui [[libro]]s, articles, o otra informa scriveda fatal sur un sujeto spesifada.<ref name="EB">{{Cite web |last=Rexroth |first=Kenneth |title=literature &#124; Definition, Characteristics, Genres, Types, & Facts |url= https://www.britannica.com/art/literature |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729030437/https://www.britannica.com/art/literature |archive-date=29 July 2020 |access-date=27 July 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Etimolojial, la terma deriva de [[latina (lingua)|latina]] ''literatura/litteratura'', "aprende, scrive, gramatica," orijinal "scrive formida con leteras," de ''litera/littera'', "letera." An con esta, la terma ia ance es aplicada a testos parlada o cantada.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Finnegan|first=Ruth|title=How Oral Is Oral Literature?|url=https://archive.org/details/bulletin-soas_1974_37_1/page/52|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1974|volume=37|issue=1|pages=52–64|jstor=614104|doi=10.1017/s0041977x00094842 |s2cid=190730645}}</ref> [[Istoria de primi|Developas en tecnolojia de primi]] ia permete un distribui e sperde sempre cresente de obras scriveda, cual aora inclui [[leteratur eletronical]]. ==Scrivores famosa de leteratur== *[[William Shakespeare]] *[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] *[[Dante Alighieri]] *[[Miguel de Cervantes]] *[[Vergilio]] *[[Victor Hugo]] *[[Moliere]] *[[Hans Christian Andersen]] == Novelas == * [[The Hobbit]] == Poesia == *[[Omar Khayyam]] *[[Ilia Abu Madi]] *[[Gibran Khalil Gibran]] *[[Sitas de Shakespeare]] == Lias esterna == * [http://elefen.org/vici/leteratur/xef Testos traduida a elefen] == Referes == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Leteratur]] jwu14kdmmhossdks9xmcx0abc7l0te8 0 1645 43463 40910 2026-08-23T18:51:44Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43463 wikitext text/x-wiki : ''Per plu, vide [[:Category:Depinta|category depinta]]'' [[Image:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg|thumb|La ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' par [[Leonardo da Vinci]] es un de la depintas la plu reconosable de la mundo.]] '''Depinta''' es la pratica de pinti—aplica [[pinta]], [[pigmento]], [[color]] o otra media a un surfas solida (nomida la "matris" o "[[Suportador (arte)|suportador]]")―per produi arte. On aplica tipal la media con un brosa, ma on pote usa otra utiles, como coteles, sponjas e [[Airograf|airografes]]. El ci produi depintas es nomida un '''depintor'''. En [[arte]], la terma "depinta" descrive ambos la ata e la resulta de la ata (la obra final es nomida "un depinta"). La suportador de depintas inclui tal surfases como mures, paper, tela, lenio, vitro, [[laca]], seramica, folia, cupre e [[beton]], e la depinta pote inclui otra materias multiple, como arena, [[arjila]], paper, [[jeso]], [[folia de oro]] e an ojetos intera. Depinta es un forma importante de arte vidal, avente elementos como [[desinia]], [[composa]], jesti, nara e astratia.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Perry|first1=Lincoln|title=The Music of Painting|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-scholar_summer-2014_83_3/page/n86|journal=The American Scholar|date=Summer 2014|volume=83|issue=3|page=85|language=en}}</ref> Depintas pote es naturin o represental (como en depinta de [[natur mor]] e vistas), fotografin, astrata, narante, simbolin (como en arte simboliste), emosiante (como en espresisme) o political en natur (como en artivisme). Un parte de la [[istoria de depinta]] en ambos la artes este e ueste es dominada par [[arte relijiosa]]. Esemplos de esta tipo de depinta estende de obras de arte cual depinta figures [[Mitolojia|mitolojial]] sur [[seramica]], a senas [[Biblia|biblial]] sur la sofito de la [[Egleseta Sistina]], a senas de la vive de [[Buda]] (o otra imajes de orijina relijiosa este). == Modas == * [[Cubisme]] ==Depintores famosa== *[[Leonardo da Vinci]] *[[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] * [[Diego Velazquez]] *[[Rembrandt van Rijn]] *[[Vincent van Gogh]] *[[Pablo Picasso]] ==Notas== {{Reflist}} [[Categoria:Arte]] [[Categoria:Pasatempo]] [[Categoria:Depinta]] bc0rzzjgz58zedbians7jvd2h5ehgau 0 3801 43464 43399 2026-08-23T18:53:18Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43464 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Articles bon}} '''Epistemolojia''' es la ramo de [[filosofia]] cual esamina la natur, orijina e limitas de [[sabe]]. Lo esplora tipos diferente de sabe, como [[sabe proposal]] sur fatos, [[sabe pratical]] en la forma de capasias, e [[sabe par conose]] como un conose par esperia. Epistemolojistes studia la consetas de [[crede]], [[veria]] e [[justi]] per comprende la natur de sabe. Per descovre como sabe emerji, los investiga fontes de justi, como [[persepi]], [[introspeta]], [[memoria]], [[razona]] e [[atesta]]. La scola de [[seticisme]] pone en duta la capasia umana per ateni sabe e [[falibilisme]] dise ce sabe es nunca serta. [[empiricalisme|Empiricaliste]]s afirma ce tota sabe veni de esperia sensal, ma [[razonalisme|razonaliste]]s afirma ce alga sabe no depende de lo. [[coerentisme|Coerentiste]]s argumenta ce un crede es justida si lo coere con otra credes. [[fundalisme|Fundaliste]]s, en contrasta, manteni ce la justi de credes fundal no depende de otra credes. [[Internisme e esternisme]] no acorda esce justi es determinada sola par [[state mental|states mental]] o ance par situas esterna. Ramos separada de epistemolojia es dedicada a sabe trovada en campos spesifada, como sabe siensal, matematical, moral e relijiosa. [[Epistemolojia naturalida]] depende de metodos e descovres empirical, ma [[epistemolojia formal]] usa utiles formal de [[lojica]]. [[Epistemolojia sosial]] investiga la aspeta comunial de sabe e [[epistemolojia istorial]] esamina sua situa istorial. Epistemolojia es prosima relatada a [[psicolojia]], cual descrive la credes cual persones teni, ma epistemolojia studia la normas cual governa la evalua de credes. Lo crusa ance con campos como la [[teoria de deside]], [[educa]] e [[antropolojia]]. Refletas temprana sur la natur, fontes e estende de sabe es trovada en [[filosofia elinica antica|filosofia elinica]], [[filosofia barati antica|barati]] e [[filosofia xines antica|xines antica]]. La relata entre razona e crede relijiosa ia es un tema sentral en la [[eda medieval|periodo medieval]]. La [[eda moderna]] ia es marcada par la perspetivas contrastante de empiricalisme e razonalisme. Epistemolojistes en la sentenio 20 ia esamina la composantes, strutur e valua de sabe e integra intuis de la [[siensa natural|siensas natural]] e [[linguistica]]. == Definis == Epistemolojia es la studia filosofial de [[sabe]]. Ance nomida la teoria de sabe, lo esamina cual sabe es e cual tipos de sabe esiste. Lo investiga ance la fontes de sabe, como [[persepi]], [[dedui]] e [[atesta]] per determina como sabe es creada. Un otra tema es la estende e limitas de sabe, frontinte demandas sur cual persones pote e no pote sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=49–50}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=Introduction: 1. What Is Epistemology?}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5NJjAwAAQBAJ 3]}} }}</ref> Otra consetas sentral inclui [[crede]], [[veria]], [[justi]], [[demostra]] e [[razona]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fumerton|2006|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5NJjAwAAQBAJ 4]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia es un de la ramos xef de filosofia estra campos como [[etica]], [[lojica]] e [[metafisica]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brenner|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DFoFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}} |2={{harvnb|Palmquist|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NOKjGp7NHtUC&pg=PA800 800]}} |3={{harvnb|Jenicek|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kWC1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} }}</ref> La terma es ance usada con un sinifia pico diferente per refere no a la ramo de filosofia ma a un loca spesifada en acel ramo, como en la epistemolojia de [[Platon]] e la epistemolojia de [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Moss|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Dq8SEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> Como un campo normida de investiga, epistemolojia esplora como persones debe oteni credes. En esta modo, lo determina cual credes sasia la normas o goles epistemolojial de sabe e cual fali, tal furninte un evalua de credes. Campos descrivente de investiga, como [[psicolojia]] e [[sosiolojia cognisial]], es ance interesada en credes e prosedes cognisial relatada. No como epistemolojia, los studia la credes cual persones ave e como persones oteni los en loca de esamina la normas evaluante de esta prosedes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=Introduction: 1. What Is Epistemology?}} }}</ref>{{efn|An con esta contrasta, epistemolojistes pote depende de trovadas de la siensas empiricaliste per formula sua teorias norminte.<ref>{{harvnb|O′Donohue|Kitchener|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T7uYSFSxxVkC&pg=PA2 2]}}</ref> Seguente un interprete, la gol de epistemolojia naturalida es responde demandas descrivente, ma esta interprete es disputada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=192}} | {{harvnb|Mi|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wDx1SG8tS5oC&pg=PA113 113, 115]}} }}</ref>}} Epistemolojia es pertinente a multe campos descrivente e normida, como la otra ramos de filosofia e la siensas, par esplora la prinsipes de como los pote ariva a sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Audi|2003|pp=258–259}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=3–4}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> La parola ''epistemolojia'' veni de la termas elinica antica ἐπιστήμη (episteme, sinifiante ''sabe'' o ''comprende'') e λόγος (logos, sinifiante ''studia de'' o ''razona''), leteral, la studia de sabe. Ma, an si filosofistes elinica antica ia pratica cual es oji considerada como epistemolojia, los no ia comprende sua investigas en esta termas. La parola ia es sola creada en la sentenio 19 per eticeta esta campo e conseta lo como un ramo diferente de filosofia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Scott|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G8aOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 30]}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=3}} }}</ref>{{efn|Como un nom per un ramo de filosofia, la terma "epistemolojia" ia es prima usada en engles en 1854 par James E. Ferrier.<ref>{{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=3}}</ref> En un contesto diferente, la parola ia es usada tan temprana como 1847 en ''Eclectic Magazine'' de New York per tradui ''Wissenschaftlehre'' (siensa de sabe) de filosofiste [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Oxford University Press|2024}}|{{harvnb|Vető|1993|p=48}}}}</ref> Car la terma no esiste ante la sentenio 19, filosofistes temprana no ia usa lo per descrive sua teorias e ia esplora lo frecuente en combina con [[psicolojia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Alston|2006|pp=1–2}}</ref> Longo la filosofiste Thomas Sturm, cuanto pertinente problemes tratada par filosofistes pasada es a la filosofia contempora es un demanda abrida.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturm|2011|pp=308–309}}</ref>}} == Consetas sentral == === Sabe === {{AX|Sabe}} Sabe es un consensia, conose, comprende, o capasia. Sua formas variosa inclui tota un susede cognisial tra cual un person fa contata epistemolojial con realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|p=109}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=Lead section, § 1. The Varieties of Cognitive Success}} | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022a}}}}</ref> Sabe es tipal comprendeda como un aspeta de individuas, jeneral como un [[state mental]] cognisial cual aida los comprende, interprete, e interata con la mundo. An si esta sensa nucleal es de interesa spesial a epistemolojistes, la terma ance ave otra sinifias. Comprendeda a un nivel sosial, sabe es un cualia de un grupo de persones ci comparti ideas, comprende, o [[cultur]] en jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Klausen|2015|pp=[https://portal.findresearcher.sdu.dk/da/publications/bbee5873-28f2-46d5-94b6-49ef5b18a38b 813–818]}} | {{harvnb|Lackey|2021|pp=111–112}} }}</ref> La terma pote ance refere a [[informa]] retenida en documentos, como "sabe retenida en la biblioteca"<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022a}} | {{harvnb|Magee|Popper|1971|pp=[https://archive.org/details/modernbritishphi0000mage/page/74 74–75]}} }}</ref> o sabe retenida en computadores en la forma de la [[banco de sabe]] de un [[sistem esperta]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022b}} | {{harvnb|Walton|2005|pp=59, 64}} }}</ref> Sabe contrasta con [[nonsabe]], cual es frecuente simple definida como la asentia de sabe. Sabe es usual acompaniada par nonsabe car persones rara ave sabe completa de un campo, cual forsa los a depende de informa noncompleta o nonserta cuando los fa desides.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gross|McGoey|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D75hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–4]}} | {{harvnb|Haas|Vogt|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D75hCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17–18]}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=79}} }}</ref> An si multe formas de nonsabe pote es diminuida par educa e rexerca, on ave alga limitas a la comprende umana cual causa nonsabe nonevitable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Markie|Folescu|2023|loc=§ 1. Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009|pp=2, 6}} | {{harvnb|Stoltz|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pTkqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}} }}</ref> Alga limitas es inerente en la [[cognisio|capasias cognisial]] umana mesma, como la noncapasia de sabe fatos tro complicada per la [[mente|mente umana]] a conseta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009|pp=10, 93}} | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009a|pp=x–xi, 57–58}} | {{harvnb|Dika|2023|p=163}} }}</ref> Otras depende de situas esterna cuando no asede a la informa pertinente esiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009|pp=2, 6}} | {{harvnb|Rescher|2009a|pp=140–141}} }}</ref> Epistemolojistes no acorda sur cuanto persones sabe, per esemplo, esce credes falable sur cosas dial pote deveni sabe o esce sertia asoluta es nesesada. La vista la plu sever es afirmada par [[seticisme filosofial|seticas radical]], ci argumenta ce on ave tota no sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wilson|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b8n609PDSrsC&pg=PA314 314]}} | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DGVcCIDbUQ8C&pg=PA18 18]}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|loc=Lead section, § 8. Implications of Fallibilism: No Knowledge?}} }}</ref> ====Tipos==== Epistemolojistes distingui entre tipos diferente de sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1. Kinds of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Barnett|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTjlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 40]}} | {{harvnb|Lilley|Lightfoot|Amaral|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HT8VDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162–163]}} }}</ref> Sua interesa prima es en sabe de fatos, nomida sabe proposal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Klein|1998|loc=§ 1. The Varieties of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1b. Knowledge-That}} | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ The Nature of Knowledge}} }}</ref>{{efn|Alga sinonimes inclui ''sabe declarante'' e ''sabe descrivente''.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1b. Knowledge-That}}</ref>}} Lo es un sabe teorial cual on pote espresa en frases declarante usante un proposa con "ce", como "Ravi sabe ce cangarus salta".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1b. Knowledge-That}} | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ The Nature of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|p=92}} }}</ref> Epistemolojistes frecuente comprende lo como un relata entre el ci sabe e un proposa sabeda, en la caso a supra entre la person Ravi e la proposa "cangarus salta".<ref name="auto"/> Lo es nondependente de usa car lo no es liada a un intende spesifada. Lo es un representa mental cual depende de consetas e ideas per depinta realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Morrison|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=znbkHaC8QeMC&pg=PA371 371]}} | {{harvnb|Reif|2008|p=33}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|p=93}} }}</ref> Par causa de sua natur teorial, on frecuente crede ce sola viventes relativa sofisticada, como umanas, posese sabe proposal.<ref>{{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref> Sabe proposal contrasta con sabe nonproposal en la forma de [[sabe prosedal]] e [[conose]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1. Kinds of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ The Nature of Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Stanley|Willlamson|2001|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/WILKHV 411–412]}} }}</ref> Sabe prosedal es un capasia pratical, como sabe leje o prepara [[lasanie]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1d. Knowing-How}} | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} }}</ref> Lo es usual liada a un gol spesifada e no mestrida en la astrata sin pratica concreta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merriënboer|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o0I3IXLfXuAC&pg=PA32 32]}} | {{harvnb|Klauer|Manstetten|Petersen|Schiller|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YjglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 105–6]}} | {{harvnb|Pavese|2022|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-how/ Lead section]}} }}</ref> Conose alga cosa sinifia es familiarida con lo par causa de contata esperial. Esemplos es conose la site [[Perth]], conose la sabor de [[tsampa]], e conose [[Marta Vieira da Silva]] personal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 1a. Knowing by Acquaintance}} | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ St. Anselm of Canterbury}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|p=92}} | {{harvnb|Benton|2024|p=4}} }}</ref> Un otra distingui influente es entre sabe ''a posteriori'' e ''a priori''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stroll|2023|loc=§ A Priori and a Posteriori Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|ref=Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Russell|2020|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Sabe ''a posteriori'' es sabe de fatos empirical fundida sur esperia sensal, como vide ce la sol brilia e ole ce un peso de carne es putrida.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|ref=Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2016|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Sabe cual parteni a la siensas empirical e sabe de cosas dial parteni a sabe ''a posteriori''. Sabe ''a priori'' es sabe de fatos nonempirical e no depende de demostra de esperia sensal. Lo parteni a campos como [[matematica]] e [[lojica]], como sabe ce <math>2 + 2=4</math>.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Russell|2020|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|ref=Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''"|loc=Lead section, § 1. An Initial Characterization}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2016|loc=Lead section}}}}</ref> La contrasta entre sabe ''a posteriori'' e ''a priori'' jua un rol sentral en la debate entre [[empiricalisme|empiricaliste]]s e [[razonalisme|razonaliste]]s sur esce tota sabe depende de esperia sensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w98mEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 § 3. The Apriori]}} | {{harvnb|Popper|2014|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pXd9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 2. Deductivism and Inductivism]}} }}</ref> [[File:Immanuel Kant portrait c1790.jpg|upright=0.8|alt=Depinta de Immanuel Kant|thumb|La distingui analisal-sintesal ave sua orijina en la filosofia de [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{harvnb|Juhl|Loomis|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8kiPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref>]] Un contrasta prosima relatada es entre verias analisal e sintesal. Un frase es analisal vera si sua veria depende sola de la sinifia de la parolas cual lo usa. Per esemplo, la frase "tota orfanes ave jenitores mor" es analisal vera car la parola "orfan" inclui ja la sinifia "ave jenitores mor". Un frase es sintesal vera si sua veria depende de fatos ajuntada. Per esemplo, la frase "neva es blanca" es sintesal vera car sua veria depende de la color de neva en ajunta a la sinifias de la parolas ''neva'' e ''blanca''. Sabe ''a priori'' es prima asosiada con frases analisal ma sabe ''a posteriori'' es prima asosiada con frases sintesal. Ma, lo es controversa esce esta es vera per tota casos. Alga filosofistes, como [[Willard Van Orman Quine]], rejeta la distingui, disente ce on ave no verias analisal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Juhl|Loomis|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8kiPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix–x, 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Russell|2023}} }}</ref> ====Analise==== {{AX|Definis de sabe}} La analise de sabe es la atenta identifia la composantes esensal o nesesadas de tota e sola states de sabe proposal. Seguente la analise tradisional,{{efn|La nom ''analise tradisional'' es disputada car lo sujeta aseta vasta en la istoria de filosofia, un idea no compartida par tota espertas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=54–55}} | {{harvnb|Ayers|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qt-RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} }}</ref>}} sabe ave tre composantes: lo es un crede cual es justida e vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=53–54}} }}</ref> En la dui du de la sentenio 20, esta vista ia es poneda en duta par un serie de esperimentas de pensa cual ia atenta mostra ce alga credes justida e vera no es sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=61–62}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 3. The Gettier Problem}} }}</ref> En un de los, un person no conose tota la granerias falsa en sua area. Par coaveni, el para ante la sola graneria vera e formi un crede justida e vera ce lo es un graneria vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rodríguez|2018|pp=29–32}} | {{harvnb|Goldman|1976|pp=771–773}} | {{harvnb|Sudduth|loc=§ 2b. Defeasibility Analyses and Propositional Defeaters}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 10.2 Fake Barn Cases}} }}</ref> Multe epistemolojistes acorda ce esta no es sabe car la justi no es direta pertinente a la veria.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=61–62}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 8. Epistemic Luck}} }}</ref> Plu spesifada, esta e contraesemplos simil envolve alga forma de fortuna epistemolojial, pd un susede cognisial cual resulta de situas fortunosa en loca de capasia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DGVcCIDbUQ8C&pg=PA1 1–4]}} | {{harvnb|Broncano-Berrocal|Carter|2017|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> [[File:Justified_True_Belief_model_of_knowledge.svg|thumb|alt=Scema de composantes de sabe|La ''analise tradisional'' dise ce sabe es crede justida e vera. [[Edmund Gettier]] ia atenta mostra ce alga credes justida e vera no es sabe.]] Seguente esta [[esperimenta de pensa|esperimentas de pensa]], filosofistes ia proposa definis variosa e alternativa de sabe par cambia o estende la analise tradisional.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=65}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=Lead section, § 3. The Gettier Problem}} }}</ref> Seguente un vista, la fato conoseda debe causa la crede en la modo coreta.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=67–68}}</ref> Un otra teoria afirma ce la crede es la produida de un prosede fidable de formi credes.<ref>{{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 6.1 Reliabilist Theories of Knowledge}}</ref> Otra prosimis nesesa ce la person no ta ave la crede si lo ta es falsa,<ref>{{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 5.1 Sensitivity}}</ref> ce la crede no es deduida de un falsia,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=75}} | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 4. No False Lemmas}} }}</ref> ce la justi no pote es suminida,<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=69}}</ref> o ce la crede es nonfalable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 5c. Questioning the Gettier Problem, § 6. Standards for Knowing}} | {{harvnb|Kraft|2012|pp=49–50}} }}</ref> On ave no consensa sur cual de la cambias e reconsetas proposada es coreta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 3. The Gettier Problem, § 7. Is Knowledge Analyzable?}} | {{harvnb|Zagzebski|1999|pp=93–94, 104–105}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=§ 2.3 Knowing Facts}} }}</ref> Alga filosofistes, como [[Timothy Williamson]], rejeta la suposa fundal cual suporta la analise de sabe par argumenta ce sabe proposal es un state unica cual no pote es divideda en composantes plu simple.<ref>{{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 7. Is Knowledge Analyzable?}}</ref> ====Valua==== La valua de sabe es la merita cual lo teni par estende comprende e gida ata. Sabe pote ave [[valua strumental]] par aida un person ateni sua goles.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Degenhardt|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FuCsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–6]}} | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10–11]}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2011|pp=874–875}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, sabe de un maladia aida un dotor a cura sua pasiente, e sabe de cuando un intervisa de emplea comensa aida un aspiror a ariva a tempo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|McCormick|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3BAhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 42]}} }}</ref> La usosia de un fato conoseda depende de la situa. Sabe de alga fatos pote ave poca o no usas, como memori numeros de telefon acaso de un libro de telefon desvalidida.<ref>{{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11–12]}}</ref> Es capas de evalua la valua de sabe importa en eleje cual informa on debe oteni e transmete a otras. Lo afeta desides como cual temas on debe ensenia a scola e como asinia mone a projetas de rexerca.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stehr|Adolf|2016|pp=483–485}} | {{harvnb|Powell|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GYdnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 132–133]}} | {{harvnb|Meirmans|Butlin|Charmantier|Engelstädter|2019|pp=754–756}} | {{harvnb|Degenhardt|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FuCsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–6]}} }}</ref> De interesa spesial a epistemolojistes es la demanda de esce sabe es plu valuada ca un mera opina cual es vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|Turri|Carter|2022|loc=§ 1. Value Problems}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2011|pp=874–875}} | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ The Value of Knowledge}} }}</ref> Sabe e opina vera ave frecuente un usosia simil car ambos es representas esata de realia. Per esemplo, si un person vole vade a [[Larissa]], un opina vera sur como ariva ala pote aida el en la mesma modo como sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Olsson|2011|pp=874–875}} | {{harvnb|Pritchard|Turri|Carter|2022|loc=§ 1. Value Problems}} | {{harvnb|Plato|2002|pp=[https://archive.org/details/fivedialogueseut00plat/page/89 89–90, 97b–98a]}} }}</ref> Platon ia considera ja esta problem e ia sujesta ce sabe es plu bon car lo es plu stable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Olsson|2011|p=875}} | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ The Value of Knowledge}} }}</ref> Un otra sujesta foca a [[razona pratical]]. Lo proposa ce persones pone plu fida en sabe ca en mera credes vera cuando los fa concluis e deside cual los debe fa.<ref>{{harvnb|Pritchard|Turri|Carter|2022|loc=§ 6. Other Accounts of the Value of Knowledge}}</ref> Un responde diferente dise ce sabe ave valua inerente, sinifiante ce lo es bon en se mesma nondependente de sua usosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15–16]}} | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ The Value of Knowledge}} }}</ref> ===Crede e veria=== {{AX|Crede|Veria}} Credes es states mental sur cual es la caso, como crede ce neva es blanca o ce [[esiste de Dio|Dio esiste]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Braddon-Mitchell|Jackson|2011|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2008|pp=80–81}} | {{harvnb|Dretske|2005|p=85}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=18}} }}</ref> En epistemolojia, los es frecuente comprendeda como [[disposa proposal|disposas sujetal cual afirma o nega un proposa]], cual pote es espresada en un frase declarante. Per esemplo, crede ce neva es blanca es afirma la proposa "neva es blanca". Seguente esta vista, credes es representas de como la mundo es. Los es retenida en memoria e pote es reprendeda cuando on pensa ativa sur realia o cuando on deside como ata.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Braddon-Mitchell|Jackson|2011|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2024|loc=Lead section, § 1.1 Representationalism}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2011|pp=14–15}} }}</ref> Un vista diferente comprende credes como modeles condual o disposas per ata en loca de como cosas represental retenida en la mente. Esta vista dise ce crede ce on ave acua mineral en la friador es no plu ca un grupo de disposas condual relatada a acua mineral e la friador. Esemplos es la disposas per responde a demandas sur la presentia de acua mineral afirmante e vade a la friador cuando on sidi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2024|loc=§ 1.2 Dispositionalism}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2011|pp=17–18}} }}</ref> Alga teoristes nega la esiste de credes, disente ce esta conseta emprestada de [[psicolojia popular]] es un suprasimpli de prosedes psicolojial multe plu complicada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2024|loc=§ 1.5 Eliminativism, Instrumentalism, and Fictionalism}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2011|p=20}} }}</ref> Credes jua un rol sentral en debates epistemolojial variosa, cual covre sua state como un composante de sabe proposal, la demanda de esce persones ave controla sur e es respondosa per sua credes, e la tema de esce on ave grados de crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=14–15}} | {{harvnb|Schwitzgebel|2024|loc=§ 2.3 Degree of Belief, § 2.5 Belief and Knowledge}} }}</ref> Como disposas proposal, credes es vera o falsa dependente de esce los afirma un proposa vera o falsa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dretske|2005|p=85}} | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=926}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=18}} }}</ref> Seguente la [[teoria de veria como coresponde]], es vera sinifia sta en la relata coreta a la mundo par descrive esata como lo es. Esta sinifia ce veria es ojetal: un crede es vera si lo coresponde a un [[fato]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=926}} | {{harvnb|Dowden|Swartz|loc=§ 3. Correspondence Theory}} | {{harvnb|Lynch|2011|pp=3–5}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=58}} }}</ref> La [[teoria de veria como coere]] dise ce un crede es vera si lo parteni a un sistem coerente de credes. Un resulta de esta vista es ce veria es relativa car lo depende de otra credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Glanzberg|2023|loc=§ 1.2 The Coherence Theory}} | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|pp=926–927}} | {{harvnb|Lynch|2011|p=3}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=58}} }}</ref> Otra teorias de veria inclui teorias pratical, semantical, pluraliste, e deflaiste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lynch|2011|pp=5–7, 10}} | {{harvnb|Glanzberg|2023|loc=§ 1. The Neo-classical Theories of Truth, § 2. Tarski’s Theory of Truth, § 4.4 Truth Pluralism, § 5. Deflationism}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=148–149}} }}</ref> Veria jua un rol sentral en epistemolojia como un gol de prosedes cognisial e un composante de sabe proposal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lynch|2011|p=5}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=148}} }}</ref> ===Justi=== {{AX|Justi (epistemolojia)}} En epistemolojia, justi es un cualia de credes cual sasia alga normas sur lo cual un person debe crede.<ref name="auto6">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goldman|Bender|2005|p=465}} | {{harvnb|Kvanvig|2011|pp=25–26}} }}</ref> Seguente un vista comun, esta sinifia ce la person ave razonas sufisinte per ave esta crede car los ave informa cual suporta lo.<ref name="auto6"/> Un otra vista afirma ce un crede es justida si lo es formida par un prosede fidable de formi credes, como persepi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=83–84}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2016}} }}</ref> La termas ''razonal'', ''meritante'' e ''suportada'' es prosima relatada a la idea de justi e es a veses usada como sinonimes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvanvig|2011|p=25}} | {{harvnb|Foley|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Justi es lo cual distingui credes justida de [[superstisio]] e divina fortunosa.<ref>{{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 1.3 The Justification Condition}}</ref> Ma, justi no garantia veria. Per esemplo, si un person ave demostra forte ma malgidante, los pote formi un crede justida cual es falsa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=149}} | {{harvnb|Comesaña|Comesaña|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LaFhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT44 44]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojistes identifia frecuente justi como un composante de sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=92–93}}</ref> Usual, los no es sola interesada en esce un person ave un razona sufisinte per ave un crede, conoseda como ''justi proposal'', ma ance en esce la person ave la crede car o fundida sur{{efn|La relata entre un crede e la razona cual suporta lo es nomida un ''relata fundinte.''<ref>{{harvnb|Silva|Oliveira|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=99FkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 1–4]}}</ref>}} esta razona, conoseda como ''justi doxastica''. Per esemplo, si un person ave un razona sufisinte per crede ce un visineria es perilosa ma formi esta crede fundida sur superstisio alora los ave justi proposal ma manca de justi doxastica.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=§ 1.3.2 Kinds of Justification}} | {{harvnb|Silva|Oliveira|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=99FkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 1–4]}} }}</ref> ====Fontes==== Fontes de justi es modos o capasias cognisial tra cual persones oteni justi. Fontes frecuente discuteda inclui [[persepi]], [[introspeta]], [[memoria]], [[razona]] e [[atesta]], ma on ave no acorda universal a cual grado tota los furni justi valida.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kern|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eyh5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–10, 133]}} | {{harvnb|Smith|2023|p=3}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 3. Ways of Knowing}}}}</ref> Persepi depende de [[sensa|organos sensal]] per oteni informa empirical. On ave formas variosa de persepi corespondente a stimulas fisical diferente, como [[vide|persepi vidal]], [[oia|oreal]], [[palpa|palpal]], [[ole|olal]], e [[proba (sensa)|probal]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.1 Perception}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 3. Ways of Knowing}} }}</ref> Persepi no es mera la reseta de impresas sensal ma un prosede ativa cual eleje, organiza e interprete siniales sensal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Khatoon|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ha1KBZm9CXQC&pg=PA104 104]}} | {{harvnb|Martin|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Introspeta es un prosede prosima relatada focada no a ojetos fisical esterna ma a states mental interna. Per esemplo, vide un bus a un stasion de bus parteni a persepi ma senti fatiga parteni a introspeta.<ref>{{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.2 Introspection}}</ref> Razonalistes comprende razona como un fonte de justi per fatos nonempirical. Lo es frecuente usada per esplica como persones pote sabe verias matematical, lojical e consetal. Razona es la fonte de sabe deduinte, en cual un o alga credes es usada como premisas per suporta un otra crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 3d. Knowing by Thinking-Plus-Observing}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.4 Reason}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2002|pp=85, 90–91}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-YPTEeIhOXYC&pg=PA38 38]}} }}</ref> Memoria depende de informa furnida par otra fontes, cual lo reteni e recorda, como recorda un numero de telefon persepida plu temprana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.3 Memory}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2002|pp=72–75}} | {{harvnb|Gardiner|2001|pp=1351–1352}} | {{harvnb|Michaelian|Sutton|2017}} }}</ref> Justi par atesta depende de informa cual un person comunica a un otra person. Esta pote aveni par parla a lunlotra ma pote ance aveni en otra formas, como un letera, un jornal e un blog.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 5.5 Testimony}} | {{harvnb|Leonard|2021|loc=Lead section, § 1. Reductionism and Non-Reductionism}} | {{harvnb|Green|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> === Otra consetas === [[Razonalia]] es prosima relatada a justi e la termas ''crede razonal'' e ''crede justida'' es a veses usada como sinonimes. Ma, razonalia ave un estende plu larga cual enclui ambos un lado teorial, covrente credes, e un lado pratical, covrente [[teoria de desides|desides]], [[intende]]s e atas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=123–124}} | {{harvnb|Foley|2011|pp=37, 39–40}} | {{harvnb|Harman|2013|loc=§ Theoretical and Practical Rationality}} | {{harvnb|Mele|Rawling|2004|pp=3–4}} }}</ref> On ave consetas diferente sur cual lo sinifia ce alga cosa es razonal. Seguente un vista, un state mental es razonal si lo es fundida sur o responde a razonas bon. Un otra vista asentua la rol de coere, afirmante ce razonalia nesesa ce la states mental diferente de un person es coerente e suporta lunlotra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Heinzelmann|2023|pp=312–314}} | {{harvnb|Kiesewetter|2020|pp=332–334}} }}</ref> Un prosimi pico diferente afirma ce razonalia es sur la ateni de alga goles. Du goles de razonalia teorial es esatia e completia, sinifiante ce un person ave tan poca credes falsa e tan multe credes vera como posible.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Foley|2011|pp=39–40}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=123–124}} }}</ref> Normas epistemolojial es criterios per evalua la cualia cognisial de credes, como sua justi e razonalia. Epistemolojistes distingui entre normas deontica, cual es prescrives sur lo cual persones debe crede o lo cual credes es coreta, e normas axiolojial, cual identifia la goles e valuas de credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=109}} | {{harvnb|Engel|2011|p=47}} }}</ref> Normas epistemolojial es prosima relatada a [[virtua epistemolojial|virtuas epistemolojial]] o inteletal, cual es cualias de carater como [[abridia de mente]] e [[consiensosia]]. Virtuas epistemolojial aida individuas a formi credes vera e oteni sabe. Los contrasta con mal abituas epistemolojial e ata como consetas fundal de la [[epistemolojia de virtua]]. [[Demostra]] cual suporta un crede es informa cual suporta lo. Epistemolojistes comprende demostra prima en termas de states mental, per esemplo, como impresas sensal o como otra proposas cual un person sabe. Ma en un sensa plu larga, lo pote ance inclui ojetos fisical, como manxas de sangue esaminada par analisores forense o rejistras finansial studiada par jornalistes investigosa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=50–51}} | {{harvnb|DiFate|loc=Lead section, § 1. The Nature of Evidence: What Is It and What Does It Do?}} | {{harvnb|Kelly|2016|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|McGrew|2011|pp=58–59}} }}</ref> Demostra es frecuente comprendeda en termas de [[probablia]]: demostra suportante un crede fa ce lo es plu probable ce la crede es vera.<ref>{{harvnb|McGrew|2011|p=59}}</ref> Un vinsor es demostra cual refuta un crede o demostra cual sumina otra demostra suportante. Per esemplo, [[atesta]] cual lia un suspetada a un crimin es demostra suportante sua culpablia ma un [[alibi]] es un vinsor.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sudduth|loc=Lead section, § 2c. Constraints on Propositional Defeaters}} | {{harvnb|McPherson|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6I7fDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}} }}</ref> Evidentialistes analise justi en termas de demostra par dise ce per es justida, un crede nesesa la suporta de demostra sufisinte.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=51}} | {{harvnb|Kelly|2016|loc=§ 1. Evidence as That Which Justifies Belief}} }}</ref> La presentia de demostra afeta tipal [[duta]] e [[sertia]], cual es disposas sujetal a proposas cual difere en relata a sua nivel de fida. Duta envolve nonconvinsedia sur la validia o veria de un proposa. Sertia, en contrasta, es un disposa afirmante forte, sinifiante ce la person no duta la veria de la proposa. En epistemolojia, duta e sertia jua roles sentral en atentas per trova un funda secur de tota sabe e en projetas setica cual atenta demostra ce no crede es imune a duta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|pp=18–19, 44}} | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005a|p=134}} | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005b|p=220}} }}</ref> An si sabe proposal es la tema xef en epistemolojia, alga teoristes foca a [[comprende]] en loca de sabe. Comprende es un idea plu oliste cual envolve un teni mental plu larga de un sujeto. Per comprende alga cosa, un person nesesa consensia de como cosas diferente es liada e perce los es como los es. Per esemplo, sabe de fatos isolida memorida de un libro de testo no es comprende. Seguente un vista, comprende es un bonia epistemolojial spesial cual, no como sabe, es sempre inerente valuada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=150}} | {{harvnb|Grimm|2011|pp=84, 88}} | {{harvnb|Gordon|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> [[Sajia]] es simil en esta modo e es a veses considerada la bonia epistemolojial la plu alta. Lo inclui un comprende refletante con aplicas pratical. Lo aida persones teni mental e evalua situas complicada e vive un bon vive.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kekes|2005|p=959}} | {{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=157}} | {{harvnb|Whitcomb|2011|p=95}} }}</ref> == Scolas de pensa == === Seticisme, falablisme e relativisme === {{AX|Seticisme|Falablisme|Relativisme epistemolojial}} [[Seticisme filosofial]] pone en duta la capasia umana per ariva a sabe. Alga seticas limita sua critica a alga campos de sabe. Per esemplo, [[seticisme relijiosa|seticas relijiosa]] dise ce lo es nonposible per ave sabe serta sur la esiste de divines o otra dotrinas relijiosa. Simil, seticas moral pone en duta la esiste de sabe moral e seticas metafisical dise ce umanas no pote sabe realia ultima.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cohen|1998|loc=§ Article Summary}} | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005|p=838}} | {{harvnb|Moser|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1ETRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA200 200]}} }}</ref> Seticisme global es la forma la plu larga de seticisme, afirmante ce on ave no sabe en cualce campo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005|p=838}} | {{harvnb|Bergmann|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T7EzEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} }}</ref> En [[filosofia antica]], esta vista ia es asetada par [[Seticisme academial|seticas academial]] ma [[Seticisme pironian|seticas pironian]] ia recomenda la suspende de crede per ateni un state de calmia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazlett|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4INnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 18]}} | {{harvnb|Levine|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=umYHtjvOhwIC&pg=PA11 11]}} }}</ref> En tota, no multe epistemolojistes defende direta seticisme global. La influe de esta vista deriva xef de atentas par otra filosofistes per mostra ce sua teoria vinse la difisilia de seticisme. Per esemplo, [[René Descartes]] ia usa [[Duta cartesian|duta metodolojial]] per trova fatos cual no pote es dutada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005|p=838}} | {{harvnb|Comesaña|Klein|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Un considera cual suporta seticisme global es la [[argumenta de sonia]]. Lo comensa de la oserva ce, cuando persones sonia, los es usual nonsabente de esta. Esta noncapasia de distingui entre sonia e esperia normal es usada per argumenta ce on ave no sabe serta car un person es nunca serta ce el no es soniante.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Windt|2021|loc=§ 1.1 Cartesian Dream Skepticism}} | {{harvnb|Klein|1998|loc=§ 8. The Epistemic Principles and Scepticism}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Knowledge''"|loc=§ 4. Sceptical Doubts About Knowing}} }}</ref>{{efn|La [[serebro en un tance]] es un [[esperimenta de pensa]] similar cual suposa ce un person no ave un corpo ma es sola un serebro cual reseta stimulas eletrical nondistinguable de la stimulas cual un serebro en un corpo ta reseta. Esta argumenta gida ance a la conclui de seticisme global fundida sur la afirma ce lo no es posible per distingui stimulas cual representa la mundo vera de stimulas simulada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hookway|2005|p=838}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 6.1 General Skepticism and Selective Skepticism}} }}</ref>}} Alga criticas afirma ce seticisme global es un idea cual refuta se mesma car nega la esiste de sabe es un afirma sur sabe. Un otra refuta dise ce la razona astrata cual gida a seticisme no es sufisinte convinsente per nega sensa comun.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 6.2 Responses to the Closure Argument}} | {{harvnb|Reed|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=geSrCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} }}</ref> Falablisme es un otra responde a seticisme.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|1998|loc=§ 1. The Philosophical Problem of Scepticism, § 2. Responses to Scepticism}}</ref> Falablistes acorda con seticas ce sertia asoluta es nonposible. La plu de falablistes no acorda con seticas sur la esiste de sabe, disente ce on ave sabe car lo no nesesa sertia asoluta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|loc=Lead section, § 9. Implications of Fallibilism: Knowing Fallibly?}} | {{harvnb|Rescher|1998|loc=§ Article Summary}} }}</ref> Los asentua la nesesa de manteni un mente abrida e demandante car duta no pote nunca es intera escluida, an per alegas de sabe bon instituida como teorias siensal bon probada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|1998|loc=§ Article Summary}} | {{harvnb|Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|ref=Hetherington, "''Fallibilism''"|loc=§ 9. Implications of Fallibilism: Knowing Fallibly?}} }}</ref> Relativisme epistemolojial es un vista relatada. Lo no nega la esiste de sabe en jeneral ma rejeta la idea ce on ave normas epistemolojial universal o prinsipes asoluta cual aplica egal a tota persones. Esta sinifia ce lo cual un person sabe depende de la criterios sujetal o convenis sosial usada per evalua la state epistemolojial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carter|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzslDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA292 292]}} | {{harvnb|Luper|2004|pp=271–272}} }}</ref> === Empiricalisme e razonalisme === {{AX|Empiricalisme|Razonalisme}} {{multiple image |perrow=2 |total_width=350 |image1=John Locke.jpg |alt1=Depinta de John Locke |image2=David_Hume_2.jpg |alt2=Depinta de David Hume |footer=[[John Locke]] e [[David Hume]] ia formi la filosofia de empiricalisme. }} La debate entre empiricalisme e razonalisme es consentrada sur la orijinas de sabe umana. Empiricalisme asentua ce [[demostra empirical|esperia sensal]] es la fonte prima de tota sabe. Alga empiricalistes espresa esta vista par afirma ce la mente es un [[tabula rasa|tableta vacua]] cual developa sola ideas sur la mundo esterna de la datos sensal cual lo reseta de la organos sensal. Seguente los, la mente pote ariva a alga intuis ajuntada par compara impresas, combina los, jenerali per ariva a ideas plu astrata, e dedui concluis nova de los. Empiricalistes dise ce tota esta operas mental depende de materia de la sensas e no funsiona nondependente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005|p=242}} | {{harvnb|Markie|Folescu|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1.2 Empiricism}} }}</ref> An si razonalistes aseta tipal esperia sensal como un fonte de sabe,{{efn|Alga formas de razonalisme estrema, trovada en [[filosofia elinica antica]], comprende razona como la sola fonte de sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Lacey|2005a|p=783}}</ref>}} los dise ce formas importante de sabe veni ance direta de [[razona]] sin esperia sensal,<ref name="auto2">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005a|p=783}} | {{harvnb|Markie|Folescu|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1. Introduction}} }}</ref> como sabe de verias matematical e lojical.<ref>{{harvnb|Tieszen|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgQ_fuCcKAC&pg=PA175 175]}}</ref> Seguente alga razonalistes, la mente posese [[inatisme|ideas inata]] cual lo pote asede sin la aida de la sensas. Otras afrima ce on ave un capasia cognisial ajuntada, a veses nomida [[intui lojical|intui razonal]], par cual persones oteni sabe nonempirical.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lacey|2005a|p=783}} | {{harvnb|Markie|Folescu|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1. Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Hales|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sINRmT4rZ5wC&pg=PA29 29]}} }}</ref> Alga razonalistes limita sua discute a la orijina de consetas, disente ce la mente depende de [[teoria de categorias|categorias]] inata per comprende la mundo e organiza esperia.<ref name="auto2"/> === Fundalisme e coerentisme === {{AX|Fundalisme epistemolojial|Coerentisme}} Fundalistes e coerentistes no acorda sur la strutur de sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Audi|1988|pp=407–408}} | {{harvnb|Stairs|2017|pp=155–156}} | {{harvnb|Margolis|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BeyuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 214]}} }}</ref>{{efn|On pote comprende ambos como respondes a la [[regresa infinita|problem de regresa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bradley|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qKXDCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 170]}}</ref>}} Fundalisme distingui entre credes fundal e nonfundal. Un crede es fundal si lo es direta justida, sinifiante ce sua validia no depende de la suporta de otra credes.{{efn|La teoria de fundalisme clasical ave un nesesada plu forte cual dise ce credes fundal es [[autoevidente]] o nondutable.<ref>{{harvnb|Blaauw|Pritchard|2005|p=64}}</ref>}} Un crede es nonfundal si lo es justida par un otra crede.<ref name="auto7">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stairs|2017|pp=155–156}} | {{harvnb|Margolis|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BeyuCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 214]}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, la crede ce lo ia pluve a la note pasada es un crede nonfundal si lo es deduida de la oserva ce la strada es moiada.<ref>{{harvnb|Stairs|2017|p=155}}</ref> Seguente fundalisme, credes fundal es la funda sur cual tota otra sabe es construida ma credes nonfundal constitui la suprastrutur cual reposa sur esta funda.<ref name="auto7"/> Coerentistes rejeta la distingui entre credes fundal e nonfundal, disente ce la justi de cualce crede depende de otra credes. Los afirma ce un crede debe es en acorda con otra credes per deveni sabe. Esta es la caso si la credes es coerente e suporta lunlotra. Seguente coerentisme, justi es un aspeta [[Olisme|oliste]] determinada par la sistem intera de credes, cual sembla un rede interliada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stairs|2017|pp=156–157}} | {{harvnb|O'Brien|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TOQcebWMstwC&pg=PA77 77]}} }}</ref> La vista de [[fundcoerentisme]] es un loca media cual combina elementos de ambos fundalisme e coerentisme. Lo aseta la distingui entre credes fundal e nonfundal ma afirma ce la justi de credes nonfundal depende de coere con otra credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ruppert|Schlüter|Seide|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nF2mCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 59]}} | {{harvnb|Tramel|2008|pp=215–216}} }}</ref> [[Infinitisme]] presenta un otra prosimi a la strutur de sabe. Lo acorda con coerentisme ce on ave no credes fundal ma rejeta la vista ce credes pote suporta lunlotra en un [[razona circulo|modo sirculo]]. En loca, lo argumenta ce credes formi cadenas infinita de justi, en cual cada lia de la cadena suporta la crede seguente lo e es suportada par la crede presedente lo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bradley|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qKXDCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 170–171]}} | {{harvnb|Stairs|2017|pp=155–156}} }}</ref> === Internisme e esternisme === [[File:Alvin Goldman 1966.jpg|thumb|alt=Foto de Alvin Goldman|[[Alvin Goldman]] ia es un defendor influente de esternisme.{{efn|BonJour|2016}}]] La desacorda entre internisme e esternisme es sur la fontes de justi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=159–160}} | {{harvnb|Fumerton|2011|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>{{efn|La debate interniste-esterniste es diferente de la debate sur internisme-esternisme de [[filosofia de mente]], cual demanda esce states mental depende sola de la individua o ance de sua ambiente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bernecker|2013|loc=Note 1}} | {{harvnb|Wilson|2023}} }}</ref>}} Internistes dise ce justi depende sola de fatores en la individua. Esemplos de tal fatores inclui esperia persepal, memorias, e la posese de otra credes. Esta vista asentua la importa de la perspetiva cognisial de la individua en la forma de sua states mental. Lo es comun asosiada con la idea ce la fatores pertinente es asededa, sinifiante ce la individua pote deveni consensa de sua razonas per teni un crede justida con introspeta e refleta.<ref name="auto4">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Poston|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=159–160}} }}</ref> Esternisme rejeta esta vista, disente ce a la min alga fatores pertinente es esterna a la individua. Esta sinifia ce la perspetiva cognisial de la individua es min sentral en cuando otra fatores, spesial la relata a veria, deveni plu importante.<ref name="auto4"/> Per esemplo, cuando on considera la crede ce un tas de cafe es sur la table, esternistes no es sola interesada en la esperia persepal cual ia gida a esta crede ma considera ance la cualia de la vide de la person, sua capasia de distingui cafe de otra bevidas, e la situas su cual el ia oserva la tas.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=160}}</ref> [[Demostralisme]] es un vista interniste influente. Lo dise ce justi depende de la posese de [[demostra]]. En esta contesto, demostra suportante un crede es cualce informa en la mente de la individua cual suporta la crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=99, 298}} | {{harvnb|Carter|Littlejohn|2021|loc=§ 9.3.3 An Evidentialist Argument}} | {{harvnb|Mittag|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Per esemplo, la esperia persepal de pluve es demostra suportante la crede ce lo pluve. Demostralistes ia sujesta otra formas variosa de demostra, incluinte memorias, intuis, e otra credes.<ref>{{harvnb|Mittag|loc=§ 2b. Evidence}}</ref> Seguente demostralisme, un crede es justida si la demostra de la individua suporta la crede e los manteni la crede par causa de esta demostra.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=99, 298}}</ref> [[Fidablisme]] es un teoria esterniste cual afirma ce un lia fidable entre crede e veria es nesesada per justi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=83, 301}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2016}} }}</ref> Alga fidablistes esplica esta en termas de prosedes fidable. Seguente esta vista, un crede es justida si lo es produida par un prosede fidable de formi credes, como persepi. Un prosede de formi credes es fidable si la plu de la credes cual lo causa es vera. Un vista pico diferente foca a credes en loca de prosedes de formi credes, disente ce un crede es justida si lo es un indicador fidable de la fato cual lo presenta. Esta sinifia ce la crede segue la fato: la person crede lo car lo es un fato ma no ta crede lo en otra modo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=84}} | {{harvnb|Lyons|2016|pp=160–162}} | {{harvnb|Olsson|2016}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia de virtua]] es un otra tipo de esternisme e es a veses comprendeda como un forma de fidablisme. Lo dise ce un crede es justida si lo mostra virtuas inteletal. Virtuas inteletal es capasias o cualias cual fa funsionas cognisial e aida persones formi credes vera. Esemplos sujestada inclui capasias como vide, memoria, e introspeta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=175–176}} | {{harvnb|Baehr, "''Virtue Epistemology''"|ref=Baehr, "''Virtue Epistemology''"|loc=Lead section, § 1. Introduction to Virtue Epistemology}} }}</ref> === Otras === En la epistemolojia de persepi, [[realisme direta e nondireta|realistes direta e nondireta]] no acorda sur la lia entre la persepor e la ojeto persepida. Realistes direta dise ce esta lia es direta, sinifiante ce on ave no difere entre la ojeto presente en la esperia persepal e la ojeto fisical cual causa esta esperia. Seguente realisme nondireta, la lia es nondireta car on ave cosas mental, como ideas o datos sensal, cual media entre la persepor e la mundo esterna. La contrasta entre realisme direta e nondireta es importante per esplica la natur de iludes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|1992|p=341}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=268–269, 277–278, 300–301}} }}</ref> [[Construintisme (filosofia de siensa)|Construintisme]] en epistemolojia es la teoria ce como persones vide la mundo no es un refleta simple de realia esterna ma un inventa o un construi sosial. Esta vista asentua la rol creosa de interprete ma sumina ojetalia car construis sosial pote difere de sosia a sosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chiari|Nuzzo|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CrqNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=215–216, 301}} }}</ref> Seguente [[contrastisme]], sabe es un terma comparativa, sinifiante ce sabe alga cosa envolve distingui lo de alternativas pertinente. Per esemplo, si un person vide un avia en la jardin, el pote sabe ce lo es un pasaro en loca de un agila ma el pote no sabe ce lo es un pasaro en loca de un ologram nondistinguable de un pasaro.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cockram|Morton|2017}} | {{harvnb|Baumann|2016|pp=59–60}} }}</ref> [[Conservalisme epistemolojial]] es un vista sur la [[revisa de credes]]. Lo dona prefere a la credes cual un person ave ja, afirmante ce un person debe sola cambia sua credes si el ave un razona bon per fa lo. Un motiva per adota conservalisme epistemolojial es ce la recursos cognisial de umanas es limitada, sinifiante ce lo no es posible reesamina constante cada crede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Foley|1983|p=165}} | {{harvnb|Vahid|loc=Lead section, § 1. Doxastic Conservatism: The Debate}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[practicalisme|praticaliste]] es un forma de falablisme cual asentua la relata prosima entre sabe e ata. Lo vide la persegue de sabe como un prosede continuante gidada par sensa comun e esperia ma sempre abrida a revisa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=Lead section, § 4. Pragmatist Epistemology}} | {{harvnb|Kelly|Cordeiro|2020|p=1}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia bayesian]] es un prosimi formal fundida sur la idea ce persones ave grados de crede cual representa cuanto serta los es. Lo usa la teoria de probablia per defini normas de razonalia cual governa cuanto serta persones debe es sur sua credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Titelbaum|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AiFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3, 31–32]}} | {{harvnb|Cozic|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RCxhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 Confirmation and Induction]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[fenomenolojia|fenomenolojial]] asentua la importa de esperia de person prima. Lo distingui entre la disposas natural e fenomenolojial. La disposa natural foca a ojetos cual parteni a sensa comun e siensa natural. La disposa fenomenolojial foca a la esperia de ojetos e atenta furni un descrive sin presuposa de como ojetos apare a la oservor.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pietersma|2000|pp=3–4}} | {{harvnb|Howarth|1998|loc=§ Article Summary}} }}</ref> Spesifadisme e jeneralisme no acorda sur la [[metodolojia filosofial|metodo coreta de condui rexerca epistemolojial]]. Spesifadistes comensa sua investiga par regarda casos spesifada. Per esemplo, per trova un defini de sabe, los depende de sua intuis sur casos concreta de sabe e esperimentas de pensa spesial. Los usa esta oservas como constrinjes metodolojial cual cualce teoria de prinsipes plu jeneral nesesa segue. Jeneralistes prosede en la dirije oposante. Los dona prefere a prinsipes epistemolojial jeneral, disente ce lo no es posible esata identifia e descrive casos spesifada sin un comprende de esta prinsipes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ 1. Methodology in Epistemology: Particularism and Generalism}} | {{harvnb|Lemos|2005|pp=488–489}} | {{harvnb|Dancy|2010|pp=532–533}} }}</ref> Otra metodos en epistemolojia contempora atenta estrae [[filosofia de lingua comun|intuis filosofial de lingua comun]] o regarda la rol de sabe en fa afirmas e gida atas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=§ 2. Methodology in Epistemology: Beyond Particularism}} | {{harvnb|Gardiner|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xn2ECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31, 33–35]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[posmodernisme|posmoderna]] critica la situas de sabe en sosias avansada. Esta conserna spesial la [[metanara]] de un progresa constante de sabe siensal cual gida a un comprende universal e fundal de realia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sharpe|2018|pp=318–319}} | {{harvnb|Best|Kellner|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vZBKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 165]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[femisme|femiste]] critica la efeto de [[jenero]] sur sabe. Entre otra temas, lo esplora como preconsetas sur jenero influe ci ave asede a sabe, como sabe es produida, e cual tipos de sabe es valuada en sosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anderson|1995|p=50}} | {{harvnb|Anderson|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Eruditia descoloninte critica la influe global de sistemes de sabe ueste, frecuente con la gol de [[descoloni de sabe|descoloni sabe]] per suverti la ejemonia ueste.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lee|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtArDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67 67]}} | {{harvnb|Dreyer|2017|pp=1–7}} }}</ref> Scolas variosa de epistemolojia es trovada en [[Āstika e nāstika|filosofia barati tradisional]]. Multe de los foca a la fontes diferente de sabe, nomida pramāṇa. [[Pratyaksha|Persepi]], dedui e [[Shabda|atesta]] es fontes discuteda par la plu de scolas. Otra fontes considerada sola par alga scolas es [[Anupalabdhi|nonpersepi]], cual gida a sabe de asentias, e suposa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1998|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Phillips|Vaidya|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Bhatt|Mehrotra|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D4kwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12–13]}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia [[budisme|budiste]] tende foca a esperia direta, comprendeda como la presenta de spesifadas unica sin la envolve de prosedes cognisial du, como pensa e desira.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1998|loc=§ 1. Buddhist Pragmatism and Coherentism}} | {{harvnb|Siderits|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YzhCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA332 332]}} }}</ref> La epistemolojia de [[Nyāya]] discute la relata causal entre la sabente e la ojeto de sabe, cual aveni par prosedes fidable de formi sabe. Lo vide persepi como la fonte prima de sabe, identifiante un lia prosima entre lo e ata susedosa.<ref>{{harvnb|Phillips|1998|loc=§ 2. Nyāya Reliabilism}}</ref> La epistemolojia de [[Mīmāṃsā]] comprende la scrivedas santa conoseda como la [[Vedas]] como un fonte clavin de sabe e discute la problem de sua interprete coreta.<ref>{{harvnb|Phillips|1998|loc=§ 2. Mīmāṃsā Self-certificationalism}}</ref> [[Epistemolojia jain]] afirma ce realia es [[Anekantavada|multifasal]], sinifiante ce no vista singular pote catura la intera de veria.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Webb|loc=§ 2. Epistemology and Logic}} | {{harvnb|Sethia|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC&pg=PA93 93]}} }}</ref> == Ramos == Alga ramos de epistemolojia foca a la problemes de sabe en disiplinas academial spesifada. La [[filosofia de siensa|epistemolojia de siensa]] esamina como sabe siensal es jenerada e cual problemes emerji en la prosede de valida, justi, e interprete alegas siensal. Un tema clavin conserna la problem de como [[problem de indui|oservas individua pote suporta leges siensal universal]]. Otra temas inclui la natur de demostra siensal e la goles de siensa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McCain|Kampourakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wlAPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii–xiv]}} | {{harvnb|Bird|2010|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40801354 5]}} | {{harvnb|Merritt|2020|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/philosophical-approach-to-mond/epistemology-of-science/065BF49E6DE64BA37364BA90542815D0 1–2]}} }}</ref> La epistemolojia de matematica studia la orijina de sabe matematical. En esplora como teorias matematical es justida, lo investiga la rol de demostras e esce on ave fontes empirical de sabe matematical.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Murawski|2004|pp=571–572}} | {{harvnb|Sierpinska|Lerman|1996|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-1465-0_23 827–828]}} }}</ref> Problemes epistemolojial es trovada en la plu de areas de filosofia. La [[lojica|epistemolojia de lojica]] esamina como persones sabe ce un [[argumenta]] es [[Validia (lojica)|valida]]. Per esemplo, lo esplora como lojicistes justi ce [[modus ponens]] es un regula de dedui coreta o ce tota [[contradise]]s es falsa.<ref>{{harvnb|Warren|2020|loc=§ 6. The Epistemology of Logic}}</ref> [[metafisica|Epistemolojistes de metafisica]] investiga esce sabe de realia ultima es posible e cual fontes esta sabe ta ave.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McDaniel|2020|loc=§ 7.2 The Epistemology of Metaphysics}} | {{harvnb|Van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=§ 5. Is Metaphysics Possible?}} }}</ref> Sabe de afirmas moral, como la afirma ce menti es mal, parteni a la [[etica|epistemolojia de etica]]. Lo studia la rol de [[intuisme etical|intuis etical]], [[coerentisme|coere]] entre credes moral, e la problem de desacorda moral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section, § 6. Epistemological Issues in Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=§ 5. Moral Epistemology}} }}</ref> La [[etica de crede]] es un campo prosima relatada cual trata la interelata entre epistemolojia e [[etica]]. Lo esamina la normas cual governa la formi de credes e demanda esce viole los es moral mal.<ref>{{harvnb|Chignell|2018|loc=Lead section}}</ref> [[Epistemolojia relijial]] studia la rol de sabe e justi per dotrinas e praticas relijiosa. Lo evalua la pesa e fidablia de demostra de [[esperia relijial]] e [[testo relijial|scrivedas santa]] ma demanda ance esce la normas de razona debe es aplicada a [[fida]] relijial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNabb|2019|pp=1–3, 22–23}} | {{harvnb|Howard-Snyder|McKaughan|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5LTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96–97]}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia sosial]] foca a la dimension sosial de sabe. An si epistemolojia tradisional es xef interesada en sabe poseseda par individuas, epistemolojia sosial trata la oteni, transmete e evalua de sabe en grupos, con asentua spesial a como persones depende de lunlotra cuando los xerca sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanesini|2017|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|O’Connor|Goldberg|Goldman|2024|loc=Lead section, § 1. What Is Social Epistemology?}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia istorial]] esamina como la comprende de sabe e consetas relatada ia cambia tra tempo. Lo demanda esce la temas xef en epistemolojia es perene e a cual grado teorias epistemolojial pasada es pertinente a debates contempora. Lo es spesial consernada con sabe siensal e praticas asosiada con lo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ávila|Almeida|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFTaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA235 235]}} | {{harvnb|Vermeir|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hKqCD5U_ba8C&pg=PA65 65–66]}} | {{harvnb|Sturm|2011|pp=303–304, 306, 308}} }}</ref> Lo contrasta con la istoria de epistemolojia, cual presenta, reconstrui e evalua teorias epistemolojial de filosofistes en la pasada.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturm|2011|pp=303–304, 08–309}}</ref>{{efn|La natur esata de la contrasta es disputada.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturm|2011|p=304}}</ref>}} [[Epistemolojia naturalida]] es prosima asosiada con la [[siensas natural]], dependente de sua metodos e teorias per esamina sabe. Epistemolojistes naturaliste foca a oserva empirical per formula sua teorias e critica frecuente prosimis epistemolojial cual prosede par razona ''a priori''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=183–184, 188–189, 300}} | {{harvnb|Wrenn|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Rysiew|2021|loc=§ 2. 'Epistemology Naturalized'}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia evolual]] es un prosimi naturaliste cual comprende cognisio como un produida de [[evolui]], esaminante sabe e la capasias cognisial cual capasi lo de la perspetiva de [[eleje natural]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bradie|Harms|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gontier|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Epistemolojistes de lingua esplora la natur de sabe lingual. Un de sua temas es la rol de sabe induinte, per esemplo, cuando parlores nativa mestre la regulas de [[gramatica]] ma no es capas de espresa clar acel regulas..<ref>{{harvnb|Barber|2003|pp=1–3, 10–11, 15}}</ref> Epistemolojistes de modalia esamina sabe sur lo cual es posible e nesesada.<ref>{{harvnb|Vaidya|Wallner|2021|pp=1909–1910}}</ref> Problemes epistemolojial cual emerji cuando du persones ave opinas diverjente sur un tema es tratada par la epistemolojia de desacorda.<ref>{{harvnb|Croce|2023|loc=Lead section}}</ref> Epistemolojistes de nonsabe es interesada en falias e bucos epistemolojial en sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Maguire|2015|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9309-4_4 33–34]}}</ref> On ave areas distinguida de epistemolojia dedicada a fontes spesifada de sabe. Esemplos es la epistemolojia de persepi, la epistemolojia de memoria e la [[filosofia de atesta|epistemolojia de atesta]]. Alga ramos de epistemolojia es marcada par sua metodo de rexerca. [[Epistemolojia formal]] emplea utiles formal trovada en lojica e matematica per investiga la natur de sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Douven|Schupbach|2014|loc=Lead section}}</ref>{{efn|Lo es prosima relatada a [[epistemolojia computal]], cual esamina la interelata entre sabe e prosedes computal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Segura|2009|pp=557–558}} | {{harvnb|Hendricks|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bjnje5u2q9cC&pg=PA115 115]}} }}</ref>}} [[Filosofia esperimental|Epistemolojistes esperimental]] depende en sua rexerca de demostra empirical sur praticas comun de sabe.<ref>{{harvnb|Beebe|2017|loc=Lead section}}</ref> [[Epistemolojia aplicada]] foca a la aplica pratical de prinsipes epistemolojial a problemes diversa de la mundo real, como la fidablia de afirmas de sabe en la interede, como evalua alegas de [[ataca sesal]], e como [[razisme]] pote gida a [[nonjustia epistemolojial]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lackey|2021|pp=3, 8–9, 13}}</ref>{{efn|Nonjustia epistemolojial aveni cuando afirmas valida de sabe es rejetada o malrepresentada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fricker|2007|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Crichton|Carel|Kidd|2017|pp=65–66}} }}</ref>}} [[metaepistemolojia|Metaepistemolojistes]] esamina la natur, goles e metodos de rexerca de epistemolojia. Como un [[metateoria]], lo no defende direta un vista sur cual teorias epistemolojial es coreta ma esamina sua consetas fundal e suposas fondal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gerken|2018|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Mchugh|Way|Whiting|2019|pp=1–2}} }}</ref>{{efn|An tal, intuis metaespistemolojial pote ave efetos nondireta variosa sur disputas en epistemolojia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gerken|2018|loc=Lead section}}</ref>}} == Campos relatada == Epistemolojia e [[psicolojia]] no ia es definida como campos diferente asta la sentenio 19; investigas plu temprana sur sabe frecuente no conveni esata a la categorias academial de oji.<ref>{{harvnb|Alston|2006|p=2}}</ref> Ambos campos contempora studia credes e la prosedes mental cual formi e cambia los. Un contrasta importante es ce psicolojia descrive cual credes persones ave e como los oteni los, e en esta modo, lo esplica perce algun ave un crede spesifada.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kitchener|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q_MxOPSqRjYC&pg=PA119 119]}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Schmitt|2004|pp=841–842}} }}</ref> La foca de epistemolojia es a la evalua de credes, gidante a un judi sur esce un crede es justida e razonal en un caso spesifada. Epistemolojia ave un lia simil intima a [[siensa cognisial]], cual comprende avenis mental como prosedes cual transformi [[informa]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schmitt|2004|pp=841–842}} | {{harvnb|Friedenberg|Silverman|Spivey|2022|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> [[Inteleto artifis]] depende de la intuis de epistemolojia e siensa cognisial per reali solves concreta a problemes asosiada con la [[representa de sabe]] e [[razona automata]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wheeler|Pereira|2004|pp=469–470, 472, 491}}</ref> [[Lojica]] es la studia de razona coreta. Per epistemolojia, lo es pertinente a sabe deduinte, cual emerji cuando un person razona de un fato conoseda a un otra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rosenberg|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8UgVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 184]}} | {{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2024|loc=§ 4.1 Foundationalism}} | {{harvnb|Audi|2002|p=90}} }}</ref> Esta es la caso, per esemplo, si un person no sabe direta ce <math>572+382=954</math> ma dedui lo car el sabe ce <math>2+2=4</math>, <math>8+7=15</math> e <math>5+3=8</math>.<ref>{{harvnb|Clark|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i1tNI9646Q4C&pg=PA516 516]}}</ref> Esce un crede deduinte deveni sabe depende de la forma de [[razona lojical|razona]] usada, spesial, esce la prosede no viole la leges de lojica.<ref>{{harvnb|Stairs|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Km1QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 156]}}</ref> Un otra tema compartida par la du campos es trovada en la prosimi epistemolojial a la teoria de [[falasia]]s.<ref name="auto3">{{harvnb|Hansen|2023|loc=§ 3.5 The Epistemic Approach to Fallacies}}</ref> Falasias es argumentas defetosa fundida sur razona noncoreta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hansen|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Chatfield|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6Xg4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194]}} }}</ref> La prosimi epistemolojial a falasias esplica perce los es defetosa, afirmante ce argumentas atenta estende sabe. Seguente esta vista, un argumenta es un falasia si lo fali fa tal. Un otra crusa es trovada en lojica epistemolojial, cual usa aparatos lojical formal per studia consetas epistemolojial como ''sabe'' e ''crede''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rescher|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o7m3amAbDEsC&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Rendsvig|Symons|Wang|2024|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Ambos [[teoria de deside]] e epistemolojia es interesada en la fundas de pensa razonal e la rol de credes. No como multe prosimis en epistemolojia, la foca xef de teoria de deside es min en la lado teorial e plu en la lado pratical, esplorante como credes es traduida a ata.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kaplan|2005|pp=434, 443–444}} | {{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=Lead section, § 7. Concluding Remarks}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|Leach|McClennen|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7fntCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii–xiv]}} }}</ref> Teoristes de deside esamina la razona envolveda en fa desides e la normas de desides bon.<ref>{{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=Lead section}}</ref> Los identifia credes como un aspeta sentral de fa desides. Un de sua inovas es distingui entre credes plu debil e plu forte. Esta aida los a atende la efeto de nonsertias sur desides.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kaplan|2005|pp=434, 443–444}} | {{harvnb|Steele|Stefánsson|2020|loc=§ 7. Concluding Remarks}} }}</ref> Epistemolojia e [[educa]] ave un interesa compartida en sabe, con un difere esente ce educa foca a la transmete de sabe, esplorante la roles de ambos la aprendor e la ensenior.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chazan|2022|p=15}} | {{harvnb|Leong|2007|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/epistemology-and-education § Abstract, § Some Implications for Educators]}} }}</ref> [[Teoria de aprende]] esamina como persones oteni sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kelly|2004|pp=183–184}} | {{harvnb|Harasim|2017|p=4}} }}</ref> Teorias de aprende [[conduisme|condual]] esplica la prosede en termas de cambias de condui, per esemplo, par [[condisiona clasical|asosia un responde spesifada con un stimula spesial]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harasim|2017|p=11}}</ref> Teorias de aprende [[cognisialisme|cognisial]] studia como la prosedes cognisial cual afeta la oteni de sabe transformi informa.<ref>{{harvnb|Harasim|2017|pp=11–12}}</ref> [[Pedagojia]] regarda la transmete de sabe de la lado de la ensenior, esplorante la [[metodo de ensenia|metodos de ensenia]] cual los pote usa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Watkins|Mortimore|1999|pp=1–3}} | {{harvnb|Payne|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=abocsyBzTMMC&pg=PA264 264]}} | {{harvnb|Gabriel|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PreYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}} | {{harvnb|Turuthi|Njagi|Chemwei|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5JE3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA365 365]}} }}</ref> En metodos consentrada a la ensenior, la ensenior jua la rol de la autoria xef cual furni sabe e gida la prosede de aprende. En [[aprende consentrada a la studiante|metodos consentrada a la studiante]], la ensenior xef suporta e fasili la prosede de aprende en cuando la studiantes jua un rol plu ativa.<ref>{{harvnb|Emaliana|2017|pp=59–61}}</ref> La credes cual studiantes ave sur sabe, nomida epistemolojia personal, afeta sua developa inteletal e susede de aprende.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hofer|2008|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6596-5_1 3–4]}} | {{harvnb|Hofer|2001|pp=353–354, 369–370}} }}</ref> La [[antropolojia]] de sabe esamina como sabe es otenida, retenida, reprendeda, e comunicada. Lo studia la situas sosial e cultural cual afeta como sabe es reproduida e cambia, tratante la rol de instituidas como departes de universia e jornales siensal e ance discutes con fas a fas e comunicas enlinia. Lo comprende sabe con un sinifia larga cual inclui formas variosa de comprende e cultur, como capasias pratical. No como epistemolojia, lo no es interesada en esce un crede es vera o justida ma en como comprende es reproduida en sosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allwood|2013|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 69–72]}} | {{harvnb|Barth|2002|pp=1–2}} }}</ref> La [[sosiolojia de sabe]] es un campo prosima relatada con un conseta simil de sabe. Lo esplora como fatores fisical, demografial, economial e sosiocultural afeta sabe. Lo esamina en cual contestos sosioistorial sabe emerji e la efetos cual lo ave a persones, per esemplo, como situas sosioeconomial es relatada a la [[ideolojia dominante]] en un sosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Coser|2009|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/sociology-knowledge Knowledge, Sociology of]}} | {{harvnb|Tufari|2003|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4C0KAQAAMAAJ Knowledge, Sociology of]}} | {{harvnb|Scheler|Stikkers|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pFqrO7Lxiw4C&pg=PA23 23]}} }}</ref> == Istoria == Refletas temprana sur la natur e fontes de sabe es trovada en istoria antica. En [[filosofia elinica antica]], [[Platon]] (427–347 aec) ia studia [[episteme|lo cual sabe es]], esaminante como lo difere de [[doxa|opina]] vera par es fundida sur razonas bon.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=260}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Ancient Philosophy}} }}</ref> Seguente el, la prosede de aprende alga cosa es [[Anamnese|un forma de recorda]] en cual la spirito recorda lo cual lo ia sabe ja a ante.<ref name="auto5">{{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Ancient Philosophy}}</ref>{{efn|Per argumenta per esta punto, Platon ia usa la esemplo de un xico slavida, ci susede responde a un serie de demandas sur jeometria an con ce el no ia studia jeometria a ante.<ref name="auto5"/>}} Aristotele (384–322 aec) ia es spesial interesada en sabe siensal, esplorante la rol de esperia sensal e como fa deduis de prinsipes jeneral.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Ancient Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=260}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=7}} }}</ref> La [[filosofia eliniste|scolas eliniste]] ia comensa emerji en la sentenio 4 aec. La [[epicurisme|epicuristes]] ia ave un perspetiva [[empiricalisme|empiricaliste]], afirmante ce sensas es sempre esata e servi como la norma suprema de judis.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|pp=287–288}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=8}} }}</ref> La [[stoicisme|stoicas]] ia defende un vista simil ma ia limita se a sensas clar e spesifada, cual los ia regarda como vera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|p=288}} | {{harvnb|Vogt|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4s-X8wfhemsC&pg=PA44 44]}} }}</ref> La seticas ia ave duta sur esce sabe es posible, recomendante en loca la suspende de judi per ariva a un state de calmia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=8}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Ancient Philosophy}} }}</ref> [[File:Tibet, c. 15th-16th century - Portrait of Dharmakirti - 2010.474 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|alt=Statua de Dharmakirti|La filosofiste budiste [[Dharmakirti]] ia developa un teoria causal de sabe.<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Dunne|2006|p=753}}</ref>]] La [[Upanixades]], scrivedas filosofial composada en [[Barat antica]] entre 700 e 300 aec, ia esamina como persones oteni sabe, incluinte la rol de introspeta, compara e dedui.<ref>{{harvnb|Black|loc=Lead section}}</ref> En la sentenio 6 aec, la scola de [[Ajñana]] ia developa un seticisme radical cual pone en duta la posiblia e usosia de sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fountoulakis|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xGtREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23]}} | {{harvnb|Warder|1998|pp=43–44}} | {{harvnb|Fletcher|Romero|Talbot|Warburton|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=drX4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 46]}} }}</ref> La scola de [[Nyāya]] ia emerji en la sentenio 2 aec e ia furni un trata sistemosa de como persones oteni sabe, distinguinte entre fontes valida e nonvalida.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Prasad|1987|p=48}} | {{harvnb|Dasti|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Bhatt|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=upIQgJhpmsIC&pg=PA72 72]}} }}</ref> Cuando [[filosofia budiste|filosofistes budiste]] ia deveni plu tarda interesada en epistemolojia, los ia depende de consetas developada en Nyāya e otra tradisiones.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Prasad|1987|p=6}} | {{harvnb|Dunne|2006|p=753}} }}</ref> La filosofiste budiste [[Dharmakirti]] (sentenio 6 o 7 ec)<ref>{{harvnb|Bonevac|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=neDwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR18 xviii]}}</ref> ia analise la prosede de sabe como un serie de avenis causal relatada.<ref name="auto1"/> [[Filosofia xines|Filosofistes xines]] antica ia comprende sabe como un fenomeno interliada fundal liada a condui etical e envolve sosial. Multe ia vide sajia como la gol de ateni sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rošker|2021|loc=Lead section, § 2.1 Relational Epistemology}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|pp=215–216, 219}} }}</ref> [[Mozi]] (470–391 aec) ia proposa un prosimi praticaliste a sabe usante rejistras istorial, demostra sensal, e resultas pratical per validi credes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2a. The Mozi, Later Mohists and Debaters (bianshi)}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|p=216}} }}</ref> [[Mencius]] (sirca 372–289 aec) ia esplora razona analoja como un otra fonte de sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2c. Mencius (Mengzi, c. 372-289 B.C.E.) and Analogical Reasoning}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|p=216}} }}</ref> [[Xunzi (filofiste)|Xunzi]] (sirca 310-220 aec) ia atenta combina oserva empirical e investiga razonal. El ia asentua la importa de claria e normas de razona sin esclui la rol de senti e emosia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2d. Xunzi (310-220 B.C.E.): Dispelling Obsessions}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|p=216}} }}</ref> La relata entre [[razona]] e [[fida]] ia es un tema sentral en la [[filosofia medieval|periodo medieval]]. En [[filosofia muslim|filosofia arabi-persian]], [[al-Farabi]] (sirca 870–950) e [[Averroes]] (1126–1198) ia discute como filosofia e [[teolojia]] interata e cual es la veculo plu bon a veria. [[Al-Ghazali]] (sirca 1056–1111) ia critica multe de la ensenias xef de filosofistes muslim presedente, disente ce los depende de suposas nonprobada cual no deveni sabe.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Griffel|2020|loc=Lead section, § 3. Al-Ghazâlî's 'Refutations' of Falsafa and Ismâ'îlism}} | {{harvnb|Vassilopoulou|Clark|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bI59DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 303]}} }}</ref> En filosofia ueste, Anselmo de Canterbury (1033–1109) ia proposa ce ensenia teolojial e demanda filosofial es en armonia e completi lunlotra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=11}} | {{harvnb|Holopainen|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x5FiMR3kd_8C&pg=PA75 75]}} }}</ref> [[Peter Abelard]] (1079–1142) ia argumenta contra autorias teolojial nondemandada e ia dise ce tota cosas es abrida a duta razonal.<ref>{{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=11}}</ref> Influeda par [[Aristotele]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274) ia developa un teoria empiricaliste, afirmante ce "no cosa es en la inteleto estra si lo ia prima apare en la sensas".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=11}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|pp=289–290}} }}</ref> Seguente un forma temprana de realisme direta proposada par William de Ockham (sirca 1285–1349), persepi de ojetos nondependente de la mente aveni direta sin medias.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kaye|loc=Lead section, § 4a. Direct Realist Empiricism}} | {{harvnb|Antognazza|2024|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MzATEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 86]}} }}</ref> Entretempo, en la sentenio 14 en Barat, [[Gaṅgeśa]] ia developa un teoria fidabliste de sabe e ia considera la problemes de atesta e falasias.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Prasad|1987|pp=2, 8, 200–202}} }}</ref> En Xina, [[Wang Yangming]] (1472–1529) ia esplora la unia de sabe e ata, credente ce sabe moral es inata e pote es atenida par vinse interesa personal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2g. Wang Yangming on liangzhi: Direct, Clear, Universal Knowledge, § 3h. Wang Yangming: Moral Willing as Knowing}} | {{harvnb|Shen|2006|pp=219–222}} }}</ref> [[File:Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes.jpg|thumb|alt=Depinta de René Descartes|[[René Descartes]] ia usa [[duta cartesian|duta metodolojial]] per xerca fundas serta per filosofia.]] La curso de [[filosofia moderna]] ia es formida par [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), ci ia afirma ce filosofia debe comensa de un loca de sabe nondutable de prinsipes prima. Inspirada par seticisme, el ia atenta trova sabe asoluta serta par identifia verias cual no pote es dutada. El ia pensa ce esta es la caso per la afirma "[[me pensa, donce me es]]", de cual el ia construi la resta de sua sistem filosofial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=14–15}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|p=291}} }}</ref> Descartes, con [[Baruch Spinoza]] (1632–1677) e [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (1646–1716), ia parteni a la scola de [[razonalisme]], cual afirma ce la mente posese [[inatisme|ideas inata]] nondependente de esperia.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=261}} | {{harvnb|Evans|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Oo9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA298 298]}} }}</ref> [[John Locke]] (1632–1704) ia rejeta esta vista en favore de un empiricalisme cual afirma ce la mente es un [[tableta vacua]]. Esta sinifia ce tota ideas depende de esperia sensal, o como "ideas de sensa", cual es direta presentada par la sensas, o como "ideas de refleta", cual la mente crea par refleta sur ideas de sensa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=17–18}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|pp=298–299}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=261}} }}</ref> [[David Hume]] (1711–1776) ia usa esta idea per esplora la limitas de lo cual persones pote sabe. El ia dise ce sabe de fatos es nunca serta, ajuntante ce sabe de relatas entre ideas, como verias matematical, ta pote es serta ma conteni no informa sur la mundo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Coventry|Merrill|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X950DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=22–23}} }}</ref> [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) ia atenta trova un vista media entre razonalisme e empiricalisme par identifia un tipo de sabe cual ia manca de Hume. Per Kant, esta es sabe sur prinsipes cual suporta tota esperia e struturi lo, como relatas spasial e tempal e categorias fundal de comprende.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=27–30}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce}} }}</ref> En la sentenio 19, [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (1770–1831) ia argumenta contra empiricalisme, disente ce impresas sensal solitar no pote deveni sabe car tota sabe es ativa struturida par la sujeto sabente.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=262}} }}</ref> [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873) ia defende un forma vasta de empiricalisme e ia esplica sabe de verias jeneral con [[razona induinte]]. [[Charles Peirce]] (1839–1914) ia pensa ce tota sabe es [[falable]], asentuante ce xercores de sabe debe sempre es preparada per revisa sua credes si [[demostra]] nova es encontrada. El ia usa esta idea per argumenta contra fundalisme cartesian cual xerca verias asoluta serta.<ref>{{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce}}</ref> En la sentenio 20, falablisme ia es plu esplorada par [[J. L. Austin]] (1911–1960) e [[Karl Popper]] (1902–1994).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Twentieth Century}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|Zeleňák|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R3aywtFIKKsC&pg=PA71 71]}} }}</ref> En [[filosofia continental]], [[Edmund Husserl]] (1859–1938) ia aplica la idea setica de suspende judi a la [[fenomenolojia (filosofia)|studia de esperia]]. Par no judi esce un esperia es esata o no, el ia atenta descrive la strutur interna de esperia en loca.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rockmore|2011|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=44}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|p=312}} }}</ref> [[positivisme lojical|Positivistes lojical]], como [[A. J. Ayer]] (1910–1989), ia dise ce tota sabe es o empirical o analisal.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=262}}</ref> [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970) ia developa un teoria empiricaliste de datos sensal, distinguinte entre sabe direta par conose de datos sensal e sabe nondireta par descrive, cual es deduida de sabe par conose.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Twentieth Century}} | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|p=315}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|pp=48–49}} }}</ref> [[Sensa comun]] ia ave un loca sentral en la epistemolojia de [[G. E. Moore]] (1873–1958). El ia usa oservas trivial, como la fato ce el ave du manos, per argumenta contra teorias filosofial astrata cual devia de sensa comun.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Baldwin|2010|loc=§ 6. Common Sense and Certainty}} | {{harvnb|Wolenski|2004|p=49}} }}</ref> [[Filosofia de lingua comun]], como praticada par [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] (1889–1951), es un prosimi simil cual atenta estrae intuis epistemolojial de como lingua comun es usada.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamlyn|2006|pp=317–318}}</ref> [[Edmund Gettier]] (1927–2021) ia conseta contraesemplos contra la idea ce sabe es la mesma como crede justida e vera. Esta contraesemplos ia stimula multe filosofistes a sujesta [[definis de sabe|definis alternativa de sabe]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hamlyn|2005|p=262}} | {{harvnb|Beilby|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=omdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Twentieth Century}} }}</ref> Un de la alternativas considerada ia es [[fidablisme]], cual dise ce sabe nesesa fontes fidable, movente la foca a via de justi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goldman|Beddor|2021|loc=Lead section, § 1. A Paradigm Shift in Analytic Epistemology}} | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Twentieth Century, § Recent Issues}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia de virtua]], un responde prosima relatada, analise la formi de credes en termas de la virtuas inteletal o capasias cognisial envolveda en la prosede.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Goldman|Beddor|2021|loc=§ 4.1 Virtue Reliabilism}} | {{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|p=175}} }}</ref> [[Epistemolojia naturalida]], como consetada par [[Willard Van Orman Quine]] (1908–2000), usa consetas e ideas de la siensas natural per formula sua teorias.<ref>{{harvnb|Crumley II|2009|pp=183–184, 188–189}}</ref> Otra developas en la tarda de la sentenio 20 en epistemolojia ia es la emerji de [[epistemolojia sosial]], [[epistemolojia femiste|femiste]] e [[epistemolojia itorial|istorial]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pappas|1998|loc=§ Recent Issues}} | {{harvnb|Vagelli|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hT33DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96]}} }}</ref> == Vide ance == * [[Teorias de Epistemolojia]] == Referes == ===Notas=== {{Notelist}} ===Sitas=== {{reflist}} ===Fontes=== <div style="height: 200px; overflow:auto; border: 1px solid gray; padding-right: 12px; background-color: var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit"> <small> {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book |last1=Allwood |first1=Carl Martin |title=The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural Psychology |date=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-1-118-33989-3 |pages=69–72 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 |language=en |chapter=Anthropology of Knowledge |doi=10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926085332/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Alston |first1=William Payne |title=Beyond Justification: Dimensions of Epistemic Evaluation |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondjustificat00alst_0 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-4291-9 |date=2006 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Elizabeth |title=Feminist Epistemology: An Interpretation and a Defense |journal=Hypatia |volume=10 |issue=3 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3810237 |issn=0887-5367 |date=1995 |pages=50–84 |doi=10.1111/j.1527-2001.1995.tb00737.x |jstor=3810237 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=2 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802113229/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3810237 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Elizabeth |title=Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-epistemology/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=2 August 2024 |date=2024 |archive-date=14 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014000453/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-epistemology/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Antognazza |first1=Maria Rosa |editor1-last=Logins |editor1-first=Arturs |editor2-last=Vollet |editor2-first=Jacques-Henri |title=Putting Knowledge to Work |publisher=Oxford University PRess |isbn=978-0-19-288237-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MzATEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 |chapter=Knowledge as Presence and Presentation: Highlights from the History of Knowledge-First Epistemology |date=2024 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718160022/https://books.google.com/books?id=MzATEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |title=Foundationalism, Coherentism, and Epistemological Dogmatism |journal=Philosophical Perspectives |volume=2 |doi=10.2307/2214083 |date=1988 |pages=407–442 |jstor=2214083 }} * {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |title=The Oxford Handbook of Epistemology |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=71–94 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTSO-3 |chapter=The Sources of Knowledge |year=2002 |access-date=12 June 2022 |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612112116/https://philpapers.org/rec/AUDTSO-3 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-19-513005-8 }} * {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |title=Epistemology: A Contemporary Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/epistemologycont0000audi |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28108-9 |edition=2 |date=2003 }} * {{cite book |last1=Audi |first1=Robert |editor1-last=Lackey |editor1-first=Jennifer |editor2-last=Sosa |editor2-first=Ernest |title=The Epistemology of Testimony |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-153473-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-YPTEeIhOXYC&pg=PA38 |language=en |chapter=Testimony, Credulity, and Veracity |date=2006 |access-date=15 August 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822122207/https://books.google.com/books?id=-YPTEeIhOXYC&pg=PA38#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Ávila |first1=Gabriel da Costa |last2=Almeida |first2=Tiago Santos |editor1-last=Condé |editor1-first=Mauro L. |editor2-last=Salomon |editor2-first=Marlon |title=Handbook for the Historiography of Science |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-031-27510-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFTaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA235 |language=en |chapter=Lorraine Daston's Historical Epistemology: Style, Program, and School |date=2023 |access-date=30 July 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822122210/https://books.google.com/books?id=sFTaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA235#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Ayers |first1=Michael |title=Knowing and Seeing: Groundwork for a New Empiricism |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-257012-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qt-RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |language=en |date=2019 |access-date=19 August 2024 |archive-date=18 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240818181733/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qt-RDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Baehr |first1=Jason S. |title=Virtue Epistemology |url=https://iep.utm.edu/virtue-epistemology/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=2 August 2024 |ref=Baehr, "''Virtue Epistemology''" |archive-date=1 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401155028/https://iep.utm.edu/virtue-epistemology/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Baehr |first1=Jason S. |title=A Priori and A Posteriori |url=https://iep.utm.edu/apriori/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=17 September 2022 |archive-date=7 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807213522/https://iep.utm.edu/apriori/ |url-status=live |ref=Baehr, "''A Priori and A Posteriori''" }} * {{cite web |last1=Baldwin |first1=Tom |title=George Edward Moore |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=17 July 2024 |date=2010 |archive-date=15 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315182300/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Barber |first1=Alex |editor1-last=Barber |editor1-first=Alex |title=Epistemology of Language |url=https://archive.org/details/epistemologyofla0000unse |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925057-8 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |date=2003 }} * {{cite book |last1=Barnett |first1=Ronald |title=The Idea Of Higher Education |date=1990 |publisher=Open University Press |isbn=978-0-335-09420-2 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eTjlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |language=en |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305174659/https://books.google.com/books?id=eTjlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Barth |first1=Fredrik |title=An Anthropology of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_2002-02_43_1/page/n6 |journal=Current Anthropology |date=2002 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1086/324131 |hdl=1956/4191 |language=en |issn=0011-3204 |hdl-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Baumann |first1=Peter |title=Epistemic Contrastivism, Knowledge and Practical Reasoning |journal=Erkenntnis |volume=81 |issue=1 |doi=10.1007/s10670-015-9728-z |date=2016 |pages=59–68 }} * {{cite book |last1=Beebe |first1=James |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |chapter=Experimental Epistemology |chapter-url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/experimental-epistemology/v-1 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=30 July 2024 |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-P067-1 |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6 |archive-date=30 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730082844/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/experimental-epistemology/v-1 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Beilby |first1=James |title=Epistemology as Theology: An Evaluation of Alvin Plantinga's Religious Epistemology |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-93932-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=omdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |language=en |date=2017 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=17 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717170159/https://books.google.com/books?id=omdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Benton |first1=Matthew |title=The Epistemology of Interpersonal Relations |journal=Noûs |volume=early view |issue=|doi=10.1111/nous.12499 |date=2024 |pages=1–20 |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/nous.12499 |access-date=29 April 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822122339/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nous.12499 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Bergmann |first1=Michael |title=Radical Skepticism and Epistemic Intuition |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-265357-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T7EzEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |language=en |date=2021 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=31 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731114921/https://books.google.com/books?id=T7EzEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |last=Bernecker |first=Sven |chapter=Triangular Externalism |date=2013-09-03 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118328408.ch25 |title=A Companion to Donald Davidson |pages=443–455 |editor-last=Lepore |editor-first=Ernie |access-date=2023-10-03 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118328408.ch25 |isbn=978-0-470-67370-6 |editor2-last=Ludwig |editor2-first=Kirk |archive-date=9 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509104056/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118328408.ch25 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Best |first1=Steven |last2=Kellner |first2=Douglas |title=Postmodern Theory: Critical Interrogations |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-349-21718-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZBKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 |language=en |date=1991 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822122214/https://books.google.com/books?id=vZBKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Bhatt |first1=Govardhan P. |title=The Basic Ways of Knowing: An In-depth Study of Kumārila's Contribution to Indian Epistemology |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-0580-4 |edition=Bhatt 1989 p72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=upIQgJhpmsIC&pg=PA72 |language=en |date=1989 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=14 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714172328/https://books.google.com/books?id=upIQgJhpmsIC&pg=PA72 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Bhatt |first1=S. R. |last2=Mehrotra |first2=Anu |title=Buddhist Epistemology |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-4114-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4kwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |language=en |date=2017 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=2 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802164159/https://books.google.com/books?id=D4kwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=Alexander |title=The Epistemology of Science—a Bird's-eye View |journal=Synthese |volume=175 |doi=10.1007/s11229-010-9740-4 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40801354 |issn=0039-7857 |date=2010 |pages=5–16 |jstor=40801354 |access-date=30 July 2024 |archive-date=27 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727035537/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40801354 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Blaauw |first1=Martijn |last2=Pritchard |first2=Duncan |title=Epistemology A - Z |url=https://archive.org/details/epistemologyaz0000blaa |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-2213-9 |date=2005 }} * {{cite web |last1=Black |first1=Brian |title=Upanisads |url=https://iep.utm.edu/upanisad/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=14 July 2024 |archive-date=14 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240514105010/https://iep.utm.edu/upanisad/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Bonevac |first1=Daniel |title=Historical Dictionary of Ethics |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-7572-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=neDwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR18 |language=en |date=2023 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=15 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715122705/https://books.google.com/books?id=neDwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR18 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=BonJour |first1=Laurence |editor1-last=McLaughlin |editor1-first=Brian P. |editor2-last=Kornblith |editor2-first=Hilary |title=Goldman and His Critics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-60917-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jcZDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT37 |language=en |chapter=2. Goldman Against Internalism |date=2016 |access-date=22 August 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822122217/https://books.google.com/books?id=2jcZDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT37#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Braddon-Mitchell |first1=David |last2=Jackson |first2=Frank |chapter=Belief |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/belief/v-2 |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-V006-2 |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6 |access-date=21 August 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822122221/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/belief/v-2 |url-status=live |publisher=Routledge}} * {{cite web |last1=Bradie |first1=Michael |last2=Harms |first2=William |title=Evolutionary Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-evolutionary/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=29 July 2024 |date=2023 |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209021728/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-evolutionary/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Bradley |first1=Darren |title=A Critical Introduction to Formal Epistemology |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-78093-764-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qKXDCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |language=en |date=2015 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=1 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801111236/https://books.google.com/books?id=qKXDCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Brenner |first1=William H. |title=Logic and Philosophy: An Integrated Introduction |date=1993 |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |isbn=978-0-268-15898-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DFoFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 |language=en |access-date=5 July 2023 |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630162728/https://books.google.com/books?id=DFoFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Broncano-Berrocal |first1=Fernando |last2=Carter |first2=J. 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Adam |editor1-last=Ichikawa |editor1-first=Jonathan Jenkins |title=The Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Contextualism |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-59469-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzslDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA292 |language=en |chapter=Epistemological Implications of Relativism |date=2017 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=31 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731114910/https://books.google.com/books?id=RzslDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA292 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Carter |first1=J. 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Postmodernism, Power-knowledge, and Applied Epistemology |date=2018 }} * {{cite book |last1=Shen |first1=Vincent |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald M. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |volume=2 |date=2006 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0-02-865782-9 |edition=2 |chapter=Chinese Philosophy: Metaphysics and Epistemology |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/chinese-philosophy-metaphysics-and-epistemology}} * {{cite book |last1=Siderits |first1=Mark |title=Buddhism As Philosophy |publisher=Hackett Publishing |isbn=978-1-62466-983-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YzhCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA332 |language=en |date=2021 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822130417/https://books.google.com/books?id=YzhCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA332#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last1=Siegel |first1=Susanna |last2=Silins |first2=Nicholas |last3=Matthen |first3=Mohan |chapter=The Epistemology of Perception |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199600472.013.040 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Perception |editor-last1=Matthen |editor-first1=Mohan |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book |last1=Sierpinska |first1=Anna |last2=Lerman |first2=Stephen |title=International Handbook of Mathematics Education: Part 1 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-009-1465-0 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-1465-0_23 |language=en |chapter=Epistemologies of Mathematics and of Mathematics Education |date=1996 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-1465-0_23 |access-date=30 July 2024 |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122145402/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-1465-0_23 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Silva |first1=Paul |last2=Oliveira |first2=Luis R.G. |chapter=Introduction |title=Propositional and Doxastic Justification |doi=10.4324/9781003008101-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99FkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |isbn=978-1-003-00810-1 |date=2022 |access-date=15 August 2024 |archive-date=13 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240813162816/https://books.google.com/books?id=99FkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 |url-status=live |publisher=Routledge }} * {{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Emmanuel |title=Doxastic Justification and Testimonial Beliefs |journal=Episteme |doi=10.1017/epi.2023.49 |date=2023 |pages=1–14 }} * {{cite book |last1=Stairs |first1=Allen |title=A Thinker's Guide to the Philosophy of Religion |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21981-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Km1QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |language=en |date=2017 |access-date=24 July 2024 |archive-date=26 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726225734/https://books.google.com/books?id=Km1QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Stanley |first1=Jason |last2=Willlamson |first2=Timothy |title=Knowing How |journal=Journal of Philosophy |date=2001 |volume=98 |issue=8 |pages=411–444 |doi=10.2307/2678403 |jstor=2678403 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/WILKHV |access-date=12 June 2022 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215122/https://philpapers.org/rec/WILKHV |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Steele |first1=Katie |last2=Stefánsson |first2=H. Orri |title=Decision Theory |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/decision-theory/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=20 July 2024 |date=2020 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822130544/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/decision-theory/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Stehr |first1=Nico |last2=Adolf |first2=Marian T. |title=The Price of Knowledge |journal=Social Epistemology |date=2016 |volume=30 |issue=5–6 |pages=483–512 |doi=10.1080/02691728.2016.1172366}} * {{cite web |last1=Steup |first1=Matthias |last2=Neta |first2=Ram |title=Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/ |website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 May 2022 |date=2020 |archive-date=21 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721023728/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Steup |first1=Matthias |last2=Neta |first2=Ram |title=Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 July 2024 |date=2024 |archive-date=21 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721023728/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Stoltz |first1=Jonathan |title=Illuminating the Mind: An Introduction to Buddhist Epistemology |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-090756-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTkqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 |language=en |access-date=19 August 2024 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303204540/https://books.google.com/books?id=pTkqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Stroll |first1=Avrum |title=Epistemology |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=20 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710175341/https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology |url-status=live |date=2023 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Sturm |first1=Thomas |title=Historical Epistemology or History of Epistemology? The Case of the Relation Between Perception and Judgment: Dedicated to Günther Patzig on His 85th Birthday |journal=Erkenntnis |volume=75 |issue=3 |doi=10.1007/s10670-011-9338-3 |date=2011 }} * {{cite web |last1=Sudduth |first1=Michael |title=Defeaters in Epistemology |url=https://iep.utm.edu/defeaters-in-epistemology/ |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |access-date=17 May 2022 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602105748/https://iep.utm.edu/defeaters-in-epistemology/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Tanesini |first1=Alessandra |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |chapter=Social Epistemology |chapter-url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/social-epistemology/v-2 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=29 July 2024 |doi=10.4324/0123456789-P046-2 |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329170812/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/social-epistemology/v-2 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Tieszen |first1=Richard L. |title=Phenomenology, Logic, and the Philosophy of Mathematics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83782-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgQ_fuCcKAC&pg=PA175 |language=en |date=2005 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=31 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731163841/https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgQ_fuCcKAC&pg=PA175 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Titelbaum |first1=Michael G. |title=Fundamentals of Bayesian Epistemology 1: Introducing Credences |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-870760-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |language=en |date=2022 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822130541/https://books.google.com/books?id=AiFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Tramel |first1=Peter |title=Haack's Foundherentism Is a Foundationalism |journal=Synthese |volume=160 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/s11229-006-9108-y |date=2008 |pages=215–228 }} * {{cite web |last1=Truncellito |first1=David A. |title=Epistemology |url=https://iep.utm.edu/epistemo/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=12 July 2024 |archive-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113223803/https://iep.utm.edu/epistemo/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Tufari |first1=P. |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |date=2003 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |isbn=978-0-7876-4008-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4C0KAQAAMAAJ |language=en |chapter=Knowledge, Sociology of |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201125118/https://books.google.com/books?id=4C0KAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Turuthi |first1=David Gitau |last2=Njagi |first2=Kageni |last3=Chemwei |first3=Bernard |chapter=How Does Technology Influence Students'Motivation Towards Learning Kiswahili Proverbs? |editor-last1=Jared |editor-first1=Keengwe |title=Handbook of Research on Pedagogical Models for Next-Generation Teaching and Learning |date=2017 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=978-1-5225-3874-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5JE3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA365 |language=en |access-date=22 August 2022 |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125193646/https://books.google.com/books?id=5JE3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA365#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Vagelli |first1=Matteo |editor1-last=Herring |editor1-first=Emily |editor2-last=Jones |editor2-first=Kevin |editor3-last=Kiprijanov |editor3-first=Konstantin |editor4-last=Sellers |editor4-first=Laura |title=The Past, Present, and Future of Integrated History and Philosophy of Science |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-21481-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hT33DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |language=en |chapter=Historical Epistemology and the 'Marriage' Between History and Philosophy of Science |date=2019 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822130426/https://books.google.com/books?id=hT33DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Vahid |first1=Hamid |title=Doxastic Conservatism |url=https://iep.utm.edu/doxastic-conservatism/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=2 August 2024 |archive-date=2 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802164156/https://iep.utm.edu/doxastic-conservatism/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Vaidya |first1=Anand Jayprakash |last2=Wallner |first2=Michael |title=The Epistemology of Modality and the Problem of Modal Epistemic Friction |journal=Synthese |volume=198 |issue=S8 |doi=10.1007/s11229-018-1860-2 |date=2021 |pages=1909–1935 |pmid=34720230 |pmc=8549955 }} * {{cite web |last1=Van Inwagen |first1=Peter |last2=Sullivan |first2=Meghan |last3=Bernstein |first3=Sara |title=Metaphysics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaphysics/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=17 March 2024 |date=2023 |archive-date=16 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916103726/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/metaphysics/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Vassilopoulou |first1=P. |last2=Clark |first2=S. |title=Late Antique Epistemology: Other Ways to Truth |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-24077-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bI59DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 |language=en |date=2009 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718085830/https://books.google.com/books?id=bI59DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Vermeir |first1=Koen |editor1-last=Laerke |editor1-first=Mogens |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=Justin E. H. |editor3-last=Schliesser |editor3-first=Eric |title=Philosophy and Its History: Aims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985714-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKqCD5U_ba8C&pg=PA65 |language=en |chapter=Philosophy and Genealogy: Ways of Writing History of Philosophy |date=2013 |access-date=30 July 2024 |archive-date=29 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240729162032/https://books.google.com/books?id=hKqCD5U_ba8C&pg=PA65 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book|title=La philosophie allemande de Kant à Heidegger|trans-title=La filosofia deutx de Kant asta Heidegger|chapter=Fichte| first1=Miklós |last1= Vető|editor=Dominique Folscheid|language=fr|year=1993|publisher=Presses universitaires de France|isbn=2 13 045256 6}} * {{cite book |last1=Vogt |first1=Katja Maria |editor1-last=Machuca |editor1-first=Diego E. |title=Pyrrhonism in Ancient, Modern, and Contemporary Philosophy |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-94-007-1991-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4s-X8wfhemsC&pg=PA44 |language=en |chapter=The Aims of Skeptical Investigation |date=2011 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718160025/https://books.google.com/books?id=4s-X8wfhemsC&pg=PA44 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Walton |first=Douglas N. |author-link=Douglas N. Walton |date=2005 |title=Pragmatic and Idealized Models of Knowledge and Ignorance |journal=[[American Philosophical Quarterly]] |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=59–69 [59, 64] |jstor=20010182 }} * {{cite book |last1=Warder |first1=Anthony Kennedy |title=A Course in Indian Philosophy |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ |isbn=978-81-208-1482-0 |edition=2 |date=1998 }} * {{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Jared |title=Shadows of Syntax: Revitalizing Logical and Mathematical Conventionalism |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-008615-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 |access-date=30 July 2024 |archive-date=28 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528232725/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/shadows-of-syntax-9780190086152 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Watkins |first1=Chris |last2=Mortimore |first2=Peter |title=Understanding Pedagogy and Its Impact on Learning |date=1999 |publisher=Sage |doi=10.4135/9781446219454 |isbn=978-1-85396-453-4 |url=https://sk.sagepub.com/books/understanding-pedagogy-and-its-impact-on-learning/n1.xml |chapter=Pedagogy: What Do We Know? |access-date=24 July 2024 |archive-date=12 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712120304/https://sk.sagepub.com/books/understanding-pedagogy-and-its-impact-on-learning/n1.xml |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Webb |first1=Mark Owen |title=Jain Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/jain/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=2 August 2024 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528030933/https://iep.utm.edu/jain/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Wheeler |first1=Gregory R. |last2=Pereira |first2=Luís Moniz |title=Epistemology and Artificial Intelligence |journal=Journal of Applied Logic |volume=2 |issue=4 |doi=10.1016/j.jal.2004.07.007 |date=2004 |pages=469–493 }} * {{Cite book |last=Whitcomb |first=Dennis |chapter=Wisdom |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781136882012 |title=The Routledge Companion to Epistemology |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-88201-2 |editor-last=Bernecker |editor-first=Sven |edition=0 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780203839065 |editor-last2=Pritchard |editor-first2=Duncan }} * {{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Fred |title=The External World and Our Knowledge of It: Hume's Critical Realism, an Exposition and a Defence |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9764-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b8n609PDSrsC&pg=PA314 |language=en |date=2008 |access-date=19 August 2024 |archive-date=18 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240818112748/https://books.google.com/books?id=b8n609PDSrsC&pg=PA314 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Wilson |first1=Robert A. |title=Externalism and Internalism in the Philosophy of Mind |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0352.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |access-date=11 August 2024 |language=en |date=2023 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410004809/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0352.xml |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Windt |first1=Jennifer M. |title=Dreams and Dreaming |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dreams-dreaming/#CartDreaSkep |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 December 2023 |date=2021 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201125124/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dreams-dreaming/#CartDreaSkep |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Wolenski |first1=Jan |editor1-last=Niiniluoto |editor1-first=I. |editor2-last=Sintonen |editor2-first=Matti |editor3-last=Wolenski |editor3-first=Jan |title=Handbook of Epistemology |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-1986-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6gvlBwAAQBAJ |language=en |chapter=History of Epistemology |date=2004 |access-date=13 July 2024 |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712163703/https://books.google.com/books?id=6gvlBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last1=Wrenn |first1=Chase B. |title=Naturalistic Epistemology |url=https://iep.utm.edu/nat-epis/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=2 August 2024 |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716142002/https://iep.utm.edu/nat-epis/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Zagzebski |first1=Linda |author1-link=Linda Zagzebski |date=1999 |chapter=What Is Knowledge? |editor1-last=Greco |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Sosa |editor2-first=Ernest |title=The Blackwell Guide to Epistemology |publisher=Blackwell |pages=92–116 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/ZAGWIK |isbn=978-0-631-20290-5 |oclc=39269507 |doi=10.1002/9781405164863.ch3 |s2cid=158886670 |access-date=12 June 2022 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602215147/https://philpapers.org/rec/ZAGWIK |url-status=live }} {{Refend}} </small> </div> [[Categoria:Filosofia]] 6s1620zmqzk5m87em3d9hhknyf3wymf 0 7573 43461 43393 2026-08-23T18:51:04Z InternetArchiveBot 6793 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260823sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 43461 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Rosetta Stone.JPG|thumb|La [[Petra de Rosetta]] (196&nbsp;aec) porta scriveda usante tre sistem de scrive diferente: [[ieroglifos]] e la [[scrive demotica]] rejistra la mesma testo en la lingua [[egiptian (lingua)|ejiptian]], en cuando un pasaje egal en [[elinica (lingua)|elinica]] usa la [[alfabeta elinica]]. Esta corespondes ia es clavin en la [[desifri de ieroglifos ejiptian]] en la temprana de la sentenio 19.]] '''Scrive''' es la ata de crea un representa persistente de lingua umana. Un [[Sistemes de scrive|sistem de scrive]] usa un colie de simboles e regulas per codigi aspetas de lingua parlada, como sua [[vocabulo]] e [[sintatica]]. Ma, [[lingua scriveda]] pote ave cualias diferente de los de cualce lingua parlada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Roy |title=Rethinking Writing |url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingwritin0000harr |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-253-33776-4 |location=Bloomington |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rethinkingwritin0000harr/page/185 185]}}</ref> Scrive es un ativia [[Cognisio|cognisial]] e [[sosial]] cual envolve prosedes [[Neuropsicolojia|neuropsicolojial]] e [[Prosede de scrive|fisical]]. La resulta de esta ativia, nomida "scriveda", e a veses un "testo", es un serie de simboles fisical enscriveda, mecanical copiada, o dijital representada. La interpretor de un testo es nomida un "lejor".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Dorothy E. |url=https://archive.org/details/institutionaleth0000smit/page/105 |title=Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7591-0502-7 |location=Lanham, MD |pages=[https://archive.org/details/institutionaleth0000smit/page/105 105–108]}}</ref> En jeneral, sistemes de scrive no constitui linguas en se mesma, ma un modo de codigi lingua tal ce lo pote es lejeda par otras tra tempo e spasio.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ong |first=Walter |url=https://archive.org/details/oralityliteracyt00ongw |title=Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word |publisher=Methuen |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-415-02796-0 |location=London |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haas |first=Christina |title=Writing technology: Studies on the Materiality of Literacy |url=https://archive.org/details/writingtechnolog0000haas |publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8058-1306-7 |location=Mahwah, NJ}}</ref> An con ce no tota linguas usa un sistem de scrive, los cual fa lo pote completi e estende la capasias de [[lingua parlada]] par crea formas durante de lingua cual pote es transmeteda tra spasio (pe [[Letera (mesaje)|coresponde scriveda]]) e retenida tra tempo (pe [[Biblioteca|bibliotecas]] o otra rejistras publica).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schmandt-Besserat |first1=Denise |title=Handbook of Research on Writing: History, Society, School, Individual, Text |last2=Erard |first2=Erard |publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-135-25111-6 |editor-last=Bazerman |editor-first=Charles |publication-place=New York |page=21 |chapter=Origins and Forms of Writing}}</ref> Scrive pote ance ave efetos cual cambia sabe, car lo permete ce umanas esterni sua pensa en formas sur cual lo es plu fasil per refleta, developa, reconsidera, e revisa.<ref name="Emig (1994)">{{Cite book |title=Landmark Essays: On Writing Across the Curriculum |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-003-05921-9 |editor-last=Bazerman |editor-first=Charles |chapter=Writing as a mode of learning |doi=10.4324/9781003059219 |editor-last2=Russell |editor-first2=David}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Naming What We Know: Threshold Concepts of Writing Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/namingwhatweknow0000unse |publisher=Utah State University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-87421-989-0 |editor-last=Adler-Kassner |editor-first=Linda |location=Logan |pages=[https://archive.org/details/namingwhatweknow0000unse/page/55 55]–56 |jstor=j.ctt15nmjt7 |editor-last2=Wardle |editor-first2=Elizabeth A.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winsor |first=Dorothy A. |year=1994 |title=Invention and Writing in Technical Work: Representing the Object |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_written-communication_1994-04_11_2/page/227 |journal=Written Communication |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=227–250 |doi=10.1177/0741088394011002003 |s2cid=145645219}}</ref> ==Referes== {{Reflist}} id91brpg662l9x7ov3lcox94nj9in3j 0 7701 43455 43417 2026-08-23T13:39:11Z Evelino Ucelo 15653 /* Bicinis en atletisme */ 43455 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Young_woman_at_the_beach_(2).jpg|thumb|Un [[fem]] portante bicini violeta a plaia en 2009.]] Un bicini es [[veste de nada]] de du pesos acel es cualida un peso sur la alta acel covre [[Seno|senos]], e peso du sur la basa: la fronte covrente la [[pelvis]] ma esposa normal la [[ombilico]], e la dorso covre jeneral fesur intergluteo e alga o tota de la [[Gluteo|gluteos]]. La bicini moderna es introduida par desinior de veste franses [[Louis Réard]] en julio 1946, e es nomi per [[Bicini Atol]], do la proba publica prima de [[bomba nucleal]] es fada cuatro dias a ante.<ref name="weisgall">{{cite book|last=Weisgall|first=Jonathan M.|title=Operation Crossroads: The atomic tests at Bikini Atoll|url=https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1994|pages=[https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis/page/263 263]–264}}</ref> == Etimolojia e terminolojia == En cuando la vestes de du pesos como desinia esiste en [[eda antica]],<ref name=Agrawala>{{cite book|last=Agrawala|first=P.K.|title=Goddesses in Ancient India|year=1983|publisher=Humanities Press|location=Atlantic Highlands, N.J.|isbn=978-0-391-02960-6|edition=first |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BmDIbNuD0gC&pg=PA12}}</ref> la desinia moderna atrae interesa publica en [[Paris]] a 5 de julio, 1946.<ref name="BBCW">{{Cite news |last=Westcott |first=Kathryn |date=2006-07-05 |title=The bikini: Not a brief affair |language=en-GB |work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |url-status=live |access-date=2023-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721185042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |archive-date=July 21, 2008}}</ref> [[File:Able_crossroads.jpg|right|thumb|[[Opera Crus de Vias]] es un serie de probi nucleal, e la inspira per nomi de du vestes de nada franses a la tempo, incluinte bicini]] En maio 1946, modiste de Paris [[Jacques Heim]] relasa veste de nada de du pesos acel el nomi {{lang|fr|Atome}} ('Atom') e comersia como "la vestes de nada masima peti en la mundo".<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas G. II |last=Cole |url=http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901063358/http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-09-01 |title=(The) Bikini: EmBodying the Bomb |publisher=Genders Journal}}</ref> Como vestes de nada de la eda, lo asconde de ombilico de portante, e lo fali atrae multe atende. Injenia automobilial franses [[Louis Réard]] introdui a desinia cual el nomi la "Bicini", adota la nom de [[Bicini Atol]] en Mar Pasifica,<ref name="HistC">{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bikini-introduced |title=Bikini Introduced |access-date=September 17, 2008 |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]]}}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |first=Paula |last=Cocozza |title=A little piece of history |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=June 10, 2006 |access-date=September 17, 2008 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080927104351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips?gusrc=rss&feed=travel| archive-date= September 27, 2008| url-status= live}}</ref> cual es la colonial nom acel deutxes dona a la atol, impresta de la majel nom per isola, {{lang|mh|Pikinni}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocP.htm#Pikinni|title=Marshallese-English Dictionary – Place Name Index|website=www.trussel2.com|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref> == Istoria == === En anticia === [[File:Villa Romana del Casale BW 2025-04-28 11-11-12.jpg|thumb|La antica Roman [[Villa Romana del Casale]] (286–305&nbsp;EC) en [[Sisilia]] ave un de la maxim temprana konoseda imaje de tipo de bicini.]] Como diseda par arceolojiste [[James Mellaart]], un mural de la eda de carbon de linio (sirca 5600&nbsp;AEC) en [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Anatolia]] depinta un diva madre goddess montante du leopardos portante un costum alga simil a bicini.<ref name=Agrawala /><ref>{{cite book |first1=Lucy |last1=Goodison |author1-link=Lucy Goodison |first2=Christine E. |last2=Morris |author2-link=Christine E. Morris |title=Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204/page/46 46] |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-299-16320-4 }}</ref> La veste de du pesos pove es trasa retro a la [[ilinica-roman mundo]], do vestes similar a bicini porta par atletas fema es depinta sur [[Vaso|vasos]] e depintas paintings datida retro a 1400&nbsp;AEC.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Peter J. |last1=James |first2=I. J. |last2=Thorpe |first3=Nick |last3=Thorpe |title=Ancient Inventions |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279 279] |publisher=Ballantine Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-345-40102-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279}}</ref> En ''Coroni de la Campion'', un [[mosaica]] a la solo de un [[casa campainal roman]] en [[Sisilia]] cual es datida de la periodo diocletia (286–305&nbsp;EC), fem joven partisipa en leva de pesas, lansa de disco, e esecita juas bal games vestida en veste simila a bicini.<ref name=BBCW /><ref name=VilCas>{{cite web |url=http://www.valdinoto.com/english/villa_romana_del_casale.htm |title=Villa Romana del Casale|publisher=Val di Noto|access-date=2013-08-29}}</ref> La mosaica, trova en la [[Villa Romana del Casale]] de Sisilia, ave des fem joven ci ia es nomida anacron la "Xicas de Bicini".<ref name="Guttmann 1991 38">{{cite book |first=Allen |last=Guttmann |title=Women's Sports: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle/page/38 38] |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1991 |isbn= 978-0-231-06957-1}}</ref><ref name="Villa Romana del Casale">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |title=Villa Romana del Casale |publisher=World Heritage Sites |access-date=2015-03-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223110444/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref> Otra [[Imperi Roman|roman]] trovadas arceolojial depinta la diva Venera en un veste simila. En [[Pompeii]], depintadas de Venera porte un bicini ia es descovreda en la Casa della Venere,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|title=Pompeian Households: Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205075357/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|archive-date=2016-02-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|title=Stoa Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015205200/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|archive-date=2015-10-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Penelope M. |last=Allison |url=http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|title=Pompeian Households: Information concerning the rooms in Casa della Venere in Bikini|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318124125/http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|archive-date=2015-03-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> en la ''[[tablinum]]'' de la [[Casa de Julia Felix]],<ref>{{cite book |first1= Mary |last1= Beard |first2= John |last2= Henderson |title= Classical Art |page=116 |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalartfrom00bear/page/116 |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-19-284237-4 }}</ref> e en un atrium de la [[Casa de Loreius Tiburtinus|Via Dell'Abbondanza]].<ref>{{cite book |first1= Elisabeth B. |last1= MacDougall |first2=Wilhelmina Mary |last2= Feemster |title= Ancient Roman Gardens |page=38 |publisher= Dumbarton Oaks |year= 1979 |isbn=978-0-88402-100-1}}</ref> === En tempos moderna === En 1913, desinior [[Carl Jantzen]] ia fa la veste de nada prima funsional. Inspirada par la introdui de femes a nada Olympia el ia desinia un costum abrasante con pantala per la basa e corta mangas per la alta.<ref name=heritage>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml|access-date=November 13, 2007|publisher=American Heritage Inc.|title=60 Years of Bikinis|author=Hoover, Elizabeth D.|date=July 5, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909195749/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml |archive-date=September 9, 2007}}</ref> [[File:Women in bikinis at an aerobics class at Hietaniemi beach.jpg|thumb|Femes en bicinis a la [[Hietaniemi Plaia]] en [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], en 2014.]] Como diseda par Beth Dincuff Charleston, asosia rexersa de la Instituida Aponeda de la Museo Urban de Arte, "La bicini representa salta social envolventa concluia de corpo, consernas moral, e altias sesal."<ref name="heritage" /> == Spesies == [[File:Red_bikini,_beach.jpg|thumb|Un bicini, simil a orijina]] An si terma "bicini" ia es at prima aplika meta a veste de nada acel revela ombilico de usente, oji la industria de moda konsidera alga veste de nada de du pesos como bicini.<ref name=patton>{{cite web|last=Patton|first=Susan Ruiz|title=A Bikini Isn't The Choice Of Miss Pa. For The First Time In 77 Years, Contestants In Miss America Pageant Can Choose Their Swimwear. Heather Busin Prefers One-piece|url=https://www.mcall.com/1997/09/11/a-bikini-isnt-the-choice-of-miss-pa-for-the-first-time-in-77-years-contestants-in-miss-america-pageant-can-choose-their-swimwear-heather-busin-prefers-one-piece/|publisher=McCalls|date=September 11, 1997|access-date=August 27, 2013|archive-date=October 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013191926/http://articles.mcall.com/1997-09-11/news/3155841_1_swimsuit-competition-bikini-pageant|url-status=live}}</ref> == Bicinis en atletisme == [[File:USA_Italy_London_2012.jpg|thumb|Bicinis es uniforma ofisial per volibal de plaia]] Bicinis ia deveni un composante major de comersiali de varia de [[sporte de femes]].<ref name="Kilborn">Laura Grae Kilborn, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190116200751/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DP&p_theme=dp&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF44E9A0508C03&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D The Marketing Of Female Athletes]", ''The Denver Post'', August 11, 1998</ref> Lo es uniforma ofisial per [[volibal de plaia]] e es usada comun en [[sporte atletal]] e otra sportes. Bicinis de sporte ia gania popularia de pos la 1990s.<ref>Gertrud Pfister and Mari Kristin Sisjord, ''Gender and Sport: Changes and Challenges'', page 142, Waxmann Verlag, 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-8309-7873-2}}</ref> Nadores fema no usa bicinis comun en nada competosa.<ref>Harvey S. Wiener, ''Total swimming'', page 125, Simon & Schuster, 1981, {{ISBN|978-0-671-42807-5}}</ref><ref>Barry Wilner, Art Seiden, Sam Freas, and Dan Helms, ''Swimming'', page 12, Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-8114-6596-0}}</ref> La Federal Internasional de nada (FINA) vota a proibi nadores fema de corsa en bicinis en sua asembla a Roma en 1960,<ref>David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'', page 75, Simon & Schuster, 2008, {{ISBN|978-1-4391-0267-1}}</ref> ma rugulas presente no ave tal proibinte.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2022/09/13/c78394f6-2984-451c-a55d-fea632cb6b2d/25_FINA-By-Laws_09_09_2022_clean.pdf | title=FINA by laws approved by the FINA Bureau | website=resources.fina.org}}</ref><ref name="Proswimwear">https://www.proswimwear.co.uk/blog/what-is-fina-approved-swimwear</ref> [[File:Successful capture of a wave.jpg|thumb|On ance usa bicini per surfa]] == Referes == [[Categoria:Bicinis]] 941zypoz4he1iuzi35p2dmdk1gtw80d 43456 43455 2026-08-23T13:43:37Z Evelino Ucelo 15653 /* */ 43456 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Three_Girls_Surfers_Paradise_in_bikinis.jpg|thumb|Tre [[fem|femes]] portante bicini a la [[Paradise de Surfores]], [[Australia]]]] Un bicini es [[veste de nada]] de du pesos acel es cualida un peso sur la alta acel covre [[Seno|senos]], e peso du sur la basa: la fronte covrente la [[pelvis]] ma esposa normal la [[ombilico]], e la dorso covre jeneral fesur intergluteo e alga o tota de la [[Gluteo|gluteos]]. La bicini moderna es introduida par desinior de veste franses [[Louis Réard]] en julio 1946, e es nomi per [[Bicini Atol]], do la proba publica prima de [[bomba nucleal]] es fada cuatro dias a ante.<ref name="weisgall">{{cite book|last=Weisgall|first=Jonathan M.|title=Operation Crossroads: The atomic tests at Bikini Atoll|url=https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1994|pages=[https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis/page/263 263]–264}}</ref> == Etimolojia e terminolojia == En cuando la vestes de du pesos como desinia esiste en [[eda antica]],<ref name=Agrawala>{{cite book|last=Agrawala|first=P.K.|title=Goddesses in Ancient India|year=1983|publisher=Humanities Press|location=Atlantic Highlands, N.J.|isbn=978-0-391-02960-6|edition=first |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BmDIbNuD0gC&pg=PA12}}</ref> la desinia moderna atrae interesa publica en [[Paris]] a 5 de julio, 1946.<ref name="BBCW">{{Cite news |last=Westcott |first=Kathryn |date=2006-07-05 |title=The bikini: Not a brief affair |language=en-GB |work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |url-status=live |access-date=2023-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721185042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |archive-date=July 21, 2008}}</ref> [[File:Able_crossroads.jpg|right|thumb|[[Opera Crus de Vias]] es un serie de probi nucleal, e la inspira per nomi de du vestes de nada franses a la tempo, incluinte bicini]] En maio 1946, modiste de Paris [[Jacques Heim]] relasa veste de nada de du pesos acel el nomi {{lang|fr|Atome}} ('Atom') e comersia como "la vestes de nada masima peti en la mundo".<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas G. II |last=Cole |url=http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901063358/http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-09-01 |title=(The) Bikini: EmBodying the Bomb |publisher=Genders Journal}}</ref> Como vestes de nada de la eda, lo asconde de ombilico de portante, e lo fali atrae multe atende. Injenia automobilial franses [[Louis Réard]] introdui a desinia cual el nomi la "Bicini", adota la nom de [[Bicini Atol]] en Mar Pasifica,<ref name="HistC">{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bikini-introduced |title=Bikini Introduced |access-date=September 17, 2008 |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]]}}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |first=Paula |last=Cocozza |title=A little piece of history |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=June 10, 2006 |access-date=September 17, 2008 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080927104351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips?gusrc=rss&feed=travel| archive-date= September 27, 2008| url-status= live}}</ref> cual es la colonial nom acel deutxes dona a la atol, impresta de la majel nom per isola, {{lang|mh|Pikinni}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocP.htm#Pikinni|title=Marshallese-English Dictionary – Place Name Index|website=www.trussel2.com|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref> == Istoria == === En anticia === [[File:Villa Romana del Casale BW 2025-04-28 11-11-12.jpg|thumb|La antica Roman [[Villa Romana del Casale]] (286–305&nbsp;EC) en [[Sisilia]] ave un de la maxim temprana konoseda imaje de tipo de bicini.]] Como diseda par arceolojiste [[James Mellaart]], un mural de la eda de carbon de linio (sirca 5600&nbsp;AEC) en [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Anatolia]] depinta un diva madre goddess montante du leopardos portante un costum alga simil a bicini.<ref name=Agrawala /><ref>{{cite book |first1=Lucy |last1=Goodison |author1-link=Lucy Goodison |first2=Christine E. |last2=Morris |author2-link=Christine E. Morris |title=Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204/page/46 46] |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-299-16320-4 }}</ref> La veste de du pesos pove es trasa retro a la [[ilinica-roman mundo]], do vestes similar a bicini porta par atletas fema es depinta sur [[Vaso|vasos]] e depintas paintings datida retro a 1400&nbsp;AEC.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Peter J. |last1=James |first2=I. J. |last2=Thorpe |first3=Nick |last3=Thorpe |title=Ancient Inventions |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279 279] |publisher=Ballantine Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-345-40102-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279}}</ref> En ''Coroni de la Campion'', un [[mosaica]] a la solo de un [[casa campainal roman]] en [[Sisilia]] cual es datida de la periodo diocletia (286–305&nbsp;EC), fem joven partisipa en leva de pesas, lansa de disco, e esecita juas bal games vestida en veste simila a bicini.<ref name=BBCW /><ref name=VilCas>{{cite web |url=http://www.valdinoto.com/english/villa_romana_del_casale.htm |title=Villa Romana del Casale|publisher=Val di Noto|access-date=2013-08-29}}</ref> La mosaica, trova en la [[Villa Romana del Casale]] de Sisilia, ave des fem joven ci ia es nomida anacron la "Xicas de Bicini".<ref name="Guttmann 1991 38">{{cite book |first=Allen |last=Guttmann |title=Women's Sports: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle/page/38 38] |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1991 |isbn= 978-0-231-06957-1}}</ref><ref name="Villa Romana del Casale">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |title=Villa Romana del Casale |publisher=World Heritage Sites |access-date=2015-03-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223110444/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref> Otra [[Imperi Roman|roman]] trovadas arceolojial depinta la diva Venera en un veste simila. En [[Pompeii]], depintadas de Venera porte un bicini ia es descovreda en la Casa della Venere,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|title=Pompeian Households: Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205075357/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|archive-date=2016-02-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|title=Stoa Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015205200/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|archive-date=2015-10-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Penelope M. |last=Allison |url=http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|title=Pompeian Households: Information concerning the rooms in Casa della Venere in Bikini|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318124125/http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|archive-date=2015-03-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> en la ''[[tablinum]]'' de la [[Casa de Julia Felix]],<ref>{{cite book |first1= Mary |last1= Beard |first2= John |last2= Henderson |title= Classical Art |page=116 |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalartfrom00bear/page/116 |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-19-284237-4 }}</ref> e en un atrium de la [[Casa de Loreius Tiburtinus|Via Dell'Abbondanza]].<ref>{{cite book |first1= Elisabeth B. |last1= MacDougall |first2=Wilhelmina Mary |last2= Feemster |title= Ancient Roman Gardens |page=38 |publisher= Dumbarton Oaks |year= 1979 |isbn=978-0-88402-100-1}}</ref> === En tempos moderna === En 1913, desinior [[Carl Jantzen]] ia fa la veste de nada prima funsional. Inspirada par la introdui de femes a nada Olympia el ia desinia un costum abrasante con pantala per la basa e corta mangas per la alta.<ref name=heritage>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml|access-date=November 13, 2007|publisher=American Heritage Inc.|title=60 Years of Bikinis|author=Hoover, Elizabeth D.|date=July 5, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909195749/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml |archive-date=September 9, 2007}}</ref> [[File:Women in bikinis at an aerobics class at Hietaniemi beach.jpg|thumb|Femes en bicinis a la [[Hietaniemi Plaia]] en [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], en 2014.]] Como diseda par Beth Dincuff Charleston, asosia rexersa de la Instituida Aponeda de la Museo Urban de Arte, "La bicini representa salta social envolventa concluia de corpo, consernas moral, e altias sesal."<ref name="heritage" /> == Spesies == [[File:Red_bikini,_beach.jpg|thumb|Un bicini, simil a orijina]] An si terma "bicini" ia es at prima aplika meta a veste de nada acel revela ombilico de usente, oji la industria de moda konsidera alga veste de nada de du pesos como bicini.<ref name=patton>{{cite web|last=Patton|first=Susan Ruiz|title=A Bikini Isn't The Choice Of Miss Pa. For The First Time In 77 Years, Contestants In Miss America Pageant Can Choose Their Swimwear. Heather Busin Prefers One-piece|url=https://www.mcall.com/1997/09/11/a-bikini-isnt-the-choice-of-miss-pa-for-the-first-time-in-77-years-contestants-in-miss-america-pageant-can-choose-their-swimwear-heather-busin-prefers-one-piece/|publisher=McCalls|date=September 11, 1997|access-date=August 27, 2013|archive-date=October 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013191926/http://articles.mcall.com/1997-09-11/news/3155841_1_swimsuit-competition-bikini-pageant|url-status=live}}</ref> == Bicinis en atletisme == [[File:USA_Italy_London_2012.jpg|thumb|Bicinis es uniforma ofisial per volibal de plaia]] Bicinis ia deveni un composante major de comersiali de varia de [[sporte de femes]].<ref name="Kilborn">Laura Grae Kilborn, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190116200751/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DP&p_theme=dp&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF44E9A0508C03&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D The Marketing Of Female Athletes]", ''The Denver Post'', August 11, 1998</ref> Lo es uniforma ofisial per [[volibal de plaia]] e es usada comun en [[sporte atletal]] e otra sportes. Bicinis de sporte ia gania popularia de pos la 1990s.<ref>Gertrud Pfister and Mari Kristin Sisjord, ''Gender and Sport: Changes and Challenges'', page 142, Waxmann Verlag, 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-8309-7873-2}}</ref> Nadores fema no usa bicinis comun en nada competosa.<ref>Harvey S. Wiener, ''Total swimming'', page 125, Simon & Schuster, 1981, {{ISBN|978-0-671-42807-5}}</ref><ref>Barry Wilner, Art Seiden, Sam Freas, and Dan Helms, ''Swimming'', page 12, Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-8114-6596-0}}</ref> La Federal Internasional de nada (FINA) vota a proibi nadores fema de corsa en bicinis en sua asembla a Roma en 1960,<ref>David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'', page 75, Simon & Schuster, 2008, {{ISBN|978-1-4391-0267-1}}</ref> ma rugulas presente no ave tal proibinte.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2022/09/13/c78394f6-2984-451c-a55d-fea632cb6b2d/25_FINA-By-Laws_09_09_2022_clean.pdf | title=FINA by laws approved by the FINA Bureau | website=resources.fina.org}}</ref><ref name="Proswimwear">https://www.proswimwear.co.uk/blog/what-is-fina-approved-swimwear</ref> [[File:Successful capture of a wave.jpg|thumb|On ance usa bicini per surfa]] == Referes == [[Categoria:Bicinis]] 8t3xcksc4p9lmacd8v8z64hwfmohr0s 43457 43456 2026-08-23T13:57:31Z Evelino Ucelo 15653 /* Referes */ 43457 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Three_Girls_Surfers_Paradise_in_bikinis.jpg|thumb|Tre [[fem|femes]] portante bicini a la [[Paradise de Surfores]], [[Australia]]]] Un bicini es [[veste de nada]] de du pesos acel es cualida un peso sur la alta acel covre [[Seno|senos]], e peso du sur la basa: la fronte covrente la [[pelvis]] ma esposa normal la [[ombilico]], e la dorso covre jeneral fesur intergluteo e alga o tota de la [[Gluteo|gluteos]]. La bicini moderna es introduida par desinior de veste franses [[Louis Réard]] en julio 1946, e es nomi per [[Bicini Atol]], do la proba publica prima de [[bomba nucleal]] es fada cuatro dias a ante.<ref name="weisgall">{{cite book|last=Weisgall|first=Jonathan M.|title=Operation Crossroads: The atomic tests at Bikini Atoll|url=https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1994|pages=[https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis/page/263 263]–264}}</ref> == Etimolojia e terminolojia == En cuando la vestes de du pesos como desinia esiste en [[eda antica]],<ref name=Agrawala>{{cite book|last=Agrawala|first=P.K.|title=Goddesses in Ancient India|year=1983|publisher=Humanities Press|location=Atlantic Highlands, N.J.|isbn=978-0-391-02960-6|edition=first |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BmDIbNuD0gC&pg=PA12}}</ref> la desinia moderna atrae interesa publica en [[Paris]] a 5 de julio, 1946.<ref name="BBCW">{{Cite news |last=Westcott |first=Kathryn |date=2006-07-05 |title=The bikini: Not a brief affair |language=en-GB |work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |url-status=live |access-date=2023-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721185042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |archive-date=July 21, 2008}}</ref> [[File:Able_crossroads.jpg|right|thumb|[[Opera Crus de Vias]] es un serie de probi nucleal, e la inspira per nomi de du vestes de nada franses a la tempo, incluinte bicini]] En maio 1946, modiste de Paris [[Jacques Heim]] relasa veste de nada de du pesos acel el nomi {{lang|fr|Atome}} ('Atom') e comersia como "la vestes de nada masima peti en la mundo".<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas G. II |last=Cole |url=http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901063358/http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-09-01 |title=(The) Bikini: EmBodying the Bomb |publisher=Genders Journal}}</ref> Como vestes de nada de la eda, lo asconde de ombilico de portante, e lo fali atrae multe atende. Injenia automobilial franses [[Louis Réard]] introdui a desinia cual el nomi la "Bicini", adota la nom de [[Bicini Atol]] en Mar Pasifica,<ref name="HistC">{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bikini-introduced |title=Bikini Introduced |access-date=September 17, 2008 |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]]}}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |first=Paula |last=Cocozza |title=A little piece of history |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=June 10, 2006 |access-date=September 17, 2008 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080927104351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips?gusrc=rss&feed=travel| archive-date= September 27, 2008| url-status= live}}</ref> cual es la colonial nom acel deutxes dona a la atol, impresta de la majel nom per isola, {{lang|mh|Pikinni}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocP.htm#Pikinni|title=Marshallese-English Dictionary – Place Name Index|website=www.trussel2.com|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref> == Istoria == === En anticia === [[File:Villa Romana del Casale BW 2025-04-28 11-11-12.jpg|thumb|La antica Roman [[Villa Romana del Casale]] (286–305&nbsp;EC) en [[Sisilia]] ave un de la maxim temprana konoseda imaje de tipo de bicini.]] Como diseda par arceolojiste [[James Mellaart]], un mural de la eda de carbon de linio (sirca 5600&nbsp;AEC) en [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Anatolia]] depinta un diva madre goddess montante du leopardos portante un costum alga simil a bicini.<ref name=Agrawala /><ref>{{cite book |first1=Lucy |last1=Goodison |author1-link=Lucy Goodison |first2=Christine E. |last2=Morris |author2-link=Christine E. Morris |title=Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204/page/46 46] |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-299-16320-4 }}</ref> La veste de du pesos pove es trasa retro a la [[ilinica-roman mundo]], do vestes similar a bicini porta par atletas fema es depinta sur [[Vaso|vasos]] e depintas paintings datida retro a 1400&nbsp;AEC.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Peter J. |last1=James |first2=I. J. |last2=Thorpe |first3=Nick |last3=Thorpe |title=Ancient Inventions |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279 279] |publisher=Ballantine Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-345-40102-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279}}</ref> En ''Coroni de la Campion'', un [[mosaica]] a la solo de un [[casa campainal roman]] en [[Sisilia]] cual es datida de la periodo diocletia (286–305&nbsp;EC), fem joven partisipa en leva de pesas, lansa de disco, e esecita juas bal games vestida en veste simila a bicini.<ref name=BBCW /><ref name=VilCas>{{cite web |url=http://www.valdinoto.com/english/villa_romana_del_casale.htm |title=Villa Romana del Casale|publisher=Val di Noto|access-date=2013-08-29}}</ref> La mosaica, trova en la [[Villa Romana del Casale]] de Sisilia, ave des fem joven ci ia es nomida anacron la "Xicas de Bicini".<ref name="Guttmann 1991 38">{{cite book |first=Allen |last=Guttmann |title=Women's Sports: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle/page/38 38] |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1991 |isbn= 978-0-231-06957-1}}</ref><ref name="Villa Romana del Casale">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |title=Villa Romana del Casale |publisher=World Heritage Sites |access-date=2015-03-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223110444/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref> Otra [[Imperi Roman|roman]] trovadas arceolojial depinta la diva Venera en un veste simila. En [[Pompeii]], depintadas de Venera porte un bicini ia es descovreda en la Casa della Venere,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|title=Pompeian Households: Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205075357/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|archive-date=2016-02-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|title=Stoa Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015205200/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|archive-date=2015-10-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Penelope M. |last=Allison |url=http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|title=Pompeian Households: Information concerning the rooms in Casa della Venere in Bikini|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318124125/http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|archive-date=2015-03-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> en la ''[[tablinum]]'' de la [[Casa de Julia Felix]],<ref>{{cite book |first1= Mary |last1= Beard |first2= John |last2= Henderson |title= Classical Art |page=116 |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalartfrom00bear/page/116 |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-19-284237-4 }}</ref> e en un atrium de la [[Casa de Loreius Tiburtinus|Via Dell'Abbondanza]].<ref>{{cite book |first1= Elisabeth B. |last1= MacDougall |first2=Wilhelmina Mary |last2= Feemster |title= Ancient Roman Gardens |page=38 |publisher= Dumbarton Oaks |year= 1979 |isbn=978-0-88402-100-1}}</ref> === En tempos moderna === En 1913, desinior [[Carl Jantzen]] ia fa la veste de nada prima funsional. Inspirada par la introdui de femes a nada Olympia el ia desinia un costum abrasante con pantala per la basa e corta mangas per la alta.<ref name=heritage>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml|access-date=November 13, 2007|publisher=American Heritage Inc.|title=60 Years of Bikinis|author=Hoover, Elizabeth D.|date=July 5, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909195749/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml |archive-date=September 9, 2007}}</ref> [[File:Women in bikinis at an aerobics class at Hietaniemi beach.jpg|thumb|Femes en bicinis a la [[Hietaniemi Plaia]] en [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], en 2014.]] Como diseda par Beth Dincuff Charleston, asosia rexersa de la Instituida Aponeda de la Museo Urban de Arte, "La bicini representa salta social envolventa concluia de corpo, consernas moral, e altias sesal."<ref name="heritage" /> == Spesies == [[File:Red_bikini,_beach.jpg|thumb|Un bicini, simil a orijina]] An si terma "bicini" ia es at prima aplika meta a veste de nada acel revela ombilico de usente, oji la industria de moda konsidera alga veste de nada de du pesos como bicini.<ref name=patton>{{cite web|last=Patton|first=Susan Ruiz|title=A Bikini Isn't The Choice Of Miss Pa. For The First Time In 77 Years, Contestants In Miss America Pageant Can Choose Their Swimwear. Heather Busin Prefers One-piece|url=https://www.mcall.com/1997/09/11/a-bikini-isnt-the-choice-of-miss-pa-for-the-first-time-in-77-years-contestants-in-miss-america-pageant-can-choose-their-swimwear-heather-busin-prefers-one-piece/|publisher=McCalls|date=September 11, 1997|access-date=August 27, 2013|archive-date=October 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013191926/http://articles.mcall.com/1997-09-11/news/3155841_1_swimsuit-competition-bikini-pageant|url-status=live}}</ref> == Bicinis en atletisme == [[File:USA_Italy_London_2012.jpg|thumb|Bicinis es uniforma ofisial per volibal de plaia]] Bicinis ia deveni un composante major de comersiali de varia de [[sporte de femes]].<ref name="Kilborn">Laura Grae Kilborn, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190116200751/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DP&p_theme=dp&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF44E9A0508C03&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D The Marketing Of Female Athletes]", ''The Denver Post'', August 11, 1998</ref> Lo es uniforma ofisial per [[volibal de plaia]] e es usada comun en [[sporte atletal]] e otra sportes. Bicinis de sporte ia gania popularia de pos la 1990s.<ref>Gertrud Pfister and Mari Kristin Sisjord, ''Gender and Sport: Changes and Challenges'', page 142, Waxmann Verlag, 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-8309-7873-2}}</ref> Nadores fema no usa bicinis comun en nada competosa.<ref>Harvey S. Wiener, ''Total swimming'', page 125, Simon & Schuster, 1981, {{ISBN|978-0-671-42807-5}}</ref><ref>Barry Wilner, Art Seiden, Sam Freas, and Dan Helms, ''Swimming'', page 12, Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-8114-6596-0}}</ref> La Federal Internasional de nada (FINA) vota a proibi nadores fema de corsa en bicinis en sua asembla a Roma en 1960,<ref>David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'', page 75, Simon & Schuster, 2008, {{ISBN|978-1-4391-0267-1}}</ref> ma rugulas presente no ave tal proibinte.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2022/09/13/c78394f6-2984-451c-a55d-fea632cb6b2d/25_FINA-By-Laws_09_09_2022_clean.pdf | title=FINA by laws approved by the FINA Bureau | website=resources.fina.org}}</ref><ref name="Proswimwear">https://www.proswimwear.co.uk/blog/what-is-fina-approved-swimwear</ref> [[File:Successful capture of a wave.jpg|thumb|On ance usa bicini per surfa]] == Referes == {{Reflist}} {{Notelist}} == Lias esterna == [[Categoria:Bicinis]] [[Categoria:Moda]] 1s3uum48f9nvwav4qz5b88dtzum6m8x 43458 43457 2026-08-23T15:20:41Z Evelino Ucelo 15653 /* Bicinis en atletisme */ 43458 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Three_Girls_Surfers_Paradise_in_bikinis.jpg|thumb|Tre [[fem|femes]] portante bicini a la [[Paradise de Surfores]], [[Australia]]]] Un bicini es [[veste de nada]] de du pesos acel es cualida un peso sur la alta acel covre [[Seno|senos]], e peso du sur la basa: la fronte covrente la [[pelvis]] ma esposa normal la [[ombilico]], e la dorso covre jeneral fesur intergluteo e alga o tota de la [[Gluteo|gluteos]]. La bicini moderna es introduida par desinior de veste franses [[Louis Réard]] en julio 1946, e es nomi per [[Bicini Atol]], do la proba publica prima de [[bomba nucleal]] es fada cuatro dias a ante.<ref name="weisgall">{{cite book|last=Weisgall|first=Jonathan M.|title=Operation Crossroads: The atomic tests at Bikini Atoll|url=https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1994|pages=[https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis/page/263 263]–264}}</ref> == Etimolojia e terminolojia == En cuando la vestes de du pesos como desinia esiste en [[eda antica]],<ref name=Agrawala>{{cite book|last=Agrawala|first=P.K.|title=Goddesses in Ancient India|year=1983|publisher=Humanities Press|location=Atlantic Highlands, N.J.|isbn=978-0-391-02960-6|edition=first |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BmDIbNuD0gC&pg=PA12}}</ref> la desinia moderna atrae interesa publica en [[Paris]] a 5 de julio, 1946.<ref name="BBCW">{{Cite news |last=Westcott |first=Kathryn |date=2006-07-05 |title=The bikini: Not a brief affair |language=en-GB |work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |url-status=live |access-date=2023-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721185042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |archive-date=July 21, 2008}}</ref> [[File:Able_crossroads.jpg|right|thumb|[[Opera Crus de Vias]] es un serie de probi nucleal, e la inspira per nomi de du vestes de nada franses a la tempo, incluinte bicini]] En maio 1946, modiste de Paris [[Jacques Heim]] relasa veste de nada de du pesos acel el nomi {{lang|fr|Atome}} ('Atom') e comersia como "la vestes de nada masima peti en la mundo".<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas G. II |last=Cole |url=http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901063358/http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-09-01 |title=(The) Bikini: EmBodying the Bomb |publisher=Genders Journal}}</ref> Como vestes de nada de la eda, lo asconde de ombilico de portante, e lo fali atrae multe atende. Injenia automobilial franses [[Louis Réard]] introdui a desinia cual el nomi la "Bicini", adota la nom de [[Bicini Atol]] en Mar Pasifica,<ref name="HistC">{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bikini-introduced |title=Bikini Introduced |access-date=September 17, 2008 |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]]}}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |first=Paula |last=Cocozza |title=A little piece of history |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=June 10, 2006 |access-date=September 17, 2008 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080927104351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips?gusrc=rss&feed=travel| archive-date= September 27, 2008| url-status= live}}</ref> cual es la colonial nom acel deutxes dona a la atol, impresta de la majel nom per isola, {{lang|mh|Pikinni}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocP.htm#Pikinni|title=Marshallese-English Dictionary – Place Name Index|website=www.trussel2.com|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref> == Istoria == === En anticia === [[File:Villa Romana del Casale BW 2025-04-28 11-11-12.jpg|thumb|La antica Roman [[Villa Romana del Casale]] (286–305&nbsp;EC) en [[Sisilia]] ave un de la maxim temprana konoseda imaje de tipo de bicini.]] Como diseda par arceolojiste [[James Mellaart]], un mural de la eda de carbon de linio (sirca 5600&nbsp;AEC) en [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Anatolia]] depinta un diva madre goddess montante du leopardos portante un costum alga simil a bicini.<ref name=Agrawala /><ref>{{cite book |first1=Lucy |last1=Goodison |author1-link=Lucy Goodison |first2=Christine E. |last2=Morris |author2-link=Christine E. Morris |title=Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204/page/46 46] |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-299-16320-4 }}</ref> La veste de du pesos pove es trasa retro a la [[ilinica-roman mundo]], do vestes similar a bicini porta par atletas fema es depinta sur [[Vaso|vasos]] e depintas paintings datida retro a 1400&nbsp;AEC.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Peter J. |last1=James |first2=I. J. |last2=Thorpe |first3=Nick |last3=Thorpe |title=Ancient Inventions |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279 279] |publisher=Ballantine Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-345-40102-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279}}</ref> En ''Coroni de la Campion'', un [[mosaica]] a la solo de un [[casa campainal roman]] en [[Sisilia]] cual es datida de la periodo diocletia (286–305&nbsp;EC), fem joven partisipa en leva de pesas, lansa de disco, e esecita juas bal games vestida en veste simila a bicini.<ref name=BBCW /><ref name=VilCas>{{cite web |url=http://www.valdinoto.com/english/villa_romana_del_casale.htm |title=Villa Romana del Casale|publisher=Val di Noto|access-date=2013-08-29}}</ref> La mosaica, trova en la [[Villa Romana del Casale]] de Sisilia, ave des fem joven ci ia es nomida anacron la "Xicas de Bicini".<ref name="Guttmann 1991 38">{{cite book |first=Allen |last=Guttmann |title=Women's Sports: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle/page/38 38] |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1991 |isbn= 978-0-231-06957-1}}</ref><ref name="Villa Romana del Casale">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |title=Villa Romana del Casale |publisher=World Heritage Sites |access-date=2015-03-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223110444/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref> Otra [[Imperi Roman|roman]] trovadas arceolojial depinta la diva Venera en un veste simila. En [[Pompeii]], depintadas de Venera porte un bicini ia es descovreda en la Casa della Venere,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|title=Pompeian Households: Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205075357/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|archive-date=2016-02-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|title=Stoa Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015205200/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|archive-date=2015-10-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Penelope M. |last=Allison |url=http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|title=Pompeian Households: Information concerning the rooms in Casa della Venere in Bikini|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318124125/http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|archive-date=2015-03-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> en la ''[[tablinum]]'' de la [[Casa de Julia Felix]],<ref>{{cite book |first1= Mary |last1= Beard |first2= John |last2= Henderson |title= Classical Art |page=116 |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalartfrom00bear/page/116 |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-19-284237-4 }}</ref> e en un atrium de la [[Casa de Loreius Tiburtinus|Via Dell'Abbondanza]].<ref>{{cite book |first1= Elisabeth B. |last1= MacDougall |first2=Wilhelmina Mary |last2= Feemster |title= Ancient Roman Gardens |page=38 |publisher= Dumbarton Oaks |year= 1979 |isbn=978-0-88402-100-1}}</ref> === En tempos moderna === En 1913, desinior [[Carl Jantzen]] ia fa la veste de nada prima funsional. Inspirada par la introdui de femes a nada Olympia el ia desinia un costum abrasante con pantala per la basa e corta mangas per la alta.<ref name=heritage>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml|access-date=November 13, 2007|publisher=American Heritage Inc.|title=60 Years of Bikinis|author=Hoover, Elizabeth D.|date=July 5, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909195749/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml |archive-date=September 9, 2007}}</ref> [[File:Women in bikinis at an aerobics class at Hietaniemi beach.jpg|thumb|Femes en bicinis a la [[Hietaniemi Plaia]] en [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], en 2014.]] Como diseda par Beth Dincuff Charleston, asosia rexersa de la Instituida Aponeda de la Museo Urban de Arte, "La bicini representa salta social envolventa concluia de corpo, consernas moral, e altias sesal."<ref name="heritage" /> == Spesies == [[File:Red_bikini,_beach.jpg|thumb|Un bicini, simil a orijina]] An si terma "bicini" ia es at prima aplika meta a veste de nada acel revela ombilico de usente, oji la industria de moda konsidera alga veste de nada de du pesos como bicini.<ref name=patton>{{cite web|last=Patton|first=Susan Ruiz|title=A Bikini Isn't The Choice Of Miss Pa. For The First Time In 77 Years, Contestants In Miss America Pageant Can Choose Their Swimwear. Heather Busin Prefers One-piece|url=https://www.mcall.com/1997/09/11/a-bikini-isnt-the-choice-of-miss-pa-for-the-first-time-in-77-years-contestants-in-miss-america-pageant-can-choose-their-swimwear-heather-busin-prefers-one-piece/|publisher=McCalls|date=September 11, 1997|access-date=August 27, 2013|archive-date=October 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013191926/http://articles.mcall.com/1997-09-11/news/3155841_1_swimsuit-competition-bikini-pageant|url-status=live}}</ref> == Bicinis en atletisme == [[File:USA_Italy_London_2012.jpg|thumb|Bicinis es uniforma ofisial per volibal de plaia]] Bicinis ia deveni un composante major de comersiali de varia de [[sporte de femes]].<ref name="Kilborn">Laura Grae Kilborn, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190116200751/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DP&p_theme=dp&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF44E9A0508C03&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D The Marketing Of Female Athletes]", ''The Denver Post'', August 11, 1998</ref> Lo es uniforma ofisial per [[volibal de plaia]] e es usada comun en [[sporte atletal]] e otra sportes. Bicinis de sporte ia gania popularia de pos la 1990s.<ref>Gertrud Pfister and Mari Kristin Sisjord, ''Gender and Sport: Changes and Challenges'', page 142, Waxmann Verlag, 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-8309-7873-2}}</ref> Nadores fema no usa bicinis comun en nada competosa.<ref>Harvey S. Wiener, ''Total swimming'', page 125, Simon & Schuster, 1981, {{ISBN|978-0-671-42807-5}}</ref><ref>Barry Wilner, Art Seiden, Sam Freas, and Dan Helms, ''Swimming'', page 12, Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-8114-6596-0}}</ref> La Federal Internasional de nada (FINA) vota a proibi nadores fema de corsa en bicinis en sua asembla a Roma en 1960,<ref>David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'', page 75, Simon & Schuster, 2008, {{ISBN|978-1-4391-0267-1}}</ref> ma rugulas presente no ave tal proibinte.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2022/09/13/c78394f6-2984-451c-a55d-fea632cb6b2d/25_FINA-By-Laws_09_09_2022_clean.pdf | title=FINA by laws approved by the FINA Bureau | website=resources.fina.org}}</ref><ref name="Proswimwear">https://www.proswimwear.co.uk/blog/what-is-fina-approved-swimwear</ref> [[File:Successful capture of a wave.jpg|thumb|On ance usa bicini per surfa]] == Vide ance == * [[Moda]] * [[Concurso de beleia]] == Referes == {{Reflist}} {{Notelist}} == Lias esterna == [[Categoria:Bicinis]] [[Categoria:Moda]] f1vga6yshjwnm5uhi7xkvvxc802sb8y 43459 43458 2026-08-23T15:22:25Z Evelino Ucelo 15653 /* Vide ance */ 43459 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Three_Girls_Surfers_Paradise_in_bikinis.jpg|thumb|Tre [[fem|femes]] portante bicini a la [[Paradise de Surfores]], [[Australia]]]] Un bicini es [[veste de nada]] de du pesos acel es cualida un peso sur la alta acel covre [[Seno|senos]], e peso du sur la basa: la fronte covrente la [[pelvis]] ma esposa normal la [[ombilico]], e la dorso covre jeneral fesur intergluteo e alga o tota de la [[Gluteo|gluteos]]. La bicini moderna es introduida par desinior de veste franses [[Louis Réard]] en julio 1946, e es nomi per [[Bicini Atol]], do la proba publica prima de [[bomba nucleal]] es fada cuatro dias a ante.<ref name="weisgall">{{cite book|last=Weisgall|first=Jonathan M.|title=Operation Crossroads: The atomic tests at Bikini Atoll|url=https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1994|pages=[https://archive.org/details/operationcrossro0000weis/page/263 263]–264}}</ref> == Etimolojia e terminolojia == En cuando la vestes de du pesos como desinia esiste en [[eda antica]],<ref name=Agrawala>{{cite book|last=Agrawala|first=P.K.|title=Goddesses in Ancient India|year=1983|publisher=Humanities Press|location=Atlantic Highlands, N.J.|isbn=978-0-391-02960-6|edition=first |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BmDIbNuD0gC&pg=PA12}}</ref> la desinia moderna atrae interesa publica en [[Paris]] a 5 de julio, 1946.<ref name="BBCW">{{Cite news |last=Westcott |first=Kathryn |date=2006-07-05 |title=The bikini: Not a brief affair |language=en-GB |work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |url-status=live |access-date=2023-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721185042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/5130460.stm |archive-date=July 21, 2008}}</ref> [[File:Able_crossroads.jpg|right|thumb|[[Opera Crus de Vias]] es un serie de probi nucleal, e la inspira per nomi de du vestes de nada franses a la tempo, incluinte bicini]] En maio 1946, modiste de Paris [[Jacques Heim]] relasa veste de nada de du pesos acel el nomi {{lang|fr|Atome}} ('Atom') e comersia como "la vestes de nada masima peti en la mundo".<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas G. II |last=Cole |url=http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901063358/http://www.genders.org/g53/g53_cole.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-09-01 |title=(The) Bikini: EmBodying the Bomb |publisher=Genders Journal}}</ref> Como vestes de nada de la eda, lo asconde de ombilico de portante, e lo fali atrae multe atende. Injenia automobilial franses [[Louis Réard]] introdui a desinia cual el nomi la "Bicini", adota la nom de [[Bicini Atol]] en Mar Pasifica,<ref name="HistC">{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/bikini-introduced |title=Bikini Introduced |access-date=September 17, 2008 |publisher=[[A&E Television Networks]]}}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |first=Paula |last=Cocozza |title=A little piece of history |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=June 10, 2006 |access-date=September 17, 2008 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080927104351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2006/jun/10/sttropez.filminspiredtravel.france.culturaltrips?gusrc=rss&feed=travel| archive-date= September 27, 2008| url-status= live}}</ref> cual es la colonial nom acel deutxes dona a la atol, impresta de la majel nom per isola, {{lang|mh|Pikinni}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocP.htm#Pikinni|title=Marshallese-English Dictionary – Place Name Index|website=www.trussel2.com|access-date=July 23, 2016}}</ref> == Istoria == === En anticia === [[File:Villa Romana del Casale BW 2025-04-28 11-11-12.jpg|thumb|La antica Roman [[Villa Romana del Casale]] (286–305&nbsp;EC) en [[Sisilia]] ave un de la maxim temprana konoseda imaje de tipo de bicini.]] Como diseda par arceolojiste [[James Mellaart]], un mural de la eda de carbon de linio (sirca 5600&nbsp;AEC) en [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Anatolia]] depinta un diva madre goddess montante du leopardos portante un costum alga simil a bicini.<ref name=Agrawala /><ref>{{cite book |first1=Lucy |last1=Goodison |author1-link=Lucy Goodison |first2=Christine E. |last2=Morris |author2-link=Christine E. Morris |title=Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299163204/page/46 46] |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-299-16320-4 }}</ref> La veste de du pesos pove es trasa retro a la [[ilinica-roman mundo]], do vestes similar a bicini porta par atletas fema es depinta sur [[Vaso|vasos]] e depintas paintings datida retro a 1400&nbsp;AEC.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Peter J. |last1=James |first2=I. J. |last2=Thorpe |first3=Nick |last3=Thorpe |title=Ancient Inventions |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279 279] |publisher=Ballantine Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-345-40102-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientinvention00jame/page/279}}</ref> En ''Coroni de la Campion'', un [[mosaica]] a la solo de un [[casa campainal roman]] en [[Sisilia]] cual es datida de la periodo diocletia (286–305&nbsp;EC), fem joven partisipa en leva de pesas, lansa de disco, e esecita juas bal games vestida en veste simila a bicini.<ref name=BBCW /><ref name=VilCas>{{cite web |url=http://www.valdinoto.com/english/villa_romana_del_casale.htm |title=Villa Romana del Casale|publisher=Val di Noto|access-date=2013-08-29}}</ref> La mosaica, trova en la [[Villa Romana del Casale]] de Sisilia, ave des fem joven ci ia es nomida anacron la "Xicas de Bicini".<ref name="Guttmann 1991 38">{{cite book |first=Allen |last=Guttmann |title=Women's Sports: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenssports00alle/page/38 38] |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1991 |isbn= 978-0-231-06957-1}}</ref><ref name="Villa Romana del Casale">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |title=Villa Romana del Casale |publisher=World Heritage Sites |access-date=2015-03-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223110444/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/villaromanadelcasale.html |archive-date=2008-12-23 }}</ref> Otra [[Imperi Roman|roman]] trovadas arceolojial depinta la diva Venera en un veste simila. En [[Pompeii]], depintadas de Venera porte un bicini ia es descovreda en la Casa della Venere,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|title=Pompeian Households: Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205075357/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/allison|archive-date=2016-02-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|title=Stoa Image Gallery|publisher=The Stoa Consortium, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015205200/http://www.stoa.org/gallery/albums.php|archive-date=2015-10-15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Penelope M. |last=Allison |url=http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|title=Pompeian Households: Information concerning the rooms in Casa della Venere in Bikini|access-date=2015-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318124125/http://www.stoa.org/projects/ph/rooms?houseid=13|archive-date=2015-03-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> en la ''[[tablinum]]'' de la [[Casa de Julia Felix]],<ref>{{cite book |first1= Mary |last1= Beard |first2= John |last2= Henderson |title= Classical Art |page=116 |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalartfrom00bear/page/116 |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-19-284237-4 }}</ref> e en un atrium de la [[Casa de Loreius Tiburtinus|Via Dell'Abbondanza]].<ref>{{cite book |first1= Elisabeth B. |last1= MacDougall |first2=Wilhelmina Mary |last2= Feemster |title= Ancient Roman Gardens |page=38 |publisher= Dumbarton Oaks |year= 1979 |isbn=978-0-88402-100-1}}</ref> === En tempos moderna === En 1913, desinior [[Carl Jantzen]] ia fa la veste de nada prima funsional. Inspirada par la introdui de femes a nada Olympia el ia desinia un costum abrasante con pantala per la basa e corta mangas per la alta.<ref name=heritage>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml|access-date=November 13, 2007|publisher=American Heritage Inc.|title=60 Years of Bikinis|author=Hoover, Elizabeth D.|date=July 5, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909195749/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/web/20060705-bikini-swimming-suit-louis-reard-micheline-bernardini-paris-brigitte-bardot.shtml |archive-date=September 9, 2007}}</ref> [[File:Women in bikinis at an aerobics class at Hietaniemi beach.jpg|thumb|Femes en bicinis a la [[Hietaniemi Plaia]] en [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], en 2014.]] Como diseda par Beth Dincuff Charleston, asosia rexersa de la Instituida Aponeda de la Museo Urban de Arte, "La bicini representa salta social envolventa concluia de corpo, consernas moral, e altias sesal."<ref name="heritage" /> == Spesies == [[File:Red_bikini,_beach.jpg|thumb|Un bicini, simil a orijina]] An si terma "bicini" ia es at prima aplika meta a veste de nada acel revela ombilico de usente, oji la industria de moda konsidera alga veste de nada de du pesos como bicini.<ref name=patton>{{cite web|last=Patton|first=Susan Ruiz|title=A Bikini Isn't The Choice Of Miss Pa. For The First Time In 77 Years, Contestants In Miss America Pageant Can Choose Their Swimwear. Heather Busin Prefers One-piece|url=https://www.mcall.com/1997/09/11/a-bikini-isnt-the-choice-of-miss-pa-for-the-first-time-in-77-years-contestants-in-miss-america-pageant-can-choose-their-swimwear-heather-busin-prefers-one-piece/|publisher=McCalls|date=September 11, 1997|access-date=August 27, 2013|archive-date=October 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013191926/http://articles.mcall.com/1997-09-11/news/3155841_1_swimsuit-competition-bikini-pageant|url-status=live}}</ref> == Bicinis en atletisme == [[File:USA_Italy_London_2012.jpg|thumb|Bicinis es uniforma ofisial per volibal de plaia]] Bicinis ia deveni un composante major de comersiali de varia de [[sporte de femes]].<ref name="Kilborn">Laura Grae Kilborn, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20190116200751/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DP&p_theme=dp&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF44E9A0508C03&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D The Marketing Of Female Athletes]", ''The Denver Post'', August 11, 1998</ref> Lo es uniforma ofisial per [[volibal de plaia]] e es usada comun en [[sporte atletal]] e otra sportes. Bicinis de sporte ia gania popularia de pos la 1990s.<ref>Gertrud Pfister and Mari Kristin Sisjord, ''Gender and Sport: Changes and Challenges'', page 142, Waxmann Verlag, 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-8309-7873-2}}</ref> Nadores fema no usa bicinis comun en nada competosa.<ref>Harvey S. Wiener, ''Total swimming'', page 125, Simon & Schuster, 1981, {{ISBN|978-0-671-42807-5}}</ref><ref>Barry Wilner, Art Seiden, Sam Freas, and Dan Helms, ''Swimming'', page 12, Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-8114-6596-0}}</ref> La Federal Internasional de nada (FINA) vota a proibi nadores fema de corsa en bicinis en sua asembla a Roma en 1960,<ref>David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'', page 75, Simon & Schuster, 2008, {{ISBN|978-1-4391-0267-1}}</ref> ma rugulas presente no ave tal proibinte.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2022/09/13/c78394f6-2984-451c-a55d-fea632cb6b2d/25_FINA-By-Laws_09_09_2022_clean.pdf | title=FINA by laws approved by the FINA Bureau | website=resources.fina.org}}</ref><ref name="Proswimwear">https://www.proswimwear.co.uk/blog/what-is-fina-approved-swimwear</ref> [[File:Successful capture of a wave.jpg|thumb|On ance usa bicini per surfa]] == Vide ance == * [[Moda]] == Referes == {{Reflist}} {{Notelist}} == Lias esterna == [[Categoria:Bicinis]] [[Categoria:Moda]] e75g6i65xfotpgbdn124aw3r4nruls2