Wikipedia minwiki https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laman_Utamo MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.14 first-letter Media Istimewa Rundiang Pangguno Rundiang Pangguno Wikipedia Rundiang Wikipedia Berkas Rundiang Berkas MediaWiki Rundiang MediaWiki Templat Rundiang Templat Bantuan Rundiang Bantuan Kategori Rundiang Kategori Portal Diskusi Portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Rundiang Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 241 3351228 3185040 2026-08-05T20:41:16Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 24 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351228 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet | bgcolour = #c0c0ff | name = Bumi | symbol = [[File:Earth symbol (bold).svg|24px|🜨]] | image = [[File:The Blue Marble (remastered).jpg|frameless|center]] | caption = "Pualam Biru" foto bumi,<br>diambiak dari ''[[Apollo 17]]'' | flag = {{Flagicon|world}} | epoch = [[J2000.0]]<ref group=note name=epoch/> | aphelion = 152,098,232&nbsp;km<br> 1.01671388&nbsp;[[Astronomi unit|AU]]<ref group=note name=apsis/> | perihelion = 147,098,290&nbsp;km<br> 0.98329134&nbsp;AU<ref group=note name=apsis/> | semimajor = 149,598,261&nbsp;km<br> 1.00000261&nbsp;AU<ref name=standish_williams_iau/> | eccentricity = 0.01671123<ref name=standish_williams_iau/> | inclination = 7.155° dari equator Matohari<br>1.57869°<ref name=Allen294/> to [[invariable plane]] | asc_node = 348.73936°<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/><ref group=note name=asc_node/> | arg_peri = 114.20783°<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/><ref group=note name=arg_peri/> | mean_anomaly = 357.51716°<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/> | period = 365.256363004&nbsp;days<ref name="IERS"/><br>1.000017421&nbsp;[[Tahun Matohari|tahun]] | avg_speed = 29.78&nbsp;km/s<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/><br>107,200&nbsp;km/h | satellites = 1 natural&nbsp;([[Bulan]]) <br /> 8,300+ artificial ({{As of|2001|3|1|lc=on}})<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=4008|title=Reentry Assessment - US Space Command Fact Sheet|author=[[US Space Command]]|date=March 1, 2001|publisher=SpaceRef Interactive|accessdate=2011-05-07}}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | physical_characteristics = yes | flattening = 0.0033528<ref name=iers/> | equatorial_radius = 6,378.1&nbsp;km<ref name=usno/><ref name="WGS-84"/> | polar_radius = 6,356.8&nbsp;km<ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995/> | mean_radius = 6,371.0&nbsp;km<ref name=hbcp2000/> | circumference = 40,075.017&nbsp;km&nbsp;(equatorial)<ref name="WGS-84">[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].</ref><br>40,007.86&nbsp;km&nbsp;([[meridional]])<ref name="WGS-84-2"/> | surface_area = 510,072,000&nbsp;km²<ref name="Pidwirny 2006" /><ref name=cia /><ref group=note name=surfacecover/> {{Nowrap|148,940,000 km² land (29.2 %)}}<br> {{Nowrap|361,132,000 km² water (70.8 %)}} | volume = [[Kandungan Bumi|1.08321{{E|12}}]]&nbsp;km³<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/> | mass = 5.9736{{E|24}}&nbsp;kg<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/> | density = 5.515&nbsp;g/cm³<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/> | surface_grav = [[Grafitasi Bumi|9.780327]] [[Meter per detik kuadrat|m/s²]]<ref name="yoder12"/><br>0.99732&nbsp;''[[G-force|g]]'' | escape_velocity = 11.186&nbsp;km/s<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/> | sidereal_day = 0.99726968&nbsp;d<ref name=Allen296 /> <br>23{{Smallsup|h}}&nbsp;56{{Smallsup|m}}&nbsp;4.100{{Smallsup|s}} | rot_velocity = {{Convert|1674.4|km/h|m/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="Cox2000"/> | axial_tilt = 23°26'21".4119<ref name="IERS"/> | albedo = 0.367 ([[Geometrik albedo|geometric]])<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/><br/> 0.306 ([[Bond albedo|Bond]])<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/> | adjectives = earthly, tellurian, telluric, terran, terrestrial. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|en-us-earth.ogg|ˈ|ɝː|θ}} | atmosphere = ya | temperatures = ya | temp_name1 = [[Kelvin]] | min_temp_1 = 184&nbsp;K<ref name=asu_lowest_temp/> | mean_temp_1 = 287.2&nbsp;K<ref name=kinver20091210/> | max_temp_1 = 331&nbsp;K<ref name=asu_highest_temp/> | temp_name2 = [[Celsius]] | min_temp_2 = -89.2&nbsp;°C | mean_temp_2 = 14&nbsp;°C | max_temp_2 = 57.8&nbsp;°C | surface_pressure = [[Atmosfir (unit)|101.325]]&nbsp;[[Pascal (unit)|kPa]] ([[Parmukaan Laut|MSL]]) | atmosphere_composition = 78.08%&nbsp;[[Nitrogen]] (N₂)<ref name="earth_fact_sheet"/><br> 20.95%&nbsp;[[oxygen]] (O₂)<br> 0.93%&nbsp;[[Argon]]<br> 0.038%&nbsp;[[Karbon diosida]]<br>About 1% [[water vapor]] (varies with [[Klimak]]) |note = no }} <!-- Main contents of article below this line --> [[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|frameless|right]] '''Bumi''' adolah [[planet]] katigo dari [[matohari]], dan marupoan planet nan tapadek jo gadang nan ka limo dari salapan planet di [[Tata Surya|tata surya]]. Inyo ko juo tamasuak paliang gadang dari nan ampek buah planet terrestrial. Bumi ko dirujuak juo sabagai [[dunia]], planet biru,<ref name="blueplanet"/> atau namo [[latin]]nyo, ''Terra''.<ref group=note name="Terra" /> Bumi ko rumah bagi jutaan [[spesies]], tamasuak [[manusia]], bumi kini ko manjadi satu-satunyo [[Benda Astronomi|benda astronomi]] nan di situ ado [[kehidupan]].<ref name=science_241_4872_1441 /> Planet ko tabantuak [[Umua Bumi|4.54 billion taun]] lalu, dan [[Abiogenesis|kehidupan muncul]] di permukaan bumi sekitar satu billion taun.<ref name="age_earth1" /> Adonyo [[biosfir]] di bumi nan signifikan maubah [[WEp/min/Atmosfir|atmosfir]] dan kondisi [[abiotik]] lainnyo di bumi, mamungkinkan proliferasi [[organisme aerobik]] sarato pambentukan lapisan [[ozon]], basamo jo [[Medan Magnet Bumi|medan magnet bumi]], mahalangi [[Radiasi Matohari|radiasi matohari]], sahinggo mamungkinkan adonyo kehidupan di darek.<ref name="Harrison 2002" /> Sacaro [[Geofisik|geofisik bumi]], misalnyo sajarah [[geologi]] dan orbit, mamungkinkan kehidupan lah batahan salamo periode ko. Planet ko dihrapakan dapek taruih batahan untuak mandukuang kehidupan satidaknyo sampai {{Nowrap|500 milyar}} taun lai.<ref name="britt2000" /><ref name=carrington /> == Kronologi == Urang cadiak pandai kini lah mampu marekonstruksi ulang maklumat rinci tantang maso lalu planet ko. Penanggalan awal tabantuaknyo sistem surya ko {{Nowrap|4.5672 ± 0.0006 billion taun}} lalu,<ref name=bowring_housch1995/> atau 4.54&nbsp;billion&nbsp;tahun lalu (1% indak pasti)<ref name="age_earth1" /> the Earth and the other planets in the Solar System had formed out of the [[solar nebula]]—a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun. This assembly of the Earth through accretion was thus largely completed within 10–20&nbsp;million&nbsp;years.<ref name=nature418_6901_949/> Initially [[molten]], the outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed shortly thereafter, {{Nowrap|4.53 billion years}} ago.<ref name=science310_5754_1671/> == Catatan== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em|group=note|refs= <ref name=apsis>aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1 - ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity.</ref> <ref name=epoch>All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant J2000.0 of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.</ref> <ref name=asc_node>The reference lists the longitude of the ascending node as -11.26064°, which is equivalent to 348.73936° by the fact that any angle is equal to itself plus 360°.</ref> <ref name=arg_peri>The reference lists the [[longitude of periapsis|longitude of perihelion]], which is the sum of the longitude of the ascending node and the argument of perihelion. That is, 114.20783° + (-11.26064°) = 102.94719°.</ref> <ref name="Terra">By [[International Astronomical Union]] convention, the term ''terra'' is used only for naming extensive land masses on celestial bodies other than the Earth. ''Cf.'' {{Cite web|last=Blue|first=Jennifer|date=2007-07-05|url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/jsp/append5.jsp|title=Descriptor Terms (Feature Types)|work=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature|publisher=USGS|accessdate=2007-07-05}}</ref> <ref name=surfacecover>Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=2015-03-26 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of the Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock which supports them lies below sea level.</ref> <!-- <ref name=sidereal_solar>The number of solar days is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s because the orbital motion of the Earth about the Sun results in one additional revolution of the planet about its axis.</ref> <ref name="water vapor">At present, the other planets in the Solar System are either too hot or too cold to support liquid water on the surface in vapor-liquid equilibrium. As of 2007, water vapor has been detected in the atmosphere of only one extrasolar planet, and it is a gas giant. See: {{Cite journal|last=Tinetti|first=G.|coauthors=Vidal-Madjar, A.; Liang, M.C.; Beaulieu, J. P.; Yung, Y.; Carey, S.; Barber, R. J.; Tennyson, J.; Ribas, I|title=Water vapour in the atmosphere of a transiting extrasolar planet|journal=Nature|month=July|year=2007|volume=448|pages=169–171|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v448/n7150/abs/nature06002.html|doi = 10.1038/nature06002|pmid=17625559|issue=7150|bibcode = 2007Natur.448..169T }} </ref> <ref name=jaes41_3_379>Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is currently in the process of formation out of the African Plate. See: {{Cite journal|first=Jean|last=Chorowicz|month=October|year=2005|title=The East African rift system|journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences|volume=43|issue=1–3|pages=379–410|doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019|bibcode = 2005JAfES..43..379C }}</ref> <ref name=trench_depth>This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is believed to be the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.</ref> <ref name=Aoki>Aoki, the ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{Cite journal|last=Aoki|first=S.|title=The new definition of universal time|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomy-and-astrophysics_1982-01_105_2/page/359|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|year=1982|volume=105|issue=2|pages=359–361|bibcode=1982A&A...105..359A}}</ref> <ref name=hill_radius>For the Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is :<math>\begin{smallmatrix} R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} \end{smallmatrix}</math>, where ''m'' is the mass of the Earth, ''a'' is an Astronomical Unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in A.U. is about: <math>\begin{smallmatrix} \left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01 \end{smallmatrix}</math>.</ref> <ref name=solar_energy>Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.</ref> --> }} == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= <ref name="blueplanet">{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Exploring the Water Cycle of the ‘Blue Planet’: The Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission|journal=ESA Bulletin|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|issue=137|pages=6–15 |url=http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bulletin137/bul137b_drinkwater.pdf |first1=Mark |last1=Drinkwater |first2=Yann |last2=Kerr |first3=Jordi |last3=Font |first4=Michael |last4=Berger |quote=A view of Earth, the ‘Blue Planet’ [...] When astronauts first went into the space, they looked back at our Earth for the first time, and called our home the ‘Blue Planet’.}}</ref> <ref name=standish_williams_iau>{{Cite web|author=Standish, E. Myles; Williams, James C|title=Orbital Ephemerides of the Sun, Moon, and Planets|publisher=International Astronomical Union Commission 4: (Ephemerides)|url=http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/XSChap8.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2010-04-03|archive-date=2012-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220063125/http://iau-comm4.jpl.nasa.gov/XSChap8.pdf|dead-url=yes}} See table 8.10.2. Calculation based upon 1 AU = 149,597,870,700(3) m.</ref> <ref name=iers>{{Cite conference|author=IERS Working Groups|editor=McCarthy, Dennis D.; Petit, Gérard|title=General Definitions and Numerical Standards|year=2003|booktitle=IERS Technical Note No. 32|publisher=U.S. Naval Observatory and Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|url=http://www.iers.org/MainDisp.csl?pid=46-25776|accessdate=2008-08-03|archivedate=2014-04-19|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419043412/http://www.iers.org/MainDisp.csl?pid=46-25776}}</ref> <ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995>{{Cite book|first=Anny|last=Cazenave|editor=Ahrens, Thomas J|year=1995|title=Global earth physics a handbook of physical constants|publisher=American Geophysical Union|location=Washington, DC|isbn=0-87590-851-9|url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf|archivedate=2006-10-16|accessdate=2008-08-03|format=PDF|chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms|dead-url=yes}}</ref> <ref name=hbcp2000>{{Cite book|author=Various|editor=David R. Lide|year=2000|title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics|edition=81st|publisher=CRC|isbn=0-8493-0481-4}}</ref> <ref name="Cox2000">{{Cite book|editor=Arthur N. Cox|title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities|url=http://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA244|edition=4th|year=2000|publisher=AIP Press|location=New York|isbn=0-387-98746-0|page=244|accessdate=2010-08-17}}</ref> <ref name="WGS-84-2">{{Cite web | first=Sigurd | last=Humerfelt | date=October 26, 2010 | title=How WGS 84 defines Earth | url=http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html | accessdate=2011-04-29 }}</ref> <ref name="yoder12">{{Cite book|last=Yoder|first=Charles F.|editor=T. J. Ahrens|year=1995|title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants|publisher=American Geophysical Union|location=Washington|url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421092502/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys.html|archivedate=2009-04-21|accessdate=2007-03-17|isbn=0-87590-851-9|page=12|dead-url=no}}</ref> <ref name=kinver20091210>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8406839.stm|title=Global average temperature may hit record level in 2010|last=Kinver|first=Mark|date=December 10, 2009|work=[[BBC Online]]|accessdate=2010-04-22}}</ref> <ref name="Pidwirny 2006">{{Cite journal|last=Pidwirny|first=Michael|date=2006-02-02|title=Surface area of our planet covered by oceans and continents.(Table 8o-1)|publisher=University of British Columbia, Okanagan|url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html|accessdate=2007-11-26}}</ref> <ref name=Allen294>{{Cite book|title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities|author=Allen, Clabon Walter; Cox, Arthur N.|publisher=Springer|year=2000|isbn=0-387-98746-0|url=http://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA294|page=294|accessdate=2011-03-13}}</ref> <ref name=Allen296>{{Cite book|title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities|author=Allen, Clabon Walter; Cox, Arthur N.|publisher=Springer|year=2000|isbn=0-387-98746-0|url=http://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA296|page=296|accessdate=2010-08-17}}</ref> <ref name=science_241_4872_1441>{{Cite journal|last=May|first=Robert M.|title=How many species are there on earth?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1988-09-16_241_4872/page/1441|journal=Science|year=1988|volume=241|issue=4872|pages=1441–1449|bibcode=1988Sci...241.1441M|doi=10.1126/science.241.4872.1441|pmid=17790039}}</ref> <ref name="age_earth1">See: * {{Cite book|first=G.B.|last=Dalrymple|year=1991|title=The Age of the Earth|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=California|isbn=0-8047-1569-6}} * {{Cite web|last=Newman|first=William L.|date=2007-07-09|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html|title=Age of the Earth|publisher=Publications Services, USGS|accessdate=2007-09-20}} * {{Cite journal|last=Dalrymple|first=G. Brent|title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|year=2001|volume=190|issue=1|pages=205–221|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205|accessdate=2007-09-20|doi = 10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14}} * {{Cite web|last=Stassen|first=Chris|date=2005-09-10|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-age-of-earth.html|title=The Age of the Earth|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate=2008-12-30}} </ref> <ref name="Harrison 2002">{{Cite book|first=Roy M.|last=Harrison|coauthors=Hester, Ronald E.|year=2002|title=Causes and Environmental Implications of Increased UV-B Radiation|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=0-85404-265-2}}</ref> <ref name=carrington>{{Cite news|first=Damian|last=Carrington|title=Date set for desert Earth|publisher=BBC News|date=2000-02-21|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm|accessdate=2007-03-31}}</ref> <ref name="britt2000">{{Cite web|first=Robert|last=Britt|url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html|title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got?|date=2000-02-25|access-date=2011-07-02|archive-date=2009-06-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html|dead-url=unfit}}</ref> <ref name=IERS>{{Cite web|author=Staff|date=2007-08-07|url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html|title=Useful Constants|publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]]| accessdate=2008-09-23}}</ref> <ref name=cia>{{Cite web|author=Staff|date=2008-07-24|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html|title=World|work=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|accessdate=2008-08-05|archive-date=2010-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105171656/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> <ref name="earth_fact_sheet">{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=David R.|date=2004-09-01|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html|title=Earth Fact Sheet|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2010-08-09|archive-date=2013-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508021904/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> <ref name=asu_lowest_temp>{{Cite web|url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature|title=World: Lowest Temperature|work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive|publisher=Arizona State University|accessdate=2010-08-07|archive-date=2010-06-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature|dead-url=yes}}</ref> <ref name=asu_highest_temp>{{Cite web|url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature|title=World: Highest Temperature|work=WMO Weather and Climate Extremes Archive|publisher=[[Arizona State University]]|accessdate=2010-08-07|archive-date=2013-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature|dead-url=yes}}</ref> <ref name=usno>{{Cite web|title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011|work=The Astronomical Almanac|url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt|accessdate=2011-02-25|archive-date=2013-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826043456/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt|dead-url=yes}}</ref> <ref name=bowring_housch1995>{{Cite journal|author=Bowring, S.|coauthors=Housh, T.|title=The Earth's early evolution|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-09-15_269_5230/page/1535|year=1995|doi=10.1126/science.7667634|journal=Science|volume=269|page=1535|pmid=7667634|issue=5230|bibcode = 1995Sci...269.1535B }}</ref> <ref name=nature418_6901_949>{{Cite journal|last=Yin|first=Qingzhu|title=A short timescale for terrestrial planet formation from Hf-W chronometry of meteorites|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-08-29_418_6901/page/949|journal=Nature|year=2002|volume=418|issue=6901|pages=949–952|doi=10.1038/nature00995|pmid=12198540|last2=Jacobsen|first2=S. B.|last3=Yamashita|first3=K.|last4=Blichert-Toft|first4=J.|last5=Télouk|first5=P.|last6=Albarède|first6=F.|bibcode = 2002Natur.418..949Y }}</ref> <ref name=science310_5754_1671>{{Cite journal|author=Kleine, Thorsten; Palme, Herbert; Mezger, Klaus; Halliday, Alex N.|title=Hf-W Chronometry of Lunar Metals and the Age and Early Differentiation of the Moon|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-12-09_310_5754/page/1671|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5754|date=2005-11-24|pages=1671–1674|doi=10.1126/science.1118842|pmid=16308422|bibcode = 2005Sci...310.1671K }}</ref> <!-- <ref name=yoder1995>{{Cite book|last=Yoder|first=Charles F.|editor=T. J. 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Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism|journal=Journal of Geoscience Education|volume=53|issue=3|page=319|url=http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf|accessdate=2008-04-28|format=PDF}}</ref> <ref name=arghg4_143>{{Cite journal|author=Pennock, R. T.|title=Creationism and intelligent design|journal=Annual Review of Genomics Human Genetics|volume=4|issue=1|pages=143–63|year=2003|pmid=14527300|doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}</ref> <ref name=sec_nap2008>{{Cite book|title=Science, Evolution, and Creationism|url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11876&page=R1|year=2008|publisher=National Academies Press|location=Washington, D.C|isbn=0-309-10586-2|accessdate=2011-03-13}}</ref> <ref name=jrst43_4_419>{{Cite journal|last=Colburn,|first=A.|last2=Henriques|first2=Laura|year=2006|title=Clergy views on evolution, creationism, science, and religion|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-research-in-science-teaching_2006-04_43_4/page/419|journal=Journal of Research in Science Teaching|volume=43|issue=4|pages=419–442|doi=10.1002/tea.20109|bibcode = 2006JRScT..43..419C }}</ref> <ref name=frye1983>{{Cite book|last=Frye|first=Roland Mushat|year = 1983|title=Is God a Creationist? The Religious Case Against Creation-Science|publisher=Scribner's|isbn=0-684-17993-8}}</ref> <ref name=nathist106_2_16>{{Cite journal|author=Gould, S. J.|year=1997|title=Nonoverlapping magisteria|journal=Natural History|volume=106|issue=2|pages=16–22|url=http://www.jbburnett.com/resources/gould_nonoverlapping.pdf|accessdate=2008-04-28|format=PDF}}</ref> <ref name=russell1997>{{Cite web|last=Russell|first=Jeffrey B|url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/history/1997Russell.html|title=The Myth of the Flat Earth|publisher=American Scientific Affiliation|accessdate=2007-03-14}}; but see also [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]].</ref> <ref name=jacobs19980201>{{Cite web|last=Jacobs|first=James Q.|date=1998-02-01|url=http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/aegeo.html|title=Archaeogeodesy, a Key to Prehistory|accessdate=2007-04-21}}</ref> <ref name=fuller1963>{{Cite book|first=R. Buckminster|last=Fuller|authorlink=Buckminster Fuller|year=1963|title=[[Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth]]|edition=First|publisher=E.P. Dutton & Co|location=New York|isbn=0-525-47433-1|url=http://www.futurehi.net/docs/OperatingManual.html|accessdate=2007-04-21}}</ref> <ref name=lovelock1979>{{Cite book|first=James E.|last=Lovelock|authorlink=James Lovelock|year=1979|title=Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth|edition=First|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-286030-5}}</ref> <ref name=mcmichael1993>For example: {{Cite book|first=Anthony J.|last=McMichael|year=1993|title=Planetary Overload: Global Environmental Change and the Health of the Human Species|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-45759-9}}</ref> <ref name=aj136_5_1906>{{Cite journal|author=McCarthy, Dennis D.; Hackman, Christine; Nelson, Robert A.|title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomical-journal_2008-11_136_5/page/1906|journal=The Astronomical Journal|volume=136|issue=5|pages=1906–1908|month=November|year=2008|doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906|bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M}}</ref> <ref name=jg31_3_267>{{Cite journal|author=Pollack, Henry N.; Hurter, Suzanne J.; Johnson, Jeffrey R.|title=Heat flow from the Earth's interior: Analysis of the global data set|journal=Reviews of Geophysics|volume=31|issue=3|pages=267–280|month=August|year=1993|doi=10.1029/93RG01249|bibcode=1993RvGeo..31..267P |url=http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/1993/93RG01249.shtml}}</ref> <ref name=lang2003>{{Cite book|first=Kenneth R.|last=Lang|year=2003|title=The Cambridge guide to the solar system|page=92|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-81306-9}}</ref> <ref name=christou_asher2011>{{Cite arXiv | author=Christou, Apostolos A.; Asher, David J. | date=March 31, 2011 | title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth | eprint=1104.0036 | version=v1 }} See table 2, p. 5.</ref> --><!-- <ref name=ucs>{{Cite web | title=UCS Satellite Database | date=January 31, 2011 | work=Nuclear Weapons & Global Security | publisher=Union of Concerned Scientists | url=http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear_weapons_and_global_security/space_weapons/technical_issues/ucs-satellite-database.html | accessdate=2011-05-12 }}</ref>--> }} ==Kepustakaan== * {{Cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |year=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |edition=2nd |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=0-7167-5804-0 }} ==Pautan lua== {{Commons|Earth|Bumi}} {{Sister project links |commons=no|author=Datuak8|auto=no|b=book:Bumi|c=no|collapsible=yes|d=Q2|display=Bumi|m=no|mw=no|n=Bumi|position=left|q=Bumi|qid=no|s=no|species=no|species_author=no|style=Use with caution. (And don't use for evil!)|v=Bumi|voy=no|wikt=Bumi}} *{{Commons-inline|Earth|Bumi}} * [http://geomag.usgs.gov/ USGS Geomagnetism Program] * [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ NASA Earth Observatory] * Audio—Cain/Gay (2007) [http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Astronomy Cast] Earth * [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ NASA's Solar System Exploration] * [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Climate changes cause Earth's shape to change&nbsp;– NASA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122063915/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html |date=2009-01-22 }} * [http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm |date=2009-04-30 }} *[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation] National Climatic Data Center {{Tata surya}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bumi}} [[Kategori:Bumi| ]] [[Kategori:Geografi]] [[Kategori:Geologi]] [[Kategori:Planet terestrial]] [[Kategori:Planet|Bumi]] t134do043h9wn3eec4g0yblogbnm4ey 0 260 3351273 3348564 2026-08-05T22:02:23Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{kotak info provinsi | nama = Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta | settlement_type = ibu kota | singkatan = DKI Jakarta | nama lain = {{hlist|Sunda Kelapa|Jayakarta|Batavia}} | julukan = ''The Big Durian'', ''J-Town''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jetstarmag.com/story/a-day-on-the-j-town/1595/1/|title=A Day in J-Town|publisher=Jetstar Magazine|date=Ap2012|accessdate=2 January 2013|archive-date=2013-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801063908/http://www.jetstarmag.com/story/a-day-on-the-j-town/1595/1|dead-url=yes}}</ref> | lambang = Coat of arms of Jakarta.svg | foto = {{multiple image | border = infobox | total_width = 300 | image_style = border:1; | perrow = 2/2/2/1 |image1=Museum fatahillah.jpg |image2=Museum Nasional Indonesia.jpg |image3=Istana-Merdeka.jpg |image4=Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, Asia Cup 2007.jpg |image5=Stasiun Jakartakota 2018.jpg |image6= |image7=Jakarta Skyline Part 2.jpg }} | caption = Dari ateh, saarah jarum jam: [[Museum Fatahillah]], [[Museum Nasional Indonesia]], [[Stadion Gelora Bung Karno]], [[Monas]], Panorama Jakarta, [[Stasiun Jakarta Kota]], dan [[Istana Merdeka]]. | motto = "Jaya Raya"{{br}}<small>("Jayo jo Basa (Aguang)")</small> | peta = {{Infobox mapframe|zoom=7}} | tanggal = [[22 Juni]] [[1527]] (umur {{umur|1527|6|22|{{CURRENTYEAR}}|{{CURRENTMONTH}}|{{CURRENTDAY}}}}) | dasar hukum = UU Nomor 29 Tahun 2007 | ibukota = [[Kota Administrasi Jakarta Pusat|Jakarta Pusat]]{{efn|Secara ''[[de facto]]'', [[Kota Administrasi Jakarta Pusat|Jakarta Pusat]] menjadi pusat bagi banyak gedung [[Pemerintah|pemerintahan]]. Secara ''[[de jure]]'', DKI Jakarta tidak memiliki [[ibu kota]].}} | luas = 7659,02 | peringkat populasi = <!-- peringkat berdasarkan jumlah penduduk --> | tahun populasi = [[2020]] | populasi ref = <ref name="DKI">{{cite document|url= https://jakarta.bps.go.id/publication/2021/02/26/bb7fa6dd5e90b534e3fa6984/provinsi-dki-jakarta-dalam-angka-2021.html|title=Provinsi DKI Jakarta Dalam Angka 2021|publisher=[[Badan Pusat Statistik]] Provinsi DKI Jakarta|accessdate=11 April 2021|pages=74|format=pdf}}</ref> | penduduk = 10562088 | kepadatan = 14555 | nama gubernur = [[Pramono Anung]] | nama wakil gubernur = [[Rano Karno]] | nama ketua DPRD = [[Prasetyo Edi Marsudi]] | nama sekretaris daerah = [[Marullah Matali]] | kabupaten = 1 | kota = 5 | kecamatan = 44 | kelurahan = 267 | total APBD = Rp 89.088.351.842.504,-<ref name="APBD">[http://apbd.jakarta.go.id/main/pub/2019/6/1 jakarta.go.id: APBD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920093338/http://apbd.jakarta.go.id/main/pub/2019/6/1 |date=2020-09-20 }}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | tahun APBD = 2019 | PAD = Rp 50.624.330.153.998,-<ref name="APBD"/> | DAU = | IPM = {{increase}} 81,11 ([[2021]])<br> {{fontcolor|DarkGreen|Sangat Tinggi}}<ref name="IPM">{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/indicator/26/494/1/-metode-baru-indeks-pembangunan-manusia-menurut-provinsi.html|title=Indeks Pembangunan Manusia Menurut Provinsi 2019-2021|website=www.bps.go.id|accessdate=26 November 2021}}</ref> | agama = [[Islam]] (83,68%)<br> [[Kristen]] (12,53%)<br>—[[Protestan]] (8,60%)<br>—[[Katolik]] (3,93%)<br> [[Agamo Buddha|Buddha]] (3,59%)<br> [[Hindu]] (0,18%)<br> [[Agamo Konghucu|Konghucu]] (0,02%)<ref name="AGAMA">{{cite web|url=https://jakarta.bps.go.id/indicator/108/844/1/jumlah-penduduk-menurut-agama-dan-kabupaten-kota-di-provinsi-dki-jakarta.html|title=Jumlah Penduduk Menurut Agama dan Kabupaten/Kota di Provinsi DKI Jakarta 2020|webiste=jakarta.bps.go.id|accessdate=15 Oktober 2021}}</ref> | bahasa = {{collapsible list|[[Bahaso Indonesia|Indonesia]] (resmi)<br>[[bahaso Betawi|Betawi]] (utama)<br> [[bahaso Jawa|Jawa]]<br> [[bahaso Sunda|Sunda]]<br> [[bahaso Tionghoa|Tionghoa]]<br> [[bahaso Batak|Batak]]<br> [[bahaso Minangkabau|Minangkabau]]<br> [[bahaso Madura|Madura]]<br> [[bahaso Malayu|Malayu]]<br> [[bahaso Banjar|Banjar]]<br> [[bahaso Inggirih|Inggirih]]<br> [[bahaso Aceh|Aceh]]<br> [[Bahaso Bugih|Bugih]]<br> [[Bahaso Bali|Bali]]<br> [[bahaso Arab|Arab]]<br> [[bahaso Tamil|Tamil]]<br> [[Bahaso Ambon|Ambon]]<br> [[Bahaso Pecok|Pecok]]<br> [[Bahaso Ulando|Ulando]]<br> [[Bahaso Portugih|Portugih]]}} | lagu = [[Kicir-Kicir]]<br>[[Jali-Jali]] | rumah = [[Rumah kebaya|Rumah Kebaya]] | senjata = [[Golok]] | catatan = <ref name="DKI 2017">{{cite web|url=https://jakarta.bps.go.id/publication/2018/01/05/44b34f04cad6439abf0e7ed0/statistik-daerah-provinsi-dki-jakarta-2017.html|title=Statistik Daerah Provinsi DKI Jakarta 2017|last=|first=|publisher=BPS DKI Jakarta|accessdate=11 Agustus 2018}}</ref><ref name="kependudukan DKI 2013">BPS: Jakarta Dalam Angka [http://jakarta.bps.go.id/backend/pdf_publikasi/Jakarta-Dalam-Angka-2014.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107153540/https://jakarta.bps.go.id/backend/pdf_publikasi/Jakarta-Dalam-Angka-2014.pdf |date=2022-01-07 }}, diakses pada 12 Agustus 2015</ref> | ref luas = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/v2/news/category/geografis-jakarta|title=GEOGRAFIS JAKARTA|publisher=jakarta.go.id|date=1 Januari 2008|accessdate=12 April 2016|archive-date=19 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419041245/http://www.jakarta.go.id/v2/news/category/geografis-jakarta|dead-url=yes}}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | TNKB = B | ISO = ID-JK | kode pos = 10''xxx''-14''xxx'' | kode area = 021 | flora = [[Salak|Salak condet]] | fauna = [[Alang bondo]] | utc = +07:00 | zona waktu = [[Wakatu Indonesia Barat|WIB]] | bendera = Flag of Jakarta (vectorised).svg | catatankaki = {{notelist}} | web = {{url|jakarta.go.id/}} | luas perairan = 6997,50 | luas daratan = 664,01 | slogan = +Jakarta Kota Kolaborasi<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-17|title=Anies: Branding Kota Jakarta Sekarang Kota Kolaborasi|url=https://republika.co.id/share/qlhb6u428|website=Republika Online|language=id|access-date=2022-01-07}}</ref> }} '''Jakarta''' {{IPAc-en|dʒ|ə|ˈ|k|ɑr|t|ə}},<ref group="note">Palafalan dalam [[bahaso Batawi]]: {{IPA-id|dʒaˈkarte}}.</ref> sacaro rasmi banamo '''Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta''', adolah ibukota dan kota nan paliang gadang di [[Indonesia]]. Talatak di bagia pasisia barat lauik [[Pulau Jawa]], Jakarta adolah ibu kota parekonomian, kabudayoan dan politik, dan tampek tingga dari 10,187,595 juta urang pado November 2011,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kependudukancapil.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4&Itemid=63 |title=''Jumlah Penduduk Provinsi DKI Jakarta'' |work=Dinas Kependudukan dan Catatan Sipil |accessdate=19 April 2012 |archive-date=8 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408101949/http://www.kependudukancapil.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4&Itemid=63 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> kota ko adolah [[Daftar daerah urban manuruik populasi|kota bapanduduak paliang banyak]] di Indonesia dan [[Asia Tenggara]], dan marupoan [[Daftar kota manuruik populasi|kota katigobaleh paliang banyak panduduaknyo]] di dunia. Daerah metropolitan rasmi, nan acok disabuik [[Jabodetabek]] (panyingkekan dari Jakarta, [[Bogor]], [[Depok]], [[Tangerang]] jo [[Bekasi]]), adolah [[Daftar daerah urban manuruik populasi|nan kaduo paliang gadang]] di dunia. Jakarta manjadi [[kota global]] manuruik panalitian Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) pado taun 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2008t.html|title=The World According to GaWC 2008|work=Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC)|publisher=[[Loughborough University]]|accessdate=7 December 2009|archive-date=11 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811203314/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2008t.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> dan mamiliaki wilayah darek sagadang {{convert|661|km2}}. Area ko manjadi tampek tingga labiah dari 28 juta urang.<ref name="bps">[http://www.bps.go.id/aboutus.php?hasilSP2010=1 ''Sensus Penduduk 2010''. Biro Pusat Statistik]</ref> Pado 2011, Jakarta diuruikkan di paringkek katujuahbaleh di daftar 200 kota nan paliang gadang di dunia. Jakarta alah bakambang jauah labiah maju dibandiangkan kota-kota saroman [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Beijing]] atau [[Bangkok]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waspada.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=243533:foke-lebih-yakin-lembaga-survei-asing&catid=17:politik&Itemid=30 |title=Foke lebih yakin lembaga survei asing |date=24 April 2012 |access-date=3 October 2013 |archive-date=31 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831024245/http://www.waspada.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=243533:foke-lebih-yakin-lembaga-survei-asing&catid=17:politik&Itemid=30 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Didirikan pado abaik kaampek, kota ko manjadi palabuahan padagangan nan pantiang untuak [[Karajaan Sunda]]. Jakarta kamuadian manjadi ibu kota de facto [[Hindia Balando]] (namonyo kutiko itu masih ''Batavia''), dan sampai kini masih manjadi ibu kota Indonesia sajak diproklamasikannyo kamardekaan nagara tu pado 1945. Kota ko marupoan markas dari Sekretariat [[ASEAN]]. Kota ko dilayani dek [[Palabuahan Kapa Tabang Internasional Soekarno-Hatta]], [[Palabuahan Kapa Tabang Halim Perdanakusuma]] dan [[Palabuahan Tanjung Priok]]; dan juo dilayani dek sambuangan [[kureta api]] dan [[kureta komuter]], sarato babarapo jalur [[TransJakarta|bus kota]]. == Panamoan == Daerah nan kini dinamokan Jakarta juo mamiliaki babarapo namo lamo nan digunoan dek entitas-entitas politik nan mamarintah kota ko sabalunnyo: [[Sunda Kelapa]] (397–1527), Jayakarta (1527–1619), Batavia (1619–1949), dan Djakarta (1949–1972). Namonyo nan kini barasa dari kato "Jayakarta". Aka kato ko barasa dari [[Bahaso Jawa Kuno|Jawa Kuno]] dan [[bahaso Sanskerta|Sanskerta]]. "Jayakarta" baarati "kamanangan", "kasamparonoan" atau "kamanangan nan samparono". Jakarta dijualaki ''[[Durian]] Gadang'', sajinih buah lokal Indonesia nan baduri dan babaun khas.<ref name="Jakartapost"/> Alasan juluakan ko antaro lain karano Jakarta dipandang sabagai padanan Indonesia untuak ''[[New York City|the Big Apple]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thingsasian.com/stories-photos/1532 |title=Sojourn In The Big Durian |publisher=ThingsAsian |accessdate=14 March 2011 |archive-date=16 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016175716/http://www.thingsasian.com/stories-photos/1532 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ==Sajarah== {{Main|Sajarah Jakarta}} [[File:Prasasti tugu.jpg|thumb|160px|left|[[Batu basurek Tugu]] dari abaik kalimo nan ditamuan di daerah Tugu, Jakarta Utara.]] ===Maso pra-kolonial=== Daerah nan kini disabuik Jakarta adolah bagian dari [[Karajaan Tarumanagara]], sabuah karajaan [[Sunda]], nan marupoan salah satu karajaan Hindu nan paliang tuo di Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=Yayasan Pustaka Jaya, Jakarta|title=Sundakala: cuplikan sejarah Sunda berdasarkan naskah-naskah "Panitia Wangsakerta" Cirebon|year=2005}}</ref> Satalah kajatuahan Tarumanagara, wilayah-wilayahnyo, tamasuak daerah Jakarta, manjadi bagian dari [[Karajaan Sunda]]. Dari abaik katujuah inggo awal abaik katigobaleh, daerah ko manjadi palabuahan nan pantiang untuak karajaan dan banyak dipangaruahi dek [[Karajaan Sriwijaya]]. Manuruik catatan Cino, ''Chu-fan-chi'', nan ditulih kiro-kiro pado taun 1200, [[Chou Ju-kua]] malaporan baso pado awal abaik katigobaleh, Sriwijaya masih mamarintah Sumatra, [[Samananjuang Malayu]] dan bagian barat Jawa. Catatan ko juo malaporan baso palabuahan Sunda sabagai palabuahan nan "strategis dan bakambang pesat", manjadi pusek padagangan [[lado itam]] dari Sunda nan tanamo dek mutunyo. Panduduak daerah ko bakarajo di bidang agrikultur dan rumah-rumahnyo dibangun dari kayu.<ref>{{cite book | author=Drs. R. Soekmono,| title= ''Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2'', 2nd ed. | publisher=Penerbit Kanisius | date= 1973, 5th reprint edition in 1988 | location =Yogyakarta| page =page 60 }}</ref> Palabuahan ko disabuik [[Sunda Kelapa]], dan pado abaik kaampekbaleh, palabuahan ko alah manjadi pusek padagangan utamo dari karajaan Sunda. Ampek kapa [[Portugis]] dari [[Malaka]] tibo di Sunda Kelapa pado 1513, kutiko Portugis sadang mancari jalur manuju pulau-pulau pangasia lado itam.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=Cipta Loka Caraka|title=Sumber-sumber asli sejarah Jakarta, Jilid I: Dokumen-dokumen sejarah Jakarta sampai dengan akhir abad ke-16|year=1999}}</ref> Karajaan Sunda mambuek sabuah [[Luso Sundanese padrão|pajanjian basakutu]] jo urang-orang Portugis dan mambuliahan mareka mambangun sabuah palabuahan pado 1522, dalam rangko batahan dari ancaman [[Kasultanan Demak]] dari Jawa Tangah.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.beritajakarta.com/english/AboutJakarta/HistoryofJakarta.asp |title=History of Jakarta |work=BeritaJakarta}}</ref> Pado 1527, [[Fatahillah]], saurang palimo parang Demak manyarang dan manakluakkan Sunda Kelapa, dan mangusia urang-urang Portugis. Sunda Kelapa diganti namonyo manjadi Jayakarta,<ref name="autogenerated2" /> dan manjadi wilayah kakuasoan [[Kasultanan Banten]]. Malalui hubuangan jo Pangeran Jayawikarta dari Kasultanan Banten, kapa-kapa Balando tibo di Jayakarta pado taun 1596. Pado 1602, [[Parusaoan India Timua Inggirih]] mangirim rombongan nan dipimpin [[Sir James Lancaster]], mambuang sauah di [[Aceh]] dan balaia ka Banten, dimano mareka diagiah izin untuak mambangun sabuah kantua dagang. Wilayah ko kamudian manjadi pusek padagangan Inggirih di Indonesia inggo 1682.<ref name="RICKLEFSp29">{{Cite book|last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 |edition=2nd |publisher=MacMillan |year=1993 |location=London |page=29 |isbn=0-333-57689-6}}</ref> Jayawikarta diduga mampunyoi hubuangan dagang jo padagang-padagang Inggirih nan manjadi rival Balando, jo caro maagiah izin pambangunan rumah-rumah di muko bangunan-bangunan Balando pado 1615.<ref name='1596to1619'>{{Cite book|last=Heuken |first=Adolf|title=Sumber-sumber asli sejarah Jakarta Jilid II: Dokumen-dokumen Sejarah Jakarta dari kedatangan kapal pertama Belanda (1596) sampai dengan tahun 1619 (Authentic sources of History of Jakarta part II: Documents of history of Jakarta from the first arrival of Dutch ship (1596) to year 1619) |publisher=Yayasan Cipta Loka Caraka |year=2000 |location=Jakarta }}</ref> ===Era kolonial=== [[File:Stadhuis Batavia, Jakarta.jpg|thumb|''Stadhuis Batavia'', kantua Gubernur Jenderal [[Parusaoan Hindia Timua Balando|VOC]] di daerah [[Kota Tua Jakarta]]. Bangunan ko kini manjadi [[Museum Sajarah Jakarta]]]] [[File:Andries Beeckman - The Castle of Batavia.jpg|thumb|left|Batavia dibangun di ateh lahan nan kini manjadi Jakarta. Karya [[Andries Beeckman]] c. 1656]] Kutiko ubuangan antaro Pangeran Jayawikarta dan urang-urang Balando mamburuak, parajurik Jayawikarta manyarang benteng Balando. Pasukan Jayawikarta nan dibantu Inggirih dikalahkan dek Balando, sabagian karano tibonyo [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]] (J.P. Coen). Balado mambaka benteng Inggirih dan mamaso Inggirih untuak mundur ka kapa-kapanyo. Kamanangan ko mampakuek kakuasaan Balando ateh kota ko dan pado taun 1619, Balando mangganti namo Jayakarta manjadi ''Batavia''. Paluang-paluang padagangan di kota ko mambuek banyak imigran tatarik datang, kusuihnyo padagang-padagang Cino. Panambahan jumlah panduduak nan tibo-tibo mambuek barek baban pamarintah kota. Katagangan mamuncak kutiko pamarentah mancubo mambatehi migrasi urang-urang Cino jo caro deportasi. Palawanan pacah dan 5,000 urang Cino [[Pambantaian Batavia 1740|dibantai]] dek pamarentah Balando dan panduduak pribumi pado 9 Oktober 1740, dan taun salanjuiknyo, banyak urang Cino mamiliah pindah ka [[Glodok]] nan talatak di lua tembok kota.<ref name="LONELYPLANETp138-139">{{Cite book|last=Witton |first=Patrick |title=Indonesia |publisher=Lonely Planet Publications |year=2003 |location=Melbourne |pages=138–139|isbn=1-74059-154-2}}</ref> Kota ko mulai bakambang ka arah selatan sasudah wabah panyakik taun 1835 dan 1870, mamaso banyak urang untuak pindah labiah ka arah selatan dari palabuahan. Koningsplein, kini banamo [[Medan Merdeka]] salasai dibangun pado 1818, taman parumahan [[Menteng]] mulai dibangun pado 1913,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090220150339/http://www.bapekojakartapusat.go.id/node/42 Menteng : Pelopor Kota Taman], 3 November 2007</ref> dan [[Kebayoran Baru]] adolah kawasan parumahan taakhia nan dibangun Balando.<ref name="LONELYPLANETp138-139"/> Pado 1930, Batavia alah punyo labiah dari satangah juta panduduak,<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/13.htm Colonial Economy and Society, 1870–1940]. Source: ''U.S. Library of Congress.''</ref> tamasuak 37,067 urang Eropa.<ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VC6-4T4HJKW-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=949420039&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a406b85e0a44bef9ed9ad2d055bcd62b Governance Failure: Rethinking the Institutional Dimensions of Urban Water Supply to Poor Households]. ScienceDirect.</ref> ===Era kamardekaan=== Sasudah parang, kaum republikan Indonesia mamutuihan untuak maninggakan Jakarta nan dikuasai [[Sakutu pado Parang Dunia Kaduo|pasukan Sakutu]] dan manjadikan [[Yogyakarta]] sabagai ibu kota nagara nan baru. Pado 1950, satalah kamardekaan sapanuahnyo dirabuik, ibu kota nagara dibaliakkan ka kota ko.<ref name="LONELYPLANETp138-139"/> Presiden partamo Indonesia, [[Soekarno]], bacito-cito untuak manjadian Jakarta sabuah kota internasional gadang dan mamarintahkan proyek-proyek pambangunan nan dibiayai dek pamarentah untuak mamasuakkan unsur-unsur nasionalis dan [[arsitektur modern]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kusno |first=Abidin |year=2000 |title=Behind the Postcolonial: Architecture, Urban Space and Political Cultures |location=New York City |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-23615-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=P. |last=Schoppert |coauthor=Damais, S. |title=Java Style |year=1997 |publisher=Didier Millet |location=Paris |isbn= 962-593-232-1}}</ref> Proyek-proyeknyo tamasuak jalan layang, bundaran gadang di Jalan MH Thamrin-Sudirman, [[Monumen Nasional]], [[Hotel Indonesia]], pusek balanjo dan gedung parlemen nan baru. Pado Oktober 1965, Jakarta manjadi saksi [[Pagarakan 30 September|sabuah usao kudeta]] nan mambunuah anam urang jenderal tinggi militer, mamicu [[Pambantaian massal Indonesia 1965-66|pambarasiahan massal urang-urang kuminih]], tamasuak banyak urang Cino,<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/analysis/51981.stm Why ethnic Chinese are afraid]". BBC News. 12 February 1998.</ref> dan bamulonyo [[Paraliahan ka Orde Baru|era Orde Baru di bawah Soeharto]]. Sabuah monumen dibangun di [[Lubang Buaya|tampek mayik jenderal-jenderal tu dibuang]]. Pado 1966, Jakarta dinyatoan sabagai "daerah kusuih ibukota" (''daerah khusus ibukota''), dan mandapek status satingkek provinsi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jakarta |work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106450/Jakarta#13148.toc |accessdate=17 September 2007 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc}}</ref> Letnan Jenderal [[Ali Sadikin]] manjadi gubernur dari patangahan 60-an inggo 1977; inyo mamaloki sajumlah jalan jo jambatan, mandukuang pakambangan seni jo budayo, mambangun rumah-rumah sakik jo sakolah-sakolah. Inyo juo manertibkan area-area kumuah untuak proyek-proyek pambangunan modern,<ref>{{Cite journal|first=M. |last=Douglas |year=1989 |title=The Environmental Sustainability of Development. Coordination, Incentives and Political Will in Land Use Planning for the Jakarta Metropolis |journal=Third World Planning Review |volume=11 |issue=2 pages=pp. 211–238}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1177/095624789200400203 |first=M. |last=Douglas |year=1992 |title=The Political Economy of Urban Poverty and Environmental Management in Asia: Access, Empowerment and Community-based Alternatives |url=https://archive.org/details/environment-urbanization_1992-10_4_2/page/9 |journal=Environment and Urbanization |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=9–32}}</ref> dan barusao mangapuihan [[becak]] dan malarang padagang kaki limo. Sadikin juo barusao untuak mangandalikan jumlah papindahan dari lua Jakarta untuak mancagah kalabiahan jumlah panduduak dan paningkekan jumlah urang miskin.<ref> {{Cite book | last = Turner | first = Peter | title = Java (1st edition) | publisher=Lonely Planet | year=1997 | location=Melbourne | page=315 | isbn=0-86442-314-4 }}</ref> Investasi dari lua nagari alah mangubah wajah kota ko salamo maso pamarintahan Sadikin dan pangganti-panggantinyo.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Edsel E. |last=Sajor |year=2003 |url=http://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00325 |title=Globalization and the Urban Property Boom in Metro Cebu, Philippines |journal=Development and Change |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=713–742 |doi=10.1111/1467-7660.00325}}</ref> Ladakan ekonomi ko baakhia pado maso [[Krisis ekonomi Asia 1997|krisis 1997]], mambuek Jakarta sabagai pusek pagarakan anti-pamarentah. Sasudah 32 bakuaso, dukuangan pado presiden Soeharto mulai manurun. Katagangan mamuncak kutiko ampek mahasiswa [[Universitas Trisakti]] di[[Panembakan Trisakti|tembak mati]] dek aparat kaamanan; [[Karusuahan Mai 1998|karusuahan ampek hari di Jakarta]] mambunuah labiah dari 1,200 urang dan marusak 6,000 bangunan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Friend |first=Theodore |title=Indonesian Destinies |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-674-01137-6 |page=329}}</ref> Banyak parusuah mangincar urang [[Cino Indonesia]].<ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/2000/00_41/b3702149.htm Wages of Hatred]. Michael Shari. Business Week.</ref> Soeharto akhianyo mundur dari jabatan presiden, dan Jakarta batahan sabagai pusek krusial dari pagarakan demokrasi di Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Friend |first=T. |title=Indonesian Destinies |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-674-01137-6}}</ref> Bom dan sarangan teroris tajadi hampia tiok taun di kota ko antaro 2000 inggo 2005,<ref name="LONELYPLANETp138-139"/> dan ciek bom lai pado [[bom Jakarta 2009|taun 2009]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Minggu, 19 Juli 2009 – 13:16 WIB |url=http://www.poskota.co.id/berita-terkini/2009/07/19/daftar-serangan-bom-di-jakarta |title=Daftar Serangan Bom di Jakarta |publisher=Poskota |accessdate=27 April 2010 |archive-date=12 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090812063627/http://www.poskota.co.id/berita-terkini/2009/07/19/daftar-serangan-bom-di-jakarta |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ==Pamarentahan== ===Kotamadya jo kabupaten di Jakarta=== <center>[[File:Jakarta subdistrict.png|thumb|left|500px|Peta [[kotamadya]] di Jakarta. Tiok kotamadya tadiri ateh babarapo [[kecamatan]].]]</center> Sacaro rasmi, Jakarta bukanlah sabuah kota, tapi [[Provinsi Indonesia|sabuah provinsi]] nan bastatus istimewa sabagai ibu kota nagara. Provinsi ko dipimpin dek surang gubernur, bukannyo walikota, dan dibagi manjadi babarapo kotamadya dan kabupaten. Sabagai provinsi, namo rasmi Jakarta adolah ''Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta'' ("Daerah Kusuih Ibukota Jakarta"), disingkek DKI Jakarta. Jakarta dibagi manjadi limo kota atau kotamadya, nan dipimpin dek surang wali kota dan ciek [[kabupaten]], nan dipimpin dek [[bupati]]. Pado Agustus 2007, provinsi ko manyalanggarokan pamiliahan umum partamo untuak mamiliah gubernur, karano sabalunnyo gubernur dipiliah dek Dewan Pawakilan Rakyaik Daerah. Pamiliahan ko marupokan bagian dari program desentralisasi kakuasaan nan maagiah jalan bagi pamiliahan kapalo daerah langsuang di sadoalah kabupaten jo kota di Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6936276.stm |title=Jakarta holds historic election |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=8 August 2007}}</ref> Kota-kota di Jakarta adolah: * [[Kota Jakarta Pusat|Jakarta Pusat]] adolah kota nan paliang ketek dan tampek duduak bagi banyak fasilitas pamarentahan provinsi. Kota ko didominasi dek taman-taman gadang dan bangunan paninggalan kolonial Balando. Tando tanahnyo antaro lain [[Monumen Nasional]], [[Musajik Istiqlal]], [[Katedral Jakarta]] dan museum-museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jakpus/default.asp|title=Central Jakarta Profile|work=The City Jakarta Administration|publisher=Jakarta.go.id|accessdate=19 December 2009|archive-date=11 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911220356/http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jakpus/default.asp|dead-url=yes}}</ref> * [[Kota Jakarta Barat|Jakarta Barat]] didominasi dek industri skala ketek nan taseba di saluruah panjuru kota. Tando tanahnyo antaro lain kawasan Pecinan Jakarta bangunan-bangunan tuo paninggalan Balando. Jakarta Barat juo maliputi sabagian [[Kota Tuo Jakarta]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jakbar/default.asp|title=West Jakarta Profile|work=The City Jakarta Administration|publisher=Jakarta.go.id|accessdate=24 February 2010|archive-date=11 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911220346/http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jakbar/default.asp|dead-url=yes}}</ref> * [[Kota Jakarta Selatan|Jakarta Selatan]], aslinyo dirancang sabagai sabuah kota satelit nan tapisah, tapi kini alah manjadi tampek bagi pusek-pusek balanjo modern dan kompleks parumahan elit. Daerah ko bafungsi sabagai panyangga aia untuak Jakarta,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jaksel/|title=South Jakarta Profile|work=The City Jakarta Administration|publisher=Jakarta.go.id|accessdate=19 December 2009|archive-date=5 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705203755/http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jaksel/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> tapi kini daerah hijau alah mulai diancam dek proyek pambangunan baru. Sabagian gadang distrik bisnis Jakarta talatak di kota ko, iyolah di Setia Budi nan babateh jo daerah Tanah Abang/Sudirman di Jakarta Pusat. * [[Kota Jakarta Timur|Jakarta Timur]] didominasi dek kawasan industri dan pabrik.<ref name="Jaktim go id">{{cite web|url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jaktim/default.asp|title=East Jakarta Profile|work=The City Jakarta Administration|publisher=Jakarta.go.id|accessdate=19 December 2009|archive-date=14 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014184630/http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jaktim/default.asp|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Di kota ko talatak [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]] dan [[Palabuahan Kapa Tabang Halim Perdanakusuma]]. * [[Kota Jakarta Utara|Jakarta Utara]] adolah satu-satunyo kota di Jakarta nan mamiliaki area lauik, babateh jo [[Lauik Jawa]]. Kota ko mamiliaki [[Palabuahan Tanjug Priok]]. Industri skala gadang dan manangah dikonsentrasikan di kota ko, tapi juo punyoi sabagian daerah Kota Tuo Jakarta. Di kota ko juo talatak [[Taman Impian Jaya Ancol]], kini kompleks hiburan tapadu paliang gadang di Asia Tenggara.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jakut/default.asp|title=North Jakarta Profile|work=The City Jakarta Administration|publisher=Jakarta.go.id|accessdate=19 December 2009|archive-date=13 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913084331/http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/jakut/default.asp|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Satu-satunyo kabupaten di Jakarta adolah: * [[Kabupaten Kepulauan Seribu|Kepulauan Seribu]], dulunyo marupokan bagian dari Jakarta Utara, adolah himpunan dari 105 pulau ketek di Lauik Jawa. Kabupaten ko banyak dikunjuangi untuak pariwisata maritim saroman mandayuang, baranang dan lain-lain. Moda transportasi utamo di kabupaten ko adolah kapa bot atau feri ketek.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/kepseribu|title="Thousand Island" Profile|work=The City Jakarta Administration|publisher=Jakarta.go.id|accessdate=19 December 2009|archive-date=16 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616124511/http://www.jakarta.go.id/en/pemerintahan/kotamadya/kepseribu/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> === Kapalo pamarentahan === {{See also|Daftar Gubernur DKI Jakarta}} Pado Septemmber 1945, bantuak pamarentahan kota Jakarta diubah dari pamarentahan ''Djakarta Toku-Betsu Shi'' nan dibantuak Japang manjadi model Indonesia. Pamarentahan partamo dikatuai dek surang wali kota inggo 1960, kutiko jabatan wali kota diganti manjadi gubernur. Wali kota taakhia Jakarta adolah [[Sudiro]], nan diganti dek Dr [[Sumarno]] sabagai Gubernur Jakarta nan partamo.<ref name="Statistics">{{Cite book|publisher=Statistics DKI Jakarta Provincial Office, Jakarta|title=Jakarta in Figures |year=2008}}</ref> ==Geografi dan iklim== ===Geografi=== Jakarta talatak di pasisia barat lauik [[Pulau Jawa]], di muaro [[Sungai Ciliwung]] di [[Teluk Jakarta]], nan marupoan taluak ketek dari [[Lauik Jawa]]. Sacaro rasmi, laweh daerah Daerah Kusuih Ibu Kota Jakarta adolah {{convert|662|km2|0|abbr=on}} bagian darek dan {{convert|6,977|km2|0|abbr=on}} kawasan lauik.<ref>Based on Governor Decree in 2007, No. 171. taken from Statistics DKI Jakarta Provincial Office, ''Jakarta in Figures'', 2008, BPS, Province of DKI Jakarta</ref> [[Kabupaten Kepulauan Seribu|Kepulauan Seribu]], nan sacaro rasmi marupokan bagian dari Jakarta, talatak di Teluk Jakarta, bagian utara dari daratan utamo. Jakarta talatak pado dataran randah dan data, bakisa dari {{convert|-2|m|0}} inggo {{convert|50|m|0}} dan tinggi rato-ratonyo {{convert|8|m|0}} [[di ateh pamukaan lauik]]; 40% bagian darek Jakarta, utamonyo di bagian utara, talatak di bawah pamukaan lauik,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thejakartaglobe.com/waterworries/the-tides-efforts-never-end-to-repel-an-invading-sea/320034 |title=The Tides: Efforts Never End to Repel an Invading Sea |work=Jakarta Globe |accessdate=14 March 2011 |archive-date=20 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220130644/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/waterworries/the-tides-efforts-never-end-to-repel-an-invading-sea/320034 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> samantaro bagian salatannyo babukik-bukik. Sungai mangalia dari tanah tinggi [[Puncak]] ka bagian selatan kota, malintehi kota ka arah utara manuju Lauik Jawa; salah satu sungai nan paliang gadang adolah [[Sungai Ciliwung]] nan mambalah Jakarta Barat jo Jakarta Timur. Sungai-sungai lain antaro lain Sungai Pesanggarahan jo Sungai Sunter. Sadoalah sungai ko, disatukan jo musim hujan dan sistem drainase nan buruak dan acok tasumbek, mambuek Jakarta rawan dilando banjia. Jakarta tabanam sakitar 5 inggo 10 sentimeter tiok taun, bahkan labiah dari 20 sentimeter di daerah utara. Untuak mambantu mancagah bancano banjia nan tibo ampia tiok taun, Balando maagiah sakitar $4&nbsp;juta untuak studi kalayakan pambangunan tanggul di Teluk Jakarta. Cincin tanggul akan dilengkapi jo sistem pompa dan daerah retensi untuak manahan amuakan aia lauik. Proyek ko akan dibangun pado 2025.<ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/07/27/dutch-study-new-dike-jakarta-bay.html Dutch to study new dike for Jakarta Bay | The Jakarta Post<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> {{wide image|View of Jakarta from Monas.jpg|1800px|Pamandangan Jakarta Pusat dari manaro pamantau di Monas}} === Iklim === Jakarta mamiliaki [[iklim musim tropis]] (''Am'')<ref name="Climate-Data.org">{{cite web|title=Climate: Jakarta - Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table|url=http://en.climate-data.org/location/714756/|publisher=Climate-Data.org|accessdate=20 September 2013}}</ref> manuruik [[klasifikasi iklim Köppen]]. Walaupun talatak realtif dakek dari khatulistiwa, kota ko punyo [[musim hujan]] dan [[musim kariang]] nan lain bana. Musim hujan di Jakarta malando sabagian gadang wakatu sapanjang tahun, balansuang sapanjang November inggo Juni. Ampek bulan sisonyo adolah musim kariang. Talatak di bagian barat pulau Jawa, musim hujan di Jakarta mancapai puncaknyo pado bulan Januari jo ratoan curah hujan {{convert|389|mm}}, dan titiak tarandah musim kariang adolah pado September, jo ratoan {{convert|30|mm|abbr=on}}. {{Weather box |location = Jakarta |metric first = yes |single line = yes |Jan high C = 29.9 |Feb high C = 30.3 |Mar high C = 31.5 |Apr high C = 32.5 |May high C = 32.5 |Jun high C = 31.4 |Jul high C = 32.3 |Aug high C = 32.0 |Sep high C = 33.0 |Oct high C = 32.7 |Nov high C = 31.3 |Dec high C = 32.0 |year high C = 31.8 |Jan low C = 24.2 |Feb low C = 24.3 |Mar low C = 25.2 |Apr low C = 25.1 |May low C = 25.4 |Jun low C = 24.8 |Jul low C = 25.1 |Aug low C = 24.9 |Sep low C = 25.5 |Oct low C = 25.5 |Nov low C = 24.9 |Dec low C = 24.9 |year low C = 25.0 |Jan precipitation mm = 384.7 |Feb precipitation mm = 309.8 |Mar precipitation mm = 100.3 |Apr precipitation mm = 257.8 |May precipitation mm = 133.4 |Jun precipitation mm = 83.1 |Jul precipitation mm = 30.8 |Aug precipitation mm = 34.2 |Sep precipitation mm = 29.0 |Oct precipitation mm = 33.1 |Nov precipitation mm = 175.0 |Dec precipitation mm = 84.0 |year precipitation mm = 1655.2 |Jan rain days = 26 |Feb rain days = 20 |Mar rain days = 15 |Apr rain days = 18 |May rain days = 13 |Jun rain days = 17 |Jul rain days = 5 |Aug rain days = 24 |Sep rain days = 6 |Oct rain days = 9 |Nov rain days = 22 |Dec rain days = 12 |source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organisation]] <ref>{{Cite web | url =http://worldweather.wmo.int/043/c00310.htm | title =World Weather Information Service - Jakarta | access-date =2013-10-09 | archive-date =2022-12-19 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20221219175850/https://worldweather.wmo.int/043/c00310.htm | dead-url =yes }}</ref> |date=August 2010 }} == Budayo == [[File:Keong Emas.jpg|left|thumb|''Keong Emas'', dibuek pado 1970 dek pamarentahan Orde Baru, adolah sabuah teater IMAX nan talatak di [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], Jakarta Timur.]] Sabagai ibu kota ekonomi jo politik Indonesia, Jakarta alah manarik banyak imigran domestik nan mambao masuak bahaso, dialek, makanan jo adaik nan balain-lain pulo. [[Urang Betawi]] (''Orang Betawi'', atau "warga Batavia") adoah katurunan urang-urang nan tingga di dalam dan sakita Batavia lamo dan diakui sabagai sabuah suku banso nan barasa dari abaik ka-18 inggo ka-19. Urang Betawi kabanyakannyo adolah katurunan dari suku-suku banso Asia Tenggara nan tibo di Batavia untuak mamanuahi kaparaluan buruah kasa, tamasuak urang-urang dari palosok Indonesia.<ref name="Knorr"/> [[Bahaso Betawi|Bahaso]] jo budayo Betawi hampia samo jo bahaso nan dipakai dek [[urang Sunda]] atau [[urang Jawa]]. Bahaso ko kabanyakan badasa pado [[bahaso Malayu Kuno]] dialek timur dan dipakayo dek kato-kato pinjaman dari bahaso Balando, Portugih, Sunda, Jawa, Cino jo Arab. Kini, dialek Jakarta (''bahasa Jakarta''), dipakai sacarao laweh dek urang-urang Jakarta, dan kabanyakannyo badasa pado bahaso Betawi nan dimodernkan. Kasanian Betawi indak talalu populer di Jakarta, karano banyak urang Betawi alah bapindah ka pinggiran kota, digantian dek imigran-imigran. Kini di Jakarta labiah mudah untuak manamuan upacaro baralek baadaik Jawa atau Minang dibandiang baralek baadaik Betawi di Jakarta. Labiah mudah untuak manamuan [[gamelan]] asa Jawa dibandiang ''[[gambang kromong]]'', sajinih musik nan mancampua budayo Betawi jo Cino, atau ''[[tanjidor]]'', campuran musik Betawi jo Portugih, atau juo ''[[marawis]]'', campuran musik Betawi jo Arab. Walau baitu, babarapo festival saroman Festival Jalan Jaksa atau Festival Kemang kini alah bausao untuak manampilan dan malestarikan budayo-budayo Betawi, jo caro mangundang artis-artis tradisional untuak tampil.<ref name="Knorr">{{Cite book|last=Knörr |first=Jacqueline |title=Kreolität und postkoloniale Gesellschaft. Integration und Differenzierung in Jakarta |publisher=Campus Verlag |location=Frankfurt |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-593-38344-6}}</ref> [[File:Festival beach Ancol Jakarta.jpg|right|thumb|Pantai Festival di [[Taman Impian Jaya Ancol]], Jakarta Utara.]] Sajak baabaik-abaik nan lampau, alah ado komunitas [[Cino Indonesia]] di Jakarta. Urang Cino di Indonesia sacaro tradisional tingga di sakita daerah parumahan lamo, sarupo [[Pinangsia]], [[Pluit]] atau [[Glodok]]. Komunitas ko juo dapek ditamui di area [[Chinatown]] di [[Senen]] jo [[Jatinegara]]. Ado kurang labiah 6% urang Cino di Jakarta.<ref name='BBC'>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4312805.stm |title=Chinese diaspora: Indonesia |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |author=Johnston, Tim |date=3 March 2005}}</ref> Budayo Cino alah juo mampangaruahi budayo Betawi, saroman tanamonyo kue jo manisan Cino, [[kambang api]], inggo baralek baadaik Betawi nan manampilan pangaruah budayo Cino jo Arab. Jakarta punyo banyak pusek kasanian, sarupo tampek konser klasik Aula Simfonia Jakarta di Kemayoran, [[Taman Ismail Marzuki]] (TIM) di Cikini, [[Gedung Kesenian Jakarta]] dakek Pasar Baru, Balai Sarbini di daerah Plaza Semanggi, [[Bentara Budaya Jakarta]] di Palmerah, ''Pasar Seni'' di [[Ancol]], jo panampilan kasanian tradisional Indonesia di paviliun-paviliun sajumlah provinsi nan talatak di daerah [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]]. Musik tradisional dapek ditamuan di hotel-hotal bintang limo, tamasuak pasambahan [[wayang]] jo gamelan. Pasambahan [[wayang orang]] dari Jawa dapek ditonton di teater Wayang Urang Bharata dakek terminal bus Senen. Sabagai ibu kota dan kota tagadang, Jakarta alah mangasiakan banyak talenta musik nasional. Jakarta adolah tuan rumah dari babarapo festival atau pameranbudayo jo kasanian nan prestisius, sarupo [[Jakarta International Film Festival]] (JiFFest), [[Jakarta International Java Jazz Festival]], [[Jakarta Fashion Week]], Jakarta Fashion & Food Festival (JFFF), Jakarta Fair,jo Indonesia Creative Products. Jakarta Arts and Crafts Flona Jakarta adolah pameran flora jo fauna nan diadoan sakali sataun di taman [[Lapangan Banteng]], mamamerkan bungo-bungoan, tumbuah-tumbuahan, caro parawatan tanaman jo hewan paliaroan. [[Jakarta Fair]] diadoan sakali sataun dari patangahan Juni inggo patangahan Juli untuak marayoan ulang taun provinsi ko dan sabagian gadang tapusek untuak kagiatan padagangan. Walau baitu, pameran ko juo manampilan hiburan jo kasanian, tamasuak patunjuakan budayo dan lagu-lagu nan dibaokan dek grup musik lokal. === Musium === [[File:Museum Nasional Indonesia.jpg|thumb|[[Musium Nasional Indonesia]] di Jakarta Pusat]] Musium-musium di Jakarta kabanyakan tadapek di sakuliliang area Medan Merdeka di Jakarta Pusat, [[Kota Tua Jakarta]] jo [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]]. Ado banyak gaduang-gaduang bakeh pamarintahan kolonial Balando di area Kota Tuo. Babarapo diantaronyo kini manjadi musium, saroman [[Musium Sajarah Jakarta]] (sabalunnyo balai kota Batavia), [[Musium Wayang]] (sabalunnyo Garejo Batavia), Musium Kasanian jo Karamik (sabalunnyo pangadilan tinggi Batavia), [[Musium Maritim (Indonesia)|Musium Maritim]] (sabalunnyo gudang palabuahan Sunda Kelapa), Musium Bank Indonesia (sabalunnyo gaduang De Javasche Bank), jo Musium Bank Mandiri (sabalunnyo gaduang ''Nederlandsche Handels Maatschappij''). Babarapo musium talatak di daerah Medan Merdeka, Jakarta Pusat, antaro lain: [[Musium Nasional Indonesia]] (juo tanamo jo sebutan ''Gedung Gajah''), [[Monumen Nasional (Indonesia)|Monas]], Musium Islam Istiqlal di [[Musajik Istiqlal]] (1978) jo Musium [[Katedral Jakarta]] (1901) nan talatak di lantai duo katedral tu. Musium lain tamasuaklah [[Musium Taman Prasasti]] jo [[Musium Tekstil (Jakarta)|Musium Tekstil]] di daerah Tanah Abang.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia West|first=|publisher=Nelles Guides|year=1990|location=Amerika Serikat|pages=78|last=Robertson McCarta & Nelles Verlag}}</ref> Daerah rekreasi kaluargo [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]] di Jakarta Timur juo mamiliaki ampek baleh musium, tamasuak [[Musium Indonesia]], [[Musium Purna Bhakti Pertiwi]], [[Musium Asmat]], Musium Islam Bayt al-Qur'an, Musium Pusaka jo babarapo musium batema sains saroman Pusek Informasi Teknologi jo Panalitian, Musium Fauna Indonesia Komodo, Musium Saranggo, Musium Minyak jo Gas, sarato Musium Transportasi. Musium lain nan tadapek di provinsi ko antaro lain [[Musium Militer Satria Mandala]], Musium Sumpah Pemuda, jo [[Lubang Buaya]]. === Kuliner === [[File:Gado-gado in Jakarta.JPG|thumb|left|[[Gado-gado]] adolah makanan nan tanamo di Jakarta.]] Jakarta mamiliaki baragam makanan dan minuman nan tasadio di ratusan pusek makan di provinsi ko, mulai dari lapak kaki limo di jalanan inggo restoran maha babintang limo. Salah satu masakan nan paliang populer antaro lain [[soto Betawi]], nan manganduangi santan jo dagiang sapi. Namun baito, karano Jakarta dianggap sabagai tampek bacampuanyo suku-suku di Indonesia, banyak masakan tradisional dari suku lain nan mudah ditamui di Jakarta. Contohnyo, [[masakan Padang]] dari Minangkabau jo [[masakan Jawa]] nan murah di ''warung tegal'' (''warteg'') di pinggia jalan. Kuliner lain nan tasadio antaro lain [[masakan Cino]], [[masakan Japang|Japang]], [[masakan Korea|Korea]], [[masakan Thai|Thai]], [[masakan India|India]], [[masakan Amerika|Amerika]], [[masakan Parancih|Parancih]] inggo [[masakan Timua Tangah|Timua Tangah]].<ref>{{cite web |author=By A Yahoo! Contributor, 17 May 2009 |url=http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-2881278-haveli_indian_cuisine_bar_jakarta-i |title=Haveli Indian Cuisine & Bar, Jakarta, Indonesia – Yahoo! Travel |publisher=Travel.yahoo.com |accessdate=27 April 2010 |archive-date=16 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216030417/http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-2881278-haveli_indian_cuisine_bar_jakarta-i |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Masakan nan populer lainnyo antaro lain [[kerak telor]], [[gado-gado]], [[sate]], [[nasi goreng]] jo kue cucur. ==Ekonomi, pamarintahan jo infrastruktur== ===Ekonomi=== [[File:Kuningan-rasuna-hariadhi.jpg|right|thumb|Daerah bisnis Rasuna Said di Kuningan]] Parekonomian Jakarta sangek bagantuang pado sektor kauangan, padagangan jo manufaktur. Industri di Jakarta tamasuaklah elektronik, otomotif, pamasinan jo manufaktur sains biomedik. Patumbuahan ekonomi Jakarta pado taun 2007 adolah 6.44%, labiah banyak dari 5.95% pado taun sabalunnyo. Pakambangan nan paliang signifikan tamasuaklah di bidang paubuangan jo angkutan (15.25%), konstruksi (7.81%) jo padagangan, sarato hotel jo restoran (6.88%).<ref name="Statistics" /> Pado 2007, GRP (''Gross Regional Domestic Product'') mancapai Rp. 566&nbsp;triliun (labiah kurang $US 56&nbsp;milya). Panyumbang nan paliang gadang untuak GDRP ko adolah sektor kauangan, kapamalikian jo bisnis (29%); padagangan, hotel jo restoran (20%), jo sektor industri manufaktur (16%).<ref name="Statistics" /> Pado 2007, kanaikan GRDP pakapita di DKI Jakarta adolah sagadang 11.6%.<ref name="Statistics" /> === Pamarintahan === Paraturan taun 2007 malarang untuak maagiah sumbangan pado pangamih, pangamen jo padagang jalanan, malarang pamukiman indak sah di pinggia sungai atau jalan tol, sarato malarang maludah atau maisok rokok di transportasi umum. Urang-urang nan mambarasiahan kaco oto tanpa pamintaan/izin atau mamintak pitih dari maarahan aruih lalu-linteh juo akan dikanaian dando. Salah satu kritik nan padeh tahadok paraturan ko baalasan baso paraturan ko sulik ditarapkan jo labiah candaruang pado manulak kanyatoan adonyo kamiskinan di antaro panduduak.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6989211.stm "Jakarta bans beggars and buskers"] ''[[BBC]]'', 11 September 2007. Diakses 5 November 2013</ref> Maniru gagasan nan ditarapkan di [[Orchard Road]], [[Singapura]], pado 2011, pamarintah provinsi mambatehi parkir di Jalan Hayam Wuruk jo Jalan Gajah Mada di Jakarta Pusat. Pamarintah juo manyatoan akan manggusur padagang indak sah jo pangamih di kaduo jalan tu.<ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/14/jakartas-hayam-wuruk-gajah-mada-follow-orchard-road-model.html Jakarta's Hayam Wuruk, Gajah Mada to follow Orchard Road model | The Jakarta Post<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Dalam palaksanaannyo, larangan-larangan ko hampia indak pernah barasia. ==== Daftar Gubernur ==== <onlyinclude>Berikuik iko marupoan daftar [[Gubernur]] [[Daerah Khusus Ibu Kota Jakarta]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://interaktif.kompas.id/baca/gubernur-jakarta/|title=Jakarta, 1945–kini|access-date=7 Januari 2022|work=[[Kompas (surat kabar)|Kompas.id]]|archive-date=2020-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919182736/https://interaktif.kompas.id/baca/gubernur-jakarta/|dead-url=no}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="background:#ffffef; float:center; text-align:center" ! {{Abbr|No.|Nomor}} ! colspan="2"| Gubernur<br/>(lahia–maningga) ! Potret ! Mulai manjabat ! Akhia manjabat ! Partai ! colspan="2"| [[Wakil Gubernur DKI Jakarta|Wakia Gubernur]] ! Periode ! Ref. |- | colspan="11"| Pemimpin Pemerintahan Kota Jakarta |- ! 1 ! style="background:#660000"| | [[Suwiryo|Soewirjo]]<br>(1903–1967) | [[Berkas:Suwirjo, Republik Indonesia, Kotapradja Djakarta-Raja, p187 (cropped).jpg|90px]] | 7 September 1945 | 23 September 1945 | [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] | bgcolor="#d3d3d3"| | [[Bagindo Dahlan Abdullah]] | 1 | |- | colspan="11"| Wali Kota Jakarta |- ! (1) ! style="background:#660000"| | colspan="2" |[[Suwiryo|Soewirjo]] | 23 September 1945 | 21 Juli 1947 | [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] | bgcolor="#d3d3d3"| | N/A | (1) | <ref>{{cite web|url=https://jakarta.go.id/web/encyclopedia/detail/3047/Suwiryo|title=Eksiklopedia: Suwiryo|website=Portal Resmi Provinsi DKI Jakarta|publisher=Dinas Komunikasi DKI Jakarta|access-date=18 Maret 2017|archive-date=2017-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816092200/http://www.jakarta.go.id/web/encyclopedia/detail/3047/Suwiryo|dead-url=yes}}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |- | colspan="11"| ''[[Daftar Kepala Daerah Batavia (1947-1950)|Pendudukan Belanda (1947–1948)<br>Bagian dari Negara Pasundan (1948–1950)]]'' |- ! (1) ! style="background:#660000"| | colspan="2" |[[Suwiryo|Soewirjo]] | 30 Maret 1950 | 2 Mei 1951 | [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] | bgcolor="#d3d3d3"| | N/A | 2 | <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.okezone.com/read/2012/06/28/507/655216/raden-suwiryo-walikota-pertama-jakarta|title=Raden Suwiryo, Walikota Pertama Jakarta|date=28 Juni 2012|access-date=17 Oktober 2012|publisher=Okezone|work=[[Okezone.com]]|last=Suryana|first=Dede|archive-date=2017-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614030005/http://news.okezone.com/read/2012/06/28/507/655216/raden-suwiryo-walikota-pertama-jakarta|dead-url=no}}</ref> |- ! 2 ! style="background:#003200"| | [[Sjamsuridjal]]<br>(1903–1964) | [[Berkas:Sjamsuridjal, Republik Indonesia, Kotapradja Djakarta-Raja, p187 (cropped).jpg|90px]] | 17 Juli 1951{{efn|Sjamsuridjal melakukan serah terima jabatan pada 29 Juni 1951 dan secara resmi dilantik di Dewan Perwakilan Kota Sementara Jakarta Raya pada 17 Juli 1951 melalui suatu sidang.}} | 9 November 1953 | [[Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia]] | bgcolor="#d3d3d3"| | N/A | 3 | <ref>{{cite book |last1=Sedyawati |first1=Edi |last2=Rahardjo |first2=Supratnikno |last3=Johan |first3=Irmawati Marwoto |last4=Ohorella |first4=G. A. Manilet- |title=Sejarah Kota Jakarta 1950-1980 |date=1986 |publisher=Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan |page=139 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?redir_esc=y&id=do2KCgAAQBAJ |language=id |quote=Kekosongan tersebut kemudian diisi oleh Syamsurizal yang menjabat walikota mulai tanggal 29 Juni 1951 |access-date=2019-02-14 |archive-date=2023-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319062701/https://books.google.co.uk/books?redir_esc=y&id=do2KCgAAQBAJ |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref name="Jakarta Batavia: Socio-Cultural Essays">{{cite book|last=Golden|first=Daan Van|date=Januari 2001|title=Jakarta Batavia: Socio-Cultural Essays (Verhandelingen Van Het Koninklijk Instituut Voor Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde)|trans-title=|url=|language=|location=Leiden|publisher=Koninklijk Institute of Linguistic vor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|isbn=9789067181396}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=M.|first=Zaenuddin H.|date=2013|title=Banjir Jakarta: dari zaman Jenderal J.P. Coen (1621) sampai Gubernur Jokowi (2013)|trans-title=|url=|language=|location=Jakarta|publisher=Change Publisher|isbn=6021781511}}</ref><br><ref name="Sejarah Jakarta">{{cite book|last1= Sedyawati|first2=Supratnikno|last2= Rahardjo|first3=Irmawati Marwoto|last3= Johan|first4= G.A.|last4=Manilet|first=Edi|date=1987|title=Sejarah Kota Jakarta 1950-1980|trans-title=|url=|language=|location=Jakarta|publisher=Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Sejarah Nasional, Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia|isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Soetanto|first=Himawan|date=2006|title= Yogyakarta: Jendral Spoor (Operatie Kraai) versus Jendral Sudirman (Perintah Siasat no. 1)|trans-title=|url=|language=|location=|publisher=Gramedia Pustaka Utama|isbn=9792221786|page=150}}</ref> |- ! rowspan="2"| 3 ! style="background:#660000" rowspan="2"| | rowspan="2"| [[Sudiro]]<br>(1911–1992) | rowspan="2"| [[Berkas:Sudiro, Kami Perkenalkan (1954), p54.jpg|90px]] | 9 November 1953 | 25 Februari 1958 | rowspan="2"| [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] | bgcolor="#d3d3d3"| | N/A | 4 | rowspan="2"| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://jakarta.go.id/web/encyclopedia/detail/3016/Sudiro-Raden|title=Ensiklopedia: Sudiro, Raden|access-date=18 Maret 2017|website=Portal Resmi Provinsi DKI Jakarta|publisher=Dinas Komunikasi DKI Jakarta|archive-date=2017-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122071127/http://www.jakarta.go.id/web/encyclopedia/detail/3016/Sudiro-Raden|dead-url=yes}}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kementerian Penerangan Indonesia|title=Kami Perkenalkan|date=1954|publisher=Archipel|page=54|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kami_Perkenalkan_(1954).pdf|language=id|quote=Anggota partai : Partai Nasional Indonesia (P.N.I.)|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-date=2022-06-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609075411/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kami_Perkenalkan_(1954).pdf|dead-url=no}}</ref> |- | 25 Februari 1958 | 29 Januari 1960 | bgcolor="#d3d3d3"| | N/A | 5 |- | colspan="11"| Gubernur Daerah Khusus Ibu Kota Jakarta |- ! 4 ! style="background:#7b8738"| | [[Soemarno Sosroatmodjo]]<br>(1911–1991) | [[Berkas:Soemarno Sosroatmodjo as Governor of Jakarta.jpg|90px]] | 8 Februari 1960 | 26 Agustus 1964 | [[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | bgcolor="#d3d3d3"| | [[Henk Ngantung]] | rowspan="2"| 6 | <ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.okezone.com/read/2012/04/17/507/613050/soemarno-sosroatmodjo-gubernur-yang-merangkap-mendagri |title=Soemarno Sosroatmodjo, Gubernur yang Merangkap Mendagri |date=17 April 2012 |access-date=19 Maret 2017 |work=[[Okezone.com]] |first=Stella |last=Chrisfanni |editor-first= |editor-last=DED |archive-date=2017-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607065330/http://news.okezone.com/read/2012/04/17/507/613050/soemarno-sosroatmodjo-gubernur-yang-merangkap-mendagri |dead-url=no }}</ref> |- ! 5 ! style="background:#d3d3d3"| | [[Henk Ngantung]]<br>(1927–1991) | [[Berkas:Governor Jakarta Henk Ngantung (cropped).png|90px]] | 26 Agustus 1964 | 15 Juli 1965 | Non Partai | colspan="2"|1964–1966: [[Soewondo]] [[Satoto Hoepoedio]] | <ref>Tempo Interaktif: [http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/narasi/2004/04/01/nrs,20040401-01,id.html Biografi singkat Henk Ngantung] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518145734/http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/narasi/2004/04/01/nrs,20040401-01,id.html |date=2009-05-18 }}, diakses 8 Juni 2017</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sipuu.setkab.go.id/PUUdoc/13257/Keppres2171964.pdf |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2017-11-04 |archive-date=2017-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107023541/http://sipuu.setkab.go.id/PUUdoc/13257/Keppres2171964.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> |- ! 6 ! style="background:#7b8738"| | colspan="2" |[[Soemarno Sosroatmodjo]] | 15 Juli 1965 | 18 Maret 1966 | [[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | colspan="2"|1966: [[Soewondo]] [[Sapi’ie]] [[Prajogo]] | 7 | {{refn|group=ket.|Soemarno Sosroatmodjo kembali menjabat sebagai gubernur dan merangkap jabatan [[Menteri Dalam Negeri Republik Indonesia]].}} |- ! rowspan="2"| 7 ! style="background:#7b8738" rowspan="2"| | rowspan="2"| [[Ali Sadikin]]<br>(1927–2008)<br/> | rowspan="2"| [[Berkas:Official Portrait of Ali Sadikin as the Governor of Jakarta.jpg|90px]] | 28 April 1966 | 14 Februari 1972 | rowspan="2"| [[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | rowspan="2" colspan="2"|'''Pemerintahan''': [[Wiriadinata]] '''Kesejahteraan rakyat''': [[Soewondo]] & [[Urip Widodo]] '''Ekonomi''': [[Sapi'ie]] '''Pembangunan''': [[Prajogo]] & [[Padmowihardjo]] | 8 | rowspan="2"| <ref>Tokoh Indonesia: [http://www.tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/a/ali-sadikin/index.shtml Ali Sadikin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121104956/http://www.tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/a/ali-sadikin/index.shtml |date=2006-11-21 }}, diakses 8 Juni 2017</ref> |- | 14 Februari 1972 | 11 Juli 1977 | 9 |- ! 8 ! style="background:#7b8738"| | [[Tjokropranolo]]<br>(1924–1998)<br />[[Berkas:Signature of Tjokropranolo.svg|90px]] | [[Berkas:Tjokropranolo as Governor of Jakarta.jpg|90px]] | 29 September 1977 | 29 September 1982 | [[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | colspan="2"|'''Pemerintahan''': Wiriadinata & Abdul Chourmain '''Kesejahteraan rakyat''': Urip Widodo & Sardjono Soeprapto '''Ekonomi''': Sapi'ie & Asmawi Manaf '''Pembangunan''': Prajogo, Padmowihardjo & Piek Mulyadi | 10 | <ref>[http://soeharto.co/petunjuk-presiden-dlm-membangun-jakarta-utamakan-kepentingan-rakyat-banyak/ Petunjuk Presiden Dalam Membangun Jakarta:Utamakan Kepentingan Rakyat Banyak] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612064640/http://soeharto.co/petunjuk-presiden-dlm-membangun-jakarta-utamakan-kepentingan-rakyat-banyak/ |date=2020-06-12 }} Soeharto, 1979. Diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2020</ref><ref>Tjokropranolo. 1992. Panglima Besar TNI Jenderal Soedirman pemimpin pendobrak terakhir penjajahan di Indonesia. PT Surya Persindo. ISBN 979-8329-00-7</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://soeharto.co/petunjuk-presiden-dlm-membangun-jakarta-utamakan-kepentingan-rakyat-banyak |title=Petunjuk Presiden Dalam Membangun Jakarta: Utamakan Kepentingan Rakyat Banyak |date=30 Januari 1979 |access-date=4 November 2017 |newspaper=Suara Karya |first= |last= |editor-first= |editor-last= |archive-date=2017-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107021801/http://soeharto.co/petunjuk-presiden-dlm-membangun-jakarta-utamakan-kepentingan-rakyat-banyak |dead-url=yes }}</ref><br><ref>Restu Gunawan, Gagalnya Sistem Kanal: Pengendalian Banjir Jakarta dari Masa ke Masa, 2010:106</ref><ref>[https://soeharto.co/1979-01-29-menerima-gubernur-dki-presiden-soeharto-perhatikan-aspek-spiritual-disamping-kejar-pertumbuhan/ Menerima Gubernur DKI, Presiden Soeharto: Perhatikan Aspek Spiritual Disamping Kejar Pertumbuhan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623132701/https://soeharto.co/1979-01-29-menerima-gubernur-dki-presiden-soeharto-perhatikan-aspek-spiritual-disamping-kejar-pertumbuhan/ |date=2020-06-23 }} Soeharto (29/1/1979). Diakses tanggal 22 Juni 2020</ref> |- ! 9 ! style="background:#7b8738"| | [[R. Soeprapto (gubernur)|Soeprapto]]<br>(1924–2009)<br/><small>[[Berkas:Signature of Soeprapto (governor).svg|90px]]</small> | [[Berkas:Soeprapto as Governor of Jakarta.jpg|90px]] | 29 September 1982 | 6 Oktober 1987 | [[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | colspan="2"|'''Pemerintahan''': Abdul Chourmain & Eddie Marzuki Nalapraya '''Kesejahteraan rakyat''': Sardjono Soeprapto & Anwar Ilmar '''Ekonomi''': Asmawi Manaf '''Pembangunan''': Piek Mulyadi '''Ekonomi dan Pembangunan''': Bunyamin Ramto | 11<br/><small>(1982)</small> | <ref>[https://majalah.tempo.co/read/pokok-dan-tokoh/42647/pelantikan Pelantikan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828015307/https://majalah.tempo.co/read/pokok-dan-tokoh/42647/pelantikan |date=2020-08-28 }} Tempo.co (14/4/1984). Diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2020</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perpusnas.go.id/collections-detail.php?lang=id&id=Bahan%20Campuran&link=1114466|title=Tanggal 29 Sept 1982 [gambar] : upacara serah terima jabatan Gubernur DKI dari Tjoropranolo kepada pengganti R. Soeprapto disaksikan Menteri dalam Negeri Amir Machmud di balai Sidang DKI|author=Yayasan Idayu|date=29 September 1982|website=[[Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia]]|access-date=15 Desember 2019|archive-date=2020-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226021602/https://www.perpusnas.go.id/collections-detail.php?lang=id&id=Bahan%20Campuran&link=1114466|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>Tempo Interaktif: [http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/jakarta/2009/09/26/brk,20090926-199435,id.html Mantan Gubernur Jakarta R Soeprapto Meninggal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130161546/http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/jakarta/2009/09/26/brk,20090926-199435,id.html |date=2009-11-30 }}, diakses 8 Juni 2017</ref> |- ! 10 ! style="background:#7b8738"| | [[Wiyogo Atmodarminto]]<br>(1922–2012)<br/><small>[[Berkas:Signature of Wiyogo Atmodarminto.svg|90px]]</small> | [[Berkas:Wiyogo Atmodarminto as Governor of Jakarta.jpg|90px]] | 6 Oktober 1987 | 6 Oktober 1992 | [[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | colspan="2"|'''Pemerintahan''': Eddie Marzuki, Nalapraya & Basofi Sudirman '''Kesejahteraan rakyat''': Anwar Ilmar & Susilo Museno '''Ekonomi dan Pembangunan''': Bunyamin Ramto & Herbowo | 12<br/><small>(1987)</small> | <ref>{{cite web|url=https://opac.perpusnas.go.id/DetailOpac.aspx?id=493447|title=Mendagri Soepardjo Roestam hari selasa (6 Oktober 1987) di ruang sidang DPRD DKI Jaya melantik Wiyogo Atmodarminto menjadi Gubernur DKI Jaya periode 1987-1992 menggantikan R. Soeprapto, tampak Wiyogo ketika menandatangani naskah pelantikan disaksikan Mendagri|author=Yayasan Idayu|date=6 Oktober 1987|website=Perpusnas|access-date=15 Desember 2019|archive-date=2020-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128023702/https://opac.perpusnas.go.id/DetailOpac.aspx?id=493447|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>Tokoh Indonesia: [http://www.tokohindonesia.com/tokoh/article/283-direktori/1863-wiyogo-atmodarminto Profil: Wiyogo Atmodarminto – Gubernur DKI Jakarta 1987–1982] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011190151/http://www.tokohindonesia.com/tokoh/article/283-direktori/1863-wiyogo-atmodarminto |date=2015-10-11 }}, Diakses tanggal 31 Januari 2016</ref> |- ! 11 ! style="background:#7b8738"| | [[Soerjadi Soedirdja]]<br>(1939–2021) | [[Berkas:Soerjadi Soedirdja as Governor of Jakarta.jpg|90px]] | 6 Oktober 1992 | 6 Oktober 1997 | [[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | colspan="2"|'''Pemerintahan''': Basofi Sudirman & M. Idroes '''Kesejahteraan rakyat''': Susilo Museno '''Ekonomi dan Pembangunan:''' Herbowo & Muhammad Rais | 13<br/><small>(1992)</small> | <ref>{{Cite news|last=Februana|first=Ngarto|date=1 April 2004|title=Profil Gubernur DKI Jakarta|url=http://tempo.co.id/hg/narasi/2004/04/01/nrs,20040401-01,id.html|work=[[Tempo.co]]|location=Jakarta|access-date=31 Januari 2016|language=id|archive-date=2015-12-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221145437/http://tempo.co.id/hg/narasi/2004/04/01/nrs,20040401-01,id.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> |- ! rowspan="2"| 12 ! style="background:#7b8738" rowspan="2"| | rowspan="2"| [[Sutiyoso]]<br>({{Abbr|l.|Lahir}} 1944)<br/> | rowspan="2"| [[Berkas:Sutiyoso as Governor of Jakarta.jpg|90px]] | 6 Oktober 1997 | 7 Oktober 2002 | rowspan="2"| [[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]] | colspan="2"|'''Pemerintahan''': Abdul Kahfi '''Kesejahteraan rakyat''': Djailani '''Ekonomi''': Harun Al Rasyid, Budiharjo Sukmadi & Fauzi Alvie Yasin '''Pembangunan''': Muhammad Rais & Budiharjo Sukmadi | 14<br/><small>(1997)</small> | <ref>[https://metro.tempo.co/read/13632/tidak-ada-rivalitas-sutiyoso-dengan-para-wakilnya Tidak Ada Rivalitas Sutiyoso dengan Para Wakilnya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200908132829/https://metro.tempo.co/read/13632/tidak-ada-rivalitas-sutiyoso-dengan-para-wakilnya |date=2020-09-08 }} Tempo.co, Rabu (27/8/2003) Diakses tanggal 13 Mei 2020</ref><ref>[https://m.merdeka.com/jakarta/alasan-sutiyoso-pilih-didampingi-4-wagub-saat-pimpin-dki.html Alasan Sutiyoso Pilih Didampingi 4 Wagub Saat Pimpin DKI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812162421/https://m.merdeka.com/jakarta/alasan-sutiyoso-pilih-didampingi-4-wagub-saat-pimpin-dki.html |date=2020-08-12 }} Merdeka, Selasa (19/9/2019) Diakses tanggal 13 Mei 2020</ref><ref>[https://amp.kompas.com/megapolitan/read/2020/02/04/10504781/ini-cerita-sutiyoso-pindah-haluan-dari-tentara-menjadi-gubernur Ini Cerita Sutiyoso Pindah Haluan Dari Tentara Menjadi Gubernur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422165705/https://amp.kompas.com/megapolitan/read/2020/02/04/10504781/ini-cerita-sutiyoso-pindah-haluan-dari-tentara-menjadi-gubernur |date=2020-04-22 }} Kompas, Selasa (4/2/2020) Diakses tanggal 13 Mei 2020</ref> |- | 7 Oktober 2002 | 7 Oktober 2007 | bgcolor="#ffff00"| | [[Fauzi Bowo]] | 15<br/><small>([[Pemilihan Gubernur DKI Jakarta 2002|2002]])</small> | <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2002/09/11/05728962/sutiyoso-kembali-terpilih-sebagai-gubernur-dki-jakarta |title=Sutiyoso Kembali Terpilih Sebagai Gubernur DKI Jakarta |date=11 September 2002 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |work=[[Tempo.co]] |first=FX Dimas |last=Adityo |editor-first= |editor-last= |language=id |archive-date=2017-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319112628/https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2002/09/11/05728962/sutiyoso-kembali-terpilih-sebagai-gubernur-dki-jakarta |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.liputan6.com/read/41264/sutiyoso-kembali-menjabat-gubernur-dki |title=Sutiyoso Kembali Menjabat Gubernur DKI |date=12 September 2002 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |work=[[Liputan6.com]] |first= |last=PIN |editor-first= |editor-last= |language=id |archive-date=2017-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319195752/http://news.liputan6.com/read/41264/sutiyoso-kembali-menjabat-gubernur-dki |dead-url=no }}</ref><br><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.liputan6.com/read/42777/pelantikan-sutiyoso-berjalan-lancar |title=Pelantikan Sutiyoso Berjalan Lancar |date=8 Oktober 2002 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |work=[[Liputan6.com]] |first= |last=ANS |editor-first= |editor-last= |language=id |archive-date=2017-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319112611/http://news.liputan6.com/read/42777/pelantikan-sutiyoso-berjalan-lancar |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2002/10/07/05729219/sutiyoso-wewenang-dan-tugas-deputi-gubernur-harus-jelas |title=Sutiyoso: Wewenang dan Tugas Deputi Gubernur Harus Jelas |date=7 Oktober 2002 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |work=[[Tempo.co]] |first=Dimas |last=Adityo |editor-first= |editor-last= |language=id |archive-date=2017-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319112623/https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2002/10/07/05729219/sutiyoso-wewenang-dan-tugas-deputi-gubernur-harus-jelas |dead-url=no }}</ref> |- ! 13 ! style="background:#00004c"| | [[Fauzi Bowo]]<br>({{Abbr|l.|Lahir}} 1948)<br/> | [[Berkas:Fauzi Bowo.jpg|90px]] | 7 Oktober 2007 | 7 Oktober 2012 | [[Partai Demokrat (Indonesia)|Partai Demokrat]] | bgcolor="#bd2016"| | [[Prijanto]] | 16<br/><small>([[Pemilihan umum Gubernur DKI Jakarta 2007|2007]])</small> | <ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.antaranews.com/berita/74054/kpu-tetapkan-fauzi-bowo-prianto-pemenang-pilkada-dki-2007 |title=KPU Tetapkan Fauzi Bowo-Prianto Pemenang Pilkada DKI 2007 |date=16 Agustus 2007 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |work=[[Lembaga Kantor Berita Nasional Antara|ANTARA News]] |first= |last= |editor-first=Heru |editor-last=Purwanto |archive-date=2017-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319112736/http://www.antaranews.com/berita/74054/kpu-tetapkan-fauzi-bowo-prianto-pemenang-pilkada-dki-2007 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.detik.com/berita/838937/fauzi-bowo-resmi-jadi-gubernur-dki-jakarta |title=Fauzi Bowo Resmi Jadi Gubernur DKI Jakarta |date=7 Oktober 2007 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |work=[[Detik.com|detikcom]] |last=BAL |last2=FAY |editor-first= |editor-last= |archive-date=2020-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217133834/http://news.detik.com/berita/838937/fauzi-bowo-resmi-jadi-gubernur-dki-jakarta |dead-url=no }}</ref> |- ! 14 ! style="background:#bd2016"| | [[Joko Widodo]]<br>({{Abbr|l.|Lahir}} 1961)<br/><small>[[Berkas:Signature of Joko Widodo.svg|90px]]</small> | [[Berkas:Gubernur DKI Joko Widodo.jpg|90px]] | 15 Oktober 2012 | 16 Oktober 2014 | [[Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan]] | bgcolor="#d3d3d3"| | [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]] | rowspan="3" | 17<br/><small>([[Pemilihan umum Gubernur DKI Jakarta 2012|2012]])</small> | {{refn|group=ket.|Pada 1 Juni 2014, Joko Widodo mengajukan cuti setelah berpartisipasi dalam [[pemilihan umum Presiden Indonesia 2014]], kemudian mengajukan pengunduran diri seusai terpilih sebagai [[Presiden Indonesia]]. Dengan demikian, ia menjadi gubernur pertama di Indonesia yang menjadi presiden.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.beritasatu.com/megapolitan/217773-hari-ini-jokowi-sudah-bukan-gubernur-dki-jakarta-lagi.html|title=Hari ini Jokowi Sudah bukan Gubernur DKI Jakarta Lagi|newspaper=Suara Pembaruan|publisher=Beritasatu.com|date=16 Oktober 2014|access-date=16 Oktober 2014|first=Deti Mega|last=Purnamasari|editor-last=PAB|archive-date=2020-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116045321/https://www.beritasatu.com/megapolitan/217773-hari-ini-jokowi-sudah-bukan-gubernur-dki-jakarta-lagi.html|dead-url=no}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/2012/12/26/167707764/jakartas-new-governor-seen-as-a-rising-star |title=Jakarta's New Governor Seen As A Rising Star |date=24 Desember 2012 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |newspaper=National Public Radio |first=Anthony |last=Kuhn |editor-first= |editor-last= |archive-date=2017-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319111919/http://www.npr.org/2012/12/26/167707764/jakartas-new-governor-seen-as-a-rising-star |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.voaindonesia.com/a/usai-pelantikan-jokowi-basuki-dijadwalkan-langsung-kunjungi-warga-dki/1526285.html |title=Seusai Pelantikan, Jokowi-Basuki Dijadwalkan Langsung Temui Warga DKI |date=14 Oktober 2012 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |newspaper=VOA Indonesia |first=Yudha |last=Satriawan |editor-first= |editor-last= |archive-date=2017-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319112235/http://www.voaindonesia.com/a/usai-pelantikan-jokowi-basuki-dijadwalkan-langsung-kunjungi-warga-dki/1526285.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> |- ! 15 ! style="background:#d3d3d3"| | [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]]<br>({{Abbr|l.|Lahir}} 1966)<br/><small>[[Berkas:Signature of Basuki Tjahaja Purnama.svg|70px]]</small> | [[Berkas:Gubernur DKI Basuki TP 鐘萬學.jpg|90px]] | 19 November 2014 | 9 Mei 2017 | Non Partai | bgcolor="#BD2016"| | [[Djarot Saiful Hidayat]] | {{refn|group=ket.|Basuki Tjahaja Purnama diberhentikan dari jabatannya sebagai Gubernur Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta setelah ditetapkan sebagai terdakwa terkait kasus [[Kontroversi yang melibatkan Basuki Tjahaja Purnama|penistaan agama]].<ref name="Media">{{Cite news|url=http://tv.kompas.com/read/2017/05/09/774c14943026498db9c119/Ahok.Divonis.2.Tahun.Penjara|title=Ahok Divonis 2 Tahun Penjara|work=[[Kompas.com]]|language=en|access-date=2017-05-09|archive-date=2017-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513000802/http://tv.kompas.com/read/2017/05/09/774c14943026498db9c119/Ahok.Divonis.2.Tahun.Penjara|dead-url=yes}}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/indonesia/berita_indonesia/2014/11/141119_basuki_gubernur|title=Ahok Sah Menjadi Gubernur DKI Jakarta|newspaper=BBC Indonesia|date=19 November 2014|access-date=12 Mei 2017|archive-date=2020-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200104141458/https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/berita_indonesia/2014/11/141119_basuki_gubernur|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2017/02/11/16394731/ahok.resmi.aktif.kembali.jadi.gubernur.dki |title=Ahok Resmi Aktif Kembali Jadi Gubernur DKI |date=11 Februari 2017 |access-date=13 Februari 2017 |work=[[Kompas.com]] |first=Alsadad |last=Rudi |editor-first=Caroline |editor-last=Damanik |10= |editor-last2=Damanik |archive-date=2017-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213140127/http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2017/02/11/16394731/ahok.resmi.aktif.kembali.jadi.gubernur.dki |dead-url=no }}</ref> |- ! 16 ! style="background:#bd2016"| | [[Djarot Saiful Hidayat]]<br>({{Abbr|l.|Lahir}} 1962) | [[Berkas:Governour DKI Jakarta Djarot Saiful Hidayat.jpg|nirbing|90px]] | 15 Juni 2017 | 15 Oktober 2017 | [[Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan]] | colspan="2" |Indak ado | <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-3531231/sah-djarot-gantikan-ahok-sebagai-gubernur-dki-jakarta |title=Sah Djarot Gantikan Ahok Sebagai Gubernur DKI Jakarta |access-date=2017-06-15 |archive-date=2017-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618171956/http://news.detik.com/berita/d-3531231/sah-djarot-gantikan-ahok-sebagai-gubernur-dki-jakarta |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>[https://amp.kompas.com/nasional/read/2019/08/10/13483521/senasib-dengan-anies-djarot-ceritakan-sulitnya-jabat-gubernur-tanpa-wagub Senasib dengan Anies, Djarot Ceritakan Sulitnya Jabat Gubernur Tanpa Wagub] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623135204/https://amp.kompas.com/nasional/read/2019/08/10/13483521/senasib-dengan-anies-djarot-ceritakan-sulitnya-jabat-gubernur-tanpa-wagub |date=2020-06-23 }} Kompas (10/08/2019). Diakses tanggal 22 Juni 2020</ref> |- ! rowspan="2" |17 ! style="background:#d3d3d3" rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" |[[Anies Baswedan]]<br>({{Abbr|l.|Lahir}} 1969)<br/><small>[[Berkas:Signature of Anies Baswedan.svg|90px]]</small> | rowspan="2" |[[Berkas:Gubernur Anies.jpg|nirbing|90px]] | rowspan="2" |16 Oktober 2017 | rowspan="2" |16 Oktober 2022 | rowspan="2" |Non Partai | rowspan="2" bgcolor="#B79164" | | [[Sandiaga Uno]]<br /><small>{{small|(2017–2018)}}</small> | rowspan="2" |18<br /><small>([[Pemilihan umum Gubernur DKI Jakarta 2017|2017]])</small> | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wartakota.tribunnews.com/2017/05/05/kpu-dki-resmi-tetapkan-anies-sandi-gubernur-dan-wakil-gubernur-terpilih|title=KPU DKI Resmi Tetapkan Anies-Sandi Gubernur dan Wakil Gubernur Terpilih|work=[[Tribunnews|Tribunnews.com]]|date=16 Oktober 2014|access-date=16 Oktober 2014|editor-last=Andy Pribadi|language=id|last=Pribadi|first=Andy|archive-date=2017-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011104023/http://wartakota.tribunnews.com/2017/05/05/kpu-dki-resmi-tetapkan-anies-sandi-gubernur-dan-wakil-gubernur-terpilih|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://kabar24.bisnis.com/read/20180918/15/839406/dirjen-otonomi-daerah-disetujui-presiden-jokowi-sandiaga-uno-resmi-tak-jabat-wagub-dki-|title=Dirjen Otonomi Daerah: Disetujui Presiden Jokowi, Sandiaga Uno Resmi Tak Jabat Wagub DKI|work=[[Bisnis Indonesia|Bisnis.com]]|date=18 September 2018|access-date=6 Januari 2022|editor-first=Feni Freycinetia|editor-last=Fitriani|last=Setiaji|first=Stefanus Arief|archive-date=2019-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926031950/https://kabar24.bisnis.com/read/20180918/15/839406/dirjen-otonomi-daerah-disetujui-presiden-jokowi-sandiaga-uno-resmi-tak-jabat-wagub-dki-|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4977846/dihadiri-anies-prabowo-begini-momen-pelantikan-riza-patria-pakai-protap-corona|title=Dihadiri Anies-Prabowo, Begini Momen Pelantikan Riza Patria Pakai Protap Corona|work=[[Detik.com|detikcom]]|date=15 April 2020|access-date=2020-05-30|archive-date=2020-05-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520090649/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4977846/dihadiri-anies-prabowo-begini-momen-pelantikan-riza-patria-pakai-protap-corona|dead-url=no}}</ref> |- | [[Ahmad Riza Patria]]<br/><small>{{small|(2020–2022)}}</small> |} ;Legenda <div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:3; column-count:3; text-align:left; padding:0.2em;"> {{legend|#d3d3d3|[[Independen (politikus)|Non Partai / Penugasan Pemerintah]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#660000|[[Partai Nasional Indonesia]] (PNI)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#003200|[[Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia]] (Masyumi)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#7b8738|[[Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia|Militer]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#ffff00|[[Partai Golongan Karya]] (Golkar)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#00004c|[[Partai Demokrat]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#bd2016|[[Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan]] (PDI-P)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend|#b79164|[[Partai Gerakan Indonesia Raya]] (Gerindra)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} </div></onlyinclude> === Pangganti samantaro Gubernur === Dalam tampuak pamarintahan, saurang kapalo daerah nan mangajukan diri untuak cuti atau baranti samataro dari jabatannyo kapado pamarintah pusat, makonyo [[Menteri Dalam Negeri Indonesia|Menteri Dalam Negeri]] manyiapkan panggantinyo nan marupoan birokrat di pamarintah daerah atau bahkan [[Wakil Gubernur DKI Jakarta|wakia gubernur]], tamasuak katiko posisi gubernur barado dalam maso transisi. Barikuik marupoan daftar pangganti samantaro untuak jabatan Gubernur Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta: {| class="wikitable" style="background:#ffffef; float:center; text-align:center" |- ! colspan="2"| Potret ! Pajabat ! colspan="2"| Maso jabatan ! Gubernur definitif ! Periode ! Katarangan |- | bgcolor=#d3d3d3| | [[Berkas:Soewahjo, Republik Indonesia, Kotapradja Djakarta-Raja, p190 (cropped).jpg|70px]] | Soewahjo Soemodilogo<br/><small>{{small|(Pamangku Jabatan)}}</small> | 2 Mei 1951 | 29 Juni 1951 | rowspan="3" | ''Transisi'' | 2 | |- |bgcolor=#7b8738| |[[Berkas:Basuki Rahmat, Departemen Dalam Negeri dari Masa ke Masa, p121.jpg|98x98px]] |[[Basuki Rahmat]]<br /><small>{{small|(penjabat)}}</small> |18 Maret 1966 |28 April 1966 |– |<ref>{{Cite book|last=Notosusanto|first=Nugroho|last2=Poesponegoro|first2=Marwati Djoened|date=1984|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=P05IAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA414|title=Sejarah Nasional Indonesia|publisher=Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Sejarah Nasional|volume=VI|pages=414-415|language=id|url-status=live|access-date=2023-01-20|archive-date=2023-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120064335/https://books.google.co.id/books?id=P05IAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA414|dead-url=no}}</ref> |- | bgcolor=#7b8738| | [[Berkas:Tjokropranolo portrait.jpg|70px]] | [[Tjokropranolo]]<br/><small>{{small|(penjabat)}}</small> | 11 Juli 1977 | 29 September 1977 | – | <ref>{{cite web|url=https://opac.perpusnas.go.id/DetailOpac.aspx?id=447374|title=Serah terima Jabatan [gambar] : upacara serah terima jabatan Gubernur DKI Jaya Letjend Marinir H. Ali Sadikin kepada Letjend Nolly Tjokropranolo tanggal 11 Juli 1977 di gedung DPRD DKI Jakarta|author=Yayasan Idayu|date=11 Juli 1977|website=[[Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia]]|access-date=15 Desember 2019|archive-date=2020-02-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212110731/https://opac.perpusnas.go.id/DetailOpac.aspx?id=447374|dead-url=no}}</ref> |- | bgcolor=#d3d3d3| | [[Berkas:Missing photo.svg|70px]] | ''Tidak diketahui''<br/><small>{{small|(pelaksana tugas)}}</small> | | 4 Oktober 2002 | [[Sutiyoso]] | 13<br><small>(1997) | <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://metro.tempo.co/read/28914/meski-cuti-sutiyoso-pimpin-rapat-muspida|title=Meski Cuti, Sutiyoso Pimpin Rapat Muspida|author=|date=10 November 2003|work=[[Tempo.co]]|access-date=30 Mei 2020|language=id|archive-date=2020-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009131554/https://metro.tempo.co/read/28914/meski-cuti-sutiyoso-pimpin-rapat-muspida|dead-url=no}}</ref> |- | bgcolor=#bd2016 rowspan="5"| | rowspan="5"|[[Berkas:Prijanto.jpg|70px]] | rowspan="5"| [[Prijanto]]<br/><small>{{small|(pelaksana tugas)}}</small> | colspan="2"| 24 Juni 2012 | rowspan="5"| [[Fauzi Bowo]] | rowspan="5"| 15<br><small>(2007)</small> | rowspan="4"| <ref>[https://republika.co.id/berita/m5t7wl/foke-cuti-empat-hari-alex-cuti-dua-pekan Foke Cuti Empat Hari, Alex Cuti Dua Pekan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416140216/https://republika.co.id/berita/m5t7wl/foke-cuti-empat-hari-alex-cuti-dua-pekan |date=2020-04-16 }} Republika.co.id (18/6/2012). Diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2020</ref> |- | colspan="2"| 30 Juni 2012 |- | colspan="2"| 3 Juli 2012 |- | colspan="2"| 6 Juli 2012 |- | 14 September 2012 | 16 September 2012 | <ref>[https://m.detik.com/news/berita/d-2011417/foke-cuti-kampanye-14-16-september-prijanto-jadi-gubernur Foke Cuti Kampanye 14-16 September, Prijanto Jadi Gubernur]{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Juni 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Detik.com (7/9/2012). Diakses tanggal 23 Juni 2020</ref> |- | bgcolor=#d3d3d3| | [[Berkas:Fadjar Panjaitan as the Administrative Mayor of West Jakarta.jpg|70px]] | [[Fadjar Panjaitan]]<br/><small>{{small|(pelaksana tugas)}}</small> | 8 Oktober 2012 | 15 Oktober 2012 | ''Transisi'' | – | {{refn|group=ket.|Fadjar Panjaitan menjabat sebagai Pelaksana Tugas Gubernur selama tujuh hari sebelum gubernur dan wakil gubernur terpilih dilantik. Ia menggantikan Fauzi Bowo yang telah menyelesaikan masa jabatannya.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.merdeka.com/jakarta/pelantikan-jokowi-diundur-mendagri-tunjuk-sekda-dki|title=Pelantikan Jokowi diundur, Menteri Dalam Negeri Tunjuk Sekretaris Daerah DKI Jakarta|work=[[Merdeka.com]]|date=8 Oktober 2014|access-date=8 Oktober 2014|language=id}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2012/10/07/15200435/Pelantikan.Jokowi-Basuki.15.Oktober |title=Pelantikan Jokowi-Basuki 15 Oktober |date=7 Oktober 2012 |access-date=18 Maret 2017 |work=[[Kompas.com]] |first=Nina |last=Susilo |editor-first=Robert Adhi |editor-last=Ksp |archive-date=2017-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903170827/http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2012/10/07/15200435/Pelantikan.Jokowi-Basuki.15.Oktober |dead-url=no }}</ref>}} |- | bgcolor=#b79164 rowspan="2"| | rowspan="3"| [[Berkas:Wakil Gubernur DKI Jakarta Basuki TP.jpg|70px]] | rowspan="3"| [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]]<br/><small>{{small|(pelaksana tugas)}}</small> | 31 Mei 2014 | 1 Juni 2014 | rowspan="2"| [[Joko Widodo]] | rowspan="6"| 12<br><small>(2012)</small> | <ref>[http://m.beritajakarta.id/read/2284/basuki-jokowi-masih-sah-gubernur-dki Basuki:Jokowi Masih Sah Gubernur DKI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625192454/http://m.beritajakarta.id/read/2284/basuki-jokowi-masih-sah-gubernur-dki |date=2020-06-25 }} BeritaJakarta.id (19/5/2014). Diakses tanggal 23 Juni 2020</ref> |- | 1 Juni 2014 | 22 Juli 2014 | {{refn|group=ket.|Basuki Tjahaja Purnama menjabat sebagai Pelaksana Tugas Gubernur selama gubernur definitif, Joko Widodo berpartisipasi dalam [[pemilihan umum Presiden Indonesia 2014]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.detik.com/read/2014/06/02/062256/2596684/10/?nd772204topnews|title=Mulai Hari Ini, Ahok Resmi Jalankan Tugas Plt Gubernur DKI|date=1 Juni 2014|publisher=Detik News|work=[[Detik.com|detikcom]]|access-date=2014-11-20|archive-date=2014-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129033725/http://news.detik.com/read/2014/06/02/062256/2596684/10/?nd772204topnews|dead-url=no}}</ref>}} |- | bgcolor=#d3d3d3| | 16 Oktober 2014 | 19 November 2014 | ''Transisi'' | <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.okezone.com/read/2014/10/17/338/1053437/sby-keluarkan-keppres-ahok-resmi-plt-gubernur-dki|title=SBY Keluarkan Keppres, Ahok Resmi Plt Gubernur DKI|work=[[Okezone.com]]|date=16 Oktober 2014|access-date=16 Oktober 2014|first=Angkasa|last=Yudhistira|editor-last=PUT|archive-date=2014-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019151349/http://news.okezone.com/read/2014/10/17/338/1053437/sby-keluarkan-keppres-ahok-resmi-plt-gubernur-dki|dead-url=no}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" bgcolor=#d3d3d3| | rowspan="2"| [[Berkas:Pj. Gubernur Sulsel Sumarsono.jpg|70px]] | rowspan="2"| [[Soni Sumarsono]]<br><small>{{small|(pelaksana tugas)}}</small> | 28 Oktober 2016 | 11 Februari 2017 | rowspan="3"|[[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]] | rowspan="2"| {{refn|group=ket.|Soni Sumarsono menjabat sebagai Pelaksana Tugas Gubernur selama gubernur definitif, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama berpartisipasi dalam [[pemilihan umum Gubernur DKI Jakarta 2017]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://otda.kemendagri.go.id/index.php/berita-210/2541-soni-sumarsono-resmi-jabat-plt-gubernur-dki|title=Soni Sumarsono Resmi Jabat PLT Gubernur DKI Jakarta|publisher=Kemendagri|date=26 Oktober 2016|access-date=2023-03-24|archive-date=2016-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103164320/http://www.otda.kemendagri.go.id/index.php/berita-210/2541-soni-sumarsono-resmi-jabat-plt-gubernur-dki|dead-url=yes}}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>}} |- | 7 Maret 2017 | 15 April 2017 |- | bgcolor=#bd2016| | [[Berkas:Wagub DKI Jakarta Djarot Saiful Hidayat.jpg|70px]] | [[Djarot Saiful Hidayat]]<br/><small>{{small|(pelaksana tugas)}}</small> | 9 Mei 2017 | 15 Juni 2017 | |- | bgcolor=#d3d3d3| | [[Berkas:Saefullah as the Administrative Mayor of Central Jakarta.jpg|70px]] | [[Saefullah]]<br/><small>{{small|(pelaksana harian)}}</small> | 15 Oktober 2017 | 16 Oktober 2017 | rowspan="2"| ''Transisi'' | – | {{refn|group=ket.|Saefullah menjabat sebagai Pelaksana Harian Gubernur selama 40 jam sebelum gubernur dan wakil gubernur terpilih dilantik. Ia menggantikan Djarot Saiful Hidayat yang telah menyelesaikan masa jabatannya.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2017/10/15/15381131/saefullah-pesan-pak-djarot-saya-titip-jakarta |title=Saefullah: Pesan Pak Djarot, "Saya Titip Jakarta" |date=15 Oktober 2017 |access-date=28 Oktober 2017 |work=[[Kompas.com]] |first=Jessi |last=Carina |editor-first=Ana Shofiana |editor-last=Syatiri |archive-date=2017-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028101838/http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2017/10/15/15381131/saefullah-pesan-pak-djarot-saya-titip-jakarta |dead-url=no }}</ref>}} |- | bgcolor=#d3d3d3| | [[Berkas:Heru Budi Hartono.jpg|70px]] | [[Heru Budi Hartono]]<br/><small>{{small|(penjabat)}}</small> | 17 Oktober 2022 | [[Daftar gubernur dan wakil gubernur petahana di Indonesia|Petahana]] | – | {{refn|group=ket.|Heru Budi Hartono menjabat sebagai Penjabat Gubernur hingga gubernur dan wakil gubernur terpilih dilantik berdasarkan hasil [[pemilihan umum Gubernur DKI Jakarta 2024]]. Ia menggantikan Anies Baswedan yang telah menyelesaikan masa jabatannya.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2022/10/07/17295981/heru-budi-hartono-ditetapkan-menjadi-pj-gubernur-dki-jakarta|title=Heru Budi Hartono Ditetapkan Menjadi Pj Gubernur DKI Jakarta|date=7 Oktober 2022|access-date=7 Oktober 2022|work=[[Kompas.com]]|first=|last=|editor-first=Larissa|editor-last=Huda|archive-date=2022-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007132008/https://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2022/10/07/17295981/heru-budi-hartono-ditetapkan-menjadi-pj-gubernur-dki-jakarta|dead-url=no}}</ref>}} |} ==Demografi== {| class="toccolours" style="float:right; width:420px; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1ex;" |- | valign="top" | {| |- ! style="background:#efefef;" | Taun ! style="background:#efefef;" | Populasi |- | 1870 || style="text-align:right;"| 65,000 |- | 1875 || style="text-align:right;"| 99,100 |- | 1880 || style="text-align:right;"| 102,900 |- | 1883 || style="text-align:right;"| 97,000 |- | 1886 || style="text-align:right;"| 100,500 |- | 1890 || style="text-align:right;"| 105,100 |- | 1895 || style="text-align:right;"| 114,600 |- | 1901 || style="text-align:right;"| 115,900 |- | 1905 || style="text-align:right;"| 138,600 |- | 1918 || style="text-align:right;"| 234,700 |} | valign="top" | {| |- ! style="background:#efefef;" | Taun ! style="background:#efefef;" | Populasi |- | 1920 || style="text-align:right;"| 253,800 |- | 1925 || style="text-align:right;"| 290,400 |- | 1928 || style="text-align:right;"| 311,000 |- | 1930 || style="text-align:right;"| 435,184 |- | 1940 || style="text-align:right;"| 533,000 |- | 1945 || style="text-align:right;"| 600,000 |- | 1950 || style="text-align:right;"| 1,733,600 |- | 1959 || style="text-align:right;"| 2,814,000 |- | 1961 || style="text-align:right;"| 2,906,533 |- | 1971 || style="text-align:right;"| 4,546,492 |} | valign="top" | {| |- ! style="background:#efefef;" | Taun/tanggal ! style="background:#efefef;" | Populasi |- | 31 Oktober 1980 || style="text-align:right;"| 6,503,449 |- | 31 Oktober 1990 || style="text-align:right;"| 8,259,639 |- | 30 Juni 2000 || style="text-align:right;"| 8,384,853 |- | 1 Januari 2005 || style="text-align:right;"| 8,540,306 |- | 1 Januari 2006 || style="text-align:right;"| 7,512,323 |- | Juni 2007 || style="text-align:right;"| 7,552,444 |- | 2010 || style="text-align:right;"| 9,588,198 |} |} {{Bar box |title=Kabaragaman etnik di Jakarta manuruik sensus 2000<ref>Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 2003. ISBN 9812302123</ref> |titlebar= |left1=etnik |right1=paratuih |float=right |bars= {{Bar percent|[[Suku Jawa|Jawa]]|#89CFF0|35.16}} {{Bar percent|[[Suku Betawi|Betawi]]|#FFA07A|27.65}} {{Bar percent|[[Suku Sunda|Sunda]]|#FFCBA4|15.27}} {{Bar percent|[[Cino Indonesia|Cino]]|DarkGray|5.53}} {{Bar percent|[[Suku Batak|Batak]]|Black|3.61}} {{Bar percent|[[Urang Minangkabau|Minangkabau]]|Magenta|3.18}} {{Bar percent|[[Urang Malayu|Malayu]]|DarkViolet|1.62}} }} {{bar box |title=Agamo di Jakarta manuruik sensus 2010<ref name="bps" /> |titlebar= |left1=agamo |right1=paratuih |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|LimeGreen|85.36}} {{bar percent|[[Protestan]]|OrangeRed|7.54}} {{bar percent|[[Katolik]]|DarkViolet|3.15}} {{bar percent|[[Buddha]]|Magenta|3.13}} {{bar percent|[[Hindu]]|DodgerBlue|0.21}} {{bar percent|[[Konfusianisme]]|Gray|0.06}} }} Sensus 2010 maituang panduduak Jakarta 9.58&nbsp;juta urang, jauah di ateh pakiroan pamarintah .<ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/08/28/after-census-city-plans-95-million.html "After census city plans for 9.5 million"]. ''[[The Jakarta Post]]''</ref> Laweh wilayah Jakarta adolah 662.33&nbsp;km², mangasiakan kapadekan populasi 14,464 urang/km² dan manjadikan provinsi ko sabagai wilayah urban tapadek kasambilan di dunia.<ref>[http://sti-india-uttoolkit.adb.org/mod2/se3/005_5.html BRT – CASE STUDY 5 – Annex 5 Case Studies and Lessons – Module 2: Bus Rapid Transit (BRT): Toolkit for Feasibility Studies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828022705/http://sti-india-uttoolkit.adb.org/mod2/se3/005_5.html |date=2011-08-28 }}. Sti-india-uttoolkit.adb.org. Retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref> Galombang hijrah urang-urang dari palosok nagara manjadikan program [[Keluarga Berencana]] indak efekif.<ref name="Statistics" /> Populasi wilayah [[Jabodetabek]] adolah 28,019,545 urang.<ref name="Census 2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.bps.go.id/aboutus.php?hasilSP2010=1 |title=Publikasi Provinsi dan Kabupaten Hasil Sementara SP2010 |publisher=Bps.go.id |accessdate=14 March 2011}}</ref> == Monumen jo bangunan tanamo == Sabagian gadang dari monumen jo bangunan-bangunan tanamo di Jakarta dibangun pado maso pamarentahan [[Soekarno]] taun 1960an dan disalasaian dek pamarintahan [[Soeharto]], samantaro nan lain ado nan marupoan warisan dari pamarentahan Hindia Balando. Di dakek [[Monumen Nasional]] tadapek sabuah patuang [[Arjuna Wijaya]] dari [[Mahabharata]] jo aia pancuanyo. Labiah jauah ka selatan ado [[Monumen Selamat Datang]] nan tagak di tangah aia pancua [[Bundaran Hotel Indonesia]]. Monumen lainnyo adolah [[Musajik Istiqlal]], [[Katedral Jakarta]] jo [[Garejo Imanuel]]. [[Museum Sejarah Jakarta|Batavia Stadhuis]] di Kota Tuo juo marupoan salah satu bangunan nan tanamo. Bangunan [[Wisma 46]] di Jakarta Pusek kini ko adolah bangunan nan paliang tinggi di Jakarta dan Indonesia. Babarapo patuang jo monumen di Jakarta batema nasionalistik, saroman [[Monumen Pembebasan Irian Barat]]. Babarapo [[Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia|pahlawan]] punyo patuang di Jakarta, sarupo patuang [[Diponegoro]] jo [[Kartini]] di Medan Merdeka, patuang [[Sudirman]] jo [[Mohammad Husni Thamrin|Thamrin]] di bundaran-bundaran kota, dan juo patuang [[Sukarno]] jo [[Mohammad Hatta|Hatta]] di Monumen Proklamasi, sarato di pintu masuak [[Palabuahan Kapa Tabang Internasional Soekarno-Hatta]] di Cengkareng. == Palancongan == Kabanyakan pangunjuang nan ka Jakarta adolah palancong domestik dari saluruah panjuru Indonesia. Jakarta baparan subagai tampek transit untuak palancong asiang dalam pajalanan manuju destinasi pariwisata unggulan di Indonesia saroman [[Bali]] jo [[Yogyakarta]]. Salain monumen-monumen, gaba-gaba tanah jo museum sakita Medan Merdeka jo Kota Tua, tampek palancongan di Jakarta tamasuaklah [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], [[Kabun Binatang Ragunan]], [[Sunda Kelapa]] jo [[Taman Impian Jaya Ancol]] di Teluk Jakarta, tamasuak Dunia Fantasi, Sea World, Atlantis Water Adventure, jo Gelanggang Samudra. Palancongan manyumbang pandapatan nan indak saketek utuak provinsi ko. Pado taun 2012, sektor palancongan manyumbang sakitar Rp. 2,6 triliun (US$268.5 juta) pado pandapatan asli daerah sajumlah Rp 17,83 triliun, paningkatan sakitar 17,9 paratuih babandiang taun 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jakarta builds for the future|url=http://www.ttgmice.com/article/jakarta-builds-for-the-future/|publisher=TTGmice|accessdate=15 April 2013|archive-date=5 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605150715/http://www.ttgmice.com/article/jakarta-builds-for-the-future/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Pabalanjoan == Jakarta adolah salah satu pusek pabalanjoan di Indonesia dan salah satu tampek nan paliang rancak di Asia Tenggara. Provinsi ko mampunyoi babarapo [[Daftar mall di Indonesia|mal pabalanjoan]] jo pasa tradisional. "Jakarta Great Sale" diadoan tiok taun pado bulan Juni jo Juli untuak marayoan ulang taun provinsi ko, diikuti dek 73 pusek pabalanjoan pado 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/07/15/jakarta-great-sale-declared-roaring-success.html |title=Jakarta Great Sale declared roaring success |author= |date=15 July 2012 |work= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |accessdate=21 July 2012 |archive-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717000341/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/07/15/jakarta-great-sale-declared-roaring-success.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Provinsi ko dipanuahi dek puluahan merek internasional jo arago nan murah. Mall saroman [[Plaza Indonesia]], [[Plaza Senayan]] jo [[Senayan City]] manyadioan merek-merek nan maha salangik aragonyo. [[Mall Taman Anggrek]], [[Pondok Indah Mall]], [[Mal Kelapa Gading]], jo [[Central Park Jakarta]] juo manyadioan merek-merek tanamo sarupo [[Topshop]] atau [[Zara]] <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expat.or.id/info/jakartamallsshoppingcenters.html |title=Jakarta Malls and Shopping Centers – luxury shopping in Jakarta, Indonesia |publisher=Expat.or.id |accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref> Pasa swalayan nan tanamo dari Inggirih, [[Debenhams]], mampunyoi tigo cabang di provinsi ko, iyolah di [[Senayan City]], [[Supermall Karawaci]] jo [[Lippo Mall Kemang Village]]. Toko internasional [[Sogo]] dari Japang mambukak sakitar anam cabang di mall-mall provinsi ko. Toko [[Seibu Department Stores|Seibu]] talatak di [[Grand Indonesia|Grand Indonesia Shopping Town]], dan toko mewah baarago salangik dari Parancih, [[Galeries Lafayette]] nio mambukak toko partamonyo di Asia Tenggara, di [[Pacific Place Jakarta]]. Merek-merek tanamo nan mewah samaha patuih aragonyo sarupo [[Louis Vuitton]], [[Bulgari]], [[Chanel]], [[Gucci]], [[Christian Louboutin]], [[Balenciaga]], jo [[Giorgio Armani]] dapek ditamui sacaro mudah di pusek-pusek pabalanjoan barang mewah Jakarta. Koridor Satrio-Casablanca, jalanan supanjang 3,5&nbsp;km adolah pusek pabalanjoan jalanan (''shopping belt'') baru di Jakarta.<ref>[http://properti.kompas.com/read/2009/03/20/06102484/Jalan.Satrio.Dijadikan.Shopping.Belt.Jakarta "Jalan Satrio Dijadikan "Shopping Belt" Jakarta"]. ''[[Kompas.com]]'', 20 Maret 2009</ref> Pasa tradisional di Jakarta tamasuaklah [[Blok M]], [[Tanah Abang]], [[Senen]], Pasar Baru, [[Glodok]], [[Mangga Dua]], Cempaka Mas, jo [[Jatinegara]]. Di Jakarta ado juo pasa nan cumo manjua barang-barang koleksi kusuih nan tatantu, sarupo barang-barang antik di Jalan Surabaya atau batu paramato di Pasar Rawabening. ==Catatan== <references group="note"/> ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist|2}} {{-}} {{Jakarta}} {{Provinsi di Indonesia}} {{ANT}} [[Kategori:Jakarta| ]] [[Kategori:Provinsi di Indonesia]] <references group="lower-alpha" /> eu54bs3pbnycxleneg1r81j1mpcnmou 0 305 3351250 3349157 2026-08-05T21:25:34Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351250 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ANT}} {{Kotak info nagara |conventional_long_name = Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia |common_name = Indonesia |era =[[Zaman modern]] |native_name = {{native name|id|Republik Indonesia}} |image_flag = Flag of Indonesia.svg |image_coat = National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg |image_map = Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg |national_motto = {{native name|kaw|[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]}}<br/><small>(''[[Bahaso Jawa|Bahaso Jawa Kuno]]: "Babeda-beda tapi tatap Satu"'')</small><br/>'''[[Ideologi|Ideologi nasional]]''': [[Pancasila]] |national_anthem = "[[Indonesia Raya]]"<br /><div style="padding-top:0.5em;"> </div> |capital = [[Jakarta]] |latd = 6.00 |latm = 10.5 |latNS = S |longd = 106 |longm = 49.7 |longEW = E |largest_city = | languages_type = Bahaso resmi <br /> {{nobold|jo bahaso nasional}} | languages = [[Bahaso Indonesia]] | languages2_type = Bahaso daerah | languages2 = Kurang labiah [[Bahaso di Indonesia|700 bahaso]]<ref name="ethnologue">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition|last1=Simons |first1=Gary F. |last2=Fennig |first2=Charles D.|publisher=[[SIL International]]|language=en|access-date=20 September 2018}}</ref> | ethnic_groups = Kurang labiah [[Suku banso di Indonesia|300 etnis]]<ref name="BPS">{{cite web|url=http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia|last1=Na'im |first1=Akhsan |last2=Syaputra |first2=Hendry|publisher=[[Badan Pusat Statistik]] (BPS)|date=2010|access-date=23 September 2015|dead-url=no|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194534/http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> | religion_year = [[2018]] | religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;|86,70% [[Islam di Indonesia|Islam]]|10,72% [[Kristen di Indonesia|Kristen]]|—7,60% [[Protestanisme di Indonesia|Protestan]]|—3,12% [[Gereja Katolik di Indonesia|Katolik Roma]]|1,74% [[Hindu di Indonesia|Hindu]]|0,77% [[Buddha di Indonesia|Buddha]]|0,03% [[Konfusianisme di Indonesia|Konfusianisme]]<br />0,04% [[Agama di Indonesia|Kapicayoan]]}} | religion_ref =<ref name="RELIGION">{{cite web|url=https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|title=Statistik Umat Menurut Agama di Indonesia|publisher=[[Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia]]|date=15 Mei 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903221250/https://data.kemenag.go.id/agamadashboard/statistik/umat|archive-date=3 September 2020|access-date=24 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="sp2010">{{cite web|url=https://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/site/tabel?tid=321&wid=0|title=Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut Indonesia|publisher=BPS|date=15 Mei 2010|access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref> | demonym = [[Banso Indonesia]] | government_type = [[Nagara kasatuan]] basistem [[republik]] [[Sistem presidensial|presidensial]] | leader_title1 = [[Presiden Indonesia|Presiden]] | leader_name1 = [[Prabowo Subianto]] | leader_title2 = [[Wakil Presiden Indonesia|Wakil Presiden]] | leader_name2 = [[Gibran Rakabuming Raka]] | leader_title4 = [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|Ketua DPR]] | leader_name4 = [[Puan Maharani]] | leader_title6 = [[Daftar Ketua Mahkamah Agung Republik Indonesia|Ketua Mahkamah Agung]] | leader_name6 = [[Muhammad Syarifuddin]] | leader_title3 = [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia 2014–2019|Ketua MPR]] | leader_name3 = [[Bambang Soesatyo]] | leader_title5 = [[Dewan Perwakilan Daerah Republik Indonesia|Ketua DPD]] | leader_name5 = [[La Nyalla Mattalitti]] | legislature = [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat]] (MPR) | upper_house = [[Dewan Perwakilan Daerah Republik Indonesia|Dewan Perwakilan Daerah]] (DPD) | lower_house = [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia|Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (DPR) | sovereignty_type = [[Sijarah Indonesia|Pambantukan]] | established_event1 = [[Sijarah Indonesia|Karajaan Hindu-Buddha]] | established_date1 = abaik ka-2 M | established_event2 = [[Panyebaran Islam di Indonesia|Kasultanan Islam]] | established_date2 = abaik ka-13 M | established_event3 = ''[[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie]]'' | established_date3 = 20 Maret 1602 | established_event4 = [[Hindia Balando]] | established_date4 = 1 Januari 1800 | established_event5 = [[Sijarah Nusantara (1942-1945)|Pandudukan Japang]] | established_date5 = 9 Maret 1942 | established_event6 = [[Proklamasi Kamardekaan Indonesia|Proklamasi kamardekaan]] | established_date6 = 17 Agustus 1945 | established_event7 = [[Konferensi Meja Bundar|Pangakuan]] dan [[Republik Indonesia Serikat|pambantukan federasi]] | established_date7 = 27 Desember 1949 | established_event8 = Federasi dibubarkan | established_date8 = 17 Agustus 1950 | established_event9 = Peristiwa [[Supersemar]] | established_date9 = 11 Maret 1966 | established_event11 = ''[[Sijarah Indonesia (1998-kini)|Reformasi]]'' | established_date11 = 21 Mei 1998 | established_event10 = [[Orde Baru]] | established_date10 = 12 Maret 1967 | area_km2 = 1904569<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=UN Statistics|publisher=[[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]|language=en|date=2005|access-date=31 Oktober 2007|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031023924/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|archive-date=31 Oktober 2007}}</ref> | area_rank = ka-14 | area_sq_mi = 735,358 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 4,85 |population_estimate = 230.472.833<ref>[http://www.bps.go.id/~ntt/vary/popi.htm Jam penduduk Indonesia]</ref> |population_estimate_year = 19&nbsp;Juni&nbsp;2009 |population_estimate_rank = 4 |population_census = 237.556.363<ref>{{cite web | year = 2010 | url = http://www.bps.go.id/download_file/SP2010_agregat_data_perProvinsi.pdf | title = Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010 Data Agregrat per Provinsi | format = PDF | work = | publisher = Badan Pusat Statistik | accessdate = 21 August 2010 | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = }}</ref> |population_census_year = [[Sensus Penduduk Indonesia 2010|2010]] |population_density_km2 = 124 |population_density_rank = 84 | GDP_PPP = {{decrease}} $3.328 trillion<ref name="IMF">{{Cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2020/October/select-date-range?c=536,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,|access-date=2020-10-15|website=IMF|language=en}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2020 | GDP_PPP_rank = 7th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}} $12,345<ref name="IMF" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 95th | GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $1.089 trillion<ref name="IMF" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2020 | GDP_nominal_rank = 15th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $4,038<ref name="IMF" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 108th | Gini = 37.8 | Gini_year = 2018 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase//steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Indonesia |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=ID|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=15 October 2020}}</ref> | Gini_rank = |currency = [[Rupiah]] (Rp) |currency_code = IDR |time_zone = [[WIB]] ([[UTC+7|+7]]), [[WITA]] ([[UTC+8|+8]]), [[WIT]] ([[UTC+9|+9]]) |utc_offset = |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = Kiri |cctld = [[.id]] |calling_code = +62 | HDI = 0.718 | HDI_year = 2019 | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="2020 components">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343-346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215155214/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|archive-date=15 December 2020|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 107th |footnotes = {{Tnavbar|Indo infobox|plain=1}} }} '''Republik Indonesia''' ([[Abjaik Jawi|Jawi]]: إندونيسيا) adolah sabuah nagara kasatuan di [[Asia Tenggara]] nan dilintasi dek garih [[khatulistiwa]], barado di antaro banua [[Asia]] jo [[Australia]] sarato di antaro [[Samudra Pasifik]] jo [[Samudra Hindia]]. Indonesia marupoan nagara [[kapulauan]] paliang gadang di dunia nan tadiri dari 17.466 pulau, dek itulah inyo disabuik juo jo [[Nusantara]]. Salain itu, Indonesia marupoan nagara nan jumlah panduduaknyo paliang banyak kaampek di dunia jo nagara nan jumlah panduduak [[Muslim]] paliang banyak di dunia, walaupun sacaro rasmi bukanlah nagara [[Islam]]. Bantuak pamarintahan Indonesia adolah [[republik]], jo [[Dewan Pawakilan Rakyat]], [[Dewan Pawakilan Daerah]], sarato [[Presiden]] nan dipiliah lansuang. Ibu kota nagaranyo adolah [[Jakarta]]. Indonesia babatehan jo [[Malaysia]] di [[Pulau Kalimantan]], jo [[Papua Nugini]] di [[Pulau Papua]] alah itu jo [[Timor Leste]] di [[Pulau Timor]]. Nagara tatangga lainnyo adolah [[Singapura]], [[Filipina]], [[Australia]], jo wilayah pasatuan [[Kapulauan Andaman jo Nikobar]] di [[India]]. Dari [[Kota Sabang|Sabang]] sampai [[Kabupaten Merauke|Merauke]], Indonesia tadiri dari babagai suku, bahaso jo agamo nan babeda-beda. [[Suku Jawa]] adolah kalompok etnis paliang gadang. Samboyan atau [[motto]] Indonesia adolah "[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]" (Babeda-beda tapi tatok ciek) nan bararti kabaragaman nan mambantuak nagara. Salain populasi padek jo wilayah nan lueh, Indonesia punyo wilayah alam nan mandukuang tingkek [[kaanekaragaman hayati]] nan paliang gadang kaduo di dunia. ==Etimologi== Kato "Indonesia" barasa dari kato dalam [[bahaso Latin]] iyolah ''Indus'' nan bararti "Hindia" jo kato dalam [[bahaso Yunani]] ''nesos'' nan bararti "pulau".<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book |last=Tomascik |first=T |coauthors=Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. |title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |id=ISBN 962-593-078-7}}</ref> Jadi, kato Indonesia bararti [[wilayah]] Hindia kapulauan, atau kapulauan nan barado di Hindia, nan manunjuakkan baso namo iko tabantuak jauah sabalun Indonesia manjadi nagara badaulek.<ref name="indoety">{{cite news |last=Anshory |first=Irfan |title=Asal Usul Nama Indonesia |publisher=Pikiran Rakyat |date=[[16 Agustus]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |archive-date=2006-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Pado taun 1850, [[George Earl]], saurang [[etnologi|etnolog]] bakabangsoan Inggirih, awalnyo mangusuakan istilah ''Indunesia'' jo ''Malayunesia'' untuak panduduak "Kapulauan Hindia atau Kapulauan Malayu".<ref name="JIAEA_1">{{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=119}}</ref> Murid dari Earl, [[James Richardson Logan]], manggunokan kato ''Indonesia'' sabagai sinonim dari ''Kapulauan India''.<ref name="JIAEA_3">{{cite journal |last=Logan |first=James Richardson |title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=4, 252–347}}; {{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=254, 277–278}}</ref> Namun, panulihan akademik Balando di media Hindia-Balando indak manggunokan kato ''Indonesia'', namun istilah ''Kapulauan Malayu'' (''Maleische Archipel''); ''Hindia Timua Balando'' (''Nederlandsch Oost Indië''), atau ''Hindia'' (''Indië''); ''Timua'' (''de Oost''); jo bahkan ''Insulinde'' (istilah iko dipakanalkan taun 1860 dalam novel ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' (1859), ditulih dek [[Multatuli]], manganai kritik tahadok kolonialisme Balando).<ref name=Kroef>{{cite journal |title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |author=Justus M. van der Kroef |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=166–171 |year=1951 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |doi=10.2307/595186}}</ref> Sajak taun 1900, namo Indonesia manjadi labiah umum pado lingkuangan akademik di lua Balando, jo golongan nasionalis Indonesia manggunokannyo untuak ekspresi politik.<ref name=Kroef/> [[Adolf Bastian]] dari [[Universitas Humboldt Berlin|Universitas Berlin]] mamasyarakaikkan namo iko malalui buku ''Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894''. Pelajar Indonesia partamo nan manggunokannyo iolah [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|Suwardi Suryaningrat]] (Ki Hajar Dewantara), iyolah katiko baliau mandirikan kantua barito di Balando nan banamo ''Indonesisch Pers Bureau'' pado taun 1913.<ref name="indoety"/> ==Sijarah== Nagara ko mamproklamasikan kamardekaannyo pado tanggal [[17 Agustus]] [[1945]]. ==Politik jo Pamarintahan== {{main|Politik Indonesia}} [[File:Indonesia ratifies the CTBT - Flickr - The Official CTBTO Photostream (2).jpg|270px|thumb|left|Rapek di Gedung MPR-DPR]] Indonesia manjalankan pamarintahan [[republik]] [[sistem presidensial|presidensial]] multipartai nan [[demokrasi|demokratis]]. Sarupo jo di nagara-nagara demokrasi lainnyo, sistem politik di Indonesia didasakan pado [[Pamisahan kakuasaan|Trias Politika]] iyolah kakuasaan [[legislatif]], [[eksekutif]] jo [[yudikatif]]. Kakuasaan legislatif dipaciak dek sabuah limbago barnamo [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat]] (MPR). MPR pernah manjadi [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat#Kedudukan|limbago tatinggi nagara]] [[sistem satu kamar|unikameral]], namun satalah [[Parubahan Kaampek Undang-Undang Dasa Nagara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945|amandemen ka-4]] MPR bukanlah limbago tatinggi sarato komposisi kaanggotaannyo lai juo baubah. MPR satalah amandemen UUD 1945, iyolah sajak [[2004]] alah manjadi limbago [[sistem duo kamar|bikameral]] nan tadiri dari 560 anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (DPR) nan marupoan wakil rakyaik malalui [[Partai Politik]], ditambuah jo 132 anggota [[Dewan Perwakilan Daerah]] (DPD) nan marupoan wakil provinsi dari jalur [[independen]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.bappenas.go.id/get-file-server/node/88/ | title = Perubahan Ketiga Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 | first = | last = | author = | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | month = | year = | work = | publisher = | location = | page = | pages = | at = | language = Indonesia | trans_title = | format = pdf | doi = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | accessdate = 2011-05-24 | quote = | ref = | separator = | postscript = }}</ref> Anggota DPR jo DPD dipiliah malalui [[pemilu]] sarato dilewa untuak maso jabatan limo tahun. Sabalunnyo, anggota MPR adolah sadoalah anggota DPR ditambuah [[utusan golongan]] jo [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|TNI]]/[[Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia|Polri]]. MPR kini diketuai dek [[Taufiq Kiemas]]. DPR kini diketuai dek [[Marzuki Alie]], sadangkan DPD kini diketuai dek [[Irman Gusman]]. Limbago eksekutif bapusek pado [[presiden]], [[wakil presiden]], jo [[kabinet]]. Kabinet di Indonesia adolah [[Kabinet (pamarintahan)|Kabinet Presidensial]] sahinggo para Mantari batangguang jawek bakeh presiden jo indak mawakili partai politik nan ado di parlemen. Walaupun demikian, Presiden kini yakni [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] nan diusuang dek [[Partai Demokrat]] manunjuak pulo sajumlah pamimpin [[Partai Politik]] untuak duduak di kabinetnyo. Tujuannyo untuak manjago stabilitas pamarintahan mangingek kueknyo posisi limbago legislatif di Indonesia. Namun pos-pos pantiang jo strategis umumnyo diisi dek Mantari tanpa portofolio partai (barasa dari sasaurang nan dianggok ahli dalam bidangnyo). Limbago Yudikatif sajak maso reformasi jo adonyo amandemen UUD 1945 dijalankan dek [[Mahkamah Agung Republik Indonesia|Mahkamah Agung]], [[Komisi Yudisial]], jo [[Mahkamah Konstitusi]], tamasuak pangaturan administrasi para hakim. Walaupun damikian kabaradoan [[Mantari Hukum jo Hak Asasi Manusia Republik Indonesia|Mantari Hukum jo Hak Asasi Manusia]] tatok dipertahankan. ==Administratif== {{Utamo|Provinsi Indonesia}} {{Peta provinsi Indonesia}} Indonesia kini tadiri dari 38 [[provinsi]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2022/11/17/17275541/sah-indonesia-kini-punya-38-provinsi-ini-daftarnya|title=Sah! Indonesia Kini Punya 38 Provinsi, Ini Daftarnya|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|date=2022-11-17|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|access-date=2022-11-18}}</ref> limo di antaronyo mamiliki status nan babeda. Provinsi dibagi manjadi 403 [[kabupaten]] jo 98 [[kota]] nan dibagi lai manjadi [[kecamatan]] nan dibagi lai manjadi [[kelurahan]], [[desa]], [[gampong]], [[kampung]], [[nagari]], [[pekon]], atau istilah lain nan diakomodasi dek Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 32 Taun 2004 tantang [[Pamarintahan Daerah]]. Tiok provinsi mamiliak'i [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah Provinsi|DPRD Provinsi]] jo [[gubernur]]; samantaro [[kabupaten]] mampunyoi [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah Kabupaten|DPRD Kabupaten]] jo [[bupati]]; kamudian [[kota]] mampunyoi [[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah Kota|DPRD Kota]] jo [[wali kota]]; sadonyo dipiliah langsuang dek rakyaik malalui [[Pemilu]] jo [[Pilkada]]. Bagaimanopun di Jakarta indak tadapek DPR Kabupaten atau Kota, karano Kabupaten Administrasi jo Kota Administrasi di Jakarta bukanlah daerah otonom. Provinsi [[Aceh]], [[Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta]], [[Papua Barat]], jo [[Papua]] mamiliak'i hak istimewa legislatur nan labiah gadang jo tingkek otonomi nan labiah tinggi dibandingkan provinsi lainnyo. Contohnyo, Aceh bahak mambantuak sistem legal surang; pado taun 2003, Aceh muloi manetapkan hukum [[Syariah]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michelle Ann Miller |title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism? |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |year=2004 |pages=333–351 |doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789}}</ref> Yogyakarta mandapek statuih Daerah Istimewa sabagai pangakuan tahadok paran pantiang Yogyakarta dalam mandukuang Indonesia salamo Revolusi.<ref>[[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (1999). Bab XIV Other Provisions, Pasal 122; {{PDFlink|[http://id.wikisource.org/wiki/Undang-Undang_Republik_Indonesia_Nomor_5_Tahun_1974 Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 5 Tahun 1974 tentang Pokok-Pokok Pemerintahan di Daerah]|146&nbsp;}}. [[Presiden Indonesia]] (1974). Bab VII Aturan Peralihan, Pasal 91</ref> [[Provinsi Papua]], sabalunnya disabuik Irian Jaya, mandapek statuih otonomi khusus taun 2001.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dursin |first=Richel |coauthors=Kafil Yamin |title=Another Fine Mess in Papua |work=Editorial |pages= |language= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |archive-date=2006-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060115090759/http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |dead-url=yes }}; {{cite news |title=Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |archive-date=2006-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060115090759/http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |dead-url=yes }}</ref> [[DKI Jakarta]], adolah daerah khusus ibukota nagara. [[Timor Portugis]] digabuangkan ka dalam wilayah Indonesia jo manjadi provinsi [[Timor Timur]] pado 1979–1999, nan kamudian mamisahkan diri malalui referendum manjadi Nagara [[Timor Leste]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Burr |first=W. |coauthors=Evans, M.L. |title=Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto |work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62 |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Archive National Security Archieve], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_University Universitas George Washington], [[Washington, D.C.]] |date=2001-12-06 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |accessdate=2006-09-17}}</ref> ;Provinsi di Indonesia jo ibukotanyo {{col-begin}}{{col-break}} '''[[Sumatera]]''' * [[Aceh]] - [[Kota Banda Aceh|Banda Aceh]] * [[Sumatera Utara]] - [[Kota Medan|Medan]] * [[Sumatera Barat]] - [[Kota Padang|Padang]] * [[Riau]] - [[Kota Pekanbaru|Pekanbaru]] * [[Kepulauan Riau]] - [[Kota Tanjungpinang|Tanjungpinang]] * [[Jambi]] - [[Kota Jambi|Jambi]] * [[Sumatera Selatan]] - [[Kota Palembang|Palembang]] * [[Kapulauan Bangka Belitung]] - [[Kota Pangkal Pinang|Pangkal Pinang]] * [[Bengkulu]] - [[Kota Bengkulu|Bengkulu]] * [[Lampung]] - [[Kota Bandar Lampung|Bandar Lampung]] '''[[Jawa]]''' * [[Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta]] * [[Banten]] - [[Kota Serang|Serang]] * [[Jawa Barat]] - [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]] * [[Jawa Tangah]] - [[Kota Semarang|Semarang]] * [[Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta]] - [[Kota Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] * [[Jawa Timur]] - [[Kota Surabaya|Surabaya]] '''[[Kapulauan Nusa Tenggara]]''' * [[Bali]] - [[Kota Denpasar|Denpasar]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Barat]] - [[Kota Mataram|Mataram]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Timur]] - [[Kota Kupang|Kupang]] {{col-break}} '''[[Kalimantan]]''' * [[Kalimantan Barat]] - [[Kota Pontianak|Pontianak]] * [[Kalimantan Tangah]] - [[Kota Palangka Rayo|Palangka Rayo]] * [[Kalimantan Selatan]] - [[Kota Banjarmasin|Banjarmasin]] * [[Kalimantan Timur]] - [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] * [[Kalimantan Utara]] - [[Tanjung Selor]] '''[[Sulawesi]]''' * [[Sulawesi Utaro]] - [[Kota Manado|Manado]] * [[Gorontalo]] - [[Kota Gorontalo|Gorontalo]] * [[Sulawesi Tangah]] - [[Kota Palu|Palu]] * [[Sulawesi Barat]] - [[Kota Mamuju|Mamuju]] * [[Sulawesi Selatan]] - [[Kota Makassar|Makassar]] * [[Sulawesi Tenggara]] - [[Kota Kendari|Kendari]] '''[[Kapulauan Maluku]]''' * [[Maluku]] - [[Kota Ambon|Ambon]] * [[Maluku Utaro]] - [[Sofifi]] '''[[Papua bagian barat|Papua]]''' * [[Papua Barat]] - [[Manokwari]] * [[Papua]] - [[Kota Jayapura|Jayapura]] {{col-end}} {{Provinsi di Indonesia}} == Geografi == {{main|Geografi Indonesia}} ''Lihat pula: [[Asia#Peta|Peta Asia]] dan [[Jumlah pulau di Indonesia]]'' [[Berkas:Waterfall Madakaripura B.JPG|150px|thumb|right|[[Sarasah Madakaripura]] di [[Taman Nasional Bromo Tengger Semeru]], [[Lumbang, Probolinggo]], [[Jawa Timur]].]] Indonesia adolah [[nagara kapulauan]] di [[Asia Tenggara]]<ref>{{cite book | first=Harm | last=Dotinga | coauthors=Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea | title=International organizations and the law of the sea: documentary yearbook, Vol 14 |pages=960 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | year=2000 | isbn=9041113452, 9789041113450}}</ref> nan mamiliaki 13.487 pulau gadang jo ketek, sakitar 6.000 di antaronyo indak bapauni<ref name="Indonesia Regions">{{cite press release |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=536&S=PPPWGT-PPPPC&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0&x=45&y=5 Estimate |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |title=World Economic Outlook Database |month=April |year=2006 }}; {{cite web | first =Hendriawan | title =Indonesia Regions | publisher =Indonesia Business Directory | url =http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | accessdate =2007-04-24 | archive-date =2005-12-28 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20051228011848/http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | dead-url =yes }}</ref>, nan manyebar disekitar [[khatulistiwa]], nan maagiah cuaco tropis. Posisi Indonesia talatak pado koordinat 6°[[LU]] - 11°08'[[LS]] jo dari 95°'[[BT]] - 141°45'[[BT]] sarato talatak di antaro duo [[banua]] iyolah banua [[Asia]] jo banua [[Australia]]/[[Oseania]]. Wilayah Indonesia tabantang sapanjang 3.977 mil di antaro [[Samudra Hindia]] jo [[Samudra Pasifik]]. Laweh daratan Indonesia adolah 1.922.570&nbsp;km² dan laweh parairannyo 3.257.483&nbsp;km². Pulau tapadek panduduaknyo adolah pulau Jawa, dimano satangah populasi Indonesia bamukim. Indonesia tadiri dari 5 pulau gadang, iyolah : [[Pulau Jawa|Jawa]] nan lawehnyo 132.107&nbsp;km², [[Sumatera]] nan lawehnyo 473.606&nbsp;km², [[Pulau Kalimantan|Kalimantan]] nan lawehnyo 539.460&nbsp;km², [[Sulawesi]] nan lawehyo 189.216&nbsp;km², jo [[Pulau Papua|Papua]] nan lawehnyo 421.981&nbsp;km². Bateh wilayah Indonesia diukua dari kapulauan manggunokan territorial lauik: 12 [[mil laut]] sarato zona ekonomi eksklusif: 200 [[mil laut]],<ref>[http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part5.htm Article 55], 1982 UN Convention on the Law of The Sea.</ref> saarah panjuru mato angin, iyolah : {{batas_USBT |utara=Nagara [[Malaysia]] nan babatehan sapanjang 1.782 km<ref name="Indonesia Regions"/>, [[Singapura]], [[Filipina]], jo [[Laut Cina Selatan]] |selatan=Nagara [[Australia]], [[Timor Leste]], jo [[Samudra Indonesia]] |timur=Nagara [[Papua Nugini]] jo pabatehan sapanjang 820 km<ref name="Indonesia Regions"/>, [[Timor Leste]], jo [[Samudra Pasifik]] |barat=[[Samudra Hindia|Samudra Indonesia]] }} === Sumber daya alam === [[Sumber daya alam]] Indonesia barupo [[minyak bumi]], [[timah]], [[gas alam]], [[nikel]], [[kayu]], [[bauksit]], [[tanah subur]], [[batu bara]], [[ameh]], jo [[perak]] jo pambagian lahan tadiri dari tanah [[patanian]] sagadang 10%, [[pakabunan]] sagadang 7%, [[padang rumpuik]] sagadang 7%, [[hutan]] jo daerah bahutan sagadang 62%, jo lainnyo sagadang 14% jo lahan [[irigasi]] salaweh 45.970&nbsp;km<ref name="Indonesia: environment and development">{{cite book | first= | last=World Bank | coauthors= | title=A World Bank country study Country Studies: Indonesia: environment and development | publisher=World Bank Publications | year=1994 | isbn=0821329502, 9780821329504}}</ref> == Demografi == {{main|Demografi Indonesia}} Manuruik sensus panduduak 2000, Indonesia mamiliak'i populasi sakita 206 juto,<ref name='bps2000'>{{cite press release |title=2000 Population Statistics |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |date=[[30 Juni]] [[2000]] |url=http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]]}}</ref> jo dipakirokan pado taun 2006 bapanduduak 222 juto.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite press release |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |title=Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005–2006 |date=[[1 September]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf|format=PDF |language=[[Bahasa Indonesia]] |accessdate=[[26 September]] [[2006]]}}</ref> 130 juto (labiah dari 50%) tingga di [[Pulau Jawa]] nan marupoan pulau bapanduduak tabanyak sakaligus pulau dimano ibukoto [[Jakarta]] barado.<ref>{{cite web |last=Calder |first=Joshua |title=Most Populous Islands |publisher=World Island Information |date=2006-05-03 |url=http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |accessdate=2006-09-26}}</ref> Sabagian basa (95%) panduduak Indonesia adolah [[Austronesia#Asal usul bangsa Austronesia|Bangso Austronesia]], jo tadapek juo kalompok-kalompok suku [[Melanesia]], [[Polinesia]], jo [[Mikronesia]] tarutamo di Indonesia bagian Timur. Banyak panduduak Indonesia nan manyatokan dirinyo sabagai bagian dari kalompok suku nan labiah spesifik, nan dibagi manuruik bahaso jo asa daerah, misalnyo [[suku Jawa|Jawa]], [[Suku Sunda|Sunda]], [[Suku Madura|Madura]], [[Suku Batak|Batak]], jo [[Suku Minangkabau|Minangkabau]]. Salain itu ado juo panduduak pandatang nan jumlahnyo minoritas di antaronyo adolah etnis [[Tionghoa]], [[India]], jo [[Bangso Arab|Arab]]. Mareka alah lamo datang ka Nusantara malalui padagangan sajak abaik ka 8 M jo manatap manjadi bagian dari Nusantara. Di Indonesia tadapek sakita 4 juto populasi etnis Tionghoa.<ref name="eiu">{{cite paper |title=Country Profile 2008: Indonesia |pages= |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit Economist Intelligence Unit] |date=[[16 Mei]] [[2008]] |doi= |url=http://portal.eiu.com/report_dl.asp?issue_id=1973383782&mode=pdf |format=pdf |id= |accessdate=[[31 Juli]] [[2008]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129085351/https://portal.eiu.com/Login.aspx?c=1 |date=2021-01-29 }}</ref> Angko iko babedo-bedo karano hanyo pado taun 1930 jo 2000 pamarintah malakukan sensus jo manggolong-golongkan masyarakaik Indonesia ka dalam suku bangso jo katurunannyo. [[Islam]] adolah [[agamo]] mayoritas nan dianuik dek sakita 85,2% panduduak Indonesia, nan manjadikan Indonesia nagara jo panduduak muslim tabanyak di dunia.<ref name='indoCIA'>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|title=Indonesia - The World Factbook|access-date=2013-04-05|archive-date=2008-12-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210041527/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sisonyo baagamo [[Protestan]] (8,9%), [[Katolik]] (3%), [[Hindu]] (1,8%), [[Buddha]] (0,8%), jo lain-lain (0,3%). Salain agamo-agamo tasabuik, pamarintah Indonesia juo sacaro rasmi mangakui [[Agamo Konghucu|Konghucu]].<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Heriyanto |title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia |journal=Religion |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=8 |month=August |year=2005 |url=http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate= 2006-10-02}}</ref> Kabanyakan panduduak Indonesia batutua dalam [[bahaso daerah]] sabagai [[bahaso ibu]], namun [[bahaso rasmi]] nagara, iyolah [[bahaso Indonesia]], diajakan di saluruah sakolah-sakolah di nagara iko jo dikuasoi dek ampia saluruah panduduak Indonesia. == Kabudayoan == {{main|Budayo Indonesia}} === Pertunjukan === [[Berkas:WayangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Wayang|Wayang kulit]] warisan budayo Jawa.]] Indonesia mamiliaki sakitar 300 kalompok etnis, tiok etnis punyo warisan budayo nan bakambang salamo baabaik-abaik, dipangaruahi dek budayo India, Arab, Cina, Eropa, jo tamasuak budayo surang iyolah [[Melayu]]. Contohnyo tarian [[Jawa]] jo [[Bali]] tradisional nan punyo aspek budayo jo mitologi Hindu, sarupo [[Wayang|wayang kulit]] nan manampilkan kisah-kisah tantang kajadian mitologis Hindu [[Ramayana]] jo [[Baratayuda]]. Banyak juo seni tari nan barisikan nilai-nilai [[Islam]]. Babarapo di antaronyo dapek ditamukan di daerah [[Sumatera]] sarupo tari [[Tari Ratéb Meuseukat|Ratéb Meuseukat]] jo tari [[Tari Seudati|Seudati]] dari [[Aceh]]. Seni [[pantun]], [[gurindam]], jo sabagainyo dari bamacam daerah sarupo pantun Melayu, jo pantun-pantun lainnyo acapkali dipagunokan dalam acara-acara tatantu iyolah [[perhelatan]], pentas seni, jo lain-lain. === Pakaian === {{Utamo|Daftar pakaian daerah Indonesia}} [[Berkas:Aesan Gede Songket Palembang.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Saurang gadih [[Palembang]] sadang mamakai [[Songket]], salah satu pakaian tradisional Indonesia.]] Di bidang pakaian warisan budayo nan tanamo di saluruah dunia adolah karajinan [[batik]]. Babarapo daerah nan tanamo jo industri batik malipuiki [[Yogyakarta]], [[Kota Surakarta|Surakarta]], [[Cirebon]], [[Pandeglang]], [[Garut]], [[Kabupaten Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]] dan juo [[Kabupaten Pekalongan|Pekalongan]]. Karajinan batik iko pun diklaim dek nagara lain jo industri batiknyo.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://majalah.depkumham.go.id/node/125 |title=PENGERAJIN BATIK TAK PERLU RESAH |work=Majalah Hukum & HAM Online |date=[[30 September]] [[2007]] |accessdate=14 Agustus 2008 |archive-date=2008-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926071726/http://majalah.depkumham.go.id/node/125 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Pakaian asli Indonesia dari [[Sabang]] sampai [[Merauke]] lainnyo dapek dikataui dari ciri-cirinyo nan dipakaikan di satiok daerah antaro lain [[baju kurung]] jo [[songket]]nyo dari [[Sumatera Barat]] ([[Minangkabau]]) jo [[Sumatera Selatan]] ([[Palembang]]), kain [[ulos]] dari [[Sumatera Utara]] ([[Batak]]), pakaian [[kebaya]], pakaian khas [[Suku Dayak|Dayak]] di [[Kalimantan]], [[baju bodo]] dari [[Sulawesi Selatan]], pakaian ba[[koteka]] dari [[Papua]] jo sabagainyo. === Arsitektur === {{Utamo|Arsitektur Indonesia}} [[Berkas:Hindu Temple in Java, Indonesia.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Lukisan [[Candi Prambanan]] nan barasa dari maso pamarintahan [[Raffles]].]] [[Arsitektur Indonesia]] mancaminkan kanekaragaman [[Budayo Indonesia|budayo]], [[Sijarah Indonesia|sijarah]], jo [[Geografi Indonesia|geografi]] nan mambantuak Indonesia sautuahnyo. Kaum panyarang, panjajah, panyebar agamo, padagang, jo saudagar mambaok parubahan budayo jo maagiah akibaik pado gaya jo teknik bangunan. Tradisionalnyo, pangaruah arsitektur asiang nan paliang kuek adolah dari India. Tapi, Cina, Arab, jo sajak abaik ka-19 pangaruah Eropa manjadi cukuik dominan. Ciri khas arsitektur Indonesia kuno masih dapek dicaliak malalui rumah-rumah adaik jo/atau istano-istano karajaan dari tiok-tiok provinsi. [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], salah satu objek wisata di Jakarta nan manjadi miniatur Indonesia, manampilkan kaanekaragaman arsitektur Indonesia itu. Babarapo bangunan khas Indonesia misalnyo [[Rumah Gadang]], [[Monumen Nasional]], jo Bangunan Fakultas Teknik Sipil jo Perencanaan di [[Institut Teknologi Bandung]]. === Ulahrago === {{Utamo|Ulahraga Indonesia}} [[Berkas:Badminton Beijing 2008 Lu Lan vs Yulianti.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Maria Kristin Yulianti]] (sirah), paraih [[medali]] [[parunggu]] pado [[Olimpiade Beijing 2008]].]] Ulahrago nan paliang populer di Indonesia adolah [[bulu tangkis]] jo [[sepak bola]]; [[Liga Super Indonesia]] adolah liga klub sipak bola utamo di Indonesia. Ulahrago tradisional tamasuak [[sipak rago]] jo [[karapan sapi]] di [[Pulau Madura|Madura]]. Di wilayah jo sijarah parang antar suku, kontes pataruangan diadokan, sarupo ''caci'' di [[Flores]], jo [[pasola]] di [[Sumba]]. [[Pancak silek]] adolah seni bela diri nan unik nan barasa dari wilayah Indonesia. Seni bela diri iko kadang-kadang ditampilkan pado acaro-acaro patunjuakan nan biasonyo diiriangi jo musik tradisional Indonesia barupo [[gamelan]] jo seni musik tradisional lainnyo sasuai jo daerah asanyo. Ulahrago di Indonesia biasonyo baorientasi pado laki-laki jo ulahrago spektator acok bahubuangan jo judi nan ilegal di Indonesia.<ref>{{cite book | last =Witton | first =Patrick | title =Indonesia | publisher =Lonely Planet | year =2003 | location =Melbourne | pages =hal.103 | id = ISBN 1-74059-154-2 }}</ref> Di ajang kompetisi multi cabang, prestasi atlet-atlet Indonesia indak talalu mangasankan. Di [[Olimpiade]], prestasi tabaik Indonesia diraiah pado [[Olimpiade 1992]], dimano Indonesia manduduaki paringkek 24 jo maraiah 2 [[amek]] 2 [[perak]] jo 1 [[parunggu]]. Pado era 1960 hinggo 2000, Indonesia marajoi [[bulu tangkis]]. Atlet-atlet putra Indonesia sarupo [[Rudi Hartono]], [[Liem Swie King]], [[Icuk Sugiarto]], [[Alan Budikusuma]], [[Ricky Subagja]], jo [[Rexy Mainaky]] marajoi kajuaroan-kajuaroan dunia. [[Rudi Hartono]] nan dianggok sabagai maestro [[bulu tangkis]] dunia, manjadi juaro [[All England]] tabanyak sapanjang sijarah. Salain [[bulu tangkis]], atlet-atlet tinju Indonesia juo talok maraih gala juaro dunia, sarupo [[Elyas Pical]], [[Nico Thomas]]<ref>[http://www.surya.co.id/2009/03/27/elyas-pical-dapat-penghargaan.html Elyas Pical Dapat Penghargaan]{{Dead link|date=October 2022|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}. ''[[Surya (surat kabar)|Surya]]'', [[27 Maret]] [[2009]]. Diakses pada [[10 September]] [[2010]].</ref>, jo [[Chris John (petinju)|Chris John]].<ref>Afriatni, Ami. [http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/olahraga/2007/08/19/brk,20070819-105865,id.html Petinju Chris John Sukses Pertahankan Gelar Juara Dunia]. ''[[Koran Tempo|Tempo]]'', [[19 Agustus]] [[2007]]. Diakses pada [[10 September]] [[2010]].</ref> === Seni musik === {{Utamo|Musik Indonesia}} Seni musik di Indonesia, baiak tradisional maupun modern sangaik banyak tabantang dari [[Sabang]] hinggo [[Merauke]]. Satiok provinsi di Indonesia mamiliaki [[musik tradisional]] jo ciri khasnyo nan balainan. Musik tradisional tamasuk juo [[keroncong]] nan barasa dari katurunan [[Portugis]] di daerah [[Kampung Tugu|Tugu]], [[Jakarta]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |title=Kampung Tugu, Menyimpan Kenangan Sijarah |work=Kompas |date=Rabu, [[28 April]] [[2004]] |accessdate=14 Agustus 2008 |archive-date=2008-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211203446/http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> nan dikana dek sado rakyaik Indonesia malah hinggo ka mancanegara. Ado juo musik nan marakyat di Indonesia nan dikana jo namo [[dangdut]] iyolah musik baaliran Malayu modern nan dipangaruahi dek musik India sainggo musik dangdut iko babedo bana jo musik tradisional Malayu nan sabananyo, sarupo musik Malayu Deli, Malayu Riau, jo sabagainyo. [[Berkas:Traditional indonesian instruments02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Gamelan|Saparangkek gamelan]]]] Alek musik tradisional nan marupoan alek musik khas Indonesia mamiliaki banyak ragam dari babagai daerah di Indonesia, namun banyak pulo dari alek musik tradisional Indonesia 'dimaliang' dek nagara lain<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.gatra.com/2008-01-01/artikel.php?id=110550 |title=Perspektif: Mencuri Klaim, Itu Biasa|work=Gatra.Com |author=Radhar Panca Dahana |date=Kamis, [[6 Desember]] [[2007]]|accessdate=14 Agustus 2008}}</ref> untuak kapantiangan panambahan budayo jo seni musiknyo surang jo mamatenkan hak cipto seni budayo dari Indonesia. [[Daftar alat musik Indonesia|Alat musik tradisional Indonesia]] antaro lain malipuiki: {{Col-begin|width=}} {{Col-4}} * [[Angklung]] * Bende * [[Calung]] * Dermenan * [[Gamelan]] * Gandang Tabuik * Gendang Bali {{Col-4}} * Gondang Batak * Gong Kemada * Gong Lambus * Jidor * [[Tembang Cianjuran|Kecapi Suling]] * Kulcapi Batak * Kendang Jawa {{Col-4}} * Kenong * [[Kulintang]] * [[Rebab]] * [[Rebana]] * [[Saluang]] * [[Saron]] * [[Sasando]] {{Col-4}} * [[Serunai]] * Seurune Kale * Suling Lembang * Sulim Batak * Suling Sunda * [[Talempong]] * Tanggetong * Tifa, dan sebagainya {{Col-end}} === Boga === {{main|Masakan Indonesia}} [[Berkas:SOTO FOOD.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Babarapo [[:File:Flag map of Indonesia.svg|makanan Indonesia]]: [[soto]] ayam, [[sate]] kerang, telor pindang, perkedel jo es teh manih.]] [[Masakan Indonesia]] bavariasi bagantuang pado wilayahnyo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Witton |first=Patrick |title=World Food: Indonesia |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonely_Planet Lonely Planet] |year=2002 |location=Melbourne |id=ISBN 1-74059-009-0}}</ref> Nasi adolah makanan pokok jo dihidangkan jo lauk dagiang jo sayua. Bumbu (tarutamo [[cabai]]), [[santan]], [[ikan]], jo [[ayam]] adolah bahan nan pantiang.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brissendon |first=Rosemary |title=South East Asian Food |publisher=Hardie Grant Books |year=2003 |location=Melbourne|id=ISBN 1-74066-013-7}}</ref> Sapanjang sijarah, Indonesia alah manjadi tampek padagangan antaro duo banua. Iko manyababkan tabaoknyo banyak bumbu, bahan makanan jo teknik mamasak dari bangso [[Melayu]], [[India]], [[Timur tangah]], [[Tionghoa]], jo [[Eropa]]. Sadonyo iko bacampua jo ciri khas makanan Indonesia tradisional, mahasiakan banyak kaanekaragaman nan indak ditamukan di daerah lain. Malah bangso [[Spanyol]] jo [[Portugis]], alah mandahului bangso [[Balando]] jo mambaok banyak produk dari dunia baru ka Indonesia. [[Sambal]], [[sate]], [[bakso]], [[soto]], jo [[nasi goreng]] marupoan babarapo contoh makanan nan biaso dimakan masyarakaik Indonesia satiok hari.<ref>http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/eat/40-foods-indonesians-cant-live-without-327106 40 of Indonesia's best dishes. Diakses pada 5 Desember 2011.</ref> Salain disajikan di [[waruang]] atau [[restoran]], tadapek pulo aneka makanan khas Indonesia nan dijua dek para padagang kaliliang manggunokan garobak atau pikulan. Padagang iko manyajikan [[bubur ayam]], [[mie ayam]], mi bakso, [[mi goreng]], nasi goreng, aneka macam soto, [[siomay]], sate, [[nasi uduk]], jo lain-lain. Rumah makan Padang nan manyajikan nasi Padang, iyolah nasi disajikan basamo aneka lauk-pauk [[Masakan Padang]], mudah ditamui di babagai kota di Indonesia. Salain itu [[Warung Tegal]] nan manyajikan masakan Jawa khas Tegal jo harago nan tajangkau juo tasebar laweh. [[Nasi rames]] atau [[nasi campur]] nan baisi nasi sarato lauk atau sayua pilihan dijua di waruang nasi di tampek-tampek umum, sarupo satasiun [[kareto api]], pasa, jo terminal bus. Di [[Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta]] jo salingkanyo dikana pulo [[nasi kucing]] sabagai nasi rames nan baukuran ketek jo harago murah, nasi kucing acok dijua di ateh angkringan, sajinih waruang kaki limo. Panganan ketek samisal kue-kue banyak dijua di pasa tradisional. Kue-kue tasabuik biasonyo babahan dasa bareh, katan, ubi kayu, ubi jalar, terigu, atau sagu. === Bahasa === {{Utamo|Daftar bahaso di Indonesia|Bahaso Balando di Indonesia}} Indonesia hanyo mamiliaki satu bahaso nasional atau bahaso nagara, yakni [[Bahaso Indonesia]].<ref>[http://id.wikisource.org/wiki/Undang-Undang_Dasar_Negara_Republik_Indonesia_Tahun_1945 UUD 1945, Bab XV, Pasal 36: "Bahasa Negara ialah Bahasa Indonesia."]</ref> Campua tangan nagara taadok bahaso nasional disalanggarokan malalui [[Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa]] di bawah KeMantarian Pandidikan dan Kebudayaan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/ |title=Laman Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa |access-date=2013-04-06 |archive-date=2016-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309064643/http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Indonesia mamiliaki labiah dari 721 bahaso daerah<ref>[http://www.muturzikin.com/cartesasiesudest/8.htm ASIAN LINGUISTIC MAPS : Indonesia & Brunei]</ref>. Di antaro ratuihan bahaso daerah tasabuik, nan paliang banyak sebarannyo adolah di [[Daftar bahasa di Papua|Papua]] jo [[Daftar bahasa di Kalimantan|Kalimantan]], sadangkan nan paliang saketek adolah di [[Daftar bahasa di Jawa|pulau Jawa]]. Manuruik jumlah panutuanyo, bahaso daerah nan paliang banyak digunokan di Indonesia baturuik-turuik adolah: {{bhs|Jawa}} (80 juto panutua), [[Bahaso Melayu|Melayu-Indonesia]], {{bhs|Sunda}}, {{bhs|Madura}}, {{bhs|Batak}}, {{bhs|Minangkabau}}, {{bhs|Bugis}}, {{bhs|Aceh}}, {{bhs|Bali}}, {{bhs|Banjar}}. Bahaso Inggirih sabagai bahaso internasional alah dipakanakan dek pamarintah Indonesia kapado para pelajar muloi janjang pandidiakan dasa.<ref>[http://pascapbi.uad.ac.id/pendidikan-bahasa-Inggirih-di-indonesia-masih-sangat-miskin/ Pendidikan bahasa Inggirih bagi pelajar SD.]{{Dead link|date=October 2022|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} Pascasarjana Pendidikan Bahasa Inggirih [[Universitas Ahmad Dahlan]]. Terbit pada 20 September 2012. Diakses pada 2 Januari 2013.</ref> Meski demikian, jo babagai alasan tadapek upayo untuak mahapuih palajaran bahaso Inggirih di tingkek sikolah dasa.<ref>[http://www.poskotanews.com/2012/10/11/belum-final-rencana-penghapusan-pelajaran-bahasa-Inggirih-di-sd/ Rencana penghapusan pelajaran bahasa Inggirih bagi pelajar SD belum final.]{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} POSKOTANEWS.com. Terbit pada 11 Oktober 2012. Diakses pada 2 Januari 2013.</ref><ref>[http://nasional.sindonews.com/read/2012/12/15/15/697819/dpr-minta-tunda-penerapan-kurikulum-baru DPR minta tunda penerapan kurikulum baru.] SINDONEWS.com. Terbit pada 15 Desember 2012. Diakses pada 2 Januari 2013.</ref> Bagi panganuik agamo Islam nan manjadi kaum mayoritas di Indonesia,<ref>[http://www.pupr.edu/hkettani/papers/HICAH2010.pdf 2010 World Muslim Population.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515072953/http://www.pupr.edu/hkettani/papers/HICAH2010.pdf |date=2011-05-15 }} Hal. 3-5. Houssain Kettani. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Computer Science, Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico. Terbit pada Januari 2010. Diakses pada 2 Januari 2013.</ref> bahaso Arab adolah bahaso asiang nan mandapek kaduduakan khusus, karano haruih dipraktikkan dalam ibadah harian tatantu, misalnyo [[salat]]<ref>[http://www.islampedia.info/salat.php Salat harus menggunakan bahasa Arab.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309024005/http://www.islampedia.info/salat.php |date=2013-03-09 }} Islampedia.info. Terbit pada 2006. Diakses pada 2 Januari 2013.</ref>. Walaupun demikian, bahaso Arab indak manjadi bahaso pagaulan umum sajak periode awal kabaradoannyo di Indonesia.<ref>[http://stainsalatiga.ac.id/pembelajaran-bahasa-arab-sepanjang-Sijarah/ Pembelajaran Bahasa Arab Sepanjang Sijarah.]{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} stainsalatiga.ac.id. Terbit pada 1 Juni 2012. Diakses pada 2 Januari 2013.</ref> == Lingkuangan hiduik== {{Utamo|Flora Indonesia|Fauna Indonesia}} [[Berkas:Rafflesia sumatra.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Rafflesia arnoldii]] bungo tagadang di dunia, diameternyo mancapai 1,3 meter.]] [[Berkas:Varanus komodoensis6.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Komodo]], hewan reptil sarik khas dari [[Nusa Tenggara]].]] Wilayah Indonesia mamiliaki kaanekaragaman makhluk hiduik nan tinggi sahinggo dek babarapo pihak wilayah ekologi Indonesia disabuik jo istilah "''Mega biodiversity''" atau "kaanekaragaman mahluk hiduik nan tinggi"<ref>http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker</ref><ref>http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311005957/http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html |date=2009-03-11 }} Dunia Sebut Indonesia Mega Biodiversity</ref> umumnyo dikana juo sabagai ''Indomalaya'' atau [[Malesia]] manuruik panalitian baso 10 persen tumbuahan , 12 persen mamalia, 16 persen reptil, 17 persen buruang, 25 persen ikan nan ado di dunia hiduik di Indonesia, padohal laweh Indonesia hanyo 1,3 % dari laweh Bumi. Kakayoan makhluk hiduik Indonesia manduduaki paringkek katigo salapeh [[Brasil]] jo [[Republik Demokratik Kongo]].<ref>http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007155430/http://cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf |date=2010-10-07 }} Report on the CITES workshop on mega-biodiversity exporters (with the assistance of the European Commission)</ref> Walaupun damikian, [[Guinness World Records]] pado 2008 pernah mancatek rekor Indonesia sabagai nagara nan paliang kancang laju karusakan hutannyo di dunia. Satiok taun Indonesia kahilangan hutan salaweh 1,8 juto hektar. Karusakan nan tajadi di daerah hulu (hutan) juo turuik marusak kawasan di daerah hilir (pasisia).<ref>http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328164842/http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html |date=2008-03-28 }} Sulung Prasetyo. Ekologi Indonesia Masuki Masa Genting, Paragraf 1. Sinar Harapan Online. Diakses pada 13 November 2009</ref> Manuruik catatan ''Down The Earth'', proyek [[Asian Development Bank]] (ADB) di sektor kalauikan Indonesia alah mamicu tajadinyo aliah fungsi sacaro gadang-gadangan hutan bakau manjadi kawasan patambakan. Padohal hutan bakau, salain bafungsi malinduangi pantai dari abrasi, marupoan habitat nan elok bagi babagai jinih ikan. Kahancuaan hutan bakau tasabuik maakibaikkan nalayan harus mancari ikan jo jarak samakin jaauh jo manambah biayo operasional mareka dalam mancari ikan. Salain itu, hancuanyo hutan bakau juo maakibaikkan samakin rentannyo kawasan pasisia Indonesia tahadok terjangan aia pasang lauik jo banjir, talabiah di musim hujan.<ref>http://www.satudunia.net/?q=content/utang-ekologis-adb-di-indonesia {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209033455/http://www.satudunia.net/?q=content%2Futang-ekologis-adb-di-indonesia|date=2017-02-09}} Firdaus Cahyadi Utang Ekologis ADB di Indonesia, Tulisan pernah dimuat di [[Koran Tempo]], 2 Mei 2009</ref> {{clear}} ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|2}} === Bibliografi === {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZtDIhWzFeUC|title=Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society|editor-last=Ammon|editor-first=Ulrich|editor-last2=Dittmar|editor-first2=Norbert|editor-last3=Mattheier|editor-first3=Klaus J.|editor-last4=Trudgill|editor-first4=Peter|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2006|edition=2nd, revised and extended|volume=3|isbn=9783110184181|access-date=2010-06-29}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC|title=Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education|access-date=2010-05-19|first1=Colin|last1=Baker|first2=Sylvia|last2=Prys Jones|publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=1998|isbn = 9781853593628}} * {{cite book|last=Bevins|first=Vincent|author-link=Vincent Bevins|title= [[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]]|date=2020|publisher= [[PublicAffairs]]|isbn= 978-1541742406}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LT6E6YdAh-MC|title=The Phonology of Dutch.|first=Geert|last=Booij|work=Oxford Linguistics|year=1999|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0-19-823869-X|access-date=2010-05-24}} * {{cite book|last=Cribb|first=Robert|title=Historical atlas of Indonesia|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013}} * {{cite book|last=Crouch|first=Harold|title=The army and politics in Indonesia|publisher=[[Cornell University Press|Cornell UP]]|year=2019}} * {{cite journal|last=Earl|first=George SW|title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations|journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA)|year=1850}} * {{cite book|last=Effendy|first=Bahtiar|title=Islam and the State in Indonesia|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2003}} * {{Cite journal|last=Emmers|first=Ralf|date=2005|title=Regional Hegemonies and the Exercise of Power in Southeast Asia: A Study of Indonesia and Vietnam|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_july-august-2005_45_4/page/645|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|publisher=University of California Press|volume=45|issue=4|pages=645–665|doi=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645|jstor=10.1525/as.2005.45.4.645}} * {{cite book|last1=Fossati|first1=Diego|first2=Yew-Foong|last2=Hui|title=The Indonesia national survey project: Economy, society and politics|publisher=ISEAS Publishing|year=2017}} * {{cite book|editor-surname1=Frederick|editor-given1=William H.|editor-surname2=Worden|editor-given2=Robert L.|year=2011|title=Indonesia: A Country Study|series=Area handbook series, 39|others=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|edition=6th|place=Washington, DC|publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgmXWMgWcwC|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6}} * {{cite book|surname=Friend|given=T.|title=Indonesian Destinies|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=0-674-01137-6|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book|last1=Hadiz|first1=Vedi R.|first2=Richard|last2=Robison|title=The political economy of oligarchy and the reorganization of power in Indonesia|chapter=Beyond Oligarchy|publisher=[[Cornell University Press|Cornell UP]]|year=2014|pages=35–56|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519011543/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1813/54629/INDO_96_0_1381338354_35_58.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2021-05-19|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Indonesia|first=Statistics|title=Statistical yearbook of Indonesia 2009|publisher=Statistics Indonesia, 2019|url=https://seadelt.net/Asset/Source/Document_ID-184_No-01.pdf}} * {{cite book|last=Kitley|first=Philip|title=Television, nation, and culture in Indonesia|publisher=[[Ohio University Press]]|year=2014}} * {{cite book|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=2018|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-57469-4}} * {{cite journal|last1=Mietzner|first1=Marcus|first2=Burhanuddin|last2=Muhtadi|title=Explaining the 2016 Islamist mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious intolerance, militant groups and the politics of accommodation|journal=Asian Studies Review|issue=42|volume=3|year=2018|pages=479–497|doi=10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335|s2cid=150302264|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326286879}} * {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|authorlink=Merle Ricklefs|year=1991|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300|edition=2nd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=0-333-57690-X}} * {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|author-link=Merle Ricklefs|year=2001|title=A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200|edition=3rd|place=Basingstoke; Stanford, CA|publisher=Palgrave; Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4480-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC}} * {{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Geoffrey B.|date=2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4008-8886-3}} * {{cite book|surname=Schwarz|given=A.|year=1994|title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=1-86373-635-2|url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw}} * {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|isbn=978-0-300-09709-2}} * {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=John G.|author-link = John G.Taylor|title=East Timor: the price of Freedom|publisher=Zed Books|year=1999}} * {{cite book|surname=Vickers|given=Adrian|title=A History of Modern Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=0-521-54262-6}} * {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R.&nbsp;E.|last3=Suraya|first3=A.&nbsp;A.|year=1996|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Hong Kong}} * Winters, Jeffrey A. "Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia." in ''Beyond Oligarchy'' (Cornell UP, 2014) pp.&nbsp;11–34. [https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023093720/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54621/INDO_96_0_1381338354_11_34.pdf?sequence=1|date=2020-10-23}} * {{cite book|last=Witton|first=Patrick|year=2003|title=Indonesia|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=Melbourne|isbn=978-1-74059-154-6}} {{refend}} == Pautan lua == {{Portal|Indonesia}} {{Commons|Indonesia}} {{wikiatlas|Indonesia}} {{wikivoyage|Indonesia}} * {{id}} [http://www.indonesia.go.id Situs Resmi Pemerintah Republik Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203203120/http://indonesia.go.id/ |date=2012-02-03 }} * {{id}} [http://www.antara.co.id Kantor Berita Antara] * {{en}} [http://www.my-indonesia.info/ Pariwisata Indonesia] * {{id}} [http://www.pemiluindonesia.com/ Pemilu Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205060018/http://www.pemiluindonesia.com/ |date=2016-02-05 }} * {{id}} [http://www.kebangkitan-nasional.or.id/ Peringatan Kebangkitan Nasional Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150624011604/http://www.kebangkitan-nasional.or.id/ |date=2015-06-24 }} * {{id}} [http://www.datastatistik-indonesia.com Data Kependudukan Resmi Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108133649/http://datastatistik-indonesia.com/ |date=2022-11-08 }} * {{en}} [http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/ Indonesia: Country Studies 1993] * {{en}} [http://www.qwiki.com/q/#!/Indonesia Presentasi tentang Indonesia] {{Asia Tenggara}} [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Nagara anggota ASEAN]] [[Kategori:Indonesia]]<br/> t6nb46ke91t896bcaxk3rh1exf55o1c 0 364 3351262 3149582 2026-08-05T21:47:11Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351262 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet | name=1P/Halley (Halley's Comet) | image=[[File:Lspn comet halley.jpg|250px|Halley's Comet|alt=A color image of Comet Halley, shown flying to the left aligned flat against the sky]] | discoverer=prehistoric (observation);<br />Edmond Halley | discovery_date=1758 (first '''predicted'' perihelion) | orbit_ref =<ref name=jpldata>{{Cite web|date=11 January 1994 last obs |title=JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 1P/Halley |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1P| publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory|accessdate=13 October 2008}}</ref> | epoch=2449400.5<br />(17 February 1994) | semimajor=17.8 AU | perihelion=0.586 AU<br />last perihelion: 9 February 1986<br />next perihelion: 28 July 2061<ref name=horizons>{{Cite web| author= Donald K. Yeomans| url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi|title=Horizon Online Ephemeris System|publisher=California Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory|accessdate=8 September 2006}}</ref> | aphelion=35.1 AU<br />(9 December 2023)<ref name=horizons/> | eccentricity=0.967 | period=75.3 [[Julian year (astronomy)|a]]<ref name=jpldata/> | inclination=162.3° | dimensions= 15×8 km,<ref name=Learn>{{Cite web |year=1986 |title=What Have We Learned About Halley's Comet? |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific (No. 6 — Fall 1986) |url=http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/06/06.html |accessdate=16 December 2008}}</ref> 11 km (rato-rato)<ref name=jpldata/> | density=0.6<ref name=density>{{Cite journal|title=Is the nucleus of Comet Halley a low density body?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1988-01-21_331_6153/page/240|author= R. Z. Sagdeev, P. E. Elyasberg, V. I. Moroz.|journal=Nature|volume=331|bibcode=1988Natur.331..240S|issue=6153|year=1988|pages=240–242|doi=10.1038/331240a0}}</ref> (estimates range from 0.2 to 1.5 gr/cm³<ref name="Peale1989November">{{Cite journal |author=S. J. Peale |title=On the density of Halley's comet |url=https://archive.org/details/icarus_1989-11_82_1/page/36 |journal=[[Icarus (journal)|Icarus]] |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=36–49 |year=1989 |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(89)90021-3 |quote=densities obtained by this procedure are in reasonable agreement with intuitive expectations of densities near 1&nbsp;g/cm3, the uncertainties in several parameters and assumptions expand the error bars so far as to make the constraints on the density uniformative&nbsp;... suggestion that cometary nuclei tend to by very fluffy,&nbsp;... should not yet be adopted as a paradigm of cometary physics. |bibcode=1989Icar...82...36P}}</ref>) | mass= 2.2{{E|14}} kg<ref name=mass>{{Cite journal|title=Halley, comet's mass loss and age|author=G. Cevolani, G. Bortolotti and A. Hajduk|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/0r3801302547v3x8/|year=1987|publisher=Italian Physical Society|journal=Il Nuovo Cimento C|volume=10|issue=5|pages=587–591|doi=10.1007/BF02507255|bibcode=1987NCimC..10..587C}}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | escape_velocity = ~{{V2|0.00000022|5.5}} km/detik | albedo= 0.04<ref name=dark>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2001 |title=Comet Borrelly Puzzle: Darkest Object in the Solar System |publisher=Space.com |author=R. R. Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html |accessdate=16 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011130041644/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html |archivedate=30 November 2001 |dead-url=no }}</ref> |sidereal_day = 2.2 d (52.8 h) (?)<ref name=Peale1989>{{Cite journal |author= S. J. Peale, J. J. Lissauer |title=Rotation of Halley's Comet |journal=Icarus |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=396–430 |year=1989 |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(89)90085-7 |bibcode=1989Icar...79..396P}}</ref> | magnitude = 28.2 (in 2003)<ref name="ESO2003">{{Cite web |title=New Image of Comet Halley in the Cold |url=http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/press-rel/pr-2003/phot-27-03.html |publisher=European Southern Observatory |date=1 September 2003 |accessdate=22 February 2009 |archive-date=27 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827140719/http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/press-rel/pr-2003/phot-27-03.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> }} '''Komet Halley''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|icon|ˈ|h|æ|l|i}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|eɪ|l|i}}; rasmi ditandoi '''1P/Halley''')<ref name="jpldata"/> marupoan benda langik nan tanamo sabagai salah satu komet maso pendek, dan benda ko buliah dilihek jo mato dari [[Bumi]] satiok 75 atau 76 taun.<ref name=jpldata/><ref name=kronk>{{Cite web|author=G. W. Kronk|title=1P/Halley |url=http://cometography.com/pcomets/001p.html| publisher=cometography.com|accessdate=13 October 2008}}</ref> Komet Halley adolah satu-satunyo [[Komet]] maso pendek nan sabana jaleh diliek jo mato kapalo dari bumi, penampakan ko mungkin dapek dilieek dek manusia duo kali sa umua hiduiknyo.<ref name=Delehanty>{{Cite web|title=Comets, awesome celestial objects|author=M. Delehanty|work=AstronomyToday|url=http://www.astronomytoday.com/astronomy/comets.html|accessdate=15 March 2007|archive-date=21 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021180734/http://www.astronomytoday.com/astronomy/comets.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> mungkin penampakannyo nan labiah spektakuler muncul satu kali dalam ribuan taun. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Astronomi]] hi89wj3lscy4pqe02n9hxbs7n8kmf62 0 391 3351335 2442696 2026-08-06T03:06:03Z Adhmi 7359 3351335 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {{ateh/ar}} {{Tangah <!-- Artikel nan Tapiliah --> |Judulkida= [[Image:Nuvola apps bookcase.svg|20px|link=]] Artikel nan Tapiliah |Isikida={{Wikipedia:Artikel nan Tapiliah/{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}}} <noinclude> <!-- Kajadian kini ko ... --> |Judulsuok= [[Image:Postscript-viewer-blue.svg|20px|link=]] Kajadian kini ko |Isisuok=<!-- -->{{Kajadian kini ko}} }} {{Tangah2 <!-- Lai Tau Sanak --> |Judulkida= [[File:Nuvola apps filetypes.png|20px|link=]] Lai Tau Sanak |Isikida= {{Lai Tau Sanak/{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}}} <div style="float:right;" class="noprint plainlinks">'''[[Wikipedia:Lai_Tau_Sanak|Arsip]]'''</div> <!-- Hari iko dalam Sajarah ... --> |Judulsuok= [[File:P history-lightblue.png|20px]] Hari iko dalam sajarah |Isisuok={{Hari Iko Dalam Sajarah}} <div style="float:right;" class="noprint plainlinks">'''[[Wikipedia:Hari_Iko_Dalam_Sajarah|Arsip]]'''</div> }} <!-- WELCOME TO --> {| style="width: 100%; margin:6px 0 0 0; background:none; border-spacing: 0px;" {{#if:|<tr id="mp-banner"><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; background-color:#F2E6CE; padding:0.2em; border:1px solid #ddcef2; color:#000; font-weight:bold;"></td></tr> }} | id="mf-fp" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #ddcef2; -moz-border-radius: 5px; -webkit-border-radius: 5px; background:transparent; vertical-align:top; color:#000;" | {| id="mp-left" style="vertical-align:top; width:100%; background:#faf5ff;" ! style="padding:2px" | <h2 id="mp-dyk-h2" style="margin:3px; background:#eedff6; {{Efek warna|D=#eedff6|K=#faf5ff}} font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #ddcef2; text-align:left; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;">[[Berkas:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|20px|link=]] Gambar nan Tapiliah</h2> |- | style="color:#000;padding:2px 5px 5px" | <div id="mp-dyk"> [[Berkas:Bendera di Upacara Kirab 17 Agustus Sungayang.jpg|500px|jmpl|center| Proses pangibaran bendera merah putiah di puncak bukik kasumbo [[Sungayang, Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]]. Oleh:[[Pangguno:Zakiyyan|Zakiyyan]]. Lisensi:CC BY-SA 4.0.]] </div> |} |} <!-- New --> {{Buek artikel baru}} {{Bahaso Lain}} {{Proyek Lain}} {{nobots}} [[Category:Palanta]] <!-- Interwiki --> [[ace:]][[bjn:]][[id:]][[map-bms:]][[jv:]][[ms:]][[su:]] [[tet:]] [[ar:]][[bg:]][[ca:]][[cs:]][[da:]][[de:]][[en:]][[eo:]][[es:]][[et:]][[eu:]][[fa:]][[fi:]][[fr:]][[gl:]][[he:]][[hi:]][[hr:]][[ht:]][[hu:]][[it:]][[ja:]][[ko:]][[lt:]][[new:]][[nl:]][[nn:]][[no:]][[pl:]][[pt:]][[ro:]][[ru:]][[simple:]][[sk:]][[sl:]][[sr:]][[sv:]][[th:]][[tr:]][[uk:]][[vi:]][[vo:]][[zh:]] {{noexternallanglinks}} 7kwj4bgz8v4fn8rjebjmz2prosc8tzb 0 505 3351313 2009816 2026-08-05T23:08:19Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351313 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Randai1.ogv|thumb|Patunjuakan randai]] [[Image:Randai Padang Panjang.jpg|thumb|300px|Pasambahan Randai di [[Padang Panjang]]]] '''Randai''' adolah pasambahan tradisional khas [[suku]] [[Suku Minangkabau|Minangkabau]] nan barupo papaduan antaro seni bela diri nan biaso disabuik [[silek]] samo [[tari]]an, [[dendang]] sarato seni paran atau [[lakon]]. Randai biasonyo ditunjuakan di upacara tradisi jo acara khas, jo kisah panjang mungkin mamakan wakatu babarapo malam.<ref name="Pauka1998">{{cite journal |title=The Daughters Take Over? Female Performers in Randai Theatre |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tdr-drama-review_spring-1998_42_1/page/113 |last=Pauka |first=Kirstin |journal=The Drama Review |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=113–121 |date=1998 |doi=10.1162/105420498760308706}}</ref> Inyo ditarian sabagai teater, dalam bulatan untuak mancapai pasamaan jo panggabuangan antaro panonton jo palakon.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Umbuik Mudo and the Magic Flute: A Randai Dance-Drama |journal=Asian Theatre Journal |date=2003 |volume=20 |issue=2 |last=Pauka |first=Kirstin}}</ref> Dalam Randai, kisah disampaikan malalui lakonan jo nyanyian, jo kabanyakannyo basandian lagenda Minangkabau jo carito rakyat.<ref name="Pauka1998"/> Randai mampunyoi sijarah panjang dalam masarakaik Minangkabau. Randai barasa awal abaik ka-20 asia gabuangan seni bela diri satampek, pancaritoan jo tradisi patunjuakan lain.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Look at the Clouds: Migration and West Sumatran ‘Popular’ Theatre |last=Cohen |first=Matthew Isaac |journal=New Theatre Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=214–229 |date=2003 |doi=10.1017/S0266464X03000125}}</ref> Randai marupoan suatu bantuak [[kasenian]] nan dimain dek babarapo urang sacaro bakalompok.Randai iko dimain dek pamain utamo nan batugeh sabagai tukang carito. Pamain utamo ko buliah bajumlah surang, duo, tigo atau labiah, bagantuang pado carito nan dibawa. Dalam patunjuakan pamain utamo dikaliliangi dek pamain-pamain lain nan batujuan untuak manjadikan alek manjadi rami. Pado wakatu awal Randai adolah media untuak menyampaian ''[[kaba]]'' atau [[carito rakyaik]] malalui [[gurindam]] atau [[sair]] nan didendang basamo ''galombang'' (tari) nan baasa dari garak-garik [[silek Minangkabau]]. Dalam randai tadapek carito nan dibaok sarupo carito ''Cindua Mato'', ''Malin Deman'', ''Anggun Nan Tongga'', jo carito rakyaik lain lai. Randai batujuan maibua masarakaik, jo biasonya diadoan pado wakau pesta rakyaik atau ari rayo [[Idul Fitri]]. Namun maso inyo bakambang, Randai juo maambiak jo manggabuangan gayo watak-watak jo dialog dalam sandiwara-sandiwara, sarupo kalompok Dardanela. Laki-laki biasonyo mamainan paranan kaduo-duo watak laki-laki jo padusi carito, tapi sajak taun 1960-an padusi juo turuik ikuik sarato.<ref name="Pauka1998"/> == Sijarah == Ado tigo teori tantang asa mulo randai. Teori partamo manyabuik baso asa mulo randai dari tari jo lagu. Pandukuang teori ko manyabuik baso asa mulonyo dari tari ilau, dari Solok. Tari ilau mulonyo ditarikan dek padusi dalam galombang tari jo nyanyian-nyanyian ratok. Samantaro katiko ditarikan jo laki-laki mangko barubah manjadi randai. Namun, indak ado panjalehan labiah lanjuik soal tari ilau nan ditarikan padusi dek tarian laki-laki nan labiah bakambang.{{Sfn|Paula|1998|pp=16-17}} ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} === Daftar pustaka === * {{Cite book|title=Theater and martial arts in West Sumatra : Randai and silek of the Minangkabau|last=Pauka|first=Kirstin|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780896802056|location=Ohio|pages=|ref={{sfnRef|Paula|1998}}}}<br /> {{Minang-stub}} [[Kategori:Seni]] [[Kategori:Tari di Minangkabau]] [[Kategori:Seni Minangkabau]] [[Kategori:Entri manggunokan rujuakan WikiPustakaSumatra]] 20bq1l3otkh1kz5iznpcwc8yf10oua7 4 605 3351334 2052775 2026-08-06T02:42:59Z Adhmi 7359 3351334 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="clear:both; background:none;" {| | width="60%" style="padding:1em 1em 1em 1em; border:1px solid #A3B1BF; background-color:#E6F2FF" valign="top"| Laman ko mamuek gambar-gambar nan alah manjadi '''gambar nan tapiliah'''. Sadoalah gambar pilihan akan ditayangan salamo 2 minggu dan diganti satiok 2 minggu pado pukua 00.00 [[Waktu Universal Terkoordinasi|UTC]] (pukua 07.00 [[WIB]]). Satiok pangguno dapek bapartisipasi dalam proses pamiliahan gambar nan tapiliah [[/Usulan|halaman pangusulan]]. Syarat umum pangusulan suatu gambar adolah: # Gambar nan indah, impresif, dan manganduang informasi. # Gambar harus balisensi bebas. # Gambar baresolusi tinggi. <small class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Gambar_Nan_Tapiliah|action=purge}} Hapuih singgahan]</small> | valign="top" style="padding:1em; border:1px solid #A3B1BF; background-color:#E6F2FF" | {{Pintas|[[WP:GT]]|[[WP:GNT]]}} |} |} ==Arsip== {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ '''Arsip gambar nan tapiliah''' ! Bulan ! 2013 ! 2014 ! 2015 ! 2016 ! 2017 ! 2018 ! 2019 ! 2020 ! 2021 ! 2022 ! 2023 ! 2024 ! 2025 ! 2026 |- | [[Januari]] | | | | | [[Gambar:Cinnamomum_verum_spices.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:Panthera_tigris_sumatran_subspecies.jpg|70px]] | [[file:Tradisi_Pacu_Itiak.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:Pintu depan Klenteng See Hin Kiong Padang tampak samping.jpg|70px]] | | |- | [[Pebruari]] | [[Gambar:Rumah_Gadang.jpg|70px]] | | | | | | [[Gambar:Memasak_Rendang.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:AIR_TERJUN_LUBUK_HITAM.jpg|70px]] | | |- | [[Maret]] | [[Gambar:Ngaraisianok.jpg|70px]] | | [[Gambar:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Stadsgezicht_Fort_de_Kock_bij_Torenklok_Sumatra%27s_Westkust_TMnr_10014984.jpg|70px]] | | | | [[Gambar:Musician_playing_saluang_darek.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:AIR_TERJUN_LUBUK_HITAM.jpg|70px]] | | |- | [[April]] | | | | | | | [[Gambar:Sulam Minangkabau.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:AIR_TERJUN_LUBUK_HITAM.jpg|70px]] | | |- | [[Mai]] | [[Gambar:Adityawarman_Museum.JPG|70px]] | | | | | | [[Image:Seribu_Rumah_Gadang.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:AIR_TERJUN_LUBUK_HITAM.jpg|70px]] | | |- | [[Juni]] | [[Gambar:Tabuik_festival.jpg|70px]] | | | | | [[Gambar:Dadiah2.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:Nasi_Kapau_Selera_Minang.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:Masjid Raya Ganting 2020 01.jpg|70px]] | | |- | [[Juli]] | [[Gambar:Rangkiang_PDIKM_Padang_Panjang.JPG|70px]] | | | | | | | [[Gambar:Masjid Raya Ganting 2020 01.jpg|70px]] | | |- | [[Agustus]] | | | | | | [[Gambar:Dalimus_Arip_with_his_rabab_pasisie.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:Japanese_Tunnel_Bukittinggi_Indonesia.jpg|70px]] | [[Gambar:Masjid Ampang Gadang 2020 01.jpg|70px]] | | | | | |[[Gambar:Bendera di Upacara Kirab 17 Agustus Sungayang.jpg|70px]] |- | [[September]] | [[Gambar:The_lion_of_Egyptian_revolution_(Qasr_al-Nil_Bridge)-edit2.jpg|70px]] | | | | | | [[Gambar:Japanese_Tunnel_Bukittinggi_Indonesia.jpg|70px]] | | | |- | [[Oktober]] | | | | | | | [[Gambar:Tugu Gempa Padang 2018.jpg|70px]] | | | |- | [[Nopember]] | | | | | | | [[Gambar:Tour de Singkarak 2013 (2).jpg|70px]] | | | |- | [[Desember]] | [[Gambar:Minang-style_donation_box.JPG|70px]] | | | | | | [[Gambar:Jembatan di muaro Padang.jpg|70px]] | | | |} == Caliak juo == *[[Wikipedia:Artikel nan Tapiliah]] [[Category:Gambar Nan Tapiliah]] [[ar:ويكيبيديا:صور مختارة]] [[az:Vikipediya:Seçilmiş şəkillər]] [[ba:Википедия:Бөгөнгө рәсем]] [[bar:Wikipedia:Berige Buida]] [[de:Wikipedia:Exzellente Bilder]] [[en:Wikipedia:Featured pictures]] [[es:Wikipedia:Recursos destacados]] [[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:نگاره‌های برگزیده]] [[fr:Wikipédia:Images de qualité]] [[he:ויקיפדיה:תמונה מומלצת]] [[hsb:Wikipedija:Dobre wobrazy]] [[ja:Wikipedia:秀逸な画像]] [[ka:ვიკიპედია:რჩეული ფოტოები]] [[ml:വിക്കിപീഡിയ:തിരഞ്ഞെടുക്കാവുന്ന ചിത്രങ്ങൾ]] [[ms:Wikipedia:Gambar pilihan]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Ilustracja na medal]] [[pt:Wikipédia:Imagem em destaque]] [[ro:Wikipedia:Imagini de calitate]] [[sah:Бикипиэдьийэ:Күннээҕи ойуу]] [[sc:Wikipedia:Màgines de sa chida]] [[sl:Wikipedija:Izbrane slike]] [[sq:Wikipedia:Fotografi perfekte]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Utvalda bilder]] [[th:วิกิพีเดีย:ภาพคัดสรร]] [[tl:Wikipedia:Supnayan ng mga nagdaang napiling larawan]] [[tr:Vikipedi:Seçkin resimler]] [[vi:Wikipedia:Hình ảnh chọn lọc]] [[yo:Wikipedia:Àwòrán ọjọ́ òní]] [[zh:Wikipedia:特色图片]] [[zh-yue:Wikipedia:正圖]] 37rmrax8mp6nhrbq5q3hidvmkbxxqo7 4 1610 3351185 2600790 2026-08-05T12:09:55Z Adhmi 7359 3351185 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2013 == === Pebruari === [[Image:Rumah Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Rumah Gadang|Rumah Gadang]]]] Ambo usulan iko untuak samantaro mangisi kakosongan GNT. [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|bicara]]) 10 Pebruari 2013 13.38 (WIT) === Maret-April === [[Image:Ngaraisianok.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Ngarai Sianok]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 9 Maret 2013 18.18 (WIT) === Mai === [[Berkas:Adityawarman Museum.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Museum Adityawarman di [[Padang]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 2 Mai 2013 19.11 (WIT) === Juni === [[File:Tabuik festival.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Festival Tabuik di Pariaman]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 18 Mai 2013 10.34 (WIT) === Juli === [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 7 Juli 2013 14.42 (WIT) === Agustus === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan lain bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === September === [[File:The lion of Egyptian revolution (Qasr al-Nil Bridge)-edit2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Surang demonstran mangibarkan bandera Masia di ateh patuang singo di Jambatan Qasr al-Nil]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === Oktober jo Nopember === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan pado duo bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) === Desember === [[File:Minang-style donation box.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Kotak wakaf gayo bagonjong di sabuah musajik di Pariaman]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) == 2015 == === Maret === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Stadsgezicht Fort de Kock bij Torenklok Sumatra's Westkust TMnr 10014984.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Jam Gadang]] pado zaman panjajahan [[Balando]]]] Ambo usulkan untuak mangisi kakosongan dalami labiah kurang 2 taun ko. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 31 Maret 2015 17.57 (WIB) == 2016 == === Maret === Gambar nan masih aktual dari Musajik Rayo Sumatera Barat. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 20 Maret 2016 10.31 (WIB) === Mei === [[Berkas:20151030 Syrians and Iraq refugees arrive at Skala Sykamias Lesvos Greece 2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Pangungsi [[Suriah]] jo [[Irak]] barangkek dari [[Turki]] jo tiba di Skala Sykamias, Pulau Lesbos, [[Yunani]].]] gambar tapiliah di id.wiki [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 16 Mai 2016 13.58 (WIB) == 2019 == === Mei === [[Image:Seribu_Rumah_Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Kawasan Saribu Rumah Gadang di [[Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu, Solok Selatan|Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu]], [[Kabupaten Solok Selatan]], [[Sumatera Barat]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Mei 2019. [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 14 April 2019 14.40 (WIB) == 2021 == === Nopember === [[Berkas:Mud Cow Racing - Pacu Jawi - West Sumatra, Indonesia.jpg|500px|jmpl|center|[[Pacu jawi]] adolah sabuah atraksi [[pamainan tradisional nan dilombakan di Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Nopember 2021. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 17 Oktober 2021 20.37 (WIB) :Izin panguruih Bang {{u|David Wadie Fisher-Freberg}}, Bang {{u|Ardzun}}, Bang {{u|Rahmatdenas}}, alah usang bana foto di laman utamo. Di Wikipedia baso Indonesia alah ado pulo Gambar Terpilih poto baarak bako. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 25 Nopember 2021 08.09 (WIB) ::Dipasang sampai akhia tahun ndak juo baa, kok manuruik ambo. Salam, [[Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|dwadieff]] [[Rundiang Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|✉]] 28 Nopember 2021 14.49 (WIB) :{{setuju}} [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 28 Nopember 2021 15.57 (WIB) == 2023 == === Juli === [[Berkas:Balairung Tabek Sari - Sumatera Barat.jpg|jmpl|[[Balerong Sari Tabek]], [[Balerong|balerong tradisional Minangkabau]] di [[Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], [[Sumatera Barat]]. Bangunannyo marupoan paninggalan abad ka-17, tabuek dari kayu, jo ukuran panjang 48,24 meter jo leba 3,40 meter.]] Dari [[:id:Wikipedia:Gambar pilihan/77 2022|Gambar pilihan/77 2022 di Wikipedia baso Indonesia]]. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 14 Juni 2023 08.16 (WIB) == 2026 == === Agustus == aditl2tkikvvky5vxps3mz2jfplvcw6 3351186 3351185 2026-08-05T12:13:03Z Adhmi 7359 3351186 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2013 == === Pebruari === [[Image:Rumah Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Rumah Gadang|Rumah Gadang]]]] Ambo usulan iko untuak samantaro mangisi kakosongan GNT. [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|bicara]]) 10 Pebruari 2013 13.38 (WIT) === Maret-April === [[Image:Ngaraisianok.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Ngarai Sianok]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 9 Maret 2013 18.18 (WIT) === Mai === [[Berkas:Adityawarman Museum.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Museum Adityawarman di [[Padang]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 2 Mai 2013 19.11 (WIT) === Juni === [[File:Tabuik festival.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Festival Tabuik di Pariaman]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 18 Mai 2013 10.34 (WIT) === Juli === [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 7 Juli 2013 14.42 (WIT) === Agustus === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan lain bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === September === [[File:The lion of Egyptian revolution (Qasr al-Nil Bridge)-edit2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Surang demonstran mangibarkan bandera Masia di ateh patuang singo di Jambatan Qasr al-Nil]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === Oktober jo Nopember === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan pado duo bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) === Desember === [[File:Minang-style donation box.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Kotak wakaf gayo bagonjong di sabuah musajik di Pariaman]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) == 2015 == === Maret === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Stadsgezicht Fort de Kock bij Torenklok Sumatra's Westkust TMnr 10014984.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Jam Gadang]] pado zaman panjajahan [[Balando]]]] Ambo usulkan untuak mangisi kakosongan dalami labiah kurang 2 taun ko. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 31 Maret 2015 17.57 (WIB) == 2016 == === Maret === Gambar nan masih aktual dari Musajik Rayo Sumatera Barat. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 20 Maret 2016 10.31 (WIB) === Mei === [[Berkas:20151030 Syrians and Iraq refugees arrive at Skala Sykamias Lesvos Greece 2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Pangungsi [[Suriah]] jo [[Irak]] barangkek dari [[Turki]] jo tiba di Skala Sykamias, Pulau Lesbos, [[Yunani]].]] gambar tapiliah di id.wiki [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 16 Mai 2016 13.58 (WIB) == 2019 == === Mei === [[Image:Seribu_Rumah_Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Kawasan Saribu Rumah Gadang di [[Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu, Solok Selatan|Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu]], [[Kabupaten Solok Selatan]], [[Sumatera Barat]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Mei 2019. [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 14 April 2019 14.40 (WIB) == 2021 == === Nopember === [[Berkas:Mud Cow Racing - Pacu Jawi - West Sumatra, Indonesia.jpg|500px|jmpl|center|[[Pacu jawi]] adolah sabuah atraksi [[pamainan tradisional nan dilombakan di Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Nopember 2021. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 17 Oktober 2021 20.37 (WIB) :Izin panguruih Bang {{u|David Wadie Fisher-Freberg}}, Bang {{u|Ardzun}}, Bang {{u|Rahmatdenas}}, alah usang bana foto di laman utamo. Di Wikipedia baso Indonesia alah ado pulo Gambar Terpilih poto baarak bako. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 25 Nopember 2021 08.09 (WIB) ::Dipasang sampai akhia tahun ndak juo baa, kok manuruik ambo. Salam, [[Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|dwadieff]] [[Rundiang Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|✉]] 28 Nopember 2021 14.49 (WIB) :{{setuju}} [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 28 Nopember 2021 15.57 (WIB) == 2023 == === Juli === [[Berkas:Balairung Tabek Sari - Sumatera Barat.jpg|jmpl|[[Balerong Sari Tabek]], [[Balerong|balerong tradisional Minangkabau]] di [[Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], [[Sumatera Barat]]. Bangunannyo marupoan paninggalan abad ka-17, tabuek dari kayu, jo ukuran panjang 48,24 meter jo leba 3,40 meter.]] Dari [[:id:Wikipedia:Gambar pilihan/77 2022|Gambar pilihan/77 2022 di Wikipedia baso Indonesia]]. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 14 Juni 2023 08.16 (WIB) == 2026 == === Agustus === 8t9qp3wv2y8o4v9m1shzmmt6ussoq7m 3351331 3351186 2026-08-06T02:38:43Z Adhmi 7359 /* 2026 */ 3351331 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2013 == === Pebruari === [[Image:Rumah Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Rumah Gadang|Rumah Gadang]]]] Ambo usulan iko untuak samantaro mangisi kakosongan GNT. [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|bicara]]) 10 Pebruari 2013 13.38 (WIT) === Maret-April === [[Image:Ngaraisianok.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Ngarai Sianok]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 9 Maret 2013 18.18 (WIT) === Mai === [[Berkas:Adityawarman Museum.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Museum Adityawarman di [[Padang]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 2 Mai 2013 19.11 (WIT) === Juni === [[File:Tabuik festival.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Festival Tabuik di Pariaman]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 18 Mai 2013 10.34 (WIT) === Juli === [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 7 Juli 2013 14.42 (WIT) === Agustus === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan lain bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === September === [[File:The lion of Egyptian revolution (Qasr al-Nil Bridge)-edit2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Surang demonstran mangibarkan bandera Masia di ateh patuang singo di Jambatan Qasr al-Nil]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === Oktober jo Nopember === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan pado duo bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) === Desember === [[File:Minang-style donation box.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Kotak wakaf gayo bagonjong di sabuah musajik di Pariaman]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) == 2015 == === Maret === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Stadsgezicht Fort de Kock bij Torenklok Sumatra's Westkust TMnr 10014984.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Jam Gadang]] pado zaman panjajahan [[Balando]]]] Ambo usulkan untuak mangisi kakosongan dalami labiah kurang 2 taun ko. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 31 Maret 2015 17.57 (WIB) == 2016 == === Maret === Gambar nan masih aktual dari Musajik Rayo Sumatera Barat. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 20 Maret 2016 10.31 (WIB) === Mei === [[Berkas:20151030 Syrians and Iraq refugees arrive at Skala Sykamias Lesvos Greece 2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Pangungsi [[Suriah]] jo [[Irak]] barangkek dari [[Turki]] jo tiba di Skala Sykamias, Pulau Lesbos, [[Yunani]].]] gambar tapiliah di id.wiki [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 16 Mai 2016 13.58 (WIB) == 2019 == === Mei === [[Image:Seribu_Rumah_Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Kawasan Saribu Rumah Gadang di [[Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu, Solok Selatan|Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu]], [[Kabupaten Solok Selatan]], [[Sumatera Barat]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Mei 2019. [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 14 April 2019 14.40 (WIB) == 2021 == === Nopember === [[Berkas:Mud Cow Racing - Pacu Jawi - West Sumatra, Indonesia.jpg|500px|jmpl|center|[[Pacu jawi]] adolah sabuah atraksi [[pamainan tradisional nan dilombakan di Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Nopember 2021. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 17 Oktober 2021 20.37 (WIB) :Izin panguruih Bang {{u|David Wadie Fisher-Freberg}}, Bang {{u|Ardzun}}, Bang {{u|Rahmatdenas}}, alah usang bana foto di laman utamo. Di Wikipedia baso Indonesia alah ado pulo Gambar Terpilih poto baarak bako. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 25 Nopember 2021 08.09 (WIB) ::Dipasang sampai akhia tahun ndak juo baa, kok manuruik ambo. Salam, [[Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|dwadieff]] [[Rundiang Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|✉]] 28 Nopember 2021 14.49 (WIB) :{{setuju}} [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 28 Nopember 2021 15.57 (WIB) == 2023 == === Juli === [[Berkas:Balairung Tabek Sari - Sumatera Barat.jpg|jmpl|[[Balerong Sari Tabek]], [[Balerong|balerong tradisional Minangkabau]] di [[Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], [[Sumatera Barat]]. Bangunannyo marupoan paninggalan abad ka-17, tabuek dari kayu, jo ukuran panjang 48,24 meter jo leba 3,40 meter.]] Dari [[:id:Wikipedia:Gambar pilihan/77 2022|Gambar pilihan/77 2022 di Wikipedia baso Indonesia]]. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 14 Juni 2023 08.16 (WIB) == 2026 == === Agustus === [[Berkas:Bendera di Upacara Kirab 17 Agustus Sungayang.jpg|500px|jmpl|center|]] Proses pangibaran bendera merah putiah di puncak bukik kasumbo [[Sungayang, Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]]. Ambo usulan gambar iko untuak bulan Agustus 2026. 6um3acn3vzf2436bowwalptiauyny9e 3351332 3351331 2026-08-06T02:39:17Z Adhmi 7359 /* Agustus */ 3351332 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2013 == === Pebruari === [[Image:Rumah Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Rumah Gadang|Rumah Gadang]]]] Ambo usulan iko untuak samantaro mangisi kakosongan GNT. [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|bicara]]) 10 Pebruari 2013 13.38 (WIT) === Maret-April === [[Image:Ngaraisianok.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Ngarai Sianok]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 9 Maret 2013 18.18 (WIT) === Mai === [[Berkas:Adityawarman Museum.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Museum Adityawarman di [[Padang]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 2 Mai 2013 19.11 (WIT) === Juni === [[File:Tabuik festival.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Festival Tabuik di Pariaman]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 18 Mai 2013 10.34 (WIT) === Juli === [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 7 Juli 2013 14.42 (WIT) === Agustus === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan lain bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === September === [[File:The lion of Egyptian revolution (Qasr al-Nil Bridge)-edit2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Surang demonstran mangibarkan bandera Masia di ateh patuang singo di Jambatan Qasr al-Nil]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === Oktober jo Nopember === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan pado duo bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) === Desember === [[File:Minang-style donation box.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Kotak wakaf gayo bagonjong di sabuah musajik di Pariaman]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) == 2015 == === Maret === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Stadsgezicht Fort de Kock bij Torenklok Sumatra's Westkust TMnr 10014984.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Jam Gadang]] pado zaman panjajahan [[Balando]]]] Ambo usulkan untuak mangisi kakosongan dalami labiah kurang 2 taun ko. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 31 Maret 2015 17.57 (WIB) == 2016 == === Maret === Gambar nan masih aktual dari Musajik Rayo Sumatera Barat. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 20 Maret 2016 10.31 (WIB) === Mei === [[Berkas:20151030 Syrians and Iraq refugees arrive at Skala Sykamias Lesvos Greece 2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Pangungsi [[Suriah]] jo [[Irak]] barangkek dari [[Turki]] jo tiba di Skala Sykamias, Pulau Lesbos, [[Yunani]].]] gambar tapiliah di id.wiki [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 16 Mai 2016 13.58 (WIB) == 2019 == === Mei === [[Image:Seribu_Rumah_Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Kawasan Saribu Rumah Gadang di [[Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu, Solok Selatan|Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu]], [[Kabupaten Solok Selatan]], [[Sumatera Barat]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Mei 2019. [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 14 April 2019 14.40 (WIB) == 2021 == === Nopember === [[Berkas:Mud Cow Racing - Pacu Jawi - West Sumatra, Indonesia.jpg|500px|jmpl|center|[[Pacu jawi]] adolah sabuah atraksi [[pamainan tradisional nan dilombakan di Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Nopember 2021. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 17 Oktober 2021 20.37 (WIB) :Izin panguruih Bang {{u|David Wadie Fisher-Freberg}}, Bang {{u|Ardzun}}, Bang {{u|Rahmatdenas}}, alah usang bana foto di laman utamo. Di Wikipedia baso Indonesia alah ado pulo Gambar Terpilih poto baarak bako. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 25 Nopember 2021 08.09 (WIB) ::Dipasang sampai akhia tahun ndak juo baa, kok manuruik ambo. Salam, [[Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|dwadieff]] [[Rundiang Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|✉]] 28 Nopember 2021 14.49 (WIB) :{{setuju}} [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 28 Nopember 2021 15.57 (WIB) == 2023 == === Juli === [[Berkas:Balairung Tabek Sari - Sumatera Barat.jpg|jmpl|[[Balerong Sari Tabek]], [[Balerong|balerong tradisional Minangkabau]] di [[Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], [[Sumatera Barat]]. Bangunannyo marupoan paninggalan abad ka-17, tabuek dari kayu, jo ukuran panjang 48,24 meter jo leba 3,40 meter.]] Dari [[:id:Wikipedia:Gambar pilihan/77 2022|Gambar pilihan/77 2022 di Wikipedia baso Indonesia]]. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 14 Juni 2023 08.16 (WIB) == 2026 == === Agustus === [[Berkas:Bendera di Upacara Kirab 17 Agustus Sungayang.jpg|500px|jmpl|center|]] Proses pangibaran bendera merah putiah di puncak bukik kasumbo [[Sungayang, Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]]. Ambo usulan gambar iko untuak bulan Agustus 2026. [[Pangguno:Adhmi|Adhmi]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Adhmi|maota]]) 6 Agustus 2026 09.39 (WIB) 0jta8uq988u39tsm9a1bfyby35ql3hs 3351333 3351332 2026-08-06T02:40:27Z Adhmi 7359 /* Agustus */ 3351333 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2013 == === Pebruari === [[Image:Rumah Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Rumah Gadang|Rumah Gadang]]]] Ambo usulan iko untuak samantaro mangisi kakosongan GNT. [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|bicara]]) 10 Pebruari 2013 13.38 (WIT) === Maret-April === [[Image:Ngaraisianok.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Ngarai Sianok]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 9 Maret 2013 18.18 (WIT) === Mai === [[Berkas:Adityawarman Museum.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Museum Adityawarman di [[Padang]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 2 Mai 2013 19.11 (WIT) === Juni === [[File:Tabuik festival.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Festival Tabuik di Pariaman]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 18 Mai 2013 10.34 (WIT) === Juli === [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 7 Juli 2013 14.42 (WIT) === Agustus === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan lain bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === September === [[File:The lion of Egyptian revolution (Qasr al-Nil Bridge)-edit2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Surang demonstran mangibarkan bandera Masia di ateh patuang singo di Jambatan Qasr al-Nil]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === Oktober jo Nopember === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan pado duo bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) === Desember === [[File:Minang-style donation box.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Kotak wakaf gayo bagonjong di sabuah musajik di Pariaman]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) == 2015 == === Maret === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Stadsgezicht Fort de Kock bij Torenklok Sumatra's Westkust TMnr 10014984.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Jam Gadang]] pado zaman panjajahan [[Balando]]]] Ambo usulkan untuak mangisi kakosongan dalami labiah kurang 2 taun ko. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 31 Maret 2015 17.57 (WIB) == 2016 == === Maret === Gambar nan masih aktual dari Musajik Rayo Sumatera Barat. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 20 Maret 2016 10.31 (WIB) === Mei === [[Berkas:20151030 Syrians and Iraq refugees arrive at Skala Sykamias Lesvos Greece 2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Pangungsi [[Suriah]] jo [[Irak]] barangkek dari [[Turki]] jo tiba di Skala Sykamias, Pulau Lesbos, [[Yunani]].]] gambar tapiliah di id.wiki [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 16 Mai 2016 13.58 (WIB) == 2019 == === Mei === [[Image:Seribu_Rumah_Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Kawasan Saribu Rumah Gadang di [[Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu, Solok Selatan|Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu]], [[Kabupaten Solok Selatan]], [[Sumatera Barat]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Mei 2019. [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 14 April 2019 14.40 (WIB) == 2021 == === Nopember === [[Berkas:Mud Cow Racing - Pacu Jawi - West Sumatra, Indonesia.jpg|500px|jmpl|center|[[Pacu jawi]] adolah sabuah atraksi [[pamainan tradisional nan dilombakan di Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Nopember 2021. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 17 Oktober 2021 20.37 (WIB) :Izin panguruih Bang {{u|David Wadie Fisher-Freberg}}, Bang {{u|Ardzun}}, Bang {{u|Rahmatdenas}}, alah usang bana foto di laman utamo. Di Wikipedia baso Indonesia alah ado pulo Gambar Terpilih poto baarak bako. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 25 Nopember 2021 08.09 (WIB) ::Dipasang sampai akhia tahun ndak juo baa, kok manuruik ambo. Salam, [[Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|dwadieff]] [[Rundiang Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|✉]] 28 Nopember 2021 14.49 (WIB) :{{setuju}} [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 28 Nopember 2021 15.57 (WIB) == 2023 == === Juli === [[Berkas:Balairung Tabek Sari - Sumatera Barat.jpg|jmpl|[[Balerong Sari Tabek]], [[Balerong|balerong tradisional Minangkabau]] di [[Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], [[Sumatera Barat]]. Bangunannyo marupoan paninggalan abad ka-17, tabuek dari kayu, jo ukuran panjang 48,24 meter jo leba 3,40 meter.]] Dari [[:id:Wikipedia:Gambar pilihan/77 2022|Gambar pilihan/77 2022 di Wikipedia baso Indonesia]]. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 14 Juni 2023 08.16 (WIB) == 2026 == === Agustus === [[Berkas:Bendera di Upacara Kirab 17 Agustus Sungayang.jpg|500px|jmpl|center| Proses pangibaran bendera merah putiah di puncak bukik kasumbo [[Sungayang, Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]].]] Ambo usulan gambar iko untuak bulan Agustus 2026. [[Pangguno:Adhmi|Adhmi]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Adhmi|maota]]) 6 Agustus 2026 09.39 (WIB) drq625rwhoe97nzpvfyhi55rrfs4l9g 3351336 3351333 2026-08-06T03:22:56Z Zhilal Darma 7976 /* Agustus 2 */ Baleh 3351336 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2013 == === Pebruari === [[Image:Rumah Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Rumah Gadang|Rumah Gadang]]]] Ambo usulan iko untuak samantaro mangisi kakosongan GNT. [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|bicara]]) 10 Pebruari 2013 13.38 (WIT) === Maret-April === [[Image:Ngaraisianok.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Ngarai Sianok]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 9 Maret 2013 18.18 (WIT) === Mai === [[Berkas:Adityawarman Museum.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Museum Adityawarman di [[Padang]]]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 2 Mai 2013 19.11 (WIT) === Juni === [[File:Tabuik festival.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Festival Tabuik di Pariaman]] [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 18 Mai 2013 10.34 (WIT) === Juli === [[Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Pembicaraan Pengguna:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 7 Juli 2013 14.42 (WIT) === Agustus === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan lain bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === September === [[File:The lion of Egyptian revolution (Qasr al-Nil Bridge)-edit2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Surang demonstran mangibarkan bandera Masia di ateh patuang singo di Jambatan Qasr al-Nil]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 3 September 2013 19.50 (WIB) === Oktober jo Nopember === Dek sebab indak ado pancalonan pado duo bulan ko, gambar dari bulan sabalunnyo dipakai lo liak. [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) === Desember === [[File:Minang-style donation box.JPG|500px|thumb|center|Kotak wakaf gayo bagonjong di sabuah musajik di Pariaman]] [[Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|SpartacksCompatriot]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:SpartacksCompatriot|maota]]) 1 Desember 2013 07.26 (WIB) == 2015 == === Maret === [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Stadsgezicht Fort de Kock bij Torenklok Sumatra's Westkust TMnr 10014984.jpg|500px|thumb|center|[[Jam Gadang]] pado zaman panjajahan [[Balando]]]] Ambo usulkan untuak mangisi kakosongan dalami labiah kurang 2 taun ko. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 31 Maret 2015 17.57 (WIB) == 2016 == === Maret === Gambar nan masih aktual dari Musajik Rayo Sumatera Barat. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 20 Maret 2016 10.31 (WIB) === Mei === [[Berkas:20151030 Syrians and Iraq refugees arrive at Skala Sykamias Lesvos Greece 2.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Pangungsi [[Suriah]] jo [[Irak]] barangkek dari [[Turki]] jo tiba di Skala Sykamias, Pulau Lesbos, [[Yunani]].]] gambar tapiliah di id.wiki [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 16 Mai 2016 13.58 (WIB) == 2019 == === Mei === [[Image:Seribu_Rumah_Gadang.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Kawasan Saribu Rumah Gadang di [[Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu, Solok Selatan|Koto Baru, Sungai Pagu]], [[Kabupaten Solok Selatan]], [[Sumatera Barat]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Mei 2019. [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 14 April 2019 14.40 (WIB) == 2021 == === Nopember === [[Berkas:Mud Cow Racing - Pacu Jawi - West Sumatra, Indonesia.jpg|500px|jmpl|center|[[Pacu jawi]] adolah sabuah atraksi [[pamainan tradisional nan dilombakan di Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]].]] Ambo usulan iko untuak bulan Nopember 2021. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 17 Oktober 2021 20.37 (WIB) :Izin panguruih Bang {{u|David Wadie Fisher-Freberg}}, Bang {{u|Ardzun}}, Bang {{u|Rahmatdenas}}, alah usang bana foto di laman utamo. Di Wikipedia baso Indonesia alah ado pulo Gambar Terpilih poto baarak bako. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 25 Nopember 2021 08.09 (WIB) ::Dipasang sampai akhia tahun ndak juo baa, kok manuruik ambo. Salam, [[Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|dwadieff]] [[Rundiang Pangguno:David Wadie Fisher-Freberg|✉]] 28 Nopember 2021 14.49 (WIB) :{{setuju}} [[Pangguno:Ardzun|Ardzun]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Ardzun|maota]]) 28 Nopember 2021 15.57 (WIB) == 2023 == === Juli === [[Berkas:Balairung Tabek Sari - Sumatera Barat.jpg|jmpl|[[Balerong Sari Tabek]], [[Balerong|balerong tradisional Minangkabau]] di [[Kabupaten Tanah Datar]], [[Sumatera Barat]]. Bangunannyo marupoan paninggalan abad ka-17, tabuek dari kayu, jo ukuran panjang 48,24 meter jo leba 3,40 meter.]] Dari [[:id:Wikipedia:Gambar pilihan/77 2022|Gambar pilihan/77 2022 di Wikipedia baso Indonesia]]. Tarimo kasih. [[Pangguno:Urang Kamang|Urang Kamang]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Urang Kamang|maota]]) 14 Juni 2023 08.16 (WIB) == 2026 == === Agustus === [[Berkas:Bendera di Upacara Kirab 17 Agustus Sungayang.jpg|500px|jmpl|center| Proses pangibaran bendera merah putiah di puncak bukik kasumbo [[Sungayang, Tanah Datar]], Provinsi [[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]].]] Ambo usulan gambar iko untuak bulan Agustus 2026. [[Pangguno:Adhmi|Adhmi]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Adhmi|maota]]) 6 Agustus 2026 09.39 (WIB) :Ambo {{satuju}} Bana. [[Pangguno:Zhilal Darma|Zhilal Darma]] ([[Rundiang Pangguno:Zhilal Darma|maota]]) 6 Agustus 2026 10.22 (WIB) 52pqk6t2ey72lk7s5ikl53h7018fq8u 0 1798 3351225 3341999 2026-08-05T20:21:37Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351225 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Former Country |native_name = Kasultanan Indopuro |conventional_long_name = Ujuang Pagaruyuang |common_name = Karajaan Indopuro |continent = [[Asia]] |region = [[Asia Tenggara]] |country = [[Indonesia]] |religion = [[Islam]] |image_flag = Flag of Minang.svg |image_coat = |symbol_type = |p1 = Karajaan Pagaruyuang | Pagaruyuang |p2 = |s1 = VOC |s2 = |flag_p1 = Flag of Minang.svg |flag_p2 = |flag_s1 = Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg |year_start = 1347 |year_end = 1792 |date_start = |date_end = |event_start = Awal kakuasoan |event_end = Karuntuahan |image_map = INDERAPURA-up.PNG |image_map_caption = Wilayah karajaan Indopuro |capital = Indopuro |common_languages = [[Bahaso Minang|Minang]], [[Bahaso Malayu|Malayu]], [[Bahaso Sanskerta|Sanskerta]] |government_type = Monarki |title_leader = Rajo |currency = |footnotes = }} '''Karajaan Indopuro''' ({{baso-id|Inderapura}}) marupoan karajaan nan barado di wilayah kabupaten [[Pasisia Salatan]], provinsi [[Sumatera Barat|Sumatra Barat.]] Sacaro rasmi karajaan ko parnah manjadi bawahan (vazal) dari [[Karajaan Pagaruyuang]]. Walaupun pado prakteknyo karajaan ko tagak surang sarato bebas maatua urusan dalam jo lua nagarinyo. Karajaan ko pado maso jayonyo maliputi wilayah pantai barat [[Andaleh]] ({{baso-id|Andalas}}) (kini [[Sumatera]]) mulai dari [[Padang]] di utara sampai Sungai Hurai di selatan. Panghasilan paliang utamo Indopuro adolah lado kaciang junjuang ({{baso-id|lada}}), dan manggaleh ameh. Pangaruah kakuasoan Karajaan Indopuro sampai ka Banten di Pulau Jao. Manuruik ''[[Sejarah Banten]],'' [[Kasultanan Banten]] alah malakukan kontak dagang jo Karajaan Indopuro nan ditandoi jo pambarian karih dari [[Sultan Munawar Syah]] ka bakeh [[Maulana Hasanuddin dari Banten|Sultan Hasanuddin]].<ref>[[Sudarman]] (2019). ''Jaringan Perniagaan dan Islamisasi di Kerajaan Inderapura''. hlm. 41.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mulyadi|first=S. W. R.|date=1991|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=vPobAAAAIAAJ&q=%22laju+maring+lor+turun+pasisir,+tiba+/+ing+Sirem+iya+iku+*%22&dq=%22laju+maring+lor+turun+pasisir,+tiba+/+ing+Sirem+iya+iku+*%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjBvPnYvdLsAhV683MBHZMRDR4Q6AEwAHoECAAQAg|title=Naskah dan kita|publisher=Fakultas Sastra Universias Indonesia|language=id}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hernadi|first=Edi|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=W0yqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA197&dq=%22+raja+Malangkabu%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwixtJ2WvdLsAhXJdCsKHZ0MBJQQ6AEwA3oECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=%22%20raja%20Malangkabu%22&f=false|title=Sejarah Nasional Indonesia: Edisi Revisi 2013|publisher=Uwais Inspirasi Indonesia|isbn=978-623-227-121-0|language=id}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ōta|first=Atsushi|date=2006|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=0gOMTC8I7s4C&pg=PA175&dq=%22+Malangkabu%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy-4_7vdLsAhXCbn0KHdGvBpMQ6AEwBXoECAEQAg#v=onepage&q=%22%20Malangkabu%22&f=false|title=Changes of Regime And Social Dynamics in West Java: Society, State And the Outer World of Banten, 1750-1830|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-15091-1|language=en}}</ref> Manuruik [[Hamka]], Sultan Munawar Syah manikahkan putinyo jo Hasanuddin dan mahadiahkan [[Selebar, Bengkulu|Silebar]] (daerah pangasia merica di Bengkulu) kapado Kasultanan [[Banten]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hamka|date=2020-04-24|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=WWjeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA576&dq=Hasanuddin+%22indrapura%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj_rcGYv9LsAhXSfn0KHRfNCl0Q6AEwAHoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=Hasanuddin%20%22indrapura%22&f=false|title=Sejarah Umat Islam: Pra-Kenabian hingga Islam di Nusantara|publisher=Gema Insani|isbn=978-602-250-714-7|language=id}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Djaja|first=Tamar|date=1965|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ZQ8-AAAAMAAJ&q=Hasanuddin+%22indrapura%22&dq=Hasanuddin+%22indrapura%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjoo-bev9LsAhUXfX0KHW5tD5Y4ChDoATACegQIBBAC|title=Pustaka Indonesia: riwajat hidup orang-orang besar tanah air|publisher=Bulan Bintang|language=ms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rasjid|first=Tamrur|date=1955|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=U6Y5AAAAMAAJ&q=Hasanuddin+%22indrapura%22&dq=Hasanuddin+%22indrapura%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjoo-bev9LsAhUXfX0KHW5tD5Y4ChDoATAGegQICRAC|title=Pahlawan dan Ulama Islam Indonedia|publisher=Kementerian Agama|language=ms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Saleh|first=Zainoeddin|last2=Dusky|first2=Anwar|date=1952|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Y2IeAAAAMAAJ&q=Hasanuddin+%22indrapura%22&dq=Hasanuddin+%22indrapura%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjBl-XSwNLsAhX-IbcAHSklDUw4HhDoATADegQIBRAC|title=Sedjarah Indonesia, disusun oleh Zainoeddin Saleh|publisher=Pustaka Dewata|language=ms}}</ref> == Kabangkitan == Indopuro tanamo juo jo sabagai Ujuang Pagaruyuang. Malamahnyo kakuasaan Pagaruyuang salamo abaik ka-15, babarapo daerah pado kawasan pasisia [[Minangkabau]] lainnyo, takah [[Kerajaan Inderagiri|Inderagiri]], [[Kesultanan Jambi|Jambi]], jo Indopuro dibiakan manguruih dirinyo surang.<ref name="Kat1">{{cite journal| last =Kathirithamby-Wells | first = J.| year = 1976| title = The Inderapura Sultanate: The Foundation of its Rise and Decline, from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century| url =https://archive.org/details/sim_indonesia_1976-04_21/page/65 | journal = Indonesia | volume = 21 | pages = 65-84}}</ref> Namun pakambangan Indopuro baru dimulai katiko [[Kesultanan Malaka|Malaka]] jatuah ka tangan [[Portugis]] pado tahun [[1511]]. Arus padagangan nan tadinyo malalui [[Selat Malaka]] sabagian gadang baraliah ka pantai barat [[Sumatra]] jo [[Selat Sunda]]. Pakambangan jo ekspansi Indopuro tarutamo ditunjang dek marica.<ref name="Kat1" /> Wakatu tapeknyo Indopuro mancapai status nagari merdeka indak ado dikatahui sacaro pasti. Namun, iko dipakirokan batapatan jo mulai maraknyo padagangan marica di wilayah tu pado patangahan abaik ka-16, didorong usaho pananaman marica tu di bateh selatan Indopuro mancapai Silebar (kini di [[Provinsi Bengkulu]]). Pado maso iko, Indopuro alah manjalin pasahabatan jo [[Kesultanan Banten|Banten]] sarato [[Kerajaan Aceh|Aceh]]. Katiko [[Kesultanan Aceh|Kasultanan Aceh]] malakukan ekspansi sampai ka wilayah [[Pariaman]], Indopuro mahantikan ekspansinyo sarato manjalin pasahabatan jo Aceh malalui ikatan pakawinan antaro Rajo Dewi, putri [[Munawar Syah dari Inderapura|Sultan Munawar Syah]] dari Indopuro,<ref>Iskandar, T., (1966), ''Bustanu's-Salatin'', Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.</ref> jo [[Sultan Firman Syah]], saudara raja Aceh katiko itu, [[Husain Ali Riayat Syah dari Aceh|Sultan Ali Ri'ayat Syah]] (1568-1575). Lewat hubuangan pakawinan iko jo kakuatan ekonominyo Indopuro mandapek pangaruah gadang di Kotaraja ([[Banda Aceh]]), bahkan para [[hulubalang]] dari Indopuro disabuik-sabuik bakomplot dalam pambunuhan putra [[Sultan Ali Ri'ayat Syah]], sahingga malancarkan jalan untuak suami Raja Dewi naik tahta jo nama [[Sultan Sri Alam]] pada 1576. Walau kakuasaannyo hanyo balangsuang salamo tigo tahun sabalum tasingkia dari tahtanyo karano patentangan jo [[ulama|ulama-ulama]] di [[Aceh]]. Namun pangaruah Indopuro taruih batahan di Kasultanan Aceh, dari 1586 sampai 158. Ado sorang nan masih bakaitan jo Raja Dewi, yakni Sultan Buyong, mamarintah jo gala [[Sultan Ali Ri'ayat Syah II]]<ref name="Lomba">Lombard, D., (2006), ''Kerajaan Aceh: Zaman Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607-1636)'', Jakarta: Kepustakan Populer Gramedia, ISBN 979-9100-49-6.</ref> sabaalum akhianyo tabunuah dek intrik ulama Aceh.<ref name="Kat1" /> == Perekonomian == Badasarkan laporan dari Balando pado tahun 1616, Indopuro digambarkan sabagai sabuah karajaan nan makmur di bawah pamarintahan Rajo Itam, sarato sakitar 30.000 rakyatnyo talibat dalam patanian jo pakabunan nan mangandalkan komoditas lada jo bareh. Selanjutnyo pado maso Rajo Gadang sakitar tahun 1624, VOC barasia mambuek pajanjian dalam pangumpulan hasia patanian tasabuik langsuang dimuek ka ateh kapa tanpa harus marapek dulu dipalabuhan, sarato dibebaskan dari cukai palabuhan. Baitu juo pado maso Rajo Puti, pangganti Rajo Gadang, Indopuro tetap manerapkan palabuhan bebas cukai dalam mandorong parekonomian.<ref name="Kat12">{{cite journal|last=Kathirithamby-Wells|first=J.|year=1976|title=The Inderapura Sultanate: The Foundation of its Rise and Decline, from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_indonesia_1976-04_21/page/65|journal=Indonesia|volume=21|pages=65-84}}</ref> Satalah ekspedisi penghukuman padi tahun 1633 dek Kasultanan Aceh, sampai tahun 1637 Indopuro tetap indak talok mandongkrak hasia pataniannyo mancapai hasia nan alah diperoleh pado maso-maso sabalunnyo. Di saat panurunan pangaruah Aceh, Sultan Muzzaffar Syah mulai malakuan konsolidasi kakuatan nan kamudian dilanjuikan dek anak Sultan Muhammad Syah nan naiak tahta sakitar tahun 1660 jo mulai baliak manjalin hubungan diplomatik jo Balando jo Inggirih. == Pamarintahan == Sacaro etimologi, Indopuro barasa dari [[bahasa Sanskerta|bahaso Sanskerta]], yang bamakna Kota Raja. Indopuro pado awalnyo adolah kawasan rantau dari [[Minangkabau]], marupakan kawasan pasisia di pantai barat [[Pulau Sumatra]]. Sabagai kawasan rantau, Indopuro dipimpin dek wakia nan ditunjuak dari [[Kerajaan Pagaruyung|Pagaruyung]] jo bergelar Raja<ref>''Translation of the Undang Undang of Moco Moco'', by Richard Farmer, Governor of Benkulen (1717-18), in Malayan Miscellanies, 11/13 (1822), pp. 8-9.</ref> kamudian bagala [[Sultan]]. Rajo Indopuro diidentifikasikan sabagai putra Raja Alam atau [[Yang Dipertuan Pagaruyung]].<ref>Netscher, E., (1850), ''Verzameling van over1everingen van het rijk van Manangkabau uit het oorspronkelijk Maleisch vertaald'', Indisch Archief, II/2.</ref> === Daftar Rajo Indopuro === Barikuik iko adolah [[Daftar Raja Inderapura|daftar Rajo Indopuro]]: {| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" width="90%" ! width="20px" |Tahun ! width="200px" |Namo atau gala ! width="240px" |Catatan jo peristiwa penting |- |1550 |[[Munawar Syah dari Inderapura|Sultan Munawar Syah]]Raja Mamulia | |- |1580 |[[Raja Dewi]] |Nama lainnya adalah [[Putri Rekna Candra Dewi]] |- |1616 |[[Raja Itam]] | |- |1624 |[[Raja Besar]] | |- |1625 |[[Raja Puti]] |Nama lainnya [[Putri Rekna Alun]] |- |1633 |[[Muzzaffar Syah dari Inderapura|Sultan Muzzaffar Syah]]Raja Malfarsyah | |- |1660 |[[Muhammad Syah dari Inderapura|Sultan Muhammad Syah]] |[[Raja Adil]] menuntut hak yang sama. |- |1691 |[[Mansur Syah dari Inderapura|Sultan Mansur Syah]] |[[Sultan Gulemat]] putra Raja Adil berkedudukan di Manjuto melepaskan diri dari Inderapura. |- |1696 |[[Raja Pesisir]] | |- |1760 |[[Raja Pesisir II]] | |- |1790 |[[Raja Pesisir III]] | |} === Wilayah kakuasaan === Pado akhia abat ka-17, pusaik wilayah Indopuro mancangkup lambah sungai Air Haji jo Batang Indopuro nan tadiri ateh duo puluah koto. Masiang- masiang koto diparintah dek saurang mantri, nan bafungsi sarupo panghulu di wilayah Minangkabau lainnyo. Samantaro pado daerah anak sungai nan mancangkup lambah Manjuto dan Airdikit (disabuk sabagai Nagari Ampek Baleh Koto), jo Muko-muko (Lima Koto), sistem pamarintahannyo indak jauah babeda. Untuak kawasan utaro, disabuik jo [[Banda Sapuluah]] yang dipimpin dek Rajo Nan Barampek (ampek urang nan bagala rajo, yaitu Rajo Aiahaji, Rajo Bungo Pasang, Rajo Kambang, jo Rajo Palangai). Kawasan iko marupoan samacam konfederasi dari 10 daerah atau nagari nan juo masiang-masiang dipimpin dek 10 urang panghulu. Pado kawasan bagian salatan, di mano sistem pamarintahan nan tadiri dari desa-desa barado di bawah wewenang peroatin (kapalo nan batangguang jawab manyalasaikan sangketa di muaro sungai). Peroatin iko pado awalnyo bajumlah 59 urang (peroatin nan kurang dari ciek anam puluah). Para mentri jo peroatin tunduak pado kakuasaan rajo atau sultan. == Kamunduran == Di bawah Sultan Iskandar Mudo, Kasultanan Aceh mamarangi negeri-negeri panghasia lada di [[Samananjuang Malaka|Samananjuang Malaya]] sambia barusaho mampakuek ganggaman ateh monopoli lada dari pantai barat Sumatera. Kandati ketatnyo para wakia Aceh (disabuik sabagai panglima) di [[Tanjung Mutiara, Agam|Tiku]] jo [[Pariaman (disambiguasi)|Pariaman]] ateh panjualan lada magancam padagangan Indopuro lewat palabuhan di utaro. Karano itu Indopuro mulai mangambangan bandarnyo di salatan, Silebar, nan biasonyo digunoan untuak mangekspor lada lewat [[Banten]]. Indopuro juo barusaho mangelak supayo indak mambayia cukai pado panglima Aceh. Iko mamanciang kamarahan panguaso Aceh nan mangirim armadanyo pado 1633 untuak mangukum Indopuro. Rajo Puti yang mamarintah Indopuro saat itu dihukum mati sarato babarapo bangsawan lainnyo, jo banyak urang ditawan jo dibaok ka Kotaraja. Aceh manampekan panglimanyo di Indopuro jo Rejo Malfarsyah diangkek manjadi jado manggantian Rajo Puti. Kandali Aceh malamah katiko dimpimpin dek pangganti [[Iskandar Muda]], [[Sultan Iskandar Tsani]]. Salanjuiknyo pado maso pamarintahan Ratu Tajuk Alam, pangaruah Aceh di Indopuro mulau digantian dek [[Balando]] malalui [[Kumpeni Balando|VOC]]. Dominasi VOC diawali katiko Suktan Muhammad Syah maminta bantuan ka Balando mamadamkan pambarontakan di Indopouro pado tahun 1662. Pambarontakan iko dipicu dek tuntutan Rajo Adil nan maraso punyo hak ateh tahta Indopuro badasarkan sistem [[Matrilineal|matrilinieal]]. Akibaiknyo, Sultan Indopuro tapaso malarikan diri basamo jo ayahnyo jo karabaiknyo. Kamudian Sultan Mansur Syah dikirim ka [[Batavia]] manandotangani pajanjuan nan disepakati taun 1663 jo maagiah VOC hak untuak mamonopoli pambalian lada sato hak pangarajoan tambang ameh. Pado Oktober 1663 pamarintah Indopuro baliak puliah jo Sultan Indopuro mangakui Rajo Adil sabagai wakia nan bakadudukan di [[Manjuto]]. == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Karajaan di Indonesia|Sumatera Barat]] nh0q9b6ktux0cr52b0zccrcpemf9ncb 0 5232 3351312 3153112 2026-08-05T23:06:36Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} '''Matsuo Munefusa''', juo dikana sabagai '''Matsuo Bashō''' ({{lang-ja|松尾芭蕉}}, 1644-28 Nopember 1694) adolah saurang [[panyaia]] [[Japang]]. Inyo dikana sabagai pancipto [[haiku]] tagadang, iyolah bantuak puisi dalam 5-7-5 suku kato. == Karya == * {{cite book|author= Matsuo, Bashō|others= trans. David Landis Barnhill|title= Bashō’s Journey: Selected Literary Prose by Matsuo Bashō |year=2005 |location=Albany, NY |publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn= 978-0-7914-6414-4|unused_data= ISBN status= May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book |author= Matsuo, Bashō|others=trans. Nobuyuki Yuasa|title=The Narrow Road to the Deep North and Other Travel Sketches|year=1966|location=Harmondsworth|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-044185-7|oclc=469779524}} * {{cite book |author= Matsuo, Bashō|others= trans. Sam Hamill |title=Narrow Road to the Interior and Other Writings|year=2000 |location=Boston |publisher=Shambhala|isbn= 978-1-57062-716-3 |unused_data= ISBN status= May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book|author= Matsuo, Bashō|others= trans. Sam Hamill |title=The Essential Bashō |year=1999 |location=Boston | publisher=Shambhala |isbn=978-1-57062-282-3|unused_data= ISBN status= May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book|author= Matsuo, Bashō|others= trans. David Landis Barnhill|title=Bashō's Haiku: Selected Poems of Matsuo Bashō|year=2004 |location=Albany, NY |publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn= 978-0-7914-6166-2|unused_data= ISBN status= May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book|author= Matsuo, Bashō|others= trans. Donald Keene, illustrated by Masayuki Miyata|title=The Narrow Road to Oku |year=1997 |location=Tokyo |publisher=Kodansha International|isbn= 978-4-7700-2028-4|unused_data= ISBN status= May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book|author= Matsuo, Bashō, et al. |others= trans. Maeda Cana|title=Monkey's Raincoat |year=1973 |location=New York |publisher=Grossman Publishers. SBN 670-48651-5 |isbn= 670-48651-5}} * {{cite book|author=Matsuo, Bashō |others= trans. Jane Reichhold |title=Basho: The Complete Haiku |year=2008 |location=Tokyo |publisher=Kodansha International |isbn= 978-4-7700-3063-4|unused_data=ISBN status=May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book|author=Matsuo, Bashō et al. |others= trans. Earl Miner and Hiroko Odagiri |title=The Monkey’s Straw Raincoat and Other Poetry of the Basho School |year=1981|location=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-06460-4|unused_data=ISBN status=May be invalid - please double check }} * {{cite book|author=Matsuo, Bashō |others= trans. Lucien Stryk |title=On Love and Barley: Haiku of Basho|year=1985|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-14-044459-9 }} == Bacaan lanjuik == * {{cite journal | last = Carter| first = Steven|year = 1997|title =On a Bare Branch: Bashō and the Haikai Profession| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_january-march-1997_117_1/page/57| journal =Journal of the American Oriental Society| volume = 117| issue = 1| pages = 57–69|doi =10.2307/605622 | jstor = 605622}} * {{cite book| author=Lawlor, William| title=Beat Culture: Lifestyles, Icons, and Impact |location=Santa Barbara| publisher= ABC-CLIO |year=2005 |isbn= 978-1-85109-405-9| unused_data=ISBN status=May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book|author=岡村 健三 (Kenzō Okamura)|title=芭蕉と寿貞尼 (Bashō to Jutei-ni)|location=Ōsaka|publisher=芭蕉俳句会 (''Bashō Haiku Kai'')|year=1956}} * {{cite book|author= Shirane, Haruo |title=Traces of Dreams: Landscape, Cultural Memory, and the Poetry of Basho| location=Stanford, CA |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1998|isbn= 0-8047-3099-7|unused_data= ISBN status= May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book|author= Ueda, Makoto |title=The Master Haiku Poet, Matsuo Bashō|location=Tokyo|publisher=Kodansha International |year=1982 |isbn= 0-87011-553-7|unused_data= ISBN status= May be invalid - please double check}} * {{cite book|author= Ueda, Makoto |title=Matsuo Bashō |location=Tokyo|publisher=Twayne Publishers|year=1970}} * {{cite book|author= Ueda, Makoto |title=Bashō and His Interpreters: Selected Hokku with Commentary| location=Stanford, CA |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1992|isbn= 0-8047-1916-0|unused_data= ISBN status= May be invalid - please double check}} * Takarai, Kikaku (2006). ''An Account of Our Master Basho's Last Days'', translated by Nobuyuki Yuasa in ''Springtime in Edo''. Hiroshima, Keisuisha. ISBN 4-87440-920-2 * {{cite book|author=Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai (国際文化振興会)|title=Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature|year=1948|publisher=Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai|location=Tokyo}} * Matsuo, Bashō (1966). "The narrow road to the Deep North", translated by Nobuyuki Yuasa. Harmondsworth, Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044185-9 == Pautan lua == * {{cite web |url=http://carlsensei.com/classical/index.php/author/view/1 |title= Matsuo Bashō (松尾芭蕉) |publisher=Classical Japanese Database | accessdate=2008-05-12}} Various poems by Bashō, in original and translation. * {{cite web |url=http://www.haikupoetshut.com/basho1.html |title=Interpretations of Bashō |publisher=Haiku Poets Hut | accessdate=2008-05-12}} Comparison of translations by R.&nbsp;H. Blyth, Lucien Stryck and Peter Beilenson of several Bashō haiku. * {{cite web |url=http://www.geocities.com/dr_phinaes/haikaitranslation.html |title=Phinaes' Haikai Linked Verse Translations |year=2007 |author=Price, Sean |accessdate=2009-11-02 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231213310/http://www.geocities.com/dr_phinaes/haikaitranslation.html |archivedate=2007-12-31 |dead-url=no }} Translations of renku by Bashō and his disciples, by Sean Price. * {{cite web |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/02/bashos-trail/howard-norman-text |title=On the Poet's Trail | author= Norman, Howard |publisher=National Geographic Magazine | month= February | year= 2008 | accessdate=2008-05-12 |authorlink= Howard Norman}} Travels along the path Matsuo Bashō followed for Oku no Hosomichi. Photography by Mike Yamashita. * {{cite web |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/02/bashos-trail/bashos-trail-interactive |title=On the Poet's Trail | author= Norman, Howard |publisher=National Geographic Magazine | month= February | year= 2008 | accessdate=2008-05-12}} Interactive Travelogue of Howard Norman's journey in Basho's footsteps, including a map of the route taken. * {{cite web |url=http://simplyhaiku.com/SHv4n3/features/Nobuyuki.html |title=An Account of Our Master Bashō's Last Days |publisher=Simply Haiku: A Quarterly Journal of Japanese Short Form Poetry |accessdate=2008-06-29 |archive-date=2009-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204034805/http://simplyhaiku.com/SHv4n3/features/Nobuyuki.html |dead-url=yes }} A translation by Nobuyuki Yuasa of an important manuscript by Takarai Kikaku, also known as Shinshi, one of Bashō’s followers. * {{cite web |url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/24996714/Matsuo-Bash%C5%8D-Complete-Haiku-in-Japanese |title=Matsuo Bashō - Complete Haiku in Japanese |publisher=André von Kugland | accessdate=2010-01-09}} * [http://www2.yamanashi-ken.ac.jp/~itoyo/basho/basho.htm bashoDB] {{Authority control|VIAF=12304628}} [[Kategori:Panyaia Japang]] {{nagara-bio-stub|Japang}} fczegqnrltcb5x6nmyx0wjo4d8jrr66 0 8695 3351287 2504384 2026-08-05T22:21:18Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351287 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} '''Mustafa Kemal Atatürk''' ({{lahiamati|[[Selânik]] (kini [[Thessaloniki]])|12|3|1881|[[Istana Dolmabahçe]], [[Istanbul]], [[Turki]]|10|11|1938}}), inggo [[1934]] namonyo adolah '''Gazi Mustafa Kemal Paşa''', adolah surang perwira militer dan nagaraawan [[Turki]]. Inyo adolah pandiri dan presiden partamo [[Turki|Republik Turki]]. == Maso mudo == == Karir militer == == Hiduik satalah parang dan pambaruan == == Warisan == == Rujuakan == {{Refbegin}} {{col|2}} ;Nan dicetak *{{Cite book|last=Ahmad|first=Feroz|title=The Making of Modern Turkey|publisher=Routledge|location=London; New York|year=1993|isbn=978-0-415-07835-1}} *{{Cite book|last=Armstrong|first=Harold Courtenay|title=Grey Wolf, Mustafa Kemal: An Intimate Study of a Dictator|publisher=Books for Libraries Press|location=Freeport, NY|year=1972|isbn=978-0-8369-6962-7}} *{{Cite book|last=Atillasoy|first=Yüksel|title=Atatürk: First President and Founder of the Turkish Republic|publisher=Woodside House|location=Woodside, NY|year=2002|isbn=978-0-9712353-4-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Barber|first=Noel|authorlink=Noel Barber|title=Lords of the Golden Horn: From Suleiman the Magnificent to Kemal Ataturk|publisher=Arrow|location=London|year=1988|isbn=978-0-09-953950-6}} *{{Cite book|last=Barlas|first=Dilek|title=Statism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Policy Strategies in an Uncertain World, 1929–1939|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=978-90-04-10855-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Cleveland|first=William L|title=A History of the Modern Middle East|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colorado|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8133-4048-7}} *{{Cite book|last=Doğan|first=Çağatay Emre|title=Formation of Factory Settlements Within Turkish Industrialization and Modernization in 1930s: Nazilli Printing Factory|location=Ankara|publisher=Middle East Technical University|year=2003|oclc=54431696|language=Turkish}} *{{Cite book|last=Huntington|first=Samuel P.|authorlink=Samuel P. Huntington|title=[[Political Order in Changing Societies]]|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Conn.; London|year=2006|isbn=978-0-300-11620-5}} *{{Cite book|last=İğdemir|first=Uluğ|coauthors=Mango, Andrew (translation)|title=Atatürk|publisher=Turkish National Commission for UNESCO|location=Ankara|year=1963|oclc=75604149|pages=165–170}} *{{Cite book|last=İnan|first=Ayşe Afet|authorlink=Afet İnan|title=Atatürk Hakkında Hatıralar ve Belgeler|publisher=Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları|location=Istanbul|year=2007|isbn=978-9944-88-140-1|language=Turkish}} *{{Cite book|last=İnan|first=Ayşe Afet|coauthors=Sevim, Ali; Süslü, Azmi; Tural, M Akif|title=Medeni bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk'ün el Yazıları|location=Ankara|publisher=AKDTYK Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi|year=1998|isbn=978-975-16-1276-2|language=Turkish}} *{{Cite book|last=Kinross|first=Patrick|authorlink=John Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross|title=Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation|publisher=Phoenix Press|year=2003|location=London|isbn=978-1-84212-599-1|oclc=55516821}} *{{Cite book|last=Kinross|first=Patrick|title=The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire|publisher=Morrow|year=1979|location=New York|isbn=978-0-688-08093-8}} *{{Cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|year=1983|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colorado|isbn=978-0-86531-986-8}} *{{Cite book|last=Lengyel|first=Emil|title=They Called Him Atatürk|publisher=The John Day Co|location=New York|year=1962|oclc=1337444}} *{{Cite book|last=Mango|first=Andrew|authorlink=Andrew Mango|title=Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey|origyear=1999|edition=Paperback|year=2002|publisher=Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Inc|location=Woodstock, NY|isbn=1-58567-334-X}} *{{Cite book|last=Mango|first=Andrew|authorlink=Andrew Mango|title=Atatürk|publisher=John Murray|location=London|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7195-6592-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Saikal|first=Amin|coauthors=Schnabel, Albrecht|title=Democratization in the Middle East: Experiences, Struggles, Challenges|location=Tokyo|publisher=United Nations University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-92-808-1085-1|url=http://books.google.com/?id=qFhU3kWXLvEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ataturk+and+islam}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *{{Cite book|last=Shaw|first=Stanford Jay|authorlink=Stanford J. Shaw|coauthors=Shaw, Ezel Kural|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge; New York|year=1976–1977|isbn=978-0-521-21280-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Spangnolo|first=John|title=The Modern Middle East in Historical Perspective: Essays in Honour of Albert Hourani|year=1992|publisher=Middle East Centre, St. Antony's College|location=Oxford|oclc=80503960|isbn=978-0-86372-164-9}} *{{Cite book|last=Tunçay|first=Mete|title=Mesaî : Halk Şûrâlar Fırkası Programı, 1920|location=Ankara|publisher=Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi|year=1972|oclc=1926301|language=Turkish}} *{{Cite book|last=Tüfekçi|first=Gürbüz D|title=Universality of Atatürk's Philosophy|location=Ankara|publisher=Pan Matbaacılık|year=1981|oclc=54074541}} *{{Cite book|last=Yapp|first=Malcolm|author-link=Malcolm Yapp|title=The Making of the Modern Near East, 1792–1923|publisher=Longman|location=London ; New York|year=1987|isbn=978-0-582-49380-3}} *{{Cite book|last=Webster|first=Donald Everett|title=The Turkey of Atatürk; Social Process in the Turkish Reformation|year=1973|publisher=AMS Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-404-56333-2}} *{{Cite book|last=Zürcher|first=Erik Jan|title=Turkey: A Modern History|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London; New York|year=2004|isbn=978-1-85043-399-6}} ;Jurnal *{{Cite journal|last=Eastham|first=J. K.|journal=The Economic Journal|title=The Turkish Development Plan: The First Five Years|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan|year=1964|month=March|pages=132–136|volume=74|issue=298|issn=0013-0133|doi=10.2307/2228117|jstor=2228117}} *{{Cite journal|last=Emrence|first=Cem|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|title=Turkey in Economic Crisis (1927–1930): A Panaromic Vision|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_middle-eastern-studies_2003-10_39_4/page/67|location=London|publisher=F. Cass.|year=2003|pages=67–80|volume=39|issue=4|issn=0026-3206|doi=10.1080/00263200412331301787}} *{{Cite journal|last=Omur|first=Aslı|journal=Turkish Times|year=2002|month=December|title=Modernity and Islam: Experiences of Turkish Women|volume=13|issue=312|issn=1043-0164|url=http://www.theturkishtimes.com/archive/02/12_01/c_women.html|accessdate=10 October 2007|archive-date=7 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007232154/http://www.theturkishtimes.com/archive/02/12_01/c_women.html|dead-url=yes}} *{{Cite journal|last=Özelli|first=M. Tunç|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|title=The Evolution of the Formal Educational System and its Relation to Economic Growth Policies in the First Turkish Republic|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-middle-east-studies_1974-01_5_1/page/77|issn=0020-7438|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=London|volume=5|issue=1|pages=77–92|month=January|year=1974|jstor=162345}} *{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=Norman|journal=The National Interest|authorlink=Norman Stone|title=Talking Turkey|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_national-interest_fall-2000_61/page/66|location=New York|publisher=National Affairs, Inc|year=2000|page=66|volume=61|issn=0884-9382}} *{{Cite journal|last=Volkan|first=Vamik D.|journal=Psychoanalytic Study of Society|title=Immortal Atatürk – Narcissism and Creativity in a Revolutionary Leader|publisher=Psychohistory Press|location=New York|year=1981|volume=9|issn=0079-7294|pages=221–255|oclc=60448681}} *{{Cite news|title=Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|url=http://www.teknikportal.com/mustafa-kemal-ataturk-hayati-basarilari-t9870.0.html|work=TP Editors|pages=7–8|accessdate=29 April 2008|archive-date=30 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430154105/http://www.teknikportal.com/mustafa-kemal-ataturk-hayati-basarilari-t9870.0.html|dead-url=yes}} *{{Cite news|title=The Burial of Atatürk|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,860125,00.html|work=Time Magazine|pages=37–39|date=23 November 1953|accessdate=7 August 2007|archive-date=23 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823204249/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,860125,00.html|dead-url=yes}} {{EndDiv}} {{Refend}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal}} [[Kategori:Presiden Turki]] [[Kategori:Pardano Mantari Turki]] {{nagara-bio-stub|Turki}} k27ynfqiqk9c1s8zasv1l4t602fw3z1 0 8795 3351285 3148432 2026-08-05T22:17:33Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Hatta}} {{Infobox urang}} '''[[Dr.(H.C.)|Dr.]] [[Drs.]] H. Mohammad Hatta''' nan populer jo namo panggilan '''Bung Hatta''' {{lahiamati|[[Fort de Kock]] (kini [[Kota Bukittinggi]], [[Sumatera Barat]]), [[Hindia Balando]]|12|8|1902|[[Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta|Jakarta]]|14|3|1980}}) adolah pajuang kamardekaan [[Indonesia]] nan takamuko basamo jo [[Soekarno]], [[Sutan Sjahrir]], [[Tan Malaka]], [[Soedirman]], sarato nan lain-lain. Hatta baduo jo Soekarno adolah tokoh nan manandotangani naskah proklamasi kamardekaan Indonesia pado tanggal 17 Agustus 1945, sahinggo baliau nan baduo ko disabuik ''Proklamator Kemerdekaan Indonesia.'' Sasudah Indonesia mardeka dari panjajahan [[Balando]], Hatta manjadi wakil presiden Republik Indonesia nan partamo bapasangan jo Soekarno nan manjadi presiden. Baliau-pun pernah pulo manjadi pardana mantari sampai tigo kali katiko sistim pamarentahan Indonesia masih manganuik sistim [[parlementer]] katiko nagaro baru mulai tagak. Mohammad Hatta ko surang ahli ekonomi sarato sangek paduli jo [[koperasi]] nan bakaadilan sosial, sahinggo baliau di agiah gala ''Bapak Koperasi Indonesia''. Pado taun 1956, baliau mangundurkan diri dari jabatan wakil presiden karano indak sapandapek lai jo Soekarno dalam caro mangalola negara. Baliau maningga pado taun 1978 dan dikubuakan di pakuburan [[Tanah Kusia]], [[Jakarta]]. Karano jaso-jaso baliau nan gadang kapado bangso, baliau diagiah gala [[Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia]] dek pamarentah Indonesia. == Maso ketek jo pandidikan == [[Berkas:Mohammad Hatta Birth Place and Museum, Bukittinggi, West Sumatra 2017-02-13 01.jpg|jmpl|[[Rumah Kelahiran Bung Hatta]] yang sekarang terletak di Jalan Sukarno-Hatta, Kota Bukittinggi]] Mohammad Hatta lahia dari pasangan [[Muhammad Djamil]] jo [[Siti Saleha]] nan barasa dari [[Orang Minang|Minangkabau]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mohammad Hatta: memoir : terbitan khusus satu abad Bung Hatta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzRwAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=Memoir+hatta&q=Memoir+hatta&hl=en|publisher=Yayasan Hatta|date=2002|isbn=978-979-97081-0-6|language=id|first=Mohammad|last=Hatta}}</ref> Ayahnyo marupoan saurang katurunan [[ulama]] [[Naqsyabandiyah]] di [[Batuhampar, Akabiluru, Lima Puluh Kota|Batuhampar]], dakek [[Payakumbuh]], [[Sumatra Barat]]{{sfn|Noer|2012|p=3}}{{sfn|Weismann|2009|p=165}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tarbiyahislamiyah.id/syekh-batu-hampar-dan-jejak-tokoh-pendidikan-tradisional-surau-di-pedalaman-minangkabau/|title=Syekh Batu Hampar dan Jejak Tokoh Pendidikan Tradisional Surau di Pedalaman Minangkabau|website=Tarbiyah Islamiyah|date=24 September 2019|access-date=26 April 2022|archive-date=2 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702234143/https://tarbiyahislamiyah.id/syekh-batu-hampar-dan-jejak-tokoh-pendidikan-tradisional-surau-di-pedalaman-minangkabau/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> dan ibunyo barasa dari keluarga padagang di [[Bukittinggi]]. Inyo lahia dengan namo [[Muhammad Athar]] pado tanggal 12 Agustus 1902. Namonyo, Athar barasa dari bahaso Arab, nan aratinyo "harum".{{sfn|Imran|1991|p=2}} Athar lahia sabagai anak kaduo, sasudah [[Rafiah]] nan lahia pado tahun 1900. Sajak ketek, inyo alah dididik jo digadangan dalam lingkungan kaluarga nan patuah jo ajaran agamo [[Islam]]. Kakeknyo dari pihak ayah, [[Abdurrahman Batuhampar]] tanamo sabagai ulama pandiri [[Surau Batuhampar]], saketek dari [[surau]] nan masih tagak pasca-[[Perang Padri]].{{Sfn|Imran|1991|p=1}} Samantaro itu, ibunyo barasa dari katurunan panggaleh. Babarapo urang ''mamak''nyo adolah pangusaho gadang di [[Jakarta]]. Ayahnyo maningga pada sangkek inyo masih baumua tujuah bulan.{{Sfn|Imran|1991|p=2}} Sasudah kamatian ayahnyo, ibunyo manikah baliak jo [[Agus Haji Ning]], saurang panggaleh dari [[Palembang]].{{sfn|Noer|2012|p=4}} Haji Ning acok bakontak dagang jo [[Ilyas Bagindo Marah]], kakeknyo dari pihak ibu. Parkawinan Siti Saleha jo Haji Ning malahiaan ampek urang anak, nan sadonyo adolah padusi.{{sfn|Imran|1991|p=2}} Mohammad Hatta patamo kali mandapek [[pendidikan formal]] di [[sekolah swasta]].{{sfn|Imran|1991|p=4}} Saudah anam bulan, inyo pindah ka sakolah rakyat dan sakelas jo Rafiah, kakaknyo. Namun, palajarannyo baranti pado partangahan samester kelas tigo.{{sfn|Imran|1991|pp=4-5}} Inyo lalu pindah ka [[Europeesche Lagere School|ELS]] di Padang (kini [[SMA Negeri 1 Padang]]) sampai tahun 1913,{{sfn|Imran|1991|pp=4-5}} dan malanjuikan ka [[Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs|MULO]] sampai tahun 1917. Di lua pandidikan formal, inyo parnah baraja agamo kapado [[Muhammad Jamil Jambek]], [[Abdullah Ahmad]], jo babarapo ulama lainnyo.{{sfn|Noer|2012|p=5}} Salain kaluarga, perdagangan mampangaruhi parhatian Hatta terhadap parekonomian. Di [[Padang]], inyo mangenal pedagang-pedagang nan masuak anggota [[Yayasan Serikat Oesaha|Serikat Oesaha]] dan aktif dalam [[Jong Sumatranen Bond]] sabagai bandaharo.{{sfn|Noer|2012|pp=8, 9}} Kagiatannyo iko tetap inyo lanjuikan katika inyo basikolah di [[Prins Hendrik School]]. Mohammad Hatta tetap manjadi bandaharo di [[Jakarta]].{{sfn|Noer|2012|p=9}} Kakeknyo samulo bamukasuik ka [[Mekkah]], dan pado kasempatan tersebut, inyo dapek mambaok Mohammad Hatta malanjuikan palajaran di bidang agamo, yakni ka [[Mesir]] ([[Al-Azhar]]).{{sfn|Noer|2012|p=9-10}} Hal iko dilakuan untuak maningkekan kualitas [[surau]] di [[Batuhmpar]] nan memang alah manurun sajak maningganyo Abdurrahman. Namun, hal iko diprotes dek kaluarga, dan ado nan mausulan mamaknyo, Idris untuak manggantian Hatta.{{sfn|Noer|2012|p=9-10}} Manuruik catatan Amrin Imran, ''Pak Gaek-''nyo kecewa dan Syekh Arsyad pado akhianyo manyarah ka Tuhan.{{sfn|Imran|1991|p=7}} ==Kahidupan pribadi == Mohammad Hatta manikah jo [[Rahmi Rachim]]. Dari panikahan tu mareka dikaruniai tigo urang anak, iyolah [[Meutia Hatta]], [[Gemala Hatta]] sarato [[Halida Hatta]]. Hatta laia dari pasangan Muhammad Djamil jo Siti Saleha nan bakarajo sabagai padagang di [[Batuhampa, Akabiluru, Limo Puluah Koto|Batuhampa]], nagari nan talatak di antaro [[Payokumbuah]] jo [[Bukiktinggi]]. == Caliak pulo == * [[Daftar wakil Presiden Indonesia]] == Rujuak-an== {{reflist|30em}} ===Bibliografi === {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |author = Arniati Prasedyawati Herkusumo | title = Chuo Sangi-in: Dewan Pertimbang Pusat Pada Masa Pendudukan Jepang|language = Indonesian |trans-title = Chuo Sangi-in: The Central Advisory Council during the Japanese Occupation | publisher =PT. Rosda Jayaputra |location = Jakarta, Indonesia| year = 1982 }} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1961 | orig-year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal |title=In Memoriam: Mohammad Hatta (1902–1980) |last=Kahin | first = George Mc. T | journal=Indonesia | volume = 30|year=1980 |pages=113–120 | url= https://cip.cornell.edu/DPubS?service=Repository&version=1.0&verb=Disseminate&view=body&content-type=pdf_1&handle=seap.indo/1107014423#}} * {{Cite book | last = Mrazek | first = Rudolf | title =Sjahrir: politics in exile in Indonesia | publisher = (SEAP Cornel South East Asia program | year = 1994 | isbn = 0-87727-713-3 }} * {{Cite book |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=The Co-operative Movement in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/cooperativemovem00hatt |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y. |year=1957}} * {{Cite journal |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=Colonialism and the Danger of War |url=https://archive.org/details/asian-survey_1961-11_1_9/page/10 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=1| issue=9| pages=10–14 |date=November 1961 |doi=10.2307/3023504 |jstor=3023504}} * {{Cite journal |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=One Indonesian View of the Malaysia Issue |url=https://archive.org/details/asian-survey_1965-03_5_3/page/139 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=139–143 |date=March 1965 |doi=10.2307/2642403 |jstor=2642403}} * {{Cite journal | first = Klaas | last = Stutje |title=To Maintain an Independent Course: Inter-war Indonesian Nationalism and International Communism on a Dutch-European Stage |journal= Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies| volume = 39|year=2015 | issue = 3 |pages=204–220 | doi = 10.1080/03096564.2015.1101298 | s2cid = 146939108 |language= nl}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 | publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book | last = Sudarmanto| first = Y.B. | title = Jejak-Jejak Pahlawan dari Sultan Agung hingga Syekh Yusuf (The Footsteps of Heroes from Sultan Agung to Syekh Yusuf) | publisher = Grasindo |location = Jakarta | year = 1996 | language = id | isbn =979-553-111-5}} * {{Cite book | last = Weismann | first = Itzchak | title = The Naqshbandiyya: Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition | year = 2009 | publisher = Routledge | location = Abingdon-on-Thames | isbn = 978-0-415-48992-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Imran | first = Amrin | authorlink = Amrin Imran | title = Mohammad Hatta:Pejuang, Proklamator, Pemimpin, Manusia Biasa | year = 1991 | publisher = Mutiara Sumber Widya | location = [[Jakarta]] | ref = {{sfnRef|Imran|1991}} | oclc = 9072338 }} * {{cite book | last = Noer | first = Deliar | authorlink = Deliar Noer | editor = Jaap Erkelens | title = Mohammad Hatta:Hati Nurani Bangsa | year = 2012 | publisher = Gramedia Pustaka Utama | location = [[Jakarta]] | isbn = 978-979-709-633-5 | ref = {{sfnRef|Noer|2012}} }} {{Refend}} {{Wakil Presiden Indonesia}} {{Pardano Mantari Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Wakil Presiden Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Mantari Kabinet Hatta I]] [[Kategori:Mantari Kabinet Republik Indonesia Serikat]] [[Kategori:Pardano Mantari Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Pahlawan nasional Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Mantari Lua Nagari Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Mantari Pertahanan Indonesia]] [[Kategori:BPUPKI]] [[Kategori:Tokoh PNI]] [[Kategori:Alumni Universitas Gadjah Mada]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Minangkabau]] [[Kategori:Tokoh dari Bukiktinggi]] 1erq1ew2kfnoro64z0hylgtxs16vmhs 0 8939 3351314 3162441 2026-08-05T23:09:33Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} [[Jenderal Besar|Jend. Besar]] [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|TNI]] [[Purnawirawan|Purn.]] '''Haji Muhammad Soeharto''', ([[Ejaan Republik|ER]], [[Ejaan Yang Disempurnakan|EYD]]: Suharto) ({{lahirmati|Dusun [[Kemusuk]], Desa [[Argomulyo, Sedayu, Bantul|Argomulyo]], Kecamatan [[Sedayu, Bantul|Sedayu]], [[Kabupaten Bantul|Bantul]], [[Yogyakarta]]|8|6|1921|[[Jakarta]]|27|1|2008}}) adolah [[Presiden Indonesia]] nan kaduo ([[1967]]-[[1998]]), manggantian [[Soekarno]]. Sabalunnyo, inyo pernah manjabaik sabagai penjabat presiden kudian diangkek manjadi presiden. Sacaro laweh, inyo dianggap sabagai [[Kediktatoran militer|diktator militer]] dek pangamat internasional. Soeharto mamimpin Indonesia sabagai [[Otoritarianisme|rezim otoriter]] sajak [[Transisi ke Orde Baru|jatuahnyo]] pandahulunyo [[Soekarno]] pado tahun 1967 hinggo [[Kajatuhan Soeharto|pangunduran dirinyo]] pado tahun 1998 manyusul [[Karusuahan Mei 1998|karusuahan nasional]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings|title=Obituary: Suharto, former Indonesian dictator: 1921–2008|last=Gittings|first=John|date=28 January 2008|work=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214164141/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings|archive-date=14 December 2018|access-date=17 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto|title=Is Indonesia's Reformasi a success, 20 years after Suharto?|last=Hutton|first=Jeffrey|date=19 May 2018|work=South China Morning Post|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413020721/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto|archive-date=13 April 2022|access-date=14 December 2018|quote=...would topple the dictator Suharto.|url-status=live}}</ref> Kadiktatorannyo salamo 32 tahun dianggap sabagai salah satu kadiktatoran paling brutal jo korup pado abaik ke-20.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Berger|first=Marilyn|date=28 January 2008|title=Suharto Dies at 86; Indonesian Dictator Brought Order and Bloodshed|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html|access-date=|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202231503/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Wiranto|2011|p=24}}. {{cite book|last1=Forrester|first1=Geoff|last2=May|first2=R.J.|title=The Fall of Soeharto|date=1998|publisher=C. Hurst and Co.|location=Bathurst, Australia|isbn=1-86333-168-9}}</ref> Sabalun manjadi presiden, Soeharto adolah pamimpin militer pado maso [[Hindia Belanda]] dan pandudukan Japang, dengan pangkek tarakhia [[Mayor Jenderal]]. Sasudah [[Gerakan 30 September]] [[1965]], Soeharto malakukan operasi pambarasiahan dan pangamanan atas parietah dari Presiden Soekarno, salah satu nan dibueknyo adolah dengan manumpas [[Gerakan 30 September]] dan manyatoan bahaso [[Partai Komunis Indonesia|PKI]] adolah organisasi talarang. Berbagai kontroversi manyabuik operasi iko mambunuah sakitar 100.000 hinggo 2 juta urang.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cribb|first=Robert|date=2002|title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_july-august-2002_42_4/page/550|journal=Asian Survey|volume=42|issue=4|pages=550–563|doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550}}</ref><ref>Friend (2003), pages 107–109; {{cite video|people=Chris Hilton (writer and director)|title=Shadowplay|medium=Television documentary|publisher=Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions|year=2001}}; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290</ref> Soeharto kudian diagiah mandat dek Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara (MPRS) sabagai Presiden pado 26 Maret 1968<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2019/03/26/18242931/26-maret-1968-saat-soeharto-ditunjuk-gantikan-soekarno-jadi-presiden|title=26 Maret 1968, Saat Soeharto Ditunjuk Gantikan Soekarno Jadi Presiden|work=[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2019-06-19|archive-date=2019-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619154935/https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2019/03/26/18242931/26-maret-1968-saat-soeharto-ditunjuk-gantikan-soekarno-jadi-presiden|dead-url=no|editor-last=Galih|editor-first=Bayu|first=Aswab Nanda|last=Prattama}}</ref> manggantian Soekarno, dan resmi manjadi presiden pado tahun 1968. Inyo dipiliah baliak dek [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat|MPR]] pado tahun 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, dan 1998. Pado tahun 1998, maso jabatannyo barakhia sasudah mangunduran diri pado tanggal 21 Mei tahun, manyusul tajadinyo karusuahan Mei 1998 dan pandudukan gedung DPR/MPR dek ribuan [[mahasiswa]]. Inyo marupoan urang paliang lamo nan manjabaik sabagai presiden Indonesia. Soeharto digantian dek [[B.J. Habibie]]. == Pasca-kepresidenan == === Dugaan kasus korupsi === {{See also|Kasus dugaan korupsi Soeharto}}Sasudah baranti dari kursi kepresidenan, Suharto mandok di kediaman kaluarganyo di daerah Menteng, Jakarta, dilindungi dek tentara dan jarang tampil di muko umum. Keluarga Suharto maabihan sabagian gadang wakatu mereka untuak manangkih panyelidikan korupsi. Namun, Suharto surang dilindungi dari tuntutan serius dek para politisi nan punyo hutang budi ka inyo, takah tacaliak dalam parcakapan telepon nan bocor antaro Presiden [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie|Habibie]] jo Jaksa Agung Andi Muhammad Ghalib pado bulan Februari 1999.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minihub.org/siarlist/msg02067.html|title=Rekaman Habibie-Ghalib|publisher=Minihub.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116055010/http://www.minihub.org/siarlist/msg02067.html|archive-date=16 January 2013|access-date=6 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pado bulan Mei 1999, ''Time Asia'' mampakiroan kakayaan kaluarga Suharto mancapai US $ 15 milyar dalam bantuak pitih tunai, saham, aset parusahaan, real estat, parhiasan, jo karya seni. Suharto manggugat majalah tersebut dengan tuntutan ganti rugi labih dari US$27 miliar atas pancemaran namo baik di artikel tersebut.<ref>{{cite news|date=10 September 2007|title=Suharto wins $128m in damages|newspaper=[[Herald Sun]]|access-date=9 August 2009|url=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,22396808-5005961,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017221608/http://news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0%2C21985%2C22396808-5005961%2C00.html|archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref> Pado tanggal 10 September 2007, Mahkamah Agung Indonesia mengabulkan tuntutan ganti rugi Suharto ka majalah ''Time Asia'' dan mamarintahan majalah tersebut untuak mambayia sagadang ciek triliun rupiah ($128,59 juta). Pengadilan Tinggi mambalikkan putusan pangadilan banding dan pangadilan negeri Jakarta Pusat (yang dibuek pada tahun 2000 dan 2001).{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} Suharto manduduki posisi paliang tinggi dalam daftar pemimpin terkorup versi Transparency International dengan dugaan panyelewengan antaro US$15-35 miliar salamo 32 tahun maso kapresidenannyo.<ref name="BBC_200403252">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm|title=Suharto tops corruption rankings|work=BBC News|date=25 March 2004|access-date=4 February 2006|archive-date=13 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113042444/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Global Corruption Report2">{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4459/26786/file/Introduction_to_political_corruption.pdf|title=Global Corruption Report|publisher=Transparency International|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704093500/http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4459/26786/file/Introduction_to_political_corruption.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2007|access-date=6 August 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pado tanggal 29 Mei 2000, Suharto manjadi tahanan rumah sangkek pihak berwenang Indonesia mulai malakuan investigasi terhadap korupsi nan balaku salamo maso kapresidenannyo. Pado bulan Juli 2000, diumuman bahaso inyo ka dituduah mamaram dana sumbangan pamarietah sagang US$ 571 juta ka salah satu yayasan nan barado di bawah kendalinyo dan kudian mamakai pitih nan tun untuak mambayaia investasi kaluarga. Namun, pado bulan September, dokter nan ditunjuak pangadilan maumuman bahaso inyo indak dapek diadili dek kasehatannyo nan manurun. Jaksa penuntut negara mancubo baliak pado tahun 2002, tetapi kudian para dokter maagih alasan panyakik utak nan indak disabuikan. Pado tanggal 26 Maret 2008, saurang hakim pangadilan negeri mambebaskan Suharto dari tuduhan korupsi, tapi mamarentahan yayasan amalnyo, Supersemar, untuak mambayia US$110 juta (£55 juta).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7315976.stm|title=Suharto charity told to pay $110&nbsp;m|work=BBC News|date=27 March 2008|access-date=6 January 2010|archive-date=27 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327173831/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7315976.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Pado tahun 2002, putra Suharto, Tommy Suharto, dijatuhi hukuman 15 tahun penjara dek mamarentahan pambunuhan saurang hakim (nan sabalunnyo alah mamvonisnyo basalah atas kasus korupsi), kapamilikan senjata api ilegal, dan malarian diri dari pangadilan. Pado tahun 2006, inyo dibebaskan dengan “pambebasan bersyarat.”<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6098010.stm|title=Tommy Suharto freed from prison|work=BBC News|date=30 October 2006|access-date=9 August 2009|archive-date=28 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828111205/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6098010.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Pado tahun 2003, adiak tiri Suharto, Probosutedjo, diadili jo dihukum atas tuduhan korupsi dan marugian negara sagang $10 juta. Inyo dijatuhi hukuman ampek tahun panjaro. Inyo kudian mamanangkan pangurangan hukuman manjadi duo tahun, nan mambuek Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi mamulai panyelidikan atas dugaan skandal “mafia peradilan” dan mandapek bukti adonyo panawaran sagadang $600.000 kapado babarapo hakim. Probosutedjo mangakui skema tersebut pado bulan Oktober 2005, nan baujuang pado panangkapan para pangacaranyo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Suharto's half-brother fined, jailed for four years|url=https://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2005-11-30/suhartos-half-brother-fined-jailed-for-four-years/751268|access-date=15 September 2020|agency=AFP|work=ABC News|date=29 November 2005|archive-date=26 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126192134/https://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2005-11-30/suhartos-half-brother-fined-jailed-for-four-years/751268|url-status=live}}</ref> Inyo dilaporkan dilindungi sakalompok petugas polisi di sabuah rumah sakit. Di situ inyo ditangkok pado tanggal 30 November 2005.<ref>{{cite news|title=Probosutedjo dipenjara|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesian/news/story/2005/11/printable/051130_probojailed.shtml|access-date=15 September 2020|publisher=BBC Indonesia|date=30 November 2005|archive-date=23 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123082754/https://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesian/news/story/2005/11/printable/051130_probojailed.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Probosutedjo Dijebloskan ke Cipinang|url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/113388/probosutedjo-dijebloskan-ke-cipinang|access-date=15 September 2020|publisher=Liputan6.com|date=30 November 2005|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010165149/https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/113388/probosutedjo-dijebloskan-ke-cipinang|url-status=live}}</ref> Pado tanggal 9 Juli 2007, jaksa penuntut Indonesia maajukan gugatan perdata terhadap Soeharto, untuak mamulangan dana negara ($ 440 juta atau £ 219 juta, nan diduga hilang dari dana beasiswa, jo ganti rugi sagadang $ 1,1 milyar labiah).<ref name="BBC_9July">{{cite news|title=Civil suit filed against Suharto|date=9 July 2007|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6283322.stm|access-date=9 July 2007|archive-date=13 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813105545/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6283322.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> == Warisan jo pamulihan namo == Samanjak awal tahun 2010-an, slogan dalam bahasa Jawa “Piye kabare, penak jamanku to?” (bahaso Minang: Baa kaba, labih elok di maso den, kan?) nan manampilkan foto-foto Suharto di berbagai daerah Indonesia dalam babagai bantuak, takah stiker, kaos, jo internet. Slogan iko juo dapat basobok di baliho-baliho kampanye politik dan ditempelan di transportasi umum, takah minibus sarato truk jo becak.<ref name="Pontororing">{{cite journal|last1=Pontororing|first1=Angela|date=July 2016|title=Sebuah Upaya Pembacaan Poskolonial dengan Metode Dialog Imajinatif Antara Foto Soeharto “Piye Kabare, Penak Jamanku To?” dan Teks Keluaran 14:10-12; 16:1-3; 17:3|url=https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/318086-sebuah-upaya-pembacaan-poskolonial-denga-f187bae4.pdf|journal=Indonesian Journal of Theology|volume=4/1|pages=1-44|access-date=7 February 2022}}</ref> Survei terhadap masyarakaik Indonesia nan dibuek pado tahun 2011 dan 2018 mambuek hasil bahaso Suharto adolah nan paliang sukses dalam manjalanan tugasnyo sabagai presiden.<ref>{{Cite news|date=20 May 2018|title=Survei Indo Barometer Sebut Soeharto Presiden Paling Berhasil|language=id|work=CNN Indonesia|url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20180520154614-32-299770/survei-indo-barometer-sebut-soeharto-presiden-paling-berhasil}}</ref> Pado tanggal 25 September 2024, dalam salah satu sidang tarakhianyo untuk periode 2019-2024, Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat mancabuik Ayat 4 Ketetapan MPR No. XI/MPR/1998, nan manuduah Suharto jo kroni-kroninyo atas tindakan korupsi, kolusi, jo nepotisme (Ayat 4 sacaro khusus manyabuik namo Suharto). Alasan nan disabuikan adolah dek Suharto indak pernah diadili atas tuduhan iko sabalun kamatiannyo pado tahun 2008. Langkah iko mamanciang baliak perdebatan mangenai apokah Suharto pantas dianugerahi gala Pahlawan Nasional.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-7557661/mpr-cabut-nama-soeharto-dari-tap-mpr-11-1998-soal-kkn-ini-alasannya|title=MPR Cabut Nama Soeharto dari Tap MPR 11/1998 soal KKN, Ini Alasannya|last=Rahmawati|first=Dwi|website=detiknews|language=id-ID|access-date=2024-09-25|archive-date=2024-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926023459/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-7557661/mpr-cabut-nama-soeharto-dari-tap-mpr-11-1998-soal-kkn-ini-alasannya|dead-url=yes}}</ref>[[Berkas:William_cohen_with_suharto.jpg|jmpl|Suharto meeting with US Secretary of Defense [[William Cohen]] in 1998]] == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} ===Daftar pustaka=== {{refbegin|25em}} * {{cite news |date=22 February 2006 |title=Two former strongmen, Soeharto-Lee Kuan Yew meet again |publisher=ANTARA |access-date=22 February 2006 |url=http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 |archive-date=25 March 2007 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070325054315/http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 }} * {{cite book |last=Aarons |first=Mark |date=2008 |chapter=Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA69 |editor1=David A. Blumenthal |editor2=Timothy L. H. McCormack |title=The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? |series=International Humanitarian Law |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |isbn=978-9004156913 }} * {{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Benedict R. |last2=McVey |date=2009 |first2=Ruth T. |title=A Preliminary Analysis of 1 October 1965 Coup in Indonesia |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9786028397520 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVcwPV3NvDMC }} * {{cite news |date=19 October 1965 |title=Army in Jakarta Imposes a Ban on Communists |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=registration |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1965/10/19/archives/army-in-jakarta-imposes-a-ban-on-communists-extent-of-order-unclear.html |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829193148/https://www.nytimes.com/1965/10/19/archives/army-in-jakarta-imposes-a-ban-on-communists-extent-of-order-unclear.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Aspinall |first=Ed |date=October–December 1996 |title=What happened before the riots? |newspaper=[[Inside Indonesia]] |issue=48 |archive-date=5 May 2005 |url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit48/ed.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050505222646/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit48/ed.htm }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Aspinall |editor1-first=Ed |editor2-last=Klinken |editor2-first=Gerry van |editor3-last=Feith |editor3-first=Herb |date=1999 |title=The Last Days of President Suharto |location=[[Clayton, Victoria|Clayton AU-VIC]] |publisher=Monash Asia Institute |isbn=073261175X}} *{{cite book |last1=Bevins |first1=Vincent |title= [[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |date=2020 |publisher= [[PublicAffairs]] |isbn= 978-1541742406}} * {{cite news| title=Attorney general doubts Soeharto can be prosecuted |work=The Jakarta Post| date=27 May 2005}} * {{cite book| first = William| last = Blum| date = 1995| title = Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II| publisher = Common Courage Press| location = Monroe, Me.| isbn = 1-56751-052-3| url = https://archive.org/details/killinghopeusmil00blum_0}} * ''[http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/nb/1997/nb9722.htm Camdessus Commends Indonesian Actions]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109110205/http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/nb/1997/nb9722.htm |date=9 November 2016 }}''. 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(31 October 1997) * {{cite web| title=CIA Stalling State Department Histories| work=The National Security Archive| url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/| access-date=23 May 2005| archive-date=8 March 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308035956/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/| url-status=live}} * {{cite news| last=Colmey| first=John| title=The Family Firm| date=24 May 1999| publisher=TIME Asia| url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010208155758/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=8 February 2001}} * {{cite book |last=Conboy |first=Kenneth J. |date=2003 |title=Kopassus: Inside Indonesia's Special Forces |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789799589880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |access-date=20 April 2021 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323145048/https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |url-status=live }} * Robert Cribb, "Genocide in Indonesia,1965–1966". 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url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: | publisher=THOMAS (Library of Congress) | access-date=4 February 2006 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113050730/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: | archive-date=13 January 2016 | df=dmy-all }} * {{cite book| last=Hughes |first=John |title=The End of Sukarno – A Coup that Misfired: A Purge that Ran Wild| publisher=Archipelago Press|date=2002 | orig-year=1976| isbn=981-4068-65-9}} * {{cite news |title=Indonesia: Arrests, torture and intimidation: The Government's response to its critics |date=27 November 1996 |publisher=Amnesty International |url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-idn/index&start=391 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109023133/http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-idn/index |archive-date=9 November 2005 }} * {{cite web | title=Indonesia Economic | work=Commanding Heights | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/id/id_economic.html | access-date=23 May 2005 | archive-date=24 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224182929/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/id/id_economic.html | url-status=live }} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Cabinet Faces Challenge|work=The New York Times| date=16 December 1965}} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Leftist Out As Army Chief| work=[[New York Times]]| date=15 October 1965}} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Cabinet Faces Challenge| work=The New York Times| date=16 December 1965}} * {{cite news| last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Oliver |first2=James| name-list-style=amp | title=MI6 Spread Lies to Put Killer in Power| work=The Independent |location=UK| date=16 April 2000}} * {{cite book| last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Oliver |first2=James |title=Britain's Secret Propaganda War| publisher=Sutton Pub Ltd|date=1999| isbn=0-7509-1668-0}} * {{cite book|last=McDonald |first=H. 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1996–1999 |location=[[Honolulu]] HI |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=9780824830571}} *{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Geoffrey B. |date=2018 |title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965-66 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=9781400888863 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW0wDwAAQBAJ }} * John Roosa, Pretext for Mass Murder: 30 September Movement & Suharto's Coup D'état. The University of Wisconsin Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-299-22034-1}}. * {{cite news| last=Simpson| first=Brad| title=Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice"| date=9 July 2004| publisher=National Security Archive| url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm| access-date=17 June 2005| archive-date=5 February 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205191327/http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm| url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Adam |date=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=9780813388816 |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw }} * {{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Bradley |date=2010 |title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 |url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |location= |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0804771825 |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213245/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |url-status=live }} * {{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm| title=Suharto tops corruption rankings| work=BBC News| date=25 March 2004| access-date=4 February 2006| archive-date=13 November 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113042444/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm| url-status=live}} * {{cite news| title=Sukarno Removes His Defense Chief| work=[[New York Times]]| date=22 February 1966}} * {{cite news| title=Tapol Troubles: When Will They End?| date=April–June 1999| publisher=Inside Indonesia| url=http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305190845/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view| archive-date=5 March 2012| df=dmy-all}} * {{cite book| author=Pramoedya Ananta Toer| title=The Mute's Soliloquy: A Memoir| publisher=Penguin|date=2000| isbn=0-14-028904-6}} * {{cite web| title=United Nations High Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/97: Situation in East Timor| url=http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument| publisher=United Nations| access-date=4 February 2006| archive-date=4 February 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204035327/http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument| url-status=live}} *{{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |date=2005 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521542623 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri }} * {{cite book |last=Wanandi |first=Jusuf |author-link=Jusuf Wanandi |date=2012 |title=Shades of Grey: A Political Memoir of Modern Indonesia 1965–1998 |location=Singapore |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789793780924 }} * {{cite book| title=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA| last=Weiner| first=Tim| publisher=Doubleday| place=New York|date=2007| isbn=978-3-596-17865-0| chapter=Chapter 15, CIA and Indonesia| title-link=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA}} * {{cite journal| last1=Wertheim| first1=W.F.| title=Whose plot?-New light on the 1965 events| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-asia_1979_9_2/page/197| journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia|date=1979| volume=9| issue=2| pages=197–215| doi=10.1080/00472337985390191}} * {{cite book |last=Wiranto |author-link=Wiranto |date=2011 |title=7 Tahun Menggali Pemikiran dan Tindakan Pak Harto 1991–1997 |trans-title=7 Years Exploring the Thoughts and Actions of Pak Harto 1991–1997 |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Citra Kharisma Bunda |isbn=9786028112123}} {{refend}} == Pautan lua == * [http://www.soehartocenter.com Soeharto Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223185247/http://www.soehartocenter.com/ |date=2020-12-23 }} * [http://kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id/biography/?box=detail&presiden_id=2&presiden=suharto {{PAGENAME}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729085106/http://kepustakaan-presiden.pnri.go.id/biography/?box=detail&presiden=suharto&presiden_id=2 |date=2012-07-29 }} di Kepustakaan Presiden Republik Indonesia * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/4528925.stm Life in pictures: Indonesia's Suharto] di [[BBC]] * [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/0d243cf4-ccac-11dc-8df7-000077b07658.html ''Financial Times'' obituary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121095817/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/0d243cf4-ccac-11dc-8df7-000077b07658.html |date=2008-11-21 }} * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings ''The Guardian'' obituary] * [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article3260665.ece Obituary in ''The Times'', 28 January 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809110703/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article3260665.ece |date=9 August 2011 }} {{Presiden Indonesia}} {{lifetime|1921|2008|Soeharto}} {{Persondata |NAME=Soeharto |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Bapak Pembangunan |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Mantan Presiden [[RI]] |DATE OF BIRTH= 8 Juni 1921 |PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Kemusuk]], [[Bantul]], [[Yogyakarta]], [[Hindia Belanda]] |DATE OF DEATH= 27 Januari 2008 |PLACE OF DEATH= [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Soeharto}} [[Kategori:Tokoh dari Bantul]] [[Kategori:Presiden Indonesia]] {{indo-bio-stub}} glp3uznsaluk0eqq8ukmldmahb7igho 0 11669 3351251 3185724 2026-08-05T21:30:25Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 6 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351251 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} ===Sumber buku=== {{refbegin}} {{col|2}} * {{cite book | last = Aigner | first = Dietrich | editor1-last = Koch | 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[[Ralph Manheim]] | isbn = 978-0-395-92503-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Hitler | first = Adolf | year = 1973 | origyear = 1941 | title = My New Order | publisher = Octagon Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-374-93918-2 | editor1-first = Raoul de | editor1-last = Roussy de Sales | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Hitler | first = Adolf | year = 1942 | title = [[The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April 1922&nbsp;– August 1939]] | location = London | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-86527-493-8 | editor1-first = Norman H. | editor1-last = Baynes | editor1-link = Norman H. Baynes | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Hitler | first1 = Adolf | last2 = Trevor-Roper | first2 = Hugh | author2-link = Hugh Trevor-Roper | title = [[Hitler's Table Talk|Hitler's Table-Talk, 1941–1945: Hitler's Conversations Recorded by Martin Bormann]] | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1988 | origyear = 1953 | isbn = 978-0-19-285180-2 | ref = harv }} * {{cite news | last = Jamieson | first = Alastair | title = Nazi leader Hitler really did have only one ball | newspaper = [[The Daily Telegraph]] | date = 19 November 2008 | url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/3481932/Nazi-leader-Hitler-really-did-have-only-one-ball.html | accessdate =27 May 2011 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Jetzinger | first = Franz | authorlink = Franz Jetzinger | title = Hitler's Youth | year = 1976 | origyear = 1956 | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Conn | isbn = 978-0-8371-8617-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Joachimsthaler | first = Anton | others = Trans. Helmut Bögler | title = The Last Days of Hitler: The Legends, the Evidence, the Truth | year = 1999 | origyear = 1995 | publisher = Brockhampton Press | location = London | isbn = 978-1-86019-902-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kee | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Kee | title = Munich: The Eleventh Hour | publisher = Hamish Hamilton | location = London | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-0-241-12537-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Keegan | first = John | authorlink = John Keegan | title = The Mask of Command: A Study of Generalship | publisher = Pimlico | location = London | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-0-7126-6526-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Keller | first = Gustav | title= Der Schüler Adolf Hitler: die Geschichte eines lebenslangen Amoklaufs | trans_title = The Student Adolf Hitler: The Story of a Lifelong Rampage | publisher = LIT | language = German | location = Münster | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-3-643-10948-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kellogg | first = Michael | title = The Russian Roots of Nazism White Émigrés and the Making of National Socialism, 1917–1945 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-521-84512-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kershaw | first = Ian | author-link = Ian Kershaw | title = Hitler: 1889–1936: Hubris | location = New York | publisher = [[W. W. Norton & Company]] | year = 1999 | origyear = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-393-04671-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kershaw | first = Ian | title = The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation | edition = 4th | location = London | publisher = Arnold | year = 2000a | origyear = 1985 | isbn = 978-0-340-76028-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kershaw | first = Ian | title = Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis | location = New York; London | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | year = 2000b | isbn = 978-0-393-32252-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kershaw | first = Ian | title = Hitler: A Biography | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | location = New York | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-393-06757-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Koch | first = H. W | title = Operation Barbarossa&nbsp;– The Current State of the Debate | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1988-06_31_2/page/377 | journal = [[The Historical Journal]] | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | month = June | year = 1988 | pages = 377–390 | doi = 10.1017/S0018246X00012930 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kolb | first = Eberhard | authorlink = Eberhard Kolb | title = The Weimar Republic | origyear = 1984 | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-415-34441-8 | publisher = Routledge | location = London; New York | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kolb | first = Eberhard | year = 1988 | origyear = 1984 | title = The Weimar Republic | location = New York | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 978-0-415-09077-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kressel | first = Neil J. | title = Mass Hate: The Global Rise Of Genocide And Terror | year = 2002 | publisher = Basic Books | location = Boulder | isbn = 978-0-8133-3951-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kubizek | first = August | title = The Young Hitler I Knew | authorlink = August Kubizek | year = 2006 | origyear = 1953 | publisher = MBI | location = St. Paul, MN | isbn = 978-1-85367-694-9 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Kurowski | first = Franz | title = The Brandenburger Commandos: Germany's Elite Warrior Spies in World War II | publisher = Stackpole Books | series = Stackpole Military History series | location = Mechanicsburg, PA | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-8117-3250-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Langer | first = Walter C. | authorlink = Walter Charles Langer | title = [[The Mind of Adolf Hitler|The Mind of Adolf Hitler: The Secret Wartime Report]] | year = 1972 | origyear = 1943 | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-465-04620-1 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last = Larson | first = Erik | title = In the Garden of Beasts: Love, Terror, and an American Family in Hitler's Berlin | publisher = Random House/Crown Publishing Group | location = New York, NY | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-307-40884-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Lichtheim | first = George | author-link = George Lichtheim | title = Europe In The Twentieth Century | location = London | publisher = Sphere Books | year = 1974 | isbn = 978-0-351-17192-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Linge | first1 = Heinz | authorlink1 = Heinz Linge | others = Intro. [[Roger Moorhouse]] | title = With Hitler to the End: The Memoirs of Adolf Hitler's Valet | year = 2009 | origyear = 1980 | publisher = Skyhorse Publishing | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-60239-804-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Lipstadt | first = Deborah E. | title = The Eichmann Trial | year = 2011 | publisher = Random House | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8052-4260-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Maiolo | first = Joseph | title = The Royal Navy and Nazi Germany 1933–39: Appeasement and the Origins of the Second World War | year = 1998 | publisher = Macmillan Press | location = London | isbn = 978-0-333-72007-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Manvell | first1 = Roger | author1-link = Roger Manvell | last2 = Fraenkel | first2 = Heinrich | author2-link = Heinrich Fraenkel | title = Heinrich Himmler: The Sinister Life of the Head of the SS and Gestapo | year = 2007 | origyear = 1965 | publisher = Greenhill; Skyhorse | location = London; New York | isbn = 978-1-60239-178-9 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Maser | first = Werner | title = Hitler: Legend, Myth, Reality | year = 1973 | publisher = Allen Lane | location = London | isbn = 978-0-7139-0473-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Marrus | first = Michael | authorlink = Michael Marrus | title = The Holocaust in History | location = Toronto | publisher = Key Porter | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-299-23404-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = McNab | first = Chris | title = The Third Reich | publisher = Amber Books Ltd | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-1-906626-51-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Megargee | first = Geoffrey P. | title = War of Annihilation: Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front, 1941 | location = Lanham, Md | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-7425-4482-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Messerschmidt | first = Manfred | title = [[Germany and the Second World War]] | volume = 1 | chapter = Foreign Policy and Preparation for War | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | year = 1990 | editor1-last = Deist | editor1-first = Wilhelm | isbn = 978-0-19-822866-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Mitcham | first = Samuel W. | title = Why Hitler?: The Genesis of the Nazi Reich | year = 1996 | publisher = Praeger | location = Westport, Conn | isbn = 978-0-275-95485-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Murray | first = Williamson | title = The Change in the European Balance of Power | location = Princeton | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1984 | isbn = 978-0-691-05413-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Naimark | first = Norman M. | year = 2002 | title = Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe | publisher = Harvard University Press | isbn = 978-0-674-00994-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Niewyk | first1 = Donald L. | last2 = Nicosia | first2 = Francis R. | title = The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust | year = 2000 | publisher = Columbia University Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-231-11200-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = O'Donnell | first = James P. | authorlink = James P. O'Donnell | title = [[The Bunker (book)|The Bunker]] | publisher = Da Capo Press | location = New York | year = 2001 | origyear = 1978 | isbn = 978-0-306-80958-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last1 = Overy | first1 = Richard | last2 = Wheatcroft | first2 = Andrew | author-link = Richard Overy | title = The Road To War | location = London | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1989 | isbn = 978-0-14-028530-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Overy | first = Richard | editor1-last = Lukes | editor1-first = Igor | editor2-last = Goldstein | editor2-first = Erik | title = The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II | year = 1999 | publisher = Frank Cass | location = London; Portland, OR | chapter = Germany and the Munich Crisis: A Mutilated Victory? | oclc = 40862187 | ref = {{sfnRef|Overy, .27.27The Munich Crisis.27.27|1999|p=207}} }} * {{cite book | last = Overy | first = Richard | authorlink = Richard Overy | editor1-last = Martel | editor1-first = Gordon | title = The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered | year = 1999 | publisher = Routledge | location = London | chapter = Misjudging Hitler | pages = 93–115 | isbn = 978-0-415-16324-8 | ref = {{sfnRef|Overy, .27.27Origins of WWII Reconsidered.27.27|1999}} }} * {{cite book | last = Overy | first = Richard | title = The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia | publisher = Penguin Books | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-393-02030-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Payne | first = Robert | authorlink = Pierre Stephen Robert Payne | title = The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler | publisher = Hippocrene Books | location = New York, New York | year = 1990 | origyear = 1973 | isbn = 978-0-88029-402-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Payne | first = Stanley G. | authorlink = Stanley G. Payne | title = Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II | publisher = Yale University Press | location = New Haven | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-300-12282-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Plating | first = John D. | title = The Hump: America's Strategy for Keeping China in World War II | year = 2011 | publisher = Texas A&M University Press | location = College Station | series = Williams-Ford Texas A&M University military history series, no. 134 | isbn = 978-1-60344-238-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Redlich | first = Fritz R. | title = Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet | year = 2000 | month = September | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = | isbn = 978-0-19-513631-9 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Rees | first = Laurence | authorlink = Laurence Rees | title = [[The Nazis: A Warning From History]] | location = New York | publisher = New Press | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-0-563-38704-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Rißmann | first = Michael | title = Hitlers Gott. Vorsehungsglaube und Sendungsbewußtsein des deutschen Diktators | location = Zürich München | publisher = Pendo | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-3-85842-421-1 | language = German | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Roberts | first = G. | title = Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 | location = New Haven | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-300-11204-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Roberts | first = J. M. | author-link = John Roberts (historian) | title = A History of Europe | location = Oxford | publisher = Helicon | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-1-85986-178-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Roberts | first = Martin | title = The New Barbarism&nbsp;– A Portrait of Europe 1900–1973 | year = 1975 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-913225-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Robertson | first = Esmonde M. | title = Hitler's Pre-War Policy and Military Plans: 1933–1939 | publisher = Longmans | location = London | year = 1963 | oclc = 300011871 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Robertson | first = E. M. | editor1-first = Koch | editor1-last = H.W | title = Aspects of the Third Reich | year = 1985 | publisher = Macmillan | location = London | chapter = Hitler Planning for War and the Response of the Great Powers | isbn = 978-0-312-05726-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Rosenbaum | first = Ron | authorlink = Ron Rosenbaum | title = [[Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil]] | year = 1999 | publisher = Harper Perennial | isbn = 978-0-06-095339-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Rosmus | first = Anna Elisabeth | year = 2004 | title = Out of Passau: Leaving a City Hitler Called Home | publisher = University of South Carolina Press | location = Columbia, S.C | isbn = 978-1-57003-508-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Rothwell | first = Victor | title = The Origins of the Second World War | year = 2001 | publisher = Manchester University Press | location = Manchester | isbn = 978-0-7190-5957-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Rummel | first = Rudolph | authorlink = Rudolph Rummel | title = Death by Government | year = 1994 | publisher = Transaction | location = New Brunswick, NJ | isbn = 978-1-56000-145-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Ryschka | first = Birgit | title = Constructing and Deconstructing National Identity: Dramatic Discourse in Tom Murphy's the Patriot Game and Felix Mitterer's in Der Löwengrube | date = 29 September 2008 | publisher = Peter Lang | isbn = 978-3-631-58111-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Shirer | first = William L. | authorlink = William L. Shirer | title = [[The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich]] | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | year = 1960 | isbn = 978-0-671-62420-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Snyder | first = Timothy | authorlink = Timothy D. Snyder | title = [[Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin]] | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-465-00239-9 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Speer | first = Albert | authorlink = Albert Speer | origyear = 1969 | year = 1971 | title = [[Inside the Third Reich]] | publisher = Avon | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-380-00071-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Spiro | first = Jonathan Peter | title = Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant | year = 2008 | publisher = University Press of Vermont | location = Lebanon, NH | isbn = 978-1-58465-715-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Stackelberg | first = Roderick | title = The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany | year = 2007 | publisher = Routledge | location = New Yor | isbn = 978-0-415-30860-1 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Steigmann-Gall | first = Richard | authorlink = Richard Steigmann-Gall | title = The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945 | location = Cambridge; New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-521-82371-5 | doi = 10.2277/978-0-521-82371-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Steinberg | first = Jonathan | title = The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1995-06_110_437/page/620 | journal = The English Historical Review | year = 1995 | month = June | volume = 110 | issue = 437 | pages = 620–651 | oclc = 83655937 | ref = harv | doi = 10.1093/ehr/CX.437.620 }} * {{cite book | last = Steiner | first = John Michael | title = Power Politics and Social Change in National Socialist Germany: A Process of Escalation into Mass Destruction | year = 1976 | publisher = Mouton | location = The Hague | isbn = 978-90-279-7651-2 | ref = harv }} *{{cite journal | last = Stolfi | first = Russel | title = Barbarossa Revisited: A Critical Reappraisal of the Opening Stages of the Russo-German Campaign (June–December 1941) | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-history_1982-03_54_1/page/27 | journal = [[Journal of Modern History]] | year = 1982 | month = March | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–46 | doi = 10.1086/244076 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Tames | first = Richard | title = Dictatorship | publisher = Heinemann Library | location = Chicago | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-4329-0234-6 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Le Tissier | first = Tony | title = Race for the Reichstag | publisher = Pen & Sword | year = 2010 | origyear = 1999 | isbn = 978-1-84884-230-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Toland | first = John | authorlink = John Toland (author) | title = Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography | publisher = Book Club Associates | location = London | year = 1977 | origyear = 1976 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Toland | first = John | title = Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography | publisher = [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] | year = 1992 | origyear = 1976 | isbn = 978-0-385-42053-2 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Trevor-Roper | first = Hugh | authorlink = Hugh Trevor-Roper | title = The Last Days of Hitler | year = 1987 | origyear = 1947 | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | isbn = 978-0-226-81224-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Vinogradov | first = V. K. | title = Hitler's Death: Russia's Last Great Secret from the Files of the KGB | publisher = Chaucer Press | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-1-904449-13-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Weber | first = Thomas | title = Hitler's First War: Adolf Hitler, The Men of the List Regiment, and the First World War | year = 2010 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford; New York | isbn = 978-0-19-923320-5 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Weinberg | first = Gerhard | title = Hitler's Private Testament of 2 May 1938 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-history_1955-12_27_4/page/415 | journal = The Journal of Modern History | date = December 1955 | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 415–419 | oclc = 482752575 | doi = 10.1086/237831 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Weinberg | first = Gerhard | title = Hitler's Image of the United States | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1964-07_69_4/page/1006 | journal = The American Historical Review | date = December 1964 | volume = 69 | issue = 4 | pages = 1006–1021 | ref = harv | doi = 10.2307/1842933 }} * {{cite book | last = Weinberg | first = Gerhard | author-link = Gerhard Weinberg | title = The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Diplomatic Revolution in Europe 1933–1936 | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago, Illinois | year = 1970 | isbn = 978-0-226-88509-4 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Weinberg | first = Gerhard | title = The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 1980 | isbn = 978-0-226-88511-7 | location = Chicago, Illinois | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Weinberg | first = Gerhard | title = Germany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History | year = 1995 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | chapter = Hitler and England, 1933–1945: Pretense and Reality | isbn = 978-0-521-47407-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Welch | first = David | title = Hitler: Profile of a Dictator | year = 2001 | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 978-0-415-25075-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Wheeler-Bennett | first = John | authorlink = John Wheeler-Bennett | title = The Nemesis of Power | location = London | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1967 | isbn = 978-1-4039-1812-3 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Wilt | first = Alan | authorlink = Alan F. Wilt | title = Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941 | journal = Military Affairs | date = December 1981 | volume = 45 | issue = 4 | pages = 187–191 | doi = 10.2307/1987464 | jstor = 1987464 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Winkler | first2 = Heinrich August | title = Germany: The Long Road West. Vol. 2, 1933–1990 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = New York | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-19-926598-5 | ref = harv | others = Sager, Alexander (trans.) }} * {{cite book | last = Ziemke | first = Earl F. | title = Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich | series = Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II | volume = Battle Book #6 | publisher = [[Ballantine Books]] | year = 1969<!--pre isbn--> | oclc = 23899 | ref = harv }} {{refend}} {{EndDiv}} ===Wiki common=== {{commons|Adolf Hitler}} === Sumber dalam jariangan === {{refbegin}} {{col|2}} * {{cite web | last = Bazyler | first = Michael J. | title = Holocaust Denial Laws and Other Legislation Criminalizing Promotion of Nazism | date = 25 December 2006 | publisher = [[Yad Vashem]] | url = http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/insights/pdf/bazyler.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 7 January 2013 | ref = harv }} * {{cite news | title = Parkinson's part in Hitler's downfall | publisher = BBC News | date = 29 July 1999 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/406713.stm | accessdate =13 June 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|BBC News, 1999}} }} * {{cite web | title = 1933&nbsp;– Day of Potsdam | publisher = City of Potsdam | url = http://www.potsdam.de/cms/beitrag/10000945/33981/ | accessdate = 13 June 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|City of Potsdam}} | archive-date = 6 June 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120606032402/http://www.potsdam.de/cms/beitrag/10000945/33981/ | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite news | title = Documents: Bush's Grandfather Directed Bank Tied to Man Who Funded Hitler | date = 17 October 2003 | publisher = Fox News | url = http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,100474,00.html | accessdate =16 October 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|Fox News, 2003}} }} * {{cite web | title = Hitler's Last Days | publisher = MI5 Security Service | work = mi5.gov.uk | url = https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/mi5-history/world-war-ii/hitlers-last-days.html | accessdate =5 January 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|MI5, .27.27Hitler's Last Days.27.27}} }} * {{cite news | last = Evans | first = Richard J. | title = How the First World War shaped Hitler | newspaper = [[The Globe and Mail]] | date = 22 June 2011 | publisher = Phillip Crawley | url = http://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/books-and-media/hitlers-first-war-by-thomas-weber/article4261721/ | accessdate =23 September 2012 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | last = Frauenfeld | first = A. E | title = The Power of Speech | publisher = [[Calvin College]] | date = August 1937 | url = http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/machtrede.htm | accessdate = 19 October 2011 | ref = harv | archive-date = 6 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140606094146/http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/machtrede.htm | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite web | last = Glantz | first = David | authorlink = David Glantz | title = The Soviet‐German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay | publisher = Strom Thurmond Institute of Government and Public Affairs, [[Clemson University]] | format = pdf | location = Clemson, SC | date = 11 October 2001 | url = http://sti.clemson.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_details&gid=189&Itemid=310 | accessdate = 12 December 2012 | ref = harv | archive-date = 18 February 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150218155036/http://sti.clemson.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_details&gid=189&Itemid=310 | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite web | last = Goebbels | first = Joseph | title = The Führer as a Speaker | publisher = [[Calvin College]] | year = 1936 | url = http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/ahspeak.htm | accessdate = 19 October 2011 | ref = harv | archive-date = 4 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140604083118/http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/ahspeak.htm | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite news | last = Hinrichs | first = Per | publisher = Spiegel Online | title = Des Führers Pass: Hitlers Einbürgerung | trans_title = The Führer's Passport: Hitler's Naturalisation | date = 10 March 2007 | language = German | url = http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/zeitgeschichte/0,1518,470844,00.html | accessdate =16 October 2011 | ref = harv }} * {{cite web | last = Kotanko | first = Florian | title = House of Responsibility | publisher = | year = | month = | url = http://www.hrb.at/index.php?path=languages/english/body.php | accessdate = 08 January 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|House of Responsibility}} | archive-date = 13 November 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131113231404/http://www.hrb.at/index.php?path=languages/english/body.php | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite web | title = Introduction to the Holocaust | publisher = [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] | url = http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005143 | accessdate =17 October 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|Holocaust Memorial Museum}} }} * {{cite web | title = Eingabe der Industriellen an Hindenburg vom November 1932 | trans_title = Letter of the industrialists to Hindenburg, November 1932 | publisher=Glasnost–Archiv | url=http://www.glasnost.de/hist/ns/eingabe.html | accessdate =16 October 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|Letter to Hindenburg, 1932}} }} * {{cite web | last = McMillan | first = Dan | title = Review of Fritz, Stephen G., ''Ostkrieg: Hitler's War of Extermination in the East'' | publisher = H-Genocide, H-Net Reviews | year = 2012 | month = October | url = http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=35868 | accessdate = 16 October 2012 | ref = harv }} * {{cite document | title = Der Hitler-Prozeß vor dem Volksgericht in München | trans_title = The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich | language = German | year = 1924 | ref = {{sfnRef|Munich Court, 1924}} | postscript = . }} * {{cite journal | author = Office of Strategic Services | title = The Nazi Master Plan: The Persecution of the Christian Churches | journal = Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion | year = 1945 | publisher = Cornell Law Library | location = Ithaca, NY | pages = 6–7 | oclc = 320083040 | url = http://org.law.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/nurinst1.shtml | ref = {{sfnRef|Office of Strategic Services, 1945}} | access-date = 2013-08-02 | archive-date = 2013-09-26 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130926204151/http://org.law.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/nurinst1.shtml | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.ns-archiv.de/personen/hitler/oesterreich/staatsbuergerschaft.php | title = Hitler ersucht um Entlassung aus der österreichischen Staatsangehörigkeit | trans_title = Hitler's official application to end his Austrian citizenship | date = 7 April 1925 | publisher= NS-Archiv | language = German | accessdate=13 April 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|NS-Archiv, 7 April 1925}} }} * {{cite news | last = Sharkey | first = Joe | title = Word for Word/The Case Against the Nazis; How Hitler's Forces Planned To Destroy German Christianity | newspaper = The New York Times | date = 13 January 2002 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/13/weekinreview/word-for-word-case-against-nazis-hitler-s-forces-planned-destroy-german.html?pagewanted=all | accessdate =7 June 2011 | ref = harv }} * {{cite news | title = Leni Riefenstahl | date=10 September 2003 | work = [[The Daily Telegraph]] | publisher = [[Telegraph Media Group|TMG]] | location = [[London, UK|London]] | issn = 0307-1235 | oclc = 49632006 | url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1440991/Leni-Riefenstahl.html?pageNum=3 | accessdate=14 December 2011-12-14 | ref = {{sfnRef|.27.27The Daily Telegraph.27.27, 2003}} }} * {{cite news | title = Man of the Year | work = Time Magazine | publisher = Time | date = 2 January 1939 | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,760539-1,00.html | accessdate = 22 May 2008 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080607103145/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,760539-1,00.html | archivedate = 7 June 2008 | deadurl = no | ref = {{sfnRef|.27.27Time.27.27, January 1939}} }} * {{cite news | title = Seven Years War? | work = Time Magazine | publisher = Time | date = 2 October 1939 | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,789000,00.html | accessdate = 30 August 2008 | ref = {{sfnRef|.27.27Time.27.27, October 1939}} | archive-date = 9 March 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080309075838/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,789000,00.html | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite news | title = Germany: Second Revolution? | date = 2 July 1934 | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,754321,00.html | work = Time Magazine | publisher = Time | accessdate = 17 October 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|.27.27Time.27.27, 1934}} | archive-date = 17 April 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080417000456/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,754321-2,00.html | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite web | title = Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era: The Invasion and Occupation of Poland | work = ushmm.org | publisher = United States Holocaust Memorial Museum | url = http://www.ushmm.org/education/resource/poles/poles.php | accessdate = 15 December 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|US Holocaust Memorial Museum}} | archive-date = 5 December 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121205035132/http://www.ushmm.org/education/resource/poles/poles.php | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite web | last = Wilson | first = Bee | title = Mein Diat&nbsp;– Adolf Hitler's diet | publisher = [[Questia]] | work = New Statesman | location = UK | date = 9 October 1998 | accessdate =22 May 2008 | url = http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-21238666/mein-diat | ref = harv }} {{subscription required}} * {{cite book | author = Yad Vashem Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority | title = Yad Vashem Studies | year = 2006 | volume = 34 | publisher = [[Yad Vashem]] | location = Jerusalem | oclc = 610688434 | ref = {{sfnRef|Yad Vashem, 2006}} }} * {{cite web | title = How many Jews were murdered in the Holocaust? How do we know? Do we have their names? | publisher = [[Yad Vashem]] | url = http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/resource_center/faq.asp | accessdate = 10 January 2013 | ref = {{sfnRef|Yad Vashem, 2008}} | archive-date = 31 July 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200731203421/https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/resource_center/faq.asp | dead-url = yes }} {{refend}} {{EndDiv}} ==Pautan lua== * {{IMDb name|id=0386944}}&nbsp;– real life footage in documentaries * {{IMDb character|id=0027857|character=Adolf Hitler (Character)}}&nbsp;– as portrayed in film and TV * {{cite web|title=Adolf Hitler|url=http://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler|work=The Vault|publisher=FBI Records}} * {{cite web|title=Hitler and his officers|url=http://www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/movies/hitler_color|work=World War II Movies in Color|publisher=WW2inColor|access-date=2013-08-02|archive-date=2005-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126074323/http://www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/movies/hitler_color|dead-url=yes}} {{Authority control|PND=118551655|LCCN=n/79/46200|VIAF=38190770|TSURL=Adolf_Hitler}} [[Kategori:Kanselir Jerman]] sl2hsx2wtxiufnncs1l1sjjeib1hinj 0 227251 3351221 3065276 2026-08-05T20:15:24Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351221 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox |name = Si dukuang anak |image = File:Phyllanthus amarus11.JPG |regnum = [[Plant]]ae |unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] |ordo = [[Malpighiales]] |familia = [[Phyllanthaceae]] |genus = ''[[Phyllanthus]]'' |species = '''''P. niruri''''' |binomial = ''Phyllanthus niruri'' |binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] |synonyms = ''Phyllanthus amarus'' |}} {{Untuak|Sidukuang anak dari spesies babeda|Sidukuang anak}} [[Berkas:Keezharnelli 2 Phyllanthus niruri.jpg|jmpl|441x441px|Tanaman sidukuang anak]] '''Sidukuang anak''' (''Phyllanthus niruri'') adolah suatu jinih tumbuahan [[tropis]] lia nan taseba laweh di dunia, nan umumnyo dapek ditamuan di daerah-daerah pasisia. Tumbuahan ko disabuik damikian dek karano adonyo biji-biji nan tumbuah malakek di bawah daun-daunnyo, jadi saulah-ulah sarupo jo urang nan mandukuang anaknyo. Si dukuang anak acok dipakai sabagai salah satu bahan ubek tradisional. == Namo == Tumbuahan ko disabuik juo jo namo ''meniran ijo'' (baso Jawa), ''dukong anak'' (baso Malayu), atau ''Chanca Piedra'' (baso Spanyol). [[Image:Keezhanelli.JPG|thumb|Phyllanthus niruri]] == Uraian == Tumbuahan ko tumbuah inggo 50-70 sentimeter, jo batang-batang nan rimbun daunnyo. Batangnyo lambuik kaijauan, ditumbuahi bungo-bungo bawarno ijau pucek atau takadang agak sirah. Buahnyo sabana ketek, anyo barupo butia-butia nan baisi biji. <!-- ==Traditional medicine== ''P. niruri'' is an important plant of Indian [[Ayurvedic]] system of medicine which is used for problems of the stomach, genitourinary system, liver, kidney and spleen.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tamilnadu.com/herbs/keelanelli.html |title=Keelanelli|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=21 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jep.2011.09.040 | title = Phyllanthus amarus: Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology: A review | year = 2011 | last1 = Patel | first1 = Jay Ram | last2 = Tripathi | first2 = Priyanka | last3 = Sharma | first3 = Vikas | last4 = Chauhan | first4 = Nagendra Singh | last5 = Dixit | first5 = Vinod Kumar | journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology | volume = 138 | issue = 2 | pages = 286–313 | pmid = 21982793}}</ref> The plant has also been used in [[Brazil]] and [[Peru]] as a [[herbal remedy]] for [[kidney stones]]. ==Western medicine== A clinical study with ''Phyllanthus niruri'', indicated that it may reduce the levels of urinary [[Calcium in biology|calcium]].<ref name="pmid15221244">{{cite journal | author = Nishiura JL, Campos AH, Boim MA, Heilberg IP, Schor N | title = Phyllanthus niruri normalizes elevated urinary calcium levels in calcium stone forming (CSF) patients | journal = Urological Research | volume = 32 | issue = 5 | pages = 362–6 | year = 2004 | month = October | pmid = 15221244 | doi = 10.1007/s00240-004-0432-8}}</ref> A subsequent study of 150 patients over a 6-month period indicated that an extract of this herb reduces the incidence of stone formation, and concluded, "Regular self-administration of ''P. niruri'' after extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for renal stones results in an increased stone-free rate that appears statistically significant for lower caliceal location. Its efficacy and the absolute lack of side effects make this therapy suitable to improve overall outcomes after extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for lower pole stones."<ref name="pmid16890682">{{cite journal | author = Micali S, Sighinolfi MC, Celia A, De Stefani S, Grande M, Cicero AF, Bianchi G | title = Can Phyllanthus niruri affect the efficacy of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for renal stones? A randomized, prospective, long-term study. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-urology_2006-09_176_3/page/1020 | journal = J Urol. | volume = 176| issue = 3 | pages = 1020–2 | year = 2006 | month = September| pmid = 16890682 |doi = 10.1016/j.juro.2006.04.010}}</ref> A more recent rat study found that ''Phyllanthus niruri'' has been shown to interfere with many stages of stone formation, reducing crystals aggregation, modifying their structure and composition as well as altering the interaction of the crystals with tubular cells leading to reduced subsequent endocytosis." <ref name="pmid21176271">{{cite journal | author = Boim MA, Heilberg IP, Schor N. | title = Phyllanthus niruri as a promising alternative treatment for nephrolithiasis | journal = Int Braz J Urol. | volume = 36 | issue = 6 | pages = 657–64 | year = 2010 | month = December| pmid = 21176271| doi = 10.1590/S1677-55382010000600002}}</ref> It is not clear that there have been any studies which conclusively found that ''Phyllanthus niruri'' was effective in treating existing stones. == References == {{Reflist}} --> == Rujuakan == *{{cite journal |author=Calixto JB, Yunes RA, Neto AS, Valle RM, Rae GA |title=Antispasmodic effects of an alkaloid extracted from ''Phyllanthus sellowianus'': a comparative study with papaverine |journal=Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=313–21 |year=1984 |pmid=6529614 }} == Pautan lua == {{commons category|Phyllanthus niruri}} {{wikispecies|Phyllanthus niruri}} *[http://ciuniankfhe919.wordpress.com/2012/12/27/daun-si-dukuang-anak-daun-meniran/ Daun Si Dukuang Anak / Daun Meniran] *[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/phyllanthus.html Bhuiaonla (''Phyllanthus niruri''): A Useful Medicinal Weed] *[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-152.html#phyllanthus Medicinal Uses] *[http://www.rain-tree.com/chanca.htm Tropical Plant Database] {{Taxonbar|from=Q2719836}} [[Kategori:Phyllanthaceae]] [[Kategori:Tumbuahan ubek]] [[Kategori:Tumbuahan]] d9ms0bg4gr2hv3xe35dpkd9zl9rmvef 0 227954 3351192 3146792 2026-08-05T19:22:09Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351192 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} '''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' ({{IPA-xh|xoˈliːɬaɬa manˈdeːla|pangucapan [[bahaso Xhosa|Xhosa]]:}}; {{lahirmati|[[Mvezo]], [[Afrika Selatan]]|18|7|1918|[[Johannesburg]], Afrika Selatan|5|12|2013}}<!-- don't even think about adding a death date without a reliable source -->) adolah surang [[pambarontakan dalam nagari tahadok apartheid Afrika Selatan|revolusioner anti-apartheid]] jo politisi [[banso Afrika Selatan|Afrika Selatan]] nan manjabaik sabagai [[Presiden Afrika Selatan]] sajak 1994 sampai 1999. Baliau adolah urang Afrika Selatan bakulik hitam partamo nan mamacik jabatan tasabuik jo presiden partamo nan tapiliah malalui [[hak suaro universal|katawakilan panuah]], dalam sabuah pamilu multiras. [[Pamarintahan Nelson Mandela|Pamarintahan]]nyo bafokus pado pangapuihan pangaruah [[apartheid di Afrika Selatan|apartheid]] jo mambarantas rasisme, kamiskinan jo kasanjangan, sarato mandorong rekonsiliasi rasial. Salaku [[nasionalisme Afrika|nasionalis Afrika]] jo [[sosialisme demokratik|sosialis demokratik]], baliau manjabaik sabagai [[Sajarah Kongres Nasional Afrika|Presiden Kongres Nasional Afrika]] (ANC) pado 1991 sampai 1997. Salain itu, Mandela pernah manjadi [[Gerakan Non-Blok|Sekretaris Jenderal Gerakan Non-Blok]] pado 1998 sampai 1999. Talahia dari kaluargo karajaan [[Thembu]] jo basuku [[suku Xhosa|Xhosa]], Mandela baraja hukum di [[Fort Hare University]] jo [[University of Witwatersrand]]. Katiko manatok di [[Johannesburg]], baliau talibat dalam politik anti-kolonial, bagabuang jo ANC, sarato manjadi anggota pandiri [[Liga Pamudo Kongres Nasional Afrika|Liga Pemudo ANC]]. Salapeh kaum [[nasionalisme Afrikaner|nasionalis Afrikaner]] dari [[Partai Nasional (Afrika Selatan)|Partai Nasional]] bakuaso taun 1948 jo manarapkan kabijakan apartheid, popularitas Mandela malejit di [[Defiance Campaign]] ANC taun 1952, tapiliah manjadi Presiden ANC Transvaal, jo mahadiri [[Congress of the People (1955)|Congress of the People]] taun 1955. Sabagai pangacara, baliau barulang kali ditahan karano malakukan aktivitas mangasuik jo, sabagai katua ANC, diadili di [[Treason Trial|Pangadilan Pangkhianatan]] pado 1956 sampai 1961, namun akhianyo divonis indak basalah. Meski awalnyo barunjuk raso tanpa kakarehan, baliau jo [[Partai Komunis Afrika Selatan]] mandirikan militan [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] (MK) taun 1961 dan mamimpin kampanye pangeboman tahadok target-target pamarintahan. Pado 1962, baliau ditahan jo dituduah malakukan [[sabotase]] dan basakongkol mangguliangkan pamarintahan, dan dihukum panjaro saumua hiduik di [[Pangadilan Rivonia]]. Mandela manjalani maso kuruangan 27 tahun, partamo di [[Pulau Robben]], kamudian di [[Panjaro Pollsmoor]] jo [[Drakenstein Correctional Centre|Panjaro Victor Verster]]. Kampanye internasional nan manuntuik pambebasannyo mambuek Mandela dibebaskan taun 1990. Sasudah manjadi Presiden ANC, Mandela manabikkan [[Long Walk to Freedom|otobiografi]] jo banegosiasi jo Presiden [[F.W. de Klerk]] untuak mahapuihan apartheid sarato malaksanokan [[pamiliahan umum Afrika Selatan 1994|pamilu multiras tahun 1994]] nan ka dimanangan ANC. Baliau tapiliah sabagai [[Presiden Afrika Selatan|Presiden]] dan mambantuak [[Pamarintahan Pasatuan Nasional (Afrika Selatan)|Pamarintahan Pasatuan Nasional]]. Salaku Presiden, baliau manyusun [[Konstitusi Afrika Selatan|konstitusi baru]] jo mambuek [[Komisi Kabanaran jo Rekonsiliasi (Afrika Selatan)|Komisi Kabenaran jo Rekonsiliasi]] untuak manyalidiaki palanggaran-palanggaran HAM sabalunnyo. Baliau juo mampakenalkan kabijakan reformasi lahan, pambarantasan kamiskinan, jo palawehan cakupan layanan kasehatan. Di lua nagari, baliau batindak sabagai mediator antaro Libya jo Baritania Rayo dalam [[pangadilan pangaboman Pan Am Panabangan 103]] dan mangawasi [[intervensi Southern African Development Community di Lesotho|intervensi militer di Lesotho]]. Baliau manulak mancalonan diri untuak kaduo kalinyo jo digantikan dek wakilnyo, [[Thabo Mbeki]]. Baliau kamudian manjadi negarawan ulung nan bafokus pado aktivitas amal demi mambarantas kamiskinan jo [[HIV/AIDS]] malalui Nelson Mandela Foundation. Kontroversial nyaris sapanjang hayatnyo, para kritikus sayok kanan manyabuik Mandela teroris jo simpatisan komunis. Meski baitu, baliau mandapek pangakuan internasional ateh sikap anti-kolonial jo anti-apartheidnyo, manarimo [[Daftar pangharagoan untuak Nelson Mandela|labiah dari 250 pangharagoan]], tamasuak [[Hadiah Padamaian Nobel]] 1993, [[Medali Kabebasan Presiden]] Amerika Serikat, jo [[Order of Lenin]] dari Uni Soviet. Baliau amaik dihoromati di Afrika Selatan jo labiah dikenal jo [[namo klan Xhosa]]-nyo, '''''Madiba''''' atau '''''tata'''''. Nelson Mandela acok mandapek gala "bapak banso". == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} ===Daftar Pustaka=== {{Refbegin|40em|indent=yes}} :{{cite contribution|contribution=Afterword: Living Legend, Living Statue |last=Battersby |first=John |year=2011 |title=Mandela: The Authorised Biography |editor=Anthony Sampson |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |pages=587–610 |isbn=978-0007437979 |ref=harv}} :{{cite book| last=Guiloineau |first=Jean |last2=Rowe|first2=Joseph |year=2002 |title= Nelson Mandela: The Early Life of Rolihlahla Mandiba |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4iKSlwuya1YC&pg=PA9&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher= [[North Atlantic Books]] |location=Berkeley |pages=9–26 |isbn=1-55643-417-0 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution|contribution=The Nature of South African Democracy: Political Dominance and Economic Inequality |last=Herbst |first1=Jeffrey |year=2003 |title=The Making and Unmaking of Democracy: Lessons from History and World Politics |editor=Theodore K. Rabb, Ezra N. Suleiman |publisher=Routledge |location=London |pages=206–224 |isbn=978-0415933810 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution|contribution=The Revelation of African Culture in "Long Walk to Freedom" |last=Mafela |first1= Munzhedzi James|year=2008 |title= Indigenous Biography and Autobiography |editor=Anna Haebich, Frances Peters-Little, Peter Read |publisher=Humanities Research Centre, [[Australian National University]] |location=Sydney |url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/aborig_history/indigenous_biog/mobile_devices/ch08.html#d0e6318 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution|contribution=Democracy and Governance in Transition |last1=Houston |first1=Gregory |last2=Muthien |first2=Yvonne |year=2000 |title=Democracy and Governance Review: Mandela's Legacy 1994–1999 |editor=Yvonne Muthien, Meshack Khosa and Bernard Magubane |publisher=Human Sciences Research Council Press |location=Pretoria |pages=37–68 |isbn=978-0796919700 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |title=The Political Philosophy of Nelson Mandela: A Primer |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-social-philosophy_winter-1995_26_3/page/161 |journal=Journal of Social Philosophy |last=Kalumba |first=Kibujjo M. |year=1995 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=161–171 |ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Mandela |first=Nelson |title=Long Walk to Freedom Volume I: 1918–1962 |year=1994 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |location= |isbn=978-0754087236 |ref=harv}} :{{Cite book |last=Mandela |first=Nelson |title=Long Walk to Freedom Volume II: 1962–1994 ''(large print edition)'' |year=2004 |origyear=1994 |publisher=BBC AudioBooks and Time Warner Books Ltd |location=London |isbn=978-0754087243 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution|contribution=Democracy and Governance in Transition |last1=Muthien |first1=Yvonne |last2=Khosa |first2=Meshack |last3=Magubane |first3=Bernard |year=2000 |title=Democracy and Governance Review: Mandela's Legacy 1994–1999 |editor=Yvonne Muthien, Meshack Khosa and Bernard Magubane |publisher=Human Sciences Research Council Press |location=Pretoria |pages=361–374 |isbn=978-0796919700 |ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Meredith |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Meredith |title=Mandela: A Biography |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-1586488321 |ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Sampson |first=Anthony |authorlink=Anthony Sampson |title=Mandela: The Authorised Biography |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |year=2011 |origyear=1999 |isbn=978-0007437979 |ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Smith |first=David James |authorlink=David James Smith |title=Young Mandela |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |year=2010 |isbn=978-0297855248 |ref=harv}} {{refend}} ==Pautan lua== {{Sister project links |wikt=no |commons=Nelson Mandela |b=no |n=Category:Nelson Mandela |q=Nelson Mandela |s=Author:Nelson Mandela |v=no |species=no }} *[http://www.nelsonmandela.org/ Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory] *[http://www.nmcf.co.za/ Nelson Mandela Children's Fund] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304213932/http://www.nmcf.co.za/ |date=2016-03-04 }} *[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1851882 Mandela: An Audio History] *[http://www.theelders.org/ The Elders] *[http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/politics/international-politics/nelson-mandela-prisoner-president-peacemaker/nelson-mandela-addresses-canadian-parliament.html CBC Digital Archives&nbsp;– Nelson Mandela: Prisoner, president, peacemaker] *[http://www.mandeladay.com/ Nelson Mandela Day – official site] chpfiuu1in6ddz04lowmg85hbgvac1m 0 227999 3351230 484382 2026-08-05T20:50:08Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351230 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox royalty |name=Numa Pompilius |title=Rajo Romawi |image= Numa Pompilius.jpg |caption=Numa Pompilius |reign= 715 &ndash; 673 M |predecessor=[[Romulus]] |successor=[[Tullus Hostilius]] |father= Pomponius }} '''Numa Pompilius''' adolah rajo kadua [[Karajaan Romawi]]. Inyo manjadi rajo Romawi pado 715 SM. Inyo mamarentah inggo tahun 673 SM. == Pautan lua == {{commons category|Numa Pompilius}} * [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/43570.html Unearthing Rome's king from the History News Network] *{{cite journal|title=Numa Pompilius and the Idea of Civil Religion in the West|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-academy-of-religion-journal_2004-12_72_4/page/863|author=Mark Silk|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion|volume=72|issue=4|year=2004|pages=863–96|doi= 10.1093/jaarel/lfh082}} *[http://cdm.reed.edu/ara-pacis/altar/front-entrance-west/numa-aeneas-1/ Numa on the Ara Pacis Augustae] {{s-start}} {{s-reg | leg }} {{s-bef | before = [[Romulus dan Remus|Romulus]] }} {{s-ttl | title = [[Rajo Romawi]] | years = 717–673 }} {{s-aft | after = [[Tullus Hostilius]] }} {{s-end}} {{stub}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Pompilius, Numa}} [[Kategori:Rajo Romawi]] sf8atd9rqqctuldjoxn2bvy76eea8se 0 228725 3351196 2464169 2026-08-05T19:28:49Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351196 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox book | title = Kitab Fadil ibn Natiq | title_orig = ''Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Sirah al-Nabawiyyah'' | author = [[Ibn al-Nafis]] | language = [[Bahaso Arab]] | publisher = Indak bakaitan }} '''''Kitab Fadil ibn Natiq'''''; dalam [[Bahaso Arab]] juo disabuik '''''الرسالة الكاملية في السيرة النبوية}}'''''; '''''(Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Sirah al-Nabawiyyah)''''' (''"Risalah Kamil tantang Sirah Rasulullah SAW"''); adolah [[Carito rekaan pisapaik|carito pilsapaik]] patamo di dunia,{{sfn|Muhsin|1974}} nan dikarang dek [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Karangan iko ditarjamahan ka dalam [[Latin]] jo tajuak ''Theologus Autodidactus'' atau ''Autodidact Theologian'' (''"Ahli Teologi Nan Bagurukan Dirinyo Sandiri"''). Karya iko adolah salah satu dari roman Arab nan patamo, jo dapek dianggap ciek contoh awal panulihan [[carito rekaan sains]], jo satu contoh carita pancapaian kadewasaan jo carito pulau nan indak ado paunyi. Karangan iko dikarajoan antaro taun 1268 inggo 1277 M. ==Plot== Protagonis carito adolah Kamil, surang anak mudo lia autodidaktik <ref>Surang nan mangaja dirinyo sandiri, yakni manjadi guru pado dirinyo. Iko bakaik dangan, tapi balainan dari "baraja sandiri". Proses iko malibaikan proses bertafakur jo marasok ilmu.</ref> nan ujuik sacaro ''abiogenesis'' (pangasialan bando iduik dari ciek bando nan indak iduik) dalam sabuah guo jo iduik surang-surang di sabuah pulau nan indak ado paunyi.{{sfn|al-Roubi|1982}} Lamo-lamo inyo batamu dunia lua jo katibaan surang nan tadampa di pulau iko akibaik kapa karam,{{sfn|Fancy|2006}} jo sudah itu dibaonyo pulang ka dunia bertamadun. Saketek demi saketek plot buku bakambang manjadi kisah pancapaian kadewasaan jo mamasuakan unsur-unsur carito rekaan sains apabilo sampai pado puncaknyo dangan kisah malapatako nan mangarian.{{sfn|al-Roubi|1982}} == Catatan kaki == {{Reflist|colwidth=40em}} ==Rujuakan== *{{cite journal |last= Mahdi |first=Muhsin |year =1974 |title=The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_april-june-1974_94_2/page/232 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=94 |issue=2 |p=232-234 }} *{{cite web |first=Dr Abu Shadi |last=al-Roubi |year=1982 |title=Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher, ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine |publisher=Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait |url=http://www.islamset.com/ |website=Encyclopedia of Islamic World |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206072116/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html |archivedate=6 February 2008 |access-date=2 November 2014 |dead-url=yes }} *{{Cite journal |last=Fancy |first=Nahyan A. G. |year=2006 |title=Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288) |journal=Electronic Theses and Dissertations |publisher=[[University of Notre Dame]] |url=http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615 |access-date=2014-11-02 |archive-date=2015-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |dead-url=yes }} * {{Cite thesis |type=Ph.D. |title=Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288) |url=http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |last=Fancy |first=Nahyan |year=2006 |publisher=University of Notre Dame |accessdate=8 Oktober 2012 |archive-date=2015-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |dead-url=yes }} *{{Cite document |last=Iskandar |first=Albert Z. |year=1974 |contribution=Ibn al-Nafis |title=[[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] |volume=9 |pages=602–606 |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. --> }} ==Pautan lua== * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Iskandar | first = Albert Z. | title=Ibn Al-Nafīs, ‘Alā’ Al-Dīn Abu ‘L-Ḥasan ‘Alī Ibn Abi ‘L-Ḥazm Al-Qurashī (or Al-Qarashī) | url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830903101.html | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography|Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | publisher = Encyclopedia.com | origyear=1970-80 | year = 2008 }} {{wikisourcelang|ar|مؤلف:ابن النفيس|Ibn al-Nafis}} ckwngcegjw5720xb7ce0oyub54fy8g0 0 230851 3351255 2059337 2026-08-05T21:35:09Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351255 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Islam Karimov (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Islam Karimov (2002)]] '''Islam Abduganievitj Karimov''' (lahia 30 Januari 1938, di [[Samarkand]] - 2 September 2016) adolah presiden [[Uzbekistan]] nan kini ko. ==Rujuakan== *Bohr, Annette ''Uzbekistan: Politics and Foreign Policy'' London: Royal Institute of International Affairs (1998) ISBN 1-86203-081-2 *{{cite journal|author=Schatz, Edward |title=Access by Accident: Legitimacy Claims and Democracy Promotion in Authoritarian Central Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-political-science-review_2006-07_27_3/page/263 |journal=International Politica Science Review|volume=27 |issue=3 |year=2006|pages=263–284|jstor=20445055|doi=10.1177/0192512106064463 }} {{stub}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Karimov, Islam}} [[Kategori:Lahia 1938]] [[Kategori:Urang iduik]] [[Kategori:Urang Uzbekistan]] [[Kategori:Presiden]] 7n243vugtx6lf88d4cte85juem0qovr 0 231350 3351261 3183871 2026-08-05T21:46:16Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351261 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Indonesia_declaration_of_independence_17_August_1945.jpg|thumb|400x400px|'''[[Soekarno|Ir. Soekarno]]''' mambacokan teks '''Naskah "''Proklamasi Kemerdekaan [[Indonesia|Republik Indonesia]]''"''' nan sudah diketik oleh ''[[Sayuti Melik|Mohamad Ibnu Sayuti Melik]]'' dan alah ditandatangani oleh '''''[[Soekarno]]-[[Mohammad Hatta|Hatta]]'''''.]] '''Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia''' pado hari [[Jumaik]]<span>, </span>17 Agustus<span> </span>[[1945]] taun Masehi, atau tanggal 17 Agustus 2605 manuruik taun Japang dan tanggal 8 [[Ramadhan|Ramadan]] 1364 manuruik Kalender Hijriah,<ref>[http://rukyatulhilal.org/konversi/ Konversi Kalender Masehi-Hijriyah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111135549/http://rukyatulhilal.org/konversi/ |date=2013-11-11 }}.</ref> nan dibacoan dek [[Soekarno|Ir. Soekarno]] nan didampingi dek [[Mohammad Hatta|Drs. Mohammad Hatta]] batampek di Jalan Pegangsaan Timur 56, Jakarta Pusat.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Perkisahan Nusa, masa 1973-1986|url=https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Perkisahan_Nusa_masa_1973_1986/b8zqCBrdAusC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Proklamasi|publisher=Grafitipers|date=1986|language=id|first=Rosihan|last=Anwar}}</ref> == Peristiwa Rengasdengklok == {{utama|Peristiwa Rengasdengklok}} [[Berkas:Altar ruang tamu 2.jpg|jmpl|Rumah [[Djiaw Kie Siong]] di Rengasdengklok, Karawang dijadikan sebagai lokasi "penculikan" Sukarno-Hatta.]] Para pajuang nan masih mudo, tamasuak [[Chaerul Saleh]], [[Sukarni]], jo [[Wikana]] nan sadang manyala gelora kapahlawanannyo saudah badiskusi jo [[Tan Malaka|Ibrahim gelar Datuk Tan Malaka]]. Pado dini hari tangga 16 Agustus 1945, mereka basamo Shodanco Singgih, salah saurang anggota PETA, jo pemuda lain, mambaok Soekarno (basamo [[Fatmawati]] jo [[Guntur Soekarnoputra|Guntur]] nan baru baumua 9 bulan) sarato Muhammad Hatta, ka Rengasdengklok, nan kudian tanamo sabagai [[Peristiwa Rengasdengklok]]. Tujuannyo adolah agar Soekarno jo Hatta indak tapengaruh dek Japang. Di siko, mereka baliak mayakinkan Soekarno bahasonyo Japang alah manyerah dan para pajuang alah siap untuak malawan Japang, apa pun risikonya.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.selasar.com/jurnal/37576/16-Agustus-Menelisik-Memori-Bersejarah-Peristiwa-Rengasdengklok |title=16 Agustus: Menelisik Memori Bersejarah Peristiwa Rengasdengklok |date=16 Agustus 2017 |accessdate=17 Agustus 2019 |website=Selasar.com |first=Muhammad Iman |last=Abdurrahman |archive-date=2019-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817151959/https://www.selasar.com/jurnal/37576/16-Agustus-Menelisik-Memori-Bersejarah-Peristiwa-Rengasdengklok |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Di Jakarta, golongan mudo, Wikana, jo golongan gaek, yaitu Achmad Soebardjo malakukan parundingan. Soebardjo manyetujui untuak mamproklamasian kamerdekaan Indonesia di Jakarta. Mako diutuslah Yusuf Kunto untuak maanta ka Rengasdengklok. Mereka manjapuik Soekarno jo Hatta baliak ka Jakarta.<ref name="rengasdengklok">{{cite book |author=Her Suganda |authorlink= |title=Rengasdengklok - Revolusi dan Peristiwa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ft6UZaWOKU4C&pg=PA95 |accessdate=26 Mei 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=Kompas |location=Jakarta |isbn= 9787977094355 |pages=92–96}}</ref> Soebardjo berhasil mayakinkan para urang mudo untuak indak terburu-buru mamproklamasikan kamerdekaan. Sasudah tibo di Jakarta, mereka pulang ka rumah masiang-masiang. Mancaliak bahasonyo [[Hotel Des Indes]] (kini kompleks pertokoan di Harmoni) indak dapek digunoan untuak pertemuan sasudah pukul 10.00 malam, mako tawaran Laksamana Muda [[Maeda Tadashi]] untuak manggunoan rumahnyo (kini gedung museum perumusan [[Naskah Proklamasi|teks proklamasi]]) sabagai tampek rapek PPKI ditarimo dek para tokoh Indonesia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Isnaeni |first1=Hendri F. |title=Begini Naskah Proklamasi Dirumuskan |url=https://historia.id/modern/articles/begini-naskah-proklamasi-dirumuskan-P3eXj |accessdate=13 Januari 2019 |work=historia.id |date=16 Agustus 2015 |archive-date=2019-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114044447/https://historia.id/modern/articles/begini-naskah-proklamasi-dirumuskan-P3eXj |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|year=2006|title=Java in a time of revolution: occupation and resistance,1944-1946|location=Indonesia|publisher=Equinox Publishing|isbn=|pages=82}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} ==Bibliografi== *{{Cite book|title=Some Aspects of Indonesian Politics under the Japanese occupation, 1944–1945|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|series=Cornell University. Dept. of Far Eastern Studies. Modern Indonesia Project. Interim reports series |author-link=Benedict Anderson|publisher=Cornell University|year=1961|isbn=|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924006545622&view=1up&seq=3|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|pages=}} * {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|author-link=Benedict Anderson|title=Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946|url=https://archive.org/details/javaintimeofrevo0000ande|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=0-8014-0687-0}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Elson | first1 = R. E. | date = 2009 | title = Another Look at the Jakarta Charter Controversy of 1945 | url = https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54483/INDO_88_0_1255982649_105_130.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y | journal = Indonesia | volume = 88 | issue = 88 | pages = 105–130}} * {{Cite book|title=The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_VAH0W9uxoqoC |last=Feith|first=Herbert|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|orig-year=1962|isbn=978-9793780450 |location=Singapore|author-link=Herbert Feith}} * {{Cite book|title=The blue-eyed enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942–1945|last=Friend|first=Theodore|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=|location=New Jersey}} * {{Cite book|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949|last=Gouda|first=Frances|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2002|isbn=|location=Amsterdam}} * {{cite news | last = Poulgrain | first = Greg | title = Intriguing days ahead of independence | work = [[The Jakarta Post]] | date = 20 August 2015 | url = https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/08/20/intriguing-days-ahead-independence.html | access-date = 24 September 2020 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Homan|first=Gerlof D|date=1990|title=The Netherlands, the United States and the Indonesian Question, 1948|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_1990-01_25_1/page/124|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=25|issue=1|page=124|doi=10.1177/002200949002500106|s2cid=159928062}} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal|last=Kahin|first=George McT.|author-link=George McTurnan Kahin|date=2000|title=Sukarno's Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|journal=Indonesia|volume=69|issue=69|pages=1–3|doi=10.2307/3351273|issn=0019-7289|jstor=3351273|hdl=1813/54189|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/54189/1/INDO_69_0_1106943303_1_4.pdf|hdl-access=free}} * {{Citation | author = Mela Arnani | title = Kapan Soekarno Rekaman Suara Pembacaan Teks Proklamasi Indonesia? |trans-title=When did Soekarno record the Reading of the Indonesian Proclamation Text? |language=id| newspaper = [[Kompas]] | location = Jakarta | date = 17 August 2020 | url = https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/08/17/170500765/kapan-soekarno-rekaman-suara-pembacaan-teks-proklamasi-indonesia?page=all|access-date=27 September 2020}} * {{Cite book |editor-last1= Post|editor-first1= Peter |editor-last2= Frederick|editor-first2= William H. |editor-last3= Heidebrink|editor-first3= Iris |editor-last4= Sato|editor-first4= Shigeru | title=The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War |publisher=Brill |date=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-16866 4}} *{{Cite web |last=Prastiwi |first=Devira |year=2019 |title=Nani Wartabone dan Proklamasi Kemerdekaan 23 Januari 1942 |url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/3877256/nani-wartanobe-dan-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-23-januari-1942 |website=Liputan6.com |access-date=16 March 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Raliby| first=Osman| year= 1953| title=Documenta Historica: Sedjarah Dokumenter Dari Pertumbuhan dan Perdjuangan Negara Republik Indonesia| publisher=Bulain-Bintag|language=id|location =Jakarta|volume=}} * {{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Reid (academic)|title=The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950 |publisher=Longman |year=1974 |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-582-71046-4}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 | publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book|title=A history of modern Indonesia|last=Vickers|first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1139447614|location=New York|page=84}} [[Kategori:1945]] [[Kategori:Sijarah Indonesia]] {{stub}} guor7mu2do7ogkzajvw4uv7uo2igpz8 0 317036 3351227 3146962 2026-08-05T20:28:40Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351227 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} '''Ibnu Khaldun''', atau namo langkoknyo '''Abu Zaid Abdurrahman bin Muhammad bin Khaldun al-Ḥadrami''' ([[bahaso Arab]]: أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي‎; {{lahirmati||27|05|1332||19|03|1406}}) adolah surang [[ilmuwan]] [[Muslim]] [[bangso Arab|Arab]] asa [[Ifriqiyyah]] ([[Afrika Utara]])<ref name="ReferenceA">Genealogy and Knowledge in Muslim Societies: Understanding the Past. Sarah Bowen Savant.</ref><ref>Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Robert D. Burrowes.</ref><ref>http://muslimheritage.com/article/ibn-khaldun-his-life-and-works</ref> nan disabuik-sabuik sabagai salah surang bapak [[sosiologi]] moderen,<ref name="HistoryAndSociology" group="n" /> sarato ahli dalam panulisan sijarah ([[historiografi]]), [[demografi]],<ref name="HistoryAndSociology" group="n" /> jo [[ekonomi]].<ref>• [[Joseph J. Spengler]] (1964). "Economic Thought of Islam: Ibn Khaldun", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'', 6(3), pp. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/177577 268]-306.<br/>&nbsp;&nbsp;• Jean David C. Boulakia (1971). "Ibn Khaldûn: A Fourteenth-Century Economist", ''Journal of Political Economy'', 79(5), pp. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1830276 1105–1118].</ref><ref name="Economics" group="n" /> Kitab asia karya baliau nan tamusaua adolah ''Muqaddimah'' (atau ''Prolegomena'' dalam tajamahan [[bahaso Yunani]]). Kitab ko mambari pangaruah nan gadang kapado para ilmuwan maso saisuak, bahkan para ilmuwan [[Eropa]] [[abaik ka-19]] sampai-sampai lah mamandang Ibnu Khaldun sabagai salah surang [[filsuf]] tagadang di [[Abaik Patangahan]].<ref>[[Bernard Lewis]]: "Ibn Khaldun in Turkey", in: ''Ibn Khaldun: The Mediterranean in the 14th Century: Rise and Fall of Empires'', Foundation El Legado Andalusí, 2006, ISBN 978-84-96556-34-8, pp. 376–380 (376)</ref><ref>S. M. Deen (2007) ''Science under Islam: rise, decline and revival''. p. 157. ISBN 1-84799-942-5</ref> == Rujuakan == ; Catatan {{Reflist|2 |group="n" |refs= {{refn| * "...regarded by some Westerners as the true father of historiography and sociology".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gates|first=Warren E.|title=The Spread of Ibn Khaldûn's Ideas on Climate and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_july-september-1967_28_3/page/415|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|year=1967|volume=28|issue=3|pages=415–422|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|doi=10.2307/2708627|ref=harv}}</ref> * "Ibn Khaldun has been claimed the forerunner of a great number of European thinkers, mostly sociologists, historians, and philosophers".{{harv|Boulakia|1971}} * "The founding father of Eastern Sociology".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dhaouadi|first=M.|title=IBN KHALDUN: THE FOUNDING FATHER OF EASTERN SOCIOLOGY|journal=International Sociology|date=1 September 1990|volume=5|issue=3|pages=319–335|doi=10.1177/026858090005003007|ref=harv}}</ref> * "This grand scheme to find a new science of society makes him the forerunner of many of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries system-builders such as Vico, Comte and Marx." "As one of the early founders of the social sciences...".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haddad|first=L.|title=A FOURTEENTH-CENTURY THEORY OF ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_kyklos_1977_30_2/page/195|journal=Kyklos|date=1 May 1977|volume=30|issue=2|pages=195–213|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6435.1977.tb02006.x|ref=harv}}</ref> |group ="n" |name="HistoryAndSociology"}} {{refn| * "He is considered by some as a father of modern economics, or at least a major forerunner. The Western world recognizes Khaldun as the father of sociology but hesitates in recognizing him as a great economist who laid its very foundations. He was the first to systematically analyze the functioning of an economy, the importance of technology, specialization and foreign trade in economic surplus and the role of government and its stabilization policies to increase output and employment. Moreover, he dealt with the problem of optimum taxation, minimum government services, incentives, institutional framework, law and order, expectations, production, and the theory of value".[http://www.ovidius-stec.ro/html/anale/ENG/cuprins%20rezumate/2009%20vol2.pdf Cosma, Sorinel (2009). "Ibn Khaldun's Economic Thinking". Ovidius University Annals of Economics (Ovidius University Press) XIV:52–57] |group ="n" |name="Economics"}} }} ; Catatan kaki {{Reflist|2}} ; Bahan bacaan {{refbegin}} *Fuad Baali. 2005 ''The science of human social organization : Conflicting views on Ibn Khaldun's (1332–1406) Ilm al-umran''. Mellen studies in sociology. Lewiston/NY: Edwin Mellen Press. *Walter Fischel. 1967 ''Ibn Khaldun in Egypt : His public functions and his historical research, 1382–1406; a study in Islamic historiography''. Berkeley: University of California Press. *Ibn Khaldun. 1951 التعريف بإبن خلدون ورحلته غربا وشرقا ''Al-Taʻrīf bi Ibn-Khaldūn wa Riħlatuhu Għarbān wa Sharqān''. Published by Muħammad ibn-Tāwīt at-Tanjī. Cairo (Autobiography in Arabic). *Ibn Khaldūn. 1958 ''The Muqaddimah : An introduction to history''. Translated from the Arabic by [[Franz Rosenthal]]. 3 vols. New York: Princeton. *Ibn Khaldūn. 1967 ''The Muqaddimah : An introduction to history''. Trans. Franz Rosenthal, ed. N.J. Dawood. (Abridged). *Mahmoud Rabi'. 1967 ''The political theory of Ibn Khaldun''. Leiden: E.J. Brill. *Róbert Simon. 2002 ''Ibn Khaldūn : History as science and the patrimonial empire''. Translated by Klára Pogátsa. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. Original edition, 1999. *Allen Fromherz. 2010 "Ibn Khaldun : Life and Times". Edinburgh University Press, 2010. *Ana Maria C. Minecan, 2012 "El vínculo comunitario y el poder en Ibn Jaldún" in José-Miguel Marinas (Ed.), ''Pensar lo político: Ensayos sobre comunidad y conflicto'', Biblioteca Nueva, Madrid, 2012. {{refend}} [[Kategori:Tokoh]] 5k0or77xmhirlmkbokbwc6lybdjjx55 0 317253 3351265 2465125 2026-08-05T21:51:34Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351265 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist | name = Sir Tim Berners-Lee | image = Sir Tim Berners-Lee.jpg | image_size = 220px | caption = Berners-Lee taun 2014. | birth_name = Timothy John Berners-Lee | Other_names = TimBL | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1955|6|8|df=y}}<ref name="whoswho"/> | birth_place = [[London]], [[England]] | workplaces = {{Plainlist| * [[World Wide Web Consortium]] * [[University of Southampton]] * [[Plessey]] * [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] }} | alma_mater =[[University of Oxford]] (BA) | occupation = [[Saintis komputer]] | spouse = {{Plainlist| * Nancy Carlson taun 1990 (bacarai) * Rosemary Leith taun 2014}} | parents = {{Plainlist| * [[Conway Berners-Lee]] * [[Mary Lee Woods]]}} | awards = {{Plainlist| * [[Member of the Order of Merit|OM]] (2007) * [[Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire|KBE]] (2004) * [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] (2001)<ref name=frs>{{cite web|title=Fellowship of the Royal Society 1660-2015|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1RVVZY00MZNrK2YCTTzVrbTFH2t3RxoAZah128gQR-NM/pubhtml|publisher=[[Royal Society]]|location=London|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015185820/https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1RVVZY00MZNrK2YCTTzVrbTFH2t3RxoAZah128gQR-NM/pubhtml|archivedate=2015-10-15|access-date=2016-03-18|dead-url=yes}}</ref> * [[Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering|FREng]](2015) * [[Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts|FRSA]](2015) * [[DFBCS]] (1995) * [[Awards and honours presented to Tim Berners-Lee|See full list of honours]]}} | website = {{Url|http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee}} }} '''Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee''' {{postnominals|country=GBR|OM|KBE|FRS|FREng|FRSA|FBCS}} (lahia 8 Jun 1955),<ref name="whoswho">{{Who's Who | surname = BERNERS-LEE | othernames = Sir Timothy (John) | id = U12699 | volume = 2015 | edition = online [[Oxford University Press]]}} {{subscription required}}</ref> juo jo gala '''TimBL''', iyolah surang ahli [[sains komputer]] babanso Inggirih. Inyo tamasua sabagai pambuek [[Jaring Jagad Jemba]] (''World Wide Web''). Inyo mambuek cadangan buek sistem mangaruih maklumaik pado Mac 1989,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://info.cern.ch/Proposal.html |title=info.cern.ch – Tim Berners-Lee's proposal |publisher=Info.cern.ch |accessdate=21 December 2011}}</ref> jo inyo mambuek implementasi komunikasi nan partamo dapek mangubuangan klien jo server [[Protokol Pemindah Hiperteks]] (HTTP) malalui [[Internet]] di patangahan November taun samo.<ref>Tim Berners Lee's own reference. The exact date is unknown.</ref><ref name="weavingtheweb">{{cite book | title = [[Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by its inventor]] | first = Tim | last = Berners-Lee | author2 = Mark Fischetti | location = Britain | publisher=Orion Business | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-7528-2090-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican1210-80 | last1 = Berners-Lee | first1 = T. | title = Long Live the Web | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_2010-12_303_6/page/80 | journal = Scientific American | volume = 303 | issue = 6 | pages = 80–85 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21141362 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican1008-76 | last1 = Shadbolt | first1 = N. | authorlink1 = Nigel Shadbolt | last2 = Berners-Lee | first2 = T. | authorlink2 = Tim Berners-Lee | title = Web science emerges | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_2008-10_299_4/page/76 | journal = Scientific American | volume = 299 | issue = 4 | pages = 76–81 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18847088 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Berners-Lee | first1 = T. | authorlink1 = Tim Berners-Lee | last2 = Hall | first2 = W. |authorlink2 = Wendy Hall | last3 = Hendler | first3 = J. | authorlink3 = James Hendler | last4 = Shadbolt | first4 = N. |authorlink4 = Nigel Shadbolt | last5 = Weitzner | first5 = D. | title = Computer Science: Enhanced: Creating a Science of the Web | url = http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/262615/ | doi = 10.1126/science.1126902 | journal = Science | volume = 313 | issue = 5788 | pages = 769–771 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16902115 }}</ref> Berners-Lee adolah direktur [[World Wide Web Consortium]] ("Konsortium Jaring Jagad Jembar, ''W3C''), nan mangaruih pambangunan Jaring atau WWW (singkek, ''Web''). Inyo juo parintih [[World Wide Web Foundation]] ("Yayasan Jaring Jagad Jembar), jo manjadi ahli jo paniliti jo mamacik kursi Profesor di [[MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]] (CSAIL) ("Makmal Sains Komputer jo Kecerdasan Buatan MIT").<ref>{{cite web|title=Draper Prize|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2007/draper-prize.html|publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]|accessdate=25 May 2008}}</ref> Inyo marupoan direktur [[Web Science Research Initiative]] (WSRI) ("Inisitif Panyalidiakan Sains Web"),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://webscience.org/about/people/ |accessdate=17 January 2011 |title=People |publisher=The Web Science Research Initiative |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628052526/http://webscience.org/about/people/ |archivedate=28 June 2008 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> jo ahli panitia panasiaik [[MIT Center for Collective Intelligence]] ("Pusek Kecerdasan Kolektif MIT").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cci.mit.edu |title=MIT Center for Collective Intelligence (homepage) |publisher=Cci.mit.edu |accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cci.mit.edu/people/index.html |title=MIT Center for Collective Intelligence (people) |publisher=Cci.mit.edu |accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref> In 2011 he was named as a member the Board of Trustees of the [[Ford Foundation]].<ref>[http://www.fordfoundation.org/newsroom/news-from-ford/544 "Tim Berners-Lee and Martin Eakes Join Ford Foundation Board"], Ford Foundation, 29 September 2011.</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Internet]] {{biografi-stub}} 4d57exypyjv3epv7rmh5o17y7fp3i2d 0 317302 3351259 3065336 2026-08-05T21:40:25Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351259 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | name = Vertebrata | fossil_range = <br>[[Kambrium]] - [[Holosen|Kini]],<ref name = "Shu et al. 1999">{{cite journal|title=Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1999-11-04_402_6757/page/n93 | author=Shu |date=4 November 1999|journal=Nature| volume=402|pages=42–46|doi= 10.1038/46965|last2=Luo|first2=H-L.|last3=Conway Morris|first3=S.|last4=Zhang|first4=X-L.|last5=Hu|first5=S-X.|last6=Chen|first6=L.|last7=Han|first7=J.|last8=Zhu|first8=M.|last9=Li|first9=Y.|issue=6757|bibcode=1999Natur.402...42S|first10=L-Z.|displayauthors=1 |last10=Chen }}</ref> {{fossil range|525|0}} | image = Vertebrates.png | image_width = 220 px | image_caption = Organisma individual dari tiok kalompok gadang vertebrata. Saarah jarum jam, mulai dari kiri ateh: [[Salamander api]] (Amphibia), [[Buaya aia asin]] (Reptilia), [[Kasuari salatan]] (Aves), [[Rhynchocyon petersi|Curuik gajah itam sirah]] (Mammalia), [[Ikan matoari]] (Osteichthyes) | taxon = Vertebrata | authority = [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|J-B. Lamarck]], 1801<ref name="Nielsen2012"/> | subdivision_ranks = Pangalompokan sadarano (caliak teks) | subdivision = *[[Ikan]] *[[Tetrapoda]] |synonyms = Ossea <small>Batsch, 1788</small><ref name="Nielsen2012">{{cite journal | author=Nielsen, C. | date=2012 | title=The authorship of higher chordate taxa | journal=Zoologica Scripta | volume=41 | issue=4 | pages=435–436 | doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2012.00536.x }}</ref> }} '''Vertebrata''' adolah sadonyo spesies [[hewan]] nan tamasuak dalam [[subfilum]] Vertebrata, iyolah jinih [[Chordata]] nan ba[[tulang pungguang]] (''vertebra''). Vertebrata marupoan mayoritas gadang dalam [[filum]] [[Chordata]], nan kini ko lah ado labiah-kurang 64.000 [[spesies]] nan alah tadeskripsikan. Tamasuak dalam Vertebrata adolah [[Agnatha|ikan indak barahang]] jo [[Gnathostomata|vertebrata barahang]], nan di antaronyo adolah [[Chondrichthyes|ikan batulang rawan]] ([[hiu]] jo [[pari]]) dan [[Osteichthyes|ikan bertulang sejati]]. Ciek [[klad]] [[ikan]] batulang iyolah [[Sarcopterygii|ikan sirip badagiang]], sabananyo tamasuak dalam [[tetrapoda]] nan maliputi [[amfibi]], [[reptil]], [[mamalia]], jo [[buruang]]. Vertebrata nan iduik kini ko babedo-bedo ukuran tubuahnyo, dari spesies [[koncek]] ''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'' nan anyo sagadang 7.7&nbsp;mm (0.30&nbsp;in) inggo ka [[pauih biru]] nan sampai sagadang 33 m (108 kaki). Vertebrata maliputi kiro-kiro 4% dari sadonyo spesies hewan nan alah tadeskripsikan, di mano sisanyo adolah [[Avertebrata|invertebrata]], nan indak batulang pungguang. == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q25241}} [[Kategori:Vertebrata]] [[Kategori:Hewan]] {{Biologi-stub}} 1izu8f9qle8qs5002fjfjg4zfavzoab 0 317328 3351244 3351159 2026-08-05T21:13:48Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ANT}} [[Berkas:Danau Toba.jpg|thumb|300px|Danau Toba]] {{Infobox lake |name = Danau Toba |image = File:Danau Toba.jpg |image_size = 300 |caption = |image_bathymetry = |caption_bathymetry = |location = [[Sumatra Utara]], [[Indonesia]] |coords = {{Coord|2.6845|98.8756|region:ID_type:waterbody_scale:500000|display=inline,title}} |type = Gunuang barapi/tektonik |inflow = |outflow = [[Sungai Asahan]] |catchment = |basin_countries = Indonesia |length = {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} |width = {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} |area = {{convert|1130|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} |depth = 500 meter |max-depth = {{convert|505|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref name="WorldLakes"/> |volume = {{convert|240|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} |residence_time = |shore = |elevation = {{convert|905|m|ft|abbr=on}} |islands = [[Samosir]] |cities = Ambarita, Pangururan |reference = <ref name="WorldLakes"/> }} '''Danau Toba''' adolah sabuah [[danau]] nan maisi [[kaldera]] [[gunuang barapi super]] ([[bahaso Inggirih|Inggirih]]: ''supervolcano''), nan talatak di tangah-tangah bagian utara [[pulau]] [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]. Danau ko baukuran panjang labiah kurang 100 kilometer, lebanyo 30 kilometer, jo kadalamannyo inggo 505 meter (1,666&nbsp;kaki). Danau ko mampunyoi elevasi muko labiah kurang {{convert|900|m|kaki|0}}, jo tabantang dari {{Coord|2.88|N|98.52|E|}} inggo {{Coord|2.35|N|99.1|E|}}. Iko adolah [[Daftar danau di Indonesia|danau tagadang di Indonesia]], juo [[danau vulkanik]] tagadang di dunia.<ref name="WorldLakes">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlakes.org/lakedetails.asp?lakeid=8367|title=LakeNet - Lakes|publisher=}}</ref> Danau Toba iolah tampek tajadinyo erupsi gadang gunuang barapi super nan kiro-kiro sagadang [[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]] 8 nan balaku labiah kurang 69,000 inggo 77,000 taun dulu,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-09=|title=Global Volcanism Program - Toba|publisher=|access-date=2016-04-14|archive-date=2019-03-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190316121903/http://volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-09=|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name=chesner1991 /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ninkovich|first=D. |author2=N.J. Shackleton |author3=A.A. Abdel-Monem |author4=J.D. Obradovich |author5=G. Izett|date=7 December 1978|title=K−Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra|journal=Nature|publisher=Nature Publishing Group|issue=276|pages=574–577 |doi=10.1038/276574a0|accessdate=5 March 2010|volume=276|bibcode=1978Natur.276..574N}}</ref> jo manjadi paristiwa nan maubah iklim dunia. Iko adolah erupsi nan tagadang di [[Bumi]] dalam wakatu 25 juta taun. Maikuik [[Teori Malapatako Toba]], iko mambawo akibaik gadang buek populasi manusia: kajadian ko mambunuah ampia kasadonyo manusia nan iduik pado wakatu tu, jo dipicayoi iko juo mambuek sa [[kasampikan populasi]] (Inggirih: ''population bottleneck'') di tangah Afrika timur jo India, nan mambawo akibaik pado bantuak genetik populasi manusia inggo wakatu kini.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2975862.stm|title=When humans faced extinction|publisher=BBC|date=2003-06-09|accessdate=2007-01-05}}</ref> Akikaik nan erupsi Toba mambawo pado sabuah [[musim dingin vulkanik]] nan sataruihnyo manjadian suhu dunia bakurang antaro {{Convert|3|to|5|C-change|F-change}}, inggo {{Convert|15|C-change|F-change}} di latitud tinggi, lah ditarimo. Panilitian di [[Danau Malawi]] di Afrika Timur manunjuakan jumlah endapan abu dari Toba nan signifikan, tapi indak jo tando parubahan cuaco di Afrika Timur.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lane|first=Christine S.|author2=Ben T. Chorn |author3=Thomas C. Johnson |date=29 April 2013|title=Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=110|issue=20|pages=8025–8029|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/110/20/8025.abstract?sid=b5741029-8930-4895-aacc-1c527df5e9be|bibcode = 2013PNAS..110.8025L |doi = 10.1073/pnas.1301474110 }}</ref> == Geologi == [[Berkas:Lake Toba, North Sumatra (71).JPG|thumb|Batu Gantung di Danau Toba]] Kompleks [[kaldera]] Toba di [[Sumatra Utara]] dibantuak dek ampek kawah gunuang barapi tatindiah nan babatehan jo "barisan gunuang barapi" Sumatra. Kaldera nan paliang mudo jo nan kaampek marupoan kaldera [[Kuartener]] nan tagadang di dunia ({{convert|100|by|30|km|abbr=on}}) jo maminteh katigo-tigo kaldera nan labiah tuo. Labiah kurang {{convert|2800|km3|abbr=on}} barang piroklas ''[[dense-rock equivalent]]'', (disabuik ''[[tuff]]'') tamudo Toba, dilapehan wakatu latuihan gunuang barapi tagadang dalam sijarah geologi nan tadakek. Sudah erupsi iko, sabuah kubah timbua baliak dalam kaldera baru, jo manyambuang duo kubah separa nan dipisah dek sabuah [[terban]] (''graben'') longitudinal.<ref name=chesner1991>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/ChesnerGeology.pdf |author1=Chesner, C.A. |author2=Westgate, J.A. |author3=Rose, W.I. |author4=Drake, R. |author5=Deino, A. |journal=Geology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=200–203 |title=Eruptive history of Earth's largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) clarified |publisher=Michigan Technological University |date=March 1991 |accessdate=2008-08-23 |bibcode=1991Geo....19..200C |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2 |archive-date=2012-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226052643/http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/ChesnerGeology.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Sakurang-kurangnyo ampek kon, ampek [[gunuang barapi strato]], jo tigo kawah dapek diliek di dalam danau. Kon Tandukbenua, nan talatak di bibia barat lauik kaldera anyo ado tumbuahan saketek&mdash;iko manunjuakan umua mudo sabanyaik babarapo ratuih taun sajo. Juo, gunuang barapi Pusubukit (1971 meter dari muko lauik), di bibia selatan kaldera, adolah [[solfatara]] aktif jo manjadi [[Cagar Alam Geologi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-09=&volpage=synsub|title=Synonyms and Subfeatures: Toba|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|work=Global Volcanism Program|accessdate=December 13, 2008|archive-date=February 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216091947/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-09=&volpage=synsub|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://koran-jakarta.com/index.php/detail/view01/113747 |title=Gunung Pusukbuhit |date=March 3, 2013 |access-date=April 15, 2016 |archive-date=April 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425120530/http://www.koran-jakarta.com/index.php/detail/view01/113747 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> == Latuihan gadang == {{Main|Teori Malapatako Toba}} [[Berkas:Lake Toba location.png|thumb|left|Lokasi Danau Toba (warno merah) di peta.]] ''Latuihan Toba'' (''Paristiwa Toba'') balaku di apo nan kini disabuik Danau Toba kiro-kiro 75.000 ± 900 taun dulu.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Zielinski | first = G. A. |author2=P.A. Mayewski |author3=L.D. Meeker |author4=S. Whitlow |author5=M. Twickler |author6=K. Taylor | year = 1996 | title = Potential Atmospheric impact of the Toba mega-eruption ~71,000 years ago | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 23 | issue = 8 | pages = 837–840 | publisher = American Geophysical Union | location = United States | doi = 10.1029/96GL00706 | bibcode=1996GeoRL..23..837Z}}</ref> Iko marupoan erupsi taakia nan mambantuak ampek [[kaldera]] dilokasi iko, jo kaldera-kaldera lain tabantuak labiah kurang 788.000 ± 2.200 taun dulu.<ref name=OregonState>{{cite web|url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/toba.html|title=Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia|publisher=[[Oregon State University]]|access-date=2016-06-01|archive-date=2009-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208194237/http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/toba.html|dead-url=yes}}<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Latuihan taakia iko mampunyoi VEI=8, jo iko mambueknyo latuihan nan paliang gadang dalam wakatu 25 juta taun. {{clr}} {{wide image|Lake Toba banner.jpg|1000px|Pamandangan panorama Danau Toba|left}} == Urang == [[Berkas:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Batak prauwen bij Haranggaol aan het Tobameer TMnr 60043981.jpg|thumb|Sampan Batak dakek Haranggaol di Danau Toba (labiah kurang taun 1920)]] Kabanyakan urang nan tingga di sakaliliang Danau Toba adolah dari suku [[Suku Batak|Batak]]. Rumah-rumah tradisional kaum Batak musaua dek bantuak atok-atoknyo nan tasandiri (malangkuang ka ateh, sarupo badan kapa) jo iasan nan bawarno-warni.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indonesianmusic.com/batak.htm|title=Batak People|publisher=IndonesianMusic.com|access-date=2016-04-15|archive-date=2012-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303121035/http://www.indonesianmusic.com/batak.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Flora jo fauna == [[Flora]] danau tamasuak babarapo jinih [[fitoplankton]], [[makrofita]] nan bangkik (''emerged macrophyte''), makrofita taapuang jo makrofita nan karam, samantaro kawasan sakaliliang pulo tadiri dari hutan hujan tamasuak kawasan lereng gunuang nan labiah tinggi di mano [[hutan pain tropika Sumatra]] tumbuh.<ref name=ILEC>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-10.html|title=Danau Toba (Lake Toba)|publisher=International Lake Environment Committee|access-date=2016-04-15|archive-date=2009-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303224151/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-10.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> [[Fauna]] tamasuak babarapo spesies [[zooplankton]] jo binatang [[bentos]]. Dek sabauk danau iko jinih [[oligotrof]], fauna ikan natif agak indak banyaik, jo jinih [[Endemisme|endemik]] nan tadapek adolah ''[[Rasbora tobana]]'' (sabananyo dakek endemik, sabauk juo ado di cawang atau anak sungai nan maalia ka dalam danau tasabuik,<ref>Lumbantobing, D. N. (2010). ''Four New Species of the Rasbora trifasciata-Group (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) from Northwestern Sumatra, Indonesia.'' Copeia 4: 644-670</ref> jo ''[[Neolissochilus thienemanni]]'', nan disabuik dek panduduak satampek sabagai ikan Batak.<ref name=Saragih>Saragih, B., and S. Sunito (2001). ''Lake Toba: Need for an integrated management system.'' Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management 6(3): 247–251.</ref> == Galeri == <gallery> Lake Toba Aerial View.JPG|Gamba Danau Toba dari udaro LakeTobaSEShore.jpg|Pantai selatan Danau Toba, Pulau Sibandang dapek diliek di latar AmbaritaView.jpg|Pamandangan danau jo contoh seni pambinaan Batak Tradbatakhouse.jpg|Rumah tradisional kaum Batak di Ambarita, Danau Toba Air terjun sipiso-piso.jpg|Aia tajun Sipiso-Piso DanauToba20110608-1.jpg|Danau Toba dicaliak dari Kampuang Tongging, dakek Air Tajun Sipiso-Piso Indonesia 1992 1000r o.jpg|Danau Toba tadapek pado [[Rupiah Indonesia|pitih karateh 1,000-rupiah]] COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houtsnijwerk op de voorsteven van een Toba Batak prauw Tobameer TMnr 10017614.jpg|Parincian ukiran di aluan sampan Batak Toba </gallery> == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} == Bacoan lanjuik == * {{cite journal|author=Rampino, Michael R. and Stephen Self|title=Climate-volcanism feedback and the Toba eruption of 74,000 Years Ago|url=https://archive.org/details/quaternary-research_1993-11_40_3/page/269|journal=Quaternary Research|year=1993|volume=40|issue=3|pages=269–280|doi=10.1006/qres.1993.1081 |bibcode = 1993QuRes..40..269R }} * {{cite journal|author=Vazquez, Jorge A. and Mary R. Reid|title=Probing the accumulation history of the voluminous Toba Magma|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-08-13_305_5686/page/n90|journal=Science|year=2004|issue=5686|volume=305|pages=991–994 | doi = 10.1126/science.1096994|pmid=15310899|bibcode = 2004Sci...305..991V }} * {{cite journal|author=Petraglia, M.|title=Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2007-07-06_317_5834/page/114|journal=Science|year=2007|issue=5834|volume=317|pages=114–116 | doi = 10.1126/science.1141564|pmid=17615356|bibcode = 2007Sci...317..114P |display-authors=etal}} == Pautan lua == {{Commons category}} * [http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/toba Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia – Volcano.oregonstate.edu] Accessed 11 December 2005 * [http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/evolution/ Stanley H. Ambrose, ''Volcanic Winter, and Differentiation of Modern Humans''] Accessed 11 December 2005 * [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0503/resources_who.html Joel Achenbach, ''Who Knew'', National Geographic] Accessed 11 December 2005 * [http://www.laketoba.org/ (Lake Toba Ecosystem Management Plan) From laketoba.org ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116125129/http://laketoba.org/ |date=2015-11-16 }} ci08nek5cep4n9b2a5l6q0pdhnw0byo 0 317345 3351307 3161520 2026-08-05T23:00:44Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351307 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Anoures.jpg|250px|jmpl|ka|Baragam macam koncek]] '''Koncek''' adolah kalompok gadang baragam hewan [[amfibi]] [[karnivora]] nan batubuah pendek dan indak baikua, nan tamasuak dalam [[Ordo (biologi)|ordo]] '''Anura''' ([[bahaso Yunani Kuno|Yunani Kuno]]: ''an-'', indak punyo + ''oura'', ikua). Fosil tatuo "[[Triadobatrachus|proto-koncek]]" ditamuan pado maso [[Trias Awa]] di [[Madagaskar]], namun panantuan [[jam molekuler]] mampakiroan baso asa-usua mareka labiah jauah lai inggo ka maso [[Perm (periode)|Perm]], yaitu 265 juta taun nan silam. Koncek taseba sacaro laweh di tampek nan baragam, mulai dari wilayah [[tropika]] inggo [[subartik]]; walau baitu konsentrasi tagadang [[kaanekaragaman spesies]]nyo tadapek di [[rimbo ujan tropika|rimbo-rimbo ujan tropika]]. Tacatat ado sakita 4.800 spesies koncek, nan marupoan labiah dari 85% dari spesies amfibi nan masih iduik. Koncek adolah salah satu dari limo ordo [[vertebrata]] nan paliang baragam. Labiah dari sapertigo spesies nan ado kini ko dianggok dalam kondisi taancam [[kapunahan|punah]], dan labiah dari saratuih duo puluah spesies dipakiroan lah sabana punah samanjak taun 1980-an.<ref name=Stuart>{{cite journal| last=Stuart| first=S. N.|author2=Chanson, J. S.|author3=Cox, N. A.|author4=Young, B. E.|author5=Rodrigues, A. S. L.|author6=Fischman, D. L.|author7= Waller, R. W. | year=2004| title=Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-12-03_306_5702/page/1783| journal=Science| volume=306| pages=1783–1786| doi=10.1126/science.1103538| pmid=15486254| issue=5702}}</ref> ==Catatan kaki== {{reflist}} ==Bahan bacoan== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Beltz |first=Ellin |year=2005 |title=Frogs: Inside their Remarkable World |publisher=Firefly Books |isbn=1-55297-869-9}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Cogger |first1=H. G. |last2=Zweifel |first2=R. G. |last3=Kirschner |first3=D. |date=2004 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Reptiles & Amphibians |edition=2nd |publisher=Fog City Press |isbn=1-877019-69-0}} * Estes, R., and O. A. Reig. (1973). "The early fossil record of frogs: a review of the evidence." pp.&nbsp;11–63 In J. L. Vial (Ed.), ''Evolutionary Biology of the Anurans: Contemporary Research on Major Problems''. University of Missouri Press, Columbia. * {{cite journal |last1=Gissi |first1=Carmela |last2=San Mauro |first2=Diego |last3=Pesole |first3=Graziano |last4=Zardoya |first4=Rafael |title=Mitochondrial phylogeny of Anura (Amphibia): A case study of congruent phylogenetic reconstruction using amino acid and nucleotide characters |date=February 2006 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2005.07.034 |journal=Gene |volume=366 |issue=2 |pmid=16307849 |pages=228–237}} * {{cite book |last=Holman |first=J. A. |year=2004 |title=Fossil Frogs and Toads of North America |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=0-253-34280-5}} * {{cite journal |last1=San Mauro |first1=Diego |last2=Vences |first2=Miguel |last3=Alcobendas |first3=Marina |last4=Zardoya |first4=Rafael |last5=Meyer |first5=Axel |title=Initial diversification of living amphibians predated the breakup of Pangaea |date=May 2005 |journal=American Naturalist |volume=165 |issue=5 |pages=590–599 |doi=10.1086/429523 |pmid=15795855 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/429523}} * {{cite book |last=Tyler |first=M. J. |year=1994 |title=Australian Frogs A Natural History |publisher=Reed Books |isbn=0-7301-0468-0}} {{refend}} {{stub}} [[Kategori:Binatang]] i7yiaoz9vwjh1qjyrrzep3f3mqk323m 0 317454 3351213 2034787 2026-08-05T20:05:23Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351213 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Minandjau aan het gelijknamige meer Padangsche Bovenlanden TMnr 60038724.jpg|jmpl|250px|Pamandangan pegunungan dan danau Maninjau di dataran tinggi Minangkabau, ca. 1900-1940.]]'''Dataran tinggi Minangkabau''', disabuik juo jo istilah '''Padang Darek''' ([[bahaso Balando]]: ''Padangsche Bovenlanden''), adolah daerah pagunuangan di [[Sumatera Barat]] nan maliputi tigo gunuang, iyolah [[Gunuang Marapi]], [[Gunuang Singgalang]], jo [[Gunuang Sago]], nan lataknyo di bagian tangah [[Sumatera]], [[Indonesia]].{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=2-4}} Dataran tinggi ko tamasuak dalam jajaran pagunuangan nan mambantang di tangah-tangah pulau Sumatera, nan disabuik [[Bukik Barisan]]. == Pamukiman awa == Urang Minangkabau picayo baso awanyo niniak muyang mareka bamukim di lereng selatan Gunuang Marapi, indak jauah dari [[Bukiktinggi]].{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=2-4}} Dari Gunuang Marapi tu, mareka lalu manyeba ka tigo tampek utamo; iyolah ka utara maadok jo Gunuang Singgalang mambantuak [[Luhak Agam]], ka tenggara mambantuak [[Luhak Tanah Data]], dan ka timur lauik maadok Gunuang Sago mambantuak [[Luhak Limopuluah Koto]].{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=2-4}}<ref name="Backshall2003">{{cite book|last=Backshall|first=Stephen|title=Rough Guide to Indonesia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WKoIooGXjPYC&pg=PA404|accessdate=8 August 2012|date=1 June 2003|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-85828-991-5|pages=404–}}</ref> Katigo kawasan [[Luhak]], nan disabuik juo jo namo Luhak Nan Tigo, dianggok sabagai kawasan inti nan manjadi tampek asa (''Alam Minangkabau'') dari nagari-nagari lainnyo di saluruah wilayah adaik Minangkabau.{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=2-4}}<ref name="Ooi2004">{{cite book|last=Ooi|first=Keat Gin|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA887|accessdate=7 August 2012|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2|page=887}}</ref> Di tiok-tiok nagari dapek ditamuan kisah-kisah pambantuakan pamukiman baru dek niniak muyang mareka nan baasa dari katigo Luhak tu.{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=2-4}} == Patanian jo patambangan == Daerah tasabuik mulai dikana saindaknyo sajak abaik ka-7 jo namo Malayu,<ref name="Wink2004">{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|title=Indo-Islamic Society, 14th- 15th Centuries|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C&pg=PA47|accessdate=7 August 2012|date=1 January 2004|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-13561-1|page=47}}</ref> bahkan dalam babagai batu basurek paninggalan [[Adityawarman]] (1347–1375) disabuikan baso namo karajaannyo adolah [[Karajaan Pagaruyung|Malayupura]].<ref name="Barnard2004">{{cite book|last=Barnard|first=Timothy P.|title=Contesting Malayness: Malay Identity Across Boundaries|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IB-cY6Nh6tUC&pg=PA66|accessdate=7 August 2012|year=2004|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-279-7|page=66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Leaves of the Same Tree: Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka | first = Leonard Y. | last = Andaya | url = https://books.google.co.id/books?id=w7AqZR1ZUZgC&pg=PA88&dq=Ananggawarman&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwinoP_ah-3NAhXLMo8KHeQ4AeoQuwUIMzAC#v=onepage&q=Malayupura&f=false | page = 15, 84-88 | others = ed. berilustrasi | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 2008 | id = ISBN 0824831896, 9780824831899 }}</ref> Sangaik mungkin baso patanian [[sawah]] bakambang labiah daulu di daerah dataran tinggi, sabalun kudian taseba ka babagai daerah lainnyo di Sumatera, iyolah sabalun tajadinyo ubuangan padagangan jo urang asiang.<ref name="Miksic2004">{{cite journal| title=From megaliths to tombstones: the transition from pre-history to early Islamic period in highland West Sumatra.| url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia-and-the-malay-world_2004-07_32_93/page/191| year=2004| journal=Indonesia and the Malay World| volume=32| issue=93| last=Miksic| first=John| doi=10.1080/1363981042000320134| pages=191}}</ref> Catatan urang [[Portugis]] manyabuik baso ameh banyak ditambang di dataran tinggi Minangkabau, untuak kudian dibao ka [[Malaka]] dalam bantuak abu ameh.<ref name="Wink2004"/> [[Balando]] mulai maeksploitasi cadangan ameh dataran tinggi ko pado 1680-an.<ref name="Borschberg2004">{{cite book|last=Borschberg|first=Peter|title=Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka Area and Adjacent Regions (16th to 18th Century)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ggyl2FSzXvgC&pg=PA156|accessdate=7 August 2012|year=2004|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05107-1|page=156}}</ref> Mareka manguasoi padagangan di daerah ko, jo antaro 1820-1899 sabana manakan jo mambateh aruih padagangan dari dataran tinggi ka palabuahan, inggo produksi bareh jadi manurun.<ref name="SchneiderGough1961">{{cite book|last1=Schneider|first1=David Murray|last2=Gough|first2=Kathleen|title=Matrilineal Kinship|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC&pg=PA476|accessdate=7 August 2012|year=1961|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02529-5|page=476}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} == Bacoan lanjutan == *{{cite book | title = Asal-Usul Elite Minangkabau Modern: Respons Terhadap Kolonial Belanda Abad XIX/XX | first = Elizabeth E. | last = Graves | url = https://books.google.co.id/books?id=OuthL0q-9P0C&pg=PA4&dq=dataran+tinggi+minangkabau&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiOzqHE6-_NAhXJvY8KHVFuAscQuwUIITAB#v=onepage&q=dataran%20tinggi%20minangkabau&f=false | publisher = Yayasan Obor Indonesia | year = 2007 | id = ISBN 9794616613, 9789794616611 | ref = harv }}</ref> [[Kategori:Minangkabau]] [[Kategori:Sumatera Barat]] lk28yzf1rrg8is34rv3yjnzjzlt33hy 0 317519 3351253 3184666 2026-08-05T21:32:21Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351253 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox mountain | name = Marapi | other_name = ''Gunuang Marapi''<br />ڬونوڠ ماراڤي | photo = Gunung Marapi dalam sensasi Dua Warna.jpg | photo_caption = Marapi in 2005 | elevation_m = 2891 | elevation_ref = <ref name=gvp>{{cite gvp|vnum=0601-14=|name=Marapi|accessdate=2013-12-24}}</ref> | prominence_m = 2116 | prominence_ref = | listing = [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]<br />[[Ribu]] | location = [[Sumatera Barat]], Indonesia | range = [[Pagunuangan Bukik Barisan|Bukik Barisan]] | map = Indonesia | region_code = | lat_d = 00 | lat_m =22 | lat_s =51.59 |lat_NS =S | long_d=100 | long_m=28 | long_s=22.79 |long_EW=E | coordinates_ref= <ref name=gvp/> | type = [[Gunuang barapi kompleks]] | age = | last_eruption = Pebruari 2014 }} '''Gunuang Marapi'''&nbsp;adolah sabuah gunuang api kompleks&nbsp;di&nbsp;[[Sumatera Barat]], [[Indonesia]]. Gunuang ko adolah [[gunuang barapi]] nan paliang aktif di Sumatera Barat. Katinggiannyo mancapai&nbsp;{{Convert|2891.3|m|ft|1}}. Babarapo kota pantiang talatak di sakitar gunuang ko, antaro lain&nbsp;[[Kota Bukittinggi|Bukittinggi]], [[Kota Padang Panjang|Padang Panjang]] jo&nbsp;Batusangkar. Manuruik [[tambo]], di gunuang ko lah patamo-tamo niniak muyang&nbsp;[[urang Minang]]&nbsp;bamukim sasudah kapanyo basanda, nan dikiaskan konon kabanyo gunuang ko daulu sagadang talua itiak nan dikuliliangi aia lauik.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Summerfield|first1=Anne|first2=John|last2=Summerfield|title=Walk in Splendor: Ceremonial Dress and the Minangkabau|publisher=[[UCLA]]|year=1999|isbn=0-930741-73-0}}</ref>&nbsp;Ado banyak kubua batu nan tagak di sinan maarah ka gunuang, sabagai tando baso gunuang tu dianggap pantiang dek urang saisuak.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=From megaliths to tombstones: the transition from pre-history to early Islamic period in highland West Sumatra.|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia-and-the-malay-world_2004-07_32_93/page/191|year=2004|journal=Indonesia and the Malay World|volume=32|issue=93|last=Miksic|first=John|doi=10.1080/1363981042000320134|pages=191}}</ref> Sajak 3 Agustus 2011, seismometer jo digital analog alah dipasang dek Pusek Vulkanologi jo Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG).<ref><cite class="citation web">[http://www.antarabengkulu.com/berita/1504/sejak-januari-gunung-marapi-meletus-41-kali "Sejak Januari Gunung Marapi meletus 41 kali"]. </cite></ref> == Lokasi == Gunuang marapi di [[Sumatera Barat]] barado di dalam duo buah kabupaten. Sabagian dari gunuang ko masuak ka dalam wilayah [[Kabupaten Tanah Datar]] dan sabagian nyo lai masuak kadalam willayah [[Kabupaten Agam]]. Tadapek duo buah kota nan jaraknyo dakek dari gunuang marapi ko, yaitunyo Kota [[Kota Padang Panjang|Padangpanjang]] jo Kota [[Kota Bukittinggi|Bukitinggi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vsi.esdm.go.id/index.php/kegiatan-pvmbg/download-center/doc_download/364-g-marapi|title=Marapi, Sumatera Barat|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=Kementerian ESDM|access-date=08-01-2021|archive-date=2017-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003043839/http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/index.php/kegiatan-pvmbg/download-center/doc_download/364-g-marapi|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Salain itu, lokasi kabaradoan gunuang marapi ko dijadian pulo sabagai tampek konservasi babagai macam tumbuahan, binatang, jo aia nan tadapek di kawasan gunuang marapi. Kawasan konservasi gunuang marapi ko disabuik juo jo istilah TWA nan aratinyo Taman Wisata Alam gunuang marapi. Hal tasabuik alah ditetapkan dek pamarintah malalui Surek Kaputusan Menteri Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Nomor SK.599/Menlhk/Setjen/PLA.2/8/2016 tanggal 3 Agustus 2016 bahwasanyo kawasan TWA Gunuang Marapi ditatapkan fungsinyo dalam fungsi pokok [[kawasan Suaka Alam]] jo Kawasan Pelestarian Alam sabagai Taman Wisata Alam Gunuang Marapi di Kabupaten Agam jo Kabupaten Tanah Datar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ksdae.menlhk.go.id/|title=Inventarisasi dan Verifikasi Pemanfaatan Kawasan Konservasi Taman Wisata Alam Gunung Marapi - Ditjen Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam dan Ekosistem|last=KSDAE|first=Datin|website=ksdae.menlhk.go.id|access-date=2021-01-08|archive-date=2023-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811161218/https://ksdae.menlhk.go.id/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Catatan latusan == * Pado tanggal [[8 September]] [[1830]] dilaporkan Gunuang Marapi mangaluakan awan nan babantuak lobak kulabu kaitaman sataba 1.500 m di ateh kawahnyo, disaratoi jo suaro gamuruah<ref name="V">http://www.volcano.si.edu {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024175830/http://volcano.si.edu/ |date=2012-10-24 }} [http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-14=&volpage=var Laporan aktivitas Gunung Marapi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819074642/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-14=&volpage=var |date=2012-08-19 }}</ref>. * Pado tanggal [[30 April]] [[1979]], manuruik laporan pers disabuikan 60 urang maningga dek latuihan Gunuang Marapi dan disabuikan juo 19 urang dari tim panyalamaik taparangkok dek tanah galodo. Latuihan tasabuik dikatoan juo mangaluakan batu jo lumpua nan manyababan karusakan saketeknyo pado limo daerah kawasan pamukiman panduduak satampek<ref name="V" />. * Masuak akhia taun 2011 inggo awa taun 2014, Gunuang Marapi manampakan paningkekan aktivitasnyo malalui latuihan nan manyambuaan abu jo awan itam. Panah di akhia taun 2011 samburan abu tabaok angin bakilo-kilo jaraknyo inggo mancapai Kabupaten [[Kabupaten Padang Pariaman|Padang Pariaman]]. * Tanggal 26 Februari 2014, Gunuang Marapi malatuih pado pukua 16.15 WIB, malapehan material pasia, [[tefra]], jo abu vulkanik ka wilayah [[Kabupaten Tanah Datar]] jo [[Kabupaten Agam|Agam]]. Status gunuang ditatapkan Siaga (level 2) jo radius 3&nbsp;km dari pusek kawah musti dikosongan. Indak ado evakuasi pado latuihan ko. == Caliak pulo == *[[Daftar gunuang di Indonesia]] == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Pautan lua == * <cite class="citation web">[http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0601-14%3D "Marapi"]. </cite><cite class="citation web">''Global Volcanism Program''. </cite><cite class="citation web">Smithsonian Institution.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMount+Marapi&rft.atitle=Marapi&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.volcano.si.edu%2Fworld%2Fvolcano.cfm%3Fvnum%3D0601-14%253D&rft.jtitle=Global+Volcanism+Program&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal">&nbsp;</span> * [http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/volcanoes/marapi/geninfo.html Indonesian Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation entry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051029135005/http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/volcanoes/marapi/geninfo.html |date=2005-10-29 }} {{Gunuang di Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Gunuang di Sumatera Barat|Marapi]] [[Kategori:Gunuang barapi di Sumatera Barat|Marapi]] bpliiy9pag5eapcwi9adel5z23c8f1w 0 317667 3351205 3143622 2026-08-05T19:48:12Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351205 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox spesies}} '''Sipadeh''' (namo ilmiah: ''Zingiber officinale'', [[bahaso Indonesia|Indonesia]]: Jahe) adoleh ciek [[Flowering plant|tumbuahan babungo]] nan akanyo ([[rimpang]]) biaso dipakai urang untuak [[langkok-langkok]] jo [[Folk medicine|ubek tradisional]].<ref name="UMMC">{{Cite web|title=Ginger|author=University of Maryland Medical Centre|url=http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/ginger-000246.htm|access-date=2 August 2007|accessdate=2 August 2007|year=2006}}</ref> == Produksi == Di taun 2013, produksi sipadeh dunia mancapai 2,1 juta [[ton]], di mano [[India]] mangasiakan 33%, diikuti dek [[Republik Rakyaik Cino|Cino]] (19%), [[Nepal]], [[Indonesia]], jo [[Nigeria]] (caliak tabel).<ref name="fao">{{Cite web|url=http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division|title=Production/Crops for Ginger, World|date=2013|access-date=24 December 2015|accessdate=24 December 2015|archive-date=22 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122053717/http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/Q/QC/E|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Komposisi jo kaamanan == Apobilo dimakan dalam jumalah nan patuik sajo, sipadeh umumnyo indak ado [[efek sampiang]]<nowiki/>nyo.<ref name="Spinella2001">{{Cite book|author=Marcello Spinella|title=The Psychopharmacology of Herbal Medications: Plant Drugs That Alter Mind, Brain, and Behavior|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZeaRiIFbhsC&pg=PA272|access-date=13 April 2013|accessdate=13 April 2013|year=2001|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-69265-6|ISBN=978-0-262-69265-6|pages=272–}}</ref> Sipadeh tamasuak dalam daftar "makanan nan aman sacaro umum" dari [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=182.20|title=Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Part 182, Sec. 182.20: Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates): Substances Generally Recognized As Safe|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|date=1 September 2014|access-date=21 December 2014|accessdate=21 December 2014}}</ref> sungguahpun dapek tajadi [[interaksi ubek|interaksi]] jo babarapo ubek, misanyo jo ubek [[antikoagulan]] [[warfarin]]<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Pharmacotherapy|year=2007|volume=27|issue=9|pages=1237–47|title=Risk of warfarin-related bleeding events and supratherapeutic international normalized ratios associated with complementary and alternative medicine: a longitudinal analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pharmacotherapy_2007-09_27_9/page/1237|authors=Shalansky S, Lynd L, Richardson K, Ingaszewski A, Kerr C|pmid=17723077|PMID=17723077|doi=10.1592/phco.27.9.1237|DOI=10.1592/phco.27.9.1237}}</ref> sarato ubek [[kardiovaskular]] [[nifedipine]].<ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=http://nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger/|title=Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance|publisher=US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health|access-date=25 April 2012|accessdate=25 April 2012}}</ref> Panah ditamuan produk asa [[Republik Rakyaik Cino|Cino]] di [[Taiwan]] nan manganduang sipadeh nan lah tacampua [[diisobutyl phthalate]] (aditif plastik), inggo sakita 80.000 kapsul [[suplemen nutrisi]] nan dibuek dari tapuang sipadeh impor disita dek Departmen Kasiatan Umum [[Taiwan]] pado bulan Juni 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etaiwannews.com/etn/news_content.php?id=1627491&lang=eng_news&cate_rss=TAIWAN_eng|title=Taichung City: Nutrition products made with contaminated ginger powder seized – Taiwan News Online|publisher=Etaiwannews.com|date=16 June 2011|access-date=25 April 2012|accessdate=25 April 2012|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305124249/http://etaiwannews.com/etn/news_content.php?cate_rss=taiwan_eng&id=1627491&lang=eng_news|dead-url=yes}}</ref> === Kandungan kimiawi === Aroma jo raso kusuih sipadeh baasa dari [[minyak atsiri|minyak-minyak atsiri]] nan marupoan 1-3% dari barek sipadeh baru, tarutamo adolah [[zingerone]], [[shogaol]] jo [[gingerol]], di mano [6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) adolah sanyao padeh utamo.<ref name="UMMC"/><ref name="harold">{{Cite book|author-link=Harold McGee|authorlink=Harold McGee|last=McGee|first=Harold|year=2004|title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen|edition=2nd|location=New York|publisher=Scribner|pages=425–426|isbn=0-684-80001-2|ISBN=0-684-80001-2}}</ref><ref name="an">{{Cite journal|title=Comparison of different drying methods on Chinese ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): Changes in volatiles, chemical profile, antioxidant properties, and microstructure|author=An K, Zhao D, Wang Z, Wu J, Xu Y, Xiao G|journal=Food Chem|year=2016|volume=197|issue=Part B|pages=1292–300|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.033|DOI=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.033|pmid=26675871|PMID=26675871}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: left; width: 18em; margin-bottom: 10px;" ! colspan="2" |Produksi Sipadeh, 2013 |- ! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;" | Nagara ! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;" | <small>Produksi<br> (juta ton)</small> |- | <center><span class="flagicon">[[File:Flag_of_India.svg|pra=|al=|tepi|23x23px]] </span><span class="flagicon"></span>[[India]] </center> | align="right" |<center>0,683</center> |- | <center><span class="flagicon">[[File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg|pra=|al=|tepi|23x23px]] </span><span class="flagicon"></span>[[Republik Rakyaik Cino|China]] </center> | align="right" |<center>0,390</center> |- | <center><span class="flagicon">[[File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg|pra=|al=|20x20px]] </span><span class="flagicon"></span>[[Nepal]] </center> | align="right" |<center>0,235</center> |- | <center><span class="flagicon">[[File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg|pra=|al=|tepi|23x23px]] </span><span class="flagicon"></span>[[Indonesia]] </center> | align="right" |<center>0,233</center> |- | <center><span class="flagicon">[[File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg|pra=|al=|tepi|23x23px]] </span><span class="flagicon"></span>[[Nigeria]] </center> | align="right" |<center>0,160</center> |- style="background:#ccc;" |<center> '''Dunia'''</center> | style="text-align:right;" |<center> '''2,1'''</center> |- | colspan="5" style="font-size:.7em" | Sumber: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT<ref name="fao"/> |} Zingerone diasiaan dari gingerol salamo pangariangan, padehnyo agak kurang jo aromanyo padeh-manih.<ref name="an"/> === Efek biologis === Sipadeh maasiaan aksi [[sialagogue]], iyolah maransang produksi aia liua, nan mambuek labiah mudah manalan.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Wood, George Bacon|author-link=George Bacon Wood|authorlink=George Bacon Wood|title=A Treatise On Therapeutics, And Pharmacology Or Materia Medica: Volume 2|year=1867|publisher=J. B. Lippincott & Co|url=http://chestofbooks.com/health/materia-medica-drugs/Treatise-Therapeutics-Pharmacology-Materia-Medica-Vol2/Class-IX-Sialagogues.html|access-date=2 March 2013|accessdate=2 March 2013|chapter=Class IX. Sialagogues}}</ref> == Amo jo panyakik == Serangga atau binatang ketek marupokan amo nan dominan marusak sipadeh. Tigo amo nan dominan antaronyo kepik, ulek panggiriak urek, sarato kumbang. Kepik manyarang daun inggo balubang, sadangkan ulek panggiriak urek manyarang urek inggo tanaman manjadi kariang jo mati.{{Sfn|Siregar|2021|p=66}} Panyakik nan dijumpoi pado sipadeh, di antaronyo:{{Sfn|Siregar|2021|p=67}} * Panyakik layu bakteri * Panyakik busuak rimpang * Panyakik bacak daun Panyakik layu bakteri manyarang sipadeh nan barumua 3-4 bulan. Paliang banyak dipanagaruahi dek udaro nan dingin, ganangan aia, sarato tanah nan lambok. Gajalo dari panyakik ko adolah alaian daun bawah malipek sarato mangguluang kudian barubah warono manjadi kuniang inggo mangariang. Tuneh batangnyo manjadi mambusuak, inggo tanaman mati rabah. Pado rimpang nan sakik, ka nampak baso warononyo manjadi galok jo mambusuak saketek sarato bagaladia putiah katiko dikarek.{{Sfn|Siregar|2021|p=67}} Panyakik busuak rimpang dapek masuak ka rimpangnyo dek luko pado rimpangnyo. Panyakik ko muncua pado suhu udaro 20-25^oC. Gajalo dari panyakik ko adolah daun bagian bawahnyo manjadi kuniang lalu layu inggo mati.{{Sfn|Siregar|2021|p=67}} Panyakik bacak daun atau bercak daun adolah panyakik mamindah pado tanaman dek bantuan angin. Bisa muncua dek luko atau jo indak adonyo luko. Gajalo dari panyakik ko adolah muncuanyo bacak-bacak barukuran 3-5 cm nan barono kulabu jo bintiak itam di tangahnyo. Samantaro tapiannyo busuak basak. Tanaman nan tasarang panyakik ko dapek mati.{{Sfn|Siregar|2021|p=67}} === Pangandalian === Pangandalian amo jo panyakik pado sipadeh dilakukan sacaro tapadu nan dimulai samanjak pananaman. Komponen-komponen pangandaliannyo antaro lain:{{Sfn|Siregar|2021|p=68}} * Mamiliah bibik unggua nan sihaik bebas dari amo jo panyakik * Mamaksimalkan musuah-musuak alami amo * Manggunokan varietas unggua nan tahan dari sarangan amo jo panyakik * Malakukan pangandalian fisik jo tanago manusia * Manggunokan caro-caro budidayo nan elok sarupo tumpang sari jo pamiliahan tanaman nan saliang manunjang, sarato rotasi tanaman untuak mamutuih mato rantai amo jo panyakik mamindah * Panggunoan pestisida, insektisida, herbisida alami Pangandalian amo jo panyakik pado sipadeh dapek dibantu juo jo tanaman lainnyo. Tanaman-tanaman nan baguno sabagai pangandali alami antaro lain:{{Sfn|Siregar|2021|p=69}} * [[Timbakau]] (''Nicotiana tabacum''), manganduang [[nikotin]] untuak insektisida kontak sabagai racun paruik pado binatang ketek, contohnyo pado golongan kutu daun (''[[Aphidoidea]])''. * [[Piretrum]] (''Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium''), manganduang [[piretrin]] nan dapek digunokan sabagai insektisida sistemik nan manyarang urek saraf pusek binatang. Aplikasi tanaman ko jo caro disemprot ka langau, rangik, amo gudang, jo lalek buah. * [[Tubo]] (''Derris elliptica'' jo ''Derris malaccensis''), manganduang ''rotenone'' untuak insektisida semprot. * ''Neem tree'' atau [[kayu min]] (''Azadirachta indica''), manganduang ''azadirachtin'' nan baguno sabagai insektida. Aplikasinyo dapek dialkukan untuak malawan serangga pangisok cando wereng jo serangga pangunyah cando amo pangguluang daun (''Cnaphalocroris medinalis'') * [[Bingkuang]] (''Pachyrrhizus erosus''), bijonyo manganduang rotenoid, yaitu pakhirizida nan dapek digunokan sabagai insektisida jo larvasida. * [[Jarangau]] (''Acorus calamus''), rimpangnyo manganduang asaron nan dapek dipakai sabagai insektisida serangga, pambasmi cindawan, jo amo gudang (''Callosobrocus''). == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|2}} === Daftar pustaka === *{{Cite book|title=Rempah, Bumbu, dan Sayuran Kering Indonesia|last=Siregar|first=Ameilia Zuliyanti|publisher=Intimedia|Ref={{sfnRef|Siregar|2021}}|year=2021|isbn=9786236813041|location=Malang|pages=77}} == Pautan lua == * <span class="noviewer">[[File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg|al=|16x16px]]</span><span class="noviewer"></span><span> Kamuih istilah </span>[[wiktionary:Special:Search/ginger|''ginger'']] (sipadeh)<span> di Wiktionary</span> * <span class="noviewer">[[File:Commons-logo.svg|al=|16x16px]]</span><span class="noviewer"></span><span> Media tantang </span>[[c:Category:Ginger|sipadeh]] <span> di Wikimedia Commons</span> * <span class="noviewer">[[File:Wikispecies-logo.svg|al=|16x16px]]</span><span class="noviewer"></span><span> Data tantang </span>[[species:Zingiber officinale|''Zingiber officinale'']]<span> di Wikispecies</span> * [http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=1078 ''Zingiber officinale'' List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041114064602/http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=1078 |date=2004-11-14 }} {{Langkok-langkok}} [[Kategori:Rampah-rampah]] [[Kategori:Tumbuahan]] nwtyuzxbawqr44gy225lrig804e5k00 0 318570 3351229 3152851 2026-08-05T20:47:16Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351229 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Brain - Broca's and Wernicke's area Diagram.svg|320 px|right|thumb|Lokasi area Broca]] '''Area Broca''' adolah bagian dari [[utak]] manusia nan talatak di gyrus frontalis superior pado lobus frontalis [[korteks utak gadang]]. Area ko bafungsi untuak proses bahaso, sarato kamampuan jo pamahaman babicaro. Area Broca talatak badampiangan jo [[area Wernicke]]. Kaduonyo ditamukan hanyo ado pado salah satu balahan utak sajo, umumnyo pado bagian kida, karano populasi manusia nan banyak "dominan kida". Area Broca talatak kiro-kiro pado [[area Brodmann]] 44 <ref>Mohr JP in ''Studies in Neurolinguistics'' (eds. Witaker H &amp; Witaker NA) 201–235 (Academic, New York, 1976)</ref> dan kadang-kadang tamasuak juo 45 <ref>Penfield W &amp; Roberts L ''Speech and Brain Mechanisms'' (Princeton Univ Press, Princeton, 1959)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Ojemann GA, Ojemann JG, Lettich E, Berger MS | title=Cortical language localization in left, dominant hemisphere. An electical stimulation mapping investigation in 117 patients | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neurosurgery_1989-08_71_2/page/n161 | year=1989 | journal=J Neurosurg | volume=71 | pages=316–26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Duffau H ''et al.'' | title=The role of dominant premotor cortex in language: a study uding intraoperative functional mapping in awake patients | year=2003 | journal=Neuroimage | volume=20 | pages=1903–14 }}</ref>. Proses [[bahaso]] takait jo area Broca sajak [[Pierre Paul Broca]] malaporkan kalainan pado duo urang pasien.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kennison |first=Shelia |year=2013 |title=Introduction to language development |location=Los Angeles |publisher=Sage}}{{page needed|date=January 2015}}</ref> Mareka kahilangan kamampuan babicaro salapeh bagian balakang [[girus frontal inferior]] utak talukoi.<ref name="pmid17405763">{{cite journal |author1=N. F. Dronkers |author2=O. Plaisant |author3=M. T. Iba-Zizen |author4=E. A. Cabanis |last-author-amp=yes | title=Paul Broca's Historic Cases: High Resolution MR Imaging of the Brains of Leborgne and Lelong| journal=Brain | year=2007| volume=130| pages=1432–1441 |pmid=17405763 |doi=10.1093/brain/awm042 | issue=Pt 5 }}</ref> Sajak saaik itu, kiro-kiro bagian nan liau identifikasi dikenal sabagai area Broca, jo kurangnyo kamampuan babahaso disabuik [[afasia]] Broca, disabuik juo [[afasia ekspresif]]. Area Broca biasonyo didefinisikan sabagai [[pars operkularis]] jo [[pars triangularis]] [[girus]] frontal inferior, direpresentasikan pado [[Area Brodmann|peta sitoarsitektonik]] [[Korbinian Brodmann|Brodmann]] sabagai area [[Area Brodmann 44|44]] jo [[area Brodmann 45|45]] hemisfer (balahan utak) nan dominan.<ref name="pmid17405763" /> Labiah jauah, kajian [[functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] juo alah maidentifikasi pola aktivasi area Broca nan takait jo baragam tugeh kabahasoan. Area Broca jo Wernicke dihubuangkan jo ciek jalua saraf nan disabuik [[fasciculus arcuata]]. Pado [[karo]] makakus, bagian ko batangguangjawab panuah untuak maatua bagian wajah jo muluik (orofasial).<ref>{{cite journal | author=Petrides M, Cadoret G, Mackey S | title=Orofacial somatomotor responses in the macaque monkey homologue of Broca's area | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-06-30_435_7046/page/1235 | year=2005 | journal=Nature | volume=435 | pages=1235–38 | doi=10.1038/nature03628 }}</ref> =Rujuakan= {{reflist}} {{stub}} g4s7swj37xpxjsmj2nlgl9bh1vtyo9p 0 320102 3351329 3342617 2026-08-05T23:30:46Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351329 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox chlothing type" style="width: 22em; margin-bottom: 10px;" |+ class="fn" id="4" |<span>{{lang|mui|Songket}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Purwanti|first1=Retno|last2=Siregar|first2=Sondang Martini|date=2016|title=Sejarah Songket Berdasarkan Data Arkeologi|language=id|journal=Revista de Arqueología Siddhayatra|volume=21|issue=2|pages= |doi=10.24832/siddhayatra.v21i2.22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Iskandar|first=Teuku|title=De Hikajat Atjéh|trans-title=Hikayat Aceh|language=nl|date=1958|location=Den Haag, Belanda|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rodgers|first1=Susan|last2=Summerfield|first2=Anne|last3=Summerfield|first3=John|title=Gold Cloths of Sumatra: Indonesia's Songkets from Ceremony to Commodity|language=en|trans-title=Kain Tenun Emas Pulau Sumatra Indonesia: Songket dari Seremoni hingga Komoditi|date=2007|publisher=Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Art Gallery, College of the Holy Cross|location=Worcester, Massachusetts|isbn=978-9067183123|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgu6c4qZMkYC&q=srivijaya&pg=PA47|access-date=15 de enero de 2012}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sturler|first=W.L. de|date=1843|title=Proeve eener beschrijving van het gebiied van Palembang|trans-title=Deskripsi Awal Terkait Wilayah Palembang|language=nl|location=Groningen, Belanda|publisher=J.Oomrens}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hoëvell|first=W.R. van|date=1843|title=Sjair Bidasari, een oorspronkelijk Maleische gedicht. Verhande-lingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap|trans-title=Sjair Bidasari; Puisi Melayu Asli, Risalah Masyarakat Betawi|pages=1-421|volume=19|issue=2|language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blume|first1=C.L.|last2=Deel|first2=Eerste|last3=Plates|first3=With|date=1848|title=De Indische Bij, Tijdschrift Ter Bevordering van de Kennis der Nederlandsche Volkplantingen en Derzelver Belangen|trans-title=Mengenai Nusantara, Jurnal untuk Mengembangkan Pengetahuan tentang Pemukiman Belanda dan Kepentingan Minatnya|language=nl|location=Leiden, Belanda}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Praetorius|first=C.F.G.|date=1843| title=Eenige Bijzonderheden Omtrent Palembang|trans-title=Beberapa Detail Terkait dengan Palembang|language=nl|location=Leiden, Belanda}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sevenhoven|first=J.I. van|date=1823|title=Beschrijving van de Hoofdplaats van Palembang|trans-title=Deskripsi Terkait Ibukota (Sriwijaya) Palembang|language=nl|publisher=Tratados de la Sociedad de Batavia|pages=41-126|volume=9}}</ref></span> | colspan="2" id="8" style="text-align:center" | [[Berkas:Bamboofabric.png|250x250px]] |- id="12" | colspan="2" id="13" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.25em;" |Songket khas [[Minangkabau]], nan sapartigo bawahnyo bahiaih jo ragam hiaih [[pucuak rabuang]].<br/> [[Berkas:Commons-logo.svg|al=|class=noviewer|16x16px]] [[c:Special:Search/Songket|Media: Songket]] |} '''{{lang|mui|Songket}}''' adolah jinih [[kain]] tanunan tradisional nan barasa dari [[Sumatera]], [[Indonesia]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodgers |first1=Susan |last2=Summerfield |first2=Anne |last3=Summerfield |first3=John |title=Gold Cloths of Sumatra: Indonesia's Songkets from Ceremony to Commodity |lang=en |trans-title=Kain Emas Sumatra: Songket, dari Seremoni hingga Komoditas |date=2007 |publisher=Cantor Art Callery |location=Worcester, Massachusetts |isbn=978-9067183123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgu6c4qZMkYC&q=srivijaya&pg=PA47 |access-date=15 January 2012 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | author = Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia | title = Songket History based on Archaelogical Data | url = https://siddhayatra.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/siddhayatra/article/view/22 | publisher = Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia | access-date = 26 January 2021 | language = id | archive-date = 22 May 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210522025711/https://siddhayatra.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/siddhayatra/article/view/22 | dead-url = yes }}</ref><ref> {{cite journal|last=Pebriyeni|first=Eliya|date=2019|title=Perkembangan Fungsi Seni Kerajinan Tenun Songket Silungkang|url=https://jurnal.unimed.ac.id/2012/index.php/gorga/article/download/13585/11452|journal=Gorga Jurnal Seni Rupa|volume=8|issue=1|pages=214–221|doi=10.24114/gr.v8i1.13585|issn=|ref={{sfnref|Pebriyeni|2019}}|url-status=live}}</ref> jo [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/songket-01505|title=UNESCO - Songket|website=ich.unesco.org|language=en|access-date=2021-12-16}}</ref> Songket marupoan sajinih kain nan biasonyo ditanun jo alaik tradisional nan bacorak rumik sarato basulam jo [[banang]] ameh jo [[perak]]. Banang logam metalik nan tatanun balatar kain mambuek efek kemilau katiko dicaliak. Songket tamasuak dalam kalompok tanunan brokat. Kain songket ko marupokan kain tanunan khas [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], jo [[Brunei]] khususnyo dalam tradisi budayo [[Melayu]] jo [[Minangkabau]]. Dalam sijarahnyo, kain songket anyo dipakai dek kaum bangsawan atau kaluarga rajo. Aluihnyo tanunan jo karumitan motif jo corak songket katiko tu manggambakan pangkek jo jabatan tinggi di masyarakaik. Kini, kain ko biaso dipakai dalam acara-acara rasmi sarupo acara adaik. Inyo lah tanamo di [[Nusantara]] sajak abaik ka-13. Songket di Minangkabau nan tanamo ado di Pandai Sikek, Silungkang, Pitalah, Sungayang, Koto Gadang, Koto Nan Ampek, dan Kubang.<ref>https://travel.tempo.co/read/372216/belanja-tenunan-songket-di-pandai-sikek/full&view=ok{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Kain Songket di Minangkabau pado umumnyo digunoan untuak acara adaik, takah parkawinan, batagak gala, jo panyambutan tamu-tamu penting.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/12/21/190000869/jenis-jenis-kain-tenun|title=Jenis-Jenis Kain Tenun Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|date=2020-12-21|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|access-date=2021-06-12}}</ref> Di Indonesia, ado limo jinih songket nan diakui sabagai Wrisan Budaya Tak Benda dek Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia. [[Songket Palembang]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=9|title=Songket Palembang|work=Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-date=28 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528131022/https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=9|dead-url=yes}}</ref> jo [[Songket Sambas|Sambas]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=36|title=Songket Sambas|work=Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia|access-date=2020-12-14|archive-date=2021-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821185713/https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=36|dead-url=yes}}</ref> diakui pado 2013, kudian [[Songket Pandai Sikek]] dari [[Sumatera Barat]] diakui pado taun 2013,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=92|title=Songket Pandai Sikek|work=Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-date=21 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821071945/https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=92|dead-url=yes}}</ref> [[Songket Beratan]], [[Bali]], diakui pado 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=743|title=Songket Beratan|work=Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-date=21 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821192731/https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=743|dead-url=yes}}</ref> dan tarakhia [[Songket Silungkang]] dari Sumatera Barat pado taun 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=872|title=Songket Silungkang|work=Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-date=21 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821071919/https://warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id/?newdetail&detailTetap=872|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Pado taun 2021, [[UNESCO]] sacaro resmi maakui [[Songket Malaysia|Songket]]<nowiki/>sabagai [[Mahakarya Warisan Budaya Lisan dan Takbenda Manusia]] dari Malaysia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2021/12/754740/unesco-adds-songket-intangible-cultural-heritage-list|title=UNESCO adds songket to 'Intangible Cultural Heritage List'|date=2021-12-16|work=New Straits Times|access-date=2021-12-17}}</ref> == Istilah == Kato ''songket'' barasa dari istilah dalam [[bahaso Palembang]]: "''{{lang|mui|songsong}}''" + "''{{lang|mui|teket}}''", nan bararti "mancukia" jo "manyalekan".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=<!---Not stated---> |first1=Mainur|date=2018 |title=Motif ''Bungo Pacik'' Pada Tenunan Songket Palembang|url=https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/325756-motif-bungo-pacik-pada-tenunan-songket-p-b652f430.pdf|journal= Sitakara Jurnal Pendidikan Seni dan Budaya |access-date=25 April 2021}}</ref> Hal iko bakaitan jo metode pambuatannyo; mangaikkan jo maambiak sajumpuik kain tanun, nan kudian manyalekan banang ameh.<ref>National Geographic Traveller Indonesia, Vol 1, No 6, 2009, Jakarta, Indonesia, page 63</ref> Istilah iko barubah dalam [[Bahaso Malayu|bahaso Melayu]] jo [[bahaso Indonesia]] jadi "sungkit" jo "sangkut", nan bararti "mangaik".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/menyungkit|title=Sungkit|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id|publisher=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|access-date=25 April 2021|archive-date=27 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027121845/https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/menyungkit|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/menyangkut|title=Sangkut|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id|publisher=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|access-date=25 April 2021|archive-date=27 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027121843/https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/menyangkut|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Salain itu, manuruik sabagian urang, kato ''songket'' mungkin pulo barasa dari kato ''songka'', songkok khas [[Palembang]] nan dipacayo partamo kalinyo kabiasoan mananun jo banang ameh bamulo.<ref name="Rodgers and Summerfield">[http://books.google.com.my/books?id=pgu6c4qZMkYC&pg=PA47&dq=songket&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HcUTT6nJCsHMrQeD49zzAQ&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=songket&f=false Gold Cloths of Sumatra: Indonesia’s Songkets from Ceremony to Commodity]{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Cantor Art Gallery, Worcester, Massachusetts, 2007, by Susan Rodgers, Anne Summerfield, John Summerfield</ref> Istilah ''manyongket'' bararti ‘mananun jo banang ameh jo perak’. Songket adolah kain tanun mewah nan biasonyo bapakai wakatu baralek, acara adaik, atau acara rasmi lainnyo. Songket buliah dipakai malilik badan sarupo saruang, disampirkan di bahu, atau sabagai deta atau tanjak, hiasan ikek kapalo. [[Tanjak]] adolah samacam topi hiasan kapalo nan tabuek dari kain songket nan lazim bapakai dek sutan jo pangeran sarato datuak Kasutanan Melayu.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.puratanjungsabtu.com/PTSsongket.html |title="The Art of Songket" |access-date=2019-01-06 |archive-date=2008-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126111828/http://www.puratanjungsabtu.com/PTSsongket.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Manuruik tradisi, kain songket anyo buliah ditanun dek anak daro atau gadih; akan tetapi kini kaum laki-laki pun turuik mananun songket.<ref name="Rodgers and Summerfield" /> Babarapo kain songket tradisional Sumatera mampunyoi pola nan manganduang makna tatantu. Songket musti malalui salapan tahapan sabalun manjadi sapotong kain dan masih ditanun sacaro tradisional. Karano pananun biasonyo barasa dari kampuang, motif-motif nan dipolakan biasonyo juo dari binatang atau tumbuahan sakitar. Motif kadang dinamoan manuruik namo kue-kue khas Palembang-Minang sarupo sarikayo, wajik, jo talam. == Sijarah == [[Berkas:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Vrouw aan weefstoel Padangse Bovenlanden TMnr 10014503.jpg|jmpl|250px|kiri|Padusi Minang nan sadang manenun songket sakitar tahun 1900]] Pananunan songket sacaro sijarah dikaikan jo kawasan parmukiman dan budaya Palembang.<ref name="Rodgers and Summerfield"/> Manuruik hikayaik rakyat Palembang, asa mulo kain songket adolah dari zaman [[Sriwijaya]]. Urang Cino manyadioan banang sutera sadangkan urang India manyumbang banang ameh dan perak; mako jadilah songket.<ref>[http://books.google.com.my/books?id=DLguAQAAIAAJ&q=songket+originate+arab&dq=songket+originate+arab&hl=en&ei=UW3FTPS0Co3evQPMq4nhCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBQ Indonesia, Malaysia & Singapore handbook. Cit "The songket evolved when the Malay sultanates first began trading with China (where the silk came from) and India (where the gold and silver thread derived). "]</ref> Kain songket ditanun pado alaik tenun bingkai Malayu. Pola-pola rumik diciptoan dengan mamperkenalkan banang-banang ameh atau perak tambahan dengan panggunoan sahalai jarum leper. Indak diketahui sacaro pasti dari ma songket barasa, manuruik tradisi [[Kelantan]] teknik tanun takah iko barasa dari utara, yakni kawasan Kamboja jo Siam nan kudian bakambang ka selatan di Pattani,<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pgu6c4qZMkYC&pg=PA37&lpg=PA38&dq=songket+pattani+terengganu&output=html_text Gold cloths of Sumatra: Indonesia's songkets from ceremony to commodity By Susan Rodgers, Anne Summerfield, John Summerfield, Cantor Art Gallery]</ref> dan akhianya mancapai Kelantan jo Terengganu sakitar tahun 1500-an.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AazYAAAAMAAJ&q=songket+pattani+malaysia&dq=songket+pattani+malaysia&hl=en Songket: Malaysia's woven treasure Grace Inpam Selvanayagam Oxford University Press, Mar 1, 1990]</ref> Industri ketek rumahan tanun songket kini masih batahan di pinggiran Kota Bahru jo Terengganu.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA447&dq=songket+pattani+malaysia&hl=en The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture, Volume 2 By Jonathan M. Bloom, Sheila Blair]</ref> Namun baitu, manuruik pananun [[Terengganu]],{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} justru para padagang India-lah nan mamperkenalkan teknik menanun ik patamo bana di Palembang nan mungkin alah balaku sajak zaman Sriwijaya (abaik ka-7 sampai ka-11).<ref name="Rodgers and Summerfield"/> [[Berkas:Aesan Gede Songket Palembang.jpg|jmpl|190px|ka|Songket [[Palembang]] dipakai dek pangantin padusi babusana parnikahan adat ''Aesan Gede'']] Manuruik tradisi Indonesia surang, kain songket nan kaamehan dikaikan jo kagamilangan [[Sriwijaya]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://beta.antaranews.com/berita/1279268106/the-ancient-sriwijaya-heritage-tampilkan-kemilau-songket-dan-adat-perkawinan-sumsel |title="The Ancient Sriwijaya Heritage" Tampilkan Kemilau Songket dan Adat Perkawinan Sumsel |access-date=2021-05-22 |archive-date=2011-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812092941/http://beta.antaranews.com/berita/1279268106/the-ancient-sriwijaya-heritage-tampilkan-kemilau-songket-dan-adat-perkawinan-sumsel |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name="Sriwijaya Post">{{Cite news|first =|last =|authorlink =|author = Sriwijaya Post|coauthors =|title = Motif Abstrak Songket palembang|url = http://palembang.tribunnews.com/2011/12/21/motif-abstrak-songket-palembang|format = |work = |publisher = Sriwijaya Post|pages = |page = |date = |accessdate = 2012-01-16|language = Indonesian|quote = }}</ref> [[kemaharajaan]] niaga maritim nan makmur lagi kaya yang bersemi pada abad ke-7 hingga ke-13 di Sumatra. Hal iko dek kanyataan bahasonyo pusek karajinan songket paliang tanamo di Indonesia adolah Kota [[Palembang]]. Songket adolah kain mewah nan usalinyo mamaraluan sajumlah ameh usali untuak dijadian banang ameh, kudian ditanun tangan manjadi kain nan rancak. Sacaro sijarah tambang ameh di Sumatra talatak di [[Sumatra Selatan]] dan di padalaman dataran tinggi [[Minangkabau]]. Meskipun banang ameh basobok di raruntuhan situs [[Sriwijaya]] di Sumatra, basamo jo batu [[mirah delima]] nan alun diasah, sarato potongan lempeng ameh, hinggo kini alun ado bukti pasti bahasonyo pananun lokal alah manggunoan banang ameh sadari awal tahun 600-an hinggo 700-an Masehi.<ref name="Rodgers and Summerfield"/> Songket mungkin dikambangan pado kurun wakatu nan kudian di Sumatra. Songket Palembang marupoan songket paling rancak di Indonesia baiak diukua dari segi kualitasnyo, nan bagala "Ratu Segala Kain". Songket eksklusif mamaraluan di antaro ciek hinggo tigo bulan untuak manyalasaiannyo, sadangkan songket biaso hanyo mamaraluan wakatu sakitar 3 hari. Mulonyo kaum laki-laki manggunoan songket sabagai [[deta]], tanjak, atau ikek kapalo. Kudian barulah kaum padusi Malayu mulai mamakai songket saruang jo [[baju kuruang]]. Dokumentasi mangenai asa mulo songket masih indak jaleh, kamungkinan tenun songket mancapai samananjung Malaya malalui parkawinan atau parsekutuan antarbangsawan Malayu, dek songket nan baharago acok bana dijadian maskawin atau hantaran dalam suatu parkawinan. Praktik takah iko lazim dilakuan dek negeri-negeri Malayu untuak maikek parsakutuan strategis. Pusek karajinan songket taletak di karajaan nan sacaro politik penting dek bahan pambuatannyo nan maha; banang ameh sajatinyo memang tabuek dari lambaran ameh murni usali.<ref name="Uchino2005">{{cite journal |last=Uchino |first=Megumi |title=Socio-cultural history of Palembang Songket |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia-and-the-malay-world_2005-07_33_96/page/205 |journal=Indonesia and the Malay World |volume=33 |issue=96 |pages=205–223 |month=July | year=2005 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.1080/13639810500283985}}</ref> Songket sabagai busana dirajo juo disabuikan dalam naskah Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir pado tahun 1849.<ref>[http://books.google.com.my/books?id=VihYSsllnjQC&pg=PA338&dq=berkain+songket+dan+berbaju+sikap+dan&lr=&as_brr=3&cd=2#v=onepage&q=berkain%20songket%20dan%20berbaju%20sikap%20dan&f=false Hikayat Abdullah By Hamzah Hamdani]</ref> == Corak == Songket mamiliki macam-macam corak khususnyo nan dikambangkan dek Dekrasnasda Indragiri Hilir adolah siku keluang, nan divariasian jo itiak pulang patang pado bagian kapalo kain, salain itu ado pulo tampang manggis jo kiambang.{{sfn|Malik|2004|p=64}} == Teknik mananun songket == Songket marupokan istilah bagi teknik pangarajoan karajinan tanun. Teknik nan dimukasuik iyolah panggunoan teknik pakan tambahan, di ma manggunoan [[banang pakan]] pangias (biasonyo banang ameh jo perak atau suto barwarna-warni) sabagai pambantuak motifnyo. Banang pakan tambahan tasabuik (''supplementary weft'') disalekan antaro banang pakan jo [[banang lungsi]] sacaro mancukia atau maungkik banang ciek-ciek barih motif inggo tacapai motif kain nan sasuai.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Menapak jejak songket Minangkabau|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/948427777|isbn=2016350200|oclc=948427777|last=Wirawan, Nanda, 1982-}}</ref> Dalam proses panambahan banang motif tadi, ado babarapo teknik nan biaso digunoan dalam manyongket, di antaronyo:<ref name=":0" /> * Teknik balapak * Teknik batabua * Teknik batabua kaik * Teknik kombinasi jo iket * Teknik saliang silang (''interwoven'') * Teknik tapestri === Teknik balapak === [[Berkas:2016 Kuala Lumpur, Muzeum Narodowe, Ekspozycja (083).jpg|jmpl|Tanjak ''Yang dipertuan Agong'' Malaysia nan mamakai kain balapak.]] Teknik balapak marupokan jinih teknik nan mangasiakan kain jo pamukoan nan panuah ditanun banang ameh. Kainnyo disabuik ''kain balapak.'' Tekniknyo mamasuakan banang motif taruih manaruih sajak bagian pambukak (''opening'') banang lungsi dari ujuang sabalah suok inggo ujuang ciek lai atau sabaliaknyo dalam ciek kali proses. Dek teknik ko, bagian dasa nan biasonyo dari kain suto ampia tak tampak lai. === Teknik batabua atau bacatua === == Caliak pulo == *[[Songket Minangkabau]] *[[Songket Siak]] == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|2}} ===Daftar Pustaka=== *{{Cite book|first=Abdul|last=Malik|title=Corak dan Ragi Tenun Melayu Riau|publisher=Balai Kajian dan Pengembangan Budaya Melayu bekerja sama dengan penerbit AdiCita Yogyakarta|location=Yogyakarta|ISBN=979-9246-55-5|Ref={{sfnRef|Malik|2004}}}} [[Kategori:Pakaian]] [[Kategori:Songket]] [[Kategori:Minangkabau]] [[Kategori:Malayu]] [[Kategori:Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Malaysia]] [[Kategori:Brunei]] [[Kategori:Entri manggunokan rujuakan WikiPustakaSumatra]] c1k029zitmbpftbw7p7le8yqhntnxm1 0 320192 3351264 2465156 2026-08-05T21:50:40Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351264 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|jmpl|300px|Gorbachev jo Reagan manandotangani Traktat INF]] '''Traktat Angkatan Nuklir Jangko Manangah''' ({{lang-en|'''Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty'''}}, disingkek '''Traktat INF''') adolah namo singkatan dari '''Traktat Antaro Amerika Sarikat jo Republik Sosialis Uni Soviet tantang Eliminasi Misil Jangko Pendek jo Jangko Manangah Mereka''', sabuah pajanjian 1987 antaro [[Amerika Sarikat]] jo [[Uni Soviet]] (jo kamudian [[Suksesi nagara#Uni Soviet|nagara-nagara panaruihnyo]], tautamo [[Federasi Rusia]]). Ditandatangani di Washington, D.C. dek Presiden [[Ronald Reagan]] jo pamimpin Soviet [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] pado 8 Desember 1987, traktat tasabuik diratifikasian dek [[Senat Amerika Serikat]] pado 27 Mai 1988 jo dibalakuan pado 1 Juni 1988. Traktat INF mangeliminasi saluruah nuklir jo misil konvensional, sarato para paluncua mereka, jo rato-rato {{convert|500–1,000|km|mi}} (jangko pendek) jo {{convert|1,000–5,500|km|mi}} (jangko manangah). Traktat tasabuik indak maliputi misil-misil nan diluncuan ka lauik.<ref name=statedept>{{cite web |title=INF Treaty |publisher=United States Department of State |url=http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/treaties/inf1.html#treaty |accessdate=15 August 2016}}</ref> Pada Mei 1991, 2.692 misil dieliminasi, disusul dek 10 taun inspeksi verifikasi di tampek.<ref name=sipri2007>{{cite book |title=SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament, and International Security |author=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ys0bJwNfF_MC&lpg=PA683&pg=PA683#v=onepage&q&f=false |page=683}}</ref> == Referensi == === Kutipan === {{reflist|2}} == Bacaan tambahan == {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite report |url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/30-arms-control-pifer-paper.pdf |accessdate=16 August 2016 |title=The Treaty on Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces: History and Lessons Learned |last1=Bohlen |first1=Avis |author1-link=Avis Bohlen |last2=Burns |first2=William |last3=Pifer |first3=Steven |author3-link=Steven Pifer |last4=Woodworth |first4=John |year=2012 |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] |location=Washington, D.C.}} * Davis, Lynn E. "Lessons of the INF Treaty." ''Foreign Affairs'' 66.4 (1988): 720-734. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20043479 in JSTOR] * {{cite journal |jstor=2149415 |title=The NATO Decision on Theater Nuclear Forces |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_political-science-quarterly_summer-1983_98_2/page/197 |journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]] |last=Garthoff |first=Raymond L. |volume=98 |issue=2 |date=1983 |pages=197–214 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=European Missile Defense and Russia |last1=Giles |first1=Keir |author1-link=Keir Giles |last2=Monaghan |first2=Andrew |year=2014 |publisher=United States Army War College Press |location=Carlisle Barracks, PA |url=http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=1219 |isbn=1-58487-635-2 |ref=harv |access-date=2019-02-05 |archive-date=2017-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212205447/https://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=1219 |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite book |title=Beyond the INF Treaty: Arms, Arms Control, and the Atlantic Alliance |last=Haass |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Haass |year=1988 |publisher=University Press of America |location=Lanham, MD |isbn=978-0-819-16942-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6wB9-pA--LwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite report |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reports/2007/R2964.pdf |title=Theater Nuclear Weapons and the NATO Strategy of Flexible Response |last=Legge |first=J. Michael |publisher=[[RAND Corporation]] |year=1983 |accessdate=15 August 2016 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x0l3R0BMR6YC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |last=Rhodes |first=Richard |publisher=Vintage |location=New York, NY |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-375-71394-1 |ref=harv}} {{refend}} == Pranala lua == {{Commons category|Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty}} * [http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/treaties/inf2.html Text] of the INF Treaty * [http://hdl.handle.net/10822/552558 Video] of a 1986 [[PBS]] program on the future of arms control * [http://hdl.handle.net/10822/552678 Video] of a 1986 year-in-review for the Soviet Union * Statements by Ronald Reagan on INF Treaty negotiations in [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=34031 March] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905040251/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=34031 |date=2017-09-05 }}, [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=34169 April] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905034308/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=34169 |date=2017-09-05 }}, [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=34368 June] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905041818/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=34368 |date=2017-09-05 }}, and [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=33806 December] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905033118/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=33806 |date=2017-09-05 }} 1987 [[Kategori:Traktat Parang Dingin]] [[Kategori:Parang Dingin]] qo4vxm2qj7g4sh98ji3z10mzxxyfeoj 0 321620 3351286 3169621 2026-08-05T22:18:52Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox spesies}} '''Kabau''' adolah binatang nan manjadi taranak bagi banyak urang di dunia, utamonyo di Asia. Binatang ko adolah domestikasi dari kabau lia nan masih dapek ditamukan di daerah-daerah [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], [[Vietnam]], [[Republik Rakyaik Cino|Tiongkok]], [[Pilipina|Filipina]], [[Taiwan]], [[Indonesia]], jo [[Thailand]]. Kini populasi kabau lia di [[Asia]] lah makin manurun nan dicamehan di maso nan ka datang tiadonyo populasi kabau lia nan dapek ditamukan. Kabau dewasa dapek mampunyoi barek sakitar 300&nbsp;kg inggo 600&nbsp;kg. Kabau lia dapek mampunyoi barek nan labiah, kabau lia batino dapek mancapai barek 800&nbsp;kg jo kabau lia jantan dapek mancapai barek inggo 1200&nbsp;kg. Barek rato-rato kabau jantan iolah 900&nbsp;kg sarato tinggi rato-rato di pundaknyo mancapai 1,7 meter. Salah satu ciri nan mambedakan kabau lia d.ari kabau piaroan adolah baso kabau piaroan mampunyoi paruik bulek. Dek adonyo pancampuran katurunan antaro kabau-kabau antaro populasi nan babeda, barek badan kabau dapek baragam. Klasifikasi kabau masih alun pasti, tetapi ''Bubalus bubalis'' biaso dikalompokkan manjadi tigo anak jinih: # Kabau lia (''B. bubalis arnee''), muyang dek kabau sungai # Kabau sungai (''B. bubalis bubalis'') nan barasa dari Asia Selatan. # Kabau rawo (''B. bubalis carabauesis'') nan barasa dari [[Asia Tenggara]]. Muyang kabau rawo indak lai basobok sacaro lia, tetapi dikatahui baso genom kabau rawo tadiri dari 24 pasang kromosom, sadangkan kabau sungai mampunyoi 25 pasang kromosom. Katurunan pasilangan dari duo anak jinih ko dapek ditamukan jo dapek mangasiakan katurunan (fertil). Kabau indak dapek bakawin silang jo [[jawi]] nan mampunyoi 60 kromosom, walaupun masih tamasuak dalam anak suku nan samo Bovinae. [[Susu]] dari kabau banyak digunokan dek manusia. Contohnyo sabagai bahan keju Mozzarella jo [[dadiah]]. Dagiang kabau juo marupokan hasia ekspor utamo di India. Walaupun baitu dagiang kabau kurang disukoi di Asia dek karehnyo. Kulik kabau acok digunokan juo subagai bahan sapatu, wayang kulik, jo helm sapeda motor. == Lain-lain == * Bison Amerika acok juo disabuik ''buffalo'' (mirip jo panggilan ''water buffalo'' untuak kabau), iko sabananyo indak tapek. Bison nan tadiri dari bison Amerika jo bison Eropa masih tapauik jo kaluarga bovinae lia, dakek jo Yak, sarato hubuangannyo labiah jauah jo jawi sarato bantiang. Kaluarga ''buffalo'' di antaronyo kabau, tamarau, jo anoa di Asia sarato kabau Afrika. * Manuruik legenda di Filosofi Tiongkok, Lao Tzu maninggaan nagari Tiongkok malalui tarusan Han Gu jo manunggangi kabau. * Manuruik mitologi Hindu, dewa Yama nan ioalah dewa kamatian juo acok digambakan manunggangi kabau. == Dalam budaya == Orang Minangkabau di Sumatera Barat mangaikan bantuak rumah jo pakaian mereka berdasarkan tanduak kabau sabagai panghormatan kapado legenda tantang saikua kabau nan dipilih dek kerajaan mereka untuak diadu jo saikua kabau nan dipiliah dek (diyakini sacaro tradisional) kerajaan Majapahit, nan mano kabau mereka akhianyo manang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/asal-usul-nama-minangkabau-dan-sejarah-suku-minang-f5aG|title=Asal Usul Nama Minangkabau dan Sejarah Suku Minang|date=25 September 2020|website=Tirto|language=id|access-date=24 May 2021|author1=Krisnawati, Ega}}</ref> Dalam tradisi Tiongkok, kabau dikaikan jo kehidupan nan kontemplatif.<ref name="Tressider">{{cite book|last1=Tressider|first1=J.|url=https://archive.org/details/hutchinsondictio0000tres/page/30/mode/2up|title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Symbols|date=1997|publisher=Helicon Publisher|isbn=1-85986-059-1|location=London|page=31}}</ref> Dalam zodiak hewan jo planet nan dipicayo dek urang Thailand dan Sinhala, kabau marupoan zodiak hewan katiko dek urang Thailand dan zodiak hewan kampek dek urang Sinhala di Sri Lanka.<ref>Upham, E. (1829). [[iarchive:historydoctrineo00upha|''The History and Doctrine of Budhism: Popularly Illustrated: with Notices of the Kappooism, Or Demon Worship, and of the Bali, Or Planetary Incantations, of Ceylon'']]. London: R. Ackermann.</ref> Kapalo kabau marupoan simbol kamatian di Tibet.<ref name="Tressider" /> * Carabao dianggap sebagai simbol nasional Filipina, meskipun hal iko indak punyo dasar dalam hukum Filipina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/|title=In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols|last=Pangilinan|first=L. Jr.|date=2014|publisher=[[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126154959/http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/|archive-date=26 November 2016|access-date=8 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dalam mitologi India, dewa kamatian Hindu, Yama, manunggangi saikua kabau.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wiley|first=Andra S.|editor-last=Cohen|editor-given=Mathilde|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=neqMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50|title=Making Milk: The Past, Present and Future of Our Primary Food|editor-last2=Otomo|editor-given2=Yoriko|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|year=2017|isbn=978-1-350-02997-2|page=50}}</ref> Saikua kabau jantan dikorbankan di India salamo festival Shaktisme.<ref name="Fuller Christopher John 2004 83">{{cite book|last=Fuller Christopher John|title=The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India|chapter-url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7823.html|edition=Revised and Expanded|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12048-5|page=83|chapter=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fuller C. J.|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback]|edition=Revised|date=26 July 2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12048-5|page=83|id={{ASIN |069112048X |country=uk}}}}</ref><ref name="Buffalo sacrifice">{{cite journal|last1=Hiltebeitel|first1=Alf|authorlink=Alf Hiltebeitel|date=February 1980|title=Rāma and Gilgamesh: the sacrifices of the water buffalo and the bull of heaven|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-religions_1980-02_19_3/page/187|journal=History of Religions|volume=19|issue=3|pages=187–195|doi=10.1086/462845|jstor=1062467|s2cid=162925746}}</ref> === Festifal adu kabau === Festival adu kabau Moh juj diadoan satiok tahun di Bhogali Bihu di Assam.<ref>{{Cite news|first=P.|last=Dutta|title=Bonfire, feast & lots more|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080112/jsp/northeast/story_8771062.jsp|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204005414/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080112/jsp/northeast/story_8771062.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 February 2013|newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta) |The Telegraph]]|date=2008|access-date=19 January 2008|location=Calcutta, India}}</ref> Festival Adu Kerbau Do Son di Vietnam diadoan satiok tahun pado hari kasembilan di bulan salapan dalam kalender lunar di Kota Do Son, Kota Haiphong, Vietnam. Festival iko marupoan salah ciek festival dan acara Vietnam nan paliang populer di Kota Haiphong. Persiapan untuak festival adu kabau iko dimulai sajak duo hinggo tigo bulan sabalunnyo. Kabau-kabau nan batandiang dipiliah jo dilatiah babulan-bulan sabalunyo. Festival iko dikaikan jo pamujaan terhadap Dewa Air jo adat Hien Sinh untuak manunjuakan sumagek bela diri masyarakaik Do Son, Haiphong.<ref>[http://english.vietnamnet.vn/lifestyle/2005/09/489209/ Do Son: buffalo fighting festival (Vietnam)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705124746/http://english.vietnamnet.vn/lifestyle/2005/09/489209/|date=5 July 2007}}, 14 September 2005, VietNamNet Bridge</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012081514/http://www.asiarooms.com/travel-guide/vietnam/vietnam-festivals-&-events/do-son-buffalo-fighting-festival-vietnam.html Do Son Buffalo Fighting Festival Vietnam]. Asiarooms.com</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=291P4wqQmFM Water Buffalo-fighting festival] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216104851/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=291P4wqQmFM&gl=US&hl=en|date=16 February 2020}}. Youtube</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Vietnam Resumes Controversial Water Buffalo Fighting|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/vietnam-water-buffalo-fighting/4048104.html|work=Voice of America|date=28 September 2017}}</ref> === Pacu kabau === Pacu Kambala di Karnataka, India, dialek antaro bulan Oktober jo Maret.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kambala|url=https://www.karnatakatourism.org/destinations/kambala/|archive-date=2 July 2022|access-date=25 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702231114/https://karnatakatourism.org/destinations/kambala/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pacu kerbau di Kerala saroman jo balapan Kambala.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/27/stories/2004022702250500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050128132016/http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/27/stories/2004022702250500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 January 2005|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Bull race held at Kaakkoor peacefully|date=27 February 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/27/stories/2004022702240500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040801014156/http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/27/stories/2004022702240500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 August 2004|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|title='Maramadi' winners|date=27 February 2004}}</ref> === Festival agamo === * Festival Carabao Pulilan diadoan satiok tahun satiok tanggal 14 jo 15 Mei di kota Pulilan, Filipina, untuak manghormati Santo Isidore Sang Pekerja, santo palinduang para petani. Sabagai rasa syukur atas panen nan malimpah satiok tahunnyo, para petani maarak carabao mereka di jalan utama kota, manghiasinyo dengan karangan bunga jo dekorasi lainnyo. Salah satu nan menarik dari festival iko adolah balutuiknyo carabao di depan gereja paroki.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bulacan.gov.ph/tourism/touristspot.php?id=81|title=Pulilan Carabao Festival (Pulilan, Bulacan)|website=Experience Bulacan|publisher=Provincial Government of Bulacan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220053546/http://www.bulacan.gov.ph/tourism/touristspot.php?id=81|archive-date=20 December 2016|access-date=26 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} ==Bacoan lanjuik== * Clutton-Brock, J. 1999. ''A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-63495-4}}. * Fahimuddin, M. 1989. ''Domestic Water Buffalo''. Janpath, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-204-0402-5}}. * ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', 2005. * ''The Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal''. Washington, D.C. 1981. National Academy Press. {{ISBN|978-0-309-04159-1}}. * Nowak, R. M. and Paradiso, J. L. 1983. ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. {{ISBN|0-8018-2525-3}}. * Roth, J. and P. Myers. "Bubalis Bubalis", University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 15 January 2009 * Ruangprim, T. et al. 2007. "Rumen microbes and ecology of male dairy, beef cattle and buffaloes". In: ''Proceedings Animal Science Annual Meeting'', Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand. * Thu, Nguyen Van and T. R. Preston. 1999. "Rumen environment and feed degradability in swamp buffaloes fed different supplements". ''Livestock Research for Rural Development'' 11 (3) * Voelker, W. 1986. ''The Natural History of Living Mammals''. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing, Inc. {{ISBN|0-937548-08-1}}. * Wilson, D. E. and Reeder, D. M. 1993. ''Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference'', Second Edition. Smithsonian Institution. {{commons|Bubalus bubalis|Kabau}} [[Kategori:Kabau| ]] [[Kategori:Binatang taranak]] [[Kategori:Binatang]] crjzsm1q38632pvyqzdxepdp0ou3tbm 0 323309 3351190 3350986 2026-08-05T17:15:30Z Afdhal Sy 20915 /* Single */ 3351190 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} '''Rayola''' atau Yola Aurelia Laksmi ({{lahirmati|[[Padang]]|31|3|1996}}) adolah penyanyi [[Indonesia]] nan populer jo lagu bahaso Minang.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://bukittinggiku.com/4-penyanyi-minang-paling-cantik-no-3-katanya-mirip-raisa-loh/|title=4 Penyanyi Minang Paling Cantik, No.3 Katanya Mirip Raisa Loh!|last=bukittinggiku|date=2017-07-10|website=bukittinggiku.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-19}}</ref> Rayola marupoan anak kanduang dari ayahnyo banamo Doni Kalimata, dan ibunyo banamo Rina Hendriani, dan dia marupoan anak katigo dari ampek basaudara, berikut namo saudaranyo, yaitu Yoga Pradana (Kakak), Yogi Pradipta (Kakak), Fanessa Allyah Rasya (adiak).<ref name=":1">https://www.harianhaluan.com/news/detail/85697/jadi-saksi-pernikahan-rayola-ini-kata-wagub-sumbar. Diakses pada 04-01-2024</ref> Inyo labiah populer jo lagu [[Minang]]. Lagunyo nan populer antaro lain “Hanyo Punyo Cinto”.<ref name=":0" /> Lagu baru “Rantau Den Pajauah” nan dinyanyikan basamo [[Ipank]] juo turuik sukses.<ref name=":0" /> Rayola barado dibawah naungan label, yaitu Elta Record, Ry Production, Agri'e Production, Sangsaka Production, Leprin Production, Ragel Production, Banda 10 Record. = Pendidikan = Rayola manampuah pendidikannyo di Kota Padang mulai dari bangku Sekolah Dasar (SD), Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP), dan terakhir manamaik-an pendidikan di bangku Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan, yaitu di SMK Kosgoro Padang. Salapeh SMK, Rayola indak malanjuik-an sakolah ka janjang yang labiah tinggi, yaitu ka bangku perguruan tinggi, karano aktif dalam bidang bamusik atau manjadi penyanyi yang lah diimpikannyo atau yang manjadi cita-citanyo sajak ketek.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newshanter.com/empat-tahun-bekarir-didunia-tarik-suara-rayola-bakal-rilis-ambum-lagu-minang-ke-8/|title=Empat Tahun Bekariel Didunia Tarik Suara, Rayola Bakal Rilis Album Lagu Minang ke 8|last=Nho|first=Zp|date=2016-09-15|website=News Hunter|language=id|access-date=2024-01-05|archive-date=2024-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104054006/https://www.newshanter.com/empat-tahun-bekarir-didunia-tarik-suara-rayola-bakal-rilis-ambum-lagu-minang-ke-8/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Karir == Rayola alah mulai manyanyi sajak inyo ketek.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pekanbaru.tribunnews.com/2019/09/06/artis-pop-minang-rayola-tampil-bernyanyi-hingga-ke-malaysia-dari-kecil-sering-ikut-lomba|title=Artis Pop Minang Rayola Tampil Bernyanyi Hingga ke Malaysia, dari Kecil Sering Ikut Lomba|website=Tribun Pekanbaru|language=id-ID|access-date=2019-12-21}}</ref> Wakatu inyo umua 7 tahun, inyo alah baraja bamusik jo banyanyo di Bina Vocalia "Sari Musik". Sudah tu, inyo acok ikuik lomba-lomba manyanyi. Rayola ikuik audisi, festival atau lomba-lomba solo song dari semua tingkek, baik di tingkek anak-anak, remaja dan juga tingkek umum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribunnews.com/seleb/2019/09/06/penyanyi-wanita-asal-minang-ini-menyanyi-hingga-ke-malaysia|title=Penyanyi Wanita Asal Minang ini Menyanyi hingga ke Malaysia|date=2024-01-05|website=Tribunnews.com|language=id-ID|access-date=2024-01-05}}</ref> Rayola mulai rekaman sangkek kelas 1 SMEA 2 Padang, di umuanyo 17 tahun, Di album partamonyo, lagu "Hanyo Punyo Cinto" langsuang disuko masyarakaik. Sampai kini Rayola alah punyo sabaleh album bahkan alah manyanyi sampai ka Malaysia. = Pernikahan = Rayola manikah dengan Rifa Rizkianto pado 1 Februari 2020 di Gedung Dt. Rangkayo Basa, Kota Padang. Wakil Gubernur Sumbar, Nasrul Abit, manjadi saksi dalam acara sakral tersebut.<ref name=":1" /> Dan dari pernikahan tersebut, Rayola dikaruniai ciek anak padusi yang banamo Afsheena Raifa. = Prestasi = Bakat manyanyi Rayola sendiri alah taliek saat dirinyo masih duduak di bangku Sekolah Dasar atau SD. Berikut dibawah ini adolah beberapa lomba atau festival yang pernah di ikuik-an dek Rayola: * Ajang perlombaan2/Festival2 Pop Minang dan Pop Indo se Sumatra Barat tingkat Anak-anak, Remaja maupun Tingkat Umum. * Juara Umum lomba lagu minang "FENY HARISON" Lubuk basung Se-SUMBAR * Juara I Lomba Lagu minang Favorit "FENY HARISON" Lubuk Basung * Juara II lomba pop di HBT/WHBT * Juara I BINTANG IDOLA CILIK Padang Fair 2008 * Juara Favorit Wanita Festival Lagu Minang Se-Kodya Padang Di RIMBO DATAR 2002 * Juara II lomba Solo song Tingkat SD kelas I-III Bazar ST.Yusuf * Pernah Mengikuti Audisi Idola Cilik kelas 4 SD masuk 46 besar * Pernah Mengikuti Audisi Afi Junior kelas 5 SD masuk 60 besar = Diskografi = ===== Album ===== * ''Hanyo Punyo Cinto'' (2012) * ''Takana Kasiah Di Pakanbaru'' (2013) * ''Cinto Tak Sampai'' (2013) * ''Rindukan Ayah'' (2014) * ''Manikam Jajak'' (2014) * ''Basandiang Bukan Jo Cinto'' (2016) * ''Luko Batahan Surang'' (2016) * ''Cinto Hanyo Di Denai'' (2017) * ''Singgalang Jaya'' (2018) * ''Tadayo Gurauan Sayang'' (2019) ===== Single ===== * "Aku Masih Tegar" (2017) * "Nirwana" (2017) * "Purcaya Do Au" (2019) * "Manyapai Ho" (2019) * "Korban Harapan" (2019) * "Cinto Paubek Luko" (2021) * "Usah Dikana Kana" (2021) * "Bansaik Parintang Sayang" (2022) * "Cincin Cinto" (2022) * "Dalam Harok Batinggakan" (2022) * "Duo Hati Satu Cinto" (2022) * "Harato Bukan Ukuran Cinto" (2022) * "Baharok Cahayo Bintang" (2022) * "Layia Takambang Suruik Bapantang" (2022) * "Aku Tak Seindah Rembulan" (2022) * "Cinto Lain Pilihan" (2022) * "Cinto Sapasukuan" (2022) * "Cinto Sataguah Karang" (2022) * "Luko" (2022) * "Medley Padiah Ditusuak Cinto, Pakasiah Tak Baramuan, Malam Panantian, Bariangnyo Luko" (2022) * "Medley Pulanglah Uda & Rindu Disayang Uda" (2022) * "Indak Ado Nan Lain" (2022) * "Luko Baukia Jo Sambilu" (2022) * "Rindu Semakin Dalam" (2022) * "Doa Restu" (2022) * "Galau Hati Ibo" (2022) * "Lah Manyuruak Tampak Juo" (2022) * "Luko Indak Dibaok Pulang" (2022) * "Sio Sio Harok Mananti" (2022) * "Denai Teseso" (2022) * "Cinto Manyeso Badan" (2022) * "Tuneh Lah Patah" (2022) * "Haram Babaliak Sayang" (2022) * "Kandak Rang Tuo" (2022) * "Jodoh Indak Di Tangan Kito" (2022) * "Lupo Diri Dalam Ganggaman" (2022) * "Kawan Sairiang Urang Katigo" (2022) * "Cinto Untuak Salamonyo" (2022) * "Mauik Pamisah Cinto" (2022) * "Rinai Pun Jadi Juo" (2022) * "Batahun Di Rantau" (2022) * "Rilakan Denai" (2023) * "Pergilah Kenangan" (2023) * "Lah Sayang Mangko Tabuang" (2023) * "Cinto Satangah Hati" (2023) * "Gamang Manaruah Sayang" (2023) * "Janji Ka Janji Nanti Ka Nanti" (2023) * "Hadirmu Membuat Terlukan" (2023) * "Urang Minang" (2023) * "Sio Sio Manaruah Sayang" (2023) * "Barayo Di Kampuang" (2023) * "Uda Salah Urang" (2023) * "Salah Bataruah Cinto" (2023) * "Indak Mungkin Kasiah Baulang" (2023) * "Salah Aku Percaya" (2023) * "Usah Dikana Kana 2" (2023) * "Hati Bamintak Jantuang Bapulangkan" (2023) * "Taraso Lai Takato Tido" (2023) * "Berakhir Sampai Disini" (2023) * "Merak Bakahueni" (2023) * "Pai Jo Rang Barado" (2023) * "Anggan Barupo Talak" (2023) * "Racun Den Sangko Madu" (2023) * "Katonyo Kawan Nyatonyo Sayang" (2023) * "Ubek Panawa Luko" (2023) * "Sapayuang Rindu" (2023) * "Sasalan Tibo Di Ujuang Luko (2023) * "Cimburu Tandonyo Sayang" (2023) * "Talarai" (2023) * "Hilang Baganti Buruak Batuka" (2023) * "Kahilangan" (2023) * "Si Malang Jo SI Mujua" (2023) * "Kandak Dapek Jaso Talupo" (2023) * "Mungkin Indak Kasalamonyo" (2023) * "Kasiah Dibateh Seso" (2023) * "Kalah Cinto Dek Harato" (2023) * "Adiak Urang Nan Den Cinto" (2023) * "Batapuak Sabalah Tangan" (2023) * "Harok Cinto Taulang" (2024) * "Usah Bajambo Tangan" (2024) * "Bareh Solok" (2024) * "Mande Nan Denai Sayang" (2024) * "Cinto Indak Sapadan" (2024) * "Rintangan Pasti Kito Hadang" (2024) * "Mananti Janji Ka Janji" (2024) * "Raso Sayang Babaleh Jo Padiah" (2024) * "Sakik Janjian Mungkia" (2024) * "Padiah Taluko" (2024) * "Salah Malabuahkan Cinto" (2024) * "Manyasa" (2024) * "Mandandam Hati" (2024) * "Isak Marindu" (2024) * "Latiah Manjago Hati" (2024) * "Simalakamo Cinto" (2024) * "Sahujan Indak Sarinai" (2024) * "Rindu Indak Babaleh" (2024) * "Bajodoh Tapi Tak Cinto" (2024) * "Dilua Galak Didalam Manangih" (2024) * "Cangguang" (2024) * "Buruak Parangai" (2024) * "Manikam Dalam Galak" (2024) * "Taguriah Mambari Tangih" (2024) * "Malu Nan Uda Bari" (2024) * "Lupo Paneh Dek Hujan Sadarok" (2024) * "Harok Bulan Nan Tarang" (2024) * "Talambek Pulang" (2024) * "Mandeh Ka Ganti Ayah" (2024) * "Sumpah Mainan Bibia" (2024) * "Indak Ka Diganti Ganti" (2024) * "Luko Ditingga Kawin" (2024) * "Tadayo Tipuan Manjo" (2024) * "Pai Indak Ka Babaliak" (2024) * "Sayang Di Urang" (2024) * "Cinto Sairiang Jalan" (2024) * "Biakan Denai Sanang" (2025) * "Cinto Suci Badutoi" (2025) * "Malapeh Hao" (2025) * "Salah Manimbang" (2025) * "Usah Denai Uda Salahkan" (2025) * "Angok Dimato Uda" (2025) * "Kito Indak Sabilang" (2025) * "Tingga Jo Tangih" (2025) * "Rindu Sabateh Anggan" (2025) * "Takuik Taluko" (2025) * "Bagaluik Jo Parasaian" (2025) * "Aia Raso Baduri" (2025) * "Biakan Denai Surang" (2025) * "Maulang Sayang" (2025) * "Barek Malapeh Cinto" (2025) * "Saba Dalam Panantian" (2025) * "Hinggo Rambuik Mamutiah" (2025) * "Bialah Maurak Janji" (2025) * "Kaco Indak Kajadi Mutiara" (2025) * "Darah Taraso Baku" (2025) * "Manikam Dari Balakang" (2025) * "Kasiah Habih Sayang Tak Hilang" (2025) * "Usah Dipasalahkan" (2025) * "Tampek Jatuah Ka Dikana" (2026) * "Habih Tiado Basiso" (2026) * "Usah Dibandiang Bandiangkan" (2026) * "Tanti Batanti" (2026) * "Manutuik Hati" (2026) * "Dagiang Tak Basiso" (2026) * "Batamu Darah Tasirok" (2026) * "Adaik Mamak" (2026) * "Kaba Angin" (2026) * "Sakik Janjian Mungkia" (2026) == Rujuakan == <references /> [[Kategori:Panyanyi Minangkabau]] == Pautan lua == {{Instagram|rayolaksmi}} 67sqzjlm1mi7dp7v31ykskutwzsz5ga 0 323462 3351249 3151927 2026-08-05T21:24:50Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 4 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351249 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pambantahan medis}}{{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Panyakik tangan, kaki, jo muluik<br/>PTKM|synonyms=Flu Singapura<br/>''Enteroviral vesicular stomatitis with exanthem''|image=Hand Foot Mouth Disease.png|caption=Lesi nan biaso timbua di sakaliliang muluik anak baumua 11 bulan|field=[[Panyakik infeksi (spesialisasi kadokteran)|Panyakik infeksi]]|symptoms=[[Damam]], [[ruam makulopapular|ruam-ruam atau bintiak-bintiak baraia]] that may blister<ref name=Kam2013/><ref name=Lancet2010/>|complications=Tangga kuku jari samantaro, [[meningitis virus]]<ref name=CDC2015Comp/>|onset=3–6 ari sasudah paparan<ref name=Hoy2012/>|duration=Sapakan<ref name="Harrison's"/>|causes=[[Coxsackievirus]] A16, [[Enterovirus 71]]<ref name=Repass2014/>|risks=|diagnosis=Manuruik gajalo, kultur virus<ref name=CDC2015Diag/>|differential=|prevention=Cuci tangan<ref name=CDC2015Cau/>|treatment=Pananganan suportif<ref name="Harrison's"/>|medication=Ubek anti nyeri sarupo [[ibuprofen]]<ref name=CDC2015Tx/>|prognosis=|frequency=Bilo wabah<ref name=Kam2013/>|deaths=}}'''Panyakik tangan, kaki, jo muluik (PTKM)''' atau '''''hand, foot, and mouth disease''''' ('''HFMD''') adolah panyakik infeksi nan disababkan dek sakalompok [[virus]].<ref name="CDC2015Sym" /> Di Indonesia, panyakik ko biaso disabuik sabagai '''flu singapura'''.<ref name=":2">http://www.infeksi.com/articles.php?lng=in&pg=44 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126054623/http://www.infeksi.com/articles.php?lng=in&pg=44 |date=2021-01-26 }} (Indonesian)</ref> Biasonyo diawali jo damam sarato raso indak lamak di badan.<ref name="CDC2015Sym" /> Dalam ciek atau duo ari sasudahnyo, diikuti jo bintik-bintik atau tonjolan-tonjolan barisi aia di tangan, kaki, jo muluik, dan kadang-kadang di ikua jo salangkangan.<ref name="Kam2013">{{cite journal|last1=Kaminska|first1=K|last2=Martinetti|first2=G|last3=Lucchini|first3=R|last4=Kaya|first4=G|last5=Mainetti|first5=C|title=Coxsackievirus A6 and Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease: Three Case Reports of Familial Child-to-Immunocompetent Adult Transmission and a Literature Review|journal=Case Reports in Dermatology|volume=5|issue=2|pages=203–209|year=2013|pmid=24019771|doi=10.1159/000354533|pmc=3764954}}</ref><ref name="Lancet2010">{{cite journal|last1=Ooi|first1=MH|last2=Wong|first2=SC|last3=Lewthwaite|first3=P|last4=Cardosa|first4=MJ|last5=Solomon|first5=T|title=Clinical features, diagnosis, and management of enterovirus 71|journal=Lancet Neurology|volume=9|issue=11|pages=1097–1105|year=2010|pmid=20965438|doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70209-X}}</ref><ref name="Fry2003">{{cite journal|last1=Frydenberg|first1=A|last2=Starr|first2=M|title=Hand, foot and mouth disease.|journal=Australian Family Physician|date=August 2003|volume=32|issue=8|pages=594–5|pmid=12973865}}</ref> Gejala jo tando biasonyo muncua 3 - 6 ari sasudah virus masuak di badan.<ref name="Hoy2012">{{cite journal|last1=Hoy|first1=NY|last2=Leung|first2=AK|last3=Metelitsa|first3=AI|last4=Adams|first4=S|title=New concepts in median nail dystrophy, onychomycosis, and hand, foot and mouth disease nail pathology|journal=ISRN Dermatology|volume=2012|issue=680163|pages=680163|year=2012|pmid=22462009|doi=10.5402/2012/680163|pmc=3302018}}</ref> Ruam-ruam kamerah biasonyo mailang dalam wakatu kiro-kiro sapakan.<ref name="Harrison's" /> Kuku-kuku jari tangan jo kaki dapek tangga babarapo pakan kudian, tapi dapek tumbuah baliak.<ref name="CDC2015Comp">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/complications.html|title=Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD) Complications|date=August 18, 2015|website=CDC|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511222120/http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/complications.html|archivedate=May 11, 2016|deadurl=no|accessdate=14 May 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Virus-virus panyabab PTKM ditularkan malalui kontak arek jo pandarito, malalui udaro dek basin jo feses dari urang nan tainfeksi.<ref name="CDC2015Cau">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/transmission.html|title=Causes & Transmission|date=August 18, 2015|website=CDC|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514150205/http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/transmission.html|archivedate=May 14, 2016|deadurl=no|accessdate=15 May 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Objek atau benda nan lah takontaminasi dapek pulo jadi media panularan panyakik.<ref name="CDC2015Cau" /> Coxackievirus A16 adolah panyabab nan paliang acok, jo enterovirus 71 sabagai panyabab kaduo paliang acok.<ref name="Repass2014">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Repass GL, Palmer WC, Stancampiano FF|title=Hand, foot, and mouth disease: Identifying and managing an acute viral syndrome|journal=Cleve Clin J Med|volume=81|issue=9|pages=537–43|date=September 2014|pmid=25183845|url=http://www.ccjm.org/content/81/9/537.long|doi=10.3949/ccjm.81a.13132}}</ref> Tipe lain dari coxackievirus jo enterovirus dapek juo manularan panyakik.<ref name="Repass2014" /><ref name="PLOS2012">{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Y|last2=Zhu|first2=R|last3=Qian|first3=Y|last4=Deng|first4=J|title=The characteristics of blood glucose and WBC counts in peripheral blood of cases of hand foot and mouth disease in China: a systematic review|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=1|pages=e29003|year=2012|pmid=22235257|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0029003|pmc=3250408|bibcode=2012PLoSO...729003L}}</ref> Sabagian urang dapek manjadi pambaok jo panular panyakik sajo tanpa mampunyoi tando jo gejalanyo.<ref name="CDC2015Sym2">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/signs-symptoms.html|title=Hand Foot and Mouth Disease|date=August 18, 2015|website=CDC|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516032600/http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/signs-symptoms.html|archivedate=May 16, 2016|deadurl=no|accessdate=14 May 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Binatang-binatang lainnyo indak manjadi panular panyakik ko.<ref name="CDC2015Cau" /> Diagnosis dapek ditagakan manuruik gejalanyo.<ref name="CDC2015Diag">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/diagnosis.html|title=Diagnosis|date=August 18, 2015|website=CDC|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514142722/http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/diagnosis.html|archivedate=May 14, 2016|deadurl=no|accessdate=15 May 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Kadang-kadang, sampel liua atau kotoran dapek dipareso adonyo virus.<ref name="CDC2015Diag" /> Cuci tangan dapek managah panularan, dan urang nan tainfeksi disaranan untuak indak pai karajo, sikolah, panitipan, atau tampek lain nan didatangi urang rami.<ref name="CDC2015Cau" /> Alun ado ubek antivirus atau vaksin nan dipakai.<ref name="Pour2014">{{cite journal|vauthors=Pourianfar HR, Grollo L|title=Development of antiviral agents toward enterovirus 71 infection|journal=J Microbiol Immunol Infect|volume=48|issue=1|pages=1–8|date=February 2014|pmid=24560700|doi=10.1016/j.jmii.2013.11.011}}</ref> Banyak kasus alun mamaraluan ubek atau pananganan khusus.<ref name="Harrison's2">{{cite book|last1=Longo|first1=Dan L.|title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine.|date=2012|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07174889-6|edition=18th}}</ref> Ubek nyeri sarupo ibuprofen atau gel pamati raso di muluik dapek digunakan.<ref name="CDC2015Tx">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/prevention-treatment.html|title=Prevention & Treatment|date=August 18, 2015|website=CDC|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515044612/http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/prevention-treatment.html|archivedate=May 15, 2016|deadurl=no|accessdate=15 May 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Kadang-kadang, cairan intraven (infus) dapek diagiah untuak anak-anak nan indak dapek cukuik minum.<ref name="CDC2015Tx" /> Pado kasus nan jarang dapek tajadi komplikasi co meningitis virus (radang selaput utak) atau ensefalitis (radang utak).<ref name="CDC2015Comp2" /> PTKM dapek tajadi di sadoalah wilayah di dunia.<ref name="CDC2015Epi">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/outbreaks.html|title=Outbreaks|date=August 18, 2015|website=CDC|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517180547/http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/outbreaks.html|archivedate=May 17, 2016|deadurl=no|accessdate=15 May 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Acok tajadi wabah kaciak di sikolah atau panitipan anak.<ref name="Kam20132" /> Wabah skala gadang alah tajadi di Asia sajak 1997.<ref name="CDC2015Epi" /> Biasonyo tajadi salamo musim semi, paneh, jo gugua.<ref name="CDC2015Epi" /> Khasnyo tajadi pado anak-anak umua kurang dari limo taun tapi kadang-kadang dapek juo tajadi pado dewasa.<ref name="CDC2015Sym2" /><ref name="Kam20132" /> PTKM jan dipusiangan jo panyakik kaki jo muluik (''foot-and-mouth disease'', nan juo disabuik ''hoof-and-mouth disease''), nan manjadi panyakik binatang taranak.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/news/2007/070814c.htm|title=Foot and Mouth Disease update: further temporary control zone established in Surrey|date=2007-08-14|publisher=[[Defra]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927000836/http://www.defra.gov.uk/news/2007/070814c.htm|archivedate=2007-09-27|accessdate=2007-08-14}}</ref> == Sijarah == Kasus PTKM partamo kali dijalehan sacaro klinis di [[Kanada]] jo [[Selandia Baru]] pado 1957.<ref name="Sar20132">{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Jing|date=21 August 2017|title=Epidemiological characteristics of hand, foot, and mouth disease in Shandong, China, 2009–2016|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=7|issue=8900|pages=8900|doi=10.1038/s41598-017-09196-z|pmid=28827733|pmc=5567189|bibcode=2017NatSR...7.8900W}}</ref> Panyakik tu dinamoan "Panyakik Tangan, Kaki, jo Muluik", dek [[Thomas Henry Flewett]], sasudah wabah sarupo pado 1960.<ref name="pmid13682692">{{cite journal|vauthors=Alsop J, Flewett TH, Foster JR|title="Hand-foot-and-mouth disease" in Birmingham in 1959|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=5214|pages=1708–11|date=December 1960|pmid=13682692|pmc=2098292|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.5214.1708|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-journal_1960-12-10_2_5214/page/1708}}</ref><ref name="pmid13945538">{{cite journal|vauthors=Flewett TH, Warin RP, Clarke SK|title='Hand, foot, and mouth disease' associated with Coxsackie A5 virus|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=16|issue=|pages=53–5|date=January 1963|pmid=13945538|pmc=480485|doi=10.1136/jcp.16.1.53|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-pathology_1963-01_16_1/page/53}}</ref> == Epidemiologi == PTKM paliang umum tajadi pado anak di bawah umua 10 taun <ref name="Hoy20124" /><ref name="Sar20134" /> an dapek tajadi dek wabah salamo musim semi, paneh, jo gugua.<ref name="Repass20143" /> Hal ko dipicayoi dek angek sarato lamboknyo ari nan mamungkinkannyo mawabah.<ref name="Koh20162">{{Cite journal|last=Koh|first=Wee Ming|last2=Bogich|first2=Tiffany|last3=Siegel|first3=Karen|last4=Jin|first4=Jing|last5=Chong|first5=Elizabeth Y.|last6=Tan|first6=Chong Yew|last7=Chen|first7=Mark Ic|last8=Horby|first8=Peter|last9=Cook|first9=Alex R.|date=October 2016|title=The Epidemiology of Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease in Asia: A Systematic Review and Analysis|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=35|issue=10|pages=e285–300|doi=10.1097/INF.0000000000001242|issn=1532-0987|pmc=5130063|pmid=27273688}}</ref> PTKM labiah umum tajadi di kawasan pakampuangan daripado kawasan pakotaan; namun, status sosioekonomi sarato higienitas diri paralu dipatimbangkan juo.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koh|first=Wee Ming|last2=Bogich|first2=Tiffany|last3=Siegel|first3=Karen|last4=Jin|first4=Jing|last5=Chong|first5=Elizabeth Y.|last6=Tan|first6=Chong Yew|last7=Chen|first7=Mark IC|last8=Horby|first8=Peter|last9=Cook|first9=Alex R.|date=October 2016|title=The Epidemiology of Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease in Asia: A Systematic Review and Analysis|url=http://journals.lww.com/pidj/Fulltext/2016/10000/The_Epidemiology_of_Hand,_Foot_and_Mouth_Disease.3.aspx|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=35|issue=10|pages=e285–e300|doi=10.1097/INF.0000000000001242|pmid=27273688|issn=0891-3668|pmc=5130063}}</ref> Higienitas nan buruak manjadi faktor risiko PTKM.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.webmd.com/children/guide/hand-foot-mouth-disease#1|title=Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease|work=WebMD|access-date=2017-11-28|language=en-US}}</ref> Wabah panah tajadi di Cino, Japang, Hongkong, Korea Selatan, Malaysia, Singapura, Thailand, Taiwan, jo Vietnam.<ref name="Koh20162" /> PTKM paliang umum manganai anak ketek di bawah umua 10 dan labiah acok pado umua di bawah 5 tahun, tapi baliah dapek juo takanai juo gujalo nan baragam.<ref name="HFMD Symptoms2" /> Sajak 1997 ado 71 wabah gadang enterovirus nan dilaporan, rami tajadi di Asia Timur jo Asia Tenggara, utamonyo anak-anak.<ref name="Koh20162" /> Dari taun 2008 inggo 2014, labiah dari 1 milyar kasus PTKM alah dilaporan di Cino tiok taun.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lei|first=Xiaobo|last2=Cui|first2=Sheng|last3=Zhao|first3=Zhendong|last4=Wang|first4=Jianwei|date=2015-09-01|title=Etiology, pathogenesis, antivirals and vaccines of hand, foot, and mouth disease|journal=National Science Review|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|pages=268–284|doi=10.1093/nsr/nwv038|issn=2095-5138}}</ref> ===Wabah=== * Pado 1998, ado wabah di [[Taiwan]], utamonyo anak-anak nan takanai.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|title=Deaths among children during an outbreak of hand, foot, and mouth disease--Taiwan, Republic of China, April–July 1998|journal=MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep.|volume=47|issue=30|pages=629–32|year=1998|pmid=9704628|doi=|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00054640.htm|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726222228/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00054640.htm|archivedate=July 26, 2008|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Ado 405 komplikasi barek, jo 78 anak maningga.<ref name="Ho">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ho M, Chen ER, Hsu KH, etal|title=An epidemic of enterovirus 71 infection in Taiwan. Taiwan Enterovirus Epidemic Working Group|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1999-09-23_341_13/page/5|journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=341|issue=13|pages=929–35|year=1999|pmid=10498487|doi=10.1056/NEJM199909233411301}}</ref> Total jumlah kasus pado wabah tasabuik mancapai 1,5 juta.<ref name="Repass2014" /> *Pado 2008 wabah tajadi di [[Cino]], dimulai pado Maret di Fuyang, Anhui, inggo 25.000 kasus, jo 42 maningga, pado 13 Mai.<ref name="Repass2014" /> Wabah sarupo tajadi juo di [[Singapura]] (labiah dari 2.600 kasus per 20 April 2008),<ref name="Nur">{{Cite news|last=Suhaimi|first=Nur Dianah|title=HFMD: 1,000 cases a week is unusual, says doc|location=Singapore|publisher=The Sunday Times (Straits Times)|date=April 20, 2008|pages=1–2}}</ref> [[Vietnam]] (2.300 kasus, 11 maningga),<ref>[http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/showarticle.php?num=01HEA150508 Viet Nam News: HFMD cases prompt tighter health screening at airport] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213070442/http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/showarticle.php?num=01HEA150508|date=February 13, 2009}}(accessed May 15, 2008)</ref> [[Mongolia]] (1.600 kasus),<ref>[http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1847&Itemid=1 EV-71 Virus Continues Dramatic Rise] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021100614/http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1847&Itemid=1|date=October 21, 2008}} (accessed May 23, 2008)</ref> jo [[Brunei]] (1053 kasus dari Juni inggo Agustus 2008)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.com.bn/home_news/2008/11/07/1_053_hfmd_cases_recorded|title=1,053 HFD cases recorded|date=7 November 2008|website=|publisher=The Birmingham News|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722220853/http://www.bt.com.bn/home_news/2008/11/07/1_053_hfmd_cases_recorded|archivedate=July 22, 2012|deadurl=no|accessdate=May 11, 2012|author=Bandar Seri Begawan|df=mdy-all}}</ref> *Pado 2009 17 anak maningga dek wabah salamo Maret jo April 2009 di Cino timur Provinsi Shandong, jo 18 anak maningga di Heinan, provinsi sabalah.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Hand-foot-mouth disease death toll rises to 17 in East China's Shandong Province|date=April 9, 2009|work=China View|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-04/09/content_11159556.htm|accessdate=September 29, 2009|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413063806/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-04/09/content_11159556.htm|archivedate=April 13, 2009|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Labiah 115.000 kasus dilaporan di Cino dari Januari inggo April, 773 barek sarato 50 fatal.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Health Ministry: Hand-foot-mouth disease claims 50 lives this year|date=10 April 2009|work=China View|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-04/10/content_11165126.htm|accessdate=29 September 2009|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415093929/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-04/10/content_11165126.htm|archivedate=April 15, 2009|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Di [[Indonesia]],<ref name=":2" /> panyakik ko dilaporan dari [[Jakarta]] baso salapan anak-anak tatular.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tempo.co.id/hg/nasional/2009/04/15/brk,20090415-170465,uk.html |title=archive copy |access-date=2019-06-16 |archive-date=2012-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421115014/http://www.tempo.co.id/hg/nasional/2009/04/15/brk,20090415-170465,uk.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Pado akhia [[April]], Dinas Kasehatan Jakarta mandukuang langkah-langkah panagahan, tamasuak panggunoan pamindai suhu (''termal scanner)'' di palabuahan udaro sarato samantaro mahindari pajalanan ka Singapura<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wikiberita.com/pendeteksi-suhu-panas-bandara-soekarno-hatta/22816 |title=archive copy |access-date=2019-06-16 |archive-date=2011-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718050712/http://www.wikiberita.com/pendeteksi-suhu-panas-bandara-soekarno-hatta/22816 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> * Pado 2010 di Cino, wabah tajadi di Daerah Otonom Guangxi, selatan Cino, di antaronyo di Guangdong, Henan, Hebei, sarato Shandong. Sampai Maret alah 70.756 anak tainfeksi jo 40 maningga. Pado Juni, puncak musim panyakik, 537 maningga.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-06/24/c_13367598.htm|title=Archived copy|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501194633/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-06/24/c_13367598.htm|archivedate=May 1, 2011|deadurl=no|accessdate=2011-12-02|df=mdy-all}}</ref> *WHO malaporan antaro Januari inggo Oktober 2011 (1.340.259 kasus) alah manurun asusnyo di Cino inggo kiro-kiro 300.000 dari 2010 (1.654.866 kasus), jo kasus baru maningkek pado Juni. Ado 437 maningga, turun dari 2010 (537 kamatian).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90782/90880/7039439.html|title=China reports 537 deaths from hand-foot-mouth disease this year|year=2010|website=|publisher=People's Daily Online|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017081837/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90782/90880/7039439.html|archivedate=October 17, 2013|deadurl=no|accessdate=16 October 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> *Pado Desember 2011, Departemen Kasehatan Masyarakaik Kalifornia maidentifikasi bantuak kuek dari virus, Coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6), dimano kuku tangga pado anak umum tajadi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/cder/Pages/CVA6.aspx|title=Coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6)|year=2013|website=|publisher=California Department of Public Health|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017090918/http://www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/cder/Pages/CVA6.aspx|archivedate=October 17, 2013|deadurl=no|accessdate=16 October 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> *Pado 2012 di Alabama, [[Amerika Sarikat|AS]] tajadi wabah panyakik jo tipe nan indak biaso. Tajadi pado musim dimano biasonyo indak muncua sarato manganai remaja jo urang baliah. Ado sabagian nan dirawaik dek panyakik tapi indak ado nan maningga.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2012/02/outbreak_of_hand_foot_and_mout.html|title=Outbreak of hand, foot and mouth disease severe in Alabama|date=February 13, 2012|website=|publisher=The Birmingham News|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304001524/http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2012/02/outbreak_of_hand_foot_and_mout.html|archivedate=March 4, 2012|deadurl=no|accessdate=May 11, 2012|author=Hannah Wolfson|df=mdy-all}}</ref> *Pado 2012 di [[Kamboja]], 52 dari 59 kasus tatinjau nan tajadi pado anak<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504763_162-57468483-10391704/mysterious-deadly-illness-in-cambodian-children-tied-to-hand-foot-and-mouth-disease/|title=Mysterious deadly illness in Cambodian children tied to hand, foot and mouth disease|year=2012|work=Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease|publisher=World Health Organization|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603011518/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504763_162-57468483-10391704/mysterious-deadly-illness-in-cambodian-children-tied-to-hand-foot-and-mouth-disease/|archivedate=June 3, 2013|deadurl=no|accessdate=16 October 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> dilaporan maningga dek panyakik misterius nan sabalunnyo didiagnosis jo PTKM nan virulen.<ref name=":3" /> WHO malaporan, "Manuruik hasia laboratorium takini, sacaro signifikan dari sampel nan diuji positif enterovirus 71 (EV-71), nan manyababan PTKM. Virus EV 71 alah tanamo manyababkan komplikasi barek pado pasien."dilaporan *PTKM mainfeksi 1.520.274 urang jo labiah 431 maningga nan dilaporan inggo akhia Juli 2012 di Cino.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/emerging_diseases/HFMD/en/index.html|title=Emerging disease surveillance and response|year=2013|work=Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease|publisher=World Health Organization|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017073800/http://www.wpro.who.int/emerging_diseases/HFMD/en/index.html|archivedate=October 17, 2013|deadurl=no|accessdate=16 October 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> == Etiologi == Virus-virus nan dapek manyababkan panyakik adolah nan dari kalompok ''Picornaviridae''. Coxsackievirus A16 adolah panyabab paliang umum PTKM.<ref name="Repass20142" /> Enterovirus 71 (EV-71) marupoan panyabab kaduo tabanyak.<ref name="Repass20142" /> Banyak strain (ragam virus) dari coxsackievirus jo enterovirus nan manjadi panyabab.<ref name="Repass20142" /><ref name="PLOS20122" /> === Transmisi === PTKM marupokan panyakik nan amaik manular dan ditransmisikan dek sekresi (buangan) nasofaring (hiduang tenggorok) sarupo aia liua atau ingus, sacaro kontak lansuang, cairan nan kalua dari bintiak nan timbua, atau transmisi anal-oral (ikua ka muluik).<ref name="Koh20163" /> Tampek panitipan anak marupokan tampek paliang umum tajadi panularan PTKM dek pamakaian toilet, panggantian popok, dan kabiasoan anak nan mamasuakan tangannyo ka muluik.<ref name="Koh20163" /> Anak-anak nan indak ikuik pra sikolah atau taman kanak-kanak ditamukan labiah mudah takanai panyakik.<ref name="Koh20163" /> == Tando jo gujalo == Tando jo gujalo umum nan timbua pado PTKM di antaronyo damam, mual, muntah, badan taraso latiak, ilang salero makan, jo gelisah pado balita jo anak-anak. Lesi pado kulik biasonyo muncua babantuak ruam-ruam data nan barubah warna sarato manonjol nan bisa diikuti jo bintiak baraia nan padiah pado talapak tangan, tapak kaki, ikua, kadang-kadang pado bibia.<ref name="Huang1999">{{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=CC|last2=Liu|first2=CC|last3=Chang|first3=YC|last4=Chen|first4=CY|last5=Wang|first5=ST|last6=Yeh|first6=TF|title=Neurologic complications in children with enterovirus 71 infection.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1999-09-23_341_13/page/936|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=23 September 1999|volume=341|issue=13|pages=936–42|pmid=10498488|doi=10.1056/nejm199909233411302}}</ref> Ruam jarang gata pado anak-anak,<ref name="Hoy20122" /> tapi bisa manjadi sabana gata pado baliah. Luko nan padiah, bintiak baraia, atau lesi dapek bakambang pado iduang atau muluik jo sakitarnyo.<ref name="Kam20133" /><ref name="Sar2013" /><ref name="HFMD Symptoms">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hand-foot-and-mouth-disease/DS00599/DSECTION=2|title=Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease: Signs & Symptoms|work=mayoclinic.com|publisher=The Mayo Clinic|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501111320/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hand-foot-and-mouth-disease/DS00599/DSECTION%3D2|archivedate=May 1, 2008|deadurl=no|accessdate=May 5, 2008|df=mdy-all}}</ref> PTKM biasonyo dapek cegak surang sasudah 7-10 hari.<ref name="Sar2013" /> Pado banyak kasus panyakiknyo tagolong ringan, tapi komplikasi sarupo ensefalitis, meningitis, jo paralisi nan maniru atau saroman jo gujalo polio dapek tajadi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/topics/hand_foot_mouth/en/|title=Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD)|website=WHO Western Pacific Region|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-11-06}}</ref><gallery widths="220" heights="220"> Berkas:Characteristic rash of hand, foot, and mouth disease, on human hands.jpg|Ruam-ruam pado talapak tangan Berkas:Hand Foot Mouth Disease Adult 36Years.jpg|Ruam-ruam pado tangan jo kaki laki-laki baumua 36 tahun Berkas:Hand foot and mouth disease on child feet.jpg|Ruam-ruam pado tapak kaki anak </gallery> ==Diagnosis== Diagnosis dapek dibuek jo tando sarato gujalonyo sajo.<ref name=Sar2013/> Kok diagnosis alun dapek tagak, usapan tenggorok atau sampel buangan dapek diambiak untuak manamuan virus jo biakan (kultur).<ref name="Sar2013" /> Periode inkubasi nan dibutuahan (wakatu antaro infeksi jo awitan gujalo) iyolah dari tigo inggo anam ari. Deteksi dini PTKM amaik pantiang dalam managah wabah pado populasi anak.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Omaña-Cepeda|first=Carlos|last2=Martínez-Valverde|first2=Andrea|last3=del Mar Sabater- Recolons|first3=María|last4=Jané-Salas|first4=Enric|last5=Marí-Roig|first5=Antonio|last6=López-López|first6=José|date=2016-03-15|title=A literature review and case report of hand, foot and mouth disease in an immunocompetent adult|journal=BMC Research Notes|volume=9|pages=165|doi=10.1186/s13104-016-1973-y|pmid=26975350|pmc=4791924|issn=1756-0500}}</ref> == Panagahan == Langkah-langkah panagahan tamasuak mahindari kontak lansuang jo urang nan tainfeksi (tamasuak manjago anak tainfeksi di rumah), mambarasiahan paralatan basamo sacaro patuik, mandesinfeksi pamukoan nan tapapar, sarato manjago kabarasiahan tangan sacaro bana. Langkah-langkah ko alah manunjuakan efektivitasnyo untuak mangurangi transmisi (panularan) virus PTKM.<ref name="Sar20133" /><ref name="CDC">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/prevention-treatment.html|title=Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease|year=2013|work=Prevention and Treatment|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017175928/http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/prevention-treatment.html|archivedate=October 17, 2013|deadurl=no|accessdate=18 October 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Kabiasoan manjago diri tamasuak mancuci tangan sarato desinfeksi area bamain.<ref name="Koh2016" /> Manyusu ASI juo manunjuakan efektivitasnyo dalam manurunkan kaparahan PTKM, walau indak manurunkan risiko tainfeksi.<ref name="Koh2016" /> === Vaksin === Vaksin nan dikana sabagai vaksin EV71 alah tasadio untuak managah PTKM di [[Republik Rakyaik Cino|Cino]] pado Desember 2015.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mao|first1=QY|last2=Wang|first2=Y|last3=Bian|first3=L|last4=Xu|first4=M|last5=Liang|first5=Z|title=EV71 vaccine, a new tool to control outbreaks of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD).|journal=Expert Review of Vaccines|date=May 2016|volume=15|issue=5|pages=599–606|pmid=26732723|doi=10.1586/14760584.2016.1138862}}</ref> Indak ado vaksin nan kini tasadio di [[Amerika Sarikat]].<ref name="CDC" /> == Ubek == Ubek biasonyo indak diparaluan pado PTKM dek inyo panyakik virus nan biasonyo dapek cegak surang. Kini ko, indak ado ubek spesifik pado PTKM.<ref name="Sar20133" /> Manajemen panyakik biasonyo bafokus pado mailangin gujalo sajo. Nyeri pado lesi atau luko dapek diilangan jo pamakaian ubek analgesik (antiradang). Infeksi pado anak gadang, remaja, jo baliah biasonyo ringan sarato balansuang kiro-kiro inggo sapakan, tapi kadang-kadang dapek mamanjang . Pailang damam sarato mandi aia angek ngilu kuku dapek manurunan suhu tubuah. Saketek urang jo PTKM nan paralu dirawaik di rumah sakik dek komplikasi saroman paradangan utak, paradangan salapuik utak, atau lumpuah lamah badan akut.<ref name="PLOS20123" /> Komplikasi non saraf sarupo paradangan jantuang, cairan pado paru, atau padarahan pado paru dapek juo tajadi.<ref name="PLOS20123" /> == Komplikasi == Komplikasi pado PTKM jarang tajadi, tapi paralu pananganan medis sagiro kok nyampang tasuo. Infeksi PTKM dek infeksi Enterovirus 71 nan samakin manjadi-jadi bakamungkinan untuak mampunyoi komplikasi saraf atau jantuang tamasuak kamatian daripado infeksi dek Coxsackievirus A16.<ref name="Sar20133" /> Pado kasus jarang, meningitis aseptis atau virus dapek tajadi dan dicirikan jo damam, sakik kapalo, kaku kuduak, atau nyeri pungguang.<ref name="Sar20133" /><ref name="PLOS20123" /> Kondisi ko biasonyo ringan dan jaleh tanpa barubek; namun, parawatan jangko pendek tatap paralu. Komplikasi PTKM serius lainnyo tamasuak ensefalitis (bangkak pado utak), atau lumpuah lamah badan pado kasus jarang.<ref name="Sar20133" /><ref name="Huang19992" /> Tangga kuku jari kaki jo tangan dilaporkan tajadi pado anak 4-8 minggu sasudah takanai PTKM.<ref name="Hoy20123" /> Hubuangan antaro PTKM jo tajadinyo tangga kuku jari alun lai jaleh; namun, hal ko tajadi samantaro dan kuku tumbuah baliak jo indak paralu pangobatan.<ref name="Hoy20123" /><ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/complications.html|title=Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease|year=2011|work=Complications|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017093341/http://www.cdc.gov/hand-foot-mouth/about/complications.html|archivedate=October 17, 2013|deadurl=no|accessdate=14 October 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Komplikasi ringan dek gujalo dapek tajadi, misanyo dehidrasi, karano palukoan di muluik manyababan indak nyaman sangkek malulua makan atau minum.<ref name=":0" /> == Panalitian == Agen antivirus takini untuak managah sarato maubek infeksi virus pado PTKM alun baitu dikambangkan. Panalitian pandauluan manunjuakan baso inhibitor (paambek) dari [[kapsid virus]] EV-71 mampunyoi aktivitas antivirus nan kuek.<ref name="Pour20142" /> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Pautan lua == {{Medical condition classification and resources | DiseasesDB = 5622 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|B|08|4|b|00}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|074.3}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000965 | eMedicineSubj = derm | eMedicineTopic = 175 | MeshID = D006232 }} * {{commonscat-inline|Panyakik tangan, kaki, jo muluik}} * {{Wikinews-inline|Highly contagious Hand, foot and mouth disease killing China's children}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hand, Foot And Mouth Disease}} [[Kategori:Panyakik]] [[Kategori:Kadokteran]] [[Kategori:Infeksi]] [[Kategori:Panyakik mamindah]] nznrhrfovgrmhzk4j2ablhl6eenhl0x 0 323559 3351302 3160090 2026-08-05T22:54:40Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 9 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} '''George Washington''' (22 Pebruari 1732 – 14 Desember 1799) adolah pamimpin politik, panglimo parang, nagarawan, jo pandiri [[Amerika Sarikat]]. Inyo manjabaik subagai [[Presiden Amerika Sarikat]] nan partamo dari taun 1789 hinggo 1797. Subagai panglimo parang, Washington mamimpin pasukan [[Patriot (Revolusi Amerika|Patriot]] dalam [[Parang Kamardekaan Amerika Sarikat]]. Inyo mamimpin [[Musyawarah Parundang-undangan Amerika Sarikat|Musyawarah Parundang-undangan]] pado taun 1787 nan mahasiakan [[Undang Tubuah Amerika Sarikat]] dan pamarintah nan bacorak federal. Di Amerika, Washington dikanang subagai ''Father of the Nation''. Washington mandapek latiahan militer awalnyo sajak tagabuang dalam [[Resimen Virginia]] salamo [[Parang Indian-Parancih]]. Inyo kamudian tapiliah untuak duduak di ''[[House of Burgesses (Virginia)|House of Burgesses]]'' koloni [[Virginia]] dan di [[Majelis Kontinental]]. Satalah di Majelis, Washington ditunjuak untuak manjadi Panglimo [[Angkatan Parang Kontinental]]. Inyo mamimpin pasukan Amerika nan basakutu jo Parancih dalam [[Pangapuangan Yorktown|pangapuangan di Yorktown]], dan mangunduakan diri pado taun 1783. Washington bapangaruah gadang dalam panyusunan jo pangesahan Undang Tubuah Amerika dan kamudian tapiliah manjadi presiden dek [[Badan Pamiliah Umum (Amerika Sarikat)|Badan Pamiliah Umum]] dalam duo pamiliahan umum nan partamo. Subagai Presiden, Washington manyusun sabuah pamarintahan nan kuek sacaro politik dan ekonomi. Inyo mamiliah tatok netral dalam pasaiangan arek duo anggota kabinetnyo nan basubarangan pandangan politik, [[Thomas Jefferson]] jo [[Alexander Hamilton]]. Pado saaik pacahnyo [[Revolusi Parancih]], Washington mangumumkan kabijakan indak bapihak dan mangesahkan [[Pajanjian Jay]]. Inyo manyusun preseden-preseden untuak limbago kapresidenan, cando gala "Mr. President" dan pidato papisahannyo nan kini dipandang subagai salah satu pandangan nan paliang pantiang dalam ideologi [[republikanisme]]. Washington adolah saurang [[pamiliak budak]] dan padagang, dan mandukuang langkah-langkah nan diambiak dek [[Majelis Amerika Sarikat|Majelis]] untuak malinduangi institusi pabudakan dan malinduangi kapantiangan nasional. Satalah tu, inyo maraso taganggu jo konsep pabudakan sainggo mambebasan saluruah budaknyo dalam warisan kutiko inyo maningga pado taun 1799. Inyo juo dipandang pantiang kini ateh usaonyo untuak mancampuakan [[Urang Asli Amerika]] ka dalam budayo Barat, namun juo sacaro tageh mambanduang pambarontakan kaum tasabuik. Washington adolah anggota [[Gareja Anglikan]] dan [[Freemason]], namun manyeru padamaian antaro saluruah agamo subagai surang panglimo parang dan presiden. Pado saaik kamatiannyo, Washington dikanang subagai urang "nan tarutamo di medan parang, nan tarutamo dalam wukatu damai, dan nan tarutamo di hati warga nagaranyo" (''first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen''). Pado hari ko, Washington dikanang dalam bantuak patuang, karya seni, namo tampek, parangko, jo mato uang. == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} === Bibliografi === {{col|3}} {{Refbegin|40em}} ;Print sources * {{cite book |last=Adams |first=Randolph Greenfield |title=Arnold, Benedict |publisher=Scribner |dictionary=[[Dictionary of American Biography]] |date=1928 |editor=Allen Johnson |url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofamer01ilamer#page/362/mode/1up |ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Akers |first=Charles W. |chapter=John Adams |editor-last=Graff |editor-first=Henry |title=The Presidents: A Reference History |edition=3 |year=2002 |pages=23–38 |isbn=978-0-684-31226-2|publisher=Scribner|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Alden |first=John R. |title=George Washington, a Biography |year=1996 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |isbn=978-0-8071-2126-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/George_Washington.html?id=js1_ngEACAAJ |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|last=Anderson| first=Fred |authorlink=Fred Anderson (historian) |title=Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-3074-2539-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FFO2clqJCqMC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Avlon |first=John |title=Washington's Farewell: The Founding Father's Warning to Future Generations |authorlink= |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2017 |isbn= 978-1-4767-4646-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UGXUDQAAQBAJ&vq=Though+in+reviewing+the+incidents |ref=harv}} <!-- B --> * {{cite book |last=Banning |first=Lance |editor=[[C. Vann Woodward|Woodward C. Vann]] |title=Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct |publisher=Delacorte Press |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-440-05923-3 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Bassett |first=John Spencer |title=The Federalist System, 1789–1801 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LAoOAAAAIAAJ |year=1906 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |ref=harv| oclc=586531}} * {{cite magazine |last= |first= |date=1976 |title=The Battle of Trenton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xm_fAAAAMAAJ |magazine=The National Guardsman |volume=31 |location= |publisher=National Guard Association of the United States |ref={{harvid|"Battle of Trenton"|1976}}}} * {{cite book|last=Bell|first=William Gardner|title=Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775–2005: Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army's Senior Officer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cDYW2YxLfkC |year=1992 |origyear=1983 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |id=CMH Pub 70–14 |isbn=978-0-1603-5912-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Boller |first=Paul F. |title=George Washington & Religion |year=1963 |publisher=Southern Methodist University Press |oclc=563800860 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=t6s4AAAAIAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Boorstin|first=Daniel J.|authorlink=Daniel J. Boorstin|title=The Americans: The National Experience |year=2010 |publisher=Vintage Books |url=https://books.google.com/?id=YXVMTJMf9ZAC |isbn=978-0-3077-5647-3 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last1=Breen |first1=Eleanor E. |last2=White |first2=Esther C. |title=A Pretty Considerable Distillery: Excavating George Washington's Whiskey Distillery |journal=Quarterly Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Virginia |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=209–20 |year=2006 |url=http://www.mountvernon.org/sites/mountvernon.org/files/Breen-White%20Distillery.pdf |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111224193148/http://www.mountvernon.org/sites/mountvernon.org/files/Breen-White%20Distillery.pdf |archivedate=December 24, 2011}} * {{cite journal|last=Brown|first=Richard D.|title=The Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787: A Collective View|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_1976-07_33_3/page/465|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|volume=33|number=3|date=1976|pages=465–480|ref=harv|jstor=1921543|doi=10.2307/1921543}} * {{cite book |last=Brumwell |first=Stephen |title=George Washington, Gentleman Warrior |authorlink= |publisher=Quercus Publishers|year=2012 |isbn=978-1-8491-6546-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhk64CAWcJgC |ref=harv}} <!-- C --> * {{cite book|last=Calloway|first= Colin G.|title=The Indian World of George Washington. The First President, the First Americans, and the Birth of the Nation|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2018|isbn=978-0-1906-5216-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyJLDwAAQBAJ&dq=9780190652166 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Brady |title=Dead Presidents: An American Adventure into the Strange Deaths and Surprising Afterlives of Our Nations Leaders |year=2016 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2_R1CQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&vq=Bushrod#v=onepage&q=Bushrod |isbn=978-0-3932-4394-9 |ref={{sfnRef|Carlson, 2016, chapter 1}}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Cheatham |first1=ML |title=The death of George Washington: an end to the controversy? |journal=American Surgery |date=August 2008 |volume=74 |issue=8 |pages=770–4 |pmid=18705585|ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Chernow |first=Ron | title=Alexander Hamilton |year=2005 |publisher=Penguin Press |isbn=978-1-1012-0085-8 |authorlink=Ron Chernow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4z5eL5SGjEoC&vq=Washington |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Chernow |first=Ron |authormask=2 |title=Washington: A Life |publisher=Penguin Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59420-266-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r3-rsrDiE5cC&vq=putnam |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Coakley|first=Robert W.|title=The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1789–1878|url=https://books.google.com/?id=SMmJsJLKmvoC&pg=PA43|year=1996|origyear=1989|publisher=DIANE Publishing |pages=43–49|isbn=978-0-7881-2818-9 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Cooke |first=Jacob E. |chapter=George Washington |editor-last=Graff |editor-first=Henry |title=The Presidents: A Reference History |edition=3 |year=2002 |pages=1–21 |isbn=978-0-684-31226-2 |publisher=Scribner|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Craughwell |first1=Thomas J. |title=Stealing Lincoln's Body|date=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=77–79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bmDtSJg3a_QC&pg=PA78#v=onepage|isbn=978-0-67402-458-8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|title=Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford| date=2010| editor=Julia Cresswell| isbn=9780199547937|ref={{sfnRef|Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins 2010}}}} * {{cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Marcus |title=George Washington, Man and Monument |year=1958 |publisher=Little, Brown |oclc=564093853 |authorlink=Marcus Cunliffe |ref=harv}} <!-- D --> * {{cite book |last=Dalzell |first=Robert F., Jr. & Lee Baldwin |title=George Washington's Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America|year=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=LH92AAAAMAAJ&q=0195121147&dq=0195121147 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512114-8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Davis |first=Burke |title=George Washington and the American Revolution |authorlink= |publisher=Random House |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-3944-6388-9 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=pT92AAAAMAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/04/books/bookend-life-literature-and-the-pursuit-of-happiness.html | work=The New York Times | title=Bookend; Life, Literature and the Pursuit of Happiness | first=Andrew | last=Delbanco | date=1999 |ref=harv}} <!-- E --> * {{cite book|last1=Elkins |first1=Stanley M.|authorlink1=Stanley Elkins|first2=Eric|last2=McKitrick |title=The Age of Federalism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995|origyear=1993|isbn=978-0-19-509381-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Joseph J.|authorlink=Joseph Ellis |title=His Excellency: George Washington |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4000-4031-5 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2Y9Rko9sT3kC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Elliot |first=Jonathan |title=The Debates, Resolutions, and Other Proceedings, in Convention, on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution: Supplementary to the state Conventions |authorlink= |publisher=Published by editor |year=1830 |isbn= |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-gtAAAAAYAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Espinosa |first=Gastón|title=Religion and the American Presidency: George Washington to George W. Bush with Commentary and Primary Sources |year=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14332-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Estes |first=Todd |title=Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-early-republic_fall-2000_20_3/page/393 |journal=[[Journal of the Early Republic]] |year=2000 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=393–422 |jstor=3125063 |doi=10.2307/3125063 |ref=harv }} * {{cite journal |last=Estes |first=Todd |authormask=2 |title=The Art of Presidential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_virginia-magazine-of-history-and-biography_2001_109_2/page/127 |journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography |year=2001 |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=127–158 |jstor=4249911 |ref=harv}} <!-- F --> * {{cite book |last=Farner |first=Thomas P. |date=1996 |title=New Jersey in History: Fighting to Be Heard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJtomLKALYUC |location= |publisher=Down the Shore Publishing |isbn=9780945582380 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last1=Felisati |first1=D| last2=Sperati|first2=G|title=George Washington (1732–1799)|journal=Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica |date=February 2005 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pmc=2639854 |pages=55–58 |ref=harv|pmid=16080317}} * {{cite book |last=Ferling |first=John E. |authorlink=John E. Ferling |title=Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002|isbn=978-0-19-513409-4 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lifQ0G0m9WwC&vq=lafayette |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Almost a Miracle |last=Ferling |authormask=2 |first=John E. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-1997-5847-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lyjjEsqlqo0C |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Ferling |first=John E.|authormask=2 |title=The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon |publisher=Bloomsbury Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-6081-9182-6 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=hiJzO5D7U4gC&vq=valley+forge |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Ferling |first=John E. |authormask=2 |title=First of Men: A Life of George Washington|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010|origyear=1988 |isbn=978-0-19-539867-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=yHRbR8snrfoC&vq=curtis |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Ferling|first=John |authormask=2 |title=Jefferson and Hamilton: the rivalry that forged a nation|publisher=Bloomsbury Press|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/?id=MlecIL4lY_UC|isbn=978-1608195428 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Fischer |first=David Hackett |title= Washington's Crossing |year=2004 |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1951-7034-4 |authorlink= David Hackett Fischer |url= https://books.google.com/?id=Oreq1YztDcQC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Fishman |first1=Ethan M. |last2=Pederson |first2=William D. |last3=Rozell |first3=Mark J. |title=George Washington: Foundation of Presidential Leadership and Character |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2001 |url= https://books.google.com/?id=HFkZ5RBeuKoC |ref=harv|isbn=9780275968687 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv |year=1936 |title=Washington, George |encyclopedia=[[Dictionary of American Biography]] |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=John C.|editor=Dumas Malone |volume=19 |pages=509–527 |publisher=Scribner |url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofamer19amer#page/509/mode/1up}} * {{cite book |last=Flexner |first=James Thomas |title=George Washington: the Forge of Experience, (1732–1775) |year=1965 |publisher=Little, Brown |oclc=426484|authorlink=James Thomas Flexner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDl2AAAAMAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Flexner |first=James Thomas |authormask=2|title=George Washington and the New Nation (1783–1793) |publisher= Little, Brown |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-3162-8600-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r3UcMQAACAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Flexner |first=James Thomas |authormask=2|title=George Washington: Anguish and Farewell (1793–1799) |publisher= Little, Brown |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-3162-8602-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bToqSwAACAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Flexner |first=James Thomas |authormask=2|title=Washington: The Indispensable Man|year=1974|publisher=Little, Brown |isbn=978-0-316-28605-3 |ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kTfWDQAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book |last=Flexner |first=James Thomas |authormask=2|title=The Traitor and the Spy: Benedict Arnold and John André |authorlink= |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8156-0263-7 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=mpEuaCdDvkEC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Frazer |first=Gregg L.| title=The Religious Beliefs of America's Founders Reason, Revelation, and Revolution |publisher=University Press of Kansas|date=2012 |isbn=978-0-7006-1845-3|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789: 1774 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |year=1904 |last1=Ford |first1=Worthington Chauncey |first2=Gaillard |last2=Hunt |first3=John Clement |last3=Fitzpatrick |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-zMSAAAAYAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Freedman |first=Russell |title=Washington at Valley Forge|year=2008|publisher=Holiday House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ia5ivgAACAAJ |isbn=978-0-8234-2069-8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Douglas Southall |title=Washington |year=1968 |publisher=Scribner |oclc=426557 |editor1-first=Richard Barksdale |editor1-last=Harwell |url=https://books.google.com/?id=S_bAnQEACAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Furstenberg|first=François|title=Atlantic Slavery, Atlantic Freedom: George Washington, Slavery, and Transatlantic Abolitionist Networks|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_2011-04_68_2/page/247|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|volume=68|number=2|publisher=Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture|year=2011|pages=247–286|jstor=10.5309/willmaryquar.68.2.0247|doi=10.5309/willmaryquar.68.2.0247 |ref=harv}} <!-- G --> * {{cite book |last=Gaff |first=Alan D. |title=Bayonets in the Wilderness: Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest |authorlink= |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8061-3585-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QEI11WSV3WcC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Gregg |editor-first=Gary L., II |editor-last2=Spalding |editor-first2=Matthew |editor-link=Gary L. Gregg |title=Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American Political Tradition |year=1999 |publisher=ISI Books |isbn=978-1-882926-38-1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=q4axDZ5OMdcC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Grizzard |first=Frank E., Jr.|title=George Washington: A Biographical Companion|year=2002|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-082-6|authorlink=Frank E. Grizzard, Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/?id=RioTGCygpT8C&vq=curtis |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Grizzard |first=Frank E., Jr. |title=George!: A Guide to All Things Washington|year=2005|publisher=Mariner Pub |isbn=978-0-9768-2388-9 |ref=harv}} <!-- H --> *{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Kevin J. |title=George Washington: A Life in Books |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CzzVDgAAQBAJ&dq=george+washington,+david+cooper,+quaker |isbn=978-0-1904-5668-9|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Henderson |first=Donald |title=Smallpox: The Death of a Disease |year=2009 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-5910-2722-5 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Henriques |first=Peter R. |date=2006 |title=Realistic Visionary: A Portrait of George Washington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuQHciwgYzUC&pg=PA65#v=onepage|publisher=University Press of Virginia |isbn=978-0-8139-2741-1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Heydt |first=Bruce |title='Vexatious Evils': George Washington and the Conway Cabal |journal=American History|year=2005|volume=40|issue=5 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Higginbotham |first=Don |title=George Washington Reconsidered |year=2001 |publisher=University Press of Virginia |isbn=978-0-8139-2005-4 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=L0qGWo_NGlAC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Hindle |first=Brooke |title=David Rittenhouse |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgyOJO93UtAC&pg=PA92|origyear=1964|year=2017|page=92 |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-400-88678-4 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Hirschfeld |first=Fritz|title=George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal|year=1997|publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=978-0-8262-1135-4 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=4YX3czE0SGYC&vq=tobacco |ref=harv}} <!-- I --> * {{cite book |last=Isaacson |first=Walter |title=Benjamin Franklin, an American Life |authorlink=Walter Isaacson |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2003 |isbn=9780743260848 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oIW915dDMBwC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Irving |first=Washington |title=Life of George Washington, Vol. 5 |authorlink= |publisher=G. P. Putnam and Son |year=1857 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifegeorgewashington05irvirich |ref=harv}} <!-- J --> * {{cite book |last=Jensen|first=Merrill|title=The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781 |year=1948 |orig-year=1940 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |oclc=498124 |authorlink=Merrill Jensen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEMLAQAAIAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last1=Jillson| first1=Calvin C.| last2=Wilson| first2=Rick K.| title=Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774–1789| publisher=Stanford University Press| date=1994| isbn=978-0-8047-2293-3| ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Johnstone|first=William|title=George Washington, the Christian|url=https://books.google.com/?id=MzWruWAnHM0C&pg=PP1|publisher=The Abingdon Press |year=1919 |oclc=19524242|ref=harv}}<!--Though on this edition, the author's name is rendered both in print and in his signed author's statement as "JohnSON", in later editions and in later books the man's name is rendered and signed as "JohnSTONE". See [ Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/George Washington/archive4#Google links issue] --> <!-- K --> * {{cite book |editor=Michael Kazin |last1=Genovese|first1=Michael A. |title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. (Two volume set)|url=https://books.google.com/?id=4hqpJEJp7cUC&pg=PA589|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1400833566 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Ketchum |first=Richard M. |title=The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton|year=1999|publisher=Henry Holt |isbn=978-0-8050-6098-0 |origyear=1973 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZWf2AwAAQBAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Kohn |first=Richard H. |title=The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_1970-04_27_2/page/187 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |date=April 1970 |volume=27|issue=2|pages=187–220|jstor=1918650 |doi=10.2307/1918650 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Kohn |first=Richard H. |authormask=2 |title=Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783–1802 |year=1975 |pages=225–42 |publisher=Free Press |isbn=978-0-02-917551-4 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=8F_fAAAAMAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Kohn |first=Richard H. |authormask=2|title=The Washington Administration's Decision to Crush the Whiskey Rebellion|url=http://vi.uh.edu/pages/buzzmat/Radhistory/radical%20history%20articles/Washington's%20Decision%20to%20Crush%20Whiskey%20Rebellion.pdf|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150924183930/http://vi.uh.edu/pages/buzzmat/Radhistory/radical%20history%20articles/Washington's%20Decision%20to%20Crush%20Whiskey%20Rebellion.pdf|dead-url=yes|archive-date=September 24, 2015 |journal=[[The Journal of American History]] |year=1972|volume=59|issue=3 |pages=567–84| jstor=1900658 |doi=10.2307/1900658 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Korzi |first=Michael J. |title=Presidential Term Limits in American History: Power, Principles, and Politics |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |year=2011 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_nYZHG2P-9QC&dq=editions:eZH5b7sFYLQC |isbn=978-1-60344-231-2|ref=harv}} <!-- L --> * {{cite book |last1=Lancaster |first1=Bruce |title=The American Revolution |year=1985 |publisher=American Heritage Press |isbn=978-0-8281-0281-0 |first2=John H.|last2=Plumb |authorlink2=John H. Plumb |url=https://books.google.com/?id=qSe4n1h-I0UC |ref=harv |postscript=, heavily illustrated.}} * {{citation| last = Lear| first = Tobias | author-link = Tobias Lear| chapter = Tobias Lear to William Augustine Washington | date = December 15, 1799| editor-last = Ford| editor-first = Worthington Chauncey| title = The Writings of George Washington | volume = 14| page = 257| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/?id=XqE3y9LZmfgC&pg=PA257|publisher = G. Putnam & Sons| publication-date = 1893| isbn = |ref=harv}}<!--In order for the 1799 letter to be rendered correctly as being published in an 1893 compilation this particular "cite" form ("citation") must be used. --> * {{cite book |last=Lengel|first=Edward G.|title=General George Washington: A Military Life|year=2005|publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-4000-6081-8|authorlink=Edward G. Lengel |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ogwE5jAsNQkC&vq=gun+powder |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Levy |first=Philip |title=Where the Cherry Tree Grew, The Story of Ferry Farm, George Washington's Boyhood Home |authorlink= |publisher=Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-2500-2314-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dbh0XeajrOMC&vq=%22tell+a+lie%22 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Lightner |editor1-first=Otto C. |editor2-last=Reeder |editor2-first=Pearl Ann |title=Hobbies, Volume 58 |year=1953 |publisher=Lightner Publishing Company |page=133|url=https://books.google.com/?id=8CbnAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions%3ALCCN36020068&q=rittenhouse |ref=harv}} <!-- M --> * {{cite book |title=George Washington's War on Native America |first=Barbara Alice |last=Mann |url=https://books.google.com/?id=MWqW4be2kw8C |year=2008 |publisher=University of Nevada Press |page=106 |isbn=978-0-8032-1635-8 |ref=harv }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |title=1776|year=2005 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-2671-4 |authorlink=David McCullough |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uu1mC6zWNTwC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Middlekauff |first=Robert |title=Washington's Revolution: The Making of America's First Leader, The revolution from General Washington's perspective|publisher =Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2015 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=F01ABAAAQBAJ |ref=harv|isbn=978-1-1018-7424-0}} * {{cite journal |last=Morens |first=David M.|title=Death of a President|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1999-12-09_341_24/page/1843 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=December 1999 |volume=341 |issue=24 |pages=1845–1849|ref=harv|doi=10.1056/NEJM199912093412413|pmid=10588974}} * {{cite journal|last=Morgan|first=Kenneth|title=George Washington and the Problem of Slavery|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-studies_2000-08_34_2/page/279|journal=Journal of American Studies|volume=34|number=2|year=2000|pages=279–301|ref=harv|jstor=27556810|doi=10.1017/S0021875899006398}} * {{cite journal |last=Morgan|first=Philip D.|title="To Get Quit of Negroes": George Washington and Slavery|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-studies_2005-12_39_3/page/403|journal=Journal of American Studies|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=39|number=3|year=2005|pages=403–429|ref=harv|jstor=27557691|doi=10.1017/S0021875805000599}} * {{cite book |last=Morrison |first=Jeffery H.|title=The Political Philosophy of George Washington |authorlink= |publisher=JHU Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8018-9109-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f3vfS_uxvrQC&vq=anglican |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Robert K.|last2=Blessing |first2=Tim H.|title=Greatness in the White House: Rating the Presidents, from Washington Through Ronald Reagan |publisher=Penn State Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-271-01090-8 |ref=harv}} <!-- N --> * {{cite book |last=Nagy |first=John A. |title=George Washington's Secret Spy War: The Making of America's First Spymaster |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-2500-9682-1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uDinCwAAQBAJ |ref=harv }}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite journal |editor1-last=Newton |editor1-first=R.S. |editor2-last=Freeman |editor2-first=Z. |editor3-last=Bickley |editor3-first=G. |title=The Eclectic Medical Journal, Volume 17 |date=1858 |page=273 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CnkBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA273#v=onepage|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Novak |first1=Michael & Jana |title=Washington's God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country |authorlink=Michael Novak |publisher=Basic Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7867-2216-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9v9dW1e2344C |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Nowlan |first=Robert A. |title=The American Presidents, Washington to Tyler What They Did, What They Said, What Was Said About Them, with Full Source Notes |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4766-0118-2 |publisher=McFarland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlNWU1e9ppUC&vq=third+term |ref=harv}} <!-- O --> <!-- P --> * {{cite book |last=Palmer |first=Dave Richard |title=George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-5969-8164-5 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=zANrP6rOOJkC&vq=promotion |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Parry|first1=Jay A.|last2=Allison|first2=Andrew M.|title=The Real George Washington: The True Story of America's Most Indispensable Man |year=1991 |publisher=National Center for Constitutional Studies |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CSETAQAAMAAJ |isbn=978-0-8808-0013-6 |authorlink=Jay A. Parry|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Parsons |first=Eugene |title=George Washington: A Character Sketch |authorlink= |publisher=H. G. Campbell publishing Company |year=1898 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7p1BAAAAYAAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Peabody |first=Bruce G. |date=September 1, 2001 |title=George Washington, Presidential Term Limits, and the Problem of Reluctant Political Leadership |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_2001-09_31_3/page/439 |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=439–453 |doi= 10.1111/j.0360-4918.2001.00180.x|ref=harv|jstor=27552322 }} * {{cite book |last=Philbrick |first=Nathaniel |title=Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution|date=2016|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=9780143110194 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZ1iCgAAQBAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Puls |first=Mark |title=Henry Knox: Visionary General of the American Revolution|authorlink= |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-2306-1142-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xf5Kmmp-yycC&vq=cincinnatus |ref=harv}} <!-- R --> * {{cite book|last=Randall|first=Willard Sterne|title=George Washington: A Life|year=1997|publisher=Henry Holt & Co |isbn=978-0-8050-2779-2|authorlink=Willard Sterne Randall |url=https://books.google.com/?id=7AlqmsjWhPMC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Rasmussen|first1=William M. S.|title=George Washington-the Man Behind the Myths|year=1999|publisher=University Press of Virginia |isbn=978-0-8139-1900-3|first2=Robert S. |last2=Tilton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=713DhvqryXsC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Rose |first=Alexander |title=Washington's Spies: The Story of America's First Spy Ring |authorlink= |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-553-80421-8 |ref=harv}} <!-- S --> * {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Philip J. |title=Slavery at the home of George Washington |authorlink= |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |year=2001 |isbn= |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uA0aAQAAIAAJ&q=sunday |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Spalding|first1=Matthew|last2=Garrity|first2=Patrick J.|title=A Sacred Union of Citizens: George Washington's Farewell Address and the American Character|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.|location=Lanham, Boulder, New York, London|date=1996|isbn=978-0-8476-8262-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Sparks |first=Jared |title=The Life of George Washington |authorlink=Jared Sparks |publisher=F. Andrews |year=1839 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofgeorgewash01spar |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Sobel|first=Robert|title=Panic on Wall Street: A History of America's Financial Disasters|publisher=Beard Books|date=1968 |ref=harv|isbn=978-1-893122-46-8}} * {{cite book |last=Stavish|first=Mark|title=Freemasonry: Rituals, Symbols & History of the Secret Society|publisher=Llewellyn Publications|date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QZQK6as71lsC |isbn=978-0-7387-1148-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Strickland|first1=William |title=The Tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon|year=1840|publisher=Carey & Hart |url=https://archive.org/stream/tombofwashington00stri#page/n9/mode/2up |ref=harv}} <!-- T --> * {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Alan|title=American Revolutions A Continental History, 1750–1804|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=2016|isbn=978-0-393-35476-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E92aCwAAQBAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Mary|title=In The Hands of a Good Providence|year=2008|publisher=University Press of Virginia |isbn=978-0-8139-2763-3|page= 40 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/22742 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Twohig |first=Dorothy|editor-last=Higginbotham |editor-first=Don|title=George Washington Reconsidered |chapter="That Species of Property": Washington's Role in the Controversy over Slavery|chapterurl=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/resources/articles/species/|publisher=University Press of Virginia |pages=114–138|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8139-2005-4| ref=harv}} <!-- U --> * {{cite book |last=Unger|first=Harlow Giles|title="Mr. President" George Washington and the Making of the Nation's Highest Office |year=2013 |publisher=Da Capo Press, A Member of the Perseus Book Group |isbn=978-0-306-82241-4 |authorlink=Harlow Unger |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZbkPAAAAQBAJ&vq=madison |ref=harv}} <!-- V --> * {{cite journal|last=Vadakan |first=Vibul V. |title=A Physician Looks At The Death of Washington|journal=The Early America Review |date=Winter–Spring 2005 |volume=6 |issue=1 |url=http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2005_winter_spring/washingtons_death.htm |issn=1090-4247|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216141728/http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2005_winter_spring/washingtons_death.htm |archive-date=December 16, 2005|ref={{harvid|Vadakan|2005}}}} * {{cite book |last=Van Doren |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Clinton Van Doren |title=Secret history of the American Revolution : an account of the conspiracies of Benedict Arnold and numerous others |publisher=Garden City Pub. Co. |year=1941 |url=https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofa00vand |ref=harv}} <!-- W --> * {{cite book|last1=Waldman|first1=Carl|last2=Braun|first2=Molly|title=Atlas of the North American Indian|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|date=2009|edition=3|isbn=978-0-8160-6859-3|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Weems|first=Mason Locke|url=http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/gw/weems.html|title=A History of the Life and Death, Virtues and Exploits of General George Washington|publisher=J. B. Lippincott|year=1810|access-date=2019-06-21|archive-date=2007-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213072825/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~cap/gw/weems.html|dead-url=yes}} * {{cite book|last=Wiencek |first=Henry|title=An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America|year=2003 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-17526-9 |authorlink=Henry Wiencek |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9Wr1AAAAQBAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon S.|title=The Radicalism of the American Revolution |year=1992 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-679-40493-4|authorlink=Gordon S. Wood |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lGinKwz7l8C&vq=patriot |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon S. |editor=Don Higginbotham |authormask=2 |title=George Washington Reconsidered |year=2001 |publisher=University Press of Virginia |isbn=978-0-8139-2005-4 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=L0qGWo_NGlAC |ref=harv}} ;Primary sources * {{cite book |last=Elliot |first=Jonathan |title=The Debates, Resolutions, and Other Proceedings, in Convention, on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution: "Containing the debates in Massachusetts and New York" |authorlink= |publisher=Jonathan Elliot |year=1827 |isbn= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUWsf5O4DdwC}} * {{cite web|url=http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN |publisher=University Press of Virginia |year=2011 |accessdate=March 7, 2011 |title=The Papers of George Washington |website=The Papers of George Washington: Digital Edition |editor-last=Lengel |editor-first=Edward G. |editor-link=Edward G. Lengel |url-access=registration |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|title=Writings of George Washington (39 Vols)|year=1931|editor-first=John C.|editor-last=Fitzpatrick|publisher=U.S. Govt. Print Off.}} * {{cite book|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000366819/Home |publisher=U.S. Govt. Print. Off. |via=Hathi Trust Digital Library |year=2016 |orig-year=1931–1944 |accessdate=March 7, 2011 |title=The Writings of George Washington from the original manuscript sources, 1745–1799 |editor-last=Fitzpatrick |editor-first=John |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last=Washington |first=George |title=Letter to Continental Army, November 2, 1783, Farewell Orders; Letter to Henry Knox, November 2, 1783 |year=1799 |work=George Washington Papers, 1741–1799: Series 3b Varick Transcripts|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&fileName=mgw3b/gwpage016.db&recNum=347 |publisher=Library of Congress |accessdate=November 13, 2011|ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821112926/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&fileName=mgw3b%2Fgwpage016.db&recNum=347 |archivedate=August 21, 2013 }} * {{cite web|last=Washington|first=George|title=Sentiments on a Peace Establishment|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-11202|publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration)|date=1783 |ref=harv|access-date=July 20, 2018}} * {{cite web|last=Washington|first=George|title=Letter to Richard Peters, September 7, 1788|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/04-06-02-0447|publisher=National Historical Publications and Records Commission (The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration)|date=1788|access-date=February 11, 2019|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Weems |first=Mason Locke |title=A history of the life and death, virtues and exploits of General George Washington : with curious anecdotes equally honourable to himself and exemplary to his young countrymen |authorlink=Mason Locke Weems |publisher= J.B. Lippincott |year=1918 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoflifede00weem |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Tucker |first=St. George |authorlink=St. George Tucker |editor=Riley, Edward M. |title=Journal of the Siege of Yorktown |year=1781|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly, July 1948 |jstor= 1923466|publisher=Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture |volume= 5 |number=3 |pages=375–395 |doi= |ref={{sfnRef|Tucker, 1781, pp.375–395}}}} ;Online sources * {{cite web|title=A Brief History |url=https://gwmemorial.org/pages/history |publisher=The George Washington Masonic National Memorial Association (GWMNMA) |ref={{sfnRef|"A Brief History" (GWMNMA)}}}} * {{cite web |title=George Washington's Professional Surveys |publisher=U.S. National Archives|year=2016 |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/02-01-02-0004#document_page |accessdate=June 27, 2016|ref=GWarchive}} * {{cite web |last=Engber |first=Daniel |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2134455/|title=What's Benjamin Franklin's Birthday? |publisher=[[Slate (magazine)|''Slate'']] |date=January 18, 2006 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web|last=Harless|first=Richard|title=Native American Policy|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/native-american-policy/|location= |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|website=mountvernon.org|date=2018|access-date=October 26, 2018|ref=harv}} * {{cite web |url=https://history.army.mil/html/faq/5star.html |title=How Many U.S. Army Five-star Generals Have There Been and Who Were They? |last= |first= |date=2017 |website= |publisher=U.S. Army Center of Military History |access-date=November 1, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|"Five-star Generals, 2017"}}}} * {{cite journal |last=Howat |first=John K. |title=Washington Crossing the Delaware |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258337.pdf.bannered.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613072040/https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258337.pdf.bannered.pdf |archivedate=June 13, 2017 |volume=26 |number=7 |date=March 1968 |pages=289–299 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last=Immekus |first=Alexander |title=Freemasonry |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/freemasonry/ |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |date=2018 |access-date=September 7, 2018|ref=harv}} * {{cite web|last=Lurie|first=Shira|title=George Washington's Farewell Address|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/george-washingtons-farewell-address/|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|accessdate=March 20, 2019|ref={{sfnRef|Lauir, Shira, 2019}}|archive-date=March 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320192745/https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/george-washingtons-farewell-address/|dead-url=yes}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel06.html|title=Religion and the Founding of the American Republic|publisher=Library of Congress|year=2011 |ref=harv|access-date=July 20, 2018}} * {{cite web |title=1-cent Washington |date=May 16, 2006 |url=https://arago.si.edu/category_2033234.html |website=Arago News/Online Database of the National Postal Museum |publisher=Smithsonian Institution/National Postal Museum |last=Shapiro |first=Jeff |access-date=November 29, 2018 |ref=harv |archive-date=December 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181220181308/https://arago.si.edu/category_2033234.html |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite web |title=Slave Control|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/slave-control//|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |access-date=August 10, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|Slave Control (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay)}}}} * {{cite web |title=Slave Labor |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |accessdate=July 1, 2018|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/slave-labor/ |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |ref={{sfnRef|Slave Labor (Mount Vernon Ladies' Association Essay)}}}} * {{cite web|title=Surveying |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |accessdate=June 13, 2016 |url=http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/surveying/ |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |ref=MV2016}} * {{cite web |title=Ten Facts About Washington & Slavery|url=http://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/slavery/ten-facts-about-washington-slavery/ |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |access-date=July 20, 2018|ref={{sfnRef|"Ten Facts About Washington & Slavery"}}}} * {{cite web |last=Thompson| first= Mary V.|title=Death Defied |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-man-the-myth/death-defied-dr-thorntons-radical-idea-of-bringing-george-washington-back-to-life/|ref={{sfnRef|"Death Defied" }} |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, Essay 3|access-date=October 14, 2018}} * {{cite web|title=The Tomb|url=http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/tomb/ |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |accessdate=April 12, 2018|ref=tomb}} * {{cite web |last=Tsakiridis |first=George |title=George Washington and Religion |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/george-washington-and-religion/ |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |date=2018 |access-date=September 15, 2018|ref=harv}} * {{cite web|last=Wallenborn|first=White McKenzie, M.D.|title=George Washington's Terminal Illness: A Modern Medical Analysis of the Last Illness and Death of George Washington|year=1999|url=http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/history/articles/illness/|work=[[The Papers of George Washington]]|publisher=University of Virginia|ref=harv|access-date=July 20, 2018|archive-date=September 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924192344/http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/history/articles/illness/|dead-url=yes}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/usstates/wa.htm |title=Washington |publisher=Worldatlas |accessdate=January 3, 2011 |ref={{sfnRef|"Washington"}}}} * {{cite web|title=Where the Cherry Tree Grew: An Interview with Phillip Levy |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-man-the-myth/where-the-cherry-tree-grew-an-interview-with-phillip-levy/ |website=George Washington's Mount Vernon |access-date=July 20, 2018}} * {{cite web|last1=Willard|first1=Joseph|title=To George Washington from Joseph Willard, 28 February 1781|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-05045|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221110014/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-05045|archivedate=February 21, 2017 |year=2017 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web|title=Siena's 6th Presidential Expert Poll 1982 – 2018|url=https://scri.siena.edu/2019/02/13/sienas-6th-presidential-expert-poll-1982-2018/|publisher=Siena College Research Institute|date=February 13, 2019|ref={{sfnRef|Siena Expert Poll 1982–2018}}|access-date=February 26, 2019}} * {{cite web|last=Gardner|first=Andrew G.|title=How Did Washington Make His Millions?|url=https://www.history.org/foundation/journal/winter13/washington.cfm|publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation|journal=CW Journal|year=Winter 2013|ref={{sfnRef|Gardner (Winter 2013)}}|accessdate=June 11, 2019|archive-date=June 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620054332/https://www.history.org/foundation/journal/winter13/washington.cfm|dead-url=yes}} {{Refend}} {{EndDiv}} {{s-start}} {{s-mil}} {{s-new|creation}} {{s-ttl|title=Panglimo [[Angkatan Parang Kontinental]]|years=1775–1783}} {{s-aft|after=[[Henry Knox]]|as=[[Panglimo Angkatan Darat Amerika Sarikat|Perwira Tinggi Angkatan Darat Amerika Sarikat]]}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[James Wilkinson]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Panglimo Angkatan Darat Amerika Sarikat|Perwira Tinggi Angkatan Darat Amerika Sarikat]]|years=1798–1799}} {{s-aft|after=[[Alexander Hamilton]]}} |- {{s-off}} {{s-new|office}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Presiden Amerika Sarikat]]|years=1789–1797}} {{s-aft|after=[[John Adams]]}} {{s-end}} {{Presiden AS}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Amerika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Presiden Amerika Sarikat]] fb6qrz43a57rh0vj2blgqzmv4h0zmr2 0 323586 3351321 2495902 2026-08-05T23:18:11Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351321 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Komunisme''' atau '''kuminih''' (bahaso Latin: ''communis'', bahaso Inggris: ''common, universal'')<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Communism|encyclopedia=Britannica Encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/129104/communism}}</ref><ref>''World Book'' 2008, hal. 890.</ref> adolah ideologi nan basingguangan jo filosofi, politik, sosial, jo ekonomi nan tujuan utamanyo untuak tabantuak masyarakaik kuminih jo aturan sosial ekonomi manuruik kapamiliakan basamo alaik produksi jo indak adonyo kelas sosial, uang,<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm ''Principles of Communism''], Frederick Engels, 1847, Bagian ke-18. "Akhirnya, saat semua modal, produksi, pertukaran dipegang bersama oleh segenap bangsa, kepemilikan pribadi akan menghilang, uang akan jadi sesuatu yang tidak perlu, dan produksi berkembang sehingga masyarakat akan lepas dari kebiasaan ekonomi yang dulu-dulu."</ref><ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/03.htm ''The ABC of Communism''], Nikoli Bukharin, 1920, Bagian ke-20</ref> jo nagara.<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/03.htm ''The ABC of Communism''], Nikoli Bukharin, 1920, Bagian ke-21</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Political Science|url=http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-encyclopedia-of-political-science|doi=10.4135/9781608712434|editor=George Thomas Kurian|publisher=CQ Press|date=2011|ISBN=9781933116440|chapter=Withering Away of the State|accessdate=3 Januari 2016}}</ref> == Dasa ideologi == Istilah komunisme acok dicampuaaduakan jo kuminih internasional. Komunisme atau [[Marxisme]] adolah ideologi dasa nan umumnyo digunoan dek partai kuminih di saluruah dunia. Sadang kuminih internasional marupoan ideologi nan barasa dari pamikiran Lenin sainggo dapek pulo disabuik "Marxisme-Leninisme. Dalam komunisme, parubahan sosial aruih dimulai dari paambiakaliahan alaik-alaik produksi malalui paran partai komunih. Logika singkeknyo, parubahan sosial dimulai dari pakarajo, tatapi paorganisasian pakarajo anyo dapek bahasia jikok malalui pajuangan partai. Partai mambutuhan paran politbiro sabagai ''think-tank''. Dapek diringkas parubahan sosial anyo dapek barasia jiko dicatuihan politbiro. Komunih sabagai anti-kapitalisme manggunoan sistem partai komunih sabagai alaik paambiahaliahan kakuasoan jo sangaik manantang kapamiliakan akumulasi modal para individu. Pado prinsipnyo sadonyo diaratian sabagai milik rakyaik mako co itu, sado alaik-alaik produksi aruihlah dikuasoi dek nagara guno kemakmuran rakyaik sacaro marato. Komunih mambok demokrasi nan diwakilan dek pucuak-pucuak komunih, mako iyi sangaik mambatehan demokrasi pado rakyaik nan bukan marupuoan anggota partai komunih karano adonyo dalam paham komunih indak ado hak paribadi sarupo nan adi di paham liberalisme. == Kuminih internasional == Komunih internasional sabagai teori mulai dipakai satalah maledaknyo Revolusi Bolshevik di Rusia tanggal 7 November 1917. Dek mako iti komunih dipakai sabagai ideologi jo disiaran ka nagara lain. Pado taun 2005 nagara nan masih mamakai komunih iolah Tiongkok, Vietnam, Korea Utara, Kuba jo Laos. Komunih internasional iolah teoru nan asa mulo dicatuihan dek Karl Marx. == Indonesia dan komunisme == Indonesia panah manjadi kakuatan gadang komunisme dunia. Lahianyo PKI pado taun 1920-an adolah kalanjuikan fase awal dominasi komunih di nagara Indonesia, bahkan di Asia. Tokoh kuminih sarupo Tan Malaka, manjadi tokoh nan indak dapek dilupoan dalam perjuangan nagara sarupo di Cina, Indonesia, Thailand, jo Filiphina. Indak sarupo Vietnam nan marabuikan kakuatan komunisme manjadi parang nan gadang. Di Indonesia, parubahan komunisme tajadi insiden badarah jo pambantaian nan banyak mamakan korban jiwa. Indak itu se, para pangikuik komunih dijuluak i jo eks-tapol dek Orde Baru jo mangalami pambatehan dalam kahidupan. === Sijarah komunisme di Indonesia === ==== Era praparang kamardekaan ==== Lahianyo kuminih di Indonesia indak talapeh dari hadirnyo urang-urang buangan politik dari Balando jo mahasiswa-mahasiswa nan bapandangan kiri. Babarapo di antaronyo sarupo Sneevliet, Bregsma, dan Tan Malaka nan alah masuak satalah Sarekat Islam (SI) Semarang tabantuak. Gerakan Komunih di Indonesia diawali di Surabaya, asa mulo dek diskusi intern pakarajo Kareta Api Surabaya nan dikana jo namo VSTP. Mulonyo VSTP anyo barisi urang-urang Eropa jo Indo Eropa sajo. Sairiang bajalannyo wakatu, kaum pribumi banyak juo nan bagabuang. Nan tasabuik dan gadang Semaoen kamudian manjadi katua SI Semarang. Komunisme kudian juo aktif di Semarang, dek itu tanamo jo "Kota Merah" sasudah manjadi basis PKI pado wakatu tu. Hadirnyo ISDV jo masuaknyo para pribumi bahaluan kida ka dalam Sarekat Islam manjadian komunih sabagai bagian cabangnyo, nan disabuik jo "Si Sirah". ISDV batangguang jawek kapado banyaknyo pakarajo nan mogok di Jawa. Konflik SI Semarang (SI Merah) jo SI pusek di Yogyakarta (SI Putih) mandorong diadoannyao kongres. Ateh usulan Haji Agus Salim, nan disahkan dek pusek SI, baiak SI Merah maupun SI Putih supakaik personel SI Merah kalua dari SI. Mantan personel SI Merah jo ISDV baganti namo manjadi PKI. Hancuanya PKI bamulo kutiko Pasatujuan Prambanan nan mamutuihan akan adonyo pambarontakan gadang di saluruah Hindia Balando. Tan Malaka indak satuju dek komunih alaun kuaik di Indonesia, baliau mancubo mahantian. tatapi indak diacuhan dek tokoh PKI, kacuali urang-urang nan bapihaik kapado Tan Malaka. Pambarontakan nan tajadi 1926-1927 nan usai dek kakalahan PKI. Para toko PKI manyalahan Tan Malaka dek kagagalan itu, sabab alah maasuang cabang-cabang PKI.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pemberontakan Sarikat Rakyat Silungkang, Sumatera Barat, 1926-1927: pengalaman perjuangan dalam merintis kemerdekaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_29FGQAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|publisher=Mutiara|date=1981|language=id|first=Abdul Muluk|last=Nasution}}</ref> == Rujuakan == <references /> == Bacaan lanjuik == {{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}} * {{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Adami |editor-first1=Stefano |editor-last2=Marrone |editor-first2=G. |date=2006 |title=Communism |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies |edition=1st |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-57958-390-3}} * {{cite book |last=Daniels |first=Robert Vincent |author-link=Robert Vincent Daniels |date=1994 |title=A Documentary History of Communism and the World: From Revolution to Collapse |publisher=[[University Press of New England]] |isbn=978-0-87451-678-4}} * {{cite book |last=Daniels |first=Robert Vincent |author-link=Robert Vincent Daniels |date=2007 |title=The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-30010-649-7}} * {{cite book |last=Dean |first=Jodi |author-link=Jodi Dean |date=2012 |title=The Communist Horizon |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |isbn=978-1-84467-954-6}} * {{cite book |last=Dirlik |first=Arif |date=1989 |title=Origins of Chinese Communism |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-505454-5}} * {{cite book |last1=Engels |first1=Friedrich |author-link1=Friedrich Engels |last2=Marx |first2=Karl |author-link2=Karl Marx |title=[[The Communist Manifesto]] |date=1998 |orig-date=1848 |edition=reprint |publisher=Signet Classics |isbn=978-0-451-52710-3}} * {{cite journal |last=Fitzpatrick |first=Sheila |author-link=Sheila Fitzpatrick |date=2007 |title=Revisionism in Soviet History |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-and-theory_2007-12_46_4/page/77 |journal=[[History and Theory]] |volume=46 |number=4 |pages=77–91 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2303.2007.00429.x |jstor=4502285}}. Historiographical essay that covers the scholarship of the three major schools: totalitarianism, revisionism, and post-revisionism. * {{cite book |last=Forman |first=James D. |date=1972 |title=Communism: From Marx's Manifesto to 20th-century Reality |publisher=Watts |isbn=978-0-531-02571-0}} * {{cite journal |last1=Fuchs-Schündeln |first1=Nicola |last2=Schündeln |first2=Matthias |date=2020 |url=https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.34.2.172 |title=The Long-Term Effects of Communism in Eastern Europe |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=34 |number=2 |pages=172–191 |doi=10.1257/jep.34.2.172|s2cid=219053421}}. ([https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdf/ PDF version]) * {{cite book |last=Furet |first=François |author-link=François Furet |translator-last=Kan |translator-first=D. |date=2000 |title=The Passing of An Illusion: The Idea of Communism In the Twentieth Century |edition=English |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-27341-9}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Fürst |editor-first1=Juliane |editor-last2=Pons |editor-first2=Silvio |editor-link2=:it:Silvio Pons |editor-last3=Selden |editor-first3=Mark |editor-link3=Mark Selden |date=2017 |chapter=Endgames? Late Communism in Global Perspective, 1968 to the Present |title=The Cambridge History of Communism |volume=3 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-31650-159-7}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Gerlach |editor-first1=Christian |editor-link1=Christian Gerlach |editor-last2=Six |editor-first2=Clemens |date=2020 |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anti-Communist Persecutions |location= |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-3030549657}} * {{cite book |last=Gregor |first=A. J. |author-link=A. James Gregor |date=2014 |title=Marxism and the Making of China: A Doctrinal History |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-137-37949-8}} * {{cite book |last=Henry |first=Michel |author-link=Michel Henry |translator-last=Davidson |translator-first=Scott |date=2014 |orig-date=1991 |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/from-communism-to-capitalism-9781472524317 |title=From Communism to Capitalism |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]] |isbn=978-1-472-52431-7}} * {{cite book |last1=Laybourn |first1=Keith |author-link1=Keith Laybourn |last2=Murphy |first2=Dylan |date=1999 |title=Under the Red Flag: A History of Communism in Britain |edition=illustrated, hardcover |publisher=[[Sutton Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-75091-485-7}} * {{cite book |last=Lovell |first=Julia |author-link=Julia Lovell |date=2019 |title=Maoism: A Global History |publisher=Bodley Head |isbn=978-184792-250-2}} * {{cite book |last=Morgan |first=W. John |date=2003 |title=Communists on Education and Culture 1848–1948 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=0-333-48586-6}} * {{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=W. John |date=December 2005 |title=Communism, Post-Communism, and Moral Education |journal=[[The Journal of Moral Education]] |volume=34 |number=4 |issn=1465-3877}}. {{ISSN|0305-7240}} (print). * {{cite book |editor-last1=Naimark |editor-first1=Norman |editor-link1=Norman Naimark |editor-last2=Pons |editor-first2=Silvio |editor-link2=:it:Silvio Pons |date=2017 |chapter=The Socialist Camp and World Power 1941–1960s |title=The Cambridge History of Communism |volume=2 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-31645-985-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Pipes |first1=Richard |author-link1=Richard Pipes |date=2003 |title=Communism: A History |edition=reprint |publisher=Modern Library |isbn=978-0-81296-864-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Pons |first1=Silvio |author-link1=:it:Silvio Pons |date=2014 |title=The Global Revolution: A History of International Communism 1917–1991 |edition=English, hardcover |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19965-762-9}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Pons |editor-first1=Silvio |editor-link1=:it:Silvio Pons |editor-last2=Service |editor-first2=Robert |editor-link2=Robert Service (historian) |date=2010 |title=A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism |edition=hardcover |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-69113-585-4}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Pons |editor-first1=Silvio |editor-link1=:it:Silvio Pons |editor-last2=Smith |editor-first2=Stephen A. |date=2017 |chapter=World Revolution and Socialism in One Country 1917–1941 |title=The Cambridge History of Communism |volume=1 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-31613-702-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Pop-Eleches |first1=Grigore |last2=Tucker |first2=Joshua A. |date=2017 |title=Communism's Shadow: Historical Legacies and Contemporary Political Attitudes |edition=hardcover |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-69117-558-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Priestland |first1=David |author-link1=David Priestland |date=2009 |title=The Red Flag: A History of Communism |publisher=[[Grove Press]] |isbn=978-0-80214-512-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Sabirov |first1=Kharis Fatykhovich |date=1987 |url=https://archive.org/details/whatiscommunism1987 |title=What Is Communism? |edition=English |publisher=[[Progress Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-82853-346-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |author-link1=Robert Service (historian) |date=2010 |title=Comrades!: A History of World Communism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-67404-699-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Yu-ming |date=2019 |title=Changes And Continuities In Chinese Communism: Volume I: Ideology, Politics, and Foreign Policy |edition=hardcover |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-36716-385-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Zinoviev |first1=Alexandre |author-link1=Alexander Zinoviev |date=1984 |orig-date=1980 |title=The Reality of Communism |publisher=[[Schocken Books]] |isbn=978-0-80523-901-0}} [[Kategori:Ideologi]] ade8g0ikq6cfavrbnxjkxq1oxe98m4w 0 323678 3351197 3161870 2026-08-05T19:33:54Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351197 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Kudo | status = Binatang [[domestikasi|domestik]] | image = Dunkelfuchsstute-Ciara16.jpg | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Perissodactyla]] | familia = [[Equidae]] | genus = ''[[Equus]]'' | species = '''''E. caballus''''' | binomial = ''Equus caballus'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 }}'''Kudo''' (''Equus caballus'' atau ''Equus ferus caballus'') adolah salah satu dari sapuluah [[spesies]] modern [[mamalia]] dari [[genus]] ''Equus''. Binatang ko alah lamo manjadi binatang piaroan nan pantiang sacaro ekonomis jo historis, dan alah mamacik paranan pantiang dalam angkutan urang jo barang salamo ribuan taun. Kudo dapek diracak jo manusia jo mamakai sadel dan dapek pulo dipakai untuak maelo barang, sarupo padati atau bajak. Pado sabagian daerah, kudo juo dijadian sabagai sumber makanan. Walaupun taranak kudo dipakirokan alah dimulai sajak taun 4500 SM, bukti-bukti panggunoan kudo untuak kaparaluan manusia baru dijumpoi tajadi sajak 2000 SM. Di Minangkabau, kudo dipakai juo untuak kagiatan olahraga sarupo pacu kudo. == Asa-usua namo == Kato "kudo" dalam bahaso Minangkabau diserap dari bahaso Sanskerta iyolah ''ghoṭa''.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of the Malayan Language|author=Marsden, William|url=http://books.google.com.my/books?id=a91GAAAAcAAJ|page=273|publisher=Cox and Baylis|year=1812|quote="كود ''kūda'', Hind. घोट (ڭهورا ''ghūra'') a horse."}}</ref> Pado mulonyo kudo-kudo di [[Nusantara]] didatangan barabaik-abaik nan lalu dek urang India ataupun dari Cino. Kudian dibaok pulo dek urang Arab kiro-kiro taun 1375.<ref name="Malaysia">[[Equidae|"The Horses in Malaysia." Article on the history of all horse breeds in the region]]. Accessed December 8, 2007</ref> == Sijarah == [[Berkas:Bhimbetka_rock_paintng1.jpg|ka|jmpl|Lukisan batu [[Perteduhan batu Bhimbetka|Bhimbetka]] tantang manusia manunggang kudo, India]] Panjinakan kudo kamungkinan partamo kali dilakukan sabalun 3500 SM di Asia Tangah. Duo sumber informasi untuak manantuan dari ma kudo dijinakan inggo taseba laweh di dunia iyolah tamuan paleantologi jo arkeologi, sarato DNA. DNA kudo dapek dipakai untuak pabandiangan antaro kudo-kudo nan ado kini juo tulang gigi kudo-kudo purba. Bukti awal panjinakan kudo ado dari tapak-tapak di Ukarina jo Kazakhstan nan kiro-kiro dari 3500-4000 SM.<ref>Outram, A.K., Stear, N.A., Bendrey, R., Olsen, S., Kasparov, A., Zaibert, V., Thorpe, N. dan Evershed, R.P. 2009 The Earliest Horse Harnessing and Milking Science. 323(5919): 1332–1335</ref><ref>Matossian ''Shaping World History'' m/s 43 Lihat juga: {{cite news|title=Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction|url=http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/episode/2009/03/07/horsey-aeology-binary-black-holes-tracking-red-tides-fish-re-evolution-walk-like-a-man-fact-or-ficti/|work=Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald|publisher=CBC Radio|date=2009-03-07|accessdate=2010-09-18}}</ref> Manjalang 3000 SM, kudo samakin dieksplorasi dan pado sakitar 2000 SM ado paningkekan mandadak jumlah tulang kudo an ditamui di situs paninggalan manusia kuno di Eropa barat lauik, nan manandoi tasebanyo kudo jinak ka saluruah banua.<ref>Evans ''Horse Breeding and Management'' m/s 56</ref> Bukti nan tabaru dan paliang indak tabantahan tantang panjinakan datangnyo dari tapak-tapak kudo di ma bangkai kudo dikubua basamo kareta pado pandam-pandam pakuburan kabudayaan Sintashta jo Petrovka pado kiro-kiro 2100 SM.<ref name="Kuznetsov2006">{{cite journal|last=Kuznetsov|first=P. F.|year=2006|title=The emergence of Bronze Age chariots in eastern Europe|journal=[[Antiquity (journal)|Antiquity]]|volume=80|pages=638–645|url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/080/ant0800638.htm|access-date=2019-07-03|archive-date=2012-07-07|archive-url=https://archive.is/20120707005717/http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/080/ant0800638.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sijarah panjinakan kudo turuik dikaji malalui bahan-bahan genetik dari kudo-kudo zaman kini untuak dibandiangan jo bahan-bahan genetik co tulang-tulang gigi pado kudo-kudo sisuak nan ado di situs tapak-tapak kudo tadi tasobok. Ragam pado bahan-bahan genetik manunjuakan baso saketek kudo jantan lia nan dijinakan,<ref name="Lindgren2004">{{cite journal|last=Lindgren|first=Gabriella|coauthors=Niclas Backström, June Swinburne, Linda Hellborg, Annika Einarsson, Kaj Sandberg, Gus Cothran, Carles Vilà, Matthew Binns & Hans Ellegren|year=2004|title=Limited number of patrilines in horse domestication|journal=[[Nature Genetics]]|pmid=15034578|volume=36|issue=4|pages=335–336|doi=10.1038/ng1326}}</ref><ref name="Lau">{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/molbev/msn239|author=Lau, A. N., Peng, L., Goto, H., Chemnick, L., Ryder, O. A. & Makova, K. D.|year=2009|title=Horse Domestication and Conservation Genetics of Przewalski's Horse Inferred from Sex Chromosomal and Autosomal Sequences|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2009-01_26_1/page/199|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=26|issue=1|pages=199–208|pmid=18931383}}</ref> sadang ado banyak kudo batino dalam kawanan kudo-kudo jinak sisuak.<ref name="Lira">{{cite journal|title=Ancient DNA reveals traces of Iberian Neolithic and Bronze Age lineages in modern Iberian horses|author=Lira, Jaime, et al.|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=19|issue=1|pages=64–78|year=2010|pmid=19943892|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/123191525/PDFSTART|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04430.x|access-date=2019-07-03|archive-date=2013-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325051729/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04430.x/pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="Vila2001">{{cite journal|last=Vilà|first=C.|year=2001|title=Widespread origins of domestic horse lineages|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2001-01-19_291_5503/page/n97|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=291|issue=5503|pages=474–477|doi=10.1126/science.291.5503.474|pmid=11161199|display-authors=1|last2=Leonard|first2=JA|last3=Gotherstrom|first3=A|last4=Marklund|first4=S|last5=Sandberg|first5=K|last6=Liden|first6=K|last7=Wayne|first7=RK|last8=Ellegren|first8=H}}</ref><ref name="Cai">{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2008.11.006|last1=Cai|first1=D. W.|last2=Tang|first2=Z. W.|last3=Han|first3=L.|last4=Speller|first4=C. F.|last5=Yang|first5=D. Y. Y.|last6=Ma|first6=X. L.|last7=Cao|first7=J. E.|last8=Zhu|first8=H.|last9=Zhou|first9=H. ''et al.''|year=2009|title=Ancient DNA provides new insights into the origin of the Chinese domestic horse|url=http://www.sfu.ca/~donyang/adnaweb/Cai%20DW%20JAS2009.pdf|accessdate=17 Januari 2011|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=36|issue=3|pages=835–842|display-authors=9}}</ref> Salain itu dalam panjinakan kudo ko ado paningkekan dalam ragam warono bulu kudo.<ref>Epstein, H. 1955 Domestication Features in Animals as Functions of Human Society Agricultural History Society. 29(4): 137–146</ref> Jumlah ragam warono kudo ko maningkek sacaro mandadak dari 5000 ka 3000 SM.<ref name="coatColor">{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1172750|last1=Ludwig|first1=A.|last2=Pruvost|first2=M.|last3=Reissmann|first3=M.|last4=Benecke|first4=N.|last5=Brockmann|first5=G.A.|last6=Castanos|first6=P.|last7=Cieslak|first7=M.|last8=Lippold|first8=S.|last9=Llorente|first9=L. ''et al.''|year=2009|title=Coat Color Variation at the Beginning of Horse Domestication|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2009-04-24_324_5926/page/485|journal=Science|volume=324|issue=5926|pages=485–485|pmid=19390039|display-authors=9}}</ref> === Kudo lapeh lia === Kudo lapeh lia lahia jo tingga di habitat lia, tapi sabananyo barasa dari kudo jinak. Ado banyak tempek kudo nan dilapehliaran di saluruah dunia, Kajian-kajian ka kawanan kudo ko alah maagiah panjalehan nan baguno pado parilalku kudo-kudo purba, di sampuang manambahan pamahaman tantang naluri jo kalakuan nan mandorong kudo-kudo nan iduik dalam kadoaan sagalo jinak. === Ado juo === [[:ms:Haiwan jalang|Kuda jalang]] lahia dan tinggal di habitat liar, tetapi barasa daripado kuda bela jinak.<ref name="Olsen46">Olsen "Horse Hunters of the Ice Age" ''Horses Through Time'' m/s 46</ref> Terdapat banyak penempatan kuda jalang di saluruah dunia.<ref>Edwards ''The Encyclopedia of the Horse'' m/s 291</ref><ref>Anthony "Bridling Horse Power: The Domestication of the Horse" ''Horses Through Time'' m/s 66–67</ref> Kajian-kajian ka ateh kawanan jalang alah mambari pengertian nan berguna tahadok perilaku kuda purba,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carnegiemnh.org/anthro/olsen_horse.html|title=Horses in Prehistory|work=Anthropology Research|publisher=Carnegie Museum of Natural History|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080525183100/http://www.carnegiemnh.org/anthro/olsen_horse.html|archivedate=2008-05-25|accessdate=2008-08-16|author=Olsen, Sandra L.|dead-url=yes}}</ref> di samping menambahkan kefahaman tahadok naluri dan kelakuan nan mandorong kuda-kuda nan hiduik dalam keadaan serba jinak.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=15037&src=RA|title=Mares' Social Bonds Might Enhance Reproductive Success|date=October 7, 2009|accessdate=2009-10-21|journal=The Horse|format=Registration required|author=Lesté-Lasserre, Christa}}</ref> Ado juo kudo-kudo saparuah lia di dunia, misalnyo dari jinih Dartmoor jo New Forest di Inggirih, di ma kudo-kudo dipunyoi dek pihak swasta tapi banyak maabihan maso iduiknyo dalam kondisi lia di tampek-tampek umum nan indak dibangun. Pamiliak binatang-binatang ko lazim baiyua untuak hak marawaiknyo.<ref name="Fear75">Fear ''New Forest Drift'' m/s 75</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dartmoorcommonerscouncil.org.uk/menu_page.php?id=53|title=Animals on the Moor|publisher=Dartmoor Commoners' Council|accessdate=2012-03-29}}</ref> <br /> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Pautan lua == {{commonscat|Horses}} [[Kategori:Binatang taranak]] [[Kategori:Mamalia]] [[Kategori:Binatang]] 3myxnar4extzc784ii8tyykouclh5nv 0 323687 3351215 3145088 2026-08-05T20:08:54Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351215 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:JuengeresMathildenkreuz.jpg|jmpl|Salib Matilda]] '''Abaik Patangahan''' dalam sijarah Eropa tajadi sangkek abaik ke-5 sampai abaik ka-15 Masehi. Abaik Patangahan bamulo sajak runtuahnya Kakaisaran Romawi Barat inggo balanjuik sampai Eropa mulai memasuki Abaik Pembaharuan jo Abad Penjelajahan. Sijarah Dunia Barat sacaro tradisional dibagi ka dalam tigo kurun ukatu, yakni Abaik Kuno, Abaik Patangahan, jo Zaman Modern. Jo kato lain, Abaik Patangahan adolah kurun ukatu paraliahan dari Abaik Kuno ka Zaman Modern. Abaik Patangahan masih dibagi lai manjadi tigo kurun ukatu, yakni Awal Abaik Patangahan, Puncak Abaik Patangahan, jo Akhia Abaik Patangahan. Penurunan jumlah panduduak, kontraurbanisasi, invasi, jo perpindahan suku-suku bangso, nan tajadi sajak Akhia Abaik Kuno, masih balanjuik pado Awal Abaik Patangahan. Perpindahan-perpindahan panduduak berskala gadang pado Zaman Migrasi mancakuik pulo perpindahan suku-suku bangso Jermanik nan managakkan karajaan-karajaan baru di bakeh wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi Barat. Pado abaik ka-7, Afrika Utara jo Timur Tengah—bakeh wilayah Kekaisaran Bizantin—dikuasai dek Khilafah Bani Umayyah, sabuah kekaisaran Islam, sasudah ditaklukkan dek paro pangganti Muhammad. Walaupun pado Awal Abaik Patengahan alah tajadi parubahan-parubahan mendasar pado tatanan kemasyarakatan jo politik, pangaruah Abad Kuno alun hilang bana lai do. Kekaisaran Bizantin nan masih cukuik gadang tatok ado di kawasan timur Eropa. Kitab undang-undang Kekaisaran Bizantin, ''Corpus Iuris Civilis'' atau "Kitab Undang-Undang Yustinianus", ado basuo di Italia Utara pado 1070, nan isuaknyo maundang decak kagum dari babagai kalangan sapanjang Abaik Patengahan. Sabagian gadang dari kerajaan-kerajaan nan tagak di kawasan barat Eropa malimbagoan segelintir pranata Romawi nan tatingga. Biaro-biaro ditagakan sairiang gencarnya usaho mengkristenkan kaum penganut kaparcayoan niniak muyang di Eropa. Urang Franka di bawah pimpinan rajo-rajo wangsa Karoling, managakkan Kekaisaran Karoling pado pangujuang abaik ke-8 jo permulaan abaik ke-9. Walaupun berjaya manguasai sabagian gadang tanah Eropa Barat, Kekaisaran Karoling pado akhianya tapuruak dek parang-parang saudaro di dalam nagari jo invasi-invasi dari lua nagari, yakni sarangan urang Viking dari arah utara, sarangan urang Magyar dari arah timur, jo sarangan urang Sarasen dari arah selatan. Pado Puncak Abaik Patangahan, nan bamulo sasudah taun 1000 Masehi, populasi Eropa maningkek pesat dek munculnyo inovasi-inovasi di bidang teknologi jo pertanian nan mamungkinkan bakembangnyo paniagaan. Lonjakan populasi Eropa disebabkan pulo dek parubahan iklim salamo periode Suhu Hangat Abaik Patangahan nan mamungkinkan paningkatan hasil panen. Ado duo tatanan kemasyarakatan nan diterapkan pado Puncak Abaik Patangahan, yakni Manorialisme jo Feodalisme. Manorialisme adaloh panertiban rakyaik jelata manjadi pamukim di desa-desa, jo kewajiban mambayia sewa lahan jo bakarajo bakti bagi kaum ningrat; samantaro feodalisme adolah struktur politik nan mawajibkan paro kesatria jo kaum ningrat kelas bawah untuak maju baparang mambela junjuangan mereka sabagai ganti anugerah hak sewa kabakeh lahan jo tanah pertuanan (bahasa Inggirih: manor). [[Parang Salib]], nan mulo-mulo diseruan pado 1095, adolah upaya militer umaik Kristen Eropa Barat untuak maraok baliak kakuasaan kabakeh Tanah Suci dari [[Muslim|umat Islam]]. Rajo-rajo manjadi kapalo dari nagaro-nagaro bangso nan tersentralisasi. Sistem kapemimpinan samacam iko mangurangi angko kejahatan jo kekerasan, namun mambuek cita-cita untuak manciptakan suatu Dunia Kristen nan basatu samakin sukar diwujudkan. Kahidupan intelektual ditandoi dek skolastisisme, filsafaik nan mangutamoan keselarasan antaro iman jo aka budi, jo ditandoi pulo dek pandirian universitas-universitas. Teologi [[Thomas Aquinas]], lukisan-lukisan Giotto, puisi-puisi [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] jo [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]], perjalanan-perjalanan [[Marco Polo]], jo katedral-katedral balanggam Gothik semisal Katedral Chartres, adolah segelintir dari capaian-capaian manakjubkan pado pangujuang kurun ukatu Puncak Abaik Pertengahan jo permulaan kurun ukatu Akhir Abaik Patangahan. Akhia Abaik Patangahan ditandoi dek babagai musibah jo malapetaka diantaronyo bancano kalaparan, wabah panyakiik, jo parang, nan sacaro signifikan mambuek suruik jumlah panduduak Eropa; antaro 1347 sampai 1350, wabah Maut Hitam mambunuah sekitar sapertigo dari panduduak Eropa. Kontroversi, bidah, jo Skisma Barat nan menimpa [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja Katolik]], tajadi bersamaan jo konflik antarnegara, pertikaian dalam masyarakat, jo pambarontakan-pambarontakan rakyaik jelata nan melanda kerajaan-kerajaan di Eropa. Parkembangan budayo jo teknologi mantransformasi masyarakaik Eropa, mangakhiri kurun ukatu Akha Abaik Patengahan, jo mangawali kurun ukatu Awal Zaman Modern. == Rujukan == {{refbegin|60em}} * {{cite book |author=Adams, Laurie Schneider |title=A History of Western Art |publisher=McGraw Hill |location=Boston, Massachusetts |year=2001 |isbn=0-07-231717-5 |edition=ke-3}} * {{cite book |author=Albrow, Martin |title=The Global Age: State and Society Beyond Modernity |year=1997 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |isbn=0-8047-2870-4}} * {{cite book |author=Backman, Clifford R. |title=The Worlds of Medieval Europe |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-512169-8}} * {{cite book |author=Barber, Malcolm |authorlink=Malcolm Barber |title=The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=1992 |isbn=0-415-09682-0}} * {{cite book |author=Barber, Richard |title=Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine: A Biography of the Black Prince |authorlink=Richard Barber |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |year=1978 |isbn=0-684-15864-7}} * {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |title=The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042–1216 |authorlink=Frank Barlow (historian) |edition=Ke-4 |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1988 |isbn=0-582-49504-0}} * {{cite book |author=Bauer, Susan Wise |authorlink=Susan Wise Bauer |title=The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade |publisher=W. W. Norton |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-05975-5 |year=2010}} * {{cite book |author=Benton, Janetta Rebold |authorlink=Janetta Rebold Benton |title=Art of the Middle Ages |year=2002 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |series=World of Art |location=London |isbn=0-500-20350-4}} * {{cite web |author=British Library Staff |publisher=[[British Library]] |url=http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html |title=Incunabula Short Title Catalogue |date=8 Januari 2008 |accessdate=8 April 2012 |archive-date=12 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite book |author=Brown, Peter |authorlink=Peter Brown (historian) |title=The World of Late Antiquity AD 150–750 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |isbn=0-393-95803-5 |series=Library of World Civilization}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Brown, Thomas |title=The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean, 400–900 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=1–62}} * {{cite book |author=Bruni, Leonardo |authorlink=Leonardo Bruni |editor=Hankins, James |title=History of the Florentine People |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |volume=1 |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-674-00506-8}} * {{cite book |author=Colish, Marcia L. |title=Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition 400–1400 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=1997 |isbn=0-300-07852-8}} * {{cite book |author=Collins, Roger |authorlink=Roger Collins |title=Early Medieval Europe: 300–1000 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-312-21886-9 |edition=ke-2}} * {{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Medieval Terms & Phrases |last=Coredon |first=Christopher |year=2007 |edition=Cetak ulang |publisher=D. S. Brewer |location=Woodbridge, Britania Raya |isbn=978-1-84384-138-8}} * {{cite book |author=Cosman, Madeleine Pelner |title=Medieval Wordbook: More the 4,000 Terms and Expressions from Medieval Culture |year=2007 |publisher=Barnes & Noble |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7607-8725-0}} * {{cite book |author=Crampton, R. J. |title= A Concise History of Bulgaria |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 | isbn= 0-521-61637-9| location=Cambridge, Britania Raya }} * {{cite book |author=Cunliffe, Barry |authorlink=Barry Cunliffe |title=Europe Between the Oceans: Themes and Variations 9000 BC-AD 1000 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-300-11923-7}} * {{cite book |author=Curta, Florin |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages 500–1250 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, Britania Raya |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |year=2006 |isbn=0-521-89452-2}} * {{cite book |author=Davies, Norman |authorlink=Norman Davies |title=Europe: A History |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1996 |isbn=0-19-520912-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Denley, Peter |title=The Mediterranean in the Age of the Renaissance, 1200–1500 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=235–296}} * {{cite book |author=Dodwell, C. R. |title=The Pictorial Arts of the West: 800–1200 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |series=Pellican History of Art |year=1993 |isbn=0-300-06493-4}} * {{cite book |author=Eastwood, Bruce |title=Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance |publisher=Brill |location=Boston, Massachusetts |series=History of Science and Medicine Library |isbn=978-90-04-16186-3 |year=2007}} * {{cite book |author=Epstein, Steven A. |title=An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000–1500 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, Britania Raya |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-70653-7}} * {{cite book |editor=Flexner, Stuart Berg |editor-link=Stuart Berg Flexner |title=The Random House Dictionary of the English Language: Unabridged |edition=Ke-2 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0-394-50050-4}} * {{cite book |author=Gainty, Denis |author2=Ward, Walter D. |title=Sources of World Societies: Volume 2: Since 1500 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's |year=2009 |isbn=0-312-68858-X}} * {{cite book |author=Geary, Patrick J. |authorlink=Patrick J. Geary |title=Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1988 |isbn=0-19-504458-4}} * {{cite book |author1=Gies, Joseph |author2=Gies, Frances |title=Life in a Medieval City |publisher=Thomas Y. Crowell |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=0-8152-0345-4}} * {{cite book |author=Grant, Edward |authorlink=Edward Grant |title=God and Reason in the Middle Ages |location=Cambridge, Britania Raya |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-80279-6}} * {{cite book |author=Grant, E. |authorlink=Edward Grant |title=Planets, Stars, & Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200–1687 |location=Cambridge, Britania Raya |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-43344-0}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Grierson, Philip |authorlink=Philip Grierson |title=Coinage and currency |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=97–98}} * {{cite book |author=Griffiths, Antony |title=Prints and Printmaking |year=1996 |publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=0-7141-2608-X |location=London}} * {{cite book |author1=Hallam, Elizabeth M. |author2=Everard, Judith |title=Capetian France 987–1328 |edition=Ke-2 |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-582-40428-2}} * {{cite book |author=Hamilton, Bernard |title=Religion in the Medieval West |publisher=Arnold |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=0-340-80839-X |edition=Ke-2 }} * {{cite book |author=Heather, Peter |authorlink=Peter Heather |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |isbn=978-0-19-532541-6}} * {{cite book |author=Henderson, George |title=Early Medieval |year=1977 |edition=Revisi |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |oclc=641757789}} * {{cite book |editor=Holmes, George |editorlink=George Holmes (historian) |title=The Oxford History of Medieval Europe |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1988 |isbn=0-19-285272-8}} * {{cite book|author=Ilardi, Vincent|title=Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes|publisher=American Philosophical Society|location=Philadelphia|year=2007|isbn=978-0-87169-259-7}} * {{cite book |author=James, Edward |authorlink=Edward James (historian) |title=Europe's Barbarians: AD 200–600 |publisher=Pearson Longman |location=Harlow, Britania Raya |isbn=978-0-582-77296-0 |year=2009 |series=The Medieval World}} * {{cite book |author=Jordan, William C. |title=Europe in the High Middle Ages |publisher=Viking |year=2003 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-03202-0 |series=Penguin History of Europe}} * {{cite book |author=Kamen, Henry |authorlink=Henry Kamen |title=Spain 1469–1714 |year=2005 |edition=Ke-3 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=New York |isbn=0-582-78464-6}} * {{cite book |author1=Kaufmann, J. E. |author2=Kaufmann, H. W. |title=The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages |publisher=De Capo Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=0-306-81358-0 |year=2001 |edition=2004}} * {{cite book |author=Keen, Maurice |title=The Pelican History of Medieval Europe |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |origyear=1968 |year=1988 |isbn=0-14-021085-7}} * {{cite book |author=Kitzinger, Ernst |authorlink=Ernst Kitzinger |title=Early Medieval Art at the British Museum |year=1955 |edition=Ke-2 |publisher=British Museum |location=London |oclc=510455}} * {{cite web|author=Knox, E. L. |url=http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml |title=History of the Idea of the Renaissance |work=Europe in the Late Middle Ages |accessdate=25 Desember 2012 |publisher=Boise State University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203005134/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml |archive-date=3 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |df= }} * {{cite book |author=Lasko, Peter |authorlink=Peter Lasko |title=Ars Sacra, 800–1200 |series=Penguin History of Art (sekarang Yale) |year=1972 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |isbn=0-14-056036-X}} * {{cite book |author=Lawrence, C.H |title=Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages |publisher=Longman |edition=Ke-3 |location=Harlow, Britania Raya |isbn=0-582-40427-4 |year=2001}} * {{cite book |author=Lightbown, Ronald W. |title=Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History |series=Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-99027-1 |year=1978}} * {{cite journal |author1=Lindberg, David C. |authorlink1=David C. Lindberg |author2=Numbers, Ronald L. |authorlink2=Ronald Numbers |title=Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_church-history_1986-09_55_3/page/338 |journal=Church History |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=338–354 |year=1986 |doi=10.2307/3166822 |jstor=3166822}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lindberg, David C. |authorlink=David C. Lindberg |title=The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor |editors=Lindberg, David C. and Numbers, Ronald L. |encyclopedia=When Science & Christianity Meet |location=Chicago, IL |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-226-48214-6}} * {{cite book |author=Lock, Peter |title=Routledge Companion to the Crusades |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=0-415-39312-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Avignon |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=45}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Eleanor of Aquitaine |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=122}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Famine |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=127–128}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Great Schism |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=153}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Hundred Years' War |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=176}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Jews |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=190–192}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Knights of the Temple (Templars) |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=201–202}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Language and dialect |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=204}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Scholasticism |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=293–294}} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Mediaeval | encyclopedia =The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary: Complete Text Arranged Micrographically: Volume I A-0 |page=M290 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Glascow |year=1971 |lccn= 72177361|oclc= 490339790 }} * {{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Middle%20Ages |title=Middle Ages |publisher=Dictionary.com |year=2004 |accessdate=7 April 2012}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Miglio, Massimo |title=Curial Humanism seen through the Prism of the Papal Library |editor=Mazzocco, Angelo |encyclopedia=Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |pages=97–112 |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-15244-1 |series=Brill's Studies in Intellectual History}} * {{cite journal |author=Mommsen, Theodore |authorlink=Theodor Mommsen |title=Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_speculum_1942-04_17_2/page/226 |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=226–242 |date=April 1942 |jstor=2856364 |doi=10.2307/2856364}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Morris, Rosemary |title=Northern Europe invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=175–234}} * {{cite journal |author=Murray, Alexander |title=Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished? |journal=Essays in Medieval Studies |volume=21 |year=2004 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1353/ems.2005.0010}} * {{cite book |author=Nees, Lawrence |title=Early Medieval Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford History of Art |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-284243-5}} * {{cite book |author=Nicolle, David |authorlink=David Nicolle |title=Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare In Western Christendom |publisher=Brockhampton Press |location=London |year=1999 |isbn=1-86019-889-9}} * {{cite web |author=Numbers, Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Numbers |url=https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf |title=Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective |work=Lecture archive |date=11 May 2006 |publisher=The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion |accessdate=25 Januari 2013 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022345/https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite book |author=Payne, Robert |authorlink=Robert Payne (author) |title=The Dream and the Tomb: A History of the Crusades |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=New York |edition=Jilid lunak perdana |year=2000 |isbn=0-8154-1086-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Peters, Ted |authorlink=Ted Peters (theologian) |title=Science and Religion |editor=Jones, Lindsay |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |edition=Ke-2 |volume=12 |publisher=MacMillan Reference |location=Detroit, Michigan |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865980-0 |page=8182}} * {{cite book |author=Power, Daniel |year=2006 |title=The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320 |series=The Short Oxford History of Europe |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |isbn=978-0-19-925312-8}} * {{cite book |author=Reilly, Bernard F. |title=The Medieval Spains |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, Britania Raya |year=1993 |isbn=0-521-39741-3 |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Riley-Smith, Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Riley-Smith |title=Crusades |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=106–107}} * {{cite book |author=Rosenwein, Barbara H. |title=Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century |location=Philadelphia, PA |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=0-8122-7830-5}} * {{cite book |author=Russell, Jeffey Burton |title=Inventing the Flat Earth-Columbus and Modern Historians |publisher=Praeger |location=Westport, CT |year=1991 |isbn=0-275-95904-X}} * {{cite book |author=Saul, Nigel |authorlink=Nigel Saul |title=A Companion to Medieval England 1066–1485 |year=2000 |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, Britania Raya |isbn=0-7524-2969-8}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Schove, D. Justin |title=Plague |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=267–269}} * {{cite book |author=Singman, Jeffrey L. |title=Daily Life in Medieval Europe |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, CT |series=Daily Life Through History |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30273-1}} * {{cite book |author=Stalley, Roger |title=Early Medieval Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford History of Art |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-284223-7}} * {{cite book |author1=Tansey, Richard G. |author2=Gardner, Helen Louise |author3=De la Croix, Horst |title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |location=San Diego, California |year=1986 |isbn=0-15-503763-3 |edition=ke-8}} * {{cite book |author=Thomson, John A. F. |title=The Western Church in the Middle Ages |publisher=Arnold |location=London |year=1998 |isbn=0-340-60118-3}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Vale, Malcolm |title=The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=297–351}} * {{cite book |author=Watts, John |title=The Making of Polities: Europe, 1300–1500 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |location=Cambridge, Britania Raya |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-79664-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Whitton, David |title=The Society of Northern Europe in the High Middle Ages, 900–1200 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, Britania Raya |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=115–174}} * {{cite book |author=Wickham, Chris |authorlink=Christopher Wickham |title=The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-14-311742-1}} {{refend}} <br/><br/><br/><br/> {{S-start}} {{Succession box|title=[[Sijarah manuruik periode]]|before=[[Zaman Klasik]]|after=[[Renaisans]]|years=5 Masehi – 1500 Masehi}} {{s-end}} 9dxgruw7ieor8sivckjgh3kxgl76n7i 0 324013 3351219 2907697 2026-08-05T20:12:59Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351219 wikitext text/x-wiki {{disambig info|Virus}} {{Taxobox |color = rgb(250,250,190) |name = Virus |image = Rotavirus Reconstruction.jpg |image_caption = [[:en:Rotavirus|Rotavirus]] |virus_group = I–VII |subdivision_ranks = Grup |subdivision =I: [[Virus DNA#Group I|Virus dsDNA]]<br /> II: [[Virus DNA#Grup II|Virus ssDNA]]<br /> III: [[:en:Double-stranded RNA viruses|Virus dsRNA]]<br /> IV: [[:en:Positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus|Virus (+)ssRNA]]<br /> V: [[:en:Negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus|Virus (−)ssRNA]]<br /> VI: [[Retrovirus|Virus ssRNA-RT]]<br /> VII: [[:en:dsDNA-RT virus|Virus dsDNA-RT]] }} '''Virus''' adolah [[parasit]] mikroskopik nan [[panyakik infeksi|mainfeksi]] [[sel (biologi)|sel]] organisme biologis. Virus basipaik [[parasit obligat]], hal ko ditajadi dek virus hanyo dapek [[reproduksi|bareproduksi]] di dalam material iduik jo caro mainvasi jo mamanfaatan sel mukaluak iduik dek virus indak mampunyoi kalangkokan seluler untuak bareproduksi surang. Biasonyo virus manganduang sajumlah kaciak [[asam nukleat]] ([[DNA]] atau [[RNA]], tapi indak kombinasi kaduonyo) nan tasalubuang samacam bahan palinduang nan tadiri ateh [[protein]], [[lipid]], [[glikoprotein]], atau kombinasi katigonyo. [[Genom]] virus ka diekspresikan manjadi baiak protein nan dipakai untuak mamuek bahan genetik maupun protein nan paralu dalam daur iduiknyo. Istilah ''virus'' biasonyo marujuak pado partikel-partikel nan mainfeksi sel-sel [[eukariota]] (organisme multisel dan banyak jinih organisme sel tungga), samantaro istilah ''bakteriofag'' atau ''[[fag]]'' dipakai untuak jinih nan manyarang jinih-jinih sel [[prokariota]] ([[bakteri]] jo organisme lain nan indak bar[[inti sel]]). Virus acok dipadebatkan statusnyo sabagai mukaluak iduik dek inyo indak dapek manjalanan fungsi biologisnyo sacaro lapeh kok indak di dalam sel induak. Dek karakteristik khasnyo ko virus taruih takaik jo panyakik tatantu, baiak pado manusia (misanyo virus [[influenza]] jo [[HIV]]), binatang (misanyo virus [[flu buruang]]), atau tanaman (misanyo [[virus mosaik timbakau]]/TMV). == Asal-usul == Virus salalu badampiangan jo organisme nan mungkin alah ado sajak sel iduik partamo kali baevolusi. Virus indak maningakan fosil sahinggo asa muasa virus ko hanyo bisa dihipotesiskan jo caro-caro takah teknik-teknik biologi molekuler.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sanjuán|first=Rafael|last2=Nebot|first2=Miguel R.|last3=Chirico|first3=Nicola|last4=Mansky|first4=Louis M.|last5=Belshaw|first5=Robert|date=2010-10-01|title=Viral Mutation Rates|url=https://jvi.asm.org/content/84/19/9733|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=84|issue=19|pages=9733–9748|doi=10.1128/JVI.00694-10|issn=0022-538X|pmc=PMC2937809|pmid=20660197|access-date=2021-02-25|archive-date=2021-02-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225060627/https://jvi.asm.org/content/84/19/9733|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Salain itu, materi genetik virus kadang-kadang baintegrasi ka dalam garih baniah organisme inangnyo sahinggo inyo indak bisa diturunkan sacaro vertikal ka katurunan inang salamo babarapo generasi. Hal iko maagiah sumber informasi nan indak tanilai ka urang nan ahli paleovirologi untuak malacak baliak virus kuno nan alah ado hinggo jutaan taun nan lalu. Ado tigo hipotesis utamo tantang asal-usul virus : regresi, kalua dari sel jo koevolusi:<ref name="NRM_Krupovic2019">{{cite journal|date=2019|title=Origin of viruses: primordial replicators recruiting capsids from hosts.|journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology|volume=17|issue=7|pages=449–58|doi=10.1038/s41579-019-0205-6|pmid=31142823|vauthors=Krupovic M, Dooja W, Koonin EV}}</ref>{{sfn|Collier dkk.|1998|p=11–21}} ;Hipotesis regresi:Virus bisa jadi dulunyo adolah sel-sel ketek nan manjadi parasit dalam sel nan labiah gadang. Kamudian, parasit-parasit iko kahilangan gen-gen nan indak dipagunoan sasudah iduik sabagai parasit. Sahinggo sel-sel itu mangalami regresi/manjadi virus. Teori iko didukuang dek adonyo bakteri takah ''[[Rickettsia]]'' jo ''[[Chlamydia (bakteri)|Chlamydia]]'' nan hanyo bisa bareproduksi di dalam sel inang (takah virus). Manuruik hipotesis iko, jikok sel-sel ketek takah iko bisa taruih mangandalkan parasitisme untuak tatap iduik, gen-gen lain nan hanyo diparaluan untuak iduik mandiri (iduik di lua sel inang) dapek ilang. Hipotesis iko disabuik lo hipotesis degenerasi,{{sfn|Dimmock dkk.|2007|p=16}}{{sfn|Collier dkk.|1998|p=11}} atau 'hipotesis reduksi'.{{sfn|Mahy|Van Regenmortel|2010|p=24}} ; Hipotesis kaluaa dari sel:Virus mungkin baevolusi dari potongan DNA atau RNA nan kalua dari gen organisme nan labiah gadang. DNA nan kalua ko bisa barasa dari plasmid (potongan-potongan DNA nan bisa bapindah dari ciek sel ka sel lainnyo) atau transposon (molekul DNA nan bareplikasi jo bapindah ka babagai posisi dalam gen sel).{{sfn|Shors|2007|p=810}} Transposons parnah disabuikk sabagai "gen palompek" jo marupoan contoh unsur genetik nan bisa bapindah sacaro mudah jo bisa jadi marupoan asa muasa babarapo virus. Mereka ditamuan di jaguang dek [[Barbara McClintock]] pado taun 1950.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McClintock|first=B.|date=1 Juni 1950|title=The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize|url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.36.6.344|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=36|issue=6|pages=344–355|doi=10.1073/pnas.36.6.344|issn=0027-8424|pmc=PMC1063197|pmid=15430309}}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Hipotesis ko kadang-kadang disabuik 'hipotesis gelandangan',{{sfn|Dimmock dkk.|2007|p=16}}{{sfn|Collier dkk.|1998|p=11–12}} atau 'hipotesis malarian diri'.{{sfn|Mahy|Van Regenmortel|2010|p=24}} ; Hipotesis koevolusi: Hipotesis ko disabuik lo jo 'hipotesis virus-partamo'{{sfn|Mahy|Van Regenmortel|2010|p=24}} nan mangusuakan basonyo virus mungkin alah baevolusi dari molekul kompleks barupo protein jo asam nukleat pado maso nan samo katiko sel partamo kali muncua di bumi nan ka bagantuang ka kahidupan seluler salamo milyaran taun. Viroid marupoan molekul RNA nan indak bisa diklasifikasikan sabagai virus karano indak punyo mantel protein. Mereka indak mampunyoi karakteristik nan samo jo kabanyakan virus jo acok disabuik jo agen subviral.{{sfn|Dimmock dkk.|2007|p=55}} :Viroid marupoan patogen tumbuahan nan pantiang.{{sfn|Shors|2007|p=791}} Mereka indak manyadi protein tapi bainteraksi jo sel inang sarao manggunoan parangkek nan punyo inang jo bereplikasi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tsagris|first=Efthimia Mina|last2=Martínez de Alba|first2=Ángel Emilio|last3=Gozmanova|first3=Mariyana|last4=Kalantidis|first4=Kriton|date=November 2008|title=Viroids|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01231.x|journal=Cellular Microbiology|volume=10|issue=11|pages=2168–2179|doi=10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01231.x}}</ref> Virus hepatitis dekta pado manusia punyo genom RNA nan mirip jo viroid tapi mereka punyo lapisan protein nan barasa dari virus hepatitis B jo indak dapek mahasiakan surang. Dek karano itu, virus ko cacat. Maskipun genom virus hepatitis delta bisa bareplikasi sacaro independen sasudah baradi di sel inang, inyo mambutuahkan bantuan virus hepatitis B untuak manyadiokan mantel protein sahinggo inyo bisa ditulakan ka sel baru.{{sfn|Shors|2007|p=460}} Jo caro nan samo, [[Virofag Sputnik]] bagantuang pado ''[[Mimivirus]]'', nan manginfeksi protozoa ''[[Acanthamoeba castellanii]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=La Scola|first=Bernard|last2=Desnues|first2=Christelle|last3=Pagnier|first3=Isabelle|last4=Robert|first4=Catherine|last5=Barrassi|first5=Lina|last6=Fournous|first6=Ghislain|last7=Merchat|first7=Michèle|last8=Suzan-Monti|first8=Marie|last9=Forterre|first9=Patrick|date=September 2008|title=The virophage as a unique parasite of the giant mimivirus|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/nature07218|journal=Nature|volume=455|issue=7209|pages=100–104|doi=10.1038/nature07218|issn=0028-0836}}</ref> Jenis virus ko, nan bagantuang kapado adonyo spesies virus lain di dalam sel inang, disabuik satelit jo mungkin marupoan contoh parantaro evolusi antaro viroid jo virus.{{sfn|Collier dkk.|1998|p=777}}{{sfn|Dimmock dkk.|2007|p=15–16}} == Etimologi == Kato ''virus'' barasa dari [[bahasa Latin|bahaso Latin]] ''vīrus'' nan bararti [[racun]] jo cairan babahayo lainnyo, nan labiah jauah barasa dari [[rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa|rumpun bahaso Indo-Eropa]] lain takah [[bahasa Sanskerta]] ''viṣa'', [[bahasa Avesta]] ''vīša'', jo [[bahasa Yunani Kuno]] ''ἰός'' nan kasadonyo bararti racun.<ref name="Etymology">{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=virus (n.)|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/virus|website=Online Etymology Dictionary|accessdate=8 April 2020}}</ref> Kato sipaik ''virulen'' dari bahaso Latin ''virulentus'' nan artinyo baracun muncua kiro-kiro tahun 1400.<ref name="Etymology2">{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=virulent (adj.)|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/virulent|website=Online Etymology Dictionary|accessdate=8 April 2020}}</ref> Makna virus sabagai "agen nan mangakibaikkan panyakik inpeksi" partamo kali digunokan pado tahun 1728,<ref name=Etymology/> jauah sabalun ditamukan virus itu dek [[Dmitri Ivanovsky]] pado taun 1892. Samantaro itu, kata sipaik viral nan bararti"dari sipaik virus atau disababkan dek virus" baru muncua pado tahun 1944.<ref name="Etymology3">{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=viral (adj.)|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/viral|website=Online Etymology Dictionary|accessdate=8 April 2020}}</ref> Istilah ''virion'' nan tacatat sajak 1959 pulo digunokan untuak marujuak pado partikel virus tungga nan kalua dari sel jo bisa mainpeksi sel lainnyo nan sajinih.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Virion|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/virion|website=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=1 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|date=2010|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/480587729|title=Desk encyclopedia of general virology|location=Oxford|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=0-12-375162-4|others=Mahy, B. W. J. (Brian W. J.), Van Regenmortel, M. H. V.|oclc=480587729}}</ref> == Mikrobiologi == === Status kahidupan === Ado pabedaan pandapaik ilmiah tantang virus nan digolongkan sabagai makhluk hiduik atau sakadar [[Senyawa organik|struktur organik]] nan bainteraksi jo makhluk iduik. Walaupun baitu, mereka labiah acok diaggap sabagai replikator (zat nan malakuan [[replikasi DNA]]) jo indak tamasuak bantuak kahidupan.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Are viruses alive? The replicator paradigm sheds decisive light on an old but misguided question |journal=Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci |volume=59 |pages=125–34 |date=7 Maret 2016 |last=Koonin |first=E.V. |last2=Starokadomskyy |first2=P. |doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2016.02.016 |pmid=26965225 |pmc=5406846}}</ref> Virus digambarkan sabagai "organisme di ujuang kahidupan",<ref name="ReferenceA"/> kareno mereka sarupo jo makhluk hiduik dalam hal kapamilikan [[gen]], bar[[evolusi]] malalui [[seleksi alam]],<ref name="pmid17914905">{{cite journal | vauthors = Holmes EC | title = Viral evolution in the genomic age | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 10 | pages = e278 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17914905 | pmc = 1994994 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050278 }}</ref> jo bareproduksi jo mambuek banyak salinan dari diri mereka surang malalui parakitan diri. Meskipun virus adp punyo gen, mereka indak punyo [[sel (biologi)|sel]], nan acok dicaliak sabagai unit dasar kahidupan. Virus indak punyo [[metabolisme]] surang jo mambutuahkan sel inang untuak mambuek produk baru. Dek karano itu, mereka indak dapek bareproduksi sacaro alami di lua sel inang.<ref name="pmid20010599">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wimmer E, Mueller S, Tumpey TM, Taubenberger JK | title = Synthetic viruses: a new opportunity to understand and prevent viral disease | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 27 | issue = 12 | pages = 1163–72 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 20010599 | pmc = 2819212 | doi = 10.1038/nbt.1593 }}</ref> Walaupun sajumlah [[bakteri]] takah ''[[Rickettsia]] jo'' ''[[Chlamydia (bakteri)|Chlamydia]]'' mampunyoi katarbatasan nan samo, mereka dianggap sabagai organisme hiduik karano mamiliki sel surang.<ref name="pmid18473699">{{cite journal | vauthors = Horn M | title = Chlamydiae as symbionts in eukaryotes | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-microbiology_2008_62/page/n128 | journal = Annual Review of Microbiology | volume = 62 | pages = 113–31 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18473699 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.micro.62.081307.162818 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19016440">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ammerman NC, Beier-Sexton M, Azad AF | title = Laboratory maintenance of Rickettsia rickettsii | journal = Current Protocols in Microbiology | volume = Chapter 3 | issue = 1 | pages = Unit 3A.5 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 19016440 | pmc = 2725428 | doi = 10.1002/9780471729259.mc03a05s11 | isbn = 978-0471729259 }}</ref> Parakitan diri virus di dalam sel inang barimplikasi pado studi [[Abiogenesis|asal mulo kahidupan]] karano mandukuang [[hipotesis]] bahasonyo kahidupan dapek dimulai dari molekul organik nan dapek marakit diri.<ref name="pmid16984643">{{cite journal | vauthors = Koonin EV, Senkevich TG, Dolja VV | title = The ancient Virus World and evolution of cells | journal = Biology Direct | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 29 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16984643 | pmc = 1594570 | doi = 10.1186/1745-6150-1-29 }}</ref> == Caliak pulo == * [[Mikrobiologi]] * [[Prion]] * [[Virologi]] == Pautan lua == * {{en}} [http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ Pustaka Online tantang virus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225081412/http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ |date=2008-02-25 }} * {{en}} [http://virology-online.com Wong's Virology] * {{en}} [http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-a-Virus.aspx Apa itu virus?] == Rujuakan == [[Kategori:Virus| ]] [[Kategori:Panyakik]] {{Medis-stub}} 47ic7dylnq90ujm943syaxghv40eg75 0 324014 3351309 3184291 2026-08-05T23:03:46Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = {{Taxobox/colour|[[Bacteria]]}} | fossil_range = {{Long fossil range|4200|0|[[Arkean]] atau sabalunnyo&nbsp;– Kini}} | name = Bakteri | image = E. coli Bacteria (7316101966).jpg | image_width = 210px | image_caption = ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', salah satu bakteri babantuak batang | domain = '''Bacteria''' | domain_authority = Woese et al., 1990<ref name="Woese">{{cite journal | author = Woese CR, Kandler O, Wheelis ML | title = Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 87 | issue = 12 | pages = 4576–9 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2112744 | pmc = 54159 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 | bibcode = 1990PNAS...87.4576W }}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = [[Filum|Fila]]/[[Divisio]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=2&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock|title=Bacteria (eubacteria)|accessdate=2008-09-10|work=Taxonomy Browser|publisher=NCBI|date=}}</ref> | subdivision = *'''[[Gram positif]]<!-- /no [[Bacterial outer membrane|outer membrane]]''' --> [[Actinobacteria]]{{br}} [[Firmicutae]]{{br}} [[Tenericutae]] (tanpa [[Dindiang sel|dindiang]]){{br}} *'''[[Gram negatif]]<!-- /[[Bacterial outer membrane|outer membrane]] present''' --> [[Aquificae]]{{br}} [[Bacteroidetae]]/[[Chlorobia]]{{br}} [[Chlamydiae]]/[[Verrucomicrobia]]{{br}} [[Deinococcus-Thermus]]{{br}} [[Fusobacteria]]{{br}} [[Gemmatimonadetae]]{{br}} [[Nitrospirae]]{{br}} [[Proteobacteria]]{{br}} [[Spirochaetae]]{{br}} [[Synergistae]]{{br}} *'''Indak dikataui''' [[Acidobacteria]]{{br}} [[Chloroflexiae]]{{br}} [[Chrysiogenetae]]{{br}} [[Cyanobacteria]]{{br}} [[Deferribacterae]]{{br}} [[Dictyoglomi]]{{br}} [[Fibrobacteria]]{{br}} [[Planctomycota]]{{br}} [[Thermodesulfobacteria]]{{br}} [[Thermotogae]] | synonyms = Eubacteria <small>Woese & Fox, 1977</small><ref name=Woese1977>{{cite journal | author = Woese CR, Fox GE | title = Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 74 | issue = 11 | pages = 5088–90 | year = 1977 | pmid = 270744 | pmc = 432104 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088 | bibcode = 1977PNAS...74.5088W }}</ref> }} '''Bakteri''' (dari kato [[Bahaso Latin|Latin]] ''bacterium''; jamak: ''bacteria'') adolah kalompok [[organisme]] nan indak mampunyoi membran inti sel.<ref name="brock40">{{cite book|author=Madigan MT|coauthors=Martinko JM, Dunlap PV, Clark DP|year=2009|title= Brock Biology of Microorganisms Twelfth Edition|publisher= Pearson Benjammin Cummings}}</ref> Organisme ko tamasuak ka dalam domain [[prokariota]] jo baukuran ketek sangaik (mikroskopik), sarato mampunyoi paran gadang dalam kahidupan di [[bumi]].<ref name="brock40"/> Babarapo kalompok bakteri tanamo sabagai agen panyabab [[infeksi]] jo [[panyakik]], samantaro kalompok lainnyo dapek maagiah manpaaik dibidang [[pangan]], [[ubek]], jo [[industri]].<ref name="Berg JM, Tymoczko JL Stryer L 2002">{{cite book|author=Berg JM, Tymoczko JL Stryer L|title=Molecular Cell Biology|edition=5th|publisher=WH Freeman|year=2002|isbn=0-7167-4955-6}}</ref> Struktur sel bakteri relatif sederhana: tanpa [[nukleus]]/inti sel, karangko sel, jo [[organel]]-organel lain sarupo [[mitokondria]] dan [[kloroplas]].<ref name="Berg JM, Tymoczko JL Stryer L 2002"/> Hal ikolah nan manjadi pambeda antaro [[sel]] [[prokariot]] jo sel [[eukariot]] nan labiah kompleks.<ref name="Todar">Todar K. 2008. ''Online Textbook of Bacteriology''. http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/index.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729025648/http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/index.html |date=2023-07-29 }} [diakses pada 21 Juni 2011].</ref> Bakteri dapek ditamukan di ampia sado tampek: di [[tanah]], [[aia]], [[udaro]], dalam [[simbiosis]] jo organisme lain ataupun sabagai agen [[parasit]] ([[patogen]]), bahkan dalam tubuah manusia.<ref name=hab1>Anesti V, McDonald IR, Ramaswamy M, Wade WG, Kelly DP, Wood AP. 2005. Isolation and molecular detection of methylotrophic bacteria occurring in the human mouth. Environ Microbiol 7(8):1227-38.</ref><ref name=hab2>Gallego V, Garcia MT, Ventosa A. 2005.Methylobacteriumvariabile sp. nov., a methylotrophic bacterium isolated froman aquatic environment. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 55:1429-33.</ref><ref name=hab3>Pasamba EM, Demigillo RM, Lee AC. 2007. Antibiograms of pink pigmented facultative methylotrophic bacterial isolates fromvarious sources. Philipp Scient 44:47-56.</ref><ref name=hab4>Sorokin DY, Trotsenko YA, Doronina NV, Tourova TP, Galinski EA, Kolganova TV, Muyzer G. 2005. Methylohalomonas lacus gen. nov., sp. nov.and Methylonatrum kenyense gen. nov., sp. nov., methylotrophic gamma proteobacteria fromhypersaline lakes. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 57: 2762–69.</ref> Pado umumnyo, bakteri baukuran 0,5-5 μm, tapi ado bakteri tatantu nan dapek mancapai diameter 700 μm, iyolah ''[[Thiomargarita]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gray ND dan Head IM|year=2005|title= Microorganisms and Earth Systems; Advances in Geomicrobiology|publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 42|isbn=0-521-86222-1}}</ref> Umumnyo mampunyoi [[dindiang sel]], sarupo sel [[tumbuahan]] jo [[cindawan]], tapi jo bahan pambantuak nan amaik babeda ([[peptidoglikan]]).<ref name=Koch>{{cite journal |author=Koch A |title=Bacterial wall as target for attack: past, present, and future research|journal=Clin Microbiol Rev |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=673–87 |year=2003|pmid = 14557293 |doi=10.1128/CMR.16.4.673-687.2003 |pmc=207114}}</ref> Babarapo jinih bakteri basipaik motil (talok manggarik) jo mobilitasnyo ko dek adonyo [[flagel]].<ref name="pmid12624192">{{cite journal|author=Bardy SL, Ng SY, Jarrell KF|title=Prokaryotic motility structures|journal=Microbiology (Reading, Engl.)|volume=149|issue=Pt 2|pages=295–304|year=2003|month=February|pmid=12624192|doi=10.1099/mic.0.25948-0|url=https://archive.org/details/microbiology-gb_2003-02_149_2/page/295}}</ref> == Bakteri Gram positif jo negatif == Dalam maagiah antibiotik musti dikataui jinih bakterinyo apokoh Gram positif atau negatif. Di bawah ko adolah daftar bakteri tasabuik: === Positif === * ''Actinomyces'' * ''Bacillus'' * ''Clostridium'' * ''Corynebacterium'' * ''Enterococcus'' * ''Gardnerella'' * ''Lactobacillus'' * ''Listeria'' * ''Mycobacterium'' * ''Mycoplasma'' * ''Nocardia'' * ''Propionibacterium'' * ''Staphylococcus'' * ''Streptococcus'' * ''Streptomyces'' === Negatif === * ''Acetobacter'' * ''Borrelia'' * ''Bortadella'' * ''Burkholderia'' * ''Campylobacter'' * ''Chlamydia'' * ''Enterobacter'' * ''Escherichia'' * ''Fusobacterium'' * ''Helicobacter'' * ''Hemophilus'' * ''Klebsiella'' * ''Legionella'' * ''Leptospiria'' * ''Neisseria'' * ''Nitrobacter'' * ''Proteus'' * ''Pseudomonas'' * ''Rickettsia'' * ''Salmonella'' * ''Serratia'' * ''Shigella'' * ''Thiobacter'' * ''Treponema'' * ''Vibrio'' * ''Yersinia'' == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Bacoan lanjuik == * {{cite book|author=Alcamo IE|title=Fundamentals of microbiology|publisher=Jones and Bartlett|location=Boston|year=2001|pages=|isbn=0-7637-1067-9}} * {{cite book|author=Atlas RM|title=Principles of microbiology|publisher=Mosby|location=St. Louis|year=1995|pages=|isbn=0-8016-7790-4}} * {{cite book|author=Martinko JM, Madigan MT|title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms|edition = 11th ed.|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J|year=2005|pages=|isbn=0-13-144329-1}} * {{cite book|author=Holt JC, Bergey DH|title=Bergey's manual of determinative bacteriology|edition = 9th ed.|publisher=Williams & Wilkins|location=Baltimore|year=1994|pages=|isbn=0-683-00603-7}} * {{cite journal | author=Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR | title=Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity | journal=J Bacteriol | year=1998 | pages=4765–74 | volume=180 | issue=18 | pmid=9733676 | url=http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/180/18/4765?view=full&pmid=9733676 | access-date=2019-08-16 | archive-date=2008-09-14 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914121802/http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/180/18/4765?view=full&pmid=9733676 | dead-url=yes }} * {{cite book|author=Funke BR, Tortora GJ, Case CL|title=Microbiology: an introduction|edition = 8th ed,|publisher=Benjamin Cummings|location=San Francisco|year=2004|pages=|isbn=0-8053-7614-3}} == Pautan lua == {{Wikiquote|Bacterium}} {{Wikispecies|Bacteria}} {{wikimedia|collapsible=true|commons=Bacteria|b=no|v=no |n=no|s=no|d=Q10876|species=no|voy=no|wikt=bakteri}} * [http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/MicrobeWiki MicrobeWiki] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206071749/http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/MicrobeWiki |date=2015-02-06 }}, an extensive [[wiki]] about [http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Microbial_Biorealm bacteria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208122124/http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Microbial_Biorealm |date=2015-02-08 }} and [http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Viral_Biorealm viruses] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214015059/http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Viral_Biorealm |date=2015-02-14 }} * [http://www.ncppb.com Bacteria that affect crops and other plants] * [http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm Bacterial Nomenclature Up-To-Date from DSMZ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083605/http://www3.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm |date=2007-09-29 }} * [http://www.bacterio.cict.fr/eubacteria.html Genera of the domain Bacteria]&nbsp;– list of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature * [http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm The largest bacteria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211094146/http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm |date=2012-12-11 }} * [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth Tree of Life: Eubacteria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021015145/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth |date=2014-10-21 }} * [http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html Videos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105182817/http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html |date=2015-11-05 }} of bacteria swimming and tumbling, use of optical tweezers and other videos. * [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_bacteria.html Planet of the Bacteria] by [[Stephen Jay Gould]] * [http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/ On-line text book on bacteriology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913123627/http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/ |date=2008-09-13 }} * [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/Overview/overview.html Animated guide to bacterial cell structure.] * [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/dn14094-bacteria-make-major-evolutionary-shift-in-the-lab.html Bacteria Make Major Evolutionary Shift in the Lab] * [http://esciencenews.com/articles/2009/02/19/online.collaboration.identifies.bacteria Online collaboration for bacterial taxonomy.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415222312/http://esciencenews.com/articles/2009/02/19/online.collaboration.identifies.bacteria |date=2014-04-15 }} * [http://patricbrc.org/ PATRIC], a Bioinformatics Resource Center for bacterial pathogens, funded by [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/ NIAID] * [http://wormweb.org/bacteriachemo Bacterial Chemotaxis Interactive Simulator]&nbsp;– A web-app that uses several simple algorithms to simulate bacterial chemotaxis. * [http://ascb.org/ibioseminars/Bassler/Bassler1.cfm Cell-Cell Communication in Bacteria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130052842/http://ascb.org/ibioseminars/bassler/bassler1.cfm |date=2009-01-30 }} on-line lecture by [[Bonnie Bassler]], and [http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/bonnie_bassler_on_how_bacteria_communicate.html TED: Discovering bacteria's amazing communication system] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205033015/http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/bonnie_bassler_on_how_bacteria_communicate.html |date=2011-12-05 }} * [http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/01/27/1419241112 Sulfur-cycling fossil bacteria from the 1.8-Ga Duck Creek Formation provide promising evidence of evolution's null hypothesis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207215124/http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/01/27/1419241112 |date=2015-02-07 }}, ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America''.&nbsp; '''Summarized in:''' [http://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-discover-bacteria-that-havent-evolved-in-more-than-2-billion-years-2015-2 Scientists discover bacteria that haven't evolved in more than 2 billion years], ''[[LiveScience]]'' and ''[[Businessinsider.com|BusinessInsider]]'' {{Taxonbar|from=Q10876}} [[Kategori:Bakteri| ]] [[Kategori:Bakteriologi]] [[Kategori:Prokariota]] 1kg89nv3n5qnnc480kk9v1q3ss23wrn 0 324391 3351280 1652514 2026-08-05T22:09:10Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351280 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Influenza''', yang labiah dikana jo sabutan flu, marupakan panyakik manula yang disababkan jo [[Virus|virus RNA]] dari [[Famili|familia]] Orthomyxoviridae (virus influenza), yang manyarang unggeh jo [[Binatang manyusuan|mamalia]]. Gajala yang paliang umum dari panyakik iko adolah manggigia, damam, nyeri tanggorokan, nyeri otoik, nyeri kapalo barek, batuak, kalamahan, jo raso indak lamak sacaro umum.<ref name="Merck">{{Cite web|url=http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch198/ch198d.html|title=Influenza: Viral Infections: Merck Manual Home Edition|last=|first=|publisher=www.merck.com|access-date=2008-03-15}} </ref> Walaupun acok tatuka dangan panyakik mode influenza lainnyo, tautamo selesma, influenza marupokan panyakik yang labiah barek dibandiangkan dangan selesma jo disababkan jo janih virus yang babeda Influenza dapek manimbuakan mual, jo muntah, tautama pado anak-anak,<ref name="Merck">{{Cite web|url=http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch198/ch198d.html|title=Influenza: Viral Infections: Merck Manual Home Edition|last=|first=|publisher=www.merck.com|access-date=2008-03-15}} </ref> namun gajalo tasabuik labiah acok tadapek pado panyakik gastroenteritis, yang samo sakali indak bahubuangan, yang juo kadangkalo sacaro indak tapek disabuik sabagai "flu paruik." Flu kadangkala dapek manimbuakan pneumonia viral sacaro langsuang maupun manimbuakan pneumonia bakterial sekunder. Biasonyo, influenza ditulakan malalui udaro lawaik batuak atau basin, yang akan manimbuakan ''aerosol'' yang menganduang virus. Influenza juo dapek ditulakan malalui kontak langsuang dangan cirik buruang atau salemo, atau malalui kontak jo pamukaan yang alah takontaminasi. Aerosol yang tabaok jo udaro (airborne aerosols) didugo manimbuakan sabagian gadang infeksi, walaupun jalua panularan mano yang paliang baperan dalam panyakik iko alun jaleh bana.<ref name="Brankston">{{Cite journal|author=Brankston G, Gitterman L, Hirji Z, Lemieux C, Gardam M|title=Transmission of influenza A in human beings|journal=Lancet Infect Dis|volume=7|issue=4|pages=257–65|year=2007|month=April|pmid=17376383|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70029-4}}</ref> Virus influenza dapek diinaktivasi jo cahayo matohari, disinfektan, dan daterjen.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Suarez|title=The effect of various disinfectants on detection of avian influenza virus by real time RT-PCR|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_avian-diseases_july-september-2003_47_3/page/1091|journal=Avian Dis|volume=47|issue=3 Suppl|pages=1091–5|year=2003|pmid=14575118|doi=10.1637/0005-2086-47.s3.1091}}</ref> Acok mancuci tangan akan mangurangi risiko infeksi karano virus dapek diinaktivasi jo sabun.<ref name="Jefferson-2010">{{Cite journal|author=Jefferson|title=Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses.|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=|issue=1|pages=CD006207|month=|year=2010|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006207.pub3|pmid=20091588}}</ref> Influenza manyebar ka saluruah dunia dalam epidemi musiman, yang manimbuakan kamatian 250.000 dan 500.000 urang satiok tahunnyo, bahkan sampai jutaan urang pado babarapo tahun pandemik. Rato-rato 41.400 urang maningga tiok tahunnyo di [[Amerika Sarikat]] dalam kurun wakatu antaro tahun 1979 sampai 2001 kareno influenza.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/163/2/181|title=Mortality due to Influenza in the United States — An Annualized Regression Approach Using Multiple-Cause Mortality Data|author=[[Jonathan Dushoff]]|accessdate=2009-10-29|quote=The regression model attributes an annual average of 41,400 (95% confidence interval: 27,100, 55,700) deaths to influenza over the period 1979–2001.|work=}}</ref> Pado tahun 2010 Pusek Pangendalian dan Pancagahan Panyakik di Amerika Sarikat mangubah caro mareka malaporkan pakiraan kamatian kareno influenza dalam 30 tahun. Saat iko mareka malaporkan bahwa tadapek kisaran angko kamatian mulai dari 3.300 sampai 49.000 kamatian per tahunnya.<ref>{{Cite news|author=[[Julie Steenhuysen]]|coauthors=|title=CDC backs away from decades-old flu death estimate|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE67P3NA20100826|quote=Instead of the estimated 36,000 annual flu deaths in the United States ... the actual number in the past 30 years has ranged from a low of about 3,300 deaths to a high of nearly 49,000, the CDC said on Thursday.|work=[[Reuters]]|Date=August 26, 2010|accessdate=2010-09-13}}</ref> Tigo pandemi influenza tajadi pado abek kaduopuluah dan alah manewaskan puluahan juta urang. Tiok pandemi tasabuik disababkan jo muncuanyo galur baru virus iko pado urang. Saringkali, galur baru iko muncua katiko virus flu yang alah ado manyebar pado urang dari janih binatang yang lain, atau katiko galur virus influenza urang yang alah ada maambiak gen baru dari virus yang biasonyo manginfeksi unggeh atau babi. Galur unggeh yang disabuik H5N1 alah manimbuakan kakhawatiran muncuanyo pandemi influenza baru, satalah kamunculannyo di Asia pado tahun 1990-an, tatapi virus tasabuik alun baevolusi manjadi bantuak yang manyebar dangan gampang dari urang-ka-urang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/avian_influenza/en/|title=Avian influenza ("bird flu") fact sheet|year=2006|publisher=WHO|month=February|access-date=2006-10-20}}</ref> Pado April 2009 sabuah galur virus flu baru baevolusi yang manganduang campuran gen dari flu urang, babi, dan unggeh, yang pado awalnyo disabuik "flu babi" dan juo dikana sabagai influenza A/H1N1, yang muncua di [[Meksiko]], [[Amerika Sarikat]], dan babarapo negara lain. Organisasi Kasehatan Dunia (WHO) sacaro resmi mandeklarasikan wabah iko sabagai pandemi pado 11 Juni 2009 (liek pandemi flu 2009). Deklarasi WHO manganai pandemi tingkek 6 marupakan indikasi panyabaran virus, bukan barek-ringannyo panyakik, galur iko sabatulnyo mamiliki tingkek mortalitas yang labiah randah dibandiangkan jo wabah virus flu biaso. == Rujuakan == l8tw0cp8mxsss0owgbx0ij4cm80701m 0 324406 3351241 3154733 2026-08-05T21:09:04Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351241 wikitext text/x-wiki : ''Untuk tidak dipertukarkan dengan [[uwi]] (yam)'' {{Speciesbox|image=Ipomoea batatasL ja01.jpg|image_width=240px|image_caption=umbi nan siok baolah|subdivision={{br}} [[Berkas:Wikispecies-logo.svg|al=|class=noviewer|16x16px]] [[Species:Ipomoea batatas|Media: {{PAGENAME}}]]{{br}} [[Berkas:Commons-logo.svg|al=|class=noviewer|16x16px]] [[c:Ipomoea batatas|Media: {{PAGENAME}}]]}} '''Ubi jala''' (''Ipomoea batatas'' L.) atau dalam [[Bahaso Inggirih|bahaso Inggrih]] '''''sweet potato''''' adaloh sajinih [[Tumbuhan|tanaman]] budidaya. Bagian nan dimanfaatan adolah ureknyo nan mambantuak umbi nan kadar gizinyo ([[karbohidrat]]) tinggi. Di [[Afrika]], umbi ubi jala manjadi salah satu sumber [[makanan pokok]] nan pantiang. Di [[Asia]], salain dimanfaatan umbinyo, daun mudo ubi jala dapek pulo dibuek manjadi sayua. Ado pulo ubi jala nan dijadian [[tanaman hias]] karano kaindahan daunnyo. [[Berkas:Ipomoea_batatas.jpg|jmpl|200x200px|Bunga ubi jalar.]] Ubi jala barasa dari [[Amerika Selatan]] tropis, jo nan masih dipadebatan dari [[Papua]]. Kalangan nan indak manyatujui asa mulo ubi jala dari Papua bapandapek baso urang Indian alah balayia ka barat liwaik [[Lautan Pasifik|Samudra Pasifik]] jo manolong manyebaran ubi jala ka Asia. Teori ko banyak ditantang karano batantangan jo fakta-fakta klimatologi jo antropologi. == Deskripsi == Disabuik pulo jo namo ''ketela rambat'', ''huwi boled'' ([[Bahaso Sunda|Sunda]]), ''tela rambat'' ([[Bahaso Jawa|Jawa]]), ''sweetpotato'' ([[Inggirih|Inggris]]), jo ''shoyo'' ([[Bahaso Japang|Japang]]) marupoan sumber karbohidrat nan cukuik pantiang dalam sistem katahanan pangan wak. Salain karbohidrat sabagai kandungan utamonyo, ubi jala manganduang vitamin, mineral, fitokimia (antioksidan) jo serat (pektin, selulosa, hemiselulosa). Ado sajumlah varietas ubi jala nan ado di [[Indonesia]] yaitu Daya, Borobudur, Prambanan, Mendut, Kalasan, Muara Takus, Cangkuang, Sewu. Sadangkan varietas-varietas nan baru dilapeh tahun 2001 antaro lain: Cilembu nan barasa dari Sumedang. Tiok-tiok varietas punyo raso khas nan babeda-beda. Ubi Cilembu marupoan salah satu produk patanian unggulan dek Pamarintah Kabupaten Sumedang. Daerah panghasil ubi cilembu adolah Cilembu, Cadas, Pangeran, Sumedang. Ubi cilembu bakulik gadiang, baurek, sarato panjang, sadangkan gatahnyo maleleh sarupo madu katiko dipanggang. Ubi ko manih bana sarato pulen, babeda jo ubi kabanyakan. Raso manih dari ubi Cilembu akan labiah taraso kok ubi dibaka dalam open, tarutamo kok ubi mantah alah disimpan labiah dari saminggu. == Budidaya == Ubi jala dapek dibudidayoan malalui stolon/batang rambatnyo. Cara mananamnyo cukuik mudah, yaitu mancangkua lahan nan ka ditanami sahinggo stolon/batang rambat ubi jala mudah dimasuakan ka dalam tanah. Pamaliharoannyo cukuik mudah. Ubi jala akan tumbuh elok kok lahan kanai matohari langsuang, pamaliharoan dari gulma untuak manghindari pasaingan unsua haro disakitar tanaman, panggunoan pupuak UREA atau Organik akan manambah hasil panen nan labiah rancak. Panen ubi jala dilakuan jo mancangkua sakitar tanaman, hal itu dilakuan untuak mampamudah ubi rusak karanao kanai cangkua atau alat patanian. == Sijarah == Ubi jala atau ketela rambat atau “sweet potato” diduga barasa dari Benua Amerika. Para ahli botani jo patanian mampakiroan daerah asa tanaman ubi jala adolah Selandia Baru, Polinesia, jo Amerika bagian tangah. Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov, saurang ahli botani Soviet, mamastian daerah sentrum primer asa tanaman ubi jala adolah Amerika Tengah. Ubi jala mulai manyebar ka saluruah dunia, tarutamo negara-negara baiklim tropika pado abaik ka-16. Urang-urang [[Spanyol]] manyebaran ubi jala ka kawasan Asia, tarutamo [[Filipina]], Jepang, jo Indonesia. == Ubi jala sirah == Manuruik riset nan dilakuan [[Institut Pertanian Bogor]], ubi jala sirah nan berasa dari [[Papua]] manganduang senyawa beta [[karotena]] nan mampu menurunkan infeksi HIV/AIDS. Sahinggo diusulan manjadi diet utamo panderita HIV/AIDS basamo bahan lain.<ref>Ubi Jalar Merah Bisa Turunkan Infeksi HIV/AIDS. KOMPAS. Rabu, 24 Juli 2013. Hal 13.</ref> Dibandingan jo bahan [[:id:Makanan pokok|makanan pokok]] lain, ubi jala biaso punyo kandungan senyawa pambantuak [[:id:Vitamin A|vitamin A]] paliang tinggi, yaitu mancapai 14187 [[:id:Satuan internasional|IU]] per 100 gram porsi, atau mancapai 89% kabutuhan harian.<ref>[http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR18/sr18.html Nutrient Data Laboratory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302053013/http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR18/sr18.html |date=2013-03-02 }}. United States Department of Agriculture.</ref> Beta karotena tamasuak salah satu senyawa pambantuak vitamin A. == Bahan Bacaan == * {{id}} [http://jurnal.kesimpulan.com/2013/01/genom-ubi-jalar-hipotesis-eksplorasi.html Genom Ubi Jalar Hipotesis Eksplorasi Tripartit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126104007/http://jurnal.kesimpulan.com/2013/01/genom-ubi-jalar-hipotesis-eksplorasi.html |date=2013-01-26 }} [http://jurnal.kesimpulan.com Jurnal KeSimpulan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901223341/http://jurnal.kesimpulan.com/ |date=2011-09-01 }} * Abidin, P.E. 2004. Sweetpotato breeding for northeastern Uganda: Farmer varieties, farmer-participatory selection, and stability of performance. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands, 152 pp.&nbsp;ISBN 90-8504-033-7. * Ahn, P.M., 1993, "Tropical soils and fertilizer use", Intermediate Trop. Agric. Series. Longman Sci. and Tech. Ltd. UK. * Austin, D.F. 1988. The taxonomy, evolution and genetic diversity of sweetpotatoes and related wild species. In: P. Gregory (ed.). Exploration, maintenance, and utilization of sweetpotato genetic resources, pp.&nbsp;27–60. CIP, Lima, Peru. * Edmond, J. B., Ammerman, G. R. 1971. Sweet Potatoes: Production, Processing, Marketing. [Major Feed and Food Crops in Agriculture and Food Series.] Westport, Connecticut: The Avi Publishing Company. * Hartemink, A.E., S. Poloma, M. Maino, K.S. Powell, J. Egenae & J. N. Sullivan, (2000). Yield decline of sweet potato in the humid lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 79 (2-3), 259-269. * Purseglove, J.W. 1991. Tropical crops. Dicotyledons. Longman Scientific and Technical. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. NY. USA. * Verrill, A.H., ''Foods America Gave the World'', 1937, Boston: L.C. Page & Co. * Woolfe, J.A., 1992, "Sweetpotato: an untapped food resource", Cambridge Univ. Press and the International Potato Center (CIP). Cambridge, UK. * Zhang, D.P., M. Ghislain, Z. Huamán, J.C. Cervantes and E.E. Carey 1998. AFLP assessment of sweetpotato genetic diversity in four tropical American regions. CIP Program Report 1997-1998, pp.&nbsp;303–310. * {{cite book|last1=Edmond|first1=Joseph Bailey|last2=Ammerman|first2=Gale Richard|date=1 November 1971|title=Sweet potatoes: production, processing, marketing|series=Major Feed and Food Crops in Agriculture and Food Series|location=Westport, Connecticut|publisher=The Avi Publishing Company}} * {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00139-0|title=Yield decline of sweet potato in the humid lowlands of Papua New Guinea|url=https://archive.org/details/agriculture-ecosystems-environment_2000-07_79_2-3/page/259|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment|volume=79|issue=2–3|pages=259|year=2000|last1=Hartemink|first1=Alfred E|last2=Poloma|first2=S|last3=Maino|first3=M|last4=Powell|first4=K.S|last5=Egenae|first5=J|last6=O'Sullivan|first6=J.N}} * [http://www.fao.org/WAIRdocs/x5425e/x5425e0d.htm FAO Leaflet No. 13 - 1990 - Sweet Potato] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217125322/http://www.fao.org/WAIRdocs/x5425e/x5425e0d.htm |date=2014-12-17 }} == Rujuakan == <references />{{Commons|Sweet potato}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Sweet Potato}} [[Kategori:Ubi jalar| ]] [[Kategori:Convolvulaceae]] [[Kategori:Umbi-umbian]] [[Kategori:Pertanian tropis]] [[Kategori:Makanan pokok]] [[Kategori:Ipomoea]] [[Kategori:Tumbuahan]] {{tumbuhan-stub}} 013mxli0bra8clqoflx22sbhmulcy3l 0 324817 3351304 3157974 2026-08-05T22:57:46Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 4 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pambantahan medis}}{{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Pneumonia|image=Chest radiograph in influensa and H influenzae, posteroanterior, annotated.jpg|alt=|caption=[[Radiografi toraks|X-ray dado]] pneumonia nan disababkan dek [[influenza]] jo ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'', di ma tampak pamadekan jaringan, utamonyo pado lobus kanan ateh (panah).|pronounce={{IPAc-en|nj|uː|ˈ|m|əʊ|n|i|ə}} {{respell|new|MOHN|ee-ə}}|synonyms=Pneumonitis, bronkopneumonia,<ref>{{cite web|title=Other Names for Pneumonia|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/names|website=NHLBI|access-date=2 March 2016|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206141327/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/names|archive-date=6 February 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> radang paru|field=[[Pulmonologi]], [[Panyakik infeksius (spesialisasi)|panyakik mamindah]]|symptoms=Batuak, sasak angok, [[angok capek]], damam<ref name=Ash2007>{{cite book | last1 = Ashby | first1 = Bonnie | last2 = Turkington | first2 = Carol | name-list-format = vanc | title = The encyclopedia of infectious diseases |edition=3rd |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |year=2007 |page=242 |isbn=978-0-8160-6397-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Xlyaipv3dIC&pg=PA242 |access-date=2011-04-21|df=dmy-all }}</ref> Severity is variable.<ref name=Ash2007/>|duration=Babarapo pakan<ref name=Behera2010>{{cite book|last=Behera|first=D.|title=Textbook of pulmonary medicine|year=2010|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Pub.|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-8448-749-7|pages=296–97|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TbJjd9eTp0C&pg=PA296|edition=2nd}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> It often takes a few weeks before most symptoms resolve.<ref name=Behera2010/>|onset=|causes=Bakteri, virus, [[pneumonia aspirasi|aspirasi]]<ref name=RespText09/><ref name=Jeff2010>{{cite book |author=Jeffrey C. Pommerville |title=Alcamo's Fundamentals of Microbiology |edition=9th |publisher=Jones & Bartlett |location=Sudbury MA |year=2010 |page=323 |quote= |isbn=978-0-7637-6258-2 |oclc= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJNQwQB8IxIC&pg=PA323 |access-date= }}</ref>|risks=[[Fibrosis sistik]], [[PPOK]], [[asma]], [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], [[gagal jantuan]], riwayaik [[marokok]]<ref name=NIH2011Risk>{{cite web|title=Who Is at Risk for Pneumonia?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/atrisk|website=NHLBI|access-date=3 March 2016|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307133826/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/atrisk|archive-date=7 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>|diagnosis=Manuruik gejala, [[X-ray dado]]<ref name=NIH2011Diag>{{cite web|title=How Is Pneumonia Diagnosed?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/diagnosis|website=NHLBI|access-date=3 March 2016|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307133513/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/diagnosis|archive-date=7 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>|differential=[[PPOK]], [[asma]], [[edema paru]], [[emboli paru]]<ref name=BMJ06>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoare Z, Lim WS | title = Pneumonia: update on diagnosis and management | journal = BMJ | volume = 332 | issue = 7549 | pages = 1077–79 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16675815 | pmc = 1458569 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.332.7549.1077 | url = http://www.bmj.com/content/332/7549/1077.full.pdf }}</ref> |prevention=[[Vaksin]], [[cuci tangan]], indak marokok<ref name=NIH2011Pre>{{cite web|title=How Can Pneumonia Be Prevented?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/prevention|website=NHLBI|access-date=3 March 2016|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307133901/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/prevention|archive-date=7 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>|medication=[[Antibiotik]], [[antivirus]], [[terapi oksigen]]<ref name=NIH2011Tx>{{cite web|title=How Is Pneumonia Treated?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/treatment|website=NHLBI|access-date=3 March 2016|date=March 1, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306030735/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/pnu/treatment|archive-date=6 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=Lancet11>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruuskanen O, Lahti E, Jennings LC, Murdoch DR | title = Viral pneumonia | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-9-15-2011_377_9773/page/1264 | journal = Lancet | volume = 377 | issue = 9773 | pages = 1264–75 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21435708 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61459-6 }}</ref>|treatment=|frequency=450 juta (7%) per taun<ref name=Lancet11/><ref name=CochraneTx13>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lodha R, Kabra SK, Pandey RM | title = Antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia in children | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | page= CD004874 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23733365 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004874.pub4 }}</ref>|deaths=Ampek juta per taun<ref name=Lancet11/><ref name=CochraneTx13/>}}'''Pneumonia''' atau '''radang paru''' adolah [[Radang|paradangan]] pado paru —utamonyo mamangaruahi kantuang-kantuang udaro mikroskopik nan tanamo jo [[alveolus]].<ref name="RespText09">{{cite book|last=McLuckie|first=[editor] A.|title=Respiratory disease and its management|year=2009|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-1-84882-094-4|page=51}}</ref><ref name="AcuteCare09">{{cite book|author=Leach, Richard E.|title=Acute and Critical Care Medicine at a Glance|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2009|isbn=1-4051-6139-6|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7u_wu5VCsVQC&pg=PT168|accessdate=2011-04-21}}</ref> Panyakik ko biasonyo takaik jo kasus [[infeksi]] ([[bakteri]] jo [[virus]]) dan jarang [[mikroorganisme]] lainnyo, [[Ubek|ubek-buek]] tatantu, sarato kondisi lain cando [[Panyakik autoimun|panyakik autoimun.]]<ref name="RespText09" /><ref name="isbn0-7637-6258-X">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey C. Pommerville|authorlink=|title=Alcamo's Fundamentals of Microbiology|edition=9th|publisher=Jones & Bartlett|location=Sudbury MA|year=2010|page=323|quote=|isbn=0-7637-6258-X|oclc=|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RJNQwQB8IxIC&pg=PA323|accessdate=}}</ref> Kaluahan utamo pasien nan mandarito panyakik iko biasonyo [[damam]], [[sasak angok]], [[batuak badahak]], inggo [[nyeri dado]].<ref name="isbn0-8160-6397-4">{{cite book|author=Ashby, Bonnie; Turkington, Carol|title=The encyclopedia of infectious diseases|edition=3rd|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|year=2007|origyear=|page=242|isbn=0-8160-6397-4|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4Xlyaipv3dIC&pg=PA242|accessdate=2011-04-21}}</ref> Pado urang gadang, panyakik ko takaik jo dayo tahan tubuah nan sadang lamah (imunokompeten). Alaik [[Diagnosis medis|diagnostik]] mancakup rontgen jo pangambilan kultur dari [[sputum]]. [[Vaksin]] untuak maadang jinih pneumonia tatantu kini alah tasadio. Pangubatan nan dilakukan bagantuang pado panyabab dasanyo. Dugaan pneumonia bakterial diubek jo [[antibiotik]]. Kok pneumonianyo parah, pandarito biasonyo dirujuak ka rumah sakik.&nbsp; Tiok taunnyo, pneumonia manjangkiti sakitar 450 juta urang, tujuah persen dari total populasi dunia, dan manyababkan sakitar 4&nbsp;juta kamatian. Walaupun pneumonia bajuluak "''the captain of the men of death''" (pamimpin kamatian) dek [[William Osler]] pado abaik ka-19,<ref>{{cite book|last=Osler|first=William|title=Principles and Practice of Medicine, 4th Edition|year=1901|publisher=D. Appleton and Company|location=New York|pages=108|url=http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www/html/people/osler/PPM4th/OP400067.htm|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-date=2007-07-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708201758/http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www/html/people/osler/PPM4th/OP400067.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> panamuan terapi antibiotik jo vaksin pado abaik ka-20 alah maningkekan dayo tahan iduik.<ref name="Lancet11" /> Walaupun baitu, di nagara bakambang, dan di antaro urang-urang barumua sangaik lanjuik, sangaik mudo, jo pandarito sakik kronis, pneumonia tatap manjadi panyabab kamatian nan utamo.<ref name="Lancet11" /><ref>{{cite book|last=George|first=Ronald B.|title=Chest medicine : essentials of pulmonary and critical care medicine|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=9780781752732|pages=353|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZzlX2zJMbdgC&pg=PA353|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> == Patofisiologi == [[Berkas:New Pneumonia cartoon.jpg|jmpl|alt=Diagram skematik paru-paru manusia dengan lingkaran kosong di sisi kiri mewakili alveolus normal dan di sisi kanan menunjukkan alveolus yang terisi penuh cairan seperti dijumpai pada pneumonia|Pneumonia maisi [[alveolus|alveoli]] paru jo cairan, maalangi oksigenasi. Alveolus di sisi kiri dalam kondisi normal, sadangkan nan di sisi kanan panuah tarisi cairan dek pneumonia.]] Pneumonia acok bamulo dari [[infeksi saluran angok ateh]] nan kudian bapindah ka saluran angok bawah.<ref name=PedNA09>{{cite journal|last=Ranganathan|first=SC|coauthors=Sonnappa, S|title=Pneumonia and other respiratory infections|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatric-clinics-of-north-america_2009-02_56_1/page/135|journal=Pediatric clinics of North America|date=February 2009 |volume=56|issue=1|pages=135–56, xi|pmid=19135585|doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2008.10.005}}</ref> Vaksinasi taadok ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'' jo ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' alah mampunyoi bukti rancak untuak mandukuang panggunoannya.<ref name=PedNA09/> Maimunisasi anak dari ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'' alah manyababkan panurunan insiden infeksi iko pado urang gadang, dek banyak urang gadang mandapek infeksi iko dari anak-anak. [[Vaksin pneumokokal polisakarida|Vaksin ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'']] tasadio untuak urang gadang, dan alah ditamukan manurunkan risiko [[panyakik pneumokokal nan invansif]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Moberley|first=SA|coauthors=Holden, J, Tatham, DP, Andrews, RM|title=Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=2008-01-23|issue=1|pages=CD000422|pmid=18253977|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000422.pub2|editor1-last=Andrews|editor1-first=Ross M}}</ref> Vaksin lain nan mandukuang efek palinduangan dari pneumonia tamasuak: [[Vaksin pertusis|kahak kuhua (batuak ajan)]], [[Vaksin varisela|caca aia]], jo [[Vaksin campak|campak]].<ref name=CDCPrev2012/> === Lainnyo === [[Baranti marokok]]<ref name=BTS09>{{cite journal|last=Lim|first=WS|coauthors=Baudouin, SV; George, RC; Hill, AT; Jamieson, C; Le Jeune, I; Macfarlane, JT; Read, RC; Roberts, HJ; Levy, ML; Wani, M; Woodhead, MA; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care, Committee|title=BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009|journal=Thorax|date=October 2009 |volume=64 |issue=Suppl 3|pages=iii1–55|pmid=19783532|doi=10.1136/thx.2009.121434}}</ref> jo manurunkan [[polusi udaro]] di dalam ruangan, sarupo nan dari hasia mamasak di dalam ruangan jo mamakai kayu atau [[kotoran|kotoran jawi]], dianjurkan.<ref name=Develop11>{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=V|coauthors=Aneja, S|title=Pneumonia — management in the developing world|journal=Paediatric respiratory reviews|date=March 2011 |volume=12|issue=1|pages=52–9|pmid=21172676|doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2010.09.011}}</ref><ref name=WHOPrevent2012/> Marokok tampaknyo manjadi faktor risiko paliang gadang untuak pneumonia pneumokokal pado urang gadang nan samustinyo sihaik.<ref name=IDSA2007>{{cite journal|last=Mandell|first=LA|coauthors=Wunderink, RG; Anzueto, A; Bartlett, JG; Campbell, GD; Dean, NC; Dowell, SF; File TM, Jr; Musher, DM; Niederman, MS; Torres, A; Whitney, CG; Infectious Diseases Society of America; American Thoracic Society|title=Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults|journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=1 March 2007 |volume=44 |issue=Suppl 2|pages=S27–72|pmid=17278083|doi=10.1086/511159}}</ref> Kabarasiahan tangan sarato manutuik muluik jo langan katiko batuak bisa juo manjadi sarana panagahan nan efektif.<ref name=CDCPrev2012/> Pamakaian [[masker operasi]] dek urang nan sakik bisa juo managah pamindahan panyakik.<ref name=IDSA2007/> Maubeki panyakik dasanyo (sarupo [[HIV/AIDS]], [[diabetes melitus]], jo [[malagizi]]) sacaro tapek bisa manurunkan risiko pneumonia.<ref name=WHOPrevent2012>{{cite web|title=Pneumonia (Fact sheet N°331)|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs331/en/|work=World Health Organization|date=August 2012}}</ref><ref name=CDCPrev2012>{{cite web|title=Pneumonia Can Be Prevented — Vaccines Can Help|url=http://www.cdc.gov/features/Pneumonia/|work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=22 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gray|first=DM|coauthors=Zar, HJ|title=Community-acquired pneumonia in HIV-infected children: a global perspective|journal=Current opinion in pulmonary medicine|date=May 2010|volume=16|issue=3|pages=208–16|pmid=20375782|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283387984}}</ref> Pado anak-anak umua di bawah 6&nbsp;bulan diagiahan susu ibu ekslusif manurunkan baiak risiko ataupun kaparahan panyakik.<ref name=WHOPrevent2012/> Di kalangan urang nan mandarito HIV/AIDS sarato etongan CD4 kurang dari 200 sel/uL, antibiotik [[trimetoprim/sulfametoksazol]] manurunkan risiko ''[[Pneumonia pneumosistis]]''<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=L|coauthors=Cattamanchi, A; Davis, JL; den Boon, S; Kovacs, J; Meshnick, S; Miller, RF; Walzer, PD; Worodria, W; Masur, H; International HIV-associated Opportunistic Pneumonias (IHOP), Study; Lung HIV, Study|title=HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia|journal=Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society|date=June 2011 |volume=8|issue=3|pages=294–300|pmid=21653531|doi=10.1513/pats.201009-062WR|pmc=3132788}}</ref> dan bisa juo baguno sabagai panagah untuak urang nan mampunyoi gangguan kakebalan tubuah tapi indak mampunyoi HIV.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Green H, Paul M, Vidal L, Leibovici L |title=Prophylaxis for Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in non-HIV immunocompromised patients|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD005590 |year=2007 |pmid=17636808|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005590.pub2 |url= |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Hefziba}}</ref> Pamaresoan [[Streptokokus Grup B]] dan ''[[Klamidia trakomatis]]'' pado padusi manganduang, jo maagiah ubek [[antibiotik]], kok diparalukan, manurunkan risiko tingkek pneumonia pado bayi;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Taminato|first=M|coauthors=Fram, D; Torloni, MR; Belasco, AG; Saconato, H; Barbosa, DA|title=Screening for group B Streptococcus in pregnant women: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Revista latino-americana de enfermagem|date=November–December 2011|volume=19|issue=6|pages=1470–8|pmid=22249684}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Darville|first=T|title=Chlamydia trachomatis infections in neonates and young children|journal=Seminars in pediatric infectious diseases|date=October 2005|volume=16|issue=4|pages=235–44|pmid=16210104|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2005.06.004}}</ref> sarana panagahan transmisi dari mandeh ka anak bisa efisien pulo.<ref>{{cite book|title=Global Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Pneumonia (GAPP)|year=2009|publisher=World Health Organization|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2009/WHO_FCH_CAH_NCH_09.04_eng.pdf|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-date=2013-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017001256/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2009/WHO_FCH_CAH_NCH_09.04_eng.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Maisok muluik jo tabuang angok bayi dengan [[cairan amnion]] nan tacemar [[mekonium]] alun tabukti manurunkan tingkek [[pneumonia aspirasi]] dan bisa mambahayokan,<ref name=Rog2009>{{cite journal|last=Roggensack|first=A|coauthors=Jefferies, AL; Farine, D; Basso, M; Delisle, MF; Hudon, L; Mundle, WR; Murphy-Kaulbeck, LC; Ouellet, A; Pressey, T|title=Management of meconium at birth|journal=Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology Canada : JOGC = Journal d'obstetrique et gynecologie du Canada : JOGC|date=April 2009 |volume=31|issue=4|pages=353–4, 355–7|pmid=19497156}}</ref> jadi praktik ko indak dianjurkan dalam kabanyakan situasi.<ref name=Rog2009/> Di kalangan urang-urang tuo nan ringkih, parawatan kasihatan muluik nan rancak bisa manurunkan risiko pneumonia aspirasi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=van der Maarel-Wierink|first=CD|coauthors=Vanobbergen, JN; Bronkhorst, EM; Schols, JM; de Baat, C|title=Oral health care and aspiration pneumonia in frail older people: a systematic literature review|journal=Gerodontology|date=6 March 2012|pmid=22390255|doi=10.1111/j.1741-2358.2012.00637.x|pages=no}}</ref> <br /> == Tatalaksana == {| class="wikitable" align="right" ! colspan="2" |CURB-65 |- !Gejala !Poin |- |'''''C'''onfusion'' |<center>1</center> |- |'''U'''rea>7&nbsp;mmol/l |<center>1</center> |- |'''''R'''espiratory rate>30'' |<center>1</center> |- |''[[Tekanan darah|S'''B'''P]]<90mmHg, D'''B'''P<60mmHg'' |<center>1</center> |- |''Age>='''65''''' |<center>1</center> |- |} Biasonyo, antibiotik oral, istirahaik, analgesik sederhana, jo cairan cukuik untuak cegak total.<ref name="BTS092" /> Namun, urang jo kondisi medis lain, urang-urang gaek, atau urang nan gangguan angok barek mungkin mamaraluan pangubatan labiah lanjuik. Kok gejala mamburuak, pneumonia indak mambaiak jo ubek di rumah, atau tajadi komplikasi, parawatan di rumah sakik manjadi paralu dilakukan.<ref name="BTS092" /> Di saluruah dunia, kiro-kiro 7--13& kasus di kalangan anak-anak paralu dirawaik inok<ref name="Develop112" /> samantaro di nagara maju antaro 22 inggo 42% urang gadang jo pneumonia nan didapek dari komunitas dirawaik di rumah sakik.<ref name="BTS092" /> Skor[[CURB-65]] baguno untuak manantuan rawaik inok di kalangan urang gadang.<ref name="BTS092" /> Kok skornyo 0 atau 1 pandarito biasonyo bisa ditangani jo rawaik jalan, kok skornyo 2 paralu rawaik singkek di rumah sakik atau tindak lanjuik untuak manaruihan parawatan, kok skornyo 3--5 dianjuran rawaik inap di rumah sakik.<ref name="BTS092" /> Di kalangan anak-anak, nan maalami kapayahan dalam barangok atau saturasi oksigennyo kurang dari 90% musti barawaik di RS.<ref name="PIDS11">{{cite journal|last=Bradley|first=JS|coauthors=Byington, CL, Shah, SS, Alverson, B, Carter, ER, Harrison, C, Kaplan, SL, Mace, SE, McCracken GH, Jr, Moore, MR, St Peter, SD, Stockwell, JA, Swanson, JT|title=The Management of Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Infants and Children Older Than 3 Months of Age: Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America|journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=2011-08-31|pmid=21880587|volume=53|issue=7|pages=e25–76|doi=10.1093/cid/cir531}}</ref> Manfaat [[fisioterapi dada]]<nowiki/>o dalam pneumonia alun lai jaleh.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=M|coauthors=Yuping, Y, Yin, X, Wang, BY, Wu, T, Liu, GJ, Dong, BR|title=Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=2010-02-17|issue=2|pages=CD006338|pmid=20166082|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006338.pub2|editor1-last=Dong|editor1-first=Bi Rong}}</ref> [[Ventilasi mekanis|Ventilasi non-invasif]] bisa bamanfaat untuak urang nan dirawaik di [[Unit rawat intensif (ICU)|unit rawaik intensif (ICU)]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Y|coauthors=Fang, C; Dong, BR; Wu, T; Deng, JL|title=Oxygen therapy for pneumonia in adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=14 March 2012|volume=3|pages=CD006607|pmid=22419316|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006607.pub4|editor1-last=Dong|editor1-first=Bi Rong}}</ref> [[Obat batuk|Ubek batuak]] tanpa resep dotor alun tabukti efektif<ref name="Chang2012">{{cite journal|author=Chang CC, Cheng AC, Chang AB|title=Over-the-counter (OTC) medications to reduce cough as an adjunct to antibiotics for acute pneumonia in children and adults|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=2|issue=|pages=CD006088|year=2012|pmid=22336815|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006088.pub3|editor1-last=Chang|editor1-first=Christina C}}</ref> baitu pulo panggunoan unsur [[seng]] di kalangan anak-anak.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haider|first=BA|coauthors=Lassi, ZS; Ahmed, A; Bhutta, ZA|title=Zinc supplementation as an adjunct to antibiotics in the treatment of pneumonia in children 2 to 59 months of age|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=5 October 2011|issue=10|pages=CD007368|pmid=21975768|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007368.pub2|editor1-last=Bhutta|editor1-first=Zulfiqar A}}</ref> Indak ado cukuik bukti untuak [[mukolitik]].<ref name="Chang2012" /> === Bakteri === [[Antibiotik]] dapek manyegakan pandarito pneumonia bakteri.<ref name="CochraneTx10" /> Pado mulonyo piliahan antibiotik tagantuang pado karakteristik pandarito, cando umua, kasihatan dasanyo, jo lokasi dimano infeksi didapek. Di Inggirih, [[Terapi empiris|pangubatan empiris]] jo [[amoksisilin]] dianjurkan sabagai piliahan partamo untuak [[pneumonia nan didapek dari komunitas]], jo [[doksisiklin]] atau [[klaritromisin]] sabagai alternatifnyo.<ref name="BTS092" /> Di [[Amerika Utara]], di mano bantuak “atipikal” dari pneumonia nan didapek dari komunitas labiah umum, [[makrolid]] (sarupo [[azitromisin]] atau [[eritromisin]]), dan doksosiklin manggantikan amoksisilin sabagai piliahan partamo untuak rawaik jalan di kalangan urang gadang.<ref name="EOP10" /><ref name="Lutfiyya">{{cite journal|author=Lutfiyya MN|coauthors=Henley E, Chang LF, Reyburn SW|title=Diagnosis and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia|journal=Am Fam Physician|volume=73|issue=3|pages=442–50|year=2006|month=February|pmid=16477891|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/0201/p442.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Di kalangan anak-anak jo gejala ringan atau sadang, amoksisilin tatap manjadi piliahan partamo.<ref name="PIDS11" /> Panggunoan [[fluorokuinolon]] dalam kasus nan indak rumik indak dianjurkan dek efek sampiang nan ditakuikan samantaro manfaat klinisnyo indak pulo labiah gadang.<ref name="EOP10" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Eliakim-Raz|first=N|coauthors=Robenshtok, E; Shefet, D; Gafter-Gvili, A; Vidal, L; Paul, M; Leibovici, L|title=Empiric antibiotic coverage of atypical pathogens for community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=12 September 2012|volume=9|pages=CD004418|pmid=22972070|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004418.pub4|editor1-last=Eliakim-Raz|editor1-first=Noa}}</ref> Durasi pangubatan biasonyo tujuah inggo sapuluah ari, tapi bukti nan makin banyak manunjuakan baso mamakai ubek nan labiah pendek (tigo inggo limo ari) samo efektifnyo.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Scalera NM|coauthors=File TM|title=How long should we treat community-acquired pneumonia?|journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis.|volume=20|issue=2|pages=177–81|year=2007|month=April|pmid=17496577|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e3280555072}}</ref> Dianjurkan untuak [[pneumonia nan didapek dari rumah sakik]] tamasuak [[sefalosporin]], [[karbapenem]], [[fluorokuinolon]], [[aminoglikosida]], jo [[vankomisin]] generasi katigo jo kaampek.<ref name="HAPGuideline">{{cite journal|author=[[American Thoracic Society]]; [[Infectious Diseases Society of America]]|title=Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-respiratory-critical-care-medicine_2005-02-15_171_4/page/388|journal=Am J Respir Crit Care Med|volume=171|issue=4|pages=388–416|year=2005|month=February|pmid=15699079|doi=10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST}}</ref> Antibiotik ko acok diagiah [[Terapi intravena|sacaro intravena]] dan digunokan sabagai kombinasi.<ref name="HAPGuideline" /> Di kalangan urang nan dirawaik di rumah sakik labiah dari 90% mambaiak jo pangubatan antibiotik awa.<ref name="M32" /> === Virus === [[Paambek neuraminidase]] bisa digunokan untuak maubek [[pneumonia virus]] nan disababkan dek virus influenza ([[influenza A]] jo [[influenza B]]).<ref name="Lancet112" /> Indak ado pangubatan [[Obat antivirus|antivirus]] nan dianjurkan untuak jinih lain dari pneumonia virus nan didapek dari komunitas tamasuak virus [[SARS|SARS coronavirus]], [[adenovirus]], [[hantavirus]], jo [[parainfluenza]].<ref name="Lancet112" /> Influenza A bisa diubek jo [[rimantadine]] atau [[amantadine]], samantaro influenza A atau B bisa diubek jo [[oseltamivir]], [[zanamivir]] atau [[peramivir]].<ref name="Lancet112" /> Pangubatan iko paliang bamanfaat kok mulai diagiah dalam wakatu 48 jam sajak muncuanyo gejala mulo.<ref name="Lancet112" /> Banyak strain dari influenza A [[H5N1]], dikana juo sabagai [[avian influenza|''avian influenza'']] atau "flu buruang," alah manunjuakan katahanan dari rimantadine jo amantadine.<ref name="Lancet112" /> Panggunoan antibiotik dalam pneumonia virus dianjurkan dek babarapo ahli dek indak mungkin mangasampiangkan tajadinyo infeksi bakteri nan labiah rumik.<ref name="Lancet112" /> [[British Thoracic Society]] maanjurkan supayo antibiotik indak diagiah pado urang nan maalami sakik ringan.<ref name="Lancet112" /> Panggunoan [[kortikosteroid]] masih kontroversial pado pneumonia virus.<ref name="Lancet112" /> === Aspirasi === Pado umumnyo, [[Chemical pneumonitis|pneumonitis aspirasi]] diubek sacaro konservatif jo antibiotik nan ditujukan hanyo untuak [[pneumonia aspirasi]].<ref name="PA2011">{{cite journal|last=Marik|first=PE|title=Pulmonary aspiration syndromes|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|date=May 2011|volume=17|issue=3|pages=148–54|pmid=21311332|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e32834397d6}}</ref> Piliahan antibiotiknyo bagantuang pado babarapo faktor, tamasuak organisme panyabab nan dicurigai dan apokoh pneumonia didapek di komunitas atau dari rumah sakik. Piliahan umumnyo tamasuak [[klindamisin]], kombinasi [[antibiotik beta-laktam]] jo [[metronidazole]], atau [[aminoglikosida]].<ref name="OConnor">{{cite journal|author=O'Connor S|title=Aspiration pneumonia and pneumonitis|journal=Australian Prescriber|volume=26|issue=1|year=2003|pages=14–7|url=http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/26/1/14/7|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-date=2009-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709074607/http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/26/1/14/7/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> [[Kortikosteroid]] kadang-kadang digunokan dalam pneumonia aspirasi, tapi hanyo ado saketek bukti nan mandukuang efektivitasnyo.<ref name="PA2011" /> == Masyarakaik jo budayo == Dek karano tingginyo baban panyakik pado nagara-nagara bakambang sarato kasadaran nan relatif randah pado panyakik ko di nagara-nagara maju, komunitas kasihatan global mandeklarasikan 12 November sabagai [[Ari Pneumonia Dunia]], ari untuak warga nagara jo pambuek limbago nan mampunyoi paratian bakeh panyakik ko untuak malakukan tindakan malawan panyakik tu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldpneumoniaday.org/|title=World Pneumonia Day Official Website|work=World Pneumonia Day Official Website|publisher=Fiinex|accessdate=13 August 2011|archive-date=2 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902154617/http://worldpneumoniaday.org/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Biaya ekonomi global dari komunitas karano pneumonia dipakirokan mancapai $17 miliar.<ref name=Clinic2011>{{cite journal|last=Nair|first=GB|coauthors=Niederman, MS|title=Community-acquired pneumonia: an unfinished battle|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2011-11_95_6/page/1143|journal=The Medical clinics of North America|date=November 2011|volume=95|issue=6|pages=1143–61|pmid=22032432|doi=10.1016/j.mcna.2011.08.007}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|2}} === Bibliografi === {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book|author=John F. Murray|title=Murray and Nadel's textbook of respiratory medicine|year=2010|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-1-4160-4710-0|edition=5th}} * {{cite book|editor=Burke A. Cunha|title=Pneumonia essentials|year=2010|publisher=Physicians' Press|location=Sudbury, MA|isbn=978-0-7637-7220-8|edition=3rd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVgmFAbnrUgC&printsec=frontcover}} * {{cite book|last=Cunha|first=edited by Burke A.|title=Pneumonia essentials|year=2010|publisher=Physicians' Press|location=Sudbury, MA|isbn=0763772208|edition=3rd ed.|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=VVgmFAbnrUgC&printsec=frontcover}} {{Refend}}{{Wikiquote}} == Pautan lua == {{Medical condition classification and resources|Curlie=Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Respiratory_Disorders/Pneumonia/|DiseasesDB=10166|ICD10={{ICD10|J|12||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|13||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|14||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|15||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|16||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|17||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|18||j|09}}, {{ICD10|P|23||p|20}}|ICD9={{ICD9|480}}-{{ICD9|486}}, {{ICD9|770.0}}|MedlinePlus=000145|eMedicineSubj=search|eMedicineTopic=pneumonia|MeshID=D011014|Scholia=Q12192}} [[Kategori:Pulmonologi]] [[Kategori:Panyakik mamindah]] 555c7uevbioinbrop9hvkv1go5em1r5 0 324865 3351301 3156106 2026-08-05T22:46:55Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Malaria | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|l|ɛər|i|ə}} | image = Malaria Parasite Connecting to Human Red Blood Cell (34034143483).jpg | caption = Parasit malaria pado [[sel darah merah]] | field = [[Panyakik infeksi (spesialisasi medis)|Panyakik infeksi]] | symptoms = Damam, muntah, sakik kapalo<ref name=Cara2014>{{cite journal |author=Caraballo H |title=Emergency department management of mosquito-borne illness: Malaria, dengue, and west nile virus |journal=Emergency Medicine Practice |year=2014 |volume=16 |issue=5 |url=http://www.ebmedicine.net/topics.php?paction=showTopic&topic_id=405 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801202316/http://www.ebmedicine.net/topics.php?paction=showTopic&topic_id=405 |archivedate=2016-08-01 }}</ref> | complications = [[Panyakik kuniang|Kulik kuniang]], [[kajang]], [[Koma (medis)|koma]]<ref name=Cara2014/> | onset = 10–15 ari sudah tapapar<ref name=WHO2017Report>{{cite book|title=World Malaria Report 2017|date=2017|publisher=WHO|isbn=978-92-4-156552-3|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/259492/1/9789241565523-eng.pdf?ua=1}}</ref> | duration = | causes = ''Plasmodium'' nan dipindahan dek [[rangik]]<ref name=Cara2014/> | risks = | diagnosis = Pamaresoan darah, [[uji deteksi antigen malari|uji deteksi antigen]]<ref name=Cara2014/> | differential = | prevention = [[Kulambu]], [[ubek rangik]], [[pambarantasan sarang rangik]], ubek<ref name=Cara2014/> | treatment = | medication = [[Ubek antimalaria]]<ref name=WHO2014/> | frequency = 216 juta (2016)<ref name=WHO2017Report/> | deaths = 445.000 inggo 731.000<ref name=WHO2017Report/><ref name=GBD2015De>{{cite journal|last1=GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death|first1=Collaborators|title=Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015|journal=Lancet|date=8 October 2016|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1459–1544|pmid=27733281|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1|pmc=5388903}}</ref> }}'''Malaria''' adolah panyakik nan dipindahan dek rangik dari manusia jo binatang lain nan disababkan dek [[protozoa]] parasit (sakalompok [[mikroorganisme]] basel tungga) dalam [[Genus|tipe]] ''[[Plasmodium]]''.<ref name="WHO2014" /> Malaria manyababkan gejala nan biasonyo tamasuak [[damam]], panek, [[muntah]], jo [[sakik kapalo]].<!-- <ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> --> Dalam kasus nan parah dapek mambuek [[panyakik kuniang|kulik kuniang]], [[kajang]], [[Koma (medis)|koma]], atau [[kamatian]].<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Gejala biasonyo muncua sapuluah sampai limo baleh ari sasudah digigik.<ref name=WHO2014/> Kok indak taubek, panyakik mungkin kambuah babarapo bulan kudian.<ref name=WHO2014/> Pado urang nan baru cegak dari infeksi, infeksi ulang biasonyo manyababkan gejala ringan.<!-- <ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> --> [[Imunitas (medis)|Patahanan tubuah]] samantaro ko ka mailang salamo babarapo bulan inggo babarapo taun kok urang tasabuik indak tapapar taruih-manaruih jo malaria.<ref name="Caraballo 2014">{{cite journal |author=Caraballo H |title=Emergency department management of mosquito-borne illness: Malaria, dengue, and west nile virus |journal=Emergency Medicine Practice |year=2014 |volume=16 |issue=5 |url=http://www.ebmedicine.net/topics.php?paction=showTopic&topic_id=405}}</ref> == Etiologi jo diagnosis == Panyakik iko paliang acok dipindahan dek rangik ''[[Anopheles]]'' batino nan tainfeksi.<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Gigitan rangikk mamasuakan [[parasit]] dari aia liua rangik ka dalam [[Sistem sirkulasi|darah]] urang.<ref name=WHO2014/> Parasit bagarak ka ati di mano inyo manjadi gadang jo bareproduksi.<!-- <ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> --> Limo spesies ''Plasmodium'' dapek mainfeksi dan disebakan dek manusia.<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Sabagian gadang kamatian disababkan dek ''[[Plasmodium falciparum|P.&nbsp;falciparum]]'' samantaro ''[[Plasmodium vivax|P.&nbsp;vivax]]'', ''[[Plasmodium ovale|P.&nbsp;ovale]]'', jo ''[[Plasmodium malariae|P.&nbsp;malariae]]'' umumnyo mambuek gejala nan labiah ringan.<ref name=WHO2014/><ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Spesies ''[[Plasmodium knowlesi|P.&nbsp;knowlesi]]'' jarang mambuek panyakik pado manusia.<ref name=WHO2014/> Malaria biasonyo didiagnosis jo pamarisoan mikroskopis darah manggunokan [[film darah]], atau jo [[Tes deteksi antigen malaria|uji diagnostik capek]] manuruik-[[antigen]].<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Metode nan manggunokan [[reaksi barantai polimerase]] (''PCR; Polymerase Chain Reaction'') untuak mandeteksi [[DNA]] parasit alah dikambangkan, tapi indak banyak dipakai di daerah di mano malaria [[Endemik (epidemiologi)|endemik]] dek biaya jo rumik pamakaiannnyo.<ref name="Nadjm 2012">{{Cite journal |author=Nadjm B, Behrens RH |title=Malaria: An update for physicians |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_infectious-disease-clinics-of-north-america_2012-06_26_2/page/243 |journal=Infectious Disease Clinics of North America |year=2012 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=243–59 |pmid=22632637 |doi=10.1016/j.idc.2012.03.010}}</ref> == Panagahan panyakik == Risiko panyakik dapek dikurangi jo managah gigitan rangik jo mamakai [[kulambu]] sarato [[panulak serangga]] (''repellent''), atau jo tindakan pambarantasan sarang rangik sarupo panyemprotan [[insektisida]] sarato mangureh ganangan aia.<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Babarapo ubek tasadio untuak [[Profilaksis malaria|managah malaria]] pado wisatawan nan ka bakunjuang ka daerah di mano panyakik ko endemik.<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Dosis sakali pakai dari ubek [[sulfadoksin/pirimetamin]] direkomendasikan pado [[bayi]] dan salapeh [[trimester partamo]] kahamilan di daerah jo tingkek malaria tinggi.<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Walau baitu adonyo upayo untuak mangambangkan vaksinnyo sadang balansuang.<ref name=WHO2014/> Pangubatan nan direkomendasikan untuak malaria adolah kombinasi [[ubek antimalaria]] nan tadiri ateh [[artemisinin]].<ref name=WHO2014/><ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Ubek kaduo mungkin [[meflokuin]], [[lumefantrin]], atau [[sulfadoksin/pirimetamin]].<ref name=WHO2010>{{cite book|last1=Organization|first1=World Health|title=Guidelines for the treatment of malaria|date=2010|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241547925|page=ix|edition=2nd}}</ref> [[Kuinin]] basamo jo [[doksisiklin]] buliah dipakai kok artemisinin indak tasadio.<ref name=WHO2010/> Resistensi parasit alah mulai untuak babarapo ubek antimalaria; misalnyo, ''P.&nbsp;falciparum'' resisten-[[klorokuin]] alah manyeba ka sabagian gadang wilayah malaria, jo katahanan pado artemisinin alah manjadi masalah di babarapo bagian Asia Tenggara.<ref name=WHO2014>{{cite web|title=Malaria Fact sheet N°94|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/|website=WHO|accessdate=28 August 2014|date=March 2014}}</ref> == Epidemiologi == Panyakik ko taseba laweh di daerah [[Tropika|tropis]] jo [[subtropis]] nan ado di sakitar [[khatulistiwa]].<ref name="Caraballo 2014"/> Iko tamasuak banyak dari [[Afrika Sub-Sahara]], [[Asia]], jo [[Amerika Latin]].<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/> --> Pado 2015, ado 214 juta kasus malaria di saluruah dunia.<ref name=WHO15>{{cite web|title=Malaria Fact sheet N°94|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/|publisher=WHO|accessdate=2 February 2016}}</ref> Hal ko mambuek sakitar 438.000 kamatian, 90% di antaronyo tajadi di Afrika.<ref name=WHO15/> Tingkek panyakik manurun dari taun 2000 inggo 2015 sagadang 37%,<ref name=WHO15/> namun maningkek dari 2014 di mano ado 198 juta kasus.<ref name=WHO2014Book>{{cite book|last1=WHO|title=World Malaria Report 2014|date=2014|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva, Switzerland|isbn=978-92-4156483-0|pages=32–42|url=http://www.who.int/entity/malaria/publications/world_malaria_report_2014/en/index.html}}</ref> Malaria umumnyo takaik jo kamiskinan jo mampunyoi efek negatif nan gadang pado [[pambangunan ekonomi]].<ref name="IftSoL">{{Cite report |vauthors=Gollin D, Zimmermann C |title=Malaria: Disease Impacts and Long-Run Income Differences |date=August 2007 |publisher=[[Institute for the Study of Labor]] |url=http://ftp.iza.org/dp2997.pdf |format=PDF |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318151954/http://ftp.iza.org/dp2997.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-18 }}</ref><ref name="Worrall 2005">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Worrall E, Basu S, Hanson K |title=Is malaria a disease of poverty? A review of the literature |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tropical-medicine-and-international-health_2005-10_10_10/page/1047 |journal=Tropical Health and Medicine |year=2005 |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=1047–59 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01476.x |pmid=16185240}} {{open access}}</ref> Di Afrika, malaria dipakirokan maakibatkan karugian sabanyak US$12 miliar sataun dek maningkeknyo biaya kasihatan, kailangan kamampuan untuak bakarajo, jo efek negatif pado pariwisata.<ref name="Greenwood 2002">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Greenwood B, Mutabingwa T |title=Malaria in 2002 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-02-07_415_6872/page/670 |journal=Nature |year=2002 |volume=415|issue=6872 |pages=670–72 |pmid=11832954 |doi=10.1038/415670a}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} ;Literatur lain * {{Cite report |author=WHO |title=Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria |edition=2nd |year=2010 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-154792-5 |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241547925_eng.pdf |format=PDF |ref=harv |access-date=2019-09-30 |archive-date=2015-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422004034/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241547925_eng.pdf |dead-url=yes }} * {{Cite book |vauthors=Schlagenhauf-Lawlor P |title=Travelers' Malaria |year=2008 |publisher=PMPH-USA |isbn=978-1-55009-336-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54Dza0UHyngC |ref=harv}} == Bacoan lanjuik == * {{Cite book |editor=Bynum WF |editorlink=W. F. Bynum |editor2=Overy C |title=The Beast in the Mosquito: The Correspondence of Ronald Ross and Patrick Manson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5BXbsSJLaToC |year=1998 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-90-420-0721-5 |series=Wellcome Institute Series in The History of Medicine}} * {{cite book|title=Guidelines for the treatment of malaria|date=2015|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-92-4-154912-7|edition=3rd |url=http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241549127/en/}} * {{cite web |last1=Jarvis |first1=Brooke |title=How Mosquitoes Changed Everything |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/08/05/how-mosquitoes-changed-everything |accessdate=8 August 2019 |language=en |date=29 July 2019}} * {{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=28 March 2019|title=Tightening the handle on malaria|url=|journal=Nature Methods|type=Editorial|volume=16|pages=271|doi=10.1038/s41592-019-0390-2|quote=A day dedicated to raising awareness of the disease is a good opportunity to ask how far malaria research has come and which methods are needed for further breakthroughs.|via=}}<!-- This is something of a very brief annual review of key research and should be supplanted by more up to date items when they emerge. --> == Pautan lua == {{Medical condition classification and resources | ICD10 = {{ICD10|B|50||b|50}}-{{ICD10|B|54||b|54}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|084}} | DiseasesDB = 7728 | MedlinePlus = 000621 | OMIM = 248310 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 1385 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|305}} {{eMedicine2|ped|1357}} | MeshName = Malaria | MeshNumber = C03.752.250.552 | Orphanet = 673 | Scholia = Q12156 }} <br /> {{Sister project links |wikt=malaria |commons=Category:Malaria |n=Malaria |q=no |s=Malaria |b=Malaria |voy=Malaria |v=Malaria}} * {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Infectious_Diseases/Parasitic/Malaria}} * [http://www.emro.who.int/entity/malaria-control-and-elimination/ WHO site on malaria] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111220220958/http://www.unhco.org/malaria/ UNHCO site on malaria] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100411074836/http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/gmap/ Global Malaria Action Plan] (2008) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080511083534/http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/news/issue.cfm?id=2395 Doctors Without Borders/Médecins Sans Frontières – ''Malaria''] information pages * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130520072620/http://www.wehi.edu.au/other_domains/MalDB/who.html WHO/TDR Malaria Database] via the [[Wayback Machine]] * [http://www.antimalariaomd.org/en/index.php Anti-malaria and sustainable development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317174946/http://www.antimalariaomd.org/en/index.php |date=2018-03-17 }} * [http://www.wwarn.org Worldwide Antimalarial Resistance Network (WWARN)] {{portal bar |Medicine}} [[Kategori:Malaria| ]] iwiuskt1m087x696mmyvqh6nfr4fwar 0 325272 3351240 1919680 2026-08-05T21:08:26Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351240 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Russian inhabited locality|en_name=Kazan|ru_name=Казань|loc_lang1=Tatar|loc_name2=|loc_lang2=|loc_name3=|loc_lang3=|loc_name4=|loc_lang4=|other_name=|other_lang=|image_skyline=KAZ Collage 2015.png|image_caption=Kida ka suok, ateh ka bawah: Manara Spasskaya, [[Manara Söyembikä]], [[Musajik Qolsharif]], Istano Tukang Taranak (''Farmers's Palace''), Katedral Epiphany, panorama Kazan|image_map=|map_caption=|coordinates={{coord|55|47|47|N|49|06|32|E|display=inline,title}}|image_flag=Flag of Kazan.svg|flag_caption=|image_coa=Coat of Arms of Kazan (Tatarstan).svg|coa_caption=|anthem=|anthem_ref=|holiday=30&nbsp;Agustus|holiday_ref=<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kgmu.kcn.ru/english/about_kazan.html |title=ARCHIVED COPY |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208013913/http://kgmu.kcn.ru/english/about_kazan.html |archive-date=8 December 2009 }}</ref> <!-- administrative status -->|federal_subject=[[Tatarstan]]|federal_subject_ref=<ref name="Ref1500" />|adm_district_jur=|adm_district_jur_ref=|adm_inhabloc_jur=[[city of federal subject significance|city of republic significance]] of Kazan|adm_inhabloc_jur_ref=<ref name="Ref1500" />|adm_citydistrict_jur=|adm_citydistrict_type=|adm_citydistrict_jur_ref=|adm_selsoviet_jur=|adm_selsoviet_type=|adm_selsoviet_jur_ref=|capital_of=Republik Tatarstan|capital_of_ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tatarstan.ru/eng/about/welcome.htm|title=Welcome to the Republic of Tatarstan|website=tatarstan.ru|accessdate=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916225234/http://tatarstan.ru/eng/about/welcome.htm|archivedate=16 September 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>|adm_ctr_of1=kota signifikan republik Kazan|adm_ctr_of1_ref=<ref name="Ref1500" />|adm_ctr_of2=|adm_ctr_of2_ref=|adm_ctr_of3=|adm_ctr_of3_ref=|inhabloc_cat=Kota|inhabloc_cat_ref=<ref name="Ref1500" />|inhabloc_type=Kota signifikansi republik|inhabloc_type_ref=<ref name="Ref1500" /> <!-- municipal status -->|mun_district_jur=|mun_district_jur_ref=|urban_okrug_jur=Okrug Urban Kazan|urban_okrug_jur_ref=<ref name="Ref894" />|urban_settlement_jur=|urban_settlement_jur_ref=|rural_settlement_jur=|rural_settlement_jur_ref=|inter_settlement_territory=|inter_settlement_territory_ref=|mun_admctr_of1=Okrug Urban Kazan|mun_admctr_of1_ref=<ref name="Ref894" />|mun_admctr_of2=|mun_admctr_of2_ref=|leader_title=Wali kota|leader_title_ref=<ref name="Mayor">[http://www.metshin.ru/ Official website of the Mayor of Kazan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903062131/http://www.metshin.ru/ |date=3 September 2011 }} {{ru icon}}</ref>|leader_name=[[Ilsur Metshin]]|leader_name_ref=<ref name="Mayor"/>|representative_body=Duma Kota Kazan|representative_body_ref=<ref name="RepBody">Official website of Kazan. [http://www.kzn.ru/gorduma Kazan City Duma] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304073318/http://kzn.ru/gorduma |date=4 March 2012 }} {{ru icon}}</ref> <!-- statistics -->|elevation_m=|area_km2=425.3|area_km2_ref=<ref name="GKS">площадь собственно города, [http://www.gks.ru/dbscripts/munst/munst92/DBInet.cgi Федеральная служба государственной статистики] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115054002/http://www.gks.ru/dbscripts/munst/munst92/DBInet.cgi |date=15 November 2013 }}</ref>|pop_2010census=1143535|pop_2010census_rank=8th|pop_2010census_ref=<ref name="2010Census">{{ru-pop-ref|2010Census}}</ref>|pop_latest=1243500|pop_latest_date=2018|pop_latest_ref=<ref name="2018Projection" />|population_demonym=|time_zone_ref=<!-- history -->|established_date=1005|established_title=|established_date_ref=<ref name="Foundation">{{Cite journal|issue=3/4|last=Шаймиев|first=Минтимер Шарипович |first2=Камиль |last2=Исхаков |first3=Мансур Х |last3=Хәсәнов |script-title=ru:Выступления Президента РТ М. Шаймиева, мэра г.Казани К.Исхакова и президента АН РТ, академика М.Хасанова на торжественном собрании по случаю установления даты основания г.Казани |language=ru |journal=Гасырлар авазы/Эхо веков|accessdate=17 July 2011|date=10 September 1999|url=http://www.archive.gov.tatarstan.ru/magazine/go/anonymous/main/?path=mg:/numbers/1999_3_4/01/01_2/|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002083224/http://www.archive.gov.tatarstan.ru/magazine/go/anonymous/main/?path=mg%3A%2Fnumbers%2F1999_3_4%2F01%2F01_2%2F|archivedate=2 October 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> (see text)|current_cat_date=|current_cat_date_ref=|abolished_date=|abolished_date_ref=<!-- misc -->|postal_codes=420xxx|postal_codes_ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aboutkazan.com/|title=Kazan Russia - a thousand-year Russian city travel guide|website=aboutkazan.com|accessdate=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archiveurl=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20070828022156/http://aboutkazan.com/|archivedate=28 August 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref>|dialing_codes=843|dialing_codes_ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/city.html?n=354|title=Current Local Time in Kazan, Russia|website=www.timeanddate.com|accessdate=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209215458/http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/city.html?n=354|archivedate=9 February 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>|website=http://www.kzn.ru/|date=Desember 2018}} '''Kazan''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|z|æ|n|,_|-|ˈ|z|ɑː|n}}; {{lang-rus|Каза́нь|p=kɐˈzanʲ}}; {{lang-tt|Казан}})<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86#Tatar|title=قزان - Wiktionary|website=en.wiktionary.org|access-date=2019-01-16}}</ref> adolah kota paliang gadang di [[Republik Tatarstan]], [[Rusia]]. Kota ko bapanduduak 1.243.500 juta,<ref name="2018Projection">[http://tatstat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/tatstat/resources/653e220044e2e011afb9afde4cdebdf4/МОчисл2018.pdf Численность населения муниципальных образований Республики Татарстан] (Population of the Republic of Tatarstan municipalities report, per 1st Jan. 2018) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415232659/http://tatstat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/tatstat/resources/653e220044e2e011afb9afde4cdebdf4/МОчисл2018.pdf|date=15 April 2016}}</ref> sainggo manjadi kota paliang rami panduduak kaanam di Rusia. Kazan talatak di patamuan [[Batang Volga]] jo [[Batang Kazanka|Kazanka]] di Rusia bagian Eropa, kiro-kiro 715 km di timur [[Moskow]]. Pado abaik patangahan, Kazan marupokan tampek niago pantiang sarato pusek pamarintahan [[Pasukan Ameh]] (''Golden Horde''). Pado 1438, kota ko manjadi ibu kota [[Kakhanan Kazan]]. Pado 1552, Kazan dirabuik dek [[Ivan nan Mangarikan]] inggo manjadi bagian dari Rusia. Sabagian gadang kota ko ancua salamo [[Pambarontakan Pugachev]], kudian dibangun baliak salamo kuaso [[Katerina nan Aguang]]. Pada abaik barikuiknyo, Kazan tumbuah manjadi pusek industri, budayo, jo agamo di Rusia. Kazan manjadi tanamo dek manjadi kota pancampuran budayo Rusia jo Oriental (tmur).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.prospektmag.com/2017/11/kazan-vibrant-mix-russian-tatar-cultures/|title=Kazan: A vibrant mix of Russian and Tatar cultures|last=Yausheva|first=Anzhela|date=2017-11-23|website=Prospekt Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-30}}</ref> Pado [[2015]], 2,1 juta palancong mangunjuangi Kazan, jo 1,5 juta palancong bakunjuang ka [[Kremlin Kazan]], sabuah [[Situs Warisan Dunia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tatar-inform.ru/news/2016/02/08/490663/|title=2,1 млн. туристов посетили Казань в 2015 году|publisher=tatar-inform.ru|language=ru|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209094150/http://www.tatar-inform.ru/news/2016/02/08/490663/|archivedate=9 February 2016|access-date=9 February 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Pado April [[2009]], Kantua Paten Rusia maizinan Kazan untuak dilabeli sabagai "Ibu Kota Katigo" Rusia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.pravda.ru/history/03-04-2009/107354-kazan-0/|title=Kazan officially becomes Russia's Third Capital|date=2009-04-03|work=Pravda|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602114414/http://english.pravda.ru/history/03-04-2009/107354-kazan-0/|archivedate=2 June 2013|accessdate=26 March 2013|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Pado taun nan samo, tapiliah pulo sabagai "ibukota olahraga Rusia"<ref name="sportcap">[http://kazan.kp.ru/online/news/587131/ Komsomolskaya Pravda: Kazan - sports capital of Russia 14.12.2009] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724135839/http://kazan.kp.ru/online/news/587131/|date=24 July 2011}}</ref> inggo kini.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mytopdozen.com/Best_Tatars.html|title=List of Best Tatars|publisher=Mytopdozen.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403141548/http://www.mytopdozen.com/Best_Tatars.html|archivedate=3 April 2012|accessdate=26 March 2013|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} ===Sumber lain=== * {{RussiaAdmMunRef|ta|adm|list}} * {{RussiaAdmMunRef|ta|mun|list|kazan}} * {{cite journal|last=Álvarez Veinguer|first=Aurora|date=July 2007|title=(Re)Presenting Identities: National Archipelagos in Kazan|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nationalities-papers_2007-07_35_3/page/457|journal=[[Nationalities Papers]]|volume=35|issue=3|pages=457–476|doi=10.1080/00905990701368704}} {{geografi-stub}} {{Commons}} [[Kategori:Rusia]] ej4bi736i305e1867k3thqyjunppycc 0 325645 3351318 3152198 2026-08-05T23:15:50Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ANT}}{{Pambantahan medis}} {{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Stroke|image=MCA Territory Infarct.svg|caption=[[CT scan]] utak nan manunjuakan sisi kiri utak nan maalami kakurangan darah (iskemik) dari sumbatan pado arteri. Parubahan pado CT buliah jadi indak tampak pado gejala mulo<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gaillard |first1=Frank |title=Ischaemic stroke |url=https://radiopaedia.org/articles/ischaemic-stroke |website=radiopaedia.org |access-date=3 June 2018 |language=en}}</ref>|field=[[Neurologi]]|synonyms=''Cerebrovascular accident'' (CVA), ''cerebrovascular insult'' (CVI), sarangan utak|symptoms=[[hemiplegia|Indak talok manggarik atau marasoi]] pado ciek sisi badan, [[receptive aphasia|masalah mamahami bahaso]] atau [[expressive aphasia|mangecek]], [[paniang]], [[Homonymous hemianopsia|ilang pandangan di ciek sisi]]<ref name=Donnan2008/><ref name=HLB2014S/>|complications=[[Kondisi vegetatif persisten]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=PhD|first1=Gary Martin|title=Palliative Care Nursing: Quality Care to the End of Life, Third Edition|date=2009|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-5792-8|page=290|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rTexGiX5bqoC&pg=PA290|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803132127/https://books.google.com/books?id=rTexGiX5bqoC&pg=PA290|archive-date=2017-08-03|df=}}</ref>|onset=|duration=|causes=[[Iskemik]] (sumbatan) jo [[Padarahan intrakranial|hemoragik]] (padarahan)<ref name=HLB2014W/>|risks=[[hipertensi|Takanan darah tinggi]], [[marokok]], [[obesitas]], [[hiperkolesterolemia|kolesterol darah tinggi]], [[diabetes mellitus]], riwayaik [[Transient ischemic attack|TIA]], [[fibrilasi atrium]]<ref name=Donnan2008/><ref name=HLB2014C/>|diagnosis=Manuruik gejala sarato [[pancitraan medis]] biasonyo untuak manyingkiran kamungkinan padarahan<ref name=HLB2014D/><ref name=AFP2009/>|differential=[[Gulo darah randah]]<ref name=HLB2014D/>|prevention=|treatment=Manuruik tipe<ref name=Donnan2008/>|medication=|prognosis=Harapan iduik rato-rato 1 taun<ref name=Donnan2008/>|frequency=42,4 juta (2015)<ref name=GBD2015Pre/>|deaths=6,3 juta (2015)<ref name=GBD2015De/>}} '''Stroke''' (dibaco: ''strok'') adolah karusakan jaringan utak baiak sabagian atau sadoalahannyo nan tajadi mandadak, balansuang labiah dari 24 jam sarato disababkan dek faktor-faktor masalah [[pambuluah darah]] (vaskular). Pambuluah darah arteri nan maaliakan darah ka utak tasumbek, kuyak, atau tirih.<ref name=":0">Indonesia, I. D. (2014). [http://www.idionline.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/PPK-Primer.pdf Panduan praktik klinis bagi dokter di fasilitas pelayanan kesehatan primer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026100634/http://www.idionline.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/PPK-Primer.pdf |date=2019-10-26 }}. ''Jakarta: Kementrian Kesehatan RI''.</ref> Stroke atau '''''cerebrovascular accident'' (CVA)''', marupokan ilangnyo fungsi-fungsi utak sacaro capek, dek gangguan suplai darah ka utak. Hal iko dapek tajadi dek iskemia (bakurangnyo aliran darah) nan disababkan juo dek panyumbekan (''thrombosis'', ''arterial embolism''), atau adonyo padarahan (''haemorrhage'').<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sims NR, Muyderman H|title=Mitochondria, oxidative metabolism and cell death in stroke|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta|volume=1802|issue=1|pages=80–91|date=September 2009|pmid=19751827|doi=10.1016/j.bbadis.2009.09.003}}</ref> Stroke iskemik nan biasonyo disababkan dek diabetes manjadi mayoritas pado pandarito stroke sarato bisa mancapai 85 persen, sadangkan stroke padarahan hanyo 15 persen, tapi stroke padarahan dapek manyababkan kamatian pado 40 persen pasiennyo. Nan juo manjadi paratian adolah stroke iskemik ringan nan gejalanyo sarupo stroke, tapi ka ilang surang dalam 24 jam (''transient ischemic attacks'' (TIA)). Hal iko tajadi dek pambuluah darah hanyo tasumbek samantaro. Ka baapun juo, kok lah kanai sakali, stroke nan labiah barek dapek muncua di kudian ari.<ref name="TIA">{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/07/01/detecting-and-dealing-with-strokes.html|title=Detecting and dealing with strokes|date=July 1, 2014|author=Niken Prathivi}}</ref> Stroke adolah panyabab katigo kamatian paliang banyak sarato panyabab utamo kacacatan pado urang gadang di Amerika Serikat jo Eropa. Manuruik laporan Riskesdas 2007 (Riset Kesehatan Dasar), stroke pun marupokan panyabab kamatian partamo di Indonesia. Stroke tajadi pado 12 dari 1.000 urang jo ciek dari 7 pasien nan maalami stroke ka maningga.<ref name="TIA3">{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/07/01/detecting-and-dealing-with-strokes.html|title=Detecting and dealing with strokes|date=July 1, 2014|author=Niken Prathivi}}</ref> Stroke paralu tindakan darurat medis (''medical emergency'') pado maso amehnyo (''golden period'') nan paliang lamo hanyo balansuang babarapo jam sajo sasudah tajadinyo stroke. Hal ko diparalukan untuak manahan tajadinyo karusakan tatap atau karusakan nan labiah parah. Kok indak ditangani, malah bisa barakibaik pado kamatian. Dek itu, daerah utak nan takanai stroke indak dapek bafungsi samustinyo. Gejala-gejalanyo tamasuak: hemiplegia (kaindakmampuan untuak manggarikan ciek atau labiah anggota badan dari salah satu sisi badan), aphasia (kaindakmampuan untuak mangarati atau mangecek), atau kaindakmampuan untuak mancaliak salah satu sisi dari lapangan pandang (''visual field'').<ref name="Donnan">{{cite journal|author=Donnan GA, Fisher M, Macleod M, Davis SM|title=Stroke|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_may-10-16-2008_371_9624/page/1612|journal=Lancet|volume=371|issue=9624|pages=1612–23|date=May 2008|pmid=18468545|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60694-7}}</ref> Faktor-faktor nan maningkekan risiko tajadinyo stroke adolah: umua, [[takanan darah tinggi]], riwayaik stroke sabalunnyo, [[Diabetes melitus|diabetes]], kolesterol tinggi, marokok, fibrilasi atrium, [[migrain]] jo aura, sarato trombofilia (kacondongan untuak thrombosis). Dari sadoalah faktor-faktor tu nan paliang mudah dikandalikan adolah takanan darah tinggi jo marokok. 80 persen stroke dapek diilakan jo pangandalian faktor-faktor risiko.<ref name="TIA2">{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/07/01/detecting-and-dealing-with-strokes.html|title=Detecting and dealing with strokes|date=July 1, 2014|author=Niken Prathivi}}</ref><br /> == Klasifikasi == Stroke dibagi manjadi duo jinih yaitu stroke iskemik jo stroke hemorragik. Sabuah progonis hasia sabuah panalitian di Korea manyatokan baso<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10660147|title=Ischemic stroke in Korean young adults|work=Department of Neurology, University of Ulsan, Asan Medical Center; Kwon SU, Kim JS, Lee JH, Lee MC.|accessdate=2011-08-21}}</ref> 75,2% stroke iskemik didarito dek laki-laki jo prevalensi barupo hipertensi, kabiasoan marokok, jo konsumsi alkohol. Deteksi dini dalam maso ''Golden Period'' babarapo jam sasudah sarangan stroke sangaik bararti untuak kasihatan pasien pasca stroke. Stroke iskemik, dek panyumbatan musti diagiah ubek pangencer darah untuak malancarkan sumbatan dalam wakatu indak labiah dari 3 jam salapeh sarangan stroke, sadangkan stroke hemorragik dimano tajadi padarahan musti sagiro dilakukan pambadahan untuak mambarasiahan darah dari utak. Kok talambek panangannyo, mako pasien ka mandarito kondisi pasca stroke nan labiah barek.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wartakota.tribunnews.com/2014/08/26/alami-stroke-harus-segera-dibawa-ke-dokter|title=Alami Stroke Harus Segera Dibawa Ke Dokter|date=26 Agustus 2014}}</ref> === Stroke hemorragik === Dalam stroke [[Pendarahan|hemorragik]], pambuluah darah pacah sainggo maambek aliran darah nan normal jo darah marembes ka dalam suatu daerah di utak inggo marusaknyo. Padarahan dapek tajadi di sadoalah bagian utak sarupo ''caudate putamen''; [[talamus]]; [[hipokampus]]; frontal, parietal, jo ''occipital cortex''; [[hipotalamus]]; area suprakiasmatik; ''cerebellum''; ''pons''; dan ''midbrain''.<ref name="PMC2914803">{{en}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2914803|title=A New Embolus Injection Method to Evaluate Intracerebral Hemorrhage in New Zealand White Rabbits|work=Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Department of Neurology; Paul A. Lapchak, Ph.D., FAHA|accessdate=2011-09-08}}</ref> Ampia 70 persen kasus stroke hemorrhagik manyarang pandarito hipertensi.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851591|title=Variants of the Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 but not the Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 genes significantly influence functional outcome after stroke|work=Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Departamento Promoção da Saúde e Doenças Crónicas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr Ricardo Jorge, Center for Biodiversity, Functional & Integrative Genomics (BIOFIG), Clinical Neurology Research Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Serviço de Neurologia, Hospital de Santa Maria; Helena Manso, Tiago Krug, João Sobral, Isabel Albergaria, Gisela Gaspar, José M Ferro, Sofia A Oliveira, dan Astrid M Vicente|accessdate=2011-09-08|quote=History of hypertension, although not associated in the univariate analysis, became significant in the multivariate model before inclusion of genetic variants, and was therefore included in the final regression model.}}</ref> Stroke hemorragik tabagi manuruik tampek padarahannyo manjadi subtipe ''intracerebral hemorrhage'' (ICH), ''subarachnoid hemorrhage'' (SAH),<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2734292|title=Influence of stroke subtype on quality of care in the Get With The Guidelines–Stroke Program|work=Calgary Stroke Program (E.E.S.), Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Duke Clinical Research Institute (L.L., A.H.), Department of Epidemiology (M.J.R.), Michigan State University, Division of Cardiology (C.P.C.), Brigham & Women's Hospital, Division of Cardiology (G.C.F.), University of California, Stroke Service (L.H.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital; E E. Smith, MD, MPH, L Liang, PhD, A Hernandez, MD, M J. Reeves, PhD, C P. Cannon, MD, G C. Fonarow, MD, dan L H. Schwamm, MD|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref> ''cerebral venous thrombosis'', jo ''spinal cord stroke''.<ref name="PM19342825">{{en}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19342825|title=Classification of stroke subtypes.|work=Department of Neurology and Stroke Center, INSERM U-698 and Paris-Diderot University, Bichat University Hospital; Amarenco P, Bogousslavsky J, Caplan LR, Donnan GA, Hennerici MG.|accessdate=2011-08-01}}</ref> ICH labiah lanjuiik tabagi manjadi ''parenchymal hemorrhage'', ''hemorrhagic infarction'', jo ''punctate hemorrhage''.<ref name="PMC2914803" /> === Stroke iskemik === Dalam stroke iskemik, panyumbatan bisa tajadi di sapanjang jalua pambuluah darah [[arteri]] nan manuju ka utak. Darah ka utak disuplai dek duo [[Arteria karotis interna|arteri karotis interna]] jo duo [[arteri vertebralis]]. Arteri carotis interna marupokan cabang dari arteri karotis komunis sadangkan arteri vertebralis marupokan cabang dari arteri subklavia. == Patofisiologi == [[Berkas:MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG|pra=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG|jmpl|Hasia otopsi utak nan maalami stroke.]] Inggo kini patofisiologi stroke marupokan studi nan sabagian gadang didasarkan pado sarangkaian panalitian,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15554412 |title = Pathophysiology of stroke: lessons from animal models. |accessdate = 2011-07-28|work = Department of Experimental Neurology Charité, Humboldt University; Mergenthaler P, Dirnagl U, Meisel A.}}</ref> pado baragam proses nan saliang taubuang, maliputi kagagalan [[energi]], ilangnyo [[homeostasis]] [[ion]] [[sel (biologi)|sel]], [[asidosis]], paningkekan kadar [[kalsium|Ca²⁺]] [[sitoplasma|sitosolik]], [[eksitotoksisitas]], [[toksisitas]] jo [[radikal bebas]], produksi [[asam arakidonat]], [[sitotoksisitas]] jo [[sitokina]], aktivasi [[sistem komplemen]], gangguan [[sawar darah utak]], aktivasi [[sel glial]] sarato [[infiltrasi]] [[leukosit]].<ref name="PMC3037909">{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3037909|title = Pathophysiology, treatment, and animal and cellular models of human ischemic stroke|accessdate = 2011-07-30 |work = School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Department of Neurology and Stroke Center, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University; Trent M Woodruff, John Thundyil, Sung-Chun Tang, Christopher G Sobey, Stephen M Taylor, dan Thiruma V Arumugam}}</ref> Pusek area [[otak besar|utak gadang]] nan takanai [[iskemia]] ka maalami panurunan aliran darah nan dramatis, manjadi cidera jo mamicu [[transduksi sinyal seluler|sarangkaian reaksi]] co [[lintasan metabolisme|lintasan]] [[eksitotoksisitas]] nan baujuang pado [[nekrosis|kamatian sel (nekrosis)]] nan manjadi pusek area [[infark|mati (infark)]] dikaliliangi dek [[penumbra]]/zona peri-infarksi. Manuruik [[morfologi]], kamatiak sel marupokan [[bangkak]] seluler dek gangguan [[inti sel]], [[organel]], [[membran plasma]], jo [[disintegrasi]] struktur inti jo [[sitoskeleton|rangko sel (sitoskeleton)]]. Di area penumbra, apoptosis neural (kamatian saraf surang) diupayokan taambek dek kaduo mekanisme yaitu eksitotoksik jo paradangan,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10441299|title = Pathobiology of ischaemic stroke: an integrated view.|accessdate = 2011-07-28|work = Dept of Neurology, Charité Hospital; Dirnagl U, Iadecola C, Moskowitz MA.}}</ref> dek karano sel utak nan masih normal ka mamanciang [[sistem kekebalan turunan|sistem kakebalan turunan]] untuak maningkekan toleransi jaringan utak pado kondisi iskemia, supayo dapek malakukan aktivitas [[metabolisme]]. Protein khas dalam cairan serobrospinal (cairan nan baedar dalam sistem saraf pusek) sarupo [[pancortin-2]] ka bakontak jo protein modulator [[aktin]], ''Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein verprolin homologous-1'' (WAVE-1) jo Bcl-xL nan ka mambantuak kompleks protein mitokondrial untuak proses panghambatan tasabuik. == Faktor risiko == Faktor risiko nan indak dapek diubah<ref name=":0" /> * Umua * Jinih kalamin, utamonyo laki-laki * Genetik [[Berkas:Stroke ischemic.jpg|jmpl|280x280px|Panyumbatan darah pado pambuluah darah di utak manjadi panyabab stroke iskemik.]] Faktor risiko nan dapek diubah<ref name=":0" /> * [[Hipertensi]] * [[Diabetes Melitus]] * [[Panyakik jantuang]] * [[Dislipidemia]] * Marokok * Ado riwayaik TIA atau stroke sabalunnyo * [[Polisitemia]] * [[Obesitas]] * Kurang olahraga * Fibrinogen tinggi === Hipertensi === Hipertensi (takanan darah tinggi) ka marangsang pambantuakan [[plak]] [[Aterosklerosis|aterosklerotik]] di pambuluah arteri jo arteriol dalam [[utak]], sarato mamantiak mulainyo [[lintasan]] [[lipohialinosis]] di pambuluah ganglia basal utak, inggo manyababkan [[Infark#infark lakunar|infark lakunar]] atau [[Pendarahan otak|padarahan utak]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2475602|title=Hypertension and Cerebrovascular Dysfunction|work=Costantino Iadecola, Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill Cornell Medical College; Costantino Iadecola dan Robin L. Davisson|accessdate=2011-08-21}}</ref> == Deteksi dini == [[Berkas:What is a Stroke simpleshow foundation 2016-06-08.webm|jmpl|292x292px|Apo itu stroke? (bahaso Inggirih)]] Deteksi dini kamungkinan tajadinyo stroke, bukanlah diagnosis, marupokan caro untuak tau kamungkinan tajadinyo stroke nan musti ditindaklanjuti jo pamaresoan lanjutan. Kok sasaurang indak dapek tagak jo ciek kaki salamo 20 datiak, mako ado kamungkinan (ka) tajadi stroke atau kamunduran kognitif, dek karano untuak malakukan tugas itu diparalukan kasaimbangan nan mamaralukan paredaran darah nan prima ka otak. Hal iko alah diungkapkan pado jurnal ''Stroke American Heart Association''. Samakin payah batagak jo hanyo ciek kaki, samakin tinggi (ka) bakamungkinan tajadi stroke.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wartakota.tribunnews.com/2015/07/27/tanda-stroke-sulit-berdiri-dengan-satu-kaki?page=2|title=Tanda Stroke, Sulit Berdiri dengan Satu Kaki|date=27 Juli 2015|author=Lucky Octaviano}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Diagnosis stroke dilakukan sacaro klinis sarato pamaresoan panunjang. Pamaresoan panunjang nan dapek dilakukan antaro lain [[Tomografi terkomputasi|CT scan]] kapalo, [[MRI]]. Untuak manilai kasadaran pandarito stroke dapek digunokan [[Skala Koma Glasgow]]. Untuak mambedakan jinih stroke dapek digunokan babagai sistem panilaian, sarupo [[Skor Stroke Siriraj]], [[Algoritme Stroke Gajah Mada]], atau [[Algoritme Junaedi]]. === Gejala === Fitur stroke iskemik nan sangaik umum, manuruik ''Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences'', masih manuruik pado banyaknyo hasia diagnosis pamaresoan fisik pado pandarito nan dirangkum dalam ciek kurun wakatu. USUHS marangkumnyo manjadi tabel [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722757/table/T2 barikuik] bia dapek dipakai masyarakaik awam untuak mangenali gejala klinis stroke sadini mungkin. Dan untuak tanago medis profesional, ''The National Institute of Health'' alah mambuek tabel [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/doctors/NIH_Stroke_Scale.pdf skala strok] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911090351/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/doctors/NIH_Stroke_Scale.pdf |date=2011-09-11 }} sabagai panduan guno malakukan diagnosis dalam wakatu kurang dari 5 inggo 10 minik. Sarangan stroke tajadi mandadak jo gejala-gejalanyo antaro lain: * Lamah atau lumpuah salah satu sisi wajah, langan, jo tungkai (''hemiparesis'': kaindakmampuan untuak manggarikan ciek atau labiah anggota badan dari salah satu sisi badan; ''hemiplegi'') * Gangguan sensorik pado salah satu sisi wajah, langan, jo tungkai (hemihipestesi atau hemianestesi) * Gangguan bicaro (diartria) * Gangguan babahaso (afasia) * Gejala saraf lainnyo sarupo jalan oyong (ataksia), raso baputa (vertigo), sulit malulua (disfagia), pandangan ganda (diplopia), lapangan pandang manyampik (hemianopsia, kwadran-anopsia) Urang nan mandarito panyakik ko bisa marasoan ciek atau labiah gejala di ateh. Dapek pulo tasuo pandarito nan juo nyeri kapalo, mual, muntah, panurunan kasadaran, jo kajang wakatu tajadi sarangan stroke. Untuak mamudahan tau jo gejala stroke bapakai pulo istilah '''FAST''' tadiri ateh '''''F'''acial movement, '''A'''rm movement, '''S'''peech'', jo '''''T'''est all three''.<ref name=":0" /> == Pananganan == Pandarito stroke akut biasonyo diagiah SM-20302,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11779904|title = The nonpeptide glycoprotein IIb/IIIa platelet receptor antagonist SM-20302 reduces tissue plasminogen activator-induced intracerebral hemorrhage after thromboembolic stroke.|accessdate = 2011-09-08|work = Department of Neuroscience, University of California at San Diego; Lapchak PA, Araujo DM, Song D, Zivin JA.}}</ref> atau ''microplasmin'',<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12215599 |title = Microplasmin: a novel thrombolytic that improves behavioral outcome after embolic strokes in rabbits. |accessdate = 2011-09-08 |work = Department of Neuroscience, University of California at San Diego; Lapchak PA, Araujo DM, Pakola S, Song D, Wei J, Zivin JA. }}</ref> [[oksigen]], dipasang [[infus]] untuak mamasuakan cairan jo zat makanan, kudian diagiah [[manitol]] atau [[kortikosteroid]] untuak mangurangi pambangkakan jo takanan di dalam utak,<ref>{{id}} {{cite web|last = Misbach|first = H Jusuf|authorlink = |author2 = Harmani Kalim|year = |url = http://medicastore.com/stroke/Penanganan_Stroke.php|title = Penanganan Stroke|format = |work = |publisher = Medicastore|accessdate = 2010|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110101120537/http://medicastore.com/stroke/Penanganan_Stroke.php|archivedate = 2011-01-01|quote = |dead-url = yes}}</ref> akibaik infiltrasi [[sel darah putiah]]. Panalitian tarakhia manunjuakan baso kalumpuahan jo gejala lainnyo bisa diadang atau dipuliahan kok [[recombinan]] ''tissue plasminogen activator'' (rtPA) atau [[streptokinase]] nan bafungsi mahancurkan [[emboli]] diagiah dalam wakatu 3 jam,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7477192 |title = Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. |accessdate = 2011-09-08 |work = The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. }}</ref> sasudah muncuanyo stroke. [[Trombolisis]] jo rtPA tabukti bamanfaaik pado manajemen stroke akut, walaupun dapek maningkekan risiko pandarahan utak,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11700147 |title = Reducing bleeding complications after thrombolytic therapy for stroke: clinical potential of metalloproteinase inhibitors and spin trap agents. |accessdate = 2011-09-08 |work = Department of Neuroscience, University of California San Diego; Lapchak PA, Araujo DM. }}</ref> utamonyo pado area sawar darah utak nan tabukak.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12154270 |title = Rapid breakdown of microvascular barriers and subsequent hemorrhagic transformation after delayed recombinant tissue plasminogen activator treatment in a rat embolic stroke model. |accessdate = 2011-09-08 |work = Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School,; Dijkhuizen RM, Asahi M, Wu O, Rosen BR, Lo EH. }}</ref> Metode parawatan [[hemodilusi]] jo manggunokan [[albumin]] masih kontroversial,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1561645 |title = Custom-tailored hemodilution with albumin and crystalloids in acute ischemic stroke |accessdate = 2011-08-21 |work = Department of Rheology, St. Lucas Hospital; Goslinga H, Eijzenbach V, Heuvelmans JH, van der Laan de Vries E, Melis VM, Schmid-Schönbein H, Bezemer PD. }}</ref> tapi panalitian dek ''The Amsterdam Stroke Study'' magiah prognosis (kaluaran panyakik) barupo panurunan angko kamatian dari 27% menjadi 16%, paningkekan kamandirian aktivitas dari 35% manjadi 48%, katiko 3 bulan sajak tajadi sarangan stroke akut. === Pamuliahan === Sarangan stroke takaik jo tabateh puliahnyo fungsi utak, walaupun area peri-infark manjadi labiah basipaik neuroplastik. Hal iko mamungkinkan pamelokan fungsi sensorimotorik jo malakukan pametaan ulang di area utak nan maalami karusakan. Di tingkek seluler, tajadi duo proses regenerasi dalam korteks peri-infark, [[akson]] ka maalami parubahan [[fenotipe]] dari [[neurotransmiter]] ka dalam status regeneratif,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17643733 |title = Neural plasticity after peripheral nerve injury and regeneration |accessdate = 2011-09-04 |work = Group of Neuroplasticity and Regeneration, Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona; Navarro X, Vivó M, Valero-Cabré A. }}</ref> sarato manjuluakan tangkainyo untuak mambuek koneksi baru di bawah pangaruah [[trombospondin]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18594557 |title = Thrombospondins 1 and 2 are necessary for synaptic plasticity and functional recovery after stroke. |accessdate = 2011-09-04 |work = Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine; Liauw J, Hoang S, Choi M, Eroglu C, Choi M, Sun GH, Percy M, Wildman-Tobriner B, Bliss T, Guzman RG, Barres BA, Steinberg GK. }}</ref>, [[laminin]], jo [[faktor pertumbuhan saraf|NGF]] hasia kaluaran (sekresi) [[sel Schwann]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1821734 |title = Peripheral nerve regeneration. |accessdate = 2011-09-04 |work = Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Eastern Virginia Medical School; Liuzzi FJ, Tedeschi B. }}</ref> dan tajadi pulo migrasi [[sel progenitor]] (sel nan ka mambantuak) sel saraf (neutron) ka dalam korteks peri-infark.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16634041 |title = Cellular and molecular mechanisms of neural repair after stroke: making waves. |accessdate = 2011-09-04 |work = Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California; Carmichael ST. }}</ref> Ampia sapanjang 1 bulan sajak tajadi sarangan stroke, daerah peri-infark ka maalami panurunan molekul paambek tumbuah. Pado rantang wakatu ko, neuron ka maaktivasi [[gen]] nan mamicu tumbuah, dalam ritme nan bagalombang. [[Neurogenesis]] (proses pambantuakan neuron) baubuangan jo [[angiogenesis]] (pambantuakan pambuluah darah) pun tajadi bagalombang nan diawali jo migrasi [[neuroblas]] jo ekspresi GFAP,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17167090 |title = A neurovascular niche for neurogenesis after stroke. |accessdate = 2011-09-04 |work = Department of Neurology, University of California; Ohab JJ, Fleming S, Blesch A, Carmichael ST. }}</ref> nan talatak dalam [[zona subventrikular]] ka dalam korteks peri-infark. Migrasi ko dimediasi dek babarapo senyawa antaro lain [[eritropoietin]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024854 |title = Poststroke neurogenesis: emerging principles of migration and localization of immature neurons. |accessdate = 2011-09-04 |work = David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA; Ohab JJ, Carmichael ST. }}</ref> ''stromal-derived factor 1'' (SDF-1) dan [[angiopoietin-1]], inggo mahasilkan neuroblas jo jarak tampuah migrasi nan labiah panjang jo rantang wakatu [[sitokinesis]] nan labiah pendek.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17376977 |title = Neuroblast division during migration toward the ischemic striatum: a study of dynamic migratory and proliferative characteristics of neuroblasts from the subventricular zone. |accessdate = 2011-09-04 |work = Neurology Department, Henry Ford Health Sciences Center; Zhang RL, LeTourneau Y, Gregg SR, Wang Y, Toh Y, Robin AM, Zhang ZG, Chopp M. }}</ref> == Panagahan == Urang nan indak bafaktor risiko stroke jo umua di baruah 65 taun, risiko tajadinyo sarangan stroke dalam sataun sakitar 1%.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8700641|title = Atrial fibrillation and apoplexy--risks and prevention|accessdate = 2011-08-21|work = Københavns praktiserende laegers laboratorium, AFASAK 2 Center; Koefoed BG, Gulløv AL, Petersen P.}}</ref> Salapeh tajadinyo sarangan stroke ringan atau TIA, panggunoan ubek anti-koagulan sarupo [[warfarin]], salah satu ubat nan dipakai untuak pandarito [[fibrilasi atrial]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9932614 |title = Stroke risk factors and stroke prevention. |accessdate = 2011-08-21 |work = Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University; Elkind MS, Sacco RL. }}</ref> ka manurunkan risiko sarangan stroke dari 12% manjadi 4% dalam satahun. Sadangkan panggunoan ubek anti-[[keping darah]] (antitrombolitik) sarupo [[aspirin]], umumnyo pado [[dosis]] aarian sakitar 30&nbsp;mg atau labiah, hanyo ka maagiah palinduangan jo panurunan risiko manjadi 10,4%.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12535415 |title = Dipyridamole for preventing stroke and other vascular events in patients with vascular disease |accessdate = 2011-08-21 |work = Julius Center for General Practice and Patient Oriented Research / Univ. Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Utrecht; De Schryver EL, Algra A, van Gijn J. }}</ref> Kombinasi aspirin jo ''dipyridamole'' maagiah palinduangan labiah jauah jo panurunan risiko taunan manjadi 9,3%. Caro paliang rancak untuak managah tajadinyo stroke adolah jo maidentifikasi urang-urang nan barisiko tinggi jo mangandalikan faktor risiko stroke sabanyak mungkin, sarupo kabiasoan marokok, hipertensi, jo stenosis (kakakuan) di [[pembuluh karotid|pambuluah karotis]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17068431 |title = Primary stroke prevention |accessdate = 2011-08-21 |work = Department of Neurology, University of Cincinnati; Sauerbeck LR. }}</ref> maatua pola makan nan sihaik jo mailakan makanan nan manganduang kolesterol jaek ([[lipoprotein densitas rendah|LDL]]), sarato olaraga sacaro teratur. Stenosis marupokan efek [[vasodilasi]] (palebaran pambuluah) endotelium nan umumnyo disababkan dek turunnyo [[sekresi]] [[nitrogen monoksida|NO]] dek sel endotelial, dapek diambek [[asam askorbat]] nan maningkekan sekresi NO dek [[sel endotelial]] malalui lintasan [[NO sintase]] atau [[siklase guanilat]], mareduksi [[nitrita]] manjadi NO sarato maambek [[oksidasi]] [[lipoprotein densitas rendah|LDL]]<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10924860 |title = How does ascorbic acid prevent endothelial dysfunction? |accessdate = 2011-08-24 |work = Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine; May JM. }}</ref> di lintasan aterosklerosis. Sabagian institusi kasihatan sarupo ''American Heart Association'' atau ''American Stroke Association Council'', ''Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention'' maagiah panduan panagahan nan dimulai jo pananganan saksama baragam [[panyakik]] nan dapek ditimbulkan dek [[aterosklerosis]], panggunoan ubek anti-trombotik untuak [[kardioembolisme]] jo ubek anti-kapiang darah untuak kasus non-kardioembolisme,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16432246 |title = Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke: co-sponsored by the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline |accessdate = 2011-08-21 |work = American Heart Association; American Stroke Association Council on Stroke; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; American Academy of Neurology.; Sacco RL, Adams R, Albers G, Alberts MJ, Benavente O, Furie K, Goldstein LB, Gorelick P, Halperin J, Harbaugh R, Johnston SC, Katzan I, Kelly-Hayes M, Kenton EJ, Marks M, Schwamm LH, Tomsick T }}</ref> diikuti jo pangandalian faktor risiko sarupo diseksi arteri (arteri kuyak), ''patent foramen ovale'', [[hiperhomosisteinemia]], ''hypercoagulable states'', ''sickle cell disease''; ''cerebral venous sinus thrombosis''; stroke wakatu [[kahamilan]], stroke akibaik pamakaian [[hormon]] pasca [[menopause]], panggunoan ubek anti-koagulan sasudah tajadinyo ''cerebral hemorrhage''; hipertensi,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web |url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16785347 |title = Primary prevention of ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group |accessdate = 2011-08-21 |work = American Heart Association; American Stroke Association Stroke Council; Goldstein LB, Adams R, Alberts MJ, Appel LJ, Brass LM, Bushnell CD, Culebras A, DeGraba TJ, Gorelick PB, Guyton JR, Hart RG, Howard G, Kelly-Hayes M, Nixon JV, Sacco RL }}</ref> kabiasoan marokok, diabetes, fibrilasi atrium, [[dislipidemia]], stenosis karotis, [[obesitas]], [[sindrom]] [[metabolisme]], konsumsi alkohol balabiahan, konsumsi ubek balabiahan, konsumsi ubek [[kontrasepsi]], bakaruah, migrain, paningkekan [[lipoprotein]] dan [[fosfolipase]]. Biasonyo di Indonesia CT Scan dan MRI baru dilakukan, sasudah tajadinyo stroke. Jarang angiografi manggunokan kaduo alaik itu untuak mandeteksi kamungkinan tajadinyo stroke dilakukan. Kini alah mulai banyak laboratorium klinik, klinik stroke, pambuluah darah jo [[panyakik kardiovaskular]] nan mampunyoi [[Transcranial Doppler|Doppler Transkranial]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pramita.co.id/index.php/19-artikel/bulletin/39-trans-cranial-doppler-tcd |title=TRANSCRANIAL DOPPLER (TCD) |accessdate=3 April 2015 |archive-date=7 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407023115/http://www.pramita.co.id/index.php/19-artikel/bulletin/39-trans-cranial-doppler-tcd |dead-url=yes }}</ref> dek karano alaiknyo ketek/mudha dibaok dan relatif murah jo biaya pareso sampai sapasalapan biaya panggunoan CT Scan atau MRI. Doppler Transkranial indak saakuraik kaduo alaik nan maha tasabuik, tapi salah satu kauntuangannyo, yaitu indak manganduang radiasi, sainggo dapek dilakukan sacaro barulang, misalnyo untuak pamantauan salamo atau sasudah stroke dan dapek pulo dilakukan pado pasien nan kritis, indak sadar, di ruang ICU.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jurnalmedika.com/edisi-tahun-2011/edisi-no-02-vol-xxxvii-2011/284-artikel-penelitian/625-penggunaan-trans-cranial-doppler-untuk-deteksi-perubahan-hemodinamik-serebral-pada-pasien-kritis |title=Penggunaan Trans Cranial Doppler untuk Deteksi Perubahan Hemodinamik Serebral pada Pasien Kritis |author=Rizaldi Pinzon |accessdate=3 April 2015 |archive-date=6 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406040602/http://www.jurnalmedika.com/edisi-tahun-2011/edisi-no-02-vol-xxxvii-2011/284-artikel-penelitian/625-penggunaan-trans-cranial-doppler-untuk-deteksi-perubahan-hemodinamik-serebral-pada-pasien-kritis |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Dek biayanyo nan condong murah, mako pamantauan kamungkinan tajadinyo stroke alah banyak pulo dilakukan manggunokan Doppler Transkranial, utamonyo di Amerika Serikat. == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} == Pautan lua == {{Medical condition classification and resources|DiseasesDB=2247|ICD10={{ICD10|I|61||i|60}}-{{ICD10|I|64||i|60}}ner|ICD9={{ICD9|434.91}}|OMIM=601367|MedlinePlus=000726|eMedicineSubj=neuro|eMedicineTopic=9|eMedicine_mult={{eMedicine2|emerg|558}} {{eMedicine2|emerg|557}} {{eMedicine2|pmr|187}}|MeshID=D020521}}{{Commons category|Stroke}} * {{curlie|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Neurological_Disorders/Stroke/}} * [http://www.mdcalc.com/dragon-score-post-tpa-stroke-outcome/ DRAGON Score for Post-Thrombolysis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027101249/https://www.mdcalc.com/dragon-score-post-tpa-stroke-outcome |date=2020-10-27 }} * [http://www.mdcalc.com/thrive-score-for-stroke-outcome/ THRIVE score for stroke outcome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913041433/http://www.mdcalc.com/thrive-score-for-stroke-outcome/ |date=2016-09-13 }} * [https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/all-disorders National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke] * [http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/41/11/2525?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=stroke+review&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT Predictors of Hospital Readmission After Stroke] * [http://archneur.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/64/6/785?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=stroke+review&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT Consent of thrombolysis IV in Acute stroke] * [http://rad.usuhs.edu/medpix/master.php3?mode=image_finder&action=search&srchstr=stroke#top Imaging CVA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514035102/http://rad.usuhs.edu/medpix/master.php3?mode=image_finder&action=search&srchstr=stroke#top |date=2011-05-14 }} CT, MR, Angiografi Strok {{Reflist}}{{Medis-stub}} [[Kategori:Kadokteran]] [[Kategori:Panyakik]] [[Kategori:Stroke]] [[Kategori:Neurologi]] iyfidmx2d3dxas3s84udvsl2luhaupq 0 326102 3351290 3154778 2026-08-05T22:25:48Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351290 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Panduduak asali Taiwan | image = | population = 569.008 atau 2.38% dari populasi Taiwan<br>(Panduduak asali non-status dikacualian) | popplace = Taiwan | languages = [[bahaso Atayal|Atayal]], [[bahaso Bunun|Bunun]], [[bahaso Amis|Amis]], [[bahaso Paiwan|Paiwan]], [[rumpun bahaso Formosa|bahaso-bahaso Formosa]] lainnyo.<br>[[Bahaso Han|bahaso-bahaso Han]] ([[Mandarin Taiwan|Mandarin]], [[Hokkien Taiwan|Hokkien]], [[Hakka Taiwan|Hakka]]) | religions = Mayoritas [[Kristen]], minoritas [[Animisme]]<ref>Stainton, Michael (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120515150705/http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/taiwan/presbyterians-and-aboriginal-revitalization-movement "Presbyterians and the Aboriginal Revitalization Movement in Taiwan"]. ''[[Cultural Survival Quarterly]]'' 26.2, 5 May 2010. Retrieved 3 December 2014.</ref> | native_name = | native_name_lang = | related_groups = [[Urang Taiwan]], [[Urang Austronesia|urang-urang Austronesia]] lainnyo }} '''Panduduak asali Taiwan''', atau daulu disabuik juo '''aborigin Taiwan''', '''urang Formosa''', '''urang Austronesia Taiwan''',<ref>{{cite book |title = Why Taiwan Matters: Small Island, Global Powerhouse |last=Rigger |first=Shelley |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2013 |url = https://books.google.com/?id=7QZ1AQAAQBAJ |isbn=9781442230026 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ketagalanmedia.com/2017/05/03/one-island-twenty-tongues/ |title=One Island, Twenty Tongues |website=Ketagalan Media |date=3 May 2017 |accessdate=6 May 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170504070224/http://www.ketagalanmedia.com/2017/05/03/one-island-twenty-tongues/ |archivedate=4 May 2017 }}</ref> atau '''urang Gaoshan''',{{sfnp|Hattaway|2003|pp= 39, 93, 425}} adolah [[pribumi|urang-urang katurunan pribumi]] [[Taiwan]], nan jumalahnyo kini mancapai 569.008 jiwa atau 2,38% dari populasi [[Geografi Taiwan|pulau]] itu — atau dapek juo dianggap mancapai 800.000 jiwa, kok mamparatian potensi pangakuan sacaro rasmi [[panduduak asali dataran randah Taiwan|panduduak pribumi dataran randah]] Taiwan sabagai urang asali Taiwan di masa datang. Panalitian tabaru manunjuakan baso mungkin niniak muyang urang-urang itu alah iduik manatap di Taiwan salamo labiah kurang 5.500 taun sacaro relatif taisolasi sabalun muloinyo imigrasi gadang [[urang Han|urang Han (Cino)]] dari [[daratan Cino]] pado abaik ka-17.{{sfnp|Blust|1999}} Panduduak asali Taiwan tamasuak rumpun [[bangso Austronesia]], nan taubuang jo ikatan bahaso sarato genetika jo urang-urang Austronesia lainnyo.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Trejaut|first=Jean A.|last2=Poloni|first2=Estella S.|last3=Yen|first3=Ju-Chen|last4=Lai|first4=Ying-Hui|last5=Loo|first5=Jun-Hun|last6=Lee|first6=Chien-Liang|last7=He|first7=Chun-Lin|last8=Lin|first8=Marie|date=2014-01-01|title=Taiwan Y-chromosomal DNA variation and its relationship with Island Southeast Asia|journal=BMC Genetics|volume=15|pages=77|doi=10.1186/1471-2156-15-77|issn=1471-2156|pmc=4083334|pmid=24965575}}</ref> Kalompok-kalompok nan baubuangan dakek jo panduduak asali Taiwan antaro lain [[urang Polinesia]], sarato sabagian gadang urang-urang [[Filipina]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], jo [[Brunei]]. Salamo baabaik-abaik, panduduak asali Taiwan maalami pasaingan ekonomi jo sarangan maliter dari babagai banso asiang nan badatangan ka pulau iko. Kabijakan-kabijakan pamerentah nan tapusek nan dibuek untuak mandorong [[pageseran bahaso]] jo [[asimilasi budayo]], sarato ubuangan taruih-manaruih jo banso pandatang malalui padagangan, pakawinan campua jo paroses patukaran budayo lainnyo, alah maakibaikan tingkek-tingkek tatantu [[kamatian bahaso]] jo ilangnyo [[identitas budayo|jati diri budayo]] nan asali. Misanyo, dari sakita 26 bahaso panduduak asali Taiwan nan dikataui (sacaro basamo-samo disabuik sabagai [[rumpun bahaso Formosa|bahaso Formosa]]), saindaknyo sapuluah bahaso alah [[bahaso punah|punah]], limo di antaronyo [[bahaso tarancam|ampia mati]]{{sfnp|Zeitoun|Yu|2005|p=167}} jo babarapo lainnyo sampai tingkek tatantu [[bahaso tarancam|tarancam punah]]. Bahaso-bahaso iko sasungguahnyo punyo arati sijarah nan unik, dek karano sabagian gadang [[linguistik historis|ahli sijarah bahaso]] bapandapek baso Taiwan adolah tanah aia asali dari [[rumpun bahaso Austronesia]].{{sfnp|Blust|1999}} Panutua bahaso Austronesia di Pulau Taiwan daulunyo taseba di sabagian gadang wilayah [[Pagunuangan Tangah (Taiwan)|Pagunuangan Tangah]] nan curam, sarato bakalompok di kampuang-kampuang di sapanjang [[dataran aluvial]] (tanah andapan). Kini, sabagian gadang panduduak asali Taiwan iduik di pagunuangan jo di kota-kota. Masarakaik adaik Taiwan maalami kakurangan ekonomi jo sosial, tamasuak tingginyo tingkek pangangguran jo pandidiakan nan di bawah standar. Sajak awa 1980-an, banyak kalompok panduduak asali alah sacaro aktif mampajuangan [[hak panantuan nasik surang]] jo [[pangambangan ekonomi]] nan labiah tinggi.{{sfnp|Hsu|1991|pp=95–9}} Bangkiknyo kabanggaan etnis ditunjuakan dalam babagai caro dek para panduduak asali, misanyo jo manggabuangan unsua-unsua budayonyo ka dalam [[musik pop]] nan maraiah sukses sacaro komersial. Upayo sadang dilakuan dek masarakaik adaik untuak maiduikan baliak praktik budayo tradisional jo malastarian bahaso tradisionalnyo. Festival Budayo Austronesia di [[Kota Taitung]] adolah salah satu sarana di mano anggota masarakaik mamparomosian budayo asali. Salain itu, babarapo komunitas panduduak asali alah talibaik sacaro laweh dalam industri pariwisata jo [[ekowisata]] nan batujuan mancapai paningkekan kamandirian ekonomi jo malastarian budayonyo.{{sfnp|Anderson|2000|pp=283–90}} == Catatan kaki == {{reflist}} == Rujuakan == {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal |ref=harv|last=Andrade|first=Tonio|title=Pirates, Pelts, and Promises: The Sino-Dutch Colony of Seventeenth-Century Taiwan and the Aboriginal Village of Favorolang |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-asian-studies_2005-05_64_2/page/295|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=64 |issue=2|edition=2nd |year=2005 |pages= 295–321 |doi=10.1017/s0021911805000793 |jstor=25075752 }} * {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Anderson |first=Christian A.|year=2000 |chapter=New Austronesian Voyaging: Cultivating Amis Folk Songs for the International Stage|editor-first=David |editor-last=Blundell|title=Austronesian Taiwan: Linguistics, History, Ethnology, Prehistory|place=Taipei|publisher=SMC Publishing|isbn=9789868537804}} *{{cite journal|ref=harv|last=Bird|first=Michael I|last2=Hope|first2=Geoffrey|last3=Taylor|first3=David|title=Populating PEP II: the dispersal of humans and agriculture through Austral-Asia and Oceania|journal=Quaternary International|year=2004|volume=118–19|pages= 145–63|doi=10.1016/s1040-6182(03)00135-6|bibcode=2004QuInt.118..145B}} Accessed 31 March 2007. *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Blundell|first=David|year=2000|title= Taiwan: Linguistics, History and Prehistory.|place=Taipei|publisher=SMC Publishing|isbn=9789868537804}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Blusse|first=Leonard|last2=Everts|first2=Natalie|year=2000|title= The Formosan Encounter: Notes on Formosa's Aboriginal Society — A selection of Documents from Dutch Archival Sources Vol. I & Vol. II|place=Taipei|publisher=Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines}} {{ISBN|957-99767-2-4}} & {{ISBN|957-99767-7-5}}. *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Blusse|first=Leonard|year=2006|chapter=The Eclipse of the Inibs: The Dutch Protestant Mission in 17th Century Taiwan and its Persecution of Native Priestesses|editor=Yeh Chuen-Rong|title=History, Culture and Ethnicity: Selected Papers from the International Conference on the Formosan Indigenous Peoples|publisher=SMC Publishing Inc|place=Taipei|isbn=978-957-30287-4-1}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Blust|first=Robert|year=1999|chapter=Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics|editors=E. Zeitoun & P.J.K Li|title=Selected papers from the Eighth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics|pages= 31–94| publisher=Academia Sinica|place=Taipei}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Brown|first=Melissa J|year=1996|chapter=On Becoming Chinese|editor=Melissa J. Brown|title=Negotiating Ethnicities in China and Taiwan|publisher=Institute of East Asian Studies of the University of California. China Research Monograph 46|place= Berkeley, CA}} *{{Cite journal|ref=harv|last=Brown|first=Melissa J.|year=2001|title=Reconstructing ethnicity: recorded and remembered identity in Taiwan|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ethnology_spring-2001_40_2/page/153|journal=Ethnology|volume=40|issue=2|pages=153–164|doi=10.2307/3773928|jstor=3773928}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Brown|first=Melissa J|year=2004|title=Is Taiwan Chinese? : The Impact of Culture, Power and Migration on Changing Identities|place=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|isbn= 0-520-23182-1}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Campbell|first=Rev. William|author-link=William Campbell (missionary)|year=1915|title=Sketches of Formosa|place= London, Edinburgh, New York|publisher=Marshall Brothers Ltd. reprinted by SMC Publishing Inc 1996|isbn= 957-638-377-3|url=https://archive.org/details/sketchesfromtaiw00camprich}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Chen|first=Chiu-kun|year=1997|title=Qing dai Taiwan tu zhe di quan, (Land Rights in Qing Era Taiwan)|publisher=Academia Historica|place=Taipei, Taiwan}} {{ISBN|957-671-272-6}}. *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Chen|first=Chiukun|year=1999|chapter=From Landlords To Local Strongmen: The Transformation Of Local Elites In Mid-Ch'ing Taiwan, 1780–1862|title=Taiwan: A New History|editor= Murray A. Rubinstein|pages= 133–62|place=Armonk, N.Y.|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=9781563248160}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Chen|first=Henry C. 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Accessed 24 March 2007. *{{Cite journal|ref=harv|last=Shih|first=Hsiu-chuan|last2= Loa|first2=Iok-sin|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/04/24/2003410107 |title= Sediq recognized as 14th tribe|journal=Taipei Times (Taiwan)|date=24 April 2008| accessdate=24 April 2008}} *{{Cite journal|ref=harv|last=Simon|first=Scott|title=Formosa's first Nations and the Japanese: from Colonial Rule to Postcolonial Resistance |url=http://www.japanfocus.org/-Scott-Simon/1565 |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus|date=Jan 4, 2006}} Accessed 22 August 2010. *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Stainton|first=Michael|year=1999|chapter=The Politics of Taiwan Aboriginal Origins|editor= Murray A. Rubinstein|title=Taiwan: A New History|place=New York|publisher=M.E. 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( 2003, Jan 02). ''CNA'', Taipei. Page 3}} Accessed 17 March 2007. *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Teng|first=Emma Jinhua|title=Taiwan's Imagined Geography: Chinese Colonial Travel Writing and Pictures, 1683–1895|publisher=Harvard University Press|place=Cambridge MA|year=2004|isbn=0-674-01451-0}} *{{Cite journal|ref=harv|last=Tsao|first=Feng-fu|year=1999|title=The Language Planning Situation in Taiwan|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|volume=20|issue=4 |pages=328–48 |doi=10.1080/01434639908666383}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Tsuchida|first=Shigeru|year=1983|chapter=Austronesian Languages in Formosa|editors=S.A Wurm and Hiro Hattori|title=Language Atlas of the Pacific Area|publisher=Australian Academy of the Humanities|place=Canberra}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Tsuchida|first=S.|last2=Yamada|first2=Y.|year= 1991|chapter=Ogawa's Siraya/Makatao/Taivoan comparative vocabulary|editors=S. Tsuchida, Y. Yamada & T. Moriguchi|title=Linguistic Materials of the Formosan Sinicized Populations I: Siraya and Basai|publisher=The University of Tokyo, Linguistics Department|place=Tokyo}} *{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Wilson|first=Richard W|title=Learning To Be Chinese: The Political Socialization of Children in Taiwan|publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press|place=Cambridge, MA|year=1970}} {{ISBN|0-262-23041-0}}. *{{wikicite|id=Yeh-2003|reference= Yeh, Yu-ting (2003). Atayal Narratives and Folktales, in the [http://formosan.sinica.edu.tw/en/archive_contents.htm Formosan Language Archive]. Taipei: The Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica}} Accessed 13 April 2007. *{{cite journal|ref=harv|last=Zeitoun|first=Elizabeth|last2=Yu|first2=Ching-Hua|url=http://aclclp.org.tw/clclp/v10n2/v10n2a2.pdf|title=The Formosan Language Archive: Linguistic Analysis and Language Processing|journal=Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing|volume=10|issue=2|pages=167–200|year=2005|access-date=2019-11-22|archive-date=2011-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720000756/http://aclclp.org.tw/clclp/v10n2/v10n2a2.pdf|dead-url=yes}} *{{cite book |year=2014 |title=The Republic of China Yearbook 2014 |publisher=Executive Yuan, R.O.C. |url = http://www.ey.gov.tw/Upload/UserFiles/YB%202014%20all%20100dpi.pdf |accessdate=2015-02-25 |isbn=9789860423020 |ref = {{harvid|Exec. Yuan|2014}} }} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Taiwan]] pm9jvm6r3zxbevrkv6y1fihb5955ilz 0 326113 3351330 2508951 2026-08-05T23:40:09Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 6 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pambantahan medis}}{{Distinguish|Diabetes insipidus}}{{ANT}}{{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Diabetes melitus|pronounce={{IPAc-en|d|aɪ|ə|'|b|iː|t|iː|z|,_|-|t|ə|s}}|image=Blue circle for diabetes.svg|image_size=200px|alt=A hollow circle with a thick blue border and a clear centre|caption=Lingkaran biru adolah simbol diabetes sadunia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Diabetes Blue Circle Symbol |url=http://www.diabetesbluecircle.org |date=17 March 2006 |publisher=International Diabetes Federation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805042346/http://www.diabetesbluecircle.org/ |archive-date=5 August 2007 |df= }}</ref>|field=[[Endokrinologi]]|symptoms=[[poliuria|Acok buang aia ketek]], [[polidipsia|acok auih]], [[polifagia|acok lapa]]<ref name=WHO2013/>|complications=[[Diabetik ketoasidosis]], [[status hiperosmolar hiperglikemia]], [[panyakik jantuang]], [[stroke]], [[gagal ginjal kronik]], [[tukak diabetikum|tukak kaki]], [[gastroparesis diabetikum|gastroparesis]]<ref name=WHO2013>{{cite web |title=Diabetes Fact sheet N°312 |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs312/en/|website=WHO |access-date=25 March 2014 |date=October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826174444/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs312/en/ |archive-date=26 August 2013}}</ref><ref name=Kit2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, Fisher JN | title = Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 32 | issue = 7 | pages = 1335–43 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19564476 | pmc = 2699725 | doi = 10.2337/dc09-9032 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krishnasamy |first1=S |last2=Abell |first2=TL |title=Diabetic Gastroparesis: Principles and Current Trends in Management. |journal=Diabetes Therapy : Research, Treatment and Education of Diabetes and Related Disorders |date=July 2018 |volume=9 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1007/s13300-018-0454-9 |pmid=29934758|pmc=6028327 }}</ref>|onset=|duration=|types=|causes=|risks='''Tipe 1''': [[riwayaik kaluarga]]<ref name=Change2014>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chiang JL, Kirkman MS, Laffel LM, Peters AL | title = Type 1 diabetes through the life span: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 37 | issue = 7 | pages = 2034–54 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 24935775 | pmc = 5865481 | doi = 10.2337/dc14-1140 }}</ref><br>'''Type 2''': [[Obesitas]], jarang baolahraga, [[Hereditas|katurunan]]<ref name=WHO2013/><ref name=NIH2014Cause>{{cite web|title=Causes of Diabetes|url=http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/Diabetes/causes-diabetes/Pages/index.aspx|website=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases|access-date=10 February 2016|date=June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-date=2 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202083725/http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/Diabetes/causes-diabetes/Pages/index.aspx }}</ref>|diagnosis=[[Gulo darah tinggi]]<ref name=WHO2013/>|differential=|prevention=|treatment=[[Diet sihaik]], [[aktivitas fisik]]<ref name=WHO2013/>|medication=[[Insulin]], [[ubek antidiabetik]] co [[metformin]]<ref name=WHO2013/><ref name=AFP09>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ripsin CM, Kang H, Urban RJ | title = Management of blood glucose in type 2 diabetes mellitus | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 79 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–36 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19145963 | url = http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0101/p29.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130505033552/http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0101/p29.pdf | df = | url-status=live | archive-date = 2013-05-05 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-and-disorders-of-carbohydrate-metabolism/drug-treatment-of-diabetes-mellitus |title=Drug Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus |first=Erika F. |last=Brutsaert |date=February 2017 |accessdate=12 October 2018}}</ref>|prognosis=|frequency=425 juta (8.8%)<ref name=IDF2017/>|deaths=3,2–5,0 juta per taun<ref name=IDF2017>{{cite book |last1=International Diabetes Federation |title=IDF Diabetes Atlas, 8th edn. |date=2017 |publisher=Brussels, Belgium: International Diabetes Federation |url=http://www.diabetesatlas.org}}</ref>}}'''Diabetes melitus''', '''DM''' ({{lang-el|διαβαίνειν}}, ''diabaínein'', tabuak atau pincuran aia) ({{lang-la|mellitus}}, raso manih) nan juo tanamo di Indonesia jo istilah '''panyakik kanciang manih''' atau '''panyakik gulo''' adolah [[kalainan metabolik]] nan dicirikan jo gejala tinggi gulo darah jangko lamo ([[hiperglikemia]] kronis) sarato gangguan metabolisme [[karbohidrat]], [[lamak]], jo [[protein]], sabagai akibaik dari kurangnyo [[insulin]] nan dihasiakan tubuah (sekresi insulin), kaindakmampuan tubuah untuak mamanfaatkan insulin (''insulin resistance''), atau kaduonyo.<ref name="WHO1999-DefDiagClass">{{cite web | author=[[World Health Organization]] Department of Noncommunicable Disease Surveillance | title=Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and its Complications | year=1999 | url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf | format=PDF | access-date=2019-11-07 | archive-date=2014-08-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821000053/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf | dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name=":0">Perkeni, P. B. (2015). [https://pbperkeni.or.id/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/4.-Konsensus-Pengelolaan-dan-Pencegahan-Diabetes-melitus-tipe-2-di-Indonesia-PERKENI-2015.pdf Konsensus pengelolaan dan pencegahan diabetes melitus tipe 2 di Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128023812/https://pbperkeni.or.id/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/4.-Konsensus-Pengelolaan-dan-Pencegahan-Diabetes-melitus-tipe-2-di-Indonesia-PERKENI-2015.pdf |date=2020-11-28 }}. ''Jakarta: PB Perkeni''.</ref> Glukosa (gulo darah) dalam tubuah dikandalikan dek babarapo hormon. Hormon insulin nan dihasiakan organ pankreas bakarajo untuak maubah glukosa manjadi glikogen (bantuak dari cadangan energi) katiko kadar gulo darah tinggi. Sadangkan hormon glukagon nan dihasiakan otot bakarajo untuak memacah glikogen manjadi sumber energi tubuah katiko gulo darah randah.<ref name="Green2011">{{cite book|veditors=Shoback DG, Gardner D|title=Greenspan's basic & clinical endocrinology|year=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-162243-1|chapter=Chapter 17|edition=9th}}</ref> Kondisi gulo darah tinggi cando pado pandarito diabetes bisa indak taraso gejalanyo. Gejala nan biaso dialami pandarito diabetes antaro lain acok kajamban (poliuria), maraso auih taruih (polidipsi), sarato acok taraso lapa sainggo acok makan (polifagi).<ref name=":0" /> Kok kondisi diabetes indak taratasi atau gulo darah tinggi indak takandalian, mangko dapek mamicu baragam panyakik atau komplikasi. Di antaro komplikasi nan dapek muncua antaronyo tukak pado kaki atau kaki mambusuak (ulkus diabetikum), alzheimer, stroke, panyakik jantuang, karusakan pado mato (retinopati diabetikum), bahkan inggo kamatian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15175861|title=Neurodegenerative disorders associated with diabetes mellitus|work=Department of Clinical Nutrition, German Institute for Human Nutrition; Ristow M.|accessdate=2010-06-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19135149|title=(Pre)diabetes, brain aging, and cognition|work=Division of Geriatrics, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo-RP; S Roriz-Filho J, Sá-Roriz TM, Rosset I, Camozzato AL, Santos AC, Chaves ML, Moriguti JC, Roriz-Cruz M.|accessdate=2010-06-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20465095|title=[Endocrine abnormalities and vessels in patients with diabetes]|work=II. interní klinika Lékarské fakulty UK a FN Hradec Králové; Cáp J.|accessdate=2010-06-30}}</ref><ref name="Kit2009">{{cite journal|vauthors=Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, Fisher JN|title=Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes|journal=Diabetes Care|volume=32|issue=7|pages=1335–43|date=July 2009|pmid=19564476|pmc=2699725|doi=10.2337/dc09-9032}}</ref> Panagahan sarato panangan panyakik diabetes utamonyo dilakukan jo parubahan gaya iduik manjadi gaya iduik sihaik. Gaya iduik sihaik nan paralu dijago antaro lain dari pola makan sihaik, olahraga rutin, manjago barek badan, sarato manjauahi kabiasaan marokok. <ref name=":0" /> Pado kondisi gulo darah tinggi nan indak taratasi dapek ditambah jo ubek, baiak ubek nan diminum atau ubek suntik.<ref name="WHO2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs312/en/|title=Diabetes Fact sheet N°312|date=October 2013|website=WHO|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826174444/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs312/en/|archive-date=26 August 2013|access-date=25 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="WHO2013Top10">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/|title=The top 10 causes of death Fact sheet N°310|date=October 2013|publisher=World Health Organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530121727/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/|archive-date=30 May 2017|url-status=live|df=}}</ref> Pado taun 2017, dipakirokan alah 425 juta urang mandarito diabetes melitus nan sapangkek jo 8,8% populasi urang gadang (dewasa) di dunia, marato pado aki-laki jo padusi.<ref name="IDF2017">{{cite book|last1=International Diabetes Federation|title=IDF Diabetes Atlas, 8th edn.|date=2017|publisher=Brussels, Belgium: International Diabetes Federation|url=http://www.diabetesatlas.org}}</ref> Tiok taun angko kajadian diabetes melitus maningkek taruih. Diabetes juo maningkekan risiko kamatian duo kali lipek. Pado taun 2017, dipakirokan ado 3,2 inggo 5 juta kamatian. Sacaro global anggaran kasihatan nan tapakai untuak diabetes mancapai 727 miliar USD pado 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data/statistics-report/deaths-cost.html|title=Deaths and Cost {{!}} Data & Statistics {{!}} Diabetes {{!}} CDC|date=20 February 2019|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|accessdate=2 July 2019}}</ref> DI [[Indonesia]] pado taun 2013 tacataik ado sakitar 8,5 juta pandarito (paringkek kaampek di [[Asia]] jo katujuah di dunia) sarato dipakirokan pado taun 2020 dapek maningkek inggo 12 juta pandarito.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/bali-daily/2014-01-20/simple-treatment-curb-diabetes.html|title=Simple treatment to curb diabetes|date=January 20, 2014|access-date=2019-11-12|archive-date=2014-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202134207/http://www.thejakartapost.com/bali-daily/2014-01-20/simple-treatment-curb-diabetes.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://diabetesatlas.org/en/sections/demographic-and-geographic-outline.html|title=Demographic and geographic outline|website=diabetesatlas.org|language=EN|access-date=2019-11-13|archive-date=2019-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113132329/https://diabetesatlas.org/en/sections/demographic-and-geographic-outline.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Sijarah == Diabetes marupokan salah satu panyakik nan mulo-mulo dideskripsikan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ripoll|first=Brian C. Leutholtz, Ignacio|title=Exercise and disease management|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton|isbn=978-1-4398-2759-8|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eAn9-bm_pi8C&pg=PA25|edition=2nd|date=2011-04-25|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403054841/https://books.google.com/books?id=eAn9-bm_pi8C&pg=PA25|archive-date=2016-04-03|df=}}</ref> Pado manuskrip [[Mesir]] dari 1500 sabalun masehi manyabuikan "talampau banyak mangosongan urin".<ref name="History2010">{{cite book|editor-first=Leonid|editor-last=Poretsky|title=Principles of diabetes mellitus|year=2009|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-387-09840-1|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0qojvF1SpUC&pg=PA3|edition=2nd|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404170919/https://books.google.com/books?id=i0qojvF1SpUC&pg=PA3|archive-date=2016-04-04|df=}}</ref> [[Papirus Eber]] manyaratokan saran untuak minum pado kasus cando ko.<ref name="Roberts">{{cite magazine|last1=Roberts|first1=Jacob|title=Sickening sweet|magazine=Distillations|date=2015|volume=1|issue=4|pages=12–15|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/sickening-sweet|access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> Kasus nan partamo kali dideskripsikan dipicayoi adolah diabetes tipe 1.<ref name="History2010" /> Tabib-tabib India pado maso nan kurang labiah samo maidentifikasi panyakik tu jo mangalompokkannyo sabagai ''madhumeha'' atau "kanciang madu", dek dapek mambuek [[samuik]] katuju.<ref name="History2010" /><ref name="Roberts" /> Istilah "diabetes" atau "tabuak" partamo kali dipakai pado 230 taun sabalun masehi dek urang Yunani nan banamo [[Apollonius dari Memphis]].<ref name="History2010" /> Panyakik ko dianggap sarik tasuo salamo maso [[Kakaisaran Romawi]], sarato [[Galen]] manyabuik baso inyo hanyo mancaliak duo kasus salamo karirnyo.<ref name="History2010" /> Hal iko dimungkinkan dek pola makan jo gaya iduik urang-urang saisuak, atau dek gejala klinis nan baru tampak pado stadium lanjuik panyakik. Galen manamokan panyakik ko sabagai "diare urin" (''diarrhea urinosa'').<ref name="Laios">{{cite journal|vauthors=Laios K, Karamanou M, Saridaki Z, Androutsos G|title=Aretaeus of Cappadocia and the first description of diabetes|journal=Hormones|volume=11|issue=1|pages=109–13|year=2012|pmid=22450352|url=http://www.hormones.gr/pdf/HORMONES%202012,%20109-113.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104092212/http://www.hormones.gr/pdf/HORMONES%202012%2C%20109-113.pdf|df=|url-status=live|archive-date=2017-01-04|doi=10.1007/BF03401545}}</ref> Tulisan mulo-mulo jo panjalehan langkok tantang diabetes adolah tulisan [[Aretaeus dari Cappadocia]] (pado abaik kaduo atau mulo abaik katigo masehi). Inyo manjalehan gejala jo pajalanan panyakik, nan inyo kaikkan jo kondisi lambok jo dingin. Inyo manjalehan pulo kamungkinan hubuangan jo panyakik lain, sarato inyo marundiangkan diagnosis bandiang dari [[gigitan ula]], nan juo mamicu raso auih bakalabiahan. Tulisannyo ko indak dikataui di Barat sampai 1552, katiko edisi bahaso Latin partamo kali dipublikasikan di [[Venezia]].<ref name="Laios" /> Duo tipe diabetes taidentifikasi sabagai kondisi nan babeda partamo kali dek tabib India [[Sushruta]] jo [[Charaka]] pado taun 400--500. Wakatu itu kaduonyo maidentifikasi tipe nan takaik umua mudo jo tipe nan takaik kalabiahan barek badan. Istilah ''melitus'' atau "dari madu" atau "manih" ditambahan dek Briton John Rolle pado akhia taun 1700-an untuak mambedakan dari [[diabetes insipidus]], nan samo-samo ditandoi jo acok kajamban. Pananganan panyakik nan efektif alun lai bakambang inggo mulo abaik ka-20, katiko urang Kanada, [[Frederick Banting]] jo [[Charles Herbert Best]], maisolasi jo mamurnikan [[insulin]] pado 1921 jo 1922. Hal iko diikuti jo pakambangan insulin jangko panjang pado 1940.<ref name="History2010" /> == Klasifikasi == {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px" |+Pabandiangan DM tipe 1 jo 2<ref name="Will2011" /> ! !DM Tipe 1 !DM Tipe 2 |- !Awitan (''onset'') |Mandadak |Batahap |- !Umua |Umumnyo anak |Umumnyo urang gadang |- !Ukuran badan |Kuruih atau normal<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Lambert P, Bingley PJ|title=What is Type 1 Diabetes?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_critical-care-medicine_2002-06_30_6_0/page/1|journal=Medicine|volume=30|pages=1–5|year=2002|doi=10.1383/medc.30.1.1.28264}}</ref> |Often [[obese]] |- !Ketoasidosis |Acok |Jarang |- !Autoantibodi |Biasonyo ado |Indak ado |- !Insulin dalam tubuah |Randah atau indak ado |Normal, manurun atau maningkek |- !Genetik pado kamba identik |50% |90% |- !Prevalensi |~10% |~90% |} Diabetes marupokan panyakik nan disababkan produksi insulin dari pankreas nan indak kurang,<ref name="Green20112">{{cite book|veditors=Shoback DG, Gardner D|title=Greenspan's basic & clinical endocrinology|year=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-162243-1|chapter=Chapter 17|edition=9th}}</ref> atau sel tubuh indak marespon sasuai jo insulin nan ado. Ado tigo tipe utamo dari diabetes melitus:<ref name="WHO20132" /> * '''Diabetes tipe 1''' marupokan diabetes dek pankreas nan gagal mahasiakan insulin nan cukuik dek ilangnyo sel beta pankreas.<ref name="WHO20132" /> Tipe ko sabalunnyo disabuik sabagai "diabetes melitus nan bagantuang ka insulin" (''insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus''; IDDM) atau "diabetes anak". Ilangnyo sel beta pankreas dek adonyo respon autoimun.<ref>{{Cite book|url=|title=Hormones|last=Norman|first=Anthony|last2=Henry|first2=Helen|publisher=Elsevier|year=2015|isbn=9780123694447|location=|pages=136-137}}</ref> Panyabab respon autoimun ko masih alun dikataui.<ref name="WHO20132" /> * '''Diabetes tipe 2''' diawali jo resistensi insulin (indak talok jo insulin), kondisi katiko sel-sel tubuah gagal marespon insulin sacaro sasuai. Sabagai bagian dari pajalanan panyakik, insulin nan gagal diproduksi dapek bakambang.<ref>{{cite book|title=RSSDI textbook of diabetes mellitus|year=2012|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers|isbn=978-93-5025-489-9|page=235|edition=Rev. 2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7H6mYolrtUMC&pg=PA235|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151014172232/https://books.google.com/books?id=7H6mYolrtUMC&pg=PA235|archive-date=14 October 2015}}</ref> Tipe ko sabalunnyo disabuik jo "diabetes melitus nan indak bagantuang ka insulin" (''non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus''; NIDDM) atau "diabetes urang gadang". Panyabab paliang uum adolah kombinasi dari barek badan balabiah jo olahraga nan kurang.<ref name="WHO20132" /> * '''Diabetes gestasional''' marupokan diabetes tipe katigo nan tajadi samaso padusi manganduang tanpa ado riwayaik diabetes sabalunnyo nan dapek maalami paningkekan glukosa.<ref name="WHO20132" /> Ado pulo tipe kaampek nan disabuik "tipe lainnyo", kumpulan dari babarapo kasus parsaurangan.<ref name="Green20113" /> Diabetes marupokan panyakik nan punyo tampilan nan baragam nan dapek tadiri dari kombinasi-kombinasi tipe.<ref name="Tuomi2014">{{cite journal|vauthors=Tuomi T, Santoro N, Caprio S, Cai M, Weng J, Groop L|title=The many faces of diabetes: a disease with increasing heterogeneity|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_march-22-28-2014_383_9922/page/1084|journal=Lancet|volume=383|issue=9922|pages=1084–94|date=March 2014|pmid=24315621|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62219-9}}</ref> Istilah "diabetes", tanpa kualifikasinyo, marujuak pado diabetes melitus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2974|title=Definition of Diabetes mellitus|website=MedicineNet|language=en|access-date=2019-11-04|archive-date=2020-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227194415/https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2974|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Tando jo gejala == {| border="0" align="right" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="350px" bgcolor="#E2DEDE" !<center><big>Tando-tando Diabetes</big></center> |- | bgcolor="#F2EDED" | * Acok kajamban (''frequent urination'') * Auih taruih (''excessive thirst'') * Lapa bana (''increased hunger'') * Kailangan barek badan (''weight loss'') * Angok babaun buah (''fruity breath odor'') * Latiah (''tiredness'') * Kailangan paratian jo konsentrasi (''lack of interest and concentration'') * Muntah jo nyeri lambuang, acok disangko flu (''vomiting and stomach pain, often mistaken as the flu'') * Raso kapocong di tangan jo kaki (''a tingling sensation'') * Kabuanyo pandangan (''blurred vision'') * Acok infeksi (''frequent infections'') * Luko nan indak amuah cegak (''slow-healing wounds'') * Maompol wakatu tidur, pado anak-anak ataupun urang gadang (''bedwetting, in children and adults'') |} Tando-tando klasik dari diabetes nan indak diubek adolah panurunan barek badan (nan indak tarencana), acok kajamban (poliuria), marasu auih taruih (podipsia), jo acok taraso lapa (polifagia).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Cooke DW, Plotnick L|title=Type 1 diabetes mellitus in pediatrics|journal=Pediatr Rev|volume=29|issue=11|pages=374–84; quiz 385|date=November 2008|pmid=18977856|doi=10.1542/pir.29-11-374}}</ref> Gejala-gejala dapek bakambang sangaik capek (babarapo pakan atau bulan sajo) pado diabetes tipe 1, samantaro pado diabetes tipe 2 biasonyo bakambang jauah labiah lambek dan mungkin tanpa ado gejala samo sakali atau indak jaleh. Gejala lain nan dapek sato pulo yaitu badan acok taraso panek.<ref name="WHO2019Fact">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs138/en/|title=WHO {{!}} Diabetes mellitus|website=WHO|access-date=2019-03-23}}</ref> Ado tando-tando jo gejala-gejala lain nan dapek manunjuakan adonyo diabetes, walau hal iko indak baitu jaleh untuak diabetes. Di antaronyo adolah pandangan kabua, sakik kapalo, latiah, luko nan indak kunjuang cegak, inggo gata-gata. Tingginyo glukosa darah dalam wakatu lamo dapek mambuek panyerapan glukosa pado lensa mato, sainggo manyababkan parubahan bantuak, sarato tajamnyo pancaliakan. Dalam jangko lamo manjadi panyakik retinopati diabetikum (kalainan pado retina mato).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WpbVCwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP6|title=Diabetes: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment and Prevention|last=Rockefeller|first=J.D.|date=2015|isbn=978-1-5146-0305-5|language=en}}</ref> === Kadaruratan diabetes === Pandarito (biasonyo diabetes tipe 1) dapek juo maalami kondisi daruraik nan disabuik ketoasidosis diabetikum. Kondisi ko marupokan masalah metabolisme barupo paningkekan gulo darah (> 300 mg/dL) nan dicirikan jo raso mual, muntah, nyeri paruik, angok baun aseton (sarupo baun buah), angok nan dalam (''Kussmaul breathing''), inggo panurunan kasadaran.<ref name="ADA2009">{{cite journal|author=Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, Fisher JN|title=Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes|journal=Diabetes Care|volume=32|issue=7|pages=1335–43|date=July 2009|pmid=19564476|pmc=2699725|doi=10.2337/dc09-9032|url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/32/7/1335.full}}</ref> Kondisi lain nan samo daruraik jo bareknyo, tapi agak jarang yaitu Koma hiperosmolar nonketotik (''hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state''; HHS). Hal ko labiah umum pado diabetes tipe 2 nan utamonyo disababkan adonyo dehidrasi.<ref name="ADA2009" /> Gulo darah randah dek ubek (''treatment-related low blood sugar'') bisa manjadi kondisi daruraik pado pandarito diabetes baiak tipe 1 atau 2. Kabanyakan kasus masih dalam kondisi nan cukuik ringan. Efek nan timbua di antaronyo badan taraso indak lamak (''feeling of unease''), bapaluah, gamataran, paningkekan nafsu makan, inggo kondisi labiah barek sarupo paniang, parubahan parilaku (manjadi parabo), kajang, panurunan kasadaran, sarato (nan jarang) karusakan utak permanan atau kamatian.<ref name="Kenny2014">{{cite journal|vauthors=Kenny C|title=When hypoglycemia is not obvious: diagnosing and treating under-recognized and undisclosed hypoglycemia|journal=Primary Care Diabetes|volume=8|issue=1|pages=3–11|date=April 2014|pmid=24100231|doi=10.1016/j.pcd.2013.09.002|url=http://www.primary-care-diabetes.com/article/S1751-9918(13)00113-7/fulltext}}</ref><ref name="Verrotti2012">{{cite journal|vauthors=Verrotti A, Scaparrotta A, Olivieri C, Chiarelli F|title=Seizures and type 1 diabetes mellitus: current state of knowledge|journal=European Journal of Endocrinology|volume=167|issue=6|pages=749–58|date=December 2012|pmid=22956556|doi=10.1530/EJE-12-0699|df=}}</ref> Angok capek jo bapaluah, dingin, kulik pucek marupokan ciri dari gulo darah randah juo tapi indak baitu spesifik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/symptoms-of-low-blood-sugar-topic-overview|title=Symptoms of Low Blood Sugar|website=WebMD|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618163454/http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/symptoms-of-low-blood-sugar-topic-overview|archive-date=18 June 2016|access-date=29 June 2016|url-status=live|df=}}</ref> === Komplikasi === {{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical|image1=Diabetic retinopathy-NIE.gif|width1=320|caption1='''[[Retinopati diabetikum]]''', adolah panyakik mato nan utamonyo dek diabetes, marusak retina di kaduo balah mato, mambuek masalah pancaliakan inggo buto.|image2=ULCERCELLULITIS1.JPG|width2=320|caption2=Tukak pado kaki adolah komplikasi umum pado diabetes dan dapek maakibaikkan amputasi. .}}Sadoalah bantuak diabetes maningkekan risiko komplikasi dalam jangko lamo. Hal iko bakambang sasudah 10-20 taun, tapi bisa sajo gejala partamo muncua pado urang nan alun tadiagnosis salamo wakatu tasabuik. Komplikasi utamo jangko panjang adolah rusaknyo pambuluah darah. Pandarito diabetes duo kali labiah barisiko untuak mandapek panyakik jantuang pambuluah darah (kardiovaskular)<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sarwar N, Gao P, Seshasai SR, Gobin R, Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E, Ingelsson E, Lawlor DA, Selvin E, Stampfer M, Stehouwer CD, Lewington S, Pennells L, Thompson A, Sattar N, White IR, Ray KK, Danesh J|title=Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: A collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies|journal=The Lancet|volume=375|issue=9733|pages=2215–22|year=2010|pmid=20609967|pmc=2904878|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9}}</ref> jo sakitar 75% kamatian akibaik diabetes dek panyakik jantuang koroner.<ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Gara PT, Kushner FG, Ascheim DD, Casey DE, Chung MK, de Lemos JA, Ettinger SM, Fang JC, Fesmire FM, Franklin BA, Granger CB, Krumholz HM, Linderbaum JA, Morrow DA, Newby LK, Ornato JP, Ou N, Radford MJ, Tamis-Holland JE, Tommaso CL, Tracy CM, Woo YJ, Zhao DX, Anderson JL, Jacobs AK, Halperin JL, Albert NM, Brindis RG, Creager MA, DeMets D, Guyton RA, Hochman JS, Kovacs RJ, Kushner FG, Ohman EM, Stevenson WG, Yancy CW|title=2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines.|journal=Circulation|volume=127|issue=4|pages=e362–425|date=29 January 2013|pmid=23247304|doi=10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182742cf6}}</ref> Panyakik pambuluah darah gadang lainnyo adolah stroke, jo panyakik pambuluah darah tapi (''peripheral vascular disease''). Komplikasi pambuluah darah mikro dek diabetes tamasuak karusakan pado mato, ginjal, jo saraf. Karusakan pado mato tanamo jo retinopati diabetikum, nan disababkan dek karusakan pambuluah darah pado retina, jo dapek barakibaik pado kailangan pancaliakan sacaro baransua-ansua inggo akhianyo buto. Karusakan pado ginjal tanamo sabagai nefropati diabetikum, dapek mambuek paruik, ilang protein, jo kadang-kadang maalami ginjal kronis, nan bisa paralu hemodialisa (cuci darah) atau transplantasi ginjal (donor ginjal). Karusakan pado saraf tanamo sabagai neuropati diabetikum, nan biasonyo marupokan komplikasi utamo dari diabetes. Gejala-gejala dapek maliputi raso taba, kapocong, nyeri, jo sensasi nyeri lainnyo, nan bisa mambuek karusakan pado kulik. Ulkus diabetikum (tukak pado kaki contohnyo) buliahjadi muncua, jo sulik ditangani, kadang paralu amputasi. Sabagai tambahan, neuropati diabetikum proksimal (pado daerah pangka) dapek membuek nyeri pado otot inggo malamah.<ref name="WHO_DMComp">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/diabetes/action_online/basics/en/index3.html|title=Diabetes Programme|publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=22 April 2014}}</ref> Ado ubuangan antaro bakurangnyo kognitif jo diabetes. Dibandiangkan urang nan indak diabetes, pandarito diabetes maalami panurunan fungsi kognitif 1,2 inggo 1,6 kali labiah gadang.<ref name="cognitive">{{cite web|url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-005-0023-4/fulltext.html|title=Cognitive decline and dementia in diabetes—systematic overview of prospective observational studies|date=8 Nov 2005|publisher=Springer-Verlag|accessdate=28 Apr 2013|author=Cukierman, T}}</ref> == Diagnosis&nbsp;== {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+Kriteria diagnosis diabetes manuruik WHO<ref name="who2006">{{cite book|title=Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia: report of a WHO/IDF consultation|url=http://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/Definition%20and%20diagnosis%20of%20diabetes_new.pdf|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|location=Geneva|page=21|year=2006|isbn=978-92-4-159493-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Vijan|first=S|title=Type 2 diabetes|journal=[[Annals of Internal Medicine]]|date=March 2010|volume=152|issue=5|page=ITC31-15|pmid=20194231|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-152-5-201003020-01003}}</ref> !Kondisi !glukosa 2 jam !gulo darah puaso (GDP) ! colspan="2" |HbA_1c |- |''Unit'' |''mmol/l(mg/dl)'' |''mmol/l(mg/dl)'' |''mmol/mol'' |''DCCT %'' |- | width="34%" |Normal |<7.8 (<140) |<6.1 (<110) |<42 |<6.0 |- |Gulo darah puaso taganggu |<7.8 (<140) |≥6.1(≥110) & <7.0(<126) |42-46 |6.0–6.4 |- |Toleransi glukosa taganggu |≥7.8 (≥140) |<7.0 (<126) |42-46 |6.0–6.4 |- |Diabetes melitus |≥11.1 (≥200) |≥7.0 (≥126) |≥48 |≥6.5 |} Diabetes melitus ditandoi jo paningkekan kadar gulo darah nan barulang atau jangko lamo, sarato bisa ditagakan diagonosisnyo jo pamaresoan barikuik:<ref name="WHO1999-DefDiagClass2" /> * Gulo darah puaso (GDP) ≥&nbsp;7,0&nbsp;mmol/l (126&nbsp;mg/dl) * Gulo darah plasma ≥&nbsp;11,1&nbsp;mmol/l (200&nbsp;mg/dl) duo jam sasudah konsumsi 75&nbsp;gram glukosa oral malalui tes toleransi glukosa oral (TTGO) * Gejala gulo darah tinggi jo kadar gulo darah sawakatu (GDS) ≥&nbsp;11,1&nbsp;mmol/l (200&nbsp;mg/dl) * Hemoglobin glikat (HbA_1C) ≥&nbsp;48&nbsp;mmol/mol (≥&nbsp;6,5%).<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Diabetes Care|volume=33|page=S3|url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/33/Supplement_1/S3.full|title="Diabetes Care" January 2010|access-date=29 January 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113212053/http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/33/Supplement_1/S3.full|archive-date=13 January 2010|doi=10.2337/dc10-S003|pmid=20042773|pmc=2797388|year=2009}}</ref> [[Berkas:Testing Blood Sugar Levels.jpg|jmpl|Pamaresoan gulo darah malalui pambuluah darah kapiler di jari tangan|266x266px]]Pado urang nan dicurigai diabetes, tapi hasia pamaresoan gulo darahnyo maragukan, paralu dipastikan baliak jo maulang salah satu dari pamaresoan di ateh pado ari lain. Labiah disukoi untuak mamareso kadar gulo darah puaso dek kamudahan pangukurannyo. Manuruik definisi paliang baru, duo kali pamaresoan gulo darah puaso di ateg 7,0 mmol/l (126 mg/dl) alah bisa untuak managakan diagnosis diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Saydah SH, Miret M, Sung J, Varas C, Gause D, Brancati FL|title=Postchallenge hyperglycemia and mortality in a national sample of U.S. adults|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_diabetes-care_2001-08_24_8/page/1397|journal=Diabetes Care|volume=24|issue=8|pages=1397–402|date=August 2001|pmid=11473076|doi=10.2337/diacare.24.8.1397}}</ref> Manuruik WHO, urang jo kadar gulo darah puaso antaro 6,1 inggo 6,9 mmol/l (110 inggo 125 mg/dl) dianggap alah ado kondisi gulo darah puaso taganggu.<ref>{{cite book|title=Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia : report of a WHO/IDF consultation|url=http://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/Definition%20and%20diagnosis%20of%20diabetes_new.pdf|publisher=World Health Organization|page=21|year=2006|isbn=978-92-4-159493-6|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511072821/http://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/Definition%20and%20diagnosis%20of%20diabetes_new.pdf|archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref> Urang jo glukosa plasma pado atau di ateh 7,8 mmol/l (140 mg/dl), tapi indak labiah dari 11,1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl), duo jam sasudah konsumsi glukosa oral 75 gram, mangko alah dapek dianggap dalam kondisi toleransi glukosa taganggu. Pado duo kondisi prediabetes ko, nan disabuik tarakhia labiah bakamungkinan untuak bakambang manjadi sapanuahnyo diabetes melitus, sarato gangguan kardiovaskular.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/epcsums/impglusum.htm|title=Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Treatment of Impaired Glucose Tolerance and Impaired Fasting Glucose|website=Summary of Evidence Report/Technology Assessment, No. 128|publisher=[[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916030540/http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/epcsums/impglusum.htm|archive-date=16 September 2008|access-date=20 July 2008|vauthors=Santaguida PL, Balion C, Hunt D, Morrison K, Gerstein H, Raina P, Booker L, Yazdi H|url-status=live}}</ref> Asosiasi Diabetes Amerika (''The American Diabetes Association''; ADA) sajak 2003 mampagunokan rantang angko nan saketek babeda pado kondisi gulo darah puaso taganggu yaitu antaro 5,6 inggo 6,9 mmol/l (100 inggo 125 mg/dl).<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Bartoli E, Fra GP, Carnevale Schianca GP|title=The oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) revisited|journal=European Journal of Internal Medicine|volume=22|issue=1|pages=8–12|date=February 2011|pmid=21238885|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2010.07.008}}</ref> Hemoglobin glikat labiah rancak daripado gulo darah puaso untuak manantukan risiko panyakik kardiocaskular sarato kamatian dek panyabab apopun.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Selvin E, Steffes MW, Zhu H, Matsushita K, Wagenknecht L, Pankow J, Coresh J, Brancati FL|title=Glycated hemoglobin, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk in nondiabetic adults|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=362|issue=9|pages=800–11|date=March 2010|pmid=20200384|pmc=2872990|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0908359|citeseerx=10.1.1.589.1658}}</ref> == Panagahan == Alun dikataui caro untuak managah diabetes tipe 1.<ref name="WHO20133" /> Diabetes tipe 2, 85–90% dari sadoalah kasus diaebtes, acok dapek ditagah atau ditunda jo mangandalian barek badan, marutinkan aktivitas fisik, sarato makan makanan sihaik.<ref name="WHO20133" /> Aktivitas fisik jo intensitas tinggi (labiah dari 90 minik per ari) dapek manurunkan risiko diabetes 28%.<ref name="BMJ2016">{{cite journal|vauthors=Kyu HH, Bachman VF, Alexander LT, Mumford JE, Afshin A, Estep K, Veerman JL, Delwiche K, Iannarone ML, Moyer ML, Cercy K, Vos T, Murray CJ, Forouzanfar MH|title=Physical activity and risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013|journal=BMJ|volume=354|pages=i3857|date=August 2016|pmid=27510511|pmc=4979358|doi=10.1136/bmj.i3857}}</ref> Maubah pola makan manjadi labiah sihaik dapek pulo managah diabetes tamasuak maatua pola makan nan tinggi serat, mamiliah nan lamak baiak, sarupo lamak indak januah nan dapek tasuo pado kacang, minyak sayua, jo ikan.<ref name="HarvardNutrition">{{cite web|url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/preventing-diabetes-full-story/#references|title=The Nutrition Source|date=2012-09-18|publisher=Harvard School of Public Health|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425020720/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/preventing-diabetes-full-story/#references|archive-date=25 April 2014|access-date=24 April 2014|url-status=live|df=}}</ref> Pambatasan gulo jo makan makanan randah dagiang sirah atau sumber lamak januah dapek pulo mambantu untuak managah diabetes.<ref name="HarvardNutrition" /> Marokok juo dapek diubuangkan jo paningkekan risiko diabetes sarato komplikasinyo; sainggo baranti marokok manjadi langkah utamo dalam panagahan diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Willi C, Bodenmann P, Ghali WA, Faris PD, Cornuz J|title=Active smoking and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=JAMA|volume=298|issue=22|pages=2654–64|date=December 2007|pmid=18073361|doi=10.1001/jama.298.22.2654}}</ref> Hubuangan antaro diabetes tipe 2 jo faktor risiko nan dapek diubah (barek badan balabiah, makanan indak sihaik, kurang aktivitas fisik, sarato marokok) samo di sadoalah tampek di dunia. Ado juo panilitian nan bakambang untuak mambuktian baso diabetes dapek disababkan dek tuntutan sosial, ekonomi, jo perubahan budayo: globalisasi, urbanisasi, populasi manuo, jo kabijakan lingkuangan sihaik umum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/chp/chronic_disease_report/media/Factsheet1.pdf|title=Chronic diseases and their common risk factors|date=2005|publisher=World Health Organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017172040/http://www.who.int/chp/chronic_disease_report/media/Factsheet1.pdf|archive-date=2016-10-17|access-date=30 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> == Pangalolaan == [[Berkas:ABCs_of_Diabetes.webm|jmpl|Rangkuman pangalolaan diabetes (bahaso Inggirih)]] Diabetes marupokan panyakik kronis, panyakik nan balansuang lamo sainggo alun dapek ditantuan ubek pastiyo salain panaganan sasuai kondisi.<ref name="webmd">{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/is-there-a-diabetes-cure|title=No cure for diabetes|website=WebMD|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521152959/http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/is-there-a-diabetes-cure|archive-date=2015-05-21|access-date=21 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Pangalolaan kadar gulo darah sanormal mungkin, tanpa mambuek gulo darah randah manjadi target utamo dalam maubeknyo. Samakin barhasil katiko dipadukan jo pola iduik sihaik sarupo manjado makanan, olahraga rutin, mangandalian barek badan, sarato mamakai ubek nan sasuai (insulin pado diabetes tipe 1; ubek minum sarato mamungkinkan pulo ditambah insulin pado diabetes tipe 2). Mandalami tantang panyakik sarato turuik aktif dalam satiok pangobatan dapek mambuek komplikasi jarang muncua pado urang-urang nan bisa mangalola gulo darah sacaro baiak.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=|title=The effect of intensive diabetes therapy on the development and progression of neuropathy. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1995-04-15_122_8/page/n54|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|volume=122|issue=8|pages=561–68|date=April 1995|pmid=7887548|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-122-8-199504150-00001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, Genuth SM, Lachin JM, Orchard TJ, Raskin P, Zinman B|title=Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=353|issue=25|pages=2643–53|date=December 2005|pmid=16371630|pmc=2637991|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa052187}}</ref> Tujuan pangubatan adolah kadar HbA_1C 6,5%.<ref name="NICE66">{{NICE|66|Type 2 diabetes|2008}}</ref> Paratian juo dilabiahan pado masalah-masalah kasihatan lain nan dapek mampacapek efek buruak diabetes tamasuak marokok, kadar kolesterol dalam darah tinggi, obesitas, takanan darah tinggi, jo kurangnyo baolahraga.<ref name="NICE66" /> Aleh kaki khusus sacaro laweh dipakai untuak mangurangi risiko tukak kaki.<ref name="pmid15150815">{{cite journal|vauthors=Cavanagh PR|title=Therapeutic footwear for people with diabetes|journal=Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews|volume=20 Suppl 1|issue=Suppl 1|pages=S51–55|year=2004|pmid=15150815|doi=10.1002/dmrr.435}}</ref> === Ubek === ==== Kandali glukosa ==== {{see also|Ubek antidiabetik}}Ubek-ubek nan dipakai untuak maubek diabetes ditargetkan untuak manurunkan kadar gulo darah. Dalam konsensus alah dirumuskan baso katiko pandarito diabetes malakukan kandali arek pado gulo darahnyo supayo dalam rantang normal mangko risiko komplikasi akan manurun.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=MacIsaac RJ, Jerums G, Ekinci EI|title=Glycemic Control as Primary Prevention for Diabetic Kidney Disease|journal=Advances in Chronic Kidney Disease|volume=25|issue=2|pages=141–148|date=March 2018|pmid=29580578|doi=10.1053/j.ackd.2017.11.003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rosberger DF|title=Diabetic retinopathy: current concepts and emerging therapy|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|volume=42|issue=4|pages=721–45|date=December 2013|pmid=24286948|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2013.08.001}}</ref> Ado banyak kelas atau jinih ubek antidiabetik. Babarapo hanyo tasadio untuak diminum, sarupo metformin, samantaro nan lain ado nan hanyo tasadio dalam bantuak suntik sarupo GLP-1 agonis. Diabetes tipe 1 hanyo dapek diubek jo insulin, umumnyo jo kombinasi insulin regular jo NPH, atau insulin analog sintetik. Metformin biasonyo direkomendasikan pado lini partamo ubek untuak diabetes tipe 2, alah ado pulo bukti baso dapek manurunkan risiko kamatian.<ref name="Drugs20052">{{cite journal|vauthors=Krentz AJ, Bailey CJ|title=Oral antidiabetic agents: current role in type 2 diabetes mellitus|journal=Drugs|volume=65|issue=3|pages=385–411|date=2005|pmid=15669880|doi=10.2165/00003495-200565030-00005}}</ref> Ubek ko bakarajo jo manurunkan produksi glukosa hepar (hati).<ref name="Drugs2005">{{cite journal|vauthors=Krentz AJ, Bailey CJ|title=Oral antidiabetic agents: current role in type 2 diabetes mellitus|journal=Drugs|volume=65|issue=3|pages=385–411|date=2005|pmid=15669880|doi=10.2165/00003495-200565030-00005}}</ref> Babarapo kalompok ubek lain, umumnyo lewaik muluik, dapek menurunkan kadar gulo darah pado DM tipe 2. Hal iko tamasuak agen nan dapek maningkekan pangaluaran insulin, manurunkan panyerapan gulo dari usus, agen nan mambuek tubuah labiah sensitif jo insulin, jo agen na maningkekan pangaluaran glukosa balabiah pado urin.<ref name="Drugs2005" /> Katiko insulin dipakai pado diabetes tipe 2, racikan ubek nan bakarajo jangko lamo nan biasonyo ditambahkan mulo-mulo, samantaro malanjuikan ubek minum.<ref name="AFP09">{{cite journal|vauthors=Ripsin CM, Kang H, Urban RJ|title=Management of blood glucose in type 2 diabetes mellitus|journal=American Family Physician|volume=79|issue=1|pages=29–36|date=January 2009|pmid=19145963|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0101/p29.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505033552/http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0101/p29.pdf|df=|url-status=live|archive-date=2013-05-05}}</ref> ==== Takanan darah ==== Sajak panyakik kardiovaskular manjadi komplikasi serius dari diabetes, babarapo panaliti alah marekomendasikan untuak manurunkan takanan darah dibawah 130/80 mmHg.<ref name="nps01">{{cite journal|url=http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/33/4/108/12|title=Drug treatment of elevated blood pressure|author=Nelson, Mark|journal=Australian Prescriber|issue=33|pages=108–12|access-date=11 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826074015/http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/33/4/108/12|archive-date=26 August 2010|df=}}</ref> Di antaro ubek nan manurunkan takanan darah, paambek enzim konversi angiotensin (''angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors''; ACEI) tabukti mamparancak kondisi urang jo diabetes samantaro ubek nan sarupo (paambek reseptor angiotensin atau ''angiotensin receptor blockers''; ARB) indak tabukti.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Cheng J, Zhang W, Zhang X, Han F, Li X, He X, Li Q, Chen J|title=Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular deaths, and cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama-internal-medicine_2014-05_174_5/page/773|journal=JAMA Internal Medicine|volume=174|issue=5|pages=773–85|date=May 2014|pmid=24687000|doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.348}}</ref> Aspririn direkomendasikan pulo pado urang jo masalah kardiovaskular, namun pamakaian rutin indak tasuo mamparancak kaluaran diabetes nan indak bakomplikasi.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Pignone M, Alberts MJ, Colwell JA, Cushman M, Inzucchi SE, Mukherjee D, Rosenson RS, Williams CD, Wilson PW, Kirkman MS|title=Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in people with diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association, a scientific statement of the American Heart Association, and an expert consensus document of the American College of Cardiology Foundation|journal=Diabetes Care|volume=33|issue=6|pages=1395–402|date=June 2010|pmid=20508233|pmc=2875463|doi=10.2337/dc10-0555}}</ref> == Caliak pulo == * [[Hiperglikemia]] * [[Diabetes insipidus]] * [[Sindrom metabolik]] == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} == Pautan lua == {{Medical condition classification and resources | ICD10={{ICD10|E|10||e|10}}–{{ICD10|E|14||e|10}} | ICD9={{ICD9|250}} | MedlinePlus=001214 | eMedicineSubj=med | eMedicineTopic=546 | eMedicine_mult={{eMedicine2|emerg|134}} | MeSH=D003920| }} {{Sister project links|display=Diabetes mellitus}} <!-- BEFORE inserting new links here you should first post it to the talk page, otherwise your edit is likely to be reverted; this section is reserved for official or authoritative resources --> * {{Curlie|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Endocrine_Disorders/Pancreas/Diabetes/}} * [http://www.diabetes.org American Diabetes Association] * [http://www.diabetesatlas.org/ IDF Diabetes Atlas] * [http://ndep.nih.gov/ National Diabetes Education Program] * [http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/42/Supplement_1 ADA's Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2019] * {{cite journal | vauthors = Polonsky KS | title = The past 200 years in diabetes | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2012-10-04_367_14/page/1332 | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 367 | issue = 14 | pages = 1332–40 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23034021 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra1110560 }} [[Kategori:Panyakik endokrin]] [[Kategori:Kalainan metabolisme]] [[Kategori:Diabetes]] n5l068b57jtfpvfijhk9z6dlos759eo 0 326179 3351266 2004649 2026-08-05T21:52:22Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351266 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pambantahan medis}} '''Diabetes insipidus (DI)''' adolah kondisi nan ditandoi jo pangaluaran urin nan banyak sarato marasokan auih nan bakatarusan.<ref name="NIH2015">{{cite web|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/diabetes-insipidus|title=Diabetes Insipidus|date=October 2015|website=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513120920/https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/diabetes-insipidus|archivedate=13 May 2017|accessdate=28 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Kondisi ko agak cukuik sarik ditamui masyarakaik. Dalam kondisi parah, [[urin]] pandarito dapek kalua inggo mancapai 20 liter per ari.<ref name="NIH2015" /> Komplikasi nan dapek muncua yaitu [[dehidrasi]] (tubuah kurang aia) jo [[kajang]].<ref name="NIH2015" /> Ado ampek tipe dari diabetes insipidus, satiok tipe mampunyoi pabedaan manuruik panyababnyo.<ref name="NIH2015" /> Diabetes insipidus sentral marupokan tipe nan disababkan dek hormon [[vasopresin]] (hormon [[antidiuretik]]; hormon panahan pipis) nan indak ado. Hal iko bisa disababkan dek karusakan pado [[hipotalamus]] atau [[kalenjar pituitari]] atau malah katurunan. Diabetes insipidus nefrogenik marupokan tipe nan disababkan dek [[ginjal]] nan indak rancak marespon ka vasopresin. Diabetes insipidus dipsogenik marupokan hasia dari kalabiahan cairan nan masuak ka tubuah sainggo marusak mekanisme [[hipotalamus]] untuak marespon auih. Hal iko labiah acok tajadi pado urang jo kalainan psikiatri atau dek ubek tatantu nan rutin inyo pakai. Diabetes insipidus gestasional adolah kondisi diabetes insipidus nan tajadi salamo manganduang. Diagonosis acok ditagakkan manuruik pamaresoan urin, pamaresoan darah, jo pamaresoan cairan tubuah. [[Diabetes melitus]] marupokan kondisi nan babeda sarato indak ado kaitannyo jo mekanisme panyakik ko, walau kaduonyo mampunyoi gejala nan sarupo yaitu produksi urin nan bakalabiahan.<ref name="NIH2015" /> Pangobatan nan dilakukan malibaikan pangalolaan cairan nan masuak dalam tubuah untuk maadang tajadinyo [[dehidrasi]]. Pangobatan lain bagantuang pado tipe [[panyakik]]<nowiki/>nyo. Pado tipe sentral jo gestasional, pangobatan nan paralu adolah jo [[desmopressin]]. DI tipe nefrogenik diubek jo mancari tau panyakik nan mandasarinyo atau mamakai [[tiazid]], [[aspirin]], atau [[ibuprofen]].<ref name="NIH2015" /> Jumlah kasus baru diabetes insipidus tiok taunnyo adolah 3 dari 100.000.<ref name="Sab2000">{{cite journal|vauthors=Saborio P, Tipton GA, Chan JC|title=Diabetes Insipidus|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatrics-in-review_2000-04_21_4/page/122|journal=Pediatrics in Review|volume=21|issue=4|pages=122–129|year=2000|pmid=10756175|pmc=|doi=10.1542/pir.21-4-122}}</ref> DI sentral biasonyo dimulai antaro umua 10 sampai 20 sarato saimbang antaro laki-laki jo padusi.<ref name="NORD2015CDI">{{cite web|url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/central-diabetes-insipidus/|title=Central Diabetes Insipidus|date=2015|website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders)|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221045116/https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/central-diabetes-insipidus/|archivedate=21 February 2017|accessdate=28 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> DI nefrogenik dapek dimulai pado umua bara se.<ref name="NORD2016NDI">{{cite web|url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/nephrogenic-diabetes-insipidus/|title=Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus|date=2016|website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders)|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219084854/https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/nephrogenic-diabetes-insipidus/|archivedate=19 February 2017|accessdate=28 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Istilah "diabetes" pado namo panyakik ko barasa dari [[bahaso Yunani]] nan aratinyo "maalia".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rubin|first1=Alan L.|title=Diabetes For Dummies|date=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118052488|page=19|edition=3|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=uYD92j-iQo8C&pg=PA19|language=en|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908191512/https://books.google.ca/books?id=uYD92j-iQo8C&pg=PA19|archivedate=2017-09-08}}</ref> == Caliak pulo == * [[Diabetes melitus]] == Rujuakan == <references />{{Medis-stub}} [[Kategori:Panyakik endokrin]] [[Kategori:Nefrologi]] h60i7qg0l74ih5wo177ufd8u1r486hi 0 326392 3351210 3151003 2026-08-05T19:56:47Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}} [[Berkas:Izgrew.jpg|jmpl|Matoari]] {{Matoari}} '''Matoari''' atau '''Surya''' (simbol: [[file:Sun symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|☉]]) adolah [[bintang]] di pusek [[Tata Surya]]. Bantuaknyo ampia samparono bulek nan tadiri dari [[plasma (fisika)|plasma]] paneh bacampua [[medan magnet]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/02oct_oblatesun/|title=How Round is the Sun?|publisher=NASA|date=2 October 2008|accessdate=7 March 2011|archive-date=13 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513220226/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/02oct_oblatesun/|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/06feb_fullsun/|title=First Ever STEREO Images of the Entire Sun|publisher=NASA|date=6 February 2011|accessdate=7 March 2011|archive-date=16 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110416035036/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/06feb_fullsun/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Diameternyo sakitar 1.392.684&nbsp;km,<ref name=arxiv1203_4898>{{citation |first1=Marcelo |last1=Emilio |first2=Jeff R. |last2=Kuhn |first3=Rock I. |last3=Bush |first4=Isabelle F. |last4=Scholl |title=Measuring the Solar Radius from Space during the 2003 and 2006 Mercury Transits |work=arXiv |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/1203.4898 |accessdate=2012-03-28}}</ref> kiro-kiro 109 kali diameter [[Bumi]], dan massanyo (sakitar 2{{e|30}} kilogram, 330.000 kali massa Bumi) mawakili kurang labiah 99,86 % massa total Tata Surya.<ref name=Woolfson00> {{Cite journal |last = Woolfson|first = M |year = 2000 |title = The origin and evolution of the solar system |journal = [[Astronomy & Geophysics]] |volume = 41 |issue = 1 |pages=1.12 |doi = 10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00012.x |ref = harv }}</ref> Sacaro kimiawi, sakitar tigo parampek massa Matoari tadiri dari [[hidrogen]], sadangkan sisonyo didominasi [[helium]]. Siso massa tasabuik (1,69%, sapangkek jo 5.629 kali massa Bumi) tadiri dari elemen-elemen barek sarupo [[oksigen]], [[karbon]], [[neon]], [[basi]], dan lain-lain.<ref name=basu2008> {{Cite journal |last=Basu |first=S. |last2=Antia |first2=H. M. |year=2008 |title=Helioseismology and Solar Abundances |journal=[[Physics Reports]] |volume=457 |issue=5–6 |page=217 |doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.002 |arxiv=0711.4590 |ref=harv |bibcode=2008PhR...457..217B }}</ref><span id="why_the_sun_is_yellow"></span> Matoari tabantuak sakitar 4,6 miliar taun nan lalu dek paluruahan gravitasi suatu wilayah di dalam sabuah [[awan molekul]] gadang. Sabagian gadang materi bakumpua di tangah, samantaro sisonyo mamipih manjadi cakram baredar nan kudian [[pambantuakan jo evolusi Tata Surya|manjadi Tata Surya]]. Massa puseknyo samakin paneh jo padek inggo akhianyo mamulai [[fusi termonuklir]] di intinyo. Dipakirokan baso hampia sadoalah bintang lain [[pambantuakan bintang|tabantuak jo proses sarupo]]. [[Klasifikasi bintang]] Matoari, manuruik kelas spektrumnyo, adolah [[bintang deret utamo G]] (G2V) dan acok digoloangkan sabagai ''katai kuning'' dek radiasi tampaknyo labiah intens dalam porsi [[spektrum]] kuniang-sirah. Walau rononyo putiah, dari pamukoan Bumi Matoari tampak kuniang dek [[radiasi langik baur|pambauran]] cahayo biru di atmosfer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilk |first=S. R. |year=2009 |title=The Yellow Sun Paradox |url=http://www.osa-opn.org/Content/ViewFile.aspx?id=11147 |journal=[[Optics & Photonics News]] |pages=12–13 |ref=harv |access-date=2019-11-22 |archive-date=2012-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618183229/http://www.osa-opn.org/Content/ViewFile.aspx?id=11147 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Manuruik label kelas spektrum,''G2'' manandokan [[suhu efektif|suhu pamukoannyo]] sakitar 5778&nbsp;K (5505&nbsp;°C) jo ''V'' manandokan baso Matoari, layaknyo bintang-bintang lain, marupokan bintang [[deret utamo]], sainggo energinyo diciptakan dek [[fusi nuklir]] [[nukleus atom|nukleus]] hidrogen ka dalam helium. Di intinyo, Matoari mamfusi 620&nbsp;juta ton metrik hidrogen satiok datiak. Dulu, Matoari dipandang astronom-astronom sabagai bintang ketek dan indak pantiang. Kini, Matoari dianggap labiah tarang daripado sakitar 85% bintang di galaksi [[Bima Sakti]] nan didominasi [[katai sirah]].<ref> {{Cite news |last=Than|first=K. |year=2006 |title=Astronomers Had it Wrong: Most Stars are Single |publisher=[[Space.com]] |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060130_mm_single_stars.html |accessdate=2007-08-01 }}</ref><ref> {{Cite journal |last=Lada |first=C. J. |year=2006 |title=Stellar multiplicity and the initial mass function: Most stars are single |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal Letters]] |volume=640 |issue=1 |pages=L63–L66 |doi=10.1086/503158 |bibcode=2006ApJ...640L..63L |ref=harv |arxiv = astro-ph/0601375 }}</ref> [[Magnitudo absolut]] Matoari adolah +4,83. Akan tatapi, sabagai bintang nan paliang dakek jo Bumi, Matoari adolah benda paliang cerah di langik jo [[magnitudo tampak]] −26,74.<ref> {{Cite journal |last=Burton|first=W. B. |year = 1986 |title = Stellar parameters |url=https://archive.org/details/space-science-review_1986-04_43_3-4/page/244|journal = [[Space Science Reviews]] |volume = 43|issue = 3–4|pages = 244–250 |doi = 10.1007/BF00190626 |ref= harv |bibcode=1986SSRv...43..244. }}</ref><ref> {{Cite journal |last = Bessell|first = M. S. |last2 = Castelli|first2 = F. |last3 = Plez|first3 = B. |year = 1998 |title= Model atmospheres broad-band colors, bolometric corrections and temperature calibrations for O–M stars |journal = [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume = 333|pages = 231–250 |bibcode = 1998A&A...333..231B |ref= harv }}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} == Pautan lua == *{{Commons-inline|Sun|Matoari}} {{Tata surya}} [[Kategori:Matoari]] [[Kategori:Tata surya]] ipfgmsd6ykdn6gyi6u9z21mw62miog0 0 326572 3351242 2501858 2026-08-05T21:11:27Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{pambantahan medis}} {{Drugbox | Verifiedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 457629722 | drug_name = | IUPAC_name = <nowiki>methyl 7-chloro-6,7,8-trideoxy-6-{[(4</nowiki>''R'')-1-methyl-4-propyl-<small>L</small>-prolyl]amino}-1-thio-<small>L</small>-threo-α-<small>D</small>-galacto-octopyranoside | image = Clindamycin Structural Formula V2.svg | width = 250 | image2 = Clindamycin 3D 3jz0.png | width2 = 250 <!-- Clinical data --> | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|k|l|ɪ|n|d|ə|ˈ|m|aɪ|s|ᵻ|n}} | tradename = Cleocin, Clinacin, Dalacin, lainnyo | Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|clindamycin-hydrochloride}} | class = [[Makrolida|Makrolida]] | MedlinePlus = a682399 | licence_US = Clindamycin | pregnancy_AU = A | pregnancy_US = B | legal_AU = S4 | legal_UK = POM | legal_US = Rx-only | routes_of_administration = oral, topikal (pamakaian lua), suntik (IV atau IM), intravaginal <!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> | bioavailability = 90% (muluik)<br />4–5% (topikal) | protein_bound = 95% | metabolism = [[Liver|Hepar]] | elimination_half-life = 2–3 jam | excretion = Saluran ampadu jo [[ginjal]] (kiro-kiro 20%) <!-- Identifiers --> | CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} | CAS_number = 18323-44-9 | ATC_prefix = J01 | ATC_suffix = FF01 | ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|D10|AF01}} {{ATC|G01|AA10}} | PubChem = 446598 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB01190 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 393915 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | ChEBI = 3745 | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 3U02EL437C | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = D00277 | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 1753 <!-- Chemical data --> | C=18 | H=33 | Cl=1 | N=2 | O=5 | S=1 | molecular_weight = 424.98 g/mol | smiles = Cl[C@@H](C)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H]1N(C)C[C@H](CCC)C1)[C@H]2O[C@H](SC)[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)[C@H]2O | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C18H33ClN2O5S/c1-5-6-10-7-11(21(3)8-10)17(25)20-12(9(2)19)16-14(23)13(22)15(24)18(26-16)27-4/h9-16,18,22-24H,5-8H2,1-4H3,(H,20,25)/t9-,10+,11-,12+,13-,14+,15+,16+,18+/m0/s1 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = KDLRVYVGXIQJDK-AWPVFWJPSA-N | synonyms = 7-chloro-lincomycin<br />7-chloro-7-deoxylincomycin |alt=|caption=|type=|legal_status=|licence_EU=|pregnancy_category= }} '''Klindamisin''' adolah sajinih [[ubek]] [[antibiotik]] turunan dari [[eritromisin]] nan masuak dalam golongan [[makrolida]].{{Sfn|BPOM|Makrolida}} Antibiotik ko dipakai untuak malawan [[infeksi]] barek nan disababkan dek [[bakteri]] [[anaerob]] atau pun bakteri [[aerob]] sarupo [[streptokokus]], [[stafilokokus]], [[pneumokokus]], sarato [[protozoa]]. Panyakik-panyakik nan biasonyo diubek jo ubek ko antaro lain infeksi tulang, infeksi sandi,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Current indications for the use of clindamycin: A critical review|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/804434375|publisher=Pulsus Group Inc|oclc=804434375|last=Smieja, Marek}}</ref> infeksi paradangan panggua (''[[pelvic inflamatory disease]]''), radang tabuang angok (''[[faringitis]]''), infeksi talingo tangah, radang paru (''[[pneumonia]]''), inggo masalah kulik sarupo jirawek ([[akne]]). Klindamisin dapek pulo dijadikan ubek panagah muncua (profilaksis) panyakik radang jantuang ([[endokarditis]]) ataupun pangganti ubek penisilin pado urang nan [[alergi]] jo [[penisilin]].{{Sfn|BPOM|Klindamisin}} Klindamisin tasadio dalam bantuak ubek minum kapsul (oral), suntik (intravena), jo oles (topikal) pado pamukaan kulik.{{Sfn|Swari}} == Indikasi == Klindamisin dipakai pado pasien nan tainfeksi bakteri ''Staphylococcus aureus'', ''Streptococcus viridans'', ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', ''Streptococcus pyogenes'', jo ''Actinomyces israelli''. Salain itu, klindamisin aktif pulo untuak manyarang bakteri ''Bacteriodes fragilis'' sarato anaerobik lainnyo. Walau baitu, klindamisin tatap dipatimbangkan hanyo untuak infeksi barek atau sangaik barek dek ado efek sampiang [[kolitis pseudomembranosa]] nan marupokan infeksi bakteri lain.{{Sfn|FK UI|pp=727}} Salain dapek dipakai untuak malawan bakteri, klindamisin dapek dipakai pulo untuak malawan parasit protozoa, sarupo ''[[Plasmodium fasiparum]]''. Parasit ko marupokan panyabab [[malaria]]. Klindamisin diagiah dalam bantuan kombinasi jo klorokuin atau kuinin nan ekfektif gunonyo untuak pasien anak. Dalam bantuak kombinasi jo kuinin, manjadi piliahan untuak padusi nan manganduang utamonyo di daerah nan alah resisten jo klorokuin.<ref name="Lell2002">{{cite journal|vauthors=Lell B, Kremsner PG|title=Clindamycin as an Antimalarial Drug: Review of Clinical Trials|journal=[[Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy]]|issn=0066-4804|volume=46|issue=8|pages=2315–20|year=2002|pmid=12121898|doi=10.1128/AAC.46.8.2315-2320.2002|pmc=127356|url=http://aac.asm.org/cgi/reprint/46/8/2315.pdf|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929084456/http://aac.asm.org/cgi/reprint/46/8/2315.pdf|archivedate=2011-09-29}}</ref><ref name="Griffith">{{cite journal|vauthors=Griffith KS, Lewis LS, Mali S, Parise ME|title=Treatment of malaria in the United States: a systematic review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_may-23-30-2007_297_20/page/2264|journal=JAMA|volume=297|issue=20|pages=2264–77|year=2007|pmid=17519416|doi=10.1001/jama.297.20.2264}}</ref> Walau baitu, alah ado Plasmodium falciparum nan resisten jo klindamisin bak cando nan ditaliti di urang Amazon Peru.<ref name="Dharia">{{cite journal|vauthors=Dharia NV, Plouffe D, Bopp SE, González-Páez GE, Lucas C, Salas C, Soberon V, Bursulaya B, Kochel TJ, Bacon DJ, Winzeler EA|title=Genome scanning of Amazonian Plasmodium falciparum shows subtelomeric instability and clindamycin-resistant parasites|journal=[[Genome Research]]|volume=20|issue=11|pages=1534–44|year=2010|pmid=20829224|doi=10.1101/gr.105163.110|pmc=2963817|df=}}</ref> == Efek sampiang == Efek sampiang umum nan muncua dek klindamisin antaro lain mual, muntah, ruam sirah, raso indak nyaman di paruik, jo gangguan ginjal.{{Sfn|BPOM|Klindamisin}} Diare dilaporkan tajadi pado 2-22% pamakai ubek ko. Bisa pulo tajadi kaluahan [[kolitis pseudomembranosa]] nan ditandoi jo damam, padiah di paruik, diare badarah, jo adonyo lendir pado feses. Gejala-gejala ko dapek muncua salamo terapi jo ubek ko atau bapakan-pakan sasudah terapi. Kok dipareso jo manaropong ka dalam paruik (prostoskopi) ka tampak adonyo lapisan-lapisan (membran) putiah kakuniangan pado pamukaan usus gadang (kolon). Kaluhan kolitis dilaporkan muncua pado 0,1--10% pasien. Hal iko disababkan dek toksin nan dihasiakan dek bakteri ''Clostridium difficile.'' Bakteri ko sabananyo bukan bakteri nan biaso ado di usus (flora normal). Panyakik ko disabuik juo sabagai kolitis psudeomembranosa tarasosiasi jo antibiotik (''antibiotic-associated pseudomembranosa colitis'') dek biaso muncua pado pasien nan kabanyakan diagiah antibiotik, khususnyo klindamisin. Ubek musti diantian pamakaiannyo kok gejala diare atau kolitis tu lah muncua dan dapek diganti jo ubek lain, sarupo [[vankomisin]] atau [[metronidazol]].{{Sfn|FK UI|pp=727}} == Sediaan == Klindamisin tasadio dalam bantuak ubek minum, ubek suntik, jo ubek pamakaian lua. Ubek minum klindamisin tasadio dalam bantuak kapsul jo dosis 75, 150, jo 300 mg. Pado anak-anak ubek tasadio dalam bantuak suspensi (larutan) minum 75mg/5mL. Namun, anak-anak kurang katuju dek baunnyo. Pado pamakaian suntik, baiak untuak suntikan vena (intravena) atau suntikan otot (intramuskular), dipakai bantuak larutan klindamisin fosfat 150mg/mL dalam ampul 2 jo 4 mL. Untuak pamakaian lua, tasadio dalam bantuak gel, lotion,foam, jo krim.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://reference.medscape.com/drug/cleocin-clindesse-clindamycin-342558|title=Cleocin, Clindesse (clindamycin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more|website=reference.medscape.com|access-date=2019-12-09}}</ref>{{Sfn|Swari}}<ref>LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2012-. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK548292/ Clindamycin]. [Updated 2017 Oct 12].</ref> == Interaksi == Interaksi jo ubek lain dapek babeda-beda. Pado interaksi jo [[eritromisin]] (makrolida lainnyo) atau kloramfenikol dapek mamunculan efek antagonis dek caro karajo nan samo. Samantaro jo golongan [[Ubek paambek neuromuskular|ubek paambek saraf otot]] (''neuromuscular blocking drugs'') sarupo [[vekuronium]], dapek mampalamo maso karajo ubeknyo.{{Sfn|BPOM|Klindamisin}}<ref name="al_Ahdal">{{cite journal|vauthors=al Ahdal O, Bevan DR|title=Clindamycin-induced neuromuscular blockade|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-anesthesia_1995-07_42_7/page/614|journal=Can J Anaesth|volume=42|issue=7|pages=614–7|year=1995|pmid=7553999|doi=10.1007/BF03011880}}</ref> == Caro karajo == Klindamisin marupokan ubek bakteriostatik, bakarajo jo maambek pambuatan (sintesis) protein bakteri pado tingkek ribosom 50S sainggo pakambangbiakan bakteri dapek taranti. Klindamisin juo dapek manjadi bakterisidal (mambunuah bakteri) bagantuang pado konsentrasi ubek, bakteri, sarato lokasi infeksi.<ref name=":0" /> Rute masuak ubek klindimisin nan babeda juo mahasiakan daya serap tubuah nan babeda. Pado rute oral (muluik), ubek ampia dapek taserap panuah. Ubek ko pun indak tapangaruah jo makanan dalam lambuang. Kadar puncak ubek ko tacapai dalam wakatu 1 jam jo rute oral, sadangkan jo rute suntik (intramuskular) dicapai dalam satu inggo tigo jam. Samantaro untuak wakatu paruah dapek mancapai 2-3 jam dan samakin panjang pado pandarito gangguan ginjal atau hepar.{{Sfn|FK UI|pp=727}}<ref name=":0" /> Klindamisin dapek taseba laweh ka babagai cairan tubuah, tulang, jo jaringan. Namun, indak dapek masuak sampai ka cairan serebrospinal (''cerebrospinal fluid''), di utak atau sumsum tulang balakang, walaupun sadang tajadi infeksi selaput utak ([[meningitis]]). Di dalam tubuah, 90% klindamisin ka tarikek jo protein albumin sainggo basamo aliran darah dapek pulo malalui sawar plasenta antaro mandeh jo janin pado padusi nan manganduang.{{Sfn|FK UI|pp=727}} Klindamisin maalami metabolime di hepar sainggo pandarito gangguan hepar musti labiah baelok-elok dalam pamakaiannyo.{{Sfn|BPOM|Klindamisin}} Kudian klindamisin dikaluakan dari tubuah sabagian gadang malaui urin jo saketek nan malalui ampadu. Hanyo 10% klindamisin nan tabuang dari tubuah.{{Sfn|FK UI|pp=727}} == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Daftar pustaka == * {{Cite web|url=http://pionas.pom.go.id/ioni/bab-5-infeksi/51-antibakteri/515-makrolida|title=5.1.5 Makrolida|last=BPOM|first=|date=|website=Pusat Informasi Obat Nasional|publisher=Badan Pengawas Obat dan Makanan Republik Indonesia|access-date=9 Desember 2019|ref={{sfnRef|BPOM|Makrolida}}|archive-date=2019-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209070123/http://pionas.pom.go.id/ioni/bab-5-infeksi/51-antibakteri/515-makrolida|dead-url=yes}} *{{Cite web|url=http://pionas.pom.go.id/monografi/klindamisin|title=Klindamisin|last=BPOM|first=|date=|website=Pusat Informasi Obat Nasional|publisher=Badan Pengawasan Obat dan Makanan Republik Indonesia|access-date=9 Desember 2019|ref={{sfnRef|BPOM|Klindamisin}}|archive-date=2019-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209071516/http://pionas.pom.go.id/monografi/klindamisin|dead-url=yes}} *{{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/obatan-suplemen/obat/clindamycin/|title=Clindamycin obat apa?|last=Swari|first=Risky Candra|date=10 Agustus 2018|website=Hello Sehat|publisher=Hello Health Group Pte. Ltd.|access-date=9 Desember 2019|ref={{sfnRef|Swari}}}} *{{Cite book|title=Farmakologi dan Terapi Edisi 5|last=FK UI|first=|publisher=Balai Penerbit FKUI|year=2009|isbn=9789791610407|location=Jakarta|pages=|ref={{sfnRef|FK UI}}}} [[Kategori:Antibiotik]] ckc9eiar3n2f5nii40h1if5gw42otcy 0 326663 3351204 3349875 2026-08-05T19:47:16Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351204 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} [[File:Cover of the first edition of Crime and Punishment.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Sampul partamo ''Crime and Punishment'', 1867]] '''''Crime and Punishment''''' ("Kajahatan jo Ukuman") adolah sabuah novel [[Rusia]] tahun 1866 dek panulis [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]. == Carito == Novel ko mancaritoan kisah surang Radion Raskolnikov, mahasiswa miskin di kota [[St. Petersburg]]. Raskolnikov kalua dari fakultas hukum dan tingga di rumah nan kumuah. Inyo mulai manyusun satu rencana untuak mambunuah surang nyonya tukang gadai nan alah tuo. Raskolnikov ditakan pulo dek masalah adiak padusinyo Dunya, nan [[kawin tapaso|tapaso kawin]] untuak malapehan diri dari jarek utang. Tababan dek darito, Raskolnikov akhianyo mambunuah si nyonya [[tukang gadai]] sarato saudarinyo, namun indak sempat manjarah aratonyo dek karano taguncang. Raskolnikov mandarito takanan mental dek sabab pambunuahan nan inyo lakuan. Inyo kudian mandarito panyakik nan mambueknyo damam jo acok pingsan, dibantu dirawat dek kawannyo samaso kuliah Razumikhin. Namun, masalah adiak padusinyo samakin batambah gadang, dan inyo indak pulo sanggup untuak manyalasaian. Razumikhin akhianyo mampatamuan Raskolnikov jo detektif polisi Petrovich nan manangani pakaro pambunuahan si nyonya tukang gadai. Pakaro tantang adiak padusi Raskolnikov kudian samakin rumik dek munculnyo watak Svidrigailov. [[File:Crime and Punishment (film) 1935. Josef von Sternberg, director. L to R Edward Arnold, Peter Lorre.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Edward Arnold]] jo [[Peter Lorre]] pado adaptasi film ''Crime and Punishment'' arahan sutradara [[Josef von Sternberg]], 1935.]] Pado saat inyo diinterogasi dek Detektif Petrovich, kaduonyo takajuik kutiko surang palukis nan banamo Mikolka mangakui baso inyolah nan mambunuah si nyonya tukang gadai. Pakaro tantang Dunya samakin baliku-liku, baujuang jo bunuah dirinyo Svidrigailov. Detektif Petrovich, nan pado awalnyo alah indak yakin baso Mikolka adolah pambunuahnyo, maagiah tau Raskolnikov baso inyo yakin Raskolnikovlah nan sabananyo pambunuah, dan manyarankan inyo untuak mangaku sajo. Pado akhirnyo, Raskolnikov mambuek pangakuan basalah dan diukum lapan taun panjaro. == Sajarah jo latar == Dalam manulis novel ko, Dostoevsky tagugah jo kasus [[Pierre François Lacenaire]]. Pado kutiko itu, inyo sadang talilik utang dan tingga di [[Wiesbaden]], [[Jerman]]. Dosteovsky bausao untuak mangirim naskah partamonyo pado Mikhail Katkov, redaktur ''Russian Herald'', jo imbalan 300 [[rubel]].<Ref> {{Cite web|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/the-world-of-crime-and-punishment/|title=Floating in the Air: The world that made Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment.|date=16 April 2018|access-date=1 Januari 2020|website=The Nation|last=Wilson|first=Jennifer|archive-date=31 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231182654/https://www.thenation.com/article/the-world-of-crime-and-punishment/|dead-url=yes}} </ref> Pado asalinyo, ''Crime and Punishment'' tabik subagai [[carito basambuang]], partamo pado ''The Russian Messenger'' edisi Januari 1866, dan taakhia pado bulan Desember taun nan samo. Baru salapeh edisi Soviet disusun basamo surek-surek jo catatan paribadi Dostoevsky novel ko ditabikan subagai satu kasatuan nan gadang.{{sfn|Rosenshield|year=1973|p=399}}{{sfn|Simmons|year=2007|p=131}} == Sambutan == Novel ko dipandang subagai salah satu karya sastra Eropa abaik ka-19 nan paliang bapangaruah. Pagarakan [[Simbolisme]] nan muncua di Rusia pado 1880an mamandang ''Crime and Punishment'' dari sisi estetika jo mistisismenyo.{{sfn|Cox|p=14-15}} Banyak sastrawan nan sazaman jo Dostoevsky cando [[Virginia Woolf]] jo [[D.H. Lawrence]] nan mambahas tantang novel ko. Pakar psikologi [[Sigmund Freud]] ikuik manganalisis ''Crime and Punishment'' dari sisi [[psikoanalisis]].{{sfn|Grotstein|p=200}} Di kudian ari, pamikia unggua cando [[Jean Paul Sartre]] jo [[Albert Camus]] mandapek pangaruah gadang dari novel ko.{{sfn|Cox|p=18-21}} ''Crime and Punishment'' sukses gadang kutik ditabikan dek ''The Russian Messenger'', nan pado maso nan samo sadang manabikan pula novel ''[[War and Peace]]'' karya [[Leo Tolstoy]].{{sfn|McDuff|p=x-xi}} Novel ko partamo kali ditajamahan ka bahaso Inggirih dek [[Frederick Wishaw]] pado taun 1885, namun versi [[Constance Garnett]] (1914) labiah banyak dipakai. Sajak taun 1990an, versi tajamahan dek David McDuff (1991) atau Richard Pevear/Larissa Volokhonsky (1992) labiah umum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/26/books/raskolnikov-says-the-darndest-things.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|title=Raskolnikov Says the Darndest Things|date=26 April 1992|access-date=1 Januari 2020|website=The New York Times|publisher=The New York Times|last=Lourie|first=Richard}}</ref> Novel ko alah banyak pulo dinaiakkan ka layar kaco. Salah satu versi film nan paliang tanamo adolah ''[[Crime and Punishment (film Amerika 1923)|Crime and Punishment]]'' (1923) nan manampilan [[Peter Lorre]], [[Edward Arnold]], jo [[Marian Marsh]]; atau ''[[Crime and Punishment (film 2002)|Crime and Punishment]]'' (2002) nan manampilan [[Crispin Glover]] jo [[Vanessa Redgrave]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sensesofcinema.com/2004/cteq/crime_and_punishment/|title=Crime and Punishment: A Neglected Classic|date=2004|access-date=1 Januari 2020|website=Senses of Cinema|last=Beltzer|first=Thomas|archive-date=2019-12-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231184324/http://sensesofcinema.com/2004/cteq/crime_and_punishment/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} === Daftar pustaka === {{Refbegin}} {{Col|2}} * {{Cite book|title=Dostoevsky Centenary Conference at the University of Nottingham|last=Cassedy|first=Steven|year=1982|publisher=International Dostoevsky Society|volume=3|url=https://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/03/171.shtml|chapter=The Formal Problem of the Epilogue in ''Crime and Punishment'': The Logic of Tragic and Christian Structures|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002014438/http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/03/171.shtml|archivedate=2 October 2013|df=dmy-all}} * {{Cite book |title=Critical Reconstructions: The Relationship of Fiction and Life|last=Frank |first=Joseph |year=1994 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|editor1-last=Polhemus |editor1-first=Robert M. |editor2-last=Henkle |editor2-first=Roger B.|isbn=0-8047-2243-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IgvEsBPNb7MC&dq=critic,+Pisarev,+Dostoevsky,+crime+and+punishment|chapter=The Making of Crime and Punishment}} * {{Cite book |title=Dostoevsky: The Miraculous Years, 1865–1871|last=Frank |first=Joseph |year=1995 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=0-691-01587-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAs4Lz5yog0C&dq=Katkov,+Crime+and+Punishment}} * {{Cite book |title=Dostoevsky: The Mantle of the Prophet, 1871–1881|last=Frank |first=Joseph |year=2002 |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-11569-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQqonU-pweEC&dq=The+Struggle+for+Life,+Pisarev,+Crime+and+Punishment|chapter=Introduction}} * {{Cite book|title=Dostoevsky Centenary Conference at the University of Nottingham|last=Gill|first=Richard|year=1982|publisher=International Dostoevsky Society|volume=3|url=https://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/03/145.shtml|chapter=The Bridges of St. Petesburg: a Motive in ''Crime and Punishment''|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919075634/http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/03/145.shtml|archivedate=19 September 2008|df=dmy-all}} * {{Cite book |title=Dostoevsky and the Idea of Russianness|last=Hudspith |first=Sarah |year=2003 |publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=0-415-30489-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wUwLSbLs8oC&dq=Utilitarianism,+Crime+and+Punishment,+Dostoevsky|chapter=Dostoevsky's Dramatization of Slavophile Themes}} * {{Cite web |last=Jahn|first=Gary R.|url=http://www1.umn.edu/lol-russ/hpgary/Russ3421/lesson9.htm |title=Dostoevsky's Life and Career, 1865–1881 |accessdate=24 August 2008 |work= |publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] |date= }} * {{Cite book |title=Fyodor M. Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment|last=McDuff|first=David|year=2002|isbn=0-14-044913-2|publisher=[[Penguin Classics]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dm4Ebdcc_EC&dq=Strakhov,+Crime+and+Punishment|chapter=Introduction}} * {{Cite book |title=Dostoevsky's Unfinished Journey |last=Miller|first=Robin Feuer |year=2007 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=0-300-12015-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWnGNwpPVp4C&dq=1865,+Vrangel,+Crime+and+Punishment|chapter=Crime and Punishment in the Classroom}} * {{Cite book |title=Fyodor M. Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment|last=Morris|first=Virginia B.|year=1984|publisher=Barron's Educational Series|isbn=0-8120-3409-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dG9xOOhHvncC&dq=Crime+and+Punishment,+style|chapter=Style}} * {{Cite book |title=Fyodor Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment: A Casebook |last=Peace |first=Richard Arthur |year=2006 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0-19-517562-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zurdwu5tSeYC&dq=Katkov,+Crime+and+Punishment}} * {{Cite journal |last=Rosenshield |first=Gary |date=Winter 1973 |title=First- Versus Third-Person Narration in Crime and Punishment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_slavic-and-east-european-journal_winter-1973_17_4/page/399 |journal= The Slavic and East European Journal|volume= 17|issue=4 |pages=399–407 |jstor=305635 |doi=10.2307/305635}} * {{Cite book |title=Crime and Punishment: The Techniques of the Omniscient Author|last=Rosenshield|first=Gary|year=1978|publisher=Peter de Ridder Press|isbn=90-316-0104-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uZqnAQAACAAJ&dq=Crime+and+Punishment,+Rosenshield,+1978}} * {{Cite book |title=Dostoevsky&nbsp;– The Making of a Novelist|last=Simmons|first=Ernest J.|year=2007 |publisher=Read Books|isbn=1-4067-6362-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aF7kRDeTwX8C&dq=Dostoevsky+finished+Crime+and+Punishment,+1866|chapter=In the Author's Laboratory}} * {{Cite book|title=Dostoevsky Studies&nbsp;– Form and Structure|last=Wellek|first=René|year=1980|publisher=International Dostoevsky Society|volume=1|url=https://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/01/031.shtml|chapter=Bakhtin's view of Dostoevsky: 'Polyphony' and 'Carnivalesque'|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002013645/http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/DS/01/031.shtml|archivedate=2 October 2013|df=dmy-all}} {{EndDiv}} {{refend}} == Pautan lua == *[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2554 ''Crime and Punishment''] di [[Gutenberg Project]] [[Kategori:Novel Rusia]] [[Kategori:Karya Fyodor Dostoevsky]] [[Kategori:Novel taun 1866]] r9qsqs6qcho6q47i5h6j965bpeyd9m7 0 326893 3351199 2017145 2026-08-05T19:36:39Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351199 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Neuroblastoma | image = Neuroblastoma rosettes.jpg | caption = Pancaliakan mikroskopis neuroblastoma | image_size = 300px | field = | alt = | pronounce = | symptoms = sakik tulang, bangkak | onset = di bawah 5 tahun | duration = | causes = mutasi genetik | risks = | diagnosis = | differential = | prevention = | treatment = | medication = | prognosis = | frequency = 1 dalam 7,000 anak-anak | deaths = 15% kamatian karano kanker pado anak-anak }} '''Neuroblastoma''' adolah ciek dari banyak [[panyakik tumor]] nan manyarang tubuah manusia pado jaringan [[saraf]] tatantu sajo. Pado panyakik neuroblastoma ko, ''neuroblast''{{efn|neuroblast adolah sel-sel saraf nan alum dewasa nan ado pado anak-anak}} nan saarusnyo tumbuah jo bafungsi sabagai sel saraf malah mambantuak benjolan barupo tumor padek.{{sfn|alodokter.com|2016}} Neuroblastoma ko adolah jinih tumor atau kanker nan manyarangnyo acok disobokan pado anak-anak.{{sfn|Pudjiadi|2011}} {{sfn|cancer.gov|2020}} Neuroblastoma acok disobokan di kelenjar adrenalin, lihia, dado, atau sumsum tulang balakang. Neuroblastoma ko acok dimulai pado jaringan sarag kelenjar adrenal. Ado duo [[kelenjar adrenal]], ciek di ateh ginjal di balakang paruik sabalah ateh. Kelenjar adenal mambuek hormon pantiang nan mambantu mangontrol datak jantuang, takanan darah, gulo darah, jo caro tubuah bareaksi tahadok stres. Neuroblastoma juo dapek dimulai pado jaringan saraf di [[lihia]], [[dado]], [[paruik]], atau panggua. Neuroblastoma paliang acok dimulai sajak maso bayi. Biasonyo didiagnosis antaro bulan partamo jo umua limo taun. Disobokan katiko tumor mulai tumbuah jo manyababkan tando atau gajalo. Kadang-kadang tabantuak sabalum lahia nan basobok salamo USG bayi. Katiko kanker didiagnosis, biasonyo inyo alah manyeba ka bagian tubuah nan lain. Paliang acok manyeba ka [[kelenjar getah bening]], [[tulang]], [[sumsum tulang]], [[hati]], jo kulik bayi atau anak-anak{{sfn|cancer.gov|2020}} == Panyabab == Sel jo serat saraf, sarato sel kelenjar adrenal manusia bakambang dari neuroblast atau sel saraf nan alum matang. parubahan iko tajadi katiko janin masih bakambang dalam rahim. Katiko manusia alah lahia, indak ado lai neuroblast nan ado. Kalau pun masih ado, neuroblast ko ka baansua-ansua mailang surang. Pado kasus neuroblastoma, siso neuroblast nan ado bukannyo bakambang manjadi matang atau mailang, tapi taruih bakambang jo mambantuak tumor.{{sfn|alodokter.com|2016}} Neuroblastoma hampia samo jo panyakik tumor nan lainnyo, alum tau sacaro jaleh apo panyababnyo sel saraf ko indak matang atau bakambang manjadi neuroblastoma. Tapi para ahli manakok-nakok kalau adonyo karusakan di gen neuroblast ko sahinggo inyo mambalah diri indak takandali sahinggo manjadi tumor.{{sfn|alodokter.com|2016}} Neuroblastoma sabagian gadang kasus nan basipek sporadis jo nonfamilial. Kiro-kiro 1 - 2% kasus bajalan jo dikaikan ka mutasi gen. Neuroblastoma familial dalam babarapo kasus disababkan dek mutasi germline nan jarang tajadi pado gen limfoma kinase (ALK) anaplastik.{{sfn|Mossé YP|2008}} == Diagnosis == Diagnosis neuroblastoma biasonyo diumumkan dek ahli patolgo badah, nan mampatimbangkan presentasi klinis, ujian mikroskopis, tes laboratorium dan lainnyo. Iko mungkin timbua dari elemen krista neural dari sistem saraf simpatis (SNS). === Biokimia === Kiro-kiro 90% kasus neuroblastima, paningkekan kadar katekolamin atai metabolitnyo disobokan di dalam aia kajamban atau di dalam darah. Katekolamin atau metabolitnyo maliputi [[dopamin]], [[asam homovanilat]] (HVA), jo [[asam vanililmandelat]] (VMA).{{sfn|Strenger V|2007}} === Pamindaian === Caro lain untuak mandiagnosis atau mendeteksi neuroblastoma adolah manggunoan pamindaian meta-iodobenzylguanidine atau biasonyo disabuik jo mIBG-avid nan diambiak 90-95% dari kasado urang nan mandarito neuroblastoma.{{sfn|Howman-Giles R|2007}} Mekanismenyo adolah bahwa mIBG diambiak dek neuron simpatis, jo marupoan analaog nan bafungsi dari neurotransmitter norepinefrin. Katiko radio-iodinasi jo I-131 atau I-123 (radioaktif yodium isotop), itu adolah radiofarmaka nan sangaik ancak untuak diagnosis jo pamantauan respon pado pangobatan panyakik iko. Jo wakatu paruah 13 jam, I-123 adolah isotop nan disukoi untuak sensitivitas jo kualitas pencitraan. I-131 punyo wakatu paruh 8 hari jo pado dosis nan labiah tinggi adolah terapi nan efektif karano radiasi nan ditargetkann pado neuroblastoma nan kambuh jo refraktori.{{sfn|Pashankar FD|2005}} Karano mIBG indak salalu diambiak dek neuroblastoma, peneliti-peneliti alah mangekplorasi ka anak-anak nan kanai neuroblastoma, apokah pencitraan nuklir, fluoro-deoxy-glukosa - tomografi emisi positron atau acok disabuik "F-FDG-PET".{{sfn|Bleeker G|2015}} === Histologi === Di mikroskop, sel-sel tumor biasonyo digamarkan sabagai pola ketek, bulek jo warna biru, jo roset (''Homer Wright pseudorosettes'') nan dapek di caliak. Homer Wright pseudorosettes adolah sel-sel tumor di sakita neuropil, indak harus disamoan jo roset sejati, nan marupoan sel-sel tumor di sakita lumen nan kosong.{{sfn|Elsevier|2015}} Mereka indak babeda dari ''pseudorosette ependymoma'' nan tadiri dari sel-sel tumor jo ''glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)'' - proses positif marunciang ke pambuluh darah) kombinasi kaduonyo). Babagai noda ''imunohistokimia'' digunoan dek ahli patologi untuak mambedakan neuroblastima dari mimik histologis, takah ''[[rhabdomyosarcoma]], [[sarkoma Ewing]], [[limfoma]], dan [[tumor Wilms]].''{{sfn|Carter RL|1990}} == Caro maubekan == Caro maubekan neuroblastoma ko dek dotor tagantuang tingkek parah indaknyo alah panyakik ko ka tubuah. Piliahan pananganannyo adolah operasi maangkekan tumor, [[kemoterapi]], atau [[radioterapi]].{{sfn|alodokter.com|2016}} * '''Operasi'''. Operasi dilakuan katiko tumor alum manyeba ka organ tubuah nan lain. Katiko tumor alah manyeba ka organ tubuah nan lain, apolai organ-organ vital takah saraf [[tulang balakang]] atau [[paru-paru]], caro operasi babahayo dilakuan. * '''Kemoterapi'''. Kemoterapi dilakuan jo caro manghancuaan sel-sel tumor manggunoan ubek-ubek bahan kimia. Kemoterapi marupoan caro lain dilakuan jikok caro operasi indak mungkin dilakuan karano tumor ado di organ vital, atau katiko tumor alah manyeba ka organ tubuah lainnyo, atau karano hal lainnyo. Panggunoan ubek kimia ko batujuan untuak maantian patumbuahan sel tumor jo manyusuikannyo. Katiko tumor alah mulai manyusuik atau mangetek, tumor bisa diangkekan jo caro operasi. * '''Radioterapi'''. Radioerapi dilakuan jo alat nan mampunyoi sinar baenergi tinggi. Pado pandarito neuroblastoma stadium lanjuik, terapi radiasi bisa manjadi alternatif jikok operasi disamoan jo kemoterapi alum bisa manghilangkan tumor. * '''Transplantasi sel punca (''stem cell'').''' Prosedur iko dilakuan sasudah pandarito neuroblastoma manjalani kemoterapi dosis tinggi untuak mambunuah sel tumor. Sasudah sel tumor mati, sel induak disuntikan ka tubuah pandarito untuak mambantuak sel baru nan sihaik. * '''Imunoterapi.''' Imunoterapi ko adolah antibodi monoklonal nan ka disuntikan ka pandarito neuroblastoma untuak mandorong sel imun manyarang tumor. <br /> === Catatan kaki === {{notelist}} == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} === Daftar Pustaka === * {{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/neuroblastoma|title=Neuroblastoma|last=alodokter.com|first=|date=2016-04-25|website=Alodokter|access-date=2020-02-19|ref={{sfnRef|alodokter.com|2016}}}} * {{Cite book|title=Pedoman Pelayanan Medis Ikatan Dokter Anak Indonesia|last=Pudjiadi|first=Antonius H.|publisher=Badan Penerbit Ikatan Dokter Anak Indonesia|year=2011|isbn=978-979-8421-76-1|location=Jakarta|pages=345|url-status=live|ref={{sfnREf|Pudjiadi|2011}}}} * {{Cite web|url=https://www.cancer.gov/types/neuroblastoma/patient/neuroblastoma-treatment-pdq|title=Neuroblastoma Treatment (PDQ®)–Patient Version|date=2020-03-13|website=National Cancer Institute|last=cancer.gov|first=|language=en|access-date=2020-03-17|ref={{sfnRef|cancer.gov|2020}}}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Strenger V, Kerbl R, Dornbusch HJ, Ladenstein R, Ambros PF, Ambros IM, Urban C | title = Diagnostic and prognostic impact of urinary catecholamines in neuroblastoma patients | journal = Pediatric Blood & Cancer | volume = 48 | issue = 5 | pages = 504–9 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 16732582 | doi = 10.1002/pbc.20888 |ref={{sfnRef|Strenger V|2007}}}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Howman-Giles R, Shaw PJ, Uren RF, Chung DK | title = Neuroblastoma and other neuroendocrine tumors | journal = Seminars in Nuclear Medicine | volume = 37 | issue = 4 | pages = 286–302 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17544628 | doi = 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2007.02.009 |ref={{sfnRef|Howman-Giles R|2007}}}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Pashankar FD, O'Dorisio MS, Menda Y | title = MIBG and somatostatin receptor analogs in children: current concepts on diagnostic and therapeutic use | journal = Journal of Nuclear Medicine | volume = 46 Suppl 1 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 55S–61S | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15653652 | url = http://jnm.snmjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15653652 |ref={{sfnRef|Pashankar FD|2005}}}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bleeker G, Tytgat GA, Adam JA, Caron HN, Kremer LC, Hooft L, van Dalen EC | title = 123I-MIBG scintigraphy and 18F-FDG-PET imaging for diagnosing neuroblastoma | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 9 | pages = CD009263 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26417712 | pmc = 4621955 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd009263.pub2 | ref = {{sfnRef | Bleeker G | 2015}}}} * {{cite book |title=Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease |date=2015 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1455726134 |edition=9 |ref={{sfnRef|Elsevier|2015}}}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Carter RL, al-Sams SZ, Corbett RP, Clinton S | title = A comparative study of immunohistochemical staining for neuron-specific enolase, protein gene product 9.5 and S-100 protein in neuroblastoma, Ewing's sarcoma and other round cell tumours in children | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_histopathology_1990-05_16_5/page/461 | journal = Histopathology | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 461–7 | date = May 1990 | pmid = 2163356 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2559.1990.tb01545.x |ref= {{sfnRef|Carter RL|1990}}}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mossé YP, Laudenslager M, Longo L, Cole KA, Wood A, Attiyeh EF, Laquaglia MJ, Sennett R, Lynch JE, Perri P, Laureys G, Speleman F, Kim C, Hou C, Hakonarson H, Torkamani A, Schork NJ, Brodeur GM, Tonini GP, Rappaport E, Devoto M, Maris JM | display-authors = 6 | title = Identification of ALK as a major familial neuroblastoma predisposition gene | journal = Nature | volume = 455 | issue = 7215 | pages = 930–5 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18724359 | pmc = 2672043 | doi = 10.1038/nature07261 | bibcode = 2008Natur.455..930M | ref = {{ sfnRef | Mossé YP | 2008 }}}} [[Kategori:Panyakik]] [[Kategori:Tumor]] [[Kategori:Panyakik pado anak]] jgm0ce4ff3kbknr0y7roa99sbesr1ej 0 327056 3351306 3346521 2026-08-05T22:59:55Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Urang Cino Han<br />{{nobold|{{lang|zh-Hans|{{linktext|汉|族}}}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|漢|族}}}}<br />{{lang|zh-Hans|{{linktext|汉人}}}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|漢人}}}}}} | rawimage = | population = '''[[Circa|Labiah kurang]] 1,3 milyar'''<ref name="Han_Groups">{{cite book |first = James B. |last = Minahan |title = Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia |url = https://books.google.com/?id=oZCOAwAAQBAJ |year = 2014 |publisher = ABC-CLIO |isbn = 978-1-61069-018-8 |pages = 89–95}}</ref> | popplace = {{Flag|Cino daratan}} 1.268.375.111<ref name="ciastat">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html CIA Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011073205/https://www.cia.gov/library//publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html |date=2016-10-11 }}: "Han Chinese 91.6%" out of a reported population of 1,384,688,986 billion (July 2018 est.)</ref><br />{{Flagicon|Macau}} [[Makau]] 663.400<ref>[https://www.dsec.gov.mo/getAttachment/a76b0b8b-6317-4207-adf7-439b1ec1ac38/E_DEM_FR_2018_Q3.aspx 2018 Demographics]</ref><br />{{Flagicon|HKG}} [[Hong Kong]] 6.723.786<ref>[https://www.bycensus2016.gov.hk/en/bc-pob.html Place of birth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112170213/https://www.bycensus2016.gov.hk/en/bc-pob.html |date=2019-11-12 }} 2016 Hong Kong census</ref><br />{{nowrap|{{Flagicon|ROC}} [[Taiwan]] 23.575.365{{citation needed|date=December 2019}}}} | tablehdr = [[Cino parantauan]] (dek katurunan) | region1 = {{Flagcountry|Thailand}} | pop1 = 9.392.987 | ref1 = <ref>Barbara A. Peru (2009), ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania'', Facts on File, p.&nbsp;794, {{ISBN|1-4381-1913-5}}.</ref> | region2 = {{Flagcountry|Malaysia}} | pop2 = 6.650.009 | ref2 = <ref name="statistics.gov.my">{{cite web |url = https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 |title = Department of Statistics Malaysia Official Portal |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160812014710/https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column%2FcthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 |archive-date = 2016-08-12 }}</ref> | region3 = {{Flagcountry|United States}} | pop3 = 3.795.007 | ref3 = <ref>{{cite web |title = Race Reporting for the Asian Population by Selected Categories: 2010 more information |url = http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP8&prodType=table |publisher =[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date = 19 January 2014 }}</ref> | region4 = {{Flagcountry|Indonesia}} | pop4 = 2.833.134 | ref4 = <ref name="census 2010">{{cite book |publisher = Badan Pusat Statistik |title = Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk, 2010 |year = 2011 |access-date = |isbn = 978-979-064-417-5 |url = http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html |archive-date = 2017-07-10 |url-status = dead }}</ref> | region5 = {{Flagcountry|Singapore}} | pop5 = 2.547.000 | ref5 = <ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nptd.gov.sg/portals/0/news/population-in-brief-2014.pdf |title=Home |access-date=2015-10-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082553/http://www.nptd.gov.sg/portals/0/news/population-in-brief-2014.pdf |archive-date = 2016-03-04 }}</ref> | region6 = {{Flagcountry|Myanmar}} | pop6 = 1.638.000 | ref6 = <ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html |title = The World Factbook |access-date=17 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006115241/https://cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html |archive-date=6 October 2010 }}</ref> | region7 = {{Flagcountry|Canada}} | pop7 = 1.469.000 | ref7 = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiapacific.ca/statistics/population/population-2011-census/population-ethnic-origin-province |title=Population by Ethnic Origin by Province |author=Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada |work=Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322152756/http://www.asiapacific.ca/statistics/population/population-2011-census/population-ethnic-origin-province |dead-url=yes }}</ref> | region8 = {{Flagcountry|Philippines}} | pop8 = 1.350.000 | ref8 = <ref>{{cite press release|url = http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |title = Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday |date=January 21, 2013|publisher=Senate of the Philippines|accessdate=2016-07-29 |url-status=live |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160409034225/http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |archivedate=2016-04-09 }}</ref>{{better source|reason=no reference to Han|date=August 2016}} | region9 = {{Flagcountry|Australia}} | pop9 = 1.214.000 | ref9 = <ref name=2016Aus>{{cite web|website=2016 Census QuickStats|title=Australia|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|url=http://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036|accessdate=31 October 2018|archive-date=30 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030150040/http://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036|dead-url=yes}}</ref> | region10 = {{Flagcountry|Russia}} | pop10 = 998.000 | ref10 = <ref name="ocac">{{cite web |url = http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |title= The Ranking of Ethnic Chinese Population|website=Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110104195124/http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B |archive-date=4 January 2011|url-status=dead|access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref> | region11 = {{Flagcountry|Vietnam}} | pop11 = 823.000 | ref11 = <ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=476&idmid=4&ItemID=9815 |title=Population and Employment |publisher=General Statistics Office Of Vietnam|date=13 November 2010 |url-status=live|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101113153318/http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=476&idmid=4&ItemID=9815 |archivedate=13 November 2010}}</ref> | region12 = {{Flagcountry|Japan}} | pop12 = 731.000 | ref12 = <ref>{{cite web |title = 平成29年度末在留外国人確定値 |url = http://www.moj.go.jp/content/001254624.pdf |publisher = Ministry of Justice |date = 2018-04-13 |language = ja |access-date = 2018-04-13 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180327132827/http://www.moj.go.jp/content/001254624.pdf |archive-date = 2018-03-27 |url-status = dead }}{{Better source|reason=outdated|date=April 2018}}</ref> | region13 = {{Flagcountry|France}} | pop13 = 700.000 | ref13 = <ref name="ocac" /> | region14 = {{Flagcountry|Venezuela}} | pop14 = 450.000 | ref14 = <ref>{{cite web |url = https://gabrielsanz91.wordpress.com/2017/01/24/chinos_venezuela/|title=Población china en Venezuela|date=January 2019|accessdate=7 January 2019}}</ref> | region15 = {{Flagcountry|United Kingdom}} | pop15 = 433.000 | ref15 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-and-quick-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-the-united-kingdom---part-1/rft-ks201uk.xls|title=2011 Census: Ethnic group. local authorities in the United Kingdom|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=11 October 2013|accessdate=13 April 2015|archive-date=23 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123182221/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-and-quick-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-the-united-kingdom---part-1/rft-ks201uk.xls|dead-url=yes}}</ref> | region16 = {{Flagcountry|Peru|state}} | pop16 = 375.954 | ref16 = <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html |title=archive copy |access-date=2020-01-14 |archive-date=2016-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105025708/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> | region17 = {{Flagcountry|South Africa}} | pop17 = 350.000 | ref17 = <ref name="Park2009">{{cite book |url = http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/rei-v1.3b.pdf |work = Representation, Expression and Identity |year = 2009 |publisher = Interdisciplinary Perspectives |title = Recent Chinese Migrations to South Africa – New Intersections of Race, Class and Ethnicity |first = Yoon Jung |last = Park |isbn = 978-1-904710-81-3 |accessdate = September 20, 2010 |url-status = dead |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101228041728/http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/rei-v1.3b.pdf |archivedate = December 28, 2010 }}</ref> | region18 = {{Flagcountry|Italy}} | pop18 = 334.000 | ref18 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istat.it/it/files/2016/09/Cittadini-non-comunitari_2016.pdf?title=Cittadini+non+comunitari++-+29%2Fset%2F2016+-+Testo+integrale+e+nota+metodologica.pdf|title=Cittadini Non Comunitari: Presenza, Nuovi Ingressi e Acquisizioni di Cittadinanza: Anni 2015–2016|website=Istat.it|accessdate=12 December 2017}}</ref> | region19 = {{Flagcountry|Germany}} | pop19 = 212.000 | ref19 = <ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.bib-demografie.de/DE/Aktuelles/Presse/Archiv/2017/2017-03-01-zuwanderung-aussereuropaeische-Laender-fast-verdoppelt.html |title = BiB – Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung – Pressemitteilungen – Zuwanderung aus außereuropäischen Ländern fast verdoppelt |language = de |website=Bib-demografiie.de |accessdate=12 December 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171209232407/http://www.bib-demografie.de/DE/Aktuelles/Presse/Archiv/2017/2017-03-01-zuwanderung-aussereuropaeische-Laender-fast-verdoppelt.html |archive-date=9 December 2017|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | region20 = {{flag|Korea Salatan}} | pop20 = 210.000 | ref20 = <ref>Dari 710.000 warganagara Cino nan iduik di Korea taun 2016, 500.000 adolah [[Urang Korea di Cino|etnis Korea]].</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://pulsenews.co.kr/view.php?year=2016&no=638478 |title = Foreign national population in Korea up more than 40% in 5 yrs |website=Maeil Business News Korea |date=8 September 2016 |accessdate=10 Mai 2018 }}</ref> | region21 = {{Flagcountry|Cambodia}} | pop21 = 210.000 | ref21 = <ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/chinese-living-kingdom-more-doubles-17 |title=Chinese living in Kingdom more than doubles since '17 |website=|accessdate=15 September 2018|date=2018-09-14}}</ref> | region23 = {{Flagcountry|Laos}} | pop23 = 186.000 | ref23 = <ref name="ocac" /> | region24 = {{Flagcountry|Spain}} | pop24 = 172.000 | ref24 = <ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ine.es/prensa/np980.pdf |title=Cifras de Población a 1 de enero de 2016 : Estadística de Migraciones 2015 : Adquisiciones de Nacionalidad Española de Residentes 2015 |language = es |website=Ine.es |accessdate=12 December 2017 }}</ref> | region25 = {{Flagcountry|New Zealand}} | pop25 = 171.000 | ref25 = <ref>{{cite web |url = http://archive.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/asian.aspx |title = 2013 New Zealand Census |accessdate = May 13, 2018 |archive-date = March 15, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190315052430/http://archive.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/asian.aspx |dead-url = yes }}</ref> | region26 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}} | pop26 = 152.000 | ref26 = <ref name="ocac" /> | region27 = {{flagcountry|Netherlands}} | pop27 = 145.000 | ref27 = <ref name="ocac" /> | region28 = {{Flagcountry|Panama}} | pop28 = 135.000 | ref28 = <ref>[http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/panama/ch_pa01.htm#3 ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204231050/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/panama/ch_pa01.htm#3 |date=December 4, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/1166678.stm |work = BBC News |title = Little China in Belgrade |date = 2001-02-12 |accessdate = 2010-05-04}}</ref> | region29 = {{Flagcountry|Mexico}} | pop29 = 70.000 | ref29 = <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-chinese-mexicans-celebrate-repatriation-to-mexico-2012nov23-story.html|title=Chinese-Mexicans celebrate repatriation to Mexico |newspaper=The San Diego Union-Tribune|date=Nov 23, 2012|accessdate=Oct 8, 2017}}</ref> | region31 = {{Flagcountry|Costa Rica|state}} | pop31 = 19.000 | ref31 = <ref>{{cite web|title=X Censo Nacional de Población y VI de Vivienda 2011, Características Sociales y Demográficas|url=http://www.inec.go.cr/sites/default/files/documentos/inec_institucional/estadisticas/resultados/repoblaccenso2011-12.pdf.pdf|website=[[National Institute of Statistics and Census of Costa Rica]]|accessdate=22 September 2016|page=61|date=July 2012|quote=Cuadro 23. Costa Rica: Población total por autoidentificación étnica-racial, según provincia, zona y sexo. Chino(a) 9,170|archive-date=19 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619090918/http://www.inec.go.cr/sites/default/files/documentos/inec_institucional/estadisticas/resultados/repoblaccenso2011-12.pdf.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> | region32 = {{Flagcountry|Ireland}} | pop32 = 11.000 | ref32 = <ref>[http://beyond2020.cso.ie/Census/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=1835] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016092935/http://beyond2020.cso.ie/Census/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=1835 |date=October 16, 2012 }}</ref> | languages = [[Bahaso Cino|Cino]] | religions = Sabagian gadang [[indak baragamo]], [[Budhisme Cino|Mahayana]], [[kapicayoan tradisional Cino]] (tamasuak [[Taoisme]], [[pangoromaikan laluhua di Cino|panyambahan laluhua]], [[Konghucu]], jo lain-lain), sarato minoritas mamaluak [[Kristen]] jo agamo-agamo lain.<ref name="CSLS2010">2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey conducted by Dr. Yang Fenggang, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Statistics published in: Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, David Strait. ''[http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184353/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }}''. Religions & Christianity in Today's China, Vol. II, 2012, No. 3, pp. 29–54, {{ISSN|2192-9289}}.</ref> | related = [[Urang Sino-Tibetan]] | footnotes = Babarapo sumber marujuak urang Cino Han lansuang sabagai "Cino" atau mangalompokannyo jo urang-urang Sino-Tibetan. | native_name = | native_name_lang = }} '''Urang Cino Han''',<ref>{{Cite book |title=China: A Religious State |last=Hsu |first=Cho-yun |publisher = Columbia University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-231-15920-3 |page=126}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Learning to Be Tibetan: The Construction of Ethnic Identity at Minzu |last=Yang |first=Miaoyan |publisher= Lexington Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4985-4463-4 |page=7}}</ref><ref name="Chinese people">[http://www.huayuqiao.org/articles/shcheong/shcheong02.htm Who are the Chinese people?] {{in lang|zh}}. Huayuqiao.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-26.</ref> '''''Hanzu''''',<ref>{{Cite book |title = The Han: China's Diverse Majority|last=Joniak-Luthi |first=Agnieszka|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0-295-80597-9 |page = 3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Constructing Nationhood in Modern East Asia|last=Chow|first=Kai-wing|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-472-06735-0 |page = 2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions|last=Rawski|first=Evelyn|publisher=University of California Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-520-92679-0 |page = 2 }}</ref> atau '''urang Han''',<ref>{{Cite book |title=China at War: An Encyclopedia |last=Li |first=Xiaobing |publisher= Pentagon Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-81-8274-611-4 |page=155}}</ref><ref name="CHC12">{{cite book |last1=Fairbank |first1=John K. |date=1983 |title=The Cambridge History of China Volume 12: Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 1 |url = http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/histories/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139054799 |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page= |isbn= 978-1-139-05479-9 |access-date=May 20, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Wen2004Nature">{{cite journal |last1 = Wen |display-authors=etal | year = 2004 |title = Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2004-09-16_431_7006/page/302 | journal = Nature | volume = 431 | issue = 7006 | pages = 302–05 | doi=10.1038/nature02878 | pmid=15372031 |bibcode = 2004Natur.431..302W}}</ref><ref name="Stix2008">Stix, Gary (2008). [https://www.mcdb.ucla.edu/Research/Goldberg/HC70A_W12/pdf/Traces%20of%20a%20Distant%20Past.pdf "Traces of a Distant Past"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613000147/https://www.mcdb.ucla.edu/Research/Goldberg/HC70A_W12/pdf/Traces%20of%20a%20Distant%20Past.pdf |date=2018-06-13 }} ''Scientific American'', July: 56–63.</ref> ({{IPAc-en|UK|h|æ|n }};<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/han |title=Han definition and meaning {{!}} Collins English Dictionary |website=www.collinsdictionary.com|access-date=2018-06-12}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|US|h|aː|n }};<ref>[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/han "Han"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{zh|t=漢人|p=Hànrén|l=Han people|c=|s=汉人}}<ref name="Kim2004">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hodong |date=2004 |title=Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AtduqAtBzegC |location= |publisher=Stanford University Press |page=320 |isbn=978-0-8047-7364-5 |access-date=May 20, 2016}}</ref> or {{zh|labels=yes|c=|s=汉族|t=漢族|p=Hànzú|l=Han ethnicity|links=no}}),<ref>{{cite book|year=2015|author=Xiaobing Li |author2=Patrick Fuliang Shan|title=Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|page=69|isbn=978-1-4985-0729-5}}</ref><ref name=Rawski>{{cite book|year=1998|last1=Rawski|first=Evelyn S.|title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|page=2|isbn=978-0-520-92679-0}}</ref> adolah suatu [[Kalompok etnik|kalompok etnis]] jo [[bangso]] [[Asia Timur|Asia Timua]] nan marupoan panduduak asali Cino.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Siska, Veronika |author2= Jones, Eppie Ruth |author3= Jeon, Sungwon |author4 = Bhak, Youngjune | author5= Kim, Hak-Min | author6= Cho, Yun Sung | author7= Kim, Hyunho | author8= Lee, Kyusang |author9= Veselovskaya, Elizaveta |author10= Balueva, Tatiana|author11= Gallego-Llorente, Marcos |author12= Hofreiter, Michael |author13= Bradley, Daniel G. |author14= Eriksson, Anders |author15 = Pinhasi, Ron|author16= Bhak, Jong |author17 = Manica, Andrea |title = Genome-wide data from two early Neolithic East Asian individuals dating to 7700 years ago |journal = [[Science Advances]] |volume= 3 |issue= 2 |pages= e1601877 |url=https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/advances/3/2/e1601877.full.pdf |publication-date=February 1, 2017|doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1601877 |pmid= 28164156 |pmc=5287702 |year=2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1= Ang, Khai C.|author2= Ngu Mee S. |author3= Reid P. Katherine |author4= Teh S. Meh |author5= Aida, Zamzuraida |author6= Koh X.R. Danny |author7=Berg, Arthur|author8=Oppenheimer, Stephen|author9=Salleh, Hood |author10=Clyde M. Mahani|author11=ZainMd M. Badrul |author12=Canfield A. Victor|author13=Cheng C. Keith |title=Skin Color Variation in Orang Asli Tribes of Peninsular Malaysia |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |issue=8 |volume= 7 |page= 2 |year=2012 |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0042752 |pmid= 22912732 |pmc= 3418284 |bibcode= 2012PLoSO...742752A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1= Wang, Yuchen |author2= Lu Dongsheng |author3= Chung Yeun-Jun |author4 = Xu Shuhua |title = Genetic structure, divergence and admixture of Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean populations |journal = Hereditas |volume= 155 |page = 19 |year=2018 |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186%2Fs41065-018-0057-5.pdf |doi = 10.1186/s41065-018-0057-5 |pmid= 29636655 |pmc= 5889524 }}</ref><ref>{{cite biorxiv |last = Chiang |first = Charleston |title=Map of Genetic Variation in Han Chinese |url = https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2017/07/13/162982.full.pdf |page=10 |year=2017|biorxiv=162982}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wang |first=Yuchen |last2= Lu |first2=Dongsheng |last3=Chung |first3=Yeun-Jun |last4=Xu |first4=Shuhua |title=Genetic structure, divergence and admixture of Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean populations |journal=Hereditas |volume=155 |page=19 |publication-date=April 6, 2018 |doi=10.1186/s41065-018-0057-5 |pmid=29636655 |pmc=5889524 |year=2018 }}</ref> Kalompok etnis iko adalah nan tagadang di dunia, mancapai labiah kurang 18% dari populasi dunia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Zhang |first1 = Feng |last2=Su |first2=Bing |last3=Zhang |first3=Ya-ping |last4=Jin |first4=Li |title=Genetic Studies of Human Diversity in East Asia |pmc=2435565 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=362 |issue=1482 |pages=987–996 |date=February 22, 2007|pmid=17317646 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2007.2028 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=Yong-Bin|last2=Zhang|first2=Ye|last3=Zhang|first3=Quan-Chao|last4=Li|first4=Hong-Jie|last5=Cui|first5=Ying-Qiu|last6=Xu|first6=Zhi|last7=Jin|first7=Li|last8=Zhou|first8=Hui|last9=Zhu|first9=Hong|title=Ancient DNA Reveals That the Genetic Structure of the Northern Han Chinese Was Shaped Prior to three-thousand Years Ago |journal=[[PLoS ONE]]|year=2015|volume=10|issue=5|pages=e0125676|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0125676|pmid=25938511|pmc=4418768 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1025676Z }}</ref> Dipakiroan kini lai ado 1,3 milyar urang Cino Han, nan sabagian gadang tingga di [[Cino Daratan]] (kiro-kiro 91,6% dari populasinyo).<ref name="ciastat"/> Di [[Taiwan]], urang Cino Han mambantuak 95% dari populasinyo.<ref name="中華民國國情簡介2016">{{cite web |language=zh-TW |url=http://www.ey.gov.tw/state/News_Content3.aspx?n=7C222A52A60660EC&s=FFD5D521BBC119F8 |script-title=zh:中華民國國情簡介 |trans-title=ROC Vital Information |date=2016 |website=Executive Yuan |access-date=2016-08-23 |quote={{lang|zh-TW|臺灣住民以漢人為最大族群，約占總人口97%}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218124716/http://www.ey.gov.tw/state/News_Content3.aspx?n=7C222A52A60660EC&s=FFD5D521BBC119F8 |archive-date=2017-02-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Yearbook2014>{{cite book |year=2014 |title=The Republic of China Yearbook 2014 |author=Executive Yuan, R.O.C. |url=http://www.ey.gov.tw/Upload/UserFiles/YB%202014%20all%20100dpi.pdf |accessdate=2016-06-11 |isbn=978-986-04-2302-0 |page=36}}</ref> Urang bakaturunan Cino Han mancapai sakita 75% dari total populasi [[Singapura]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nptd.gov.sg/Portals/0/Homepage/Highlights/population-in-brief-2015.pdf |title=Home |accessdate=2016-02-14 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216110141/http://www.nptd.gov.sg/Portals/0/Homepage/Highlights/population-in-brief-2015.pdf |archivedate=2016-02-16 }}</ref> Urang Cino Han mangaku baso asa niniak muyangnyo iolah dari ''[[Huaxia]]'', suatu pasakutuan kalompok suku-suku patani nan iduik manatap di pasisia [[Sungai Kuniang]] (''Huang He'').<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia |last= Minahan |first= James B. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2015 |isbn= 978-1-61069-017-1 |pages=89–90}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite book |title=Origin of Man in Southeast Asia 2: Early Dominant Peoples of the Mainland Region |last= Schliesinger |first= Joachim |publisher= Booksmango |year= 2016 |pages=13–14}}</ref> Istilah ''Huaxia'' bapakai untuak manggambaan pasakutuan suku-suku patani Hua jo Xia pado maso [[Neolitikum]] nan manatap di [[Zhongyuan|Dataran Tangah]], yaitu sakita bagian tangah jo ilia dari aliaran Sungai Kuniang di utara Cino.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Chinese Business: Landscapes and Strategies |last=Liu |first=Hong |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 |isbn= 978-1-138-91825-2 |page=34}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite book |title=Chinese History: A New Manual |last= Wilkinson |first=Endymion Porter |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |year=2015 |isbn= 978-0-674-08846-7 |page=709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese |last= Yuan |first=Haiwang |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |isbn=978-1-59158-294-6|year=2006 |page=6}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/> Kaduo suku itulah nan diakui sabagai niniak muyang dari urang Cino Han moderen nan kudian maasiakan kabudayaan Cino. Salain itu, istilah ''Huaxia'' (arati harafiah: "urang Xia nan beradab") bapakai sacaro kusuih untuak manyabuik kalompok-kalompok etnis nan dianggap beradab, untuak mambedoan jo kalompok-kalompok lain nan dianggap [[Pabedaan Hua-Yi|urang barbar]] nan bamukim di sakitanyo.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture |last=Perkins |first=Dorothy |publisher=Checkmark Books |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8160-2693-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00perk_0/page/202 202] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00perk_0/page/202 }}</ref><ref name="auto2"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Origin of Man in Southeast Asia 2: Early Dominant Peoples of the Mainland Region |last= Schliesinger |first= Joachim |publisher = Booksmango |year = 2016 |page = 14 }}</ref> [[Dinasti Han]] dianggap sabagai salah satu era gadang partamo dalam sajarah Cino, dek karano manjadian Cino sabagai kakuatan regional utamo di Asia Timur jo banyak mampangaruahi nagara-nagara tatanggonyo, bahkan sampai manyaingi [[Kakaisaran Romawi]] dalam ukuaran populasi jo laweh geografisnyo.<ref name="auto6">{{Cite book |title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia |last= Minahan |first= James B. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2015 |isbn= 978-1-61069-017-1 |page=92}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=East Asia: A New History |last=Walker |first=Hugh Dyson |publisher=AuthorHouse |year=2012 |page=119}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute |last=Kang |first=David C. |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-231-15319-5 |pages=33–34}}</ref> Gensi jo kaunggualan Dinasti Han mampangaruahi banyak kalompok ''Huaxia'' kuno untuak muloi manyabuik dirinyo surang sabagai "Urang Han".<ref name="auto3" /><ref name="auto7">{{Cite book |title=China: a History: From the Great Qing Empire through the People's Republic of China, 1644–2009 |last= Tanner |first=Harold Miles |publisher=Hackett Pub Co. |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60384-204-4 |page=83}}</ref><ref name="auto8">{{Cite book |title=America's Changing Neighborhoods: An Exploration of Diversity through Places |last= Ueda |first= Reed |publisher=Greenwood |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4408-2864-5 |page=403}}</ref><ref name="auto9">{{Cite journal |last=Eno |first=R. |title=The Han Dynasty (206 B.C. – A.D. 220) |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~e232/09-Han.pdf |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=1 |access-date=2020-01-24 |archive-date=2019-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711015633/http://www.indiana.edu/~e232/09-Han.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=China at War: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia |last=Li |first=Xiaobing |publisher= Pentagon Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-81-8274-611-4 |publication-date=June 30, 2012 |page=155}}</ref> Urang-urang Cino Han sajak itu manjadian namo dinasti iko sabagai namo etnisnyo, sarato uruf nan inyo pakai dinamoan juo "[[Uruf Cino|uruf Han]]".<ref name="auto6" />{{sfnp|Schaefer|2008|p=279}}<ref name="auto9" /> == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} {{Daftar etnik di Malaysia}} [[Kategori:Cino]] [[Kategori:Asia Timur]] rmopvy7k86tofv4y4xrfpy2wu9pzvpx 0 327324 3351243 3148423 2026-08-05T21:12:20Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Idrus | image = Idrus Kesusastraan Modern Indonesia p168.jpg | imagesize = | caption = Idrus kiro-kiro taun 1955 | pseudonym = | birth_name = | birth_date = 12 September 1921 | birth_place = [[Padang]], [[Sumatra Barat]], [[Hindia Balando]] | death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1979|05|18|1921|09|21}} | death_place = [[Padang]], [[Sumatra Barat]], Indonesia | occupation = Panulih | nationality = Indonesian | education = | genre = Carito pendek, novel | spouse = Ratna Suri Hussein. | period = 1943–1975 | language = Indonesia | influences = | awards = | website = }} '''Idrus''' ({{lahirmati||12|9|1921||18|5|1979}}) adolah saurang panulih [[Indonesia]] nan dikana sabagai pangarang carito pendek jo novel bagenre realistis. Inyo dikana sabagai salah saurang sastrawan nan mawakili [[Angkatan '45]]. ==Biografi == Idrus lahia di [[Padang]], [[Sumatera Barat]] pado tanggal 12 September 1921.{{sfn|Language Center, Idrus}} Pandidikannyo dijalaninyo di sakolah-sakolah punyo [[Balando]] sabalum pandudukan [[Japang]] di Indonesia.{{sfn|Pemerintah Kota Jakarta, Idrus}} Samaso basakolah, inyo mambaco karya-karya panulih Barat jo balatiah manulih carito pendek.{{sfn|Language Center, Idrus}} Inyo manyalasaian pandidikannyo pado taun 1943, kamudian mulai bakarajo di [[Balai Pustaka]], sabuah parusahaan panarbitan punyo negara, sabagai saurang [[editor]].{{sfn|Pemerintah Kota Jakarta, Idrus}} Antaro taun 1943 sampai 1944, Idrus manulih anam carito pendek nan akhianyo ditabikan dalam koleksi ''Corat-Coret di Bawah Tanah''.{{sfn|Balfas|1976|p=88}} Pado mulo [[Revolusi Nasional Indonesia]], katiko kalompok revolusioner Indonesia manyatoan kamerdekaan satalah Japang manyarah, Idrus sadang barado di [[Surabaya]], [[Jawa Timur]]. Katiko sadang di sinan, inyo manyaksian [[Partampuran Surabaya]],{{sfn|Balfas|1976|p=88}} katiko tantara Inggirih nan dikapaloi dek [[Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby]] jo tantaro revolusi nan dikapaloi dek [[Moestopo]] baparang.{{sfn|Parrott|1975|p=85}} Sabagai hasilnyo, inyo mulai manulih novela "[[Surabaya (karya fiksi)|Surabaja]]" tantang masalah kamanusiaan nan tajadi katiko parang sarato dampaknyo pado bulan Oktober 1945 sampai Mei 1946. Panulih jo kritikuih sastra Indonesia Muhammad Balfas manggambarkannyo sabagai "satu-satunyo karya nan manyindia revolusi Indonesia".{{sfn|Balfas|1976|p=89}} Pado maso parang, karya Idrus samakin kontemplatif, di antaronyo "Jalan Lain ke Roma", novelet ''Perempuan dan Kebangsaan'' (dimuek di majalah ''Indonesia'' pado taun 1949), jo novel ''Aki'' (1950). Satalah mandapek takanan dari [[Lembaga Kebudajaan Rakjat]] nan didukuang dek komunis, Idrus malarikan diri ka [[Malaysia]]. Di sinan, inyo manabikan ''Dengan Mata Terbuka'' (1961), jo ''Hati Nurani Manusia'' (1963).{{sfn|Language Center, Idrus}} Tulisan-tulisannyo salanjuiknyo indak bagitu ditarimo baiak.{{sfn|Balfas|1976|p=90}}{{sfn|Teeuw|1980|p=218}} Idrus pindah ka [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]], pado taun 1965 untuak kuliah di [[Universitas Monash]]. Inyo lulus dari universitas tu pado taun 1974 jo gala master di bidang seni. Inyo maningga dunia pado tanggal 18 Mei 1979 di Kampung Tanah, Padang, Sumatra Barat. Katiko itu, inyo sadang mangaja gala doktor dari Monash jo manjabat sabagai dosen.{{sfn|Pemerintah Kota Jakarta, Idrus}} ==Gaya== [[File:Idrus, Dari Ave Maria ke Djalan Lain ke Roma, 1948 (obverse).jpg|thumb|''Dari Ave Maria ke Djalan Lain ke Roma'', edisi ka-1 (1948)]] Idrus manulih jo gaya nan manakankan aspek realitas nan labiah kareh, manggunoan kalimek-kalimek nan singkek jo ringkeh sarato mangabaikan estetika nan umum pado era Balai Pustaka jo Poedjangga Baroe.{{sfn|Teeuw|1980|p=217}} Balfas manganggap gaya Idrus panuah dek sinisme jo sarkasme.{{sfn|Balfas|1976|p=88}} Tapi, manjalang revolusi salasai, gayanyo manjadi makin kontemplatif.{{sfn|Balfas|1976|p=90}} Cadiak pandai sastra asa Balando, [[A. Teeuw]], bapandapek bahwasonyo Idrus dipangaruahi dek karya-karya [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[John Steinbeck]], [[Erskine Caldwell]], jo [[Willem Elsschot]].{{sfn|Teeuw|1980|p=218}} Kabanyakan tokoh pado karya-karya Idrus adolah urang biaso, babeda jo karya panulih lainnyo nan kabanyakan adolah urang tapandang atau bangsawan, contohnyo karya [[Amir Hamzah]]. Iko disababkan dek motivasi politik pamarentah Japang nan mamarentah pado taun 1942 sampai partengahan 1945. Japang mamandang paralu untuak mampromosian supayo rakyat biaso bisa marabuik kakuasaan.{{sfn|Balfas|1976|p=88}} ==Pangaruah== Idrus acok dianggap sabagai panaruih [[Chairil Anwar]] dek gaya baru pado tulisannyo.{{sfn|Teeuw|1980|p=217}} Inyo dianggap pulo sabagai tokoh nan mawakili sastrawan generasi '45.{{sfn|Pemerintah Kota Jakarta, Idrus}} Akan tatapi, Teeuw indak sapandapek jo partanyaan iko. Manuruiknyo, kontribusi Chairil Anwar jauah labiah signifikan.{{sfn|Teeuw|1980|p=217}} ==Kahidupan pribadi == Idrus manikah jo Ratna Suri pado taun 1948. Kaduonyo punyo ampek urang anak laki-laki, yaitu Nirwan, Slamet Riyadi, Rizal, jo Taufik, sarato duo urang anak padusi banamo Damayanti jo Lanita. Idrus adolah saurang [[poliglot]] nan fasiah babahaso Jerman, Inggirih, Balando, jo Indonesia.{{sfn|Language Center, Idrus}} ==Rujuakan== ;Catatan kaki {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ;Daftar pustaka {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book | last = Balfas | first = Muhammad |author-link=M. Balfas | editor1-first = Brakel | editor1-last = L. F. | year = 1976 | title = Handbuch der Orientalistik |trans-title=Handbook of Orientalistics | chapter = Modern Indonesian Literature in Brief | volume = 1 | publisher = E. J. Brill | location = Leiden, Netherlands | isbn = 978-90-04-04331-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NbY3AAAAIAAJ }} *{{cite encyclopedia |title=Idrus |language=id |publisher=Pemerintah Kota Jakarta |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Jakarta |url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/web/encyclopedia/detail/3665/Idrus |access-date=5 March 2012 |archive-date=26 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226131233/http://www.jakarta.go.id/web/encyclopedia/detail/3665/Idrus |ref={{harvid|Pemerintah Kota Jakarta, Idrus}} |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226131233/http://www.jakarta.go.id/web/encyclopedia/detail/3665/Idrus |date=26 December 2012 }} *{{cite web |title=Idrus |language=id |publisher=Badan Bahasa |url=https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/tokoh-detail/3326/idrus |access-date=29 Dec 2022 |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229080451/https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/tokoh-detail/3326/idrus |ref={{harvid|Language Center, Idrus}} |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }} *{{cite journal| last=Parrott |first=J. G. A. | title = Who Killed Brigadier Mallaby?| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_indonesia_1975-10_20/page/87 | volume=20|issue=20 | journal=Indonesia |date=October 1975 | pages=87–111| doi = 10.2307/3350997| jstor = 3350997|hdl=1813/53609 | hdl-access=free}} * {{cite book | last = Teeuw | first = A. | year = 1980 | title = Sastra Baru Indonesia |trans-title=New Indonesian Literature | location = Ende | publisher = Nusa Indah | language = id | volume = 1 | oclc = 222168801 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YVSjHAAACAAJ }} {{Refend}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Panulih Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Minangkabau]] [[Kategori:Tokoh dari Padang]] j61p4ulxas62cz18sddhdvx7oweufd5 0 327451 3351299 2498556 2026-08-05T22:44:12Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351299 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Sadang karajo}}{{Infobox ethnic group|group=Tamil Sri Lanka|pop2=143.000 (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tamilculture.ca/tamils-by-the-numbers/|title=Tamils by the Numbers|date=2012-11-05|website=TamilCulture.ca|language=en|access-date=2020-01-13|archive-date=2014-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426235431/http://tamilculture.ca/tamils-by-the-numbers/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>|flag_caption=|population='''~ 3 juta'''<br />(pakiroan; indak tamasuak [[Moor]] jo [[Tamil India]])|genealogy=|regions=|tablehdr=|region1={{Flagu|Sri Lanka}}|pop1=2.270.924 (2012)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|title=Census of Population and Housing 2011|website=www.statistics.gov.lk|access-date=2020-01-13|archive-date=2017-04-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428063924/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|dead-url=yes}}</ref>|pop6=~50.000 (2008)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=25010|title=TamilNet|last=TamilNet|website=www.tamilnet.com|language=en|access-date=2020-01-13}}</ref><br />|native_name_lang=ta|region3={{Flagu|Baritania Rayo}}|pop3=~120.000 (2006)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2006/03/060315_hrw_jayadevan.shtml|title=BBCSinhala.com|website=www.bbc.com|access-date=2020-01-13}}</ref>|region4={{Flagu|India}}|pop4=~100.000 (2005)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kumar|first=Acharya, A.|year=2014|title=Ethnic conflict and refugees in Sri Lanka|url=|journal=Antropología Experimental|volume=0|issue=7|pages=|doi=|lay-url=https://revistaselectronicas.ujaen.es/index.php/rae/article/view/2029}}</ref>|region5={{Flagu|Jerman}}|pop5=~60.000 (2008)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baumann|first=Martin|last2=Salentin|first2=Kurt|date=2006-10-01|title=Migrant Religiousness and Social Incorporation: Tamil Hindus from Sri Lanka in Germany|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13537900600925958|journal=Journal of Contemporary Religion|volume=21|issue=3|pages=297–323|doi=10.1080/13537900600925958|issn=1353-7903}}</ref><br />|region6={{Flagu|Parancih}}|flag=[https://www.google.com.au/search?q=sri+lanka&rlz=1C5CHFA_enAU797AU798&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiqmPnxvpvcAhUQUN4KHTPLD08Q_AUICygC&biw=1366&bih=671#imgrc=XQuwAkOZtVIawM: Sri lankan flag please Click here to see]|region2={{Flagu|Kanada}}|region11={{Flagu|Balando}}|region7={{Flagu|Swiss}}|region8={{Flagu|Australia}}|pop8=~30.000<ref name=":8"/>|region9={{Flagu|Italia}}|pop9=~25.000<ref name=":8"/>|region10={{Flagu|Malaysia}}|pop10=~24.436 (1970)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tam|title=Tamil|website=Ethnologue|language=en|access-date=2020-01-13}}</ref>|pop11=~20,000<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=http://murugan.org/research/sivasupramaniam.htm|title=History of the Tamil Diaspora|website=murugan.org|access-date=2020-01-13}}</ref>|region12={{Flagu|Norwegia}}|native_name=இலங்கை தமிழர்<br />(ஈழத் தமிழர்)<br/> Tamil Eelam|pop12=~10.000 (2000)<ref name=":8"/>|region13={{Flagu|Denmark}}|pop13=~9.000 (2003){{Sfn|Barnes|2002|p=110|ps="In Denmark we have around nine thousand Sri Lankan Tamils, more than eight thousand of whom are Hindus."}}|languages=Bahaso di Sri Lanka: [[Bahaso Tamil]] (jo dialek Sri Lanka)<br> [[Bahaso Sinhala]] & [[Bahaso Inggirih]]|religions={{Hlist|[[Hindu]] (kabanyakan aliran [[Saiwa]])|[[Kristen]]}}|related={{Hlist|[[Tamil India]]||[[Urang Sinhala|Sinhala]]}}|pop7=~35.000 (2006)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-tamils-look-to-preserve-their-culture/4804092|title=Swiss Tamils look to preserve their culture|last=swissinfo.ch|first=S. W. I.|last2=Corporation|first2=a branch of the Swiss Broadcasting|website=SWI swissinfo.ch|language=en|access-date=2020-01-13}}</ref>|footnotes=}}'''Urang Tamil Sri Lanka''' atau '''Tamil Sailan''' adolah etnis nan marupokan panduduak asali di Pulau Sailan atau [[Sri Lanka]]. Urang Tamil Sri Lanka ko masih sarumpun jo urang [[Urang Tamil India|Tamil India]]. Walau sarumpun, bahaso nan dipakai agak babeda dek banyak kosakato saisuak nan dipakai Tamil Sri Lanka. Urang Tamil Sri Lanka labiah banyak mauni utara jo timur pulau. Rami dari urang Tamil Sri Lanka maanuik agamo [[Agamo Hindu|Hindu]]. Di Sri Lanka, etnis ko marupokan etnis paliang gadang kaduo sasudah etnis [[Urang Sinhala|Sinhala]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last=Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|title=Aryan or Dravidian or Neither? – A Study of Recent Attempts to Decipher the Indus Script (1995–2000)|journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies|date=8 March 2002|volume=8|issue=1|authorlink=Iravatham Mahadevan|issn=1084-7561|url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0801/ejvs0801.txt|access-date=2 March 2020|archive-date=23 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070723121117/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0801/ejvs0801.txt|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Sijarah == Urang Tamil Sri Lanka mulonyo adolah parantau Tamil dari [[India Salatan|India Selatan]] pado kiro-kiro abaik ka-5 SM. Parantau ko kudian barasimilasi jo panduduak satampek. Galombang rantau samakin gadang tajadi pangaruah [[karajaan Chola]] masuak ka Sailan sajak mulo abaik partamo masehi inggo mancapai puncaknyo katiko invasi Chola pado abaik ka-11. Kudian pado abaik ka-13 didirikanlah Karajaan Jaffna dek dinasti Arya Chakaravati dari Karajaan Pandya di ujuang utara Sailan, karajaan nan alah tapisah dari karajaan Tamil lainnyo di India Selatan.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/tamils/|title=Tamils|website=Minority Rights Group|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-02-29}}</ref>{{Sfn|Manogaran|1994|p=1-2;Chapter 2|ps="Historians, archaeologist, and epigraphist have pieced together fragmentary evidence to present a picture of continuous migration of small numbers of people from the shores of southern Tamil Nadu to northern Sri Lanka from as early as the 3rd century B.C."}}<ref name=":2">Peebles, P. (1990). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/colonization-and-ethnic-conflict-in-the-dry-zone-of-sri-lanka/1874C7714FAEDAC337C5FA39F8B272C8 Colonization and Ethnic Conflict in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka]. ''The Journal of Asian Studies,'' ''49''(1), 30-55. doi:10.2307/2058432</ref> Karajaan Jaffna runtuah pado abaik ka-16 katiko Portugih mulai manjajah Sailan. Portugih manguasoi daerah pasisia (utamonyo barat) sabagai tampek baniago. Portugih juo mambaok agamo Katolik ka pasisia Sailan sainggo urang-urang Tamil sabagian ado nan bapindah agamo dari Hindu. Pado maso ko urang-urang Tamil dari India ado pulo nan dibaok Portugih dari India ka siko. Salanjuiknyo pamarintahan diambiak aliah Balando pado abaik ka-18. Dek Balando sistem kasta pado urang Tamil di Jaffna mandapek tampek sainggo pabudakan samakin marak tajadi. Salanjuik abaik ka-19 sampai abaik ka-20, Inggirih manuruihan pamarintahan di Sailan. Pado maso ko banyak urang Tamil India nan dibaok untuak manjadi urang parak teh di daerah Kandy, pagunuangan Sailan.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Salapeh Sailan mardeka dari Inggirih pado 1948, urang [[Urang Sinhala|Sinhala]] jo urang Tamil acok maalami parang sudaro untuak barabuik kuaso nagara. Dek urang Sinhala banyak mandapek posisi di baragam bidang, urang Tamil mambantuak kalompok separatis nan banamo [[Macan Tamil]] (''Tamil Tiger'') untuak mambantuak nagara Tamil nan tapisah maliputi Provinsi Utara jo Timur.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> == Masyarakaik == Urang Tamil Sri Lanka marupokan masyarakaik nan tingga di pasisia Sri Lanka. Manuruik sensus 2012 ado 2.270.924 urang Tambil Sri Lanka atau 11,2% populasi. Sakitar 70% tingga di Provinsi Utara jo Timur inggo manjadi mayoritas di kaduo provinsi ko.<ref name="census12">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|title=A2 : Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012|publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka|access-date=2020-02-28|archive-date=2017-04-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428063924/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Salain di dalam Sri Lanka, ramai pulo urang Tamil Sri Lanka nan pai marantau cino ka lua nagari. Angko pastinyo alun lai jaleh, tapi dipakirokan antaro 450.000 inggo sajuta urang.<ref>{{cite book|last=Orjuela|first=Camilla|title=Politics from Afar: Transnational Diasporas and Networks|year=2012|publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co.]]|isbn=978-1-84904-185-0|page=98|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShluycPZdS4C&redir_esc=y|editor=Terrence Lyons|editor2=Peter G. Mandaville|chapter=5: Diaspora Identities and Homeland Politics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka/186%20The%20Sri%20Lankan%20Tamil%20Diaspora%20after%20the%20LTTE.ashx|title=The Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora after the LTTE: Asia Report N°186|date=23 February 2010|publisher=[[International Crisis Group]]|page=2|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516033156/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka/186%20The%20Sri%20Lankan%20Tamil%20Diaspora%20after%20the%20LTTE.ashx|archivedate=16 May 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Sacaro umum tabagi manjadi tigo komunitas nan diakui sabagai Tamil Sri Lanka, yaitu Tamil Utara, Tamil Timur, jo Tamil Barat. Urang Tamil Utara dianggap sabagai asamulo urang Tamil Sri Lanka. Salain katigo komunitas tasabuik, adopulo komuniitas lain nan sabananyo urang Tamil, yaitu kalompok Tamil Muslim nan banyak tingga di Provinsi Timur Sri Langka. Namun, dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka, komunitas Muslim ko komunitas tapisah dan dianggap sabagai Etnis Moor.<ref name="census12" /> [[File:Ceylon_Tamil_girl_1910.jpeg|pra=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ceylon_Tamil_girl_1910.jpeg|ka|jmpl|357x357px|Gambar kartupos taun 1910 nan bagambar Gadih Tamil Sri Lanka]] [[Berkas:Sri_Lanka_-_Sri_Lankan_Tamils_2012.png|kiri|jmpl|315x315px|Distribusi urang Tamil Sri Lanka manuruik sensus 2012.]] <br /> {| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" style="text-align:right;" |+'''Distribusi urang Tamil Sri Lanka di Sri Lanka (2012)'''<ref name="census12" /> ! style="vertical-align:bottom;" |Provinsi ! style="vertical-align:bottom;" |Tamil Sri Lanka ! style="vertical-align:bottom;" |% Provinsi ! style="vertical-align:bottom;" |<small>% Tamil</small> <small>Sri Lanka</small> |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|Central Province, Sri Lanka}} |128.263 |5,0% |5,7% |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|Eastern Province, Sri Lanka}} |609.584 |39,3% |26,8% |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|Northern Province, Sri Lanka}} |987.692 |93,3% |43,5% |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|North Central Province, Sri Lanka}} |12.421 |1,0% |0,6% |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|North Western Province, Sri Lanka}} |66.286 |2,8% |2,9% |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|Sabaragamuwa Province}} |74.908 |3,9% |3,3% |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|Southern Province, Sri Lanka}} |25.901 |1,1% |1,1% |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|Uva Province}} |30.118 |2,4% |1,3% |- | align="left" |{{flagcountry|Western Province, Sri Lanka}} |335.751 |5,8% |14,8% |- style="font-weight:bold" | align="left" |Total |2.270.924 |11,2% |100,0% |} === Tamil Timur === [[Berkas:Sri_Lanka-Trincomalee-Tempel.JPG|ka|jmpl|233x233px|Kuil Hindu Koneswaram di Triconmalee.]] Urang Tamil Sri Lanka Timur tingga di Provinsi Timur, tapeknyo di distrik [[Tricomalee]], [[Batticaloa]], jo [[Ampara]]. Manuruik sijarah, pado abaik ka-16 urang Tamil Timur ko ado di baruah kuaso [[Karajaan Kandy]] sainggo pakambangan budayo urang Tamil Timur babeda jo urang Tamil Utara. Samantaro, sistem adat nan dijalankan dek urang Timur disabuik adat Mukkuvar, nan alah dikodifikasi sajak maso kolonial Balando.{{Sfn|Sivathamby|1995|pp=2–4}}{{Sfn|Subramaniam|2006|pp=1–13}}<ref>McGilvray, D. ''Mukkuvar Vannimai: Tamil Caste and Matriclan Ideology in Batticaloa, Sri Lanka'', pp. 34–97</ref>{{Sfn|Sivathamby|1995|pp=7–9}}<ref>{{cite book|last=McGilvray|first=Dennis B.|title=Caste Ideology and Interaction|year=1982|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=59|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-88AAAAIAAJ|isbn=9780521241458}}</ref> Urang Tamil Timur marupokan masyarakaik tani. Inyo manjalankan sistem kasta nan sarupo jo sistem patalian darah nan ado di India Selatan. Kasta urang Timur didominasi kasta [[Mukkuvar]], [[Vellalar]], jo [[Karaiyar]]. Dalam ciek kasta tadiri ateh babarapo suku. Sistem suku ko sarupo jo urang [[Matrilineal Minangkabau|Minangkabau]] nan manuruik garih turunan mandeh ([[matrilineal]]) sarato maanuik sistem pakawinan exogami (indak manikah sasuku). Dek tamil, istilah [[suku]] ko disabuik ''kudi''. Satiok urang nan lahia, baiak laki-laki atau padusi, sacaro lansuang manjadi bagian dari ''kudi'' mandehnyo. Satiok ''kudi'' mampunyoi juo tampek ibadahnyo surang.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Mw5cbpeFsvcC&pg=PA96&dq=eastern+tamils+caste#v=onepage&q=eastern%20tamils%20caste&f=false|title=Matrilineal Communities, Patriarchal Realities: A Feminist Nirvana Uncovered|last=Ruwanpura|first=Kanchana N.|date=2006|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-06977-4|location=|pages=96|language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|Yalman|1967|pp=282–335}}{{Sfn|Sivathamby|1995|pp=5–6}} === Tamil Utara === Urang Tamil Sri Lanka Utara bahubuangan arek jo sijarah [[Karajaan Jaffna]] nan dulunyo manjadi karajaan mardeka atua tapisah dari karajaan-karajaan Tamil India. Hal iko manjadikan klaim politik dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka. Sacaro umum, urang Tamil Utara ko tabagi duo kalompok, yaitu kalompok nan dari Tanjuang Jaffa (di utara) jo panduduak Vanni di bagian nan agak ka selatan Provinsi Utara, Sri Lanka. Masyarakaik Jaffna tabagi-bagi dalam sistem kasta nan juo didominasi urang-urang kasawah. Dalam sistem kasta urang Jaffa, ado kasta-kasta tinggi cando nan dominan kasta Vellalar, Karaiyar, jo Mukkuvar. Kasta-kasta tinggi ko dilayani dek ''Kudimakkal.'' ''Kudimakkal'' ko adolah palayan-palayan untuak kasta tinggi nan dapek barasa dari ''Panchamars,'' limo kasta randah cando Nalavar, Pallar, Parayar, Vannar, jo Ambattar.{{Sfn|Sivathamby|1995|pp=4–12}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fernando|first=A. Denis N.|date=1987|title=Pennsular Jaffna From Ancient to Medieval Times: Its Significant Historical and Settlement Aspects|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka|volume=32|pages=63–90|jstor=23731055}}</ref>{{Sfn|Gunasingam|1999|p=62}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=TJHYAAAAMAAJ&dq=karaiyar+maritime&q=karaiyar|title=Soixante ans de pentecôtisme en Alsace (1930–1990): une approche socio-historique|last=Pfister|first=Raymond|date=1995|publisher=P. Lang|isbn=978-3-631-48620-7|location=|page=165|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Xj9FAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT73&dq=vellalar+dutch#v=onepage&q=vellalar%20dutch&f=false|title=The Politics of Reconstruction and Development in Sri Lanka: Transnational Commitments to Social Change|last=Gerharz|first=Eva|date=2014-04-03|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-69279-9|language=en}}</ref> Urang Vanni manyabuik dirinyo sabagai masyarakaik tapisah dari Jaffa. Walau baitu, tatap tajadi pulo pakawinan di antaro duo kalompok ko nan kudian tingga di daerah Vanni. Urang Vanni manuruik sijarahnyo bahubuangan jo Pamarintahan [[Kadatuan Vanni]] nan pado abaik patangahan bakontak arek jo India Selatan. Saari-ari urang Vanni iduik jo baladang sarato baburu jo bataranak. Babeda jo urang Tamil Timur, urang Tamil Utara ko maanuik sistem adat Thesavalamai, nan alah dikodifikasi sajak zaman Balando.{{Sfn|Sivathamby|1995|pp=4–12}}{{Sfn|Thambiah|2001|p=12}} === Tamil Barat === Urang Tamil Sri Lanka Barat, nan siabuik juo subagai urang Tamil Negombo atau Puttalam, adolah urang Tamil Sri Lanka asali nan mauni pasisia barat Sri Lanka utamonyo di distrik [[Gampaha]] jo [[Puttalam]]. Istilah ko indak tamasuak di dalamnyo urang Tamil Sri Lanka nan marantau ka siko.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=50igCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55&dq=negombo+paravar#v=onepage&q=negombo%20paravar&f=false|title=Historical Dictionary of Sri Lanka|last=Peebles|first=Patrick|date=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9781442255852|location=|page=55|language=en}}</ref> Urang Barat umumnyo marupokan palauik atau nalayan nan alah baasimilasi jo budayo Sinhala. Sacaro bahaso, urang Tamil Barat mamakai bahaso Tamil dialek Negombo.<ref name="Foell">{{cite web|url=http://www.sussex.ac.uk/development/archive/papers/fr.html|title=Participation, Patrons and the Village: The case of Puttalam District|last=Foell|first=Jens|year=2007|publisher=[[University of Sussex]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611140511/http://www.sussex.ac.uk/development/archive/papers/fr.html|archivedate=11 June 2008|accessdate=25 June 2008|quote=One of the most interesting processes in Mampuri is the one of Sinhalisation. Whilst most of the Sinhala fishermen used to speak Tamil and/or still do so, there is a trend towards the use of Sinhala, manifesting itself in most children being educated in Sinhala and the increased use of Sinhala in church. Even some of the long-established Tamils, despite having been one of the most powerful local groups in the past, due to their long local history as well as caste status, have adapted to this trend. The process reflects the political domination of Sinhala people in the Government controlled areas of the country.}}</ref> Walau baitu, urang Tamil Barat dapek mangecek duo bahaso. Hal lain nan mambedakan jo Tamil lainnyo adolah hukum adat sarato agamo.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=SCIDFTjeDD4C&q=catholic+belt+sri+lanka&dq=catholic+belt+sri+lanka|title=Geographical Aspects of the Northern Province, Sri Lanka|last=Rajeswaran|first=S.T.B.|date=2012|publisher=Governor's Office|isbn=|location=|pages=69|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bonta|first=Steven|date=2010|title=Negombo Fishermen's Tamil: A Case of Indo-Aryan Contact-Induced Change in a Dravidian Dialect|jstor=41330804|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=52|issue=3/4|pages=310–343|doi=10.1353/anl.2010.0021}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|first=K.|last=Kularatnam|title=Tamil Place Names in Ceylon outside the Northern and Eastern Provinces|booktitle=Proceedings of the First International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia vol.1|pages=486–493|publisher=International Association of Tamil Research|date=April 1966}}</ref> Urang Tamil Barat ado nan baragamo Hindu adopulo nan Katolik Roma.<ref name="RD">{{cite court|litigants=Fernando v. Proctor el al|vol=3|reporter=Sri Lanka|opinion=924|court=District Court, Chilaw|date=27 October 1909|url=http://www.lawnet.lk/docs/case_law/nlr/common/html/NLR12V309.htm}}</ref>{{Sfn|Gair|1998|p=171}}<ref name="Bonta">{{cite journal|last=Bonta|first=Steven|title=Negombo Fishermen's Tamil (NFT): A Sinhala Influenced Dialect from a Bilingual Sri Lankan Community|journal=International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics|date=June 2008|volume=37}}</ref> === Komunitas lainnyo === [[Berkas:Recolectores_de_te3.jpg|ka|jmpl|Tamil India dianggap sabagai etnik nan babeda]]Ado duo komunitas nan babahaso Tamil, tapi indak dianggap sabagai etnik nan samo jo urang Tamil Sri Lanka, yaitu urang Tamil Muslim jo Tamil India. Urang Tamil Muslim marupokan urang Sri Lanka nan asali babahaso Tamil sarato baragamo [[Islam]].<ref name="vm">{{cite book|last=Mohan|first=Vasundhara|authorlink=|title=Identity Crisis of Sri Lankan Muslims|publisher=Mittal Publications|series=|volume=|edition=|location=Delhi|year=1987|pages=9–14, 27–30, 67–74, 113–118|doi=|isbn=|mr=|zbl=}}</ref><ref name="bbcnews">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2070817.stm|title=Analysis: Tamil-Muslim divide|publisher=BBC News World Edition|accessdate=6 July 2014}}</ref> Walau banyak bukti nan manunjuakannyo Tamil Sri Lanka,<ref name="azz">{{cite book|last=Zemzem|first=Akbar|authorlink=|title=The Life and Times of Marhoom Wappichi Marikar (booklet)|publisher=|series=|volume=|edition=|location=Colombo|year=1970|page=|doi=|isbn=|mr=|zbl=}}</ref> tatap sajo manuai kontroversi sainggo didaftarkan dek pamarintah sabagai etnik babeda.{{Sfn|de Silva|1987|p=9}} Samantaro, urang Tamil India adolah urang Tamil nan pado abaik ka-19 dibaok dek Inggirih untuak mananam teh di bukik-bukik Sri Lanka tangah.{{Sfn|de Silva|1987|p=181}} Dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka, urang Tamil India ko dianggap sabagai etnik babeda. Pado taun 1948, urang Tamil India dicoret kawarganegaraan Sri Lankanyo inggo akhianyo pado taun 1960 diadokan kasapakatan jo Pamarintah India untuak mambuka kawarganegaraan urang Tamil India. Hasianyo ado 40% nan batahan sarato mamiliah manjadi warga nagara Sri Lanka.{{Sfn|de Silva|1987|p=262}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Suryanarayan|first=V.|title=In search of a new identity|journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|date=4 August 2001|volume=18|issue=16|url=http://www.frontline.in/navigation/?type=static&page=flonnet&rdurl=fl1816/18160950.htm|accessdate=2 July 2008}}</ref> === Kaji genetika === Urang Tamil Sri Lanka mampunyoi tradisi jo budayo nan babeda jo panduduak Sri Lanka lainnyo utamonyo jo Sinhala sarato labiah dakek jo Tamil India sacarao tradisi jo budayo. Walau baiatu dari kaji genetika, urang Tamil Sri Lanka mampunyoi kamiripan jo urang Sinhala. Hal iko dipakirokan dek alah lamo bacampua baua urang Tamil Sri Lanka jo Sinhala sarato dek lah tapisah dari [[Tamil India]]. Sabagai pambanding, urang Tamil Sri Lanka babagi kamiripan 69,89% jo urang Sinhala dari pado urang Tamil India.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal|last1=Kshatriya|first1=GK|title=Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-biology_1995-12_67_6/page/843|journal=Human Biology|date=December 1995|volume=67|issue=6|pages=843–66|pmid=8543296}}</ref> == Bahaso == [[Bahaso Tamil]] jo dialek Sri Lanka marupokan bahaso nan rami dipakai dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka. Dialek ko agak babeda dari dialek Tamil India. Banyak kato-kato lamo nan indak ado dalam Tamil India masih dipakai dalam kecek urang Tamil Sri Lanka.<ref name="Census2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=FinalPopulation&gp=Activities&tpl=3|title=Census of Population and Housing 2011|website=www.statistics.gov.lk|publisher=Department of Census and Statistics|accessdate=14 November 2018|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416015917/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=FinalPopulation&gp=Activities&tpl=3|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="Kuiper">{{cite journal|last=Kuiper|first=L.B.J|title=Note on Old Tamil and Jaffna Tamil|journal=[[Indo-Iranian Journal]]|volume=6|issue=1|pages=52–64|date=March 1964|doi=10.1007/BF00157142}}</ref> [[Berkas:Church_of_Our_Lady_of_Presentation_-_Batticaloa.jpg|ka|jmpl|Gareja Bundo Pasambahan Kami, salah satu gareja sajak maso Portugih nan mulonyo dibangun sabantuak dangau pado taun 1624, nan manjadi tampek ibadah urang Tamil Barat nan Katolik.]]Urang Tamil Sri Lanka tamasuak masyarakaik nan multilingual (mampunyoi kamampuan mangecek labiah dari ciek bahaso). Ado 30% urang Tamil Sri Lanka nan pandai mangecek jo bahaso Sinhala, sarato ado 20% nan pandai mangecek dalam [[bahaso Sinhala]].<ref name="Census20122">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=FinalPopulation&gp=Activities&tpl=3|title=Census of Population and Housing 2011|website=www.statistics.gov.lk|publisher=Department of Census and Statistics|accessdate=14 November 2018|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416015917/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=FinalPopulation&gp=Activities&tpl=3|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="Bonta2">{{cite journal|last=Bonta|first=Steven|title=Negombo Fishermen's Tamil (NFT): A Sinhala Influenced Dialect from a Bilingual Sri Lankan Community|journal=International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics|date=June 2008|volume=37}}</ref> == Agamo == Agamo nan paliang banyak dianuik urang Tamil Sri Langka adolah agamo Hindu, sakitar 80%.<ref name="RR">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lktoc.html|title=Sri Lanka: Country study|year=1988|publisher=[[The Library of Congress]]|accessdate=25 June 2008}}</ref> Urang Hindu Tamil Sri Lanka biaso tingga di utara jo timur Sri Lanka.{{Sfn|Sivathamby|1995|pp=34–89}} Ado pulo sabagian keteknyo nan maanuik agamo [[Kristen]], umumnyo [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Katolik Roma]]. Nan baragamo Kristen ko biaso tingga di Barat Sri Lanka. Ado pulo saketek urang Tamil Sri Lanka nan baragamo [[Buddha]], kiro-kiro 1% dari sadoalah urang Tamil Sri Lanka.<ref name="22,254 Tamil Buddhists in SL">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/105937/-Tamil-Buddhists-in-SL|title=22,254 Tamil Buddhists in SL|last1=Perera|first1=Yohan|publisher=Daily Mirror|accessdate=31 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/surveys/pentecostal/asia/|title=Overview: Pentecostalism in Asia|publisher=The pew forum|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306030325/http://pewforum.org/surveys/pentecostal/asia/|archivedate=6 March 2008|accessdate=24 March 2008}}</ref>{{Sfn|Sivathamby|1995|pp=34–89}} == Makanan == Makanan urang Tamil Sri Lanka indak jauah babeda jo makanan Tamil India. Adopulo pangaruah dari kolonial sarato padagang lua nagari saisuak. Makanan pokok dek urang Tamil Sri Lanka adolah [[nasi]]. Samantaro nan manjadi samba piliahan nan tanamo adolah kari. Jinih kari nan ado di Sri Lanka agak babeda dari nan ado di India, jo ragamnyo nan babeda di tiok daerah.<ref name="TH200703">{{cite news|last=Ramakrishnan|first=Rohini|title=From the land of the Yaal Padi|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/07/20/stories/2003072000780700.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=20 July 2003|access-date=4 March 2020|archive-date=31 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001737/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/07/20/stories/2003072000780700.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|2}} === Daftar pustaka === * {{Cite book|title=Theology and the dialogue of religions|last=Barnes|first=Michael|date=|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-511-01900-9|location=Cambridge|pages=|oclc=52611459|ref={{sfnref|Barnes|2002}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries|last=Wilson|first=A. Jeyaratnam|date=|publisher=UBC Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7748-0759-3|location=|pages=|ref={{sfnref|Wilson|2000}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=The Dravidian languages|last=Lehmann|first=Thomas|date=|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=0-415-10023-2|location=London|pages=|oclc=36407883|ref={{sfnref|Lehmann|1998}}|url-status=live}} * {{Citebook|title=Everyday Ethnicity in Sri Lanka : Up-country Tamil Identity Politics|last=Bass|first=Daniel|date=|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2012|isbn=978-1-136-22418-8|location=Hoboken|pages=|oclc=823386993|ref={{sfnref|Bass|2012}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=People inbetween|last=Roberts|first=Michael|date=|publisher=Sarvodaya Book Pub. Services|year=1989|isbn=955-599-013-1|location=Ratmalana|pages=|oclc=22352571|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Cultural minorities of Sri Lanka : their growth, achievements, and relevance today|last=Vijayalakshmi|first=E.|date=|publisher=International Centre for Ethnic Studies|year=2005|isbn=955-580-096-0|location=Colombo|pages=|oclc=60767182|ref={{sfnref|Vijayalakshmi|2005}}|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book|title=Matrilineal communities, patriarchal realities : a feminist Nirvana uncovered|last=Ruwanpura|first=Kanchana N.|date=2006|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-09977-9|location=Ann Arbor|pages=|oclc=71146592|ref={{sfnref|Ruwanpura|2006}}|url-status=live|year=}} * {{Cite book|title=The Mukkuva law: or, The rules of succession among the Mukkuvars of Ceylon|last=Brito|first=C.|date=1876|publisher=|isbn=|location=|pages=|oclc=4624637|ref={{sfnref|Brito|1876}}|url-status=live|year=}} * {{Cite book|title=Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics|last=Civattampi|first=Kārttikēcu|date=|publisher=New Century Book House|year=1995|isbn=81-234-0395-X|location=Madras|pages=|oclc=33162843|ref={{sfnref|Civattampi|1995}}|url-status=live}}{{Etnik-stub}} {{Daftar Urang Asia Parantauan}} [[Kategori:Sri Lanka]] c2ki1ozsobm8c9atbhp95g2pgnaezuf 0 327769 3351195 3144203 2026-08-05T19:27:15Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351195 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox drug|drug_name=|ATC_suffix=CC05|KEGG=|UNII=1C6V77QF41|ChemSpiderID=4444353|DrugBank=DB00169|IUPHAR_ligand=|PubChemSubstance=|PubChem=5280795|ATC_supplemental=|ATC_prefix=A11|ChEMBL=1042|ATCvet=|class=|CAS_supplemental=|CAS_number=67-97-0|excretion=<!-- Identifiers -->|duration_of_action=|elimination_half-life=|onset=|metabolites=|ChEBI=28940|NIAID_ChemDB=|protein_bound=|StdInChIKey=QYSXJUFSXHHAJI-YRZJJWOYSA-N|sol_units=|solubility=Practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in ethanol, methanol and some other organic solvents. Slightly soluble in vegetable oils.|boiling_notes=|boiling_point=496.4|melting_notes=|melting_high=|melting_point=83 to 86|density_notes=|density=|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|diubah|chemspider}}|synonyms=vitamin D₃, activated 7-dehydrocholesterol <!-- Chemical and physical data -->|StdInChI=1S/C27H44O/c1-19(2)8-6-9-21(4)25-15-16-26-22(10-7-17-27(25,26)5)12-13-23-18-24(28)14-11-20(23)3/h12-13,19,21,24-26,28H,3,6-11,14-18H2,1-2,4-5H3/b22-12+,23-13-/t21-,24+,25-,26+,27-/m1/s1|Jmol=|SMILES=O[C@@H]1CC(\C(=C)CC1)=C\C=C2/CCC[C@]3([C@H]2CC[C@@H]3[C@H](C)CCCC(C)C)C|molecular_weight=384.64 g/mol|charge=|O=1|H=44|C=27|chemical_formula=|metabolism=|bioavailability=|INN=Colecalciferol|altL=|licence_EU=<!-- EMA requires brand name -->|MedlinePlus=|Drugs.com={{Drugs.com|ppa|cholecalciferol}}|tradename=|pronounce={{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|oʊ|l|ə|k|æ|l|ˈ|s|ɪ|f|ə|r|ɒ|l}}|caption=<!-- Clinical data -->|altR=|widthR=|imageR=|widthL=|DailyMedID=Cholecalciferol|imageL=|alt2=|width2=|image2=Cholecalciferol-vitamin-D3-from-xtal-3D-sticks.png|alt=|width=|image=Cholecalciferol.svg|IUPAC_name=(3''S'',5''Z'',7''E'')-9,10-secocholesta-5,7,10(19)-trien-3-ol|type=<!-- empty -->|licence_US=<!-- FDA may use generic name -->|pregnancy_AU=<!-- A/B1/B2/B3/C/D/X -->|legal_status=<!--For countries not listed above--> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|legal_DE=<!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled-->|legal_UN_comment=|legal_UN=<!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV-->|legal_US_comment=|legal_US=OTC|legal_UK_comment=|legal_UK=<!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C -->|legal_NZ_comment=|legal_NZ=<!-- Class A, B, C -->|legal_DE_comment=|legal_CA_comment=|pregnancy_AU_comment=|legal_CA=<!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII -->|legal_AU_comment=|legal_AU=<!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled-->|routes_of_administration=Malalui muluik, injeksi muskular|addiction_liability=|dependency_liability=|pregnancy_category=|pregnancy_US_comment=and C|pregnancy_US=A|specific_rotation=}}'''Kolekalsiferol''' atau nan labiah tanamo jo '''vitamin D₃''' adolah sajinih [[vitamin]] nan dibuek dek kulik katiko lah tapajan cahayo matoari sarato bisa didapek dari makanan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Coulston|publisher=Academic Press|archive-date=2016-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230000458/https://books.google.ca/books?id=pmapb3rvzpYC&pg=PA818|access-date=31 March 2020|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=pmapb3rvzpYC&pg=PA818|page=818|isbn=9780123918840|date=2013|first1=Ann M.|title=Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Disease|name-list-format=vanc|first3=Mario|last3=Ferruzzi|first2=Carol|last2=Boushey|url-status=live}}</ref> Vitamin ko dapek baguno untuak maubek panyakik kakurangan vitamin D (defisiensi vitamin D) atau panyakik lain nan takaik, cando riketsia. Salin itu, baguno pulo untuak maubek [[hipofospatemia]], [[hipoparatiroidisme]], jo [[sindrom Fanconi]].<ref name="WHO2008">{{cite book|title=WHO Model Formulary 2008|year=2009|isbn=9789241547659|vauthors=((World Health Organization))|veditors=Stuart MC, Kouimtzi M, Hill SR|hdl=10665/44053|author-link=World Health Organization|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> Walau baitu, vitamin ko kurang efektif kok digunokan dek urang jo gangguan ginjal barek.<ref name="Ric2015">{{cite book|last1=Hamilton|first1=Richart|name-list-format=vanc|title=Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia 2015 Deluxe Lab-Coat Edition|date=2015|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=9781284057560|page=231}}</ref> Vitamin D alah tamasuak dalam ubek wajib ado di layanan kasihatan manuruik daftar ubek [[WHO]]. Salain untuak manusia, vitamin ko dalam dosis tinggi dapek dipakai untuak racun [[mancik]].<ref name="merckvet2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/213000.htm|title=Merck Veterinary Manual - Rodenticide Poisoning: Introduction|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070117102323/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm%2Fbc%2F213000.htm|archive-date=2007-01-17|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="usda2006">{{cite conference|last=Rizor|url=https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/39036/PDF|archive-date=2012-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914083512/http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/39036/PDF|access-date=2020-03-31|quote=0.15% cholecalciferol bait appears to have application for pocket gopher control.' Cholecalciferol can be a single high-dose toxicant or a cumulative multiple low-dose toxicant.|publisher=USDA|conference=Vertebrate Pest Conference (2006)|title=Efficacy of Cholecalciferol Baits for Pocket Gopher Control and Possible Effects on Non-Target Rodents in Pacific Northwest Forests|first=Suzanne E.|first4=Dale L.|last4=Nolte|first3=Stephan|last3=Bulkin|first2=Wendy M.|last2=Arjo|url-status=live|archivedate=2012-09-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914083512/http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/39036/PDF}}</ref><ref name="WHO21st">{{cite book|vauthors=((World Health Organization))|title=World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019|year=2019|hdl=10665/325771|author-link=World Health Organization|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|id=WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO}}</ref> Vitamin D bisa didapek tubuah jo suplemen oral ataupun malalui sinar UVB dari matoari.<ref name="Norman">{{cite journal|vauthors=Norman AW|title=From vitamin D to hormone D: fundamentals of the vitamin D endocrine system essential for good health|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=88|issue=2|pages=491S–499S|date=August 2008|pmid=18689389|doi=10.1093/ajcn/88.2.491S}}</ref> Dari makanan, vitamin D bisa didapek dari ikan, [[talua]], ati [[jawi]], jo [[keju]].<ref name="NIH2016">{{cite web|url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/|title=Office of Dietary Supplements - Vitamin D|date=11 February 2016|website=ods.od.nih.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231073744/https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/|archive-date=31 December 2016|access-date=31 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Vitamin D nan alah diubah dalam tubuah dapek baguno untuak maningkekan panyerapan [[kalsium]] di usus. Dosis vitamin D nan bakalabiahan dapek mambuek muntah, kabobolan, lamah bdan, sarato paniang. Risiko lainnyo bisa muncua batu ginjal.<ref name="PPA2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/ppa/cholecalciferol.html|title=Cholecalciferol (Professional Patient Advice) - Drugs.com|website=www.drugs.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230002705/https://www.drugs.com/ppa/cholecalciferol.html|archive-date=30 December 2016|access-date=31 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> == Biokimia == Kolekasliferol marupokan ciek dari limo bantuak vitamin D.<ref>{{DorlandsDict|two/000020436|cholecalciferol}}</ref> Kolekalsiferol surang pado dasanyo adolah bantuak indak aktif. Inyo manjadi aktif malalui proses hidroksilasi salamo duo kali: partamo di liver, dek bantuan CYP2R1 atau CYP27A1 untuak barubah manjadi kalsifediol (25-OH vitamin D₃). Nan kaduo proses hidroksilasi di ginjal jo bantuan CYP27B1 nan maubahnyo manjadi kalsitriol (1,25-(OH)₂vitamin D₃). Lalu, hasia parubahannyo dikabek di darah jo protein pangabek vitamin D (''vitamin D-binding protein'').<ref name="Norman2">{{cite journal|vauthors=Norman AW|title=From vitamin D to hormone D: fundamentals of the vitamin D endocrine system essential for good health|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=88|issue=2|pages=491S–499S|date=August 2008|pmid=18689389|doi=10.1093/ajcn/88.2.491S}}</ref> Kolekalsiferol marupokan satu-satunyo jinih vitamin nan bisa didapek dari tubuah.<ref name="Norman2" /> Walau baitu prosesnyo manjadi aktif paralu bantuan pulo dari sinar UVB. Kolekalsiferol mulonyo babantuak prekursor 7-Dehidrokolesterol di dalam epidermis [[kulik]].<ref name="WackerHolick2013">{{cite journal|vauthors=Wacker M, Holick MF|title=Sunlight and Vitamin D: A global perspective for health|journal=Dermato-Endocrinology|volume=5|issue=1|pages=51–108|date=January 2013|pmid=24494042|pmc=3897598|doi=10.4161/derm.24494}}</ref> Malalui reaksi elektrosiklik, UVB nan bagalombang 290 inggo 315 nm, mahasiakan (sintesis) previtamin D3 (pre-kolekalsiferol) pado di galombang antaro 295 inggo 200 nm.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=MacLaughlin JA, Anderson RR, Holick MF|title=Spectral character of sunlight modulates photosynthesis of previtamin D3 and its photoisomers in human skin|journal=Science|volume=216|issue=4549|pages=1001–3|date=May 1982|pmid=6281884|doi=10.1126/science.6281884|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/bf75ab67b4bde975899cf8e02b8b1ebe5f85b644}}</ref> Sinar matoari nan basinar UVB didapek antaro pagi jo siang ari. UVB nan efektif bagantuang pado wakatu, cuaca, musim, sarato lokasi awak barado. Rono kulik pun mampangaruahi lamo pajanan matoari untuak bisa efektif mambantuak vitamin D₃. Rato-rato paralu 5–30 minik, duo kali sapakan untuak efektif. Pado urang barono kulik labiah galok, labiah banyak wakatu pajanan untuak labiah efektif. Baitupun di daerah nan kurang pancahayoan matoarinyo, paralu wakatu labiah lamo.<ref name="WackerHolick2013" /> == Medis == Kolekalsiferol nan sacaro alami ado dalam tubuah sangaik baguno untuak maatua kadar kalsium jo mamparancak kasihatan tulang jo pakambangannyo. Sabagai ubek, dapek dimakan sabagai suplementasi harian atau untuak maubek defisiensi vitamin D (kakurangan vitamin D). Ciek gram saroman jo 40.000.000 (40x10⁶) IU.<ref name="Norman3">{{cite journal|vauthors=Norman AW|title=From vitamin D to hormone D: fundamentals of the vitamin D endocrine system essential for good health|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=88|issue=2|pages=491S–499S|date=August 2008|pmid=18689389|doi=10.1093/ajcn/88.2.491S}}</ref><ref name="Institute of Medicine">[http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2010/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-for-Calcium-and-Vitamin-D/DRI-Values.aspx DRIs for Calcium and Vitamin D] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224064915/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2010/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-for-Calcium-and-Vitamin-D/DRI-Values.aspx|date=2010-12-24}}</ref> Jumlah suplemen nan diparalukan satiok urang bisa babeda-beda, bagantuang pado fisiologi tubuah, pajanan matoari, barek badan sarato rono kulik. Pado kondisi normal, maksimal paralu 4.000 IU dalam sahari.<ref name="pmid10232622">{{cite journal|vauthors=Vieth R|title=Vitamin D supplementation, 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and safety|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_1999-05_69_5/page/842|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=69|issue=5|pages=842–56|date=May 1999|pmid=10232622|doi=10.1093/ajcn/69.5.842}}</ref> Pado urang jo panyakik riketsia, jumlahnyo bisa labiah banyak lai. Dalam sakali pakai paralu dimakan atau disuntik 300.000 IU inggo 500.000 dalam sahari.<ref name="pmid26913455">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bothra M, Gupta N, Jain V|title=Effect of intramuscular cholecalciferol megadose in children with nutritional rickets|journal=Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism|volume=29|issue=6|pages=687–92|date=June 2016|pmid=26913455|doi=10.1515/jpem-2015-0031}}</ref> Pado panalitian meta-analisis taun 2007 disimpulkan baso konsumsi harian 1000 inggo 2000 IU dapek managah atau mangurangi risiko kanker kolorektal.<ref name="pmid17296473">{{cite journal|vauthors=Gorham ED, Garland CF, Garland FC, Grant WB, Mohr SB, Lipkin M, Newmark HL, Giovannucci E, Wei M, Holick MF|display-authors=6|title=Optimal vitamin D status for colorectal cancer prevention: a quantitative meta analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2007-03_32_3/page/210|journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine|volume=32|issue=3|pages=210–6|date=March 2007|pmid=17296473|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2006.11.004|type=Meta-Analysis}}</ref> Pado panalitian taun 2008 didapek baso jo 400 IU, indak ado efek dari suplementasi jo risiko kanker. Baru didapek efek pado dosis 1000 IU.<ref name="pmid16481636">{{cite journal|vauthors=Wactawski-Wende J, Kotchen JM, Anderson GL, Assaf AR, Brunner RL, O'Sullivan MJ, Margolis KL, Ockene JK, Phillips L, Pottern L, Prentice RL, Robbins J, Rohan TE, Sarto GE, Sharma S, Stefanick ML, Van Horn L, Wallace RB, Whitlock E, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black HR, Bonds DE, Brzyski RG, Caan B, Chlebowski RT, Cochrane B, Garland C, Gass M, Hays J, Heiss G, Hendrix SL, Howard BV, Hsia J, Hubbell FA, Jackson RD, Johnson KC, Judd H, Kooperberg CL, Kuller LH, LaCroix AZ, Lane DS, Langer RD, Lasser NL, Lewis CE, Limacher MC, Manson JE|display-authors=6|title=Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of colorectal cancer|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=354|issue=7|pages=684–96|date=February 2006|pmid=16481636|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa055222|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/43r416nc}}</ref> Walau baitu, suplementasi vitamin D3 alun disarankan untuak managah kanker dengk efeknyo masih ketek.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D, Whitfield K, Wetterslev J, Simonetti RG, Bjelakovic M, Gluud C|display-authors=6|title=Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adults|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=1|issue=1|pages=CD007470|date=January 2014|pmid=24414552|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd007470.pub3}}</ref> == Pambasmi amo == Amo cando mancik dapek dibasmi jo mamakai kolekalsiferol.<ref name="vertebratePestProceedings1984">{{cite conference|title=CHOLECALCIFEROL: A UNIQUE TOXICANT FOR RODENT CONTROL|url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/vpc11/22/|conference=Proceedings of the Eleventh Vertebrate Pest Conference (1984)|publisher=University of Nebraska Lincoln|date=March 1984|quote=Cholecalciferol is an acute (single-feeding) and/or chronic (multiple-feeding) rodenticide toxicant with unique activity for controlling commensal rodents including anticoagulant-resistant rats. Cholecalciferol differs from conventional acute rodenticides in that no bait shyness is associated with consumption and time to death is delayed, with first dead rodents appearing 3-4 days after treatment.|access-date=31 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827013804/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/vpc11/22/|archive-date=2019-08-27|url-status=live}}</ref> Mancik jo pengerat lainnyo labiah lamah jo kolekalsiferol dalam dosis tinggi dibandiangkan binatang lainnyo.<ref name="usda20062">{{cite conference|last=Rizor|url=https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/39036/PDF|archive-date=2012-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914083512/http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/39036/PDF|access-date=31 March 2020|quote=0.15% cholecalciferol bait appears to have application for pocket gopher control.' Cholecalciferol can be a single high-dose toxicant or a cumulative multiple low-dose toxicant.|publisher=USDA|conference=Vertebrate Pest Conference (2006)|title=Efficacy of Cholecalciferol Baits for Pocket Gopher Control and Possible Effects on Non-Target Rodents in Pacific Northwest Forests|first=Suzanne E.|first4=Dale L.|last4=Nolte|first3=Stephan|last3=Bulkin|first2=Wendy M.|last2=Arjo|url-status=live|archivedate=2012-09-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914083512/http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/39036/PDF}}</ref> Kolekalsiferol dalam dosis tinggi mambuek tubuah mancik maalami hiperkalsemia (kadar kalsium tinggi dalam darah) nan mambuek jaringan lunak mangareh (kalsifikasi) inggo akhianyo gagal ginjal, gangguan jantuang, [[hipertensi]], gangguan saraf, jo gangguan tabuang cerna.<ref name="merckvet20072">{{cite web|url=http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/213000.htm|title=Merck Veterinary Manual - Rodenticide Poisoning: Introduction|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070117102323/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm%2Fbc%2F213000.htm|archive-date=2007-01-17|url-status=live}}</ref> Efek ko muncua dalam 18-36 jam sasudah tamakan dek [[mancik]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Morgan D|title=Field efficacy of cholecalciferol gel baits for possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) control|journal=New Zealand Journal of Zoology|volume=33|issue=3|pages=221–8|year=2006|doi=10.1080/03014223.2006.9518449}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}}{{medis-stub}} [[Kategori:Ubek]] srejqdxu2qo71yqw8jc3k7g4lppn13z 0 327771 3351246 2501859 2026-08-05T21:17:34Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351246 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox drug | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 459442331 | drug_name = | INN = | type = <!-- empty --> | image = Chloroquine.svg | width = 200 | alt = | image2 = Chloroquine 3D structure.png | width2 = 180 | alt2 = | caption = <!-- Clinical data --> | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|l|ɔː|r|ə|k|w|iː|n}} | tradename = Aralen, lainnyo | Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|chloroquine-phosphate}} | MedlinePlus = | licence_CA = <!-- Health Canada may use generic or brand name (generic name preferred) --> | licence_EU = <!-- EMA uses INN (or special INN_EMA) --> | DailyMedID = Chloroquine | licence_US = Chloroquine | pregnancy_AU = <!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X --> | pregnancy_AU_comment = | pregnancy_US = <!-- A / B / C / D / X / N --> | pregnancy_US_comment = | pregnancy_category= | dependency_liability = | addiction_liability = | routes_of_administration = | class = | ATCvet = | ATC_prefix = P01 | ATC_suffix = BA01 | ATC_supplemental = <!-- Legal status --> | legal_AU = <!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled--> | legal_AU_comment = | legal_BR = <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F--> | legal_BR_comment = | legal_CA = <!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII --> | legal_CA_comment = | legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled--> | legal_DE_comment = | legal_NZ = <!-- Class A, B, C --> | legal_NZ_comment = | legal_UK = P | legal_UK_comment = | legal_US = Rx-only | legal_US_comment = | legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV--> | legal_UN_comment = | legal_status = <!-- For countries not listed above --> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> | bioavailability = | protein_bound = | metabolism = Liver | metabolites = | onset = | elimination_half-life = 1-2 bulan | duration_of_action = | excretion = <!-- Identifiers --> | CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} | CAS_number = 54-05-7 | CAS_supplemental = | PubChem = 2719 | IUPHAR_ligand = 5535 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB00608 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 2618 | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 886U3H6UFF | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = D02366 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 3638 | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 76 | NIAID_ChemDB = 000733 | PDB_ligand = | synonyms = Chloroquine phosphate <!-- Chemical and physical data --> | IUPAC_name = (''RS'')-''N'''-(7-chloroquinolin-4-yl)-''N'',''N''-diethyl-pentane-1,4-diamine | C=18 | H=26 | Cl=1 | N=3 | molecular_weight = 319,872 | SMILES = Clc1cc2nccc(c2cc1)NC(C)CCCN(CC)CC | Jmol = | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C18H26ClN3/c1-4-22(5-2)12-6-7-14(3)21-17-10-11-20-18-13-15(19)8-9-16(17)18/h8-11,13-14H,4-7,12H2,1-3H3,(H,20,21) | StdInChI_comment = | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = WHTVZRBIWZFKQO-UHFFFAOYSA-N | density = | density_notes = | melting_point = | melting_high = | melting_notes = | boiling_point = | boiling_notes = | solubility = | sol_units = | specific_rotation = }}{{Pambantahan medis}} '''Klorokuin''' adolah [[ubek]] nan biaso dipakai untuak maubek [[malaria]] di daerah nan masih sensitif jo efeknyo.<ref name=AHFS2015>{{cite web|title=Aralen Phosphate|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/chloroquine-phosphate.html|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208200339/http://www.drugs.com/monograph/aralen-phosphate.html|archive-date=8 December 2015}}</ref> Babarapo jinih malaria ataupun babarapo daerah alah resisten (indak sensitif; indak manjua) jo ubek ko sainggo paralu ubek lain.<ref name=AHFS2015 /> [[Indonesia]] surang dilaporkan alah resistensi klorokuin dalam maubek malaria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pionas.pom.go.id/ioni/bab-5-infeksi/55-infeksi-protozoa/551-antimalaria|title=5.5.1 Antimalaria {{!}} PIO Nas|website=pionas.pom.go.id|access-date=2020-04-05|archive-date=2020-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404072430/http://pionas.pom.go.id/ioni/bab-5-infeksi/55-infeksi-protozoa/551-antimalaria|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Salain untuak malaria, ubek ko baguno juo untuak amebiasis (infeksi amuba) di lua usus, [[rematoid artritis]] (rematik), jo [[lupus]].<ref name=AHFS2015 /> Untuak ibu hamil, ubek ko relatif aman.<ref name=AHFS2015 /><ref>{{cite web |title=Chloroquine Use During Pregnancy |url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/chloroquine.html |website=Drugs.com |access-date=1 April 2020 |quote=There are no controlled data in human pregnancies. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416201619/https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/chloroquine.html |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pado taun 2020, ubek ko ditaliti juo sabagai ubek [[COVID-19]].<ref name=Cor2020>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cortegiani A, Ingoglia G, Ippolito M, Giarratano A, Einav S | title = A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19 | journal = Journal of Critical Care | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32173110 | doi = 10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005 }}</ref> == Indikasi == [[Berkas:Paludisme.png|al=|kiri|jmpl|Distribusi daerah endemis malaria di dunia:<ref name="CDC Malaria">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html#treatment|title=Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs): If I get malaria, will I have it for the rest of my life?|date=February 8, 2010|publisher=US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513112631/http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/faqs.html#treatment|archivedate=May 13, 2012|accessdate=1 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> <span style="color:#7e0000; font-size:120%;">♦</span>&nbsp;Paningkekan kajadian malariaa resisten klorokuin jo banyak ubek antimalaria <span style="color:#f00; font-size:120%;">♦</span>&nbsp;Kajadian malaria resisten klorokuin <span style="color:#e08040; font-size:120%;">♦</span>&nbsp;Indak ado kajadian ''Plasmodium falciparum'' atau resisten klorokuin <span style="color:silver; font-size:120%;">♦</span>&nbsp;Indak endemis malaria]] Klorokuin alah lamo dipakai untuak maubek sarato maambek [[malaria]] dari jinih ''Plasmodium vivax'', ''Plasmodium ovale'', jo ''Plasmodium malariae''.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Uhlemann AC, Krishna S|title=Malaria: Drugs, Disease and Post-genomic Biology|chapter=Antimalarial multi-drug resistance in Asia: mechanisms and assessment|volume=295|pages=39–53|year=2005|pmid=16265886|doi=10.1007/3-540-29088-5_2|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7501904|isbn=3-540-25363-7|series=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Plowe CV|title=Malaria: Drugs, Disease and Post-genomic Biology|chapter=Antimalarial drug resistance in Africa: strategies for monitoring and deterrence|volume=295|pages=55–79|year=2005|pmid=16265887|doi=10.1007/3-540-29088-5_3|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/malariadrugsdise0000unse/page/55|isbn=3-540-25363-7|series=Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology}}</ref> Namun, di daerah tatantu ubek ko indak dipakai walau dek malaria jinih tasabuik dek alah indak manjua (resisten) sainggo tiok daerah nan endemis malaria paralu rutin mamareso kaefektifan ubek ko.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=9b585ad5-ae86-4403-b83f-8d8363d43da5|title=Chloroquine phosphate tablet – chloroquine phosphate tablet, coated|website=dailymed.nlm.nih.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208164343/http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=9b585ad5-ae86-4403-b83f-8d8363d43da5|archive-date=8 December 2015|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Salain itu CDC (''Center for Disease Control and Prevention'') marekomendasikan untuak indak lai manggunokan klorokuin sacaro tungga, tapimusti dikombinasikan jo ubek lain supayo efektif.<ref>CDC. Health information for international travel 2001–2002. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 2001.</ref> Salain untuak malaria, klorokuin dapek dipakai untuak maubek panyakik lainnyo, cando amebiasis jo panyakik rematik. Pado amebiasis atau infeksi dek parasit [[amuba]], klorokuin manjadi piliahan katiko ubek [[metronidazol]] atau nan sagolongan jo inyo indak efektif salamo limo ari.<ref>{{EMedicine|article|183920|Amebic Hepatic Abscesses|treatment}}</ref> Samantaro pado panyakik rematik, klorokuin sacaro ringan dapek manakan sistem imun nan bakarajo sacaro bakalabiahan. <ref name="AHFS2015" /> == Efek sampiang == Efek sampiang nan didapek dari klorokuin di antaronyo mato buram, mual, muntah, paruik managang, sakik kapalo, mancoro, bangkak di kaki, sasak angok, kulik pucek, lamah otot, pardarahan, gangguan pandangaran jo jiwa.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-8633/chloroquine-oral/details|title=Drugs & Medications|website=www.webmd.com|access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/sfx/chloroquine-side-effects.html|title=Chloroquine Side Effects: Common, Severe, Long Term|website=Drugs.com|access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> Klorokuin juo dapek mamunculkan raso sarupo paik sarupo logam di lidah<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Vaziri A, Warburton B|title=Slow release of chloroquine phosphate from multiple taste-masked W/O/W multiple emulsions|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-microencapsulation_november-december-1994_11_6/page/641|journal=Journal of Microencapsulation|volume=11|issue=6|pages=641–8|year=1994|pmid=7884629|doi=10.3109/02652049409051114}}</ref> sarato kalainan irama jantuang sarupo datak jantuang malambek inggo gagal jantuang.<ref name="Tönnesmann2013">{{cite journal|vauthors=Tönnesmann E, Kandolf R, Lewalter T|title=Chloroquine cardiomyopathy – a review of the literature|journal=Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology|volume=35|issue=3|pages=434–42|date=June 2013|pmid=23635029|doi=10.3109/08923973.2013.780078}}</ref> Dapek pulo tajadi kakurangan komponen [[darah]] sainggo pamakaian ubek ko paralu pamantauan [[dotor]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2018/006002s045lbl.pdf|title=Aralen Chloroquine Phosphate, USP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325052917/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2018/006002s045lbl.pdf|archive-date=25 March 2020|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Pado ibu nan manganduang, ubek ko indak manunjuakan potensi bahayo pado janin nan dikanduang sainggo masih dapek diagiah sabagai ubek paambek malaria. Adopulo sajumlah kaciak klorokuin nan kalua malalui aia susu ibu. Walau baitu, masih aman untuak anak.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2016/infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/malaria|title=Malaria – Chapter 3 – 2016 Yellow Book|website=wwwnc.cdc.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114185552/http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2016/infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/malaria|archive-date=14 January 2016|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> == Panalitian kini ko == Pado akhia bulan Januari 2020, panaliti Cino manyimpulkan baso pado panalitiannyo klorokuin nampaknyo cukui maambek efek buruak dari virus [[SARS-CoV-2]] virus.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, Shi Z, Hu Z, Zhong W, Xiao G|display-authors=6|title=Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro|journal=Cell Research|volume=30|issue=3|pages=269–271|date=March 2020|pmid=32020029|pmc=7054408|doi=10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0}}</ref> Otoritas kasihatan di [[Cino]], [[Korea Selatan]], jo [[Italia]] marekomendasikan panggunoannyo pado pasien untuak maubek sacaro eksperimental.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.koreabiomed.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=7428|title=Physicians work out treatment guidelines for coronavirus|date=2020-02-13|website=m.koreabiomed.com|language=ko|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317061347/http://m.koreabiomed.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=7428|archive-date=17 March 2020|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://aifa.gov.it/-/azioni-intraprese-per-favorire-la-ricerca-e-l-accesso-ai-nuovi-farmaci-per-il-trattamento-del-covid-19|title=Azioni intraprese per favorire la ricerca e l'accesso ai nuovi farmaci per il trattamento del COVID-19|website=aifa.gov.it|language=it-IT|access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> Dilaporkan juo baso ubek ko dikontraindikasikan pado pasien jo gangguan jantuang atau diabetes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pdr.net/drug-summary/Plaquenil-hydroxychloroquine-sulfate-1911|title=Plaquenil (hydroxychloroquine sulfate) dose, indications, adverse effects, interactions... from PDR.net|website=www.pdr.net|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318183559/https://www.pdr.net/drug-summary/Plaquenil-hydroxychloroquine-sulfate-1911|archive-date=18 March 2020|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Ubek]] [[Kategori:Malaria]] 9djqcbna5ibynbb9udey2vi6ebpepgb 0 327773 3351198 2463893 2026-08-05T19:35:33Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351198 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pambantahan medis}} {{drugbox |Verifiedfields = changed |Watchedfields = changed |verifiedrevid = 464387972 |IUPAC_name = (–)-(''S'')-3-Hydroxy-2-phenylpropionic acid (1''R'',2''R'',4''S'',5''S'',7''α'',9''S'')-9-methyl-3-oxa-9-azatricyclo[3.3.1.0^2,4]non-7-yl ester |image = L-Scopolamin.svg |width = 200 |image2 = Scopolamine structure.png <!--Clinical data--> |tradename = Transdermscop, Kwells, lainnyo |synonyms = Scopolamine, hyoscinehydrobromide, scopolamine hydrobromide<ref name=AHFS2016/> |Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|scopolamine}} |pregnancy_AU = B2 |pregnancy_US = C |legal_AU = S2 |legal_CA = OTC |legal_UK = POM and OTC |legal_US = Rx-only |routes_of_administration = malalui muluik, tempelan kulik, tetes mato, injeksi subkutan, intramuskular, atau intravena, bawah lidah, rektum, mukosa pipi, intramuscular <!--Pharmacokinetic data--> |bioavailability = |protein_bound = |metabolism = [[Liver]] |excretion = [[Ginjal]] |elimination_half-life = 4,5 jam<ref name="pmid2762223">{{cite journal | vauthors = Putcha L, Cintrón NM, Tsui J, Vanderploeg JM, Kramer WG | title = Pharmacokinetics and oral bioavailability of scopolamine in normal subjects | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_pharmaceutical-research_1989-06_6_6/page/481 | journal = Pharmaceutical Research | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | pages = 481–5 | date = June 1989 | pmid = 2762223 | doi = 10.1023/A:1015916423156 }}</ref> <!--Identifiers--> |CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} |CAS_number = 51-34-3 |ATC_prefix = A04 |ATC_suffix = AD01 |ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N05|CM05}}, {{ATC|S01|FA02}} |ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} |ChEBI = 16794 |PubChem = 5184 |IUPHAR_ligand = 330 |DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} |DrugBank = DB00747 |ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |ChemSpiderID = 10194106 |UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |UNII = DL48G20X8X |KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |KEGG = D00138 |ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |ChEMBL = 1201024 <!-- Chemical data --> |C=17 |H=21 |N=1 |O=4 |molecular_weight = 303,353 g/mol |smiles = OC[C@H](c1ccccc1)C(=O)O[C@@H]2C[C@H]3N(C)[C@@H](C2)[C@@H]4O[C@H]34 |StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |StdInChI = 1S/C17H21NO4/c1-18-13-7-11(8-14(18)16-15(13)22-16)21-17(20)12(9-19)10-5-3-2-4-6-10/h2-6,11-16,19H,7-9H2,1H3/t11-,12-,13-,14+,15-,16+/m1/s1 |StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |StdInChIKey = STECJAGHUSJQJN-FWXGHANASA-N }} '''Hiosin hidrobromida''' atau disabuik juo '''scopolamin''' adolah [[ubek]] nan dipakai untuak maubek [[mual]] jo [[muntah]], baiak dek mabuak di pajalanan atau dek sasudah tindakan operasi.<ref name="Huo2001">{{cite book|last1=Juo|first1=Pei-Show|title=Concise Dictionary of Biomedicine and Molecular Biology.|date=2001|publisher=CRC Press|location=Hoboken|isbn=9781420041309|page=570|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4DLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA570|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910183136/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4DLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA570|archive-date=10 September 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ubek dipakai juo sabalun tindakan operasi supayo indak banyak liua nan kalua. Ubek ko tasadio dalan bantuak ubek makan, ubek suntik, ataupun ubek tempel. Ubek barefek sasudah 20 minik pamakaian dan batahan inggo 8 jam.<ref name="AHFS2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/scopolamine.html|title=Scopolamine|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007123115/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/scopolamine.html|archive-date=7 October 2016|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Hiosin marupokan ubek golongan [[antimuskarinik]] nan bakarajo jo maambek efek [[asetilkolin]] dalam sistem saraf.<ref name="AHFS2016" /> Hiosin partamo kali ditamukan pado taun 1881 nan kudian baru dipakai untuak tindakan bius (anestesi) pado kiro-kiro taun 1900-an.<ref name="Keys">{{cite book|last1=Keys|first1=Thomas E.|title=The history of surgical anesthesia|date=1996|publisher=Wood Library, Museum of Anesthesiology|location=Park Ridge, Ill.|isbn=978-0-9614932-7-1|page=48ff|edition=[Reprint].|url=https://www.woodlibrarymuseum.org/library/pdf/W0012.PDF|access-date=2020-04-01|archive-date=2020-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030002519/https://www.woodlibrarymuseum.org/library/pdf/W0012.PDF|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="Fis2006">{{cite book|last1=Fischer|first1=Janos|last2=Ganellin|first2=C. Robin|name-list-format=vanc|title=Analogue-based Drug Discovery|date=2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9783527607495|page=551|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjKfqkaKkAAC&pg=PA551|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ubek ko alah masuak juo dalam daftar ubek wajib jo pantiang manuruik WHO.<ref name="WHO21st">{{cite book|vauthors=((World Health Organization))|title=World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019|year=2019|hdl=10665/325771|author-link=World Health Organization|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|id=WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO}}</ref> Ubek ko tabuek dari tumbuahan [[famili solanaceae]] nan dulunyo tanamo untuak ubek psikoaktif.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Osbourn|first1=Anne E.|last2=Lanzotti|first2=Virginia|name-list-format=vanc|title=Plant-derived Natural Products: Synthesis, Function, and Application|date=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9780387854984|page=5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8SpVXEng4QC&pg=PA6|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910183136/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8SpVXEng4QC&pg=PA6|archive-date=10 September 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Indikasi== Ubek ko banyak dipakai dalam dunia medis.<ref name="BNF">{{cite book|isbn=978-0-85711-084-8|title=British National Formulary (BNF)|last1=Joint Formulary Committee|year=2013|publisher=Pharmaceutical Press|location=London, UK|edition=65|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bnf65britishnati0000unse/page/49 49, 266, 822, 823]|url=https://archive.org/details/bnf65britishnati0000unse/page/49}}</ref> Dalam tindakan operasi, ubek ko dipakai untuak mangurangi produksi aia liau sainggo indak manutuik saluran angok di tangah tindakan operasi.<ref name="AMH">{{cite book|editor=Rossi, S|isbn=978-0-9805790-9-3|title=Australian Medicines Handbook|place=Adelaide|publisher=The Australian Medicines Handbook Unit Trust|year=2013|edition=2013}}</ref> Di lua tindakan operasi, ubek ko dipakai untuak mailangan raso mual jo muntah.<ref name="pmid1853467">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bitterman N, Eilender E, Melamed Y|title=Hyperbaric oxygen and scopolamine|journal=Undersea Biomedical Research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=167–74|date=May 1991|pmid=1853467|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2573|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820004729/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2573|df=dmy-all|url-status=live|archive-date=20 August 2008}}</ref><ref name="pmid3363755">{{cite journal|vauthors=Williams TH, Wilkinson AR, Davis FM, Frampton CM|title=Effects of transcutaneous scopolamine and depth on diver performance|journal=Undersea Biomedical Research|volume=15|issue=2|pages=89–98|date=March 1988|pmid=3363755|url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2495|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820005139/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2495|df=dmy-all|url-status=live|archive-date=20 August 2008}}</ref> Ubek ko baguno pulo untuak maubek usus, ginjal, atau saluran ampadu nan managang nan ditandoi jo raso padiah di area paruik. Salain itu, dapek pulo dipakai untuak maubek paradangan mato.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.medicinenet.com/scopolamine_drops-ophthalmic/article.htm|title=scopolamine solution - ophthalmic, Isopto|website=MedicineNet.com|access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> ==Kontraindikasi== Ubek ko dikontraindikasikan untuak diagiah ka ibu manganduang. Hiosin dari hasia panalitian dapek malewati plasenta sainggo ubek ko tamasuak ubek kategori C nan aratinyo babahayo untuak janin. Ubek ko anyo buliah diagiah katiko kondisi ibu sadang babahayo. Pado ibu nan manyusui, ubek ko juo kalua malalui aia susu ibu.<ref>{{cite book|last=Briggs|title=Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation|url=https://archive.org/details/drugsinpregnancy00gera|url-access=registration|date=1994|publisher=Williams and Wilkins|location=Baltimore, Maryland|pages=[https://archive.org/details/drugsinpregnancy00gera/page/777 777–778]}}</ref> Panggunoan pado urang nan berumua lanjuik paralu waspada dek efek sampiang ubek ko condong tampak dan dapek barisiko tajadinyo demensia (pikun).<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Flicker C, Ferris SH, Serby M|title=Hypersensitivity to scopolamine in the elderly|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychopharmacology_1992-06_107_2-3/page/437|journal=Psychopharmacology|volume=107|issue=2–3|pages=437–41|date=1992|pmid=1615141|doi=10.1007/bf02245172}}</ref> ==Efek sampiang== Efek sampiang nan umum muncua adolah raso kantuak, mato kabua, pupil maleba, jo muluik kariang.<ref name="AHFS2016" /> Ubek ko indak disarankan untuak diagiah pado urang jo glukoma suduik tatutuik ataupun usus tasumbek (''bowel ubstruction'').<ref name="AHFS2016" /> Pado kondisi dosis balabiah dapek disatoi jo gangguan irama jantuang, gata, inggo buang aia ketek taambek.<ref name="EMCBut">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/282/SPC/Buscopan+Tablets/|title=Buscopan Tablets - Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC)|date=11 September 2013|work=electronic Medicines Compendium|publisher=Boehringer Ingelheim Limited|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023062458/http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/282/SPC/Buscopan+Tablets/|archive-date=23 October 2013|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/scopolamine.html|title=Scopolamine Use During Pregnancy {{!}} Drugs.com|website=www.drugs.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221011309/https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/scopolamine.html|archive-date=21 December 2016|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Pado kondisi kalabiahan dosis hiosin, pasien dapek diagiah [[fisostigmin]] (''physostigmine'').<ref>{{cite book|editor=Paul G. Barash|title=Clinical anesthesia|year=2009|publisher=Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-8763-5|page=346|edition=6|display-editors=etal}}</ref> Fisostigmin marupokan ubek kolinergik nan manjadi [[antidotum]] hiosin dek dapek malalui sawar darah utak nan kudian bakarajo untuak maubek depresi sistem saraf pusek.<ref name="EMChyd">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/18845/SPC/Kwells+300+microgram+tablets/|title=Kwells 300 microgram tablets - Summary of Product Characteristics|date=7 January 2008|work=electronic Medicines Compendium|publisher=Bayer plc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023061617/http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/18845/SPC/Kwells+300+microgram+tablets/|archive-date=23 October 2013|access-date=1 April 2020|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Caro lain untuak maatasi kalabiahan dosis adolah dek tindakan suportif, pambarasiahan lambuang, sarato rangsang muntah.<ref name="EMChyd" /> == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Ubek]] 1fhhbvskdsoim6e57mi0gc5h0dhdij0 0 327853 3351297 3146641 2026-08-05T22:36:42Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351297 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Niclosamide.svg|jmpl|Niklosamide]] '''Niklosamid''' adolah jinih ubek nan digunoan untuak maubekan infeksi [[caciang]],{{sfn|World Health Organization|2009}} baiak infeksi dek [[cacing pita]], [[cacing pita lauak]] atau [[cacing pita jawi]],{{sfn|hallosehat|2020}} tapi indak untuak [[caciang kremi]] atau [[caciang galang]].{{sfn|drugs.com|2016}} Ubek ko bakarajo katiko basobok jo caciang di dalam tubuah. Niklosamid maambek proses [[glukosa]], [[fosforilasi oksidatif]], jo [[metabolisme anaerob]] pado caciang pita.{{sfn|Weinbach EC, Garbus J|1969}} Katiko caciang alah dibasmi dek ubek ko, inyo kalua malalui [[tinja]]. Niklosamid indak dijua bebas di pasaran, cuma bisa didapekan dari resep [[dotor]].{{sfn|sehatq|2019}}{{sfn|alodokter|2018}} Niklosamid disobokan pado tahun 1958.{{sfn|Mehlhorn|2008}} Ubek ko alah ado pulo dalam daftar ubek esensial dari [[WHO (World Health Organization)|WHO (''World Health Organization'')]], ubek nan aman dimakan jo epektif diparaluan untuk kasihatan.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2019}} == Panyimpanan == Niklosamid disimpan di tampek nan suhunyo sasuai jo suhu ruangan, jauah an dari cahayo [[matohari]] langsuang. Ubek iko jan disimpan pulo di tampek nan lambok, takah kamar mandi atau di dalam tampek pandingin [[kulkas]]. Untuak labiah sasuainyo, simpan ubek iko di tampek nan dikecekan dek dotor atau perawat.{{sfn|hallosehat|2020}} == Efek sampiang == Katiko mamakan ubek ado efek sampiang tatantu nan timbua sarato bisa babeda antaro ciek urang jo urang nan lain. Jikok efek sampiang nan timbua balabiahan, sagiro pai ka dotor atau [[rumah sakik]] nan paliang dakek. Efek sampiang nan bisa muncua jikok mamakan niklosamid, di antaronyo:{{sfn|World Health Organization|2009}}{{sfn|hallosehat|2020}}{{sfn|sehatq|2019}}{{sfn|alodokter|2018}} * sakik [[paruik]] * mual * muntah * paniang kapalo * ilang salero makan * sakik [[kapalo]] * gata-gata di [[kulik]] ==Rujuakan== ;{{reflist}} ;Dafar pustaka {{refbegin}} *{{Cite web |url = https://hellosehat.com/obatan-suplemen/obat/niclosamide/ |title = Niclosamide : Fungsi, Dosis, Efek Samping, Cara Pakai |website = Hello Sehat |language = id-ID |access-date = 2020-04-12 |ref = {{sfnRef|hallosehat|2020}} }} *{{Cite web |url = https://www.sehatq.com/obat/niclosamide |title = Niclosamide {{!}} Fungsi, Cara Pemakaian, Dosis, Efek Samping |date = 2019-08-28 |website = SehatQ |language = id |access-date = 2020-04-12 |ref = {{sfnRef|sehatq|2019}} |archive-date = 2021-10-18 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211018020816/https://www.sehatq.com/obat/niclosamide |dead-url = yes }} *{{Cite web |url = https://www.alodokter.com/obat-cacing-dan-efek-sampingnya |title = Obat Cacing dan Efek Sampingnya |date = 2018-06-19 |website = Alodokter |access-date = 2020-04-12 |ref = {{sfRef|alodokter|2018}} }} *{{cite book | title = WHO Model Formulary 2008 | year = 2009 | isbn = 9789241547659 | vauthors = ((World Health Organization)) | veditors = Stuart MC, Kouimtzi M, Hill SR | hdl = 10665/44053 | author-link = World Health Organization | publisher = World Health Organization | hdl-access = free | pages =81, 87, 591 |ref = {{sfnRef|World Health Organization|2009}} }} *{{cite journal |vauthors = Weinbach EC, Garbus J |title = Mechanism of action of reagents that uncouple oxidative phosphorylation |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1969-03-15_221_5185/page/1016 |journal = Nature |volume = 221 |issue = 5185 |pages = 1016–8 |year = 1969 |pmid = 4180173 |doi = 10.1038/2211016a0 |ref = {{sfnRef|Weinbach EC, Garbus J|1969}} }} *{{cite book |last1 = Mehlhorn |first1 = Heinz | name-list-format = vanc |title = Encyclopedia of Parasitology: A-M |date = 2008 |publisher = Springer Science & Business Media |isbn = 9783540489948 |page = 483 |url = https://books.google.ca/books?id=Jpg1ysgVn-AC&pg=PA483 |url-status = live |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161220080803/https://books.google.ca/books?id=Jpg1ysgVn-AC&pg=PA483 |archivedate = 2016-12-20 |ref = {{sfnRef|Mehlhorn|2008}} }} *{{cite book | vauthors = ((World Health Organization)) | title = World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019 | year = 2019 | hdl = 10665/325771 | author-link = World Health Organization | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | id = WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO | hdl-access = free | ref = {{sfnRef|World Health Organization|2019}} }} *{{cite web |title = Niclosamide Advanced Patient Information - Drugs.com |url = https://www.drugs.com/cons/niclosamide.html |website = www.drugs.com|url-status=live |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161220223834/https://www.drugs.com/cons/niclosamide.html |archivedate = 20 December 2016 |ref = {{sfnRef|drugs.com|2016}} }} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Caciang pita]] [[Kategori:Ubek]] [[Kategori:Ubek caciang]] k6jbajrt2m2i989az0v4vornk9smxpz 0 335712 3351248 2462984 2026-08-05T21:21:53Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 5 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351248 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pambantahan medis}}{{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Chikungunya | image = 2012-01-09 Chikungunya on the right feet at The Philippines.jpeg | caption = Ruam dek chikungunya | field = [[Panyakik mamindah (spesialisasi medis)|Panyakik infeksi]] | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|tʃ|ɪ|k|ən|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|n|j|ə}}<ref name=OLD-pronunciation>{{cite web|title=chikungunya|url=http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/chikungunya|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionary|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|access-date=22 Juni 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104175820/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/chikungunya|archive-date=24 November 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> {{Respell|CHIK|ən|GUN|yə}} | symptoms = [[Damam]], [[arthralgia|nyeri pasandian]]<ref name=CDC2016Sym/> | complications = Nyeri pasandian jangko lamo<ref name=CDC2016Sym/> | onset = 2 sampai 12 ari sasudah tapajan<ref name=WHO2016/> | duration = Biasonyo kurang dari sapakan<ref name=CDC2016Sym/> | types = | causes = ''Virus Chikungunya'' tapindah dek gigitan [[rangik]]<ref name=WHO2016/> | risks = | diagnosis = Pareso darah untuak [[RNA]] virus atau [[antibodi]]<ref name=WHO2016/> | differential = [[Damam dengue]], [[damam Zika]]<ref name=WHO2016/> | prevention = [[Pangandalian rangik]], manjauahi gigitan<ref name=Cag2013/> | treatment = [[Pananganan suportif]]<ref name=WHO2016/> | medication = | prognosis = [[Angko mortalitas|Risiko kamatian]] ~ 1 dalam 1.000<ref name=Cag2013/> | frequency = > 1 juta (2014)<ref name=WHO2016/> | deaths = }} '''Chikungunya''' adolah [[Panyakik|panyakik mamindah]] nan disababkan dek virus Chikungunya.<ref name="WHO2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs327/en/|title=Chikungunya Fact sheet|date=April 2016|website=[[WHO]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927102447/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs327/en/|archive-date=27 September 2016|access-date=22 Juni 2022|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Virus ko dapek tapindah ka badan urang nan tagigik dek rangik. Ado duo jinih rangik nan manggigik, yaitu Aedes aegypti jo Aedes albopictus nan juo manyababkan panyakik [[damam badarah dengue]] jo [[damam Zika]].<ref name="WHO2016" /> Gejala muncua antaro duo inggo 12 ari salapeh tagigik dan batahan salamo sapakan bahkan labiah.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=van Aalst M, Nelen CM, Goorhuis A, Stijnis C, Grobusch MP|title=Long-term sequelae of chikungunya virus disease: A systematic review|journal=Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease|volume=15|pages=8–22|date=January 2017|pmid=28163198|doi=10.1016/j.tmaid.2017.01.004}}</ref> Gejala nan umum antaro lain damam jo sakik di pasandian.<ref name="CDC2016Sym">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/symptoms/index.html|title=Chikungunya Virus Symptoms, Diagnosis, & Treatment|date=6 April 2016|website=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921083120/http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/symptoms/index.html|archive-date=21 September 2016|access-date=22 Juni 2020|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Dapek dipulo disaratoi jo sakik kapalo, nyeri otot, bangkak pasandian, inggo ruam di kulik. Risiko kamatiannyo kiro-kiro 1 dalam 1.000 kasus. Risiko kaparahan samakin maningkek pado anak ketek, urang gaek, atau nan alah bapanyakik lain.<ref name="CDC2016Sym" /><ref name="Cag2013">{{cite journal|vauthors=Caglioti C, Lalle E, Castilletti C, Carletti F, Capobianchi MR, Bordi L|title=Chikungunya virus infection: an overview|journal=The New Microbiologica|volume=36|issue=3|pages=211–27|date=July 2013|pmid=23912863}}</ref> Diagnosis panyakik ko dapek tagak malalui pamaresoan darah untuak mancari RNA virus atau antibodi virus jo pamaresoan ''[[Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay]]'' (ELISA).<ref name="WHO2016" /> Hal iko diparalukan dek gejala nan muncua ampia sarupo jo DBD atau Zika.<ref name="WHO2016" /> Walau baitu, pangubatan khusus atau vaksin untuak panyakik ko alun lai ado.<ref name="WHO2016" /> Urang jo Chikungunya cukuik diubek jo pananganan suportif nan batujuan untuak maatasi gejala nan ado sarupo ubek panurun damam, ubek pailang raso sakik, manjago cairan tubuah, sarato baistirahat nan cukuik.<ref name="CDC2016Sym" /><ref name="WHO2016" /> Tindakan lain nan paralu untuak managani Chikungunya adolah maambek papindahannyo. Upayo paliang rancak adolah jo mangandalikan populasi rangik sarato manjauahi gigitannyo tarutamo di daerah jo kasus nan acok. Upayo tasabuik dilakukan jo pamakaian kalambu di biliak lalok atau dipan, pamakaian ubek oles (''insect repellent''), sarato manutuik tampek-tampek nan bapotensi manjadi tampek bakambang biaknyo rangik.<ref name="Cag2013" /><ref name="WHO2016" /> Asia jo Afrika adolah wilayah nan paliang banyak kasus Chikungunya. Wabah panah pulo dilaporkan tajadi di Eropa jo Amerika pado mulo taun 2000-an. Pado taun 2014 dilaporkan alah ado sajuta kasus.<ref name="NEJM2014">{{cite journal|vauthors=Staples JE, Fischer M|title=Chikungunya virus in the Americas--what a vectorborne pathogen can do|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=10|pages=887–9|date=September 2014|pmid=25184860|pmc=4624217|doi=10.1056/NEJMp1407698}}</ref><ref name="WHO2016" /> Manuruik sijarahnyo, panyakik ko partamo kali dikataui di Tanzania pado taun 1952.<ref name="WHO2016" /> Namo panyakik ko surang barasa dari bahaso Kimakonde, salah satu bahaso satampek di Tanzania, nan aratinyo "manjadi bakaruik".<ref name="WHO2016" /> ==Tando jo gejala== Tando jo gejala chikungunya muncua pado 72% inggo 97% kasus dalam satu inggo duo baleh ari samanjak tagigik [[rangik]]. Rato-rato muncua dalam tigo inggo tujuah ari. Gejala nan acok muncua yaitu damam tinggi, sakik di pasandian, inggo ruam-ruam.<ref name="ThibervilleMoyen2013">{{cite journal|vauthors=Thiberville SD, Moyen N, Dupuis-Maguiraga L, Nougairede A, Gould EA, Roques P, de Lamballerie X|title=Chikungunya fever: epidemiology, clinical syndrome, pathogenesis and therapy|journal=Antiviral Research|volume=99|issue=3|pages=345–70|date=September 2013|pmid=23811281|doi=10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.06.009|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3414361|pmc=7114207}}{{Dead link|date=September 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dapek pulo muncua gejala lain, cando sakik kapalo, latiah, paruik indak nyaman, sarato konjungtivitis.<ref name="Powers">{{cite journal|vauthors=Powers AM, Logue CH|title=Changing patterns of chikungunya virus: re-emergence of a zoonotic arbovirus|journal=The Journal of General Virology|volume=88|issue=Pt 9|pages=2363–77|date=September 2007|pmid=17698645|doi=10.1099/vir.0.82858-0|df=dmy-all|doi-access=free}}</ref> Damam pado chikungunya dapek balansuang akut (capek) inggo manjadi kronik (lamo).<ref name="BurtRolph2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burt FJ, Rolph MS, Rulli NE, Mahalingam S, Heise MT | title = Chikungunya: a re-emerging virus | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_february-18-24-2012_379_9816/page/662 | journal = Lancet | volume = 379 | issue = 9816 | pages = 662–71 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22100854 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60281-X }}</ref> Fase akut tabagi manjadi duo janjang, janjang partamo balansuang salamo limo inggo tujuah ari partamo dan tajadi viremia. Kudian diikuti janjang kaduo nan disabuik janjang konvalesens atau pamuliahan. Pado janjang kaduo ko, virus indak tasuo lai dalam darah.<ref name="ThibervilleMoyen2013" /> Biasonyo panyakik ko diawali jo gejala damam tinggi nan dapek batahan salamo sapakan inggo sapuluah ari. Damam bisa mancapai {{convert|39|°C}} dan bisa manjadi damam tapak kudo (maninggi, manurun, lalu maninggi baliak).<ref name="CampionWeaver2015">{{cite journal|vauthors=Weaver SC, Lecuit M|title=Chikungunya virus and the global spread of a mosquito-borne disease|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_the-new-england-journal-of-medicine_2015-03-26_372_13/page/1231|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=372|issue=13|pages=1231–9|date=March 2015|pmid=25806915|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1406035}}</ref> Pado kondisi IgM alah muncua dalam darah, palahan damam manurun sairiang virus nan bakurang dalam darah. <ref name="pmid18227590">{{cite journal|vauthors=Chhabra M, Mittal V, Bhattacharya D, Rana U, Lal S|title=Chikungunya fever: a re-emerging viral infection|journal=Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology|volume=26|issue=1|pages=5–12|year=2008|pmid=18227590|doi=10.4103/0255-0857.38850|url=http://www.bioline.org.br/abstract?id=mb08002|type=Submitted manuscript|doi-access=free}}</ref> Sairiang tajadinyo damam, tajadi pulo sakik jo kaku di pasandian. Sakik di pasandian ko balansuang salamo sapakan inggu sabulan, bahkan taunan. Dilaporkan ado 87–98% kasus jo gejala ko sarato biasonyo dikaluahan di labiah dari ciek pasandian nan sakik.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Capeding MR, Chua MN, Hadinegoro SR, Hussain II, Nallusamy R, Pitisuttithum P, Rusmil K, Thisyakorn U, Thomas SJ, Huu Tran N, Wirawan DN, Yoon IK, Bouckenooghe A, Hutagalung Y, Laot T, Wartel TA|display-authors=6|title=Dengue and other common causes of acute febrile illness in Asia: an active surveillance study in children|journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases|volume=7|issue=7|pages=e2331|date=2013|pmid=23936565|pmc=3723539|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0002331}}{{open access}}</ref> Walau baitu, jarang nan sampai mambangkak.<ref name="ThibervilleMoyen2013"/> Biasonyo pasandian nan sakik talatak di kaduo langan atau tungkai sacaro simetris, sandi-sandi ketek ataupun sandi-sandi gadang dapek pulo sakik. Sakik samakin taraso pado urang jo riwayaik sakik pasandian.<ref name="BurtRolph2012"/> Sairiang jo sakik di pasandian, taraso pulo sakik di otot jo ligamen sakaliliangnyo.<ref name="ThibervilleMoyen2013"/> Ruam-ruam di badan dapek muncua pado 40–50% kasus. Ruam-ruam nan muncua barupo ruam makulopapular dalam duo inggo limo ari sasudah awitan gejala. Dapek pulo diikuti jo raso indak lamak di paruik, mual, muncua, inggo paruik mancoro.<ref name="Powers" /><ref name="ThibervilleMoyen2013" /> Pado labiah dari satangah kasus, aktivitas harian tabateh dek sakik sarato latiah.<ref name="ThibervilleMoyen2013" /> Pado kasus nan labiah sarik, muncua paradangan di mato.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Mahendradas P, Ranganna SK, Shetty R, Balu R, Narayana KM, Babu RB, Shetty BK|title=Ocular manifestations associated with chikungunya|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ophthalmology_2008-02_115_2/page/287|journal=Ophthalmology|volume=115|issue=2|pages=287–91|date=February 2008|pmid=17631967|doi=10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.03.085}}</ref> Pado kondisi nan barek, chikungunya dapek balansuang lamo (kronik). Kaluahan nan diraso adolah sakik di pasandian nan indak kunjuang ilang. Kondisi kronis cando ko partamo kali dikataui salamo wabah pado taun 1979. Faktor prediktor tajadinyo kondisi kronis adolah adonyo panyakik rematik sabalunnyo sarato umua nan alah lanjuik.<ref name="Schilte 2013 e2137">{{cite journal|vauthors=Schilte C, Staikowsky F, Staikovsky F, Couderc T, Madec Y, Carpentier F, Kassab S, Albert ML, Lecuit M, Michault A|display-authors=6|title=Chikungunya virus-associated long-term arthralgia: a 36-month prospective longitudinal study|journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases|volume=7|issue=3|pages=e2137|year=2013|pmid=23556021|pmc=3605278|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0002137}}{{open access}}</ref><ref name="Gérardin R9">{{cite journal|vauthors=Gérardin P, Fianu A, Michault A, Mussard C, Boussaïd K, Rollot O, Grivard P, Kassab S, Bouquillard E, Borgherini G, Gaüzère BA, Malvy D, Bréart G, Favier F|display-authors=6|title=Predictors of Chikungunya rheumatism: a prognostic survey ancillary to the TELECHIK cohort study|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|volume=15|issue=1|pages=R9|date=January 2013|pmid=23302155|pmc=3672753|doi=10.1186/ar4137}}</ref><ref name="Moro 165–72">{{cite journal|vauthors=Moro ML, Grilli E, Corvetta A, Silvi G, Angelini R, Mascella F, Miserocchi F, Sambo P, Finarelli AC, Sambri V, Gagliotti C, Massimiliani E, Mattivi A, Pierro AM, Macini P|display-authors=6|title=Long-term chikungunya infection clinical manifestations after an outbreak in Italy: a prognostic cohort study|journal=The Journal of Infection|volume=65|issue=2|pages=165–72|date=August 2012|pmid=22522292|doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2012.04.005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Sissoko D, Malvy D, Ezzedine K, Renault P, Moscetti F, Ledrans M, Pierre V|title=Post-epidemic Chikungunya disease on Reunion Island: course of rheumatic manifestations and associated factors over a 15-month period|journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases|volume=3|issue=3|pages=e389|year=2009|pmid=19274071|pmc=2647734|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000389}} {{open access}}</ref> ==Diagnosis== Diagnosis chikungunya ditagakkan malalui pamaresoan klinik, epedemiologis, jo laboratorium. Sacaro klinik, damam tinggi nan diikuti jo raso manyakik di pasandian alah maarahkan ka chikungunya. Sacaro epidemiologis, pasien mampunyoi riwayaik bakunjuang ka daerah nan bakasus chikungunya dalam 12 ari tarakhia. Samantaro, sacaro laboratorium tampak panurunan jumlah limfosit dalam darah.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Cabié A, Ledrans M, Abel S|title=Chikungunya Virus Infections|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_the-new-england-journal-of-medicine_2015-07-02_373_1/page/94|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=373|issue=1|pages=94|date=July 2015|pmid=26132958|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1505501}}</ref> Samantaro diagnosis bandiang untuak chikungunya adolah panyakik-panyakik nan mamindah dek rangik, cando [[damam badarah dengue]], [[malaria]], [[Damam Zika]], ataupun infeksi lain cando [[influenza]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Morens DM, Fauci AS|title=Chikungunya at the door--déjà vu all over again?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2014-09-04_371_10/page/885|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=10|pages=885–7|date=September 2014|pmid=25029435|doi=10.1056/NEJMp1408509|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Salain jo tigo caro tadi, panagakan diagnosis dapek pulo jo pamaresoan laboratorium nan labiah spesifik, sarupo isolasi virus, RT-PCR, sarato pareso serologis. Pamaresoan jo isolasi virus paralu wakatu pareso sapakan inggo duo pakan. Samantaro malalui RT-PCR paralu wakatu satu inggo duo ari, sadangkan jo pamaresoan serologis paralu duo inggo tigo ari. Dek lamonyo wakatu untuak pamaresoan, katigo caro ko jarang dipakai walaupun hasianyo labiah akurat.<ref name="WHO diagnosis">{{cite web|url=http://www.searo.who.int/EN/Section10/Section2246_12902.htm|title=Laboratory Diagnosis of Chikungunya Fevers|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908065003/http://www.searo.who.int/en/Section10/Section2246_12902.htm|archive-date=8 September 2012|access-date=20 Juni 2020}}</ref> == Ubek == Ubek nan kontan maubek chikungunya kini alun lai tasadio. Pananganan panyakik labiah kapado pananganan gejala. Damam jo raso manyakik dipasandian diubek jo ubek antiinflamasi non sterois (AINS) cando ibuprofen ataupun jo ubek analgesik non-aspirin cando parasetamol (asetaminofen).<ref name=Cag2013/> Aspirin diilakkan pamakaiannyo dek dapek maningkekkan risiko padarahan.<ref name="factsheet">{{cite web|url=http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/chikungunya_fever/basic_facts/pages/factsheet_health_professionals.aspx|title=Chikungunya—Fact sheet|publisher=[[European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control]] (ECDC)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219030113/http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/chikungunya_fever/basic_facts/pages/factsheet_health_professionals.aspx|archive-date=19 December 2013|access-date=2020-06-22|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Samantaro ubek lainnyo nan antiinflamasi dari jinih kortikosteroid indah disarankan diagiah salamo maso akut dek dapek mamicu imunosupresi dan mampabarek panyakik. <ref name="BurtRolph2012"/> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} == Pautan lua == {{Medical resources | DiseasesDB = 32213 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|92|0|a|90}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|065.4}}, {{ICD9|066.3}} | OMIM = | eMedicineSubj =article | eMedicineTopic =2225687 | MeshID = D018354 | Orphanet=324625 }} [[Kategori:Panyakik mamindah]] pfx4yxa143j9aqbo0trpcwu9b5jktx2 0 335843 3351277 2504345 2026-08-05T22:06:03Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351277 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox urang}} Datuk '''Mohammad Nor bin Mohammad Khalid''' ({{lang-ms|محمد نور بن محمد خالد|label=Jawi|script=arab|italic=unset}}; laia 5 Maret 1951), labiah tanamo subagai '''Lat''', adolah surang kartunis [[Malaysia]]. Inyo pernah mamanangan [[Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize]] pado tahun 2002. == Kaidupan awal == Mohammad Nor Khalid laia di [[Gopeng]], [[Perak]], [[Malaysia]]. Ayahnyo adolah surang pagawai [[Angkatan Basanjato Malaysia]], dan amaknyo maurus rumah.{{Sfn|Willmott|1989}} Pado maso keteknyo, inyo bawajah bulek ("bulat"), sainggo kawan sapamainannyo manjulauaki inyo "Lat".{{Sfn|Willmott|1989}}{{Sfn|Campbell|2007a}}{{Sfn|Cha|2007}} Lat adolah anak nan paliang tuo. Adiaknyo adolah sutradara [[Mamat Khalid]].{{Sfn|Willmott|1989}}{{Sfn|Lent|1999}}{{Sfn|Azhariah|2005}}{{Sfn|More than a Cartoonist|2007|p=258}} Lat mulai basikolah di sabuah sakolah Melayu di kampuangnyo.{{Sfn|Ungku|1956|p=15}} Samaso ketek, inyo bapindah-pindah tampek tingga dek sebab karajo ayahnyo di militer, dan kaluarga Lat baru pindah baliak ka Perak pado 1960.{{Sfn|Gopinath|2009}}{{Sfn|Martin|2006}} Sataun salapeh tu, inyo lulus ujian sakolah Melayu khusus dan masuak Anderson School, sabuah sakolah barasrama nan babaso Inggris di [[Ipoh]].{{Sfn|Willmott|1989}}{{Sfn|The Lat Story|2000}} Ayahnyo mamutusan untuak mamindahan sadoalah kaluarganyo ka Ipoh.{{Sfn|Rudner|1994|p=334}} {{Sfn|Thompson|2007|pp=77–78}} Lat mulai mangambangan kamampuan seninyo sajak umua sambilan tahun. Pado tahun 1964, kartun patamonyo tabik di majalah film lokal Ipoh ''Majallah Filem''; honornyo adolah tiket manonton bioskop.{{Sfn|Rohani|2005|p=390}} Pado akhia tahun, buku komik patamonyo ''Tiga Sekawan'' ditabikkan tdek Sinaran Brothers. Penerbit Lat mangiro baso inyo alah dewasa, dan maagiahnyo honor 25 [[ringgit]] untuak buku tu.{{Sfn|Chua|2007}} Pado umua 17, Lat mulai manggambar ''Keluarga Si Mamat'', nan tabik di ''[[Berita Harian|Berita Minggu]]'', edisi hari Minggu koran nasional ''Berita Harian''. Walaupun masih basikolah, Lat mandapek honor labiah dari 100 ringgit saminggu.{{Sfn|Rohani|2005|p=390}} Salapeh kelas limo sekolah manangah, nilai Lat indak layak untuak masuak kelas pasiapan kuliah,{{Sfn|Chin|1998|p=53}} sainggo inyo mamutusan untuak manamekkan sekolah menengah sajo dan mancari karajo sabagai panggambar.{{Sfn|More than a Cartoonist|2007|p=258}} Serial komiknyo muncul di ''Berita Minggu'' salamo 26 tahun.{{Sfn|Rohani|2005|p=390}} == Wartawan ''Berita Harian'' == Lat pindah ka [[Kuala Lumpur]] dan mamohon posisi kartunis di ''Berita Harian''. Walaupun indak ado lowongan, redaktur [[Abdul Samad Ismail]] manawaran inyo karajo sabagai wartawan kajahatan. Lat manarimo tawaran tu dek sebab inyo paralu karajo, dan ayahnyo pado wakatu tu sadang sakik pulo.{{Sfn|Lent|1999}}{{Sfn|Willmott|1989}}{{Sfn|Crossings: Datuk Lat|2003|loc=20:27–20:45}} Di sampiang karajo wartawannyo, Lat tetap manggambar kartun. Indak lamo salapeh tu, Lat dipindahan ka ''[[New Straits Times]]'', koran induak ''Berita Harian''.{{Sfn|Pameran Retrospektif Lat|2003|p=100}}{{Sfn|Willmott|1989}}{{Sfn|Edge|2004|p=185}} Di sinan, Lat masih bakarajo maliput kajahatan. Namun, satalah agak lamo inyo maraso indak cocok jo karajo tu, dan memutuskan untuak maunduran diri. Abdul Samad, redakturnyo, manulak paunduran diri Lat, dek sebab inyo pacayo jo kamampuan Lat.{{Sfn|Crossings: Datuk Lat|2003|loc=21:54–22:39}} Pada bulan Pebruari 1974, ''Asia Magazine'' nan tabik di [[Hong Kong]] manabikkan kartun Lat nan bajudul ''Bersunat'', tradisi [[khitan]] dalam masyarakat Islam di Malaysia. {{Sfn|Willmott|1989}}{{Sfn|Pameran Retrospektif Lat|2003|p=118}}{{Sfn|Jayasankaran|1999|p=36}} Kartun Lat dipuji dek Tan Sri [[Lee Siew Yee]], redaktur kapalo ''New Straits Times''. Lee maangkeknyo manjadi pangisi kolom kartun, malapor pado Samad nan kini manjadi wakil redaktur.{{Sfn|History of New Straits Times|2007}}{{Sfn|Gopinath|2009}} {{Sfn|Nor-Afidah|2002}}{{Sfn|Crossings: Datuk Lat|2003|loc=27:05–27:23}} ''New Straits Times'' mangirimnya baraja ampek bulan di [[Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design|St Martin's School of Art]] di [[London]], tampek nyo baraja kartun editorial ala Inggris.{{Sfn|Crossings: Datuk Lat|2003|loc=30:35–31:15}} Pulang dari Inggris, Lat maubah kolom ''Scenes of Malaysian Life'' manjadi kartun editorial, nan populer di kalangan pambaco NST. Pado akhia tahun 1975, inyo diangkek manjadi kartunis. {{Sfn|Muliyadi|2004|p=214}} Walupun Lat tanamo dek kolom ''Scenes of Malaysian Life'', inyo manjadi populer di saluruah Malaysia dek ''[[The Kampung Boy]]'', buku kartun autobiografis nan tainspirasi dari kisah iduiknyo surang. Cetakan patamo buku ko, sabanyak 60,000 inggo 70,000 eksemplar, tajua dalam wakatu ampek bulan patamo.{{Sfn|Rohani|2005|p=390}}{{Sfn|Bissme|2009}}{{Sfn|Lent|1999}} Pambaco mamuji kisah nan sadarano tantang kaidupan urang kampuang di Malaysia.{{Sfn|Chan|1999}}{{Sfn|Goldsmith|2006}} Kasuksesan ''The Kampung Boy'' mambuek Lat manjadi salah satu kartunis Malaysia nan paliang tanamo.{{Sfn|Rohani|2005|p=390}} == Karya == {{col|2}} * {{Cite book | title = Tiga Sekawan: Menangkap Penchuri | publisher = Sinaran Brothers | year = 1964 | location = Penang, Malaysia }} * {{Cite book | title = Lots of Lat | publisher = Berita Publishing |date=February 1977 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia }} * {{Cite book | title = Lat's Lot | publisher = Berita Publishing |date=June 1978 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia }} * {{Cite book | title = The Kampung Boy | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1979 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia }} * {{Cite book | title = Keluarga Si Mamat | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1979 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia }} * {{Cite book | title = With a Little Bit of Lat | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1980 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia }} * {{Cite book | title = Town Boy | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1981 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia }} * {{Cite book | title = Lots More Lat | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1980 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia }} * {{Cite book | title = Lat and His Lot Again! | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1983 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-404-6}} * {{Cite book | title = Entahlah Mak...! | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1985 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-076-8}} * {{Cite book | title = It's a Lat Lat Lat Lat World | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1985 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-075-X}} * {{Cite book | title = Lat and Gang | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1987 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-157-8}} * {{Cite book | title = Lat with a Punch | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1988 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-180-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/latwithpunch0000lat }} * {{Cite book | title = Better Lat than Never | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1989 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 978-967-969-211-2}} * {{Cite book | title = Mat Som | publisher = Kampung Boy | year = 1989 | location = Selangor, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-075-X}} * {{Cite book | title = Lat as Usual | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1990 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-262-0}} * {{Cite book | title = Be Serious Lat | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1992 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-398-8}} * {{Cite book | title = Kampung Boy: Yesterday and Today | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1993 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-307-4}} * {{Cite book | title = Lat 30&nbsp;Years Later | publisher = Kampung Boy | year = 1994 | location = Selangor, Malaysia | isbn = 983-99617-4-8}} * {{Cite book | title = Lat Was Here | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1995 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-347-3}} * {{Cite book | title = Lat Gets Lost | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1996 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-455-0}} * {{Cite book | title = The Portable Lat | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1998 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-500-X}} * {{Cite book | title = Lat at Large | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 1999 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-508-5}} * {{Cite book | title = Dr Who?!: Capturing the Life and Times of a Leader in Cartoons | publisher = Berita Publishing | year = 2004 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 967-969-528-X}} * {{Cite book | title = Lat: The Early Series | publisher = New Straits Times Publishing | year = 2009 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 978-983-871-037-4}} * {{Cite book | title = Forever Lat | publisher = MPH Publishing Sdn Bhd | year = 2014 | location = Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | isbn = 978-967-415-246-8}} {{EndDiv}} == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} === Sumber === {{refbegin}} {{col|2}} * {{cite magazine |last=Willmott |first=Jennifer Rodrigo |date=March 1989 |title=Malaysia's Favourite Son |magazine=[[Reader's Digest]] |volume=134 |issue=803 |publisher=[[The Reader's Digest Association]] |location=New York, United States |issn=0034-0375 |url=http://www.rdasia.com.my/malaysia_s_favourite_son |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304233255/http://www.rdasia.com.my/malaysia_s_favourite_son |archivedate=4 March 2016 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |url=http://firstsecondbooks.typepad.com/mainblog/2007/01/campbell_interv.html |title=Campbell Interviews Lat: Part 1 |first=Campbell |last=Eddie |authorlink=Eddie Campbell |author2=Lat (subject) |date=11 January 2007 |work=First Hand Books—Doodles and Dailies |publisher=[[First Second Books]] |location=New York, United States |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623025747/http://firstsecondbooks.typepad.com/mainblog/2007/01/campbell_interv.html |archivedate=23 June 2008 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |ref={{SfnRef|Campbell|2007a}}}} * {{cite web |url=http://firstsecondbooks.typepad.com/mainblog/2007/01/campbell_interv_1.html |title=Campbell Interviews Lat: Part 2 |first=Campbell |last=Eddie |author2=Lat (subject) |date=12 January 2007 |work=First Hand Books—Doodles and Dailies |publisher=First Second Books |location=New York, United States |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623025755/http://firstsecondbooks.typepad.com/mainblog/2007/01/campbell_interv_1.html |archivedate=23 June 2008 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |ref={{SfnRef|Campbell|2007b}}}} * {{cite web |url=http://firstsecondbooks.typepad.com/mainblog/2007/01/campbell_interv_2.html |title=Campbell Interviews Lat: Part 3 |first=Campbell |last=Eddie |author2=Lat (subject) |date=15 January 2007 |work=First Hand Books—Doodles and Dailies |publisher=First Second Books |location=New York, United States |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623025757/http://firstsecondbooks.typepad.com/mainblog/2007/01/campbell_interv_2.html |archivedate=23 June 2008 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |ref={{SfnRef|Campbell|2007c}}}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/new-titles/adult-announcements/article/10521-lat-s-malaysian-memories-.html |title=Lat's Malaysian Memories |first=Kai-Ming |last=Cha |date=20 November 2007 |work=PW Comics Week |location=New York, United States |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818082123/http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/new-titles/adult-announcements/article/10521-lat-s-malaysian-memories-.html |archivedate=18 August 2010 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Lent |first=John |date=May–August 1994 |title=Political Adversaries and Agents of Social Change: Editorial Cartoonists in Southeast Asia |journal=Asian Thought and Society |volume=19 |issue=56 |pages=107–123 |publisher=East-West Publishing |location=New York, United States |issn=0361-3968 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Lent |first=John |date=April 1999 |title=The Varied Drawing Lots of Lat, Malayasian Cartoonist |journal=[[The Comics Journal]] |issue=211 |pages=35–39 |publisher=[[Fantagraphics Books]] |location=Washington, United States |issn=0194-7869 |url=http://lathouse.com.my/tcj1.html |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050215055345/http://lathouse.com.my/tcj1.html |archivedate=15 February 2005 |ref=harv |url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal |last=Lent |first=John |date=Spring 2003 |title=Cartooning in Malaysia and Singapore: The Same, but Different |journal=[[International Journal of Comic Art]] |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=256–289 |issn=1531-6793 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Lent |first=John |title=Comic Art in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Latin America Through 2000: An International Bibliography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yBMRV58IQD8C |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |series=Bibliographies and Indexes in Popular Culture |volume=11 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |location=Connecticut, United States |isbn=0-313-31210-9 |pages=xi–xvii |chapter=Preface |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=yBMRV58IQD8C&pg=PR11 |ref=harv}} * {{cite news|title=A Local Movie About Rock Culture |author=Azhariah Kamin |url=http://star-ecentral.com/services/sprinterfriendly.asp?file=/2005/7/22/movies/11352728&sec=movies |newspaper=[[The Star (Malaysia)|The Star Online]] |publisher=Star Publications |location=Selangor, Malaysia |date=22 July 2005 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930165211/http://star-ecentral.com/services/sprinterfriendly.asp?file=%2F2005%2F7%2F22%2Fmovies%2F11352728&sec=movies |archivedate=30 September 2007 |ref={{SfnRef|Azhariah|2005}} |url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal|date=January 2007 |title=More than a Cartoonist |journal=Annual Business Economic and Political Review: Malaysia |volume=2 |issue=Emerging Malaysia 2007 |pages=257–258 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |issn=1755-232X |url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/full_content/more-cartoonist-mohammad-nor-bin-khalid-talks-about-his-art-and-commentary-1 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |ref={{SfnRef|More than a Cartoonist|2007}} |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715032005/http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/full_content/more-cartoonist-mohammad-nor-bin-khalid-talks-about-his-art-and-commentary-1 |archivedate=15 July 2011 }} * {{cite journal |author=Ungku Abdul Aziz |editor-last=Lim |editor-first=Tay Boh |year=1956 |title=The Causes of Poverty in Malayan Agriculture |journal=Problems of the Malayan Economy: A Series of Radio Talks |issue=10 |series=Background to Malaya |pages=11–15 |publisher=Donald Moore |location=Singapore |ref={{SfnRef|Ungku|1956}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Gopinath |first=Anandhi |date=8 June 2009 |title=Cover: Our Kampung Boy |journal=[[The Edge (Malaysia)|The Edge]] |issue=758 |publisher=The Edge Communications Sdn Bhd |location=Selangor, Malaysia |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |url=http://www.theedgemalaysia.com/lifestyle/17652-cover-our-kampung-boy.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715163502/http://www.theedgemalaysia.com/lifestyle/17652-cover-our-kampung-boy.html |archivedate=15 July 2009 |ref=harv |url-status=dead }} * {{cite news |title=I Abhorred Mathematics |last=Martin |first=Sumitha |newspaper=New Straits Times Sunday Edition |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia|date=4 June 2006 |page=15 |ref=harv|id={{ProQuest|271966949}} }} * {{cite web|url=http://lathouse.com.my/thelatstory.html |title=The Lat Story |year=2000 |work=The Lat Home |publisher=Kampung Boy |location=Selangor, Malaysia |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20001210025300/http://www.lathouse.com.my/history.html |archivedate=10 December 2000 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |ref={{SfnRef|The Lat Story|2000}} |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Rudner |first=Martin |title=Malaysian Development: A Retrospective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IhrwflT-koMC |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |year=1994 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press|Carleton University Press]] |location=Ontario, Canada |isbn=0-88629-221-2 |pages=299–348 |chapter=Education, Development and Change in Malaysia |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=IhrwflT-koMC&pg=RA3-PA299 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Eric |title=Unsettling Absences: Urbanism in Rural Malaysia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgCAQXoMQ3kC |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |year=2007 |publisher=National University of Singapore Press |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9971-69-336-7 |pages=68–88 |chapter=Circulation and Migration |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgCAQXoMQ3kC&pg=PA68 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |author=Rohani Hashim |editor1-first=Edwina |editor1-last=Palmer |title=Asian Futures, Asian Traditions |year=2005 |publisher=[[Global Oriental]] |location=Kent, United Kingdom |isbn=1-901903-16-8 |pages=389–400 |chapter=Lat's ''Kampong Boy'': Rural Malays in Tradition and Transition |ref={{SfnRef|Rohani|2005}}}} * {{cite journal |last=Chua |first=Siew Ching |date=September 2007 |title=Seriously, Lat |journal=The Hilt |issue=10 |publisher=[[Hilton Hotels]] |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |issn=1823-9382|url=http://siewching.com/articles/seriously-lat/ |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818081644/http://siewching.com/articles/seriously-lat/ |archivedate=18 August 2010 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Chin |editor-first=Phoebe |title=S-Files, Stories Behind Their Success: 20&nbsp;True Life Malaysian Stories to Inspire, Challenge, and Guide You to Greater Success |date=March 1998 |publisher=Success Resources Slipguard |location=Selangor, Malaysia |isbn=983-99324-0-3 |chapter=The Kampung Boy |ref=harv}} * {{cite video |date=21 September 2003 |title=Crossings: Datuk Lat |medium=Television production |publisher=[[Discovery Channel (South East Asian TV channel)|Discovery Networks Asia]] |location=Singapore |time= |ref={{SfnRef|Crossings: Datuk Lat|2003}}}} * {{cite book |author=Muliyadi Mahamood |title=Pameran Retrospektif Lat |trans-title=Retrospective Exhibition 1964–2003 |year=2003a |publisher=[[National Art Gallery (Malaysia)|National Art Gallery]] |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |isbn=983-9572-71-7 |pages=48–82 |trans-chapter=Lat in Context |chapter=Lat Dalam Konteksnya |ref={{SfnRef|Muliyadi|2003a}}}} * {{cite book |author=Muliyadi Mahamood |title=The History of Malay Editorial Cartoons (1930s–1993) |year=2004 |publisher=Utusan Publications and Distributions |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |isbn=967-61-1523-1 |ref={{SfnRef|Muliyadi|2004}}}} * {{cite book |title=Pameran Retrospektif Lat |trans-title=Retrospective Exhibition 1964–2003 |year=2003 |publisher=National Art Gallery |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |language= |isbn=983-9572-71-7 |ref={{SfnRef|Pameran Retrospektif Lat|2003}}}} * {{cite book |author=Redza Piyadasa |title=Pameran Retrospektif Lat |trans-title=Retrospective Exhibition 1964–2003 |year=2003 |publisher=National Art Gallery |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |isbn=983-9572-71-7 |pages=84–99 |chapter=Lat the Cartoonist—An Appreciation |ref={{SfnRef|Redza|2003}}}} * {{cite book |last=Edge |first=Marc |editor1-last=Schmid |editor1-first=Bert |title=The Impact of Regulatory Change on Media Market Competition and Media Management: A Special Double Issue of the International Journal on Media Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdhoofIJ_EcC |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |series=International Journal on Media Management |volume=6 |year=2004 |publisher=[[University of St. Gallen]] |location=St. Gallen, Switzerland |isbn=0-8058-9500-0 |pages=184–193 |chapter=Pie Sharing or Food Fight? The Impact of Regulatory Changes on Media Market Competition in Singapore |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdhoofIJ_EcC&pg=PA184 |ref=harv|display-editors=etal}} * {{cite journal |last=Jayasankaran |first=S |date=22 July 1999 |title=Going Global |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_far-eastern-economic-review_1999-07-22_162_29/page/35 |journal=[[Far Eastern Economic Review]] |volume=162 |issue=29 |pages=35–36 |location=Hong Kong |issn=0014-7591|ref=harv|id={{ProQuest|208233691}} }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.nstp.com.my/Corporate/nstp/products/productNstHistory.htm |title=History of New Straits Times |year=2007 |work=NSTP |publisher=The New Straits Times Press |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610221243/http://www.nstp.com.my/Corporate/nstp/products/productNstHistory.htm |archivedate=10 June 2008 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |ref={{SfnRef|History of New Straits Times|2007}}}} * {{cite web |url=http://infopedia.nl.sg/articles/SIP_166_2005-01-20.html |title=Samad Ismail |author=Nor-Afidah Abd Rahman |date=10 October 2002 |work=Infopedia |publisher=[[National Library Board]] |location=Singapore |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527071717/http://infopedia.nl.sg/articles/SIP_166_2005-01-20.html |archivedate=27 May 2008 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |ref={{SfnRef|Nor-Afidah|2002}}}} * {{cite book |author=Muliyadi Mahamood |title=Pameran Retrospektif Lat |trans-title=Retrospective Exhibition 1964–2003 |year=2003a |publisher=[[National Art Gallery (Malaysia)|National Art Gallery]] |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |isbn=983-9572-71-7 |pages=48–82 |trans-chapter=Lat in Context |chapter=Lat Dalam Konteksnya |ref={{SfnRef|Muliyadi|2003a}}}} * {{cite book |author=Muliyadi Mahamood |title=The History of Malay Editorial Cartoons (1930s–1993) |year=2004 |publisher=Utusan Publications and Distributions |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |isbn=967-61-1523-1 |ref={{SfnRef|Muliyadi|2004}}}} * {{cite news |title=Kampung Boy Unveiled |last=Bissme |first=S |url=http://www.thesundaily.my/node/156175 |newspaper=[[The Sun (Malaysia)|Sun2Surf]] |location=Selangor, Malaysia |date=30 April 2009 |accessdate=30 Juni 2020 |ref=harv |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029064917/http://www.thesundaily.my/node/156175 |archive-date=29 October 2017 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite news |title='Kampung Boy' wins award |last=Chan |first=Daniel |newspaper=[[The Malay Mail]] |location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |date=15 June 1999 |page=15 |ref=harv|id={{ProQuest|326129944}} }} * {{cite magazine |last=Goldsmith |first=Francisca |date=15 September 2006 |title=Kampung Boy |magazine=[[Booklist]] |volume=103 |issue=2 |page=61 |publisher=[[American Library Association]] |location=Illinois, United States |issn= 0006-7385|ref=harv|id={{ProQuest|235556941}} }} {{EndDiv}} {{Refend}} == Pautan lua == {{Commons category|Lat (cartoonist)|Lat}} * {{IMDb name|1011523}} [[Kategori:Kartunis Malaysia]] oec3bk2bb041rvswksfadbf63iekuoy 0 336099 3351263 2043750 2026-08-05T21:48:47Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351263 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Pambantahan medis}}{{distinguish|Tifus}}{{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Damam tifoid|risks=[[Sanitasi]] buruak, higienitas buruak<ref name=Lancet2015/>|frequency=12,5 juta (2015)<ref name=GBD2015Pre>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vos T, Allen C, Arora M, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Brown A, etal | collaboration = GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators | title = Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 | journal = Lancet | volume = 388 | issue = 10053 | pages = 1545–1602 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27733282 | pmc = 5055577 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6 }}</ref>|medication=|treatment=[[Antibiotik]]<ref name=Lancet2015/>|prevention=[[Vaksin tifoid]], mancuci tangan<ref name=CDC2013/><ref name=Mil2018/>|differential=Panyakik mamindah lainnyo<ref name=CDC2013Tech/>|diagnosis=[[Kultur bakteri]], deteksi DNA <ref name=CDC2013/><ref name=Lancet2015/><ref name=Crump2010>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crump JA, Mintz ED | title = Global trends in typhoid and paratyphoid Fever | journal = Clinical Infectious Diseases | volume = 50 | issue = 2 | pages = 241–6 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20014951 | pmc = 2798017 | doi = 10.1086/649541 }}</ref>|causes=[[Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica|''Salmonella enterica'' subsp. enterica]] (tapindah dek makanan atau minuman nan takontaminasi jo [[feces]])<ref name=Lancet2015/><ref name=WHO2008/>|synonyms=Tifoid, tipes|duration=|onset=6–30 ari sasudah tapapar<ref name=Yellow2014/><ref name=CDC2013/>|complications=|symptoms=Damam, sakik paruik, sakik kapalo, ruam merah<ref name=Yellow2014/>|field=[[Panyakik mamindah (spesialisasi medis)|Panyakik mamindah]]|caption=''[[Rose spots]]'' pado dado urang nan takanai damam tifoid|image=Salmonella typhi typhoid fever PHIL 2215 lores.jpg|deaths=149.000 (2015)<ref name=GBD2015De/>}}'''Damam tifoid''' atau '''tifoid''' (dek urang awam acok basabuik '''tipes''', bedakan jo [[tifus]]) adolah panyakik mamindah nan disababkan dek [[bakteri]] ''Salmonella enterica serovar typhi''.<ref name="Lancet2015">{{cite journal|vauthors=Wain J, Hendriksen RS, Mikoleit ML, Keddy KH, Ochiai RL|s2cid=2409150|title=Typhoid fever|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_the-lancet_march-21-27-2015_385_9973/page/1136|journal=Lancet|volume=385|issue=9973|pages=1136–45|date=March 2015|pmid=25458731|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62708-7}}</ref> Bakteri ko anyo bakambang pado manusia, sainggo dapek bapindah malalui aia liua atau feses. Pado lingkuang nan kumuah, panyakik ko mudah bapindah utamonyo malalui makanan jo minuman nan indak barasiah. Basamo jo [[damam paratifoid]], nan mampunyoi gejala nan sarupo, tifoid disabuik juo subagai damam enterik (damam usus).<ref name="Lancet2015" /> Gejala panyakik ko baragam dari nan ringan sampai nan barek. Bamulo muncua gejala pado ari ka-6 inggo ka-30 (rato-rato 7-14 ari) sasudah tapapar bakteri.<ref name="Yellow2014">{{cite book|first=Anna E.|last=Newton|name-list-format=vanc|title=CDC health information for international travel 2014 : the yellow book|date=2014|isbn=9780199948499|chapter-url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2014/chapter-3-infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever|chapter=3 Infectious Diseases Related To Travel|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702125517/http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2014/chapter-3-infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever|archive-date=2015-07-02}}</ref><ref name="CDC2013">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/index.html|title=Typhoid Fever|date=May 14, 2013|website=cdc.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606190251/http://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/index.html|archive-date=6 June 2016|access-date=28 September 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Nan paliang acok ditandoi jo damam tinggi tiok sanjo inggo malam dalam babarapo ari sarato samakin maningkek suhunyo dari ari ka ari. Kudian dapek disaratoi jo lamah badan, sakik paruik, sakik kapalo, jo mual muntah ringan. Bisa juo disaratoi parubahan pola buang aia gadang, sarupo kabobolan (konstipasi) pado urang gadang atau mancoro (diare; jarang, umumnyo pado anak).<ref name="CDC2013" /><ref name="CDC2013Tech">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/typhoid_fever/technical.html|title=Typhoid Fever|date=May 14, 2013|website=cdc.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402183317/http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/typhoid_fever/technical.html|archive-date=2 April 2015|access-date=28 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Pado sabagian urang muncua ruam-ruam sirah cando sirahnyo bungo mawar (''Rose spots'').<ref name="CDC2013" /> Pado kasus nan parah, dapek tajadi paniang ataupun sakik kapalo barek inggo gangguan kasadaran.<ref name="CDC2013Tech" /> Kok indak diubek, kondisi ko dapek batahan salamo bapakan-pakan inggo babulan-bulan. Samantaro kok diubek, dapek cegak dalam etongan ari inggo duo pakan.<ref name="CDC2013" /> == Panyabab == Tifoid disababkan dek bakeri ''Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi''. Bakteri ko marupokan bakteri gram negatif, nan indak bakapsul. Bakteri ko dapek iduik pado suhu 37^o C sarato pH 6-8. Di alam bebas, bakteri ko dapek batahan inggo bapakan-pakan. Samantaro tampek iduiknyo hanyo pado manusia, utamonyo di usus jo darah.<ref name="CDC2013" /><ref name="WHO2008">{{cite journal|vauthors=|title=Typhoid vaccines: WHO position paper|journal=Releve Epidemiologique Hebdomadaire|volume=83|issue=6|pages=49–59|date=February 2008|pmid=18260212|url=http://www.who.int/wer/2008/wer8306.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402103504/http://www.who.int/wer/2008/wer8306.pdf?ua=1|archive-date=April 2, 2015}}</ref> Bakteri dapek taseba malalui makanan atau minuman nan takontasinasi jo feses urang nan tainfeksi tifoid. Faktor risikonyo adolah lingkuang jo sanitasi sarato higienitas nan buruak. Pado urang nan pai raun ka nagara-nagara bakambang juo barisiko.<ref name="WHO2008" /> Bakteri Salmonella nan alah malalui lambuang dan tibo di usus aluih kudian mainvasi lapisan-lapisannyo inggo masuak ka plak Peyeri (jaringan limfoid). Bakteri bakambang biak di sinan dan taseba ka saluran limfe mesenterikus inggo ka duktus torasikus. Dari sinan, bakteri masuak ka pambuluah darah inggo ka organ-organ lain cando hepar, limpo, kanduang ampadu, jo usus.<ref name="WHO2008" /> Bakteri Salmonella mahasiakan endotoksin nan marangsang paradangan pado organ-organ inggo mamanciang produksi sitokin dari sel-sel makrofag jo leukosit. Kasudahannyo muncual gejala-gejala cando damam. Pado usus, plak Peyeri samakin lamo samakin manggadang (hiperplasia) dalam sapakan partamo. Pado pakan kaduo plak Peyeri maaalami kamatian jaringan (nekrosis) dan pado pakan katigo tajadi palukoan. Palukoan pado plak Peyeri samakin lamo manggadang dan manjadi tukak inggo mambuek padarahan dalam paruik. Pado organ lain cando hepar, ukurannyo manggadang dek bakteri salmonella bakambang dalam jaringan retikoendotelialnyo. <ref name="WHO2008" /> == Epidemiologi == [[File:Fievre_typhoide.png|pra=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fievre_typhoide.png|jmpl|{{space|8}}Insiden damam tifoid{{legend|red|Sabana endemik}} {{legend|#e08040|Endemik}} {{legend|silver|Kasus jarang}}]] Tifoid marupokan panyakik nan mudah bapindah pado lingkuang jo sanitasi sarato higienitas buruak, sainggo kasusnyo labiah tinggi di nagara-nagara bakambang. Manuruik laporan WHO pado taun 2018, dipakirokan ado 21 juta kasus sacaro global jo 222.000 kasus kamatian tiok taunnyo.<ref name="GBD2015De">{{cite journal|vauthors=Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, etal|collaboration=GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators|title=Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015|journal=Lancet|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1459–1544|date=October 2016|pmid=27733281|pmc=5388903|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1}}</ref> Di Asia Selatan jo Asia Tenggara manunjuakan paningkekan kasus (>100 kasus per 100.000 kasus), diikuti jo Afrika Selatan (10--100 kasus per 100.000 kasus).<ref name="Lancet2015" /> Kondisi lingkuangan jo sanitasi nan samakin rancak mangurangi kasus tifoid di nagara-nagara maju, cando di Eropa Barat jo Amerika Utara.<ref name="WHO2008" /> Paningkekan kasus di nagara-nagara tasabuik umumnyo bajangkik pado urang nan baru pulang raun atau parantauan dari nagara-nagara bakambang.<ref>Muresu, N.; Sotgiu, G.; Are, B.M.; Cossu, A.; Cocuzza, C.; Martinelli, M.; Babudieri, S.; Are, R.; Dettori, M.; Azara, A.; Saderi, L.; Piana, A. T[https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/2/615 ravel-Related Typhoid Fever: Narrative Review of the Scientific Literature]. ''Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health'' 2020, ''17'', 615.</ref> Pado maso pandemi SARS-CoV2 (2020), kasus damam tifoid baliak maningkek jo gejala klinik nan sarupo jo COVID-19. Di Pakistan dilaporkan ado 20.000 kasus tifoid pado Juni 2020.<ref>Haqqi, A., Khurram, M., Din, M. S. U., Aftab, M. N., Ali, M., Ahmed, H., & Afzal, M. S. (2020). [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jmv.26293 COVID‐19 and Salmonella Typhi co‐epidemics in Pakistan: A real problem]. ''Journal of medical virology''.</ref> == Tando jo gejala == Gambaran klinis pado pasien tifoid dapek baragam. Gejala nan paliang paliang acok muncua yaitu damam. Damam pado pandarito tifoid ditandoi jo suhu nan samakin lamo samakin maninggi sarato pabedaan suhu antaro pagi jo malamnyo. Suhu labiah tinggi pado malam ari daripado pagi arinyo. Damam paliang angek dirasokan pado pakan kaduo dan baransua puliah pado pakan katigo. Pado anak, damam nan tinggi dapek mambueknyo kajang. Salain damam diikuti pulo jo raso mamanek di badan, payah lalok (insomnia), ilang salero makan (anoreksia), inggo mual jo muntah. Damam pado tifoid kadang mambuek jantuang malambek untuak badabok, satiok tajadi paningkekan suhu jantung samakin malambek badabok.<ref name="CDC2013Tech" /> Pado saluran cerna dapek muncua baun muluik dek damam nan lamo. Bibia manjadi kariang jo pacah-pacah. Pado lidah, tampak kotor (mamutiah di bagian tangah) jo kasirahan di tapiannyo. Lidah ko disabuik sabagai ''coated tongue'', ''typhoid tongue'', atau ''white-appearance tongue''. Pado paruik dirasokan raso mamadiah sarato kondisi kabobolan (konstipasi), kadang mancoro (diare).<ref name="CDC2013Tech" /> == Pananganan == Tifoid dapek ditagah jo babarapo caro. Vaksin tifoid dapek managah 40 inggo 90% kasus salamo duo taun partamo<ref name="Mil2018">{{cite journal|vauthors=Milligan R, Paul M, Richardson M, Neuberger A|title=Vaccines for preventing typhoid fever|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=5|pages=CD001261|date=May 2018|pmid=29851031|pmc=6494485|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001261.pub4}}</ref> dan dapek maagiah dampak inggo tujuah taun lamonyo.<ref name="Lancet2015" /> Pado urang barisiko tinggi atau nan pai raun ka daerah jo endemik kasus disarankan untuak vaksinasi.<ref name="WHO2008" /> Upayo lain nan paralu adolah panyadioan aia barasiah, sanitasi nan rancak, sarato mancuci tangan jo sabun.<ref name="CDC2013" /> Salamo urang nan takanai tifoid alun dinyatokan cegak, urang tasabuik indak buliah manyajikan makan untuak urang lain.<ref name="CDC2013" /> Panyakik ko dapek diubek jo antibiotik cando [[azitromisin]], [[flurokuinolon]], atau [[sefalosporin]] generasi katigo.<ref name="Lancet2015" /> Resistensi (kaindakmampanan) ka ubek-ubek ko dilaporkan alah mulai tajadi, nan mambuek upayo maubek samakin payah.<ref name="Lancet2015" /><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Chatham-Stephens K, Medalla F, Hughes M, Appiah GD, Aubert RD, Caidi H, Angelo KM, Walker AT, Hatley N, Masani S, Nash J, Belko J, Ryan ET, Mintz E, Friedman CR|display-authors=6|title=Emergence of Extensively Drug-Resistant Salmonella Typhi Infections Among Travelers to or from Pakistan - United States, 2016-2018|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=68|issue=1|pages=11–13|date=January 2019|pmid=30629573|pmc=6342547|doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6801a3}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Panyakik mamindah]] 5a3tigispemh23rtsdir795zlb9umeq 0 336144 3351268 3155776 2026-08-05T21:55:31Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351268 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Oceania-map.JPG|jmpl|440x440px|Peta kawasan Oseania]] '''Oseania''' ({{lang-en|'''Oceania'''}}) adolah istilah nan mangacu kapado sabuah wilayah geografis atau geopolitis nan tadiri dari sajumlah [[kapulauan]] nan talatak di [[Samudra Pasifik]] dan sakitaranyo. Oseania marupoan wilayah di Bumi dengan luweh area daratannyo tadiri ateh daratan ketek atau pulau ketek-ketek.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://journal.unhas.ac.id/index.php/kritis|title=DINAMIKA KAWASAN PASIFIK BARAT DAYA DALAM PERCATURAN GLOBAL|last=Burhanuddin|first=|date=|website=journal.unhas.ac.id|publisher=KRITIS : Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik Universitas Hasanuddin|page=144|access-date=2020-10-17}}</ref> == Sijarah panamoan == Istilah oseania iko diciptaan dek saurang ahli geografi nan banamo Conrad Malte-Brun. Inyo maagia namo kawasan ko banamo Océanie pado tahun [[1812]]. Kato Océanie diambiak dari kato [[Bahaso Yunani]] ὠκεανός (ōkeanós) hinggo diserap kadalam [[bahaso inggris]] sabagai ''ocean''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sea.museum/2009/12/21/oceania-or-the-fifth-part-of-the-world|title=Oceania, or the fifth part of the world|website=Australian National Maritime Museum|language=en|access-date=2020-10-17|archive-date=2020-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017215148/https://www.sea.museum/2009/12/21/oceania-or-the-fifth-part-of-the-world|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Dalam aratian sampik (manuruik panjalajah asa [[Prancis]] nan banamo [[Jules Dumont d'Urville]] pado tahun [[1831]]), Oseania maliputi [[Polinesia]] (tamasuak juo [[Selandia Baru]]), [[Melanesia]] (tamasuk [[Nugini]]) jo [[Mikronesia]]. Sadangkan dalam aratian luweh mako Oseania maliputi pulo [[Australia]] jo [[Asia Tenggara Maritim]] nan masuak juo didalamnyo [[Semenanjung Malaya]]. Namun, takadang [[Hongkong]], [[Semenanjung Korea]], [[Jepang]], [[Taiwan]], [[Kepulauan Aleut]], [[Pulau Sakhalin]], samananjuang di timur laut rusia, jo [[Semenanjung Alaska]] dianggap pulo masuak ka dalam kalompok negara-negara Oseania.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jules-Sebastien-Cesar-Dumont-dUrville|title=Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d'Urville {{!}} French explorer|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-10-17}}</ref> Negara-negara Oseania mampunyoi kamardekaan dalam ketentuan nan babeda dari negara panjajah nyo, sarato mandapek aturan konstitusional nan bavariasi sasuai jo kaadaan negara tasabuik. Australia misalnyo, adolah negara nan tagabuang dalam negara [[Persemakmuran]] Inggris, sahinggo mangakui Ratu [[Elizabeth II dari Britania Raya]] sabagai Ratu, samintaro itu [[Polinesia Prancis]] adolah sabuah ''pays d'outre-mer'' ("negara luar negeri") dari negara [[Prancis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/01/06/150000169/daftar-negara-di-australia-dan-oseania-serta-ibu-kotanya|title=Daftar Negara di Australia dan Oseania serta Ibu Kotanya Halaman all|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|access-date=2020-10-17}}</ref> == Kaadaan wilayah == Sabagian gadang wilayah Oseania ko tadiri dari negara-negara kapulauan nan ketek-ketek. Australia adolah ciek negara sakaligus pulau nan masih dipadebatkan antaro itu apokah pulau atau benua, sadangkan [[Papua Nugini]], [[Malaysia]], jo [[Timor Leste]] adolah negara nan mampunyoi pabatasan daraik jo lauik, di mano kaduonyo babatahan jo [[Indonesia]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://ilmugeografi.com/ilmu-bumi/samudera/samudera-pasifik|title=Samudera Pasifik : Pengertian, Letak dan Karakteristik|date=2017-01-16|website=IlmuGeografi.com|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-10-17|archive-date=2020-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926075642/https://ilmugeografi.com/ilmu-bumi/samudera/samudera-pasifik|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sacaro [[ekologi]], Oseania marupoan ciek di antaro salapan [[zona ekologi]] terestrial dunia. [[Zona ekologi Oseania]] maliputi [[Polinesia]] kacuali [[Selandia Baru]], [[Nugini]], [[Kaledonia Baru]], [[Fiji]] [[Kepulauan Solomon]] jo [[Vanuatu]] nan tagolong zona ekologi [[Australasia]] jo [[Asia Tenggara Maritim]] tamasuak [[Semenanjung Malaya]] sarato [[Mikronesia]] nan tagolong zona ekologi [[Asia]]. Namun, wilayah-wilayah tasabuik acok juo ikuik dimasuakan sahinggo [[Oseania]] manjadi superbenua nan tadiri dari babarapo golongan ekologi dari 3 benua yaitu [[Asia]], [[Amerika]], jo [[Australia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idntimes.com/science/discovery/zaki-17/fakta-samudra-pasifik-exp-c1c2|title=Fakta Samudra Pasifik, Sumber Kekayaan Alam Sekaligus Potensi Bencana|last=Times|first=I. D. N.|last2=zaki|website=IDN Times|language=id|access-date=2020-10-17}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> == Demografi == [[Berkas:Polynesian Migration.svg|jmpl|400px|Peta Migrasi Penduduk Oseania]] Sijarah kahidupan Oseania hinggo maso kiniko masih alum sapanuahnyo dapek dijalehan. Panalitian awa manunjuakkan bahwasanyo panduduak [[Mikronesia]] jo [[Polinesia]] sacaro kabahasaan jo genetis mampunyoi kasamoan jo panduduk asli Asia Tenggara, tarutamo nan tingga di wilayah kapulauan nyo. Sacaro kabahasaan inyo tu pulo sabagai bagian dari panutua dari rumpun bahaso Austronesia. Sadangkan kapanduduakan [[Melanesia]] jo [[Australia]] labiah kompleks namun sacaro panampilan maupun genetis sarato [[linguistik]] tagolong babeda dari urang Mikronesia jo Polinesia.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080118093728.htm Genome scan shows Polynesians have little genetic relationship to Melanesians.] ScienceDaily 23 Januari 2008.</ref> Kajian linguistik menunjuakan sabuah arus migrasi nan tanamo juo sabagai teori "Kereta Cepat manuju Polinesia" ("Express Train to Polynesia") atau "Out of Taiwan" nan diusulan dek Robert Blust jo Peter Belwood.<ref name=science1>{{cite journal| author = Gray, R. D. | coauthors = A. J. Drummond, S. J. Greenhill | date = 2009 | title = Language Phylogenies Reveal Expansion Pulses and Pauses in Pacific Settlement. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2009-01-23_323_5913/page/479 | journal = Science | volume = 323 | pages = 479 - 483 | doi = 10.1126/science.1166858}}</ref> Di sisi lain, kajian genetika manunjuakan dukuangan ateh teori lamo barupo panyebaran lewat Asia Tenggara Daratan, kamudian manyeba dari wilayah sakitar [[Sumatra]] atau [[Samananjuang Malaya]] (disabuik juo sabagai teori "[[Sundaland]]") nan diajuan dek Oppenheimer. Teori iko didukuang juo dek kajian genetika ateh [[babi]] jo [[ayam]], duo binatang nan dianggap dibawo dek para migran karano dapek ditamuan di babagai pamukiman di Oseania.<ref>Chicken and Chips theory of Pacific Migration]. ScienceDaily 30 Juli 2008.</ref><ref>Pig Study forces Rethink of Pacific Colonisation. ScienceDaily 13 Maret 2007.</ref> {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%;" |- bgcolor="#ECECEC"| |- style="background:#ececec;" ! Namo [[region]] jo {{br}}territoral sarato bendera ! [[Daftar negara menurut luas wilayah|Luweh]]{{br}}(km²) ! [[Daftar negara menurut jumlah penduduk|Populasi]]{{br}}(pakiroan 1 di tahun 2018)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/|title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations|website=population.un.org|access-date=2020-10-17}}</ref> ! [[Daftar negara menurut kepadatan penduduk|Kapadatan Panduduak]]{{br}}(per km²) ! [[Ibu kota]] ! [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2|ISO 3166-1]] |- | colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" |'''[[Australasia]]:'''<ref name="Australasia">The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and Selandia Baru."</ref> |- | {{flag|Australia}} | align="right" | 7,686,850 | align="right" | 24,898,152 | align="right" | 2.7 | [[Canberra]] | AU |- | {{flag|Selandia Baru}}<ref name="nzpol">[[Selandia Baru]] is often considered part of [[Polynesia]] rather than [[Australasia]].<br /></ref> | align="right" | 268,680 | align="right" | 4,743,131 | align="right" | 14.5 | [[Wellington]] | NZ |- |colspan=6|''Teritori Eksternal Australia'' |- | {{noflag|[[Kepulauan Ashmore dan Cartier]]}} | align="right" | 199 | align="right" | | align="right" | | | |- | {{flag|Pulau Natal}}<ref name="ccau">[[Christmas Island]] and [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] are [[States and territories of Australia|Australian external territories]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] southwest of [[Indonesia]].<br /></ref> | align="right" | 135 | align="right" | 2,302 | align="right" | 3.5 | [[Flying Fish Cove]] | CX |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Cocos (Keeling)}}<ref name="ccau" /> | align="right" | 14 | align="right" | 17,518 | align="right" | 45.1 | [[West Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands|West Island]] | CC |- | {{noflag|[[Kepulauan Laut Koral]]}} | align="right" | 3 | align="right" | | align="right" | | | |- | {{noflag|[[Pulau Heard dan Kepulauan McDonald]]}} | align="right" | 372 | align="right" | | align="right" | | | |- | {{flag|Pulau Norfolk}} | align="right" | 35 | align="right" | 1,866 | align="right" | 53.3 | [[Kingston, Pulau Norfolk|Kingston]] | NF |- | colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Melanesia]]:'''<ref name="Melanesia">Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in [[Southeast Asia]] (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region.<br /></ref> |- | {{flag|Fiji}} | align="right" | 18,270 | align="right" | 883,483 | align="right" | 46.9 | [[Suva]] | FJ |- | {{flag|Kaledonia Baru}} ([[Prancis]]) | align="right" | 19,060 | align="right" | 279,993 | align="right" | 12.6 | [[Nouméa]] | NC |- | {{flag|Papua Nugini}}<ref name="pngaus">[[Papua New Guinea]] is often considered part of [[Australasia]] and [[Melanesia]]. It is sometimes included in the [[Malay Archipelago]] of [[Southeast Asia]].<br /></ref> | align="right" | 462,840 | align="right" | 8,606,323 | align="right" | 11.2 | [[Port Moresby]] | PG |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Solomon}} | align="right" | 28,450 | align="right" | 652,857 | align="right" | 17.4 | [[Honiara]] | SB |- | {{flag|Vanuatu}} | align="right" | 12,200 | align="right" | 292,680 | align="right" | 19.7 | [[Port Vila]] | VU |- | colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Mikronesia]]:''' |- | {{flag|Federasi Mikronesia}} | align="right" | 702 | align="right" | 12,640 | align="right" | 193.5 | [[Palikir]] | FM |- | {{flag|Guam}} ([[Amerika Serikat|AS]]) | align="right" | 549 | align="right" | 165,768 | align="right" | 292.9 | [[Hagåtña, Guam|Hagåtña]] | GU |- | {{flag|Kiribati}} | align="right" | 811 | align="right" | 15,847 | align="right" | 118.8 | [[South Tarawa]] | KI |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Marshall}} | align="right" | 181 | align="right" | 58,413 | align="right" | 406.8 | [[Majuro]] | MH |- | {{flag|Nauru}} | align="right" | 21 | align="right" | 10,670 | align="right" | 587.1 | [[Yaren District|Yaren]] <small>(''de facto'')</small> | NR |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Mariana Utara}} (AS) | align="right" | 477 | align="right" | 56,882 | align="right" | 162.1 | [[Saipan]] | MP |- | {{flag|Palau}} | align="right" | 458 | align="right" | 17,907 | align="right" | 42.4 | [[Melekeok]]<ref name="Palau">On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of [[Koror]] to Melekeok, located 20 km northeast of Koror on [[Babeldaob|Babelthuap Island]].<br /></ref> | PW |- | {{flagicon|Pulau Wake}} [[Pulau Wake]] (AS) | align="right" | 2 | align="right" | 150 | align="right" | | [[Wake Island]] | UM |- | colspan=6 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Polinesia]]:''' |- | {{flag|Samoa Amerika}} (AS) | align="right" | 199 | align="right" | 55,465 | align="right" | 345.2 | [[Pago Pago]], [[Fagatogo, American Samoa|Fagatogo]]<ref name="ASamoa">[[Fagatogo, American Samoa|Fagatogo]] is the seat of government of [[American Samoa]].<br /></ref> | AS |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Cook}} (Selandia Baru) | align="right" | 240 | align="right" | 17,518 | align="right" | 86.7 | [[Avarua]] | CK |- | {{flag|Pulau Paskah}} ([[Chili]]) | align="right" | 163.6 | align="right" | 5,761 | align="right" | 23.1 | [[Hanga Roa]] | CL |- | {{flag|Polinesia Prancis}} (Prancis) | align="right" | 3,961 | align="right" | 277,679 | align="right" | 61.9 | [[Papeete]] | PF |- | {{flag|Hawaii}} (AS) | align="right" | 28,311 | align="right" | 1,360,301 | align="right" | 72.8 | [[Honolulu]] | US |- | {{flag|Niue}} (Selandia Baru) | align="right" | 260 | align="right" | 1,620 | align="right" | 8.2 | [[Alofi]] | NU |- | {{flag|Kepulauan Pitcairn}} ([[Britania Raya]]) | align="right" | 5 | align="right" | 47 | align="right" | 10 | [[Adamstown, Pitcairn Island|Adamstown]] | PN |- | {{flag|Samoa}} | align="right" | 2,944 | align="right" | 196,129 | align="right" | 63.2 | [[Apia]] | WS |- | {{flag|Tokelau}} (Selandia Baru) | align="right" | 10 | align="right" | 1,319 | align="right" | 143.1 | [[Nukunonu]] | TK |- | {{flag|Tonga}} | align="right" | 748 | align="right" | 103,197 | align="right" | 141.9 | [[Nukuʻalofa|Nuku{{Okina}}alofa]] | TO |- | {{flag|Tuvalu}} | align="right" | 26 | align="right" | 11,508 | align="right" | 428.7 | [[Funafuti]] | TV |- | {{flag|Wallis dan Futuna}} (Prancis) | align="right" | 274 | align="right" | 11,661 | align="right" | 56.9 | [[Mata-Utu]] | WF |- style="font-weight:bold;" | Total | align="right" | 8,536,716 | align="right" | 47,178,430 | align="right" | 4.2 | rowspan=2 colspan=2| |- style="font-weight:bold;" | ''Total tanpa daratan Australia'' | align="right" | 849,866 | align="right" | 22,280,278 | align="right" | 16.1 |} == Rujuakan == [[Kategori:Oseania| ]] [[Kategori:Samudra Pasifik]] [[Kategori:Samudra Hindia]] [[Kategori:Samudra Antarktika]] rrcin0e7ma7hit8v5tu2agqynwl3gew 0 336209 3351284 3158665 2026-08-05T22:15:05Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351284 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox|status=EN|tribus=[[Hominini]]|subdivision_ranks=[[Spesies]]|range_map_caption=distribusi penyebaran spesies ''Pan spp.''|range_map=Pan (genus) distribution map.png|type_species_authority=[[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]], 1775|type_species=''[[Simia troglodytes]]''|genus_authority=[[Lorenz Oken|Oken]], 1816|genus='''''Pan'''''|subtribus='''Panina'''|subfamilia=[[Homininae]]|status_system=IUCN|familia=[[Hominidae]]|ordo=[[Primata]]|classis=[[Mammal]]ia|phylum=[[Chordate|Chordata]]|regnum=[[Animalia]]|image_caption=Simpanse (''Pan troglodytes'')|image=Schimpanse Zoo Leipzig.jpg|name=Simpanse|subdivision=''Pan troglodytes''{{br}} ''[[Bonobo|Pan paniscus]]''}} '''Simpanse''', (Disingkek dalam Bahaso Inggirih, '''chimp'''), adolah namo umum untuak duo spesies nan masih iduik dari karo dalam [[genus]] '''''Pan'''''. Sungai Kongo mambantuak bateh habitat alamiah dari kaduo spesies iko:<ref> {{Cite web|url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pan_troglodytes.html|title=ADW:Pan troglodytes:information|website=Animal Diversity Web (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology)|access-date=2007-08-11}} </ref> * Simpanse Biaso, ''Pan troglodytes'' (Afrika Barat jo [[Republik Afrika Tangah|Afrika Tangah]]) * Bonobo, ''Pan paniscus'' (hutan [[Republik Demokratik Kongo|Republik Demokrasi Kongo]]) Simpanse adolah anggota dari keluarga Hominidae, basamo jo gorila, [[manusia]], jo orangutan. Simpanse tapisah jo manusia dalam ranting keluarga sakitar 4 - 6 juta tahun lalu. Duo spesies simpanse di ateh adolah sanak nan paliang dakek jo manusia, sadoalah nyo anggota dari suku Hominini (berikut jo spesies nan punah dari sub-suku Hominina). Simpanse satu-satunyo anggota nan diketahui dari sub-suku '''Panina'''. Kaduo spesies ''Pan'' tersebut tapisah sakitar 1 juta tahun nan lalu. == Sijarah sacaro evolusi == [[Berkas:Hominoid_taxonomy_7.svg|kiri|jmpl|Hubungan taksonomi dari Hominoidea]] Genus ''Pan'' dianggap marupoan bagian dari sub-keluarga Homininae nan dima [[manusia]] juo salah satu bagiannyo. Kaduo spesies iko adolah kerabat nan paliang dakek jo manusia sacaro evolusi nan masih iduik, mamiliki kasamoan nenek moyang jo manusia anam juta tahun nan lalu.<ref> {{Cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2005/0831a-nih.html|title=Chimps and Humans Very Similar at the DNA Level|publisher=News.mongabay.com|access-date=2009-06-06}}</ref> Panalitian dek Mary-Claire King tahun 1973 manamukan 99% kasamoan DNA antaro manusia jo simpanse, walaupun panalitian lain alah maralat hasilnyo manjadi 94% kasamoan, jo babarapo perbedaan tadapek dalam non-coding DNA. Alah diusuakan bahwa ''troglodytes'' jo ''paniscus'' basamo jo ''sapiens'' ado dalam genus ''Homo'', daripado dalam ''Pan''. Salah satu alasan manganai hal iko adolah spesies lain nan alah diklasifikasi baliak manjadi genus nan samo berdasarkan persamaan genetis seperti nan tadapek pado manusia jo simpanse. === Fosil === Kabanyakan fosil manusia alah ditamuan, tatapi fosil simpanse indak dijalehan sampai pado tahun 2005. Populasi simpanse nan ado kini di Afrika Barat jo Tangah indak berbenturan jo situs besar fosil manusia di Afrika Timur. Namun, fosil simpanse kini alah dilaporkan barasa dari [[Kenya]]. Hal iko manjalehan bahwa manusia jo anggota dari clade ''Pan'' barado di Rift Valley Afrika Timur salamo Pertengahan Pleistocene.<ref name="firstfossil"> {{Cite journal|title=First fossil chimpanzee|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-09-01_437_7055/page/105|last=McBrearty|first=S.|coauthors=N. G. Jablonski|journal=Nature|date=2005-09-01|volume=437|issue=7055|pages=105–8|pmid=16136135|doi=10.1038/nature04008}}</ref> == Anatomi dan fisiologi == [[Berkas:Man&chimpbrains.png|kiri|jmpl|Tengkorak dan otak manusia dan simpanse, diilustrasikan oleh Gervais' dalam ''Histoire naturelle des mammifères'']] Kabanyakan simpanse jantan mamiliki tinggi 1.7 m katiko sedang tagak, jo mamiliki barek 70&nbsp;kg; nan batino labiah ketek. Panjang tangan simpanse umumnyo, bilo dilebaan, mamiliki rentang satu satangah kali tinggi badan jo tangan simpanse labiah panjang dari kakinyo. Bonobo saketek pendek jo kuruih daripado kabanyakan simapanse tatapi mamiliki tungkai nan labiah panjang. Kaduo spesies manggunoan tangannyo nan panjang jo kuek untuak mamanjek pohon. Di tanah, simpanse biasonyo bajalan manggunoan kaampeknyo jo bantuan baku tangan jo kepalan tangan, sabuah bantuak tanago panggerak nan disabuik jo knuckle-walking. Kaki simpanse labiah cocok untuak bajalan dibandiangan orangutan karano talapak kaki simpanse labiah lueh jo jempol nan pendek. Simpanse biasa jo bonobo dapek bajalan tegak jo kaduo kaki nyo katiko mambaok barang jo kaduo tangannyo. Bonobo sacaro proporsional mamiliki tungkai nan labiah panjang jo condong bajalan tegak dibandiangan Simpanse Biaso. Kuliknyo labiah galok; wajah, tangan, talapak tangan jo kaki tidak berbulu; jo simpanse indak mamiliki ikua. Kaduo spesies mamiliki warna pado kulik lua muko, tangan jo kaki nan baragam dari merah jambu sampai bawarna galok, tatapi mamiliki warna labiah tarang katiko mudo, manjadi labiah galok katiko alah galak. Panalitian Universitas Chicago Medical Center manamuan perbedaan genetis nan signifikan antaro populasi simpanse.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Gene study shows three distinct groups of chimpanzees|date=2007-04-20|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-04/uocm-gss042007.php|work=EurekAlert|access-date=2007-04-23|archive-date=2016-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192241/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-04/uocm-gss042007.php|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Tonjolan batulang diateh mato maagiah tampilan mundur pado dahi, jo iduangnyo data. Walaupun jo muluik manonjol, bibianyo hanyo mandorong kamuko katiko simpanse mancibia. Utak simpanse satangah dari ukuran utak manusia. Testikel simpanse labiah gadang untuak ukuran badannyo, jo kombinasi barek sakitar 110 gram dibandiangan jo gorilla 28 gram atau manusia 43 g. Hal iko sacaro umum diatribusikan pado kompetisi sperma karano sifek poliandri alamiah pado parilaku perkawinan simpanse.<ref name="rat_behavior"> {{Cite web|url=http://www.ratbehavior.org/testicles.htm|title=Why are rat testicles so big?|date=2003-2004|access-date=1 September 2009}}</ref> Simpanse mancapai maso puberti pado umua antaro 8 jo 10 tahun, sarato jarang iduik malabihi umua 40 di alam lia, tatapi diketahui iduik sampai 60 tahun salamo panangkaran. === Neoteny === Nancy Lynn Barrickman dari Departemen Evolutionary Psycholoy di Universitas Duke maklaim panamuan Brian T.Shea jo analisis multivariat bahwa Bonobo labiah ''neotenized'' dibandiangan simpanse biaso, jo maliek fitur saparti panjang batang tubuh nan labiah proporsional daro pado Bonobo. == Arga Ema == [[Berkas:Bonobo_009.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Bonobo]] Perbedaan anatomi antaro Simpanse biaso jo Bonobo hanyo saketek, tatapi dalam seksual jo parilaku sosial mereka mamiliki perbedaan nan jaleh. Simpanse biaso mangkonsumsi sagalo macam makanan, mamiliki kultur berburu sacara bakalompok sasamo pajantan mudo nan dipimpin dek jantan alfa, jo hubuangan sosial nan kompleks bana. Bonobo, disisi lain, umumnyo pamakan buah jo egaliter, indak malakukan kekerasan, matriarki, sifek mengerti sacaro seksual.<ref> {{Cite web|url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm|title=Bonobo social spacing|last=Courtney Laird|website=Davidson College|access-date=2008-03-10}}</ref> Bonobo diketahui acok malakukan seks, jo norma biseksualitas untuak jantan jo batino, sarato manggunoan seks untuak mambantu mancegah jo manyalasaian konflik. Grup simpanse nan babeda juo mamiliki kultur nan babeda dalam pamilihan tipe pakakeh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.janegoodall.com/chimp_central/chimpanzees/behavior/default.asp|title=Chimp Behavior|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927045315/http://www.janegoodall.com/chimp_central/chimpanzees/behavior/default.asp|archive-date=2007-09-27|access-date=2007-08-11|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Simpanse condong maliekan tingkat agresi nan labiah tinggi daripado Bonobo. <ref> {{Cite book|chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lDP4TPccgC8C&pg=PA30&dq=chimpanzee+bonobo+aggresion&ei=aJbQSJbULIH-sQPwlOHbAw&sig=ACfU3U0LoKGF-b2Q8gMffVix_d1xsHxFDA#PPA31,M1|title=Our Inner Ape|chapter=Apes in the family|last=de Waal|first=F|author-link=Frans de Waal|isbn=1594481962|year=2006|publisher=Riverhead Books|location=New York}}</ref> === Struktur sosial === Simpanse iduik dalam kalompok sosial multi-jantan jo multi-batino nan gadang nan disabuik jo komunitas. Dalam sabuah komunitas tadapek hierarki sosial nan jaleh nan didiktekan dek posisi dari satu individu jo pengaruh dari individu tersebut bagi nan lain. Simpanse iduik dalam sabuah hierarki nan labiah ramping nan dima labiah dari satu individu bisa mandominasi anggota lain dari tingkek labiah randah. Biasonyo ado jantan nan labiah dominan nan dijuluki jo jantan Alfa. Jantan Alfa adolah jantan jo tingkek paliang tinggi nan maatur kalompok jo maagiah parintah salamo tajadi nyo pasalisiahan. Dalam masyarakat simpanse 'jantan dominan' indak musti nan jantan paliang gadang atau nan paliang kuek tatapi jantan nan labiah manipulatif jo politis nan dapek maagiah pangaruh taadok kajadian dalam suatu kalompok. Simpanse jantan biasonyo mandapekan dominasi lewat pangaruh sakutu nan nio manyadioan dukuangan bagi individu tersebut kironyo beko tadapek pasalisiahan kakuatan. Jantan alfa biasonyo maliekan sifek sombong untuak maningkekan kuaso supayo taliek menggertak jo kuek sadapek mungkin. Hal iko batujuan untuak maintimidasi anggota lain nan bausaho maambiak alih kuaso jo manjago autoritas, sarato paralu bana bagi jantan alfa batahan pado status nan dimilikinyo. Simpanse paringkek-randah akan maagiah raso hormat jo gestur patuah dalam bahaso tubuh atau menjuluaan tangannyo sambia mangaluaan bunyi dengkur. Simpanse batino maagiah raso hormat pado jantan alfa jo memperlihatkan saparampek bagian balakangnyo. Simpanse batino juo mamiliki hierarki nan dipangaruhi dek posisi si batino dalam suatu kalompok. Dalam babarapo komunitas simpanse, batino mudo bisa mawarisi status tinggi dari ibu nan baparingkek-tinggi. Batino-batino juo ka mambantuak sakutu untuak mandominasi batino tingkek-randah. Babeda jo jantan nan tujuan utamo dari status dominasinyo yoitu untuak mandapaekan hak akses perkawinan jo takadang dominasi kekerasan taadok bawahan, nan batino mamparoleh status dominasi untuak mandapekan sumber saparti makanan. Batino tingkek-tinggi biasonyo mandapek akses patamo taadok sumber. Sacaro umum, kaduo kelamin mainginkan status dominan untuak maningkekan kadudukan sosial dalam suatu kalompok. Terkadang batinolah nan memilih jantan alfa. Bagi simpanse jantan supayo dapek status alfa, inyo musti mamparoleh panarimoan dari batino-batino dalam suatu komunitas. Batino-batino msuti mayakinkan bahwa kalompoknyo musti mamparoleh pasokan makanan nan cukuik. Dalam babarapo kasus, kalompok batino dominan akan mausia jantan alfa nan indak sasuai jo pilihan inyo jo ka mambantu jantan lain nan mereka liek bapotensi mamimpin kalompok sabagai jantan alfa nan sukses. === Inteligensi === [[Berkas:1911_EB_Chimpanzee_Brain.png|ka|jmpl|250x250px|Diagram dari otak. Pemetaan grup utama dari foci dalam ruang motor pada Simpanse]] Simpanse mambuek pakakeh jo manggunoannyo untuak mandapekan makan jo dipertontonkan; mereka mamiliki strategi baburu nan canggih nan mambutuahkan karajosamo, influensi jo tingkatan; inyo mamiliki status, manipulatif jo mampu mangicuah; inyo mampu baraja manggunoan simbol jo mamahami aspek dari bahaso manusia tamasuak beberapa sintaks relasi, konsep dari angko jo urutan numerik;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/teach/A105/lectures/A105L12.html|title=Chimpanzee intelligence|date=2000-02-23|publisher=[[Indiana University]]|access-date=2008-03-24|archive-date=2016-09-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917161331/http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/teach/A105/lectures/A105L12.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> sarato inyo bisa mambuek perencanaan spontan untuak kaadaan atau kajadian pado masa depan. ==== Panggunoan pakakeh ==== Salah satu panamuan nan penting adolah pado Oktober 1960 katiko Jane Goodall maobservasi panggunoan pakakeh di antaro simpanse. Panalitian nan paliang baru mengindikasikan bahwa panggunoan pakakeh batu pado simpanse tajadi sakitar 4.300 tahun lalu. Panggunoan pakakeh pado simpanse tamasuak manggali sarang rayap manggunoan pakakeh sabuah tungkek kayu gadang, jo manggunoan tungkek kayu ketek untuak mamanciang rayap kalua.<ref> {{Cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1006_041006_chimps.html|title=Chimps Shown Using Not Just a Tool but a "Tool Kit"|last=Bijal T.|date=2004-09-06|access-date=2010-01-20}}</ref> Panalitian nan paliang baru maungkap panggunoan pakakeh labiah canggih saparti galah, di mana Simpanse di Senegall maasah galah jo giginyo nan digunoan untuak manusuak Senegal Bushbaby lewat lubang ketek di pohon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070222/sc_nm/chimps_hunting_dc|title=Hunting chimps may change view of human evolution|last=Fox, M.|date=2007-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224115149/http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070222/sc_nm/chimps_hunting_dc|archive-date=2007-02-24|access-date=2007-02-22|dead-url=no}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iastate.edu/~nscentral/news/2007/feb/chimpstools.shtml|title=ISU anthropologist's study is first to report chimps hunting with tools|date=2007-02-22|publisher=Iowa State University News Service|access-date=2007-08-11|archive-date=2007-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816143403/http://www.iastate.edu/%7Enscentral/news/2007/feb/chimpstools.shtml|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sabalun panamuan panggunoan pakakeh pado simpanse, inyo dipicayo bahwa manusia satu-satunyo spesies nan mambuek jo manggunoan pakakeh, tetapi babarapo spesies pangguno-pakakeh lainnyo kini ko alah diketahui.<ref> {{Cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/animals/070212_chimp_tools.html|title=Chimps Learned Tool Use Long Ago Without Human Help|last=Whipps|first=Heather|date=2007-02-12|publisher=LiveScience|access-date=2007-08-11}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://janegoodall.net/chimp_central/chimpanzees/gombe/tool.asp|title=Tool Use|publisher=Jane Goodall Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520045747/http://www.janegoodall.net/chimp_central/chimpanzees/gombe/tool.asp|archive-date=2007-05-20|access-date=2007-08-11|dead-url=yes}}</ref> ==== Pembuatan-sarang ==== Pambuatan-sarang, takadang dianggap sabagai panggunoan pakakeh, tacaliak pado simpanse nan mambangun sarang di pohon jo manyatuan dahan dari satu atau labiah pohon. Hal iko mambantuak bagian nan paliang penting dalam parilaku, tautamo dalam kasus katiko ibu nan maajaan parlilaku iko ka anaknyo. Sarang tadiri dari matras, didukuang dek fondasi nan kuek, jo dilapisi jo daun-daun nan lembut jo rantiang. Sarang dibuek dalam pohon jo diameter minimal 5 m nan talatak pado katinggian 3 – 5 m. Siang jo malam sarang dibuek. Sarang bisa tadapek dalam kalompok.<ref name="WranghamSciences1996"> {{Cite book|last=Wrangham|first=Richard W.|title=Chimpanzee cultures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IzBIHPeE45IC&pg=PA115|access-date=2 July 2011|year=1996|publisher=Chicago Academy of Sciences, Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674116634|pages=115-125}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|30em}} [[Kategori:Primata]] [[Kategori:Category:Simpanse]] [[Kategori:Category:Mamalia di Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Category:Mamalia Afrika]] seh545e1ceb4z4j62ddnvwgdf8iw6s7 0 336254 3351203 3348876 2026-08-05T19:46:29Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351203 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox ethnic group|group=Urang Pilipino<br>''Mga Pilipino''|image=[[Berkas:Corazon Aquino 1986.jpg|92x60px|Corazón Aquino]] [[Berkas:PresidentAguinaldo.jpg|92x60px|Emilio Aguinaldo]] [[Berkas:Manny Pacquiao.jpg|92x60px|Manny Pacquiao]]<br/>[[Berkas:Julian Felipe.jpg|92x60px|Julian Felipe]] [[Berkas:Andrés Bonifacio.jpg|92x60px|Andrés Bonifacio]] [[Berkas:Carlos Romulo.jpg|92x60px|Carlos P. Romulo]] [[Berkas:Mutya Buena.jpg|92x60px|Mutya Buena]]<br/>[[Berkas:Ramon-Magsaysay-01.jpg|92x58px|Ramon Magsaysay]] [[Berkas:Juan Luna self portrait.gif|92x58px|Juan Luna]] [[Berkas:Imelda Marcos.jpg|92x58px|Imelda Marcos]]<br>[[Berkas:Ferdinand Marcos at the White House.jpg|92x60px|Ferdinand Marcos]] [[Berkas:Charlene Gonzales.jpg|92x60px|Charlene Gonzales]] [[Berkas:Gomburza.jpg|92x60px|Gomburza]] [[Berkas:Lea Salonga2.jpg|92x60px|Lea Salonga]]<br/>[[Berkas:General Manuel Tinio.jpg|92x60px|Manuel Tinio]] [[Berkas:Melchora Aquino (portrait).jpg|92x60px|Melchora Aquino]] [[Berkas:President Benigno S. Aquino III.jpg|92x60px|Benigno Aquino III]] <!-- [[File:Lakandula.JPG|92x68px|Lakandula]] --> <br>[[Berkas:Quezon.jpg|92x60px|Manuel L. Quezon]] [[Berkas:Jose Rizal full.jpg|92x60px|José Rizal]] [[Berkas:Statue of Lapu-Lapu in Mactan island, Philippines.jpg|92x60px|Lapu-Lapu]] |caption=<small> Barih partamo: [[Corazon Aquino]] · [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] · [[Lorenzo Ruiz]] · [[Manny Pacquiao]] <br> Barih kaduo: [[Julian Felipe]] · [[Andrés Bonifacio]] · [[Carlos P. Romulo]] · [[Mutya Buena]] <br> Barih katigo: [[Ramon Magsaysay]] · [[Juan Luna]] · [[Epifanio de los Santos]] · [[Imelda Marcos]] <br> Barih kaampek: [[Ferdinand Marcos]] · [[Charlene Gonzales]] · [[Mariano Gómez]] · [[Lea Salonga]] <br> Barih kalimo: [[Manuel Tinio]] · [[Melchora Aquino]] · [[Benigno Aquino III]] · <!-- [[Lakandula]] --> <br> Barih kaanam: [[Manuel L. Quezon]] · [[José Rizal]] · [[Lapu-Lapu]] · [[Pedro Calungsod]]|pop=116,000,000<ref>Combination of Filipinos living in the Philippines and Filipinos living abroad (OFW)</ref>|region1={{flag|Filipina}}|pop1=103.775.002<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719222229/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html |date=2015-07-19 }} Central Intelligence Agency.</ref>|region2={{flag|Amerika Serikat}}|pop2=3.416.840<ref>[http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-reg=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:038&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format= Filipino Statistics: US] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028071054/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-reg=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:038&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format= |date=2011-10-28 }} US Census Bureau. Retrieved 30 June 2009</ref>|region3={{flagcountry|Saudi Arabia}}|pop3=1.066.401<ref name=filipino1>[http://www.poea.gov.ph/stats/stats2007.pdf Stock Estimates of Overseas Filipinos 2007 Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306090850/http://www.poea.gov.ph/stats/stats2007.pdf |date=2009-03-06 }}. Philippine Oversea Employment Administration. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</ref>|region4={{flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}}|pop4=700.000<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/dubai-filipinos-rejoice-as-cebu-pacific-arrives-with-cheap-deals-2013-01-21-1.491817 |title=archive copy |access-date=2020-11-13 |archive-date=2017-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311125417/http://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/dubai-filipinos-rejoice-as-cebu-pacific-arrives-with-cheap-deals-2013-01-21-1.491817 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>|region5={{flagcountry|Malaysia}}|pop5=636.544<ref>[http://www.ops.gov.ph/namsummit2003/backgrounder.htm Filipinos in Malaysia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423065955/http://www.ops.gov.ph/namsummit2003/backgrounder.htm |date=2009-04-23 }}. Office Press Secretary of the Philippines. Retrieved 22 July 2009.</ref>|region6={{flagcountry|Canada}}|pop6=436.190<ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Table=1&Data=Count&StartRec=1&Sort=2&Display=Page Filipino Canadian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326025829/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Table=1&Data=Count&StartRec=1&Sort=2&Display=Page |date=2009-03-26 }} Statistics Canada. Retrieved 30 June 2009</ref>|region7={{flagcountry|Japan}}|pop7=305.972<ref>{{cite news|title=Department of Foreign Affairs to Filipinos in Japan 'Heed advisories'|location=Japan|date=12 March 2011|url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/03/12/11/dfa-pinoys-japan-heed-advisories/|access-date=13 November 2020|archive-date=25 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125020555/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/03/12/11/dfa-pinoys-japan-heed-advisories/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>|region8={{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}|pop8=203.035<ref name=filipino1/>|region9={{flagcountry|Mexico}}|pop9=200.000<ref>[http://www.mb.com.ph/issues/2005/01/28/OPED2005012827368.html Filipinos in Mexican History]</ref>|region10={{flagcountry|Qatar}}|pop10=195.558<ref name=filipino1/>|region11={{flagcountry|Kuwait}}|pop11=139.802<ref name=filipino1/>|region12={{flagcountry|Italy}}|pop12=134.154<ref name=istat>[http://demo.istat.it/str2010/query.php?lingua=ita&Rip=S0&paese=A3&submit=Tavola Cittadini Stranieri. Bilancio demografico anno 2010 e popolazione residente al 31 Dicembre - Tutti i paesi di cittadinanza, Italia]</ref>|region13={{flagcountry|Hong Kong}}|pop13=130.810<ref>[http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2005/en/fact_01.htm Filipinos in Hong Kong] Hong Kong Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 30 June 2009.</ref>|region14={{flagcountry|Australia}}|pop14=129.400<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/00FB61D4FA7DA54BCA2572360001105C?opendocument Filipino Australian] Australia Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 30 June 2009</ref>|region15={{flagcountry|Spain}}|pop15=115.362<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.ph/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=8515|title=PGMA meets members of Filipino community in Spain|publisher=Philippines.Gov.Ph|accessdate=July 1, 2006}}</ref>|region16={{flag|Taiwan}}|pop16=74.483<ref>[[Demographics of Taiwan#Foreign residents]]</ref>|region17={{flagcountry|Israel}}|pop17=70.000<ref>{{cite web|title=Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/newhodaot/hodaa_template.html?hodaa=201020168|publisher=Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>|region18={{flagcountry|South Korea}}|pop18=63.464<ref>[http://www.korea.net/korea/kor_loca.asp?code=L03 Filipinos in South Korea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105063058/http://www.korea.net/korea/kor_loca.asp?code=L03 |date=2010-01-05 }}. Korean Culture and Information Service (KOIS). Retrieved 21 July 2009.</ref>|region19={{flagcountry|New Zealand}}|pop19=16.938<ref>[http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/2006-census-data/quickstats-about-culture-identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity.htm?page=para015Master Filipinos in New Zealand. Statistics New Zealand] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511105223/http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/2006-census-data/quickstats-about-culture-identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity.htm?page=para015Master |date=2008-05-11 }}. Retrieved 2 July 2009</ref>|region20={{flagcountry|Nigeria}}|pop20=16.000<ref>[http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?rop3=109692 People: Filipino], The Joshua Project{{Verify credibility|date=October 2009}}</ref>|region21={{flagcountry|Ireland}}|pop21=12.791<ref name="CSO Emigration">{{cite web|url=http://www.cso.ie/en/media/csoie/census/documents/census2011profile6/Profile%206%20Migration%20and%20Diversity%20Commentary.pdf|title=CSO Emigration|publisher=Census Office Ireland|accessdate=January 29, 2013}}</ref>|region22={{flagcountry|Norway}}|pop22=12.262<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssb.no/emner/02/01/10/innvbef/tab-2009-04-30-08.html|title=8 Folkemengde, etter norsk / utenlandsk statsborgerskap og landbakgrunn 1. januar 2009|publisher=Statistisk sentralbyra (Statistics Norway)|accessdate=2009|archive-date=2009-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515130013/http://www.ssb.no/emner/02/01/10/innvbef/tab-2009-04-30-08.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref>|region23={{flagcountry|Indonesia}}|pop23=4.800<ref name="OPS">{{citation|chapter=The Filipinos in Indonesia|url=http://www.ops.gov.ph/indonesia2001/backgrounder.htm#THE%20FILIPINOS|title=Backgrounder: Indonesia|publisher=Office of the Press Secretary|publication-place=Philippines|date=2001|accessdate=2008-10-07|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415024743/http://www.ops.gov.ph/indonesia2001/backgrounder.htm#THE%20FILIPINOS|archivedate=2008-04-15|dead-url=no}}</ref>|region24={{flagcountry|Pakistan}}|pop24=3.000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsterandcritics.com/news/southasia/news/article_1371134.php/Philippines_monitors_condition_of_Filipino_workers_in_Pakistan|title=Philippines monitors condition of Filipino workers in Pakistan|date=5 November 2007|accessdate=19 December 2009|archive-date=26 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826150806/http://www.monsterandcritics.com/news/southasia/news/article_1371134.php/Philippines_monitors_condition_of_Filipino_workers_in_Pakistan|dead-url=yes}}</ref>|region25={{flagcountry|Thailand}}|pop25=1.000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsterandcritics.com/news/southasia/news/article_1371134.php/Philippines_monitors_condition_of_Filipino_workers_in_Pakistan|title=Philippines monitors condition of Filipino workers in Pakistan|date=5 November 2007|accessdate=19 December 2009|archive-date=26 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826150806/http://www.monsterandcritics.com/news/southasia/news/article_1371134.php/Philippines_monitors_condition_of_Filipino_workers_in_Pakistan|dead-url=yes}}</ref>|languages=[[Bahaso Filipino]], [[Bahaso Inggirih|Inggirih]]; [[Bahaso Spanyol|Spanyol]], [[Bahaso Arab|Arab]]|religions=[[Kristen]] (kabanyakan [[Katolik Roma]], jo [[Protestan]]), [[Islam di Filipina|Islam]], [[Buddha]], [[Agamo tradisional]], atau agamo lain.|related=lain-lain Asia Tenggara [[Urang Austronesia]].}}'''Urang Pilipino''' ([[Bahaso Tagalog|Tagalog]]: '''''Mga Pilipino'''''; [[Bahaso Filipino|Filipino]]: '''''Mga Filipino''''') marupokan sakalompok urang nan tingga di [[Filipina|Pilipina]], salah ciek nagara nan talatak di [[Asia Tenggara]]. Ado sabanyak 101 juto urang Filipino tingga di [[Filipina|Pilipina]] salabiahnyo sabanyak 11 juto urang tingga di lua Pilipina. Ado sabanyak 180 bahaso digunokan di [[Filipina|Pilipina]], kabanyakan mareka babicaro dalam rumpun [[Bahaso Austronesia|bahaso Austronesia.]]<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PH List of Spoken Languages in the Philippines]</ref> Kabanyakan mareka babicaro dalam [[bahaso Inggirih]] sabagai [[bahaso kaduo]] apolai ado bahaso-bahaso [[Bahaso Filipino|Filipino]]. Mayoritas urang Pilipino baagamo [[Kristen]], dangan [[Islam]] sabagai agamo minoritas di [[Mindanao]]. Karano pangaruah kolonial, kabudayoan Pilipino disirap dari panjajah Spanyol, Amerika, jo kabudayoan asli.<ref>[http://pinas.dlsu.edu.ph/culture/culture.html Culture of the Philippines]</ref> == Tabik == * {{cite journal |author=Peter Bellwood |title=The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_1991-07_265_1/page/88 |journal=Scientific American |date= July 1991 |volume=265 |pages=88–93 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88 |ref=harv |issue=1}} * {{cite book|author=Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James; & Tryon, Darrell|title=The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives|publisher=Department of Anthropology, Australian National University|year=1995|isbn=0-7315-2132-3}} * {{cite journal |author=Peter Bellwood |title=Taiwan and the Prehistory of the Austronesians-speaking Peoples |journal=Review of Archaeology |year=1998 |volume=18 |pages=39–48 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |author=Peter Bellwood & Alicia Sánchez-Mazas |title=Human Migrations in Continental East Asia and Taiwan: Genetic, Linguistic, and Archaeological Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_2005-06_46_3/page/480 |journal=Current Anthropology |date=June 2005 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=480–485 |doi=10.1086/430018 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |author=David Blundell |title=Austronesian Disperal |journal=Newsletter of Chinese Ethnology |volume=35 |pages=1–26 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |author=Robert Blust |title=The Austronesian Homeland: A Linguistic Perspective |journal=Asian Perspectives |year=1985 |volume=20 |pages=46–67 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |author=Peter Fuller |title=Asia Pacific Research |publisher=Canberra, Australia: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies |year=2002 |work=Reading the Full Picture |url=http://rspas.anu.edu.au/qb/articleFile.php?searchterm=3-4-3 |accessdate=28 July 2005 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927085103/http://rspas.anu.edu.au/qb/articleFile.php?searchterm=3-4-3 |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite web |title=Homepage of linguist Dr. Lawrence Reid |url=http://www2.hawaii.edu/~reid/ |accessdate=28 July 2005}} * {{cite journal |author=Malcolm Ross & [[Andrew Pawley]] |title=Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-anthropology_1993_22/page/425 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |year=1993 |volume=22 |pages= 425–459 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.22.100193.002233 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Scott|first=William Henry|authorlink=William Henry Scott (historian)|title=Prehispanic Source Materials for the study of Philippine History|publisher=New Day Publishers|year=1984|accessdate=2008-08-05|url=http://books.google.com/?id=bR2XAQAACAAJ |isbn=978-971-10-0227-5|ref=harv}} ISBN 978-971-10-0226-8. * {{cite journal |author=John Edward Terrell |title=Introduction: 'Austronesia' and the great Austronesian migration |journal=World Archaeology |year= Dec. 2004 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=586–591 |doi=10.1080/0043824042000303764 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Zaide|first=Sonia M.|title=The Philippines: A Unique Nation|publisher=All-Nations Publishing|year=1999|url=http://books.google.com/?id=otdEGQAACAAJ|ref=CITEREFZaide1994|origyear=1994|isbn=971-642-071-4}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Pilipina]] 083nwl9h0acqjbaobhb5smn4wlri4hs 0 336385 3351224 3346277 2026-08-05T20:20:19Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351224 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Vertigo posisi paroksismal jinak|risks=Umua labiah gaek, kapalo tarantuak<ref name=NIH2015/>|frequency=2,4% <ref name=Bh2008/>|prognosis=Cegak dalam etongan ari inggo bulan<ref name=NORD2020>{{cite web |title=Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo |url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/benign-paroxysmal-positional-vertigo/ |website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders) |accessdate=1 Desember 2020 |archive-date=2020-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215044151/https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/benign-paroxysmal-positional-vertigo/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref>|medication=|treatment=[[Manuver Epley]] atau [[uji Brandt–Daroff]]<ref name=NIH2015/><ref name=Cochrane2014/>|prevention=|differential=[[Labirinitis]], [[panyakik Ménière]], [[strok]], [[migrain vestibular]]<ref name=NIH2015/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferri|first1=Fred F.|title=Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2017 E-Book: 5 Books in 1|date=2016|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323448383|page=170|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRhCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908154120/https://books.google.ca/books?id=rRhCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|archive-date=2017-09-08}}</ref>|diagnosis=Hasia [[Uji Dix–Hallpike]] positif sasudah sagalo kamungkinan panyabab diilangkan <ref name=Bh2008/>|causes=|image=Balance Disorder Illustration A.png|types=|duration=Episode kurang dalam saminik<ref name=NIH2015/>|onset=50-an inggo 70-an<ref name=Dick2014/>|complications=|symptoms=Kapalo pasiang baputa nan dipangaruahi parubahan gerakan<ref name=Bh2008/>|field=[[Talingo Hiduang Tenggorok]]|caption=Tampak lua labirin talingo dalam.|deaths=}}{{Pambantahan medis}} '''Vertigo posisi paroksismal jinak''' atau '''benign paroxysmal positional vertigo''' ('''BPPV''') adolah kalainan nan disababkan dek masalah pado [[Talingo|talingo dalam]].<ref name="NIH2015">{{cite web|url=https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/balance-disorders|title=Balance Disorders|date=August 10, 2015|website=National Institute for Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727230246/https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/balance-disorders|archive-date=27 July 2016|access-date=1 Desember 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Gejala utamonyo [[vertigo]]. Vertigo marupokan raso paniang baputa sarato barulang nan pado panyakik ko dipangaruahi parubahan gerakan jo posisi. Satiok episode paniang dapek balansuang dalam kurang dari saminik. Gejala lain nan sato muncua adolah [[mual]]. BPPV adolah jinih vertigo nan paliang acok di masyarakaik.<ref name="Dick2014">{{cite book|last1=Dickson|first1=Gretchen|title=Primary Care ENT, An Issue of Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice, Volume 41, Issue 1 of The Clinics: Internal Medicine|date=2014|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323287173|page=115|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JczaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115|access-date=1 Desember 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815220701/https://books.google.ca/books?id=JczaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115|archive-date=15 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Bh2008">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bhattacharyya N, Baugh RF, Orvidas L, Barrs D, Bronston LJ, Cass S, Chalian AA, Desmond AL, Earll JM, Fife TD, Fuller DC, Judge JO, Mann NR, Rosenfeld RM, Schuring LT, Steiner RW, Whitney SL, Haidari J|title=Clinical practice guideline: benign paroxysmal positional vertigo|journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery|volume=139|issue=5 Suppl 4|pages=S47-81|date=November 2008|pmid=18973840|doi=10.1016/j.otohns.2008.08.022|s2cid=16175316|lay-url=http://eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-11/aaoo-edr102808.php|lay-date=2008-11-01|lay-source=AAO-HNS}}</ref> BPPV disababkan katiko material babantuak batu [[kalsium karbonat]] dari makula dalam dindiang utrikulus (masih dalam labirin talingo dalam) masuak ka salah satu kanal semisirkular nan kudian mangirim sinyal respon ka saraf. Ado tigo kanal nan ado di talingo dalam dan bisa badampak di katigo kanal. Jinih BPPV nan paliang acok adolah nan takanai di kanal posterior. Diagnosis panyakik ko ditagakkan manuruik anamnesis, gejala kllinis, sarato dikonfirmasi malalui uji posisi atau manuver diagnosis.<ref name="Bh20082">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bhattacharyya N, Baugh RF, Orvidas L, Barrs D, Bronston LJ, Cass S, Chalian AA, Desmond AL, Earll JM, Fife TD, Fuller DC, Judge JO, Mann NR, Rosenfeld RM, Schuring LT, Steiner RW, Whitney SL, Haidari J|title=Clinical practice guideline: benign paroxysmal positional vertigo|journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery|volume=139|issue=5 Suppl 4|pages=S47-81|date=November 2008|pmid=18973840|doi=10.1016/j.otohns.2008.08.022|s2cid=16175316|lay-url=http://eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-11/aaoo-edr102808.php|lay-date=2008-11-01|lay-source=AAO-HNS}}</ref> Sacaro umum untuak maubek BPPV adolah jo maningkekan kualitas iduik sarato mangurangi risiko jatuah nan tajadi pado pasien. Tatalaksana BPPB sacaro umum tabagi duo, yaitu tatalaksana non-ubek nan di antaronyo ado baragam manuver sarato tatalaksana jo ubek.<ref name="NIH20152">{{cite web|url=https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/balance-disorders|title=Balance Disorders|date=August 10, 2015|website=National Institute for Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727230246/https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/balance-disorders|archive-date=27 July 2016|access-date=1 Desember 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cochrane2014">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hilton MP, Pinder DK|title=The Epley (canalith repositioning) manoeuvre for benign paroxysmal positional vertigo|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=12|pages=CD003162|date=December 2014|pmid=25485940|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003162.pub3}}</ref> == Patofisiologi == Vertigo posisi paroksismal jinak muncua dek [[otolit]] (batu talingo), nan tadiri ateh kalsium karbonat nan barasa dati makula pado utrikulus, lapeh dan bapindah dalam ciek kanal dari tigo kanal semisirkular talingo dalam. Otolith ko duo kali labiah padek pado cairan endolimfe, sainggo dapek bapindah sasuai tarikan gravitasi jo pagarakan lainnyo. Hal iko maransang ampula dalam kanal dan mambuek vertigo.<ref name="Cochrane2014" /> == Gejala == Gejala nan dikaluahkan adolah vertigo nan datang tibo-tibo wakatu parubahan posisi kapalo. Sabagian pasien dapek mangatokan sacaro tapek posisi tatantu nan mambuek kaluahan vertigonyo. Biasaonyo vertigo dirasokan sangek barek, balansuang singkek hanyo babarapo datiak sajo walaupun pandarito marasokannyo labiah lamo.<ref name=":0">Nagel P & Gurkov R, Dasar-dasar Ilmu THT, edisi 2. EGC, Jakarta 2009.</ref> == Diagnosis == Diagnosis dapek ditagakkan dari anamnesis kaluahan pandarito jo pamaresoan fisik. Pamaresoan fisik nan dapek dilakukan yaitu [[uji Dix-Hallpike]]. Uji ko hanyo buliah dilakukan pado pandarito nan indak punyo masalah lihia jo pungguang. Tujuan dari uji ko adolah untuak maransang bangkiknyo vertigo sarato untuak mancaliak adonyo nistagmus. [[Nistagmus]] adolah kondisi bola mato manggarik capek. Pado urang normal nistagmus dapek muncua wakatu ado garakan provokasi ka balakang, tapi wakatu garakan alah sudah indak ka tampak lai nistagmus. Samantaro pado pandarito BPPV ka tampak nistagmus nan muncuanyo lambek, kiro-kiro 40 datiak. Jikok nistagmus ilang dalam wakatu kurang dati saminik, mangko panyabab BPPVnyo adolah kanalitiasis, tapi kok labiah dari saminik, mangko panyababnyo adolah kupulolitiasis.<ref name="Schubert">{{cite book|first1=Michael C.|last1=Schubert|chapter=Vestibular Disorders|chapter-url={{Google books|Vs6FDwAAQBAJ|page=918|plainurl=yes}}|pages=918–49|editor1-first=Susan B.|editor1-last=O'Sullivan|editor2-first=Thomas J.|editor2-last=Schmitz|editor3-first=George D.|editor3-last=Fulk|title=Physical Rehabilitation|edition=7th|isbn=978-0-8036-9464-4|date=2019-01-25}}</ref><ref name="Korres">{{cite journal|vauthors=Korres SG, Balatsouras DG|title=Diagnostic, pathophysiologic, and therapeutic aspects of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_otolaryngology-head-and-neck-surgery_2004-10_131_4/page/438|journal=Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery|volume=131|issue=4|pages=438–44|date=October 2004|pmid=15467614|doi=10.1016/j.otohns.2004.02.046|s2cid=28018301}}</ref> Tes lain nan dapek dilakukan adolah tes kalori. Tes kalori dilakukan jo mamakai duo macam aia, yaitu aia dingin jo aia angek. Suhu aia nan dingin yaitu 30^o, sadangkan suhu aia nan angek yaitu 44^oC. Kaduo aia ka dialiakan ka liang talingo salam wakatu 40 datiak. Di satiok salasai pamaresoan, pasien diistirahaikkan salamo 5 minik dan dicaliak ado indaknyo nistagmus pado pandarito.<ref name=":0" /> == Tatalaksana == BPPV adolah panyakik nan dapek cegak sacaro spontan dalam babarapo bulan. Namun alah banyak panalitian nan mambuktikan baso terapi jo manuver reposisi partikel (''Particle Repositioning Maneuver'') sacaro efektif mailangkan vertigo pado BPPV, maningkekan kualitas iduik, sarato mangurangi risiko jatuah pado pasien. Kaefektifan manuver-manuver nan ado baragam dari 70-100%. Ado efek sampiang dari malakukan manuver, cando mual, muntah, vertigo, jo nistagmus. Salapeh malakukan manuver andaknyo pasien tatap dalam posisi duduak minimal 10 minik untuak mailakan risiko jatuah. Manuver-manuver nan bisa dipakai antaro lain Epley, Sermont, jo Brandt–Daroff.<ref name="Cochrane20142">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hilton MP, Pinder DK|title=The Epley (canalith repositioning) manoeuvre for benign paroxysmal positional vertigo|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=12|pages=CD003162|date=December 2014|pmid=25485940|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003162.pub3}}</ref><ref name="Gold_PC-BPPV">{{cite web|url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6tt80ns|title=Posterior Canal - BPPV: Epley and Semont maneuvers|last1=Gold|first1=Daniel|website=Neuro-Ophthalmology Virtual Education Library (NOVEL): Daniel Gold Collection|publisher=Spencer S. Eccles Health Sciences Library|accessdate=1 Desember 2020|ref=Gold_PC-BPPV|archive-date=2021-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828002134/https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6tt80ns|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Manuver Epley adolah manuver nan paliang acok digunokan pado BPPV tipe kanal vertikal (posterior). Manuver ko dapek mamindahkan otolith jo bantuan gravitasi. Dapek dilakukan baiak di klinik atau diajakan untuak dilatiah di rumah. Pasien dimintak untuak manolehkan kapalo ka sisi nan sakik inggo mambantuak suduik 40o, kudian kapalo pasien digantuang dan dipatahankan 1-2 minik. Lalu ditolehkan ka sisi sabaliaknyo jo suduik 90o, dipatahankan 30-40 datiak inggo pasien kabliak ka posisi samulo.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=von Brevern M, Seelig T, Radtke A, Tiel-Wilck K, Neuhauser H, Lempert T|title=Short-term efficacy of Epley's manoeuvre: a double-blind randomised trial|journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry|volume=77|issue=8|pages=980–2|date=August 2006|pmid=16549410|pmc=2077628|doi=10.1136/jnnp.2005.085894}}</ref><ref name="Home2004">{{cite journal|vauthors=Radtke A, von Brevern M, Tiel-Wilck K, Mainz-Perchalla A, Neuhauser H, Lempert T|title=Self-treatment of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo: Semont maneuver vs Epley procedure|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_2004-07-13_63_1/page/150|journal=Neurology|volume=63|issue=1|pages=150–2|date=July 2004|pmid=15249626|doi=10.1212/01.WNL.0000130250.62842.C9|doi-access=free}}</ref> Panatalaksanaan jo ubek pado BPPV indak sacaro rutin dilakukan. Ubek dipakai untuak maatasi gejala-gejala vertigo, mual, jo muntah nan barek nan biaso tajadi pado pasien. Ubek nan dapek dipakai yaitu supresan vertibular, anataro lain golongan benzodiazepin (diazepan, klonazepam) jo antihistamin (meklizin, difenhidramin). Benzodiazepin dapek mangurangi sensasi baputa, walau dapek mangganggu kompensasi sentral pado kondisi vestibular perifer. Antihistamin mampunyoi efek supresif pado pusek muntah sainggo dapek mangurangi mual jo muntah.<ref name="meds">{{cite journal|vauthors=Huppert D, Strupp M, Mückter H, Brandt T|title=Which medication do I need to manage dizzy patients?|journal=Acta Oto-Laryngologica|volume=131|issue=3|pages=228–41|date=March 2011|pmid=21142898|doi=10.3109/00016489.2010.531052|s2cid=32591311}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Single Treatment Approaches to Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo|last=Herdman|first5=D. E.|last4=Proctor|first4=L. R.|last3=Zee|first3=D. S.|last2=Tusa|first2=R. J.|first=S. J.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archotol.1993.01880160098015|doi=10.1001/archotol.1993.01880160098015|issue=4|volume=119|pages=450–454|issn=0886-4470|date=1993-04-01|journal=Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery|last5=Mattox}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Panyakik talingo]] 79zwwl5iuaoszwmh6m9m87okoj5o945 0 336392 3351317 2505297 2026-08-05T23:14:00Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox spesies|item = Q71516}} '''Unto arab''' (''Camelus dromedarius)'' atau disabuik pulo unto arab marupoan jinih unto nan mamiliki punuak di pungguang nyo. Unto arab ditandoi jo lihia nan malangkuang sararto jo mamiliki ciek punuak nan tingginyo sakitar 20 cm. Punuak ko bafungsi sabagai tampek cadangan makanan nan barisi lemak. Punuak ko tabantuak dari babarapo jaringan fibrosa sarato jaringan lemak. Pado badannyo tadapek rambuik nan bawarna coklat. Unto arab alah ado samanjak 4000 tahun nan lalu, sarato patamo kali dijumpoi di Semenanjung Arab. Unto iko iduik di daerah nan kariang nan tasebar di [[Semenanjung Arab]] jo wilayah [[Afrika]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kumparan.com/kumparantravel/cuma-di-arab-saudi-unta-bisa-sama-kerennya-dengan-model-papan-atas-1sT7XR5AEck|title=Cuma di Arab Saudi, Unta Bisa Sama Kerennya dengan Model Papan Atas|website=kumparan|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-12-12}}</ref> == Sajarah jo pasebaran == Unto arab ditamukan patamo kali di Semanjung arab jo di Somalia sakitar 4000 tahun nan lalu. Populasi unto arab ko nan paliang banyak adolah pado gurun sahara jo di Semenanjung arab. Unto taseba juo di Afrika bagian utara, [[Ethiopia]], sarato di [[Asia]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wardeh|first=M. F.|title=Classification of the dromedary camels|journal=Camel Science|year=2004|volume=1|pages=1–7|citeseerx = 10.1.1.137.2350 }}</ref> Unto arab ko tingga pado daerah nan kariang sarato ndak bisa iduik di tampek nan lambok.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.oie.int/doc/ged/D8489.PDF|title=Research on the dromedary in Africa|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=2020-12-12}}</ref> Unto ko mulai takana sajak Panaklukan Islam di Afrika utara karano bisa dibaok untuak pai bajalan jauah sarato dapek mambaok barang nan banyak.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=zexq5Hl42mQC&q=camel&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=camel&f=false|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2010-11-04|isbn=978-0-521-19677-2|language=en|first=Walter E.|last=Kaegi}}</ref> Salain untuak transportasi, dagiang jo susu unto ko dijadian makanan jo minuman di nagara Libya.<ref>{{Cite book|title=North Africa, contemporary politics and economic development|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9784002|publisher=Croom Helm|date=1984|location=London|isbn=0-312-57812-1|oclc=9784002|last=Lawless, Richard I.|last2=Findlay, Allan M.}}</ref> Pado tahun 1020 AD unto ko dikirim jo diperkenalkan di [[Spanyol]]. Unto ko dikirim juo ka babarapo nagara lain nyo saparti [[Turki]], [[Italia]], [[Parancih]], [[Amerika Utara|Amerika]], jo [[Australia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/2/4/561|title=The Canarian Camel: A Traditional Dromedary Population|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=2020-12-12}}</ref> === Afrika === Populasi unto arab nan paliang banyak adolah di Afrika, populasi unto disiko ko mancapai 80% dari total populasi di saluruah dunia. Populasi unto ko paliang banyak tadapek di nagara Somalia, Sudan, jo Ethiopia.<ref name=":0" /> Di Afrika timur tadapek 10 juta popuasi unto arab sdangkan di Afrika barat tadapek 2,14 juta unto arab sarato di Afrika utara ado 760.000 ribu unto arab. Data ko badasarkan buku tahunan dari [[FAO|Organisasi pangan jo patanian]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Food and Agriculture Organization|first1=United Nations|title=Food and Agriculture Organization Production Yearbook|date=1984|publisher=United Nations|location=Rome|author1-link=Food and Agriculture Organization}}</ref> === Asia === Populasi unto arab ko banyak tadapek di [[Asia Tangah|Asia tangah]], saparti nagara India jo Pakistan. Di India, unto arab ko mamiliki populasi sabanyak 670.000.<ref name=geer>{{cite book|last=Geer|first=A.|title=Animals in Stone : Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time|year=2008|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-16819-0|issn=0169-9377|pages=144–9}}</ref> == Karakteristik == Unto arab iko marupoan unto nan paliang tinggi diantaro dibandiangan jo jinih unto nan lain. Unto arab nan jantan rato rato mamiliki barek 400 - 600 kg jo mamiliki tinggi sakitar 1.8 m - 2m. Sadangkan unto batino mamiliki barek 300 - 540 kg jo tinggo 1.7 m - 1.9 m.<ref name="mammal">{{cite journal|last=Kohler-Rollefson|first=I.U.|title=''Camelus dromedarius''|journal=[[Mammalian Species]]|date=1991|issue=375|pages=1–8|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-375-01-0001.pdf|doi=10.2307/3504297|jstor=3504297|access-date=2020-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521140058/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-375-01-0001.pdf|archive-date=2013-05-21|url-status=dead}} {{open access}}</ref> Hewan iko mamiliki lihia nan malangkuang, dado nan samoik sarato mamiliki ciek punuak. Unto ko mamiliki rambuik pado umumnyo bawarna coklat, tetapi ado juo nan bawarna itam atau putiah. Rambuik ko banyak tadapek di bagian di bawah dagu, di bahu, sarato di bagian punuak nyo. Di bagian lakang unto ko mamiliki ikua nan panjang. Unto arab ko mamiliki tinggi punuak sakitar 20 cm. Dibandiangan jo jinih unto lainnyo, Unto arab mamiliki badan nan labiah gadang baiak dari segi punuak, ikua nan panjang, talingo nan ketek, sarato rambuik nan pendek.<ref name="Rafferty">{{cite book|editor1-last=Rafferty|editor1-first=J.P.|title=Grazers|date=2011|publisher=Britannica Educational Pub.|location=New York, USA|isbn=978-1-615-30336-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/grazers0000raff/page/181 181]|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/grazers0000raff/page/181}}</ref> == Reproduksi == Unto arab marupoan hewan nan pakambangbiakan nyo tamasuak lambek dibandiangan domba jo kambiang.<ref name=chatty>{{cite journal|last1=Chatty|first1=D.|title=Structural forces of pastoral nomadism, with special reference to camel pastoral nomadism|journal=Institute of Social Studies (The Hague) Occasional Papers|date=1972|issue=16|pages=1–96}}</ref> Unto ko mamiliki maso kawin di paujuang taun kiro-kiro 3 - 5 bulan tarakhia sarato untuak unto nan alah tuo di akhia tahun.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Abdel Rahim|first1=S.E.|title=Studies on the age of puberty of male camels (''Camelus dromedarius'') in Saudi Arabia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_veterinary-journal_1997-07_154_1/page/79|journal=Veterinary Journal (London, England : 1997)|date=1997|volume=154|issue=1|pages=79–83|pmid=9265856|doi=10.1016/s1090-0233(05)80011-5}}</ref> Proses pambuahan unto ko bakisar 3 -5 tahun. Pado maso kawin, unto jantan mambayakan sperma di ikua nyo untuak mancari perhatian unto batino.<ref name=pilters>{{cite journal|last1=H.|first1=Pilters|last2=T.|first2=Krumbach|last3=W.G.|first3=Kükenthal|title=Das verhalten der Tylopoden|journal=Handbuch der Zoologie|date=1956|volume=8|issue=10|pages=1–24}}</ref> Sperma unto jantan ko bawarna putiah nan mamiliki Ph sakitar 7.8. Unto ko kawin saroman hewan bakaki ampek lainnyo, unto jantan mamasuakan unggeh nyo ka unto batino nan sadang duduak sambia manggigik kuduak unto batino.<ref name=kohli>{{cite journal|last1=Khan|first1=A.A.|last2=Kohli|first2=I.S.|title=A note on the sexual behavior of male camel (''Camelus dromedarius'')|journal=The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences|date=1973|volume=43|issue=12|pages=1092–4|pmid=4806534}}</ref> Katiko kawin unto jantan mamasuakan sperma nyo ka dalam vulva batino nan disabuik proses kopulasi.<ref name=hartley>{{cite journal|last1=Hartley|first1=B.J.|title=The dromedary of the Horn of Africa|journal=Paper Presented at Workshop on Camels|date=1979|pages=77–97|publisher=International Foundation for Science|location=Stockholm}}</ref> Proses kopulasi{{efn|kopulasi adolah tindakan dalam reproduksi seksual nan dilakukan dek sapasang hewan caronyo jo manyatukan organ sel untuak mamasuakan sperma supayo tajadi nyo fertilisasi <ref>https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/02/01/200000169/reproduksi-pada-hewan--cara-dan-fungsinya?page=all</ref>}} ko biasonyo balansuang salamo 7 - 35 minik, jo waktu rato rato nyo adolah 11 - 15 minik.<ref name=kohli/> === Pasca Malahiaan === Anak unto lahia satalah proses kahamilan salamo 15 bulan. Satalah lahia anak unto dirwat jo induak nyo salamo 2 tahun. Anak unto manyusu ka induaknyo salamo sabulan, satalah sabulan anak unto alah mulai tumbuah saparti unto normal.<ref name="milk substitute">{{cite journal|last1=Elias|first1=E.|last2=Cohen|first2=D.|last3=Steimetz|first3=E.|title=A preliminary note on the use of milk substitutes in the early weaning of dromedary camels|journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A|year=1986|volume=85|issue=1|pages=117–9|doi=10.1016/0300-9629(86)90471-8|pmid=2876805}}</ref> Susu nan dihasiakan dek induak unto maalami maso produksi paliang banyak adolah pado maso laktasi. Maso laktasi{{efn|Laktasi adolah maso katiko hewan ternak sadang mamproduksi susu}} tajadi salamo 8 - 9 bulan lamonyo.<ref name=bremaud>{{cite journal|last1=Bremaud|first1=O.|title=Notes on camel production in the Northern districts of the Republic of Kenya|journal=Maisons-Alfort, IEMVT (Institut d'Elevage et de MWdecine Vftfrinaire des Pays Tropicaux)|date=1969|pages=1–105|publisher=ILCA}}</ref> == Catatan kaki == {{notelist}} == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} == Pautan lua == *{{Commonscat-inline|Camelus dromedarius|Unto arab}} 7yj4h811kcv4kwkqt86jws4xhr11a1k 0 336421 3351279 2049722 2026-08-05T22:08:21Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351279 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox | Verifiedfields = changed | Watchedfields = changed | class = | verifiedrevid = 457457901 | drug_name = | type = | IUPAC_name = 5,5-diphenylimidazolidine-2,4-dione | image = Phenytoin structure.svg | alt = Structural formula of phenytoin | width = 150 | caption = | image2 = Phenytoin 3D ball.png | alt2 = Ball-and-stick model of the phenytoin molecule | width2 = 160 <!-- Clinical data -->| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|f|ə|ˈ|n|ɪ|t|oʊ|ᵻ|n|,_|ˈ|f|ɛ|n|ᵻ|t|ɔɪ|n}} | tradename = Curelepz, Decatona, Dilantin, Ikaphen, Kutoin, Phenitin, Phenytoin Sodium{{sfn|alodokter.com|2015}} | Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|phenytoin}} | MedlinePlus = | licence_EU = | licence_US = | DailyMedID = | pregnancy_AU = | pregnancy_US = | pregnancy_category = | legal_AU = S4 | legal_CA = Rx-only | legal_UK = POM | legal_US = Rx-only | legal_status = | routes_of_administration = jo muluik , lewat pambuluah darah <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->| bioavailability = 70–100% (muluik), 24.4% (dubua) | protein_bound = 95%{{sfn|Drugs.com|}} | metabolism = [[Liver]] | onset = 10–30 min (pambuluah darah) | elimination_half-life = 10–22 jam {{sfn|Drugs.com|}} | duration_of_action = 24 jam | excretion = kajamban (23–70%), ampadu{{sfn|Parker, Kenneth D.; Elliott, Henry W.; Wright, James A.; Nomof, Norman; Hine, Charles H.|1970}} <!-- Identifiers -->| IUPHAR_ligand = 2624 | CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} | CAS_number = 57-41-0 | ATC_prefix = N03 | ATC_suffix = AB02 | ATC_supplemental = | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | ChEBI = 8107 | PubChem = 1775 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB00252 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 1710 | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 6158TKW0C5 | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = D00512 | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | chemical_formula = | ChEMBL = 16 <!-- Chemical data -->| C = 15 | H = 12 | N = 2 | O = 2 | smiles = C1=CC=C(C=C1)C2(C(=O)NC(=O)N2)C3=CC=CC=C3 | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C15H12N2O2/c18-13-15(17-14(19)16-13,11-7-3-1-4-8-11)12-9-5-2-6-10-12/h1-10H,(H2,16,17,18,19) | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = CXOFVDLJLONNDW-UHFFFAOYSA-N }} '''Fenitoin''' adolah jinih ubek untuak mancagah jo maridoan kajang pado pandarito [[panyakik ayan]]{{sfn|alodokter.com|2015}}. Fenitoin ko bisa digunokan untuak nan kajang parsial (kajang nan indak balangsuang lamo) atau kajang kompleks (atau kajang nan labiah lamo daripado parsial).{{sfn|Setiaputri|2019}} Ubek ko bisa pulo digunokan untuak manangani status epileptikus jo mancagah kajang sasudah prosedur kraniotomi.{{sfn|Tandijono|2020}} Formulasi kimia untuak fenitoin adolah : ''5,5-diphenyl-2,4-imidazolidinedione.{{sfn|Tandijono|2020}}'' == Sijarah panamuan == Pado taun 1908, Fenitoin partamo sakali disintesis dek ahli kimia dari [[Jerman]], Heinrich Biltz. [[Biltz]] manjuanyo ka [[Parke-Davis]]. Pado taun 1938, ilmuwan-ilmuan lainnyo tamasuak [[H. Houston Merritt]] jo [[Tracy Putnam]] basomok guno fenitoin untuak maubek panyakik kajang-kajang, nan indak ado efek sedatif nan takaik jo fenobarbital.{{sfn|Biltz H|1908}} Jack Dreyfus, urang nan mandirian Dana Dreyfus, adolah urang nan manjadi pandukuang utamo manjadikan fenitoin sabagai ubek untuak mangandalian gugup jo depresi, katiko inyo mandapekan resep untuak Dilantin pado taun 1966. Inyo alah maambiak ubek ko dalam jumlah nan banyak kapado Richard Nixon sapanjang taun 1966 sampai taun 1970, walaupun hal itu dibantah dek mantan asisten Gaduang Putiah.{{sfn|Stout David|2000}} == Merek dagang == Merek dagang dari fenitoin ko adolah : Curelepz, Decatona, Dilantin, Ikaphen, Kutoin, Phenitin, Phenytoin Sodium.{{sfn|alodokter.com|2015}} == Dosis == Aturan pamakaian fenitoin nan diagiahkan dotor babeda untuak anak ketek jo urang gadang, sarato babeda pulo antaro urang nan mandarito panyakik ayan jo epileptikus (kajang taruih manaruih).{{sfn|alodokter.com|2015}} === Panyakik ayan === * Anak ketek : dosis partamo adolah 5 mg/kgBB per hari, bisa diagiahkannyo dibagi ka dalam 2 jadwal mamakan. Dosis untuak pamaliharoan adolah 4-8 mg/kgBB per hari, dapek dibagi untuak babarapo kali makan. Dosis maksimalnyo 300 mg per hari. * Urang gadang : dosis partamo adolah 3–4 mg/kgBB atau 150–300 mg per hari. Dosis pamaliharoan adolah 200–500 mg per hari. === Epileptikus === * Anak ketek : 15–20 mg/kgBB diagiahkan malalui infus IV jo kacepatan lambek. * Urang gadang : 10–15 mg/kgBB diagiahkan malalui suntikan pambuluah darah (intravena/IV) lambek. Dosis pamaliharoan adolah 100 mg 3–4 kali sahari. == Paringatan == Fenitoin indak bisa dimakan dek sumbarang urang sajo. Ado kondisi tubuah tatantu atau hal-hal lain nan harus diparatian sabalum mamakan ubek ko, misalnyo alergi ubek atau sabagainyo. Kamudian jan lupo di agiah tau ka dotor tampek konsultasi atau barubek. Hal-hal nan paralu di kecek an kapado dotor adolah :{{sfn|alodokter.com|2015}}{{sfn|DipPharm|2019}} # Pernah atau sadang mandarito panyakik aritmia. # Mamiliki gangguan [[hati]]. # Sadang manganduang atau manyusui. # Sadang maminum ubek lainnyo. # Punyo panyakik [[jantuang]]. # Hormon tiroid randah. # Kakurangan vitamin D atau kondisi lain nan manyababkan panipihan [[tulang]]. #Mandarito panyakik gulo == Efek Sampiang == Ado babarapo efek sampiang nan bisa timbua dek karano mamakan fenitoin. Diantaronyo adolah:{{sfn|Setiaputri|2019}} * payah lalok lamak * sakik kapalo * mual * muntah * mangecek kurang jaleh * agak payah mangecek sarato makan jo minum * kondisi mental manurun * sembelit == Interaksi jo ubek lain == Ado babarapo interaksi nan timbua dek panggunoan fenitoin basamoan jo ubek lain.{{sfn|alodokter.com|2015}} * Bisa manyababkan maningkeknyo kadar fenitoin dalam darah jikok digunokan sarato jo a''miodarone, ketoconazole, capecitabine, chloramphenicol, disulfiram, fluorouracil, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, cimetidine, isoniazid, omeprazole, sertraline, ticlopidine, asam valproate, atau warfarin.'' * Bisa manurunnyo kadar fenitoin dalam darah jikok digunokan sarato jo ''bleomycin, carbamazepine, asam folat, phenobarbital, atau sukralfat.'' * Bisa manurunkan kadar a''lbendazole, atorvastatin, ciclosporine, digoxin, efavirenz, quetiapine, apixaban, praziquantel, atau simvastatin'' di dalam darah. * Bisa manurunkan efektivitas ubek antijamua golongan a''zole, estrogen, pil KB, kortikosteroid, doxycycline, furosemide, irinotecan, paclitaxel, teofilin'', atau vitamin D == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} === Daptar Pustaka === * {{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/phenytoin|title=Phenytoin|date=2015-02-06|first=|last=|website=Alodokter|access-date=2020-12-20|ref={{sfnRef|alodokter.com|2015}}}} * {{cite web|title=Phenytoin|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/phenytoin.html|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|accessdate=2020-12-21|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908063602/http://www.drugs.com/monograph/phenytoin.html|first=|last=|archive-date=2015-09-08|ref={{sfnRef|Drugs.com|}}}} * {{cite journal | last1=Parker | first1=Kenneth D. | last2=Elliott | first2=Henry W. | last3=Wright | first3=James A. | last4=Nomof | first4=Norman | last5=Hine | first5=Charles H. | title=Blood and Urine Concentrations of Subjects Receiving Barbiturates, Meprobamate, Glutethimide, or Diphenylhydantoin | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-toxicology_1970-03_3_1/page/131 | journal=Clinical Toxicology | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=3 | issue=1 | year=1970 | issn=0009-9309 | doi=10.3109/15563657008990108 | pages=131–145| pmid=5520387 |ref={{sfnRef|Parker, Kenneth D.; Elliott, Henry W.; Wright, James A.; Nomof, Norman; Hine, Charles H.|1970}}}} * {{ cite journal | author = Biltz H | journal = Chemische Berichte |trans-title=Constitution of the Products of the Interaction of Substituted Carbamides on Benzil and Certain New Methods for the Preparation of 5,5-Diphenylhydantoin | title = Über die Konstitution der Einwirkungsprodukte von substituierten Harnstoffen auf Benzil und über einige neue Methoden zur Darstellung der 5,5-Diphenyl-hydantoine | language = de | year = 1908 | volume = 41 | issue = 1 | pages = 1379–1393 | doi = 10.1002/cber.190804101255 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1426279 |ref={{sfnRef|Biltz H|1908}}}} * {{cite news |last=Stout |first=David |date=2000-08-31 |title=2 Nixon Aides Skeptical About Report That He Took Drug |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/31/us/2-nixon-aides-skeptical-about-report-that-he-took-drug.html |work=New York Times |access-date=2020-12-21|ref={{sfnRef|Stout David|2000}}}} * {{Cite web|url=https://hellosehat.com/hidup-sehat/fakta-unik/efek-samping-minum-obat-fenitoin/|title=Adakah Efek Samping Fenitoin (Phenytoin) yang Mungkin Terjadi?|date=2019-09-15|website=Hello Sehat|last=Setiaputri|first=Karinta Ariani|language=id-ID|access-date=2020-12-21|ref={{sfnRef|Karinta Ariani Setiaputri|2019}}}} * {{Cite web|url=https://www.alomedika.com/obat/antiepilepsi-antikonvulsi/antikonvulsan/fenitoin|title=Phenytoin - indikasi, dosis, interaksi dan efek samping|last=|date=2020-11-04|first=Paulina Livia|last= Tandijono|website=Alomedika|access-date=2020-12-21|ref={{sfnRef|Tandijono|2020}}}} * {{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/phenytoin.html|title=Phenytoin: Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Warnings|first=Philip Thornton|last=DipPharm|date=2019-04-09|website=Drugs.com|language=en|access-date=2020-12-21|ref={{sfnRef|DipPharm|2019}}}} [[Kategori:Ubek]] m2g01xqxxkh69gkdk0z26iwxejq0qe0 0 336423 3351233 2049681 2026-08-05T20:55:01Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351233 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Panyakik Ayan | synonyms = Panyakik kajang-kajang | image = Spike-waves.png | caption = Penyamarataan lonjakan dan gelombang 3 Hz pada elektroencefalogram | alt = | caption = | field = [[Neurologi]] | symptoms = Pariode manggareteknyo nan kuat | complications = | onset = | duration = Jangko panjang | causes = Indak dikatahui, cidero [[utak]], struk, tumor utak, infeksi utak, cacat lahia | risks = | diagnosis = Elektroensefalogram, mangasampingkan kamungkinan panyabab lainnyo | differential = | prevention = | treatment = [[Ubek]], [[operasi]], parubahan pola makan | medication = | prognosis = Takandali 70% | frequency = 39 juta/ 0.5% (2015) | deaths = 125,000 (2015) }} '''Ayan atau panyakik ayan''' adolah gangguan sistem [[saraf]] pusat akibaik pola aktifitas listrik utak nan indak normal, karano itu bisa timbua kajang-kajang, taraso parilaku jo sensasi nan indak biaso sampai hilang kasadaran. {{sfn|alodokter|}} Gangguan pola aktifitas [[listrik]] pado tak saraf bisa dikaranokan kalainan pado jaringan, indak saimbangnyo zat [[kimia]] dalam [[utak]], atau dari faktor lainyo.{{sfn|alodokter|}} == Panyabab == Panyakik ayan ko adolah kalainan heterogen nan tando - tandonyo bisa di cagah jo dikandalian sampai bateh wakatu tatantu.{{sfn|Bhalla,D. Godet,B. Druet-Cabanac,M|2011}} Panyakik ayan ko bisa manyarang ka [[padusi]] atau [[laki-laki]]. Badasarkan panyababnyo, panyakik ayan bisa digolongkan manjadi duo, epilepsi idiopatik jo epilepsi simptomatik. Epilepsi idiopatik ko adolah epilepsi nan panyababnyo indak dikatahui. Sadangkan epilepsi simptomatik adolah epilepsi nan tajadi dek panyakik lain nan manyababkan karusakan pado utak.{{sfn|alodokter|}} Panyabab nan mandasari bana panyakik ayan ko bisa diidentifikasi sabagai masalah genetik, struktural atau metabolisme. Tapi panyabab nan paliang banyak, panyakik ayan ko indak dikatahui panyababnyo.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2019}}{{sfn|Berg|2010}} === Genetik === Genetik dikatahui salah ciek dari banyak faktor nan mangakibaikkan panyakik ayan, sacaro langsuang maupun indak langsuang. Babarapo panyakik ayan disababkan dek karusakan gen tungga (1-2%), nan banyak adolah akibaik interaksi babarapo faktor gen atau lingkuangan.{{sfn|Pandolfo,M|2011}} Pado kasus anak nan lahia [[kamba]] identik, jikok ado salah surang nan madarito panyakik ayan, kamungkinan gadang (50-60%) nan surang lai mandarito panyakik ayan pulo. Tapi jikok kambanyo indak identik, mako faktor resikonyo hanyo 15%. Resiko nyo ko labiah gadang kamungkinan untuak nan kajang umum daripado kajang fokal. Jikok kaduo urang kamba tu mandarito panyakik ayan, mako kamungkinan nyo adolah mandarito jinih panyakik ayan nan samo.{{sfn|Pandolfo,M|2011}} === Sekunder === Panyakik ayan bisa lo tajadi dek akibaik kondisi dari panyakik lain, misalnyo [[tumor]], [[stroke]], cidero di kapalo, infeksi sistem saraf pusat, abnormalitas genetik, atau akibaik karusakan utak katiko malahiakan.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2019}}{{sfn|National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|2012}} Antaro 6% sampai 20% kasus ayan diyakini dek cidero di kapalo. Cidero utak ringan maningkekan rasiko ayan kiro-kiro 2 kali lipek,sadangkan untuak cidero utak barek bisa maningkekan rasiko tujuah kali lipek.{{sfn|Bhalla,D. Godet,B. Druet-Cabanac,M|2011}} === Sindrom === [[Berkas:Bittentongue.JPG|jmpl|Pandarito nan manggigik lidah katiko sadang mangalami kajang-kajang ]] Ado babarapo sindrom panyakik ayan nan biasonyo dikalompokkan manuruik umua katiko awalnyo bangkik, yaitu : periode neonatus, anak-anak, urang gadang, jo sarangan nan indak ado hubungannyo jo umua.{{sfn|National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|2012}} Pangklasifikasian sabab panyakik ayan ka dalam suatu sindrom tatantu banyak tajadi pado anak-anak daripado urang gadang. Tipe-tipe itu adolah ''epilepsi Roland benigna'' (2,8 per 100.000), ''epilepsi absans'' anak-anak (0,8 per 100.000) jo ''epilepsi mioklonik juvenil'' (0,7 per 100.000).{{sfn|Neligan, A|2012}} == Faktor resiko == Ado babarapo faktor nan bapotensi maningkeknyo rasiko kanai panyakik ayan. Diantaronyo adolah:{{sfn|halodoc.com|2019}} * Ado riwayaik kajang katiko ketek. Kajang ko bisa disababkan dek damam tinggi katiko ketek. *Umua. *Genetik. Riwayaik kasihatan dari sanak kaluarga bisa mamicu timbuanyo panyakik ayan. *[[Demensia]]. *Infeksi di [[utak]]. *Parnah kanai cidera di [[kapalo]]. *Stroke atau panyakik vaskular (panyakik pambuluah [[darah]]). == Pangubatan == [[Berkas:Anticonvulsants.jpg|jmpl|Antikonvulsan]] Panangan nan paliang ancak untuak panyakik ayan adolah maagiah ubek [[antikonvulsan]]. Ubek ko kamungkinan gadang di agiah saumua iduik. Ubek antikonvulsan ko diagiah tagantuang kapado jinih kajangnyo, sindrom ayan, pangubatan lain nan sadang dijalankan, masalah kasihatan masing-masing pandaritonyo, umua, sarato gaya kasaharian.{{sfn|National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|2012|b}}Awal-awal pangubatan nan disarankan adolah pangubatan tungga, tapi jikok indak ancak baru disarankan pangubatan lainnyo.{{sfn|Elaine Wyllie|2012}} Jinih antikonvulsan nan labiha murah adolah fenobarbital nan haragonyo kiro-kiro Rp60.000 dalam satahun. Organisasi Kasihatan Dunia (WHO) manjadikan saran partamo di nagara bakambang sarato nan banyak di pakai di situ.{{sfn|Ilangaratne,NB|2012}}{{sfn|Moshé,Simon Shorvon, Emilio Perucca, Jerome Engel Jr.|2012}} Efek sampiang dari ubek ko pado pandarito, tagantuang kapado caro jo sumber data nan dikumpuakan sarato dosis pamakaiannyo. Babarapo efek sampiang nan timbua karano pamakaian ubek ko adolah mangantuak, oyong-oyong katiko bajalan, suasana hati nan indak lamak sarato bisa barubah.{{sfn|Perucca,P|2012}} == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} === Daptar Pustaka === * {{Cite web|url=https://www.alodokter.com/epilepsi|title=Epilepsi|date=2014-08-20|website=Alodokter|access-date=2020-12-21|ref={{sfnRef|alodokter|}}}} * {{Cite web|url=https://www.halodoc.com/kesehatan/epilepsi|title=Penyakit Epilepsi - Gejala, Penyebab, dan Cara Mengobatinya|last=Halodoc|first=|date=2019|website=|publisher=halodoc.com|access-date=22 Desember 2020|ref={{sfnRef|halodoc.com|2019}}}} * {{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/epilepsy|first=|last=|title=Epilepsy|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2020-12-25|ref={{sfnRef|World Health Organization|2019}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Berg|first=AT|coauthors=Berkovic, SF; Brodie, MJ; Buchhalter, J; Cross, JH; van Emde Boas, W; Engel, J; French, J; Glauser, TA; Mathern, GW; Moshé, SL; Nordli, D; Plouin, P; Scheffer, IE|title=Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies: report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005–2009.|journal=Epilepsia|date=April 2010|volume=51|issue=4|pages=676–85|pmid=20196795|doi=10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02522.x|ref={{sfnRef|Berg|2010}}}} * {{cite book|title=The Epilepsies: The diagnosis and management of the epilepsies in adults and children in primary and secondary care|publisher=National Clinical Guideline Centre|chapter=Chapter 9: Classification of seizures and epilepsy syndromes|pages=119–129|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13635/57784/57784.pdf|author=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|date=January 2012|ref={{sfnRef|National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|2012}}}} * {{Cite journal |last1 = Bhalla | first1 = D. | last2 = Godet | first2 = B. | last3 = Druet-Cabanac | first3 = M. |last4 = Preux | first4 = PM. | title = Etiologies of epilepsy: a comprehensive review. | journal = Expert Rev Neurother | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 861–76|date=Jun 2011 | doi = 10.1586/ern.11.51 | PMID = 21651333|ref={{sfnRef|Bhalla,D. Godet,B. Druet-Cabanac,M|2011}}}} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Pandolfo | first1 = M. | title = Genetics of epilepsy.|journal = Semin Neurol | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 506–18 |date=Nov 2011 | doi = 10.1055/s-0031-1299789 | PMID = 22266888 |ref={{sfnRef|Pandolfo,M|2011}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Neligan|first=A|coauthors=Hauser, WA; Sander, JW|title=The epidemiology of the epilepsies.|journal=Handbook of clinical neurology|year=2012|volume=107|pages=113–33|pmid=22938966|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-52898-8.00006-9|ref={{sfnRef|Neligan, A|2012}}}} * {{cite book|title=The Epilepsies: The diagnosis and management of the epilepsies in adults and children in primary and secondary care|publisher=National Clinical Guideline Centre|chapter=Chapter 3: Key priorities for implementation|pages=55–56|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13635/57784/57784.pdf|author=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|date=January 2012|ref={{sfnRef|National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|2012|b}}}} * {{cite book|title=Wyllie's Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice|year=2012|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-1-4511-5348-4|page=187|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=j9t6Qg0kkuUC&pg=RA1-PA187|author=Elaine Wyllie|ref={{sfnRef|Elaine Wyllie|2012}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Ilangaratne|first=NB|coauthors=Mannakkara, NN; Bell, GS; Sander, JW|title=Phenobarbital: missing in action.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-health-organization-bulletin_2012-12_90_12/page/871|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=2012 Dec 1|volume=90|issue=12|pages=871-871A|pmid=23284189|doi=10.2471/BLT.12.113183|ref={{sfnRef|Ilangaratne,NB|2012}}}} * {{cite book|last=Moshé|first=edited by Simon Shorvon, Emilio Perucca, Jerome Engel Jr. ; foreword by Solomon|title=The treatment of epilepsy|year=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, UK|isbn=9781444316674|page=587|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=rFFzFzZJtasC&pg=PA587|edition=3rd ed.|ref={{sfnRef|Moshé,Simon Shorvon, Emilio Perucca, Jerome Engel Jr.|2012}}}} * {cite journal|last=Perucca|first=P|coauthors=Gilliam, FG|title=Adverse effects of antiepileptic drugs.|journal=Lancet neurology|date=September 2012|volume=11|issue=9|pages=792–802|pmid=22832500|doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70153-9|ref={{sfnRef|Perucca,P|2012}}} [[Kategori:Panyakik]] hr5ne9ck60xd2jnpz9het9lmgns7bgb 0 336613 3351239 3161705 2026-08-05T21:07:46Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351239 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox | Verifiedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 477242323 | IUPAC_name = (2''R'',3''R'',4''S'',5''R'')-2-(6-amino-9''H''-purin-9-yl)-5-(hydroxymethyl)oxolane-3,4-diol | image = Adenosin.svg | image2 = Adenosine-3D-balls.png <!--Clinical data--> | tradename = Adenocard; Adenocor; Adenic; Adenoco; Adeno-Jec; Adenoscan; Adenosin; Adrekar; Krenosin | Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|adenosine}} | pregnancy_AU = <!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X --> | pregnancy_US = <!-- A / B / C / D / X --> | pregnancy_category = C (adenosine mungkin aman untuak janin pado padusi nan manganduang) | legal_status = Rx-only | routes_of_administration = pambuluah darah <!--Pharmacokinetic data--> | bioavailability = capek dibarasihan dari sirkulasi malalui pangambilan seluler | protein_bound = Indak | metabolism = capek diubah manjadi inosin jo adenosin monofosfat | elimination_half-life= | excretion = bisa maninggalkan sel utuah atau bisa terdegrasi manjadi hipoksantin, xantin, jo akhinyo asam urat <!--Identifiers--> | CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CAS_number = 58-61-7 | ATC_prefix = C01 | ATC_suffix = EB10 | PubChem = 60961 | IUPHAR_ligand = 2844 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB00640 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 54923 | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = K72T3FS567 | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = C00212 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 16335 | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 477 | synonyms = SR-96225 <!--Chemical data--> | C=10 | H=13 | N=5 | O=4 | smiles = n2c1c(ncnc1n(c2)[C@@H]3O[C@@H]([C@@H](O)[C@H]3O)CO)N | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C10H13N5O4/c11-8-5-9(13-2-12-8)15(3-14-5)10-7(18)6(17)4(1-16)19-10/h2-4,6-7,10,16-18H,1H2,(H2,11,12,13)/t4-,6-,7-,10-/m1/s1 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = OIRDTQYFTABQOQ-KQYNXXCUSA-N }} '''Adenosine''' marupoan sanyawa organik nan banyak di alam dalam bantuak turunan nan babantuak macam-macam. Molekul nyo tadiri dari adenin nan tarikek pado ribosa malalui ikatan β-N9-glikosidik. Adenosine bisa digunoan pulo sabagai ubek. Adenosine ko bisa maubekan ''supraventricular tachycardia'', gangguan irama jantuang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://health.detik.com/obat/d-1400000/adenosine|title=Adenosine|website=detikHealth|language=id|access-date=2021-01-18|archive-date=2022-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808080753/https://health.detik.com/obat/d-1400000/adenosine|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="TaylorFrancis2000">{{cite book |title=Index Nominum 2000: International Drug Directory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GpcTQD_L2oC&pg=PA18 |date=2000 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-3-88763-075-1 |pages=18–}}</ref> ==Interaksi ubek== * Dipiridamol mampotensiasi aksi adenosin, mambutuahkan panggunoan dosis nan labiah randah. * Methylxanthines (misalnyo kafein nan ditamuan dalam [[kopi]], teofilin nan ditamuan dalam [[teh]], atau teobromin nan disobokan dalam coklat) mampunyoi struktur purin nan mangikek babarapo reseptor nan samo jo adenosin.<ref name="CEcaffeine">{{cite web| title=Caffeine|publisher=Chemistry Explained|url=http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/Caffeine.html }}</ref> * Methylxanthines batindak sabagai antagonis kompetitif adenosin jo dapek manumpukkan efek formakologisnyo. Urang nan mamakan methylxanthines dalam jumlah nan banyak, mungkin paralu maningkekan dosis adenosine.<ref>{{cite web| title=Vitamin B4 |publisher=R&S Pharmchem |url=http://www.rspharmchem.com/vitamin-b4.htm |date=April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715213918/http://www.rspharmchem.com/vitamin-b4.htm |archive-date= 2011-07-15 }}</ref> == Kontraindikasi == Kontraindikasi umum untuak adenosin adolah [[asma]]. Asma sacaro tradisional dianggap sabagai kontraindikasi absolut. Iko nan sadang dipadebatkan jo kini nan dianggap sabagai kontraindikasi relatif. Namun, antagonis adenosin selekttif sadang disalidiki untuak digunokan dalam pangobatan asma.<ref name="pmid18311158">{{cite journal|vauthors=Brown RA, Spina D, Page CP |title=Adenosine receptors and asthma|journal=Br. J. Pharmacol.|volume=153 Suppl 1|issue=S1|pages=S446–56|date=March 2008|pmid=18311158|doi=10.1038/bjp.2008.22|pmc=2268070}}</ref> ==Efek farmakologis== Adenosin adolah purin endogen nan mamodulasi banyak proses fisiologis. Pansinyalan seluler oleh adenosin tajadi malalui ampek subtipe reseptor adenosin nan dikatahui (A₁, A_2A, A_2B, jo A₃).<ref name="pmid18758473">{{cite journal|vauthors=Haskó G, Linden J, Cronstein B, Pacher P |title=Adenosine receptors: therapeutic aspects for inflammatory and immune diseases|journal=Nat Rev Drug Discov|volume=7|issue=9|pages=759–70|date=September 2008|pmid=18758473|pmc=2568887|doi=10.1038/nrd2638}}</ref> Konsentrasi adenosin ekstraseluler dari sel normal kira-kira 300 nM. Namun, dalam mananggapi karusakan sel (misalnyo dalam jaringan inflamasi atau iskemik), konsentrasi iko capek maningkek (600-1.200 nM). Jadi dalam kaitannyo jo stress atau cidero, fungsi adenosin nan tarutamo adolah sabagai palinduang sitop nan mancagah karusakan jaringan salamo kajadian hipoksia, iskemia, jo aktivitas kajang. Aktivasi reseptor A2A manghasiakan konstelasi respom nan sacaro umum dapek diklasifikasikan sabagai anti inflamasi.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Haskó|first1=G|title=Adenosine: an endogenous regulator of innate immunity|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-immunology_2004-01_25_1/page/33|journal=Trends in Immunology|date=January 2004|volume=25|issue=1|pages=33–39|doi=10.1016/j.it.2003.11.003|pmid=14698282}}</ref> Produksi enzimatik adenosin dapek manjadi anti-inflamasi atau imunosupresif.<ref name="pmid30513816">{{cite journal | vauthors=Sek K, Mølck C, Stewart GD, Kats L | title=Targeting Adenosine Receptor Signaling in Cancer Immunotherapy | journal= [[International Journal of Molecular Sciences]] | volume=19 | issue=12 | pages=3837 | year=2018 | doi = 10.3390/ijms19123837 | pmc=6321150 | pmid=30513816}}</ref><ref name="pmid32531894">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sek K, Mølck C, Stewart GD, Kats L| title =Targeting Adenosine Receptor Signaling in Cancer Immunotherapy | journal = [[International Journal of Molecular Sciences]] | volume = 19 | issue=12 | pages = 3837 | date=2018 | doi = 10.3390/ijms19123837 | pmc=6321150 | pmid = 30513816}}</ref><ref name="pmid31878283">{{cite journal | vauthors = Konen JM, Fradette JJ, Gibbons DL | title = The Good, the Bad and the Unknown of CD38 in the Metabolic Microenvironment and Immune Cell Functionality of Solid Tumors | journal = [[Cells (journal)|Cells]] | volume = 9 | issue=1 | pages = 52 |date=2019 | doi = 10.3390/cells9010052 | pmc=7016859 | pmid = 31878283}}</ref><ref name="pmid23601906">{{cite journal | vauthors = Antonioli L, Pacher P, Vizi ES, Haskó G | title = CD39 and CD73 in immunity and inflammation | journal = [[Trends in Molecular Medicine]] | volume = 19 | issue=6 | pages = 355–367 | date=2013 | url=https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/21/11/4129 | doi = 10.1016/j.molmed.2013.03.005 | pmc=3674206 | pmid = 23601906}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Ubek]] 9mz1w8niqk68oxnueldvqlov706z97m 0 336914 3351234 3345458 2026-08-05T20:56:22Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351234 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Yazidi Girl tradicional clothes.jpg|thumb|Padusi [[Urang Yazidi|Yazidi]] mamakai pakaian adaik.]] '''Kalompok etnik-agamo''' adolah sabuah [[kalompok etnik]] nan mampunyoi adaik nan disandikan kapado kasamoan [[agamo]]. Istilah etnik-agamo, basamo jo [[kalompok etnik-wilayah|etnik-wilayah]] jo [[Kalompok etnik-baso|etnik-bahaso]] adolah subkategori dari pangalompokan [[kalompok etnik]] nan dipakai sabagai pambuktian adonyo kayakinan nan masuak ka adaiknyo.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Müller|first=Marion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bkdNzdmKYQoC&pg=PA103#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Ethnowissen: Soziologische Beiträge zu ethnischer Differenzierung und Migration|last2=Zifonun|first2=Darius|date=2010-08-05|publisher=Springer-Verlag|year=|isbn=978-3-531-92449-6|location=|pages=102-103|language=de}}</ref> Dalam sabuah pangaratian nan labiah sampik, kalompok-kalompok iko marujuak kapado kalompok nan mampunyoi katahubuangan sijarah antaro adaik jo agamo.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Valerio-Jimenez|first=Omar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dugqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT319#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Latina/o Midwest Reader|last2=Vaquera-Vasquez|first2=Santiago|date=2017-06-30|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=|isbn=978-0-252-09980-9|location=|pages=319|language=en}}</ref> ==Ciri-ciri== Unsua-unsua nan manggambaan ciri-ciri sabuah kalompok etnik-agamo adolah "karakter sosial, sijarah, jo kayakinannyo". (Swierenga 1990, h. 149)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Greer|first=Joanne Marie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YcTWZ52krLsC&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion|last2=Moberg|first2=David O.|last3=Lynn|first3=Monty L.|date=2001-04-01|publisher=BRILL|year=|isbn=978-1-55938-893-1|location=|pages=45|language=en|quote=Historically, each ethnoreligious group had its own social character, historical experience and theological beliefs. (Robert P. Swierenga 1990, p. 149)}}</ref> ==Panantuan kalompok etnik-agamo== Umumnyo, kalompok etnik-agamo mangaratian jati etniknyo indak dek jalua katurunannyo atau pun dek katakaikan agamonyo sajo tapi, diaratian labiah kapado kombinasi dari kaduonyo. Sabuah kalompok etnik-agamo mampunyoi hubuangan sijarah jo adaik – nan dapek diaratian sabagai religius – manuruik pandangan etnik tasabuik. Banyak kajadian di mano kalompok-kalompok nan manyabuik kalompoknyo sabagai etnik-agamo tapi labiah basipaik sabagai kalompok etnik-budayo jo sabuah agamo tradisional etnik tasabuik; di lain kajadian, ado pulo kalompok etnik-agamo nan dimuloi sabagai kalompok nan dipasatuan jo agamo nan samo malalui endogami nan bakambang manjadi kalompok budayo nan disandikan kapado katakaikan pandahulunyo. Babarapo jati kalompok etnik-agamo dipakuek dek pangalaman kalompok tasabuik nan marupokan minoritas nan bamukim di tangah-tangah kalompok nan labiah gadang nan balainan adaik. Kalompok etnik-agamo dapek dikaikan jo [[nasionalisme etnik]] kok kalompok etnik-agamo iko manguasoi pondasi sijarah di wilayah tatantu. Banyak kalompok etnik-agamo nan manakanan endogami sacaro agamo, jo basipaik skeptis bilo ado nan bakawin balainan agamo, nan batujuan untuak manjago stabilitas kalompok jo adaiknyo.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Andreas Wimmer |title=Democracy and ethno-religious conflict in Iraq |url=https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/84714/1/zef_dp72.pdf |website=www.econstor.eu}}</ref> ==Contoh== {{hatnote|Istilah "etnik-agamo" alah dipakai jo sumber-sumber nan baalasan dari etnik-etnik iko}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Kombinasi ! Agamo etnik ! Etnik nan basandikan agamo |- | * [[Bohra Daud]] * [[Urang Duruz|Duruz]] * [[Urang Mandaîya|Mandaîya]] * [[Urang Yazidi|Yazidi]] (dipadabaikan)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazidis-i-general-1|title=Yazidis i: General|last=Allison|first=Christine|date=20 February 2004|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|access-date=20 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="Arakelova">{{Cite journal|last=Arakelova|first=Victoria|title=Ethno-Religious Communities Identity markers|url=https://www.academia.edu/3764877|language=en|publisher=[[Yerevan State University]]}}</ref> * [[Majusi]], tamasuak [[Urang Parsi|Parsi]]<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul R. Ehrlich|author2=Anne H. Ehrlich|title=The Dominant Animal: Human Evolution and the Environment|url=https://archive.org/details/dominantanimalhu00ehrl|url-access=registration|date=30 June 2008|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-59726-096-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/dominantanimalhu00ehrl/page/315 315]}}</ref> * [[Urang Sikh|Sikh]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/PARLMENT/hansArt.nsf/V3Key/LA19940512044 |title=Anti-Discrimination (Amendment) Bill: Second Reading |date=2007-05-12 |publisher=Parliament of New South Wales |access-date=14 February 2010 |archive-date=2011-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110404192548/http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/PARLMENT/hansArt.nsf/V3Key/LA19940512044 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name="Sedition">{{cite book |url=http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/publications.nsf/0/57ba30f38d3c969cca25710f0023442f/$FILE/Sedition%20FINAL.pdf |title=Sedition, Incitement and Vilification: Issues in the Current Debate |author=Gareth Griffith |date=February 2006 |publisher=NSW Parliamentary Library Research Service |isbn=0-7313-1792-0 |page=52 |access-date=14 February 2010 |archive-date=11 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511160350/https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/publications.nsf/0/57ba30f38d3c969cca25710f0023442f/$FILE/Sedition%20FINAL.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> * [[Serer]]<ref>Villalón, Leonardo A., ''Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick'', p. 62, [[Cambridge University Press]] (2006), {{ISBN|9780521032322}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA62&dq=serer+religion+Non-proselytizing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwigr8qskO3VAhVKDMAKHTkcDFsQ6AEIPjAE#v=onepage&q&f=false]</ref><ref>[[Diedrich Westermann]], Edwin William Smith, Cyril Daryll Forde, [[International African Institute]], [[International Institute of African Languages and Cultures]], [[Project Muse]], [[JSTOR]] (Organization), ''"Africa: journal of the International African Institute, Volume 63"'', pp 86–96, 270–1, Edinburgh University Press for the International African Institute, 1993</ref> * [[Urang Yahudi|Yahudi]] * [[Urang Karai Krimea|Karai Krimea]] * [[Urang Samaria|Samaria]]<ref>[[#Ireton|Ireton 2003]]</ref> * [[Urang Amiš|Amiš]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Simon Harrison|title=Fracturing Resemblances: Identity and Mimetic Conflict in Melanesia and the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B9-LF_Of_E8C&pg=PA121|year=2006|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-680-1|pages=121–}}</ref> * [[Urang Mormon|Mormon]]<ref>{{Cite web|title = Part I - Mormons as an Ethno-Religious Group - University Publishing Online|url = http://ebooks.cambridge.org/chapter.jsf?bid=CBO9781139227247&cid=CBO9781139227247A006|website = ebooks.cambridge.org|access-date = 2016-01-24|archive-date = 2020-05-16|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200516225107/http://ebooks.cambridge.org/chapter.jsf?bid=CBO9781139227247&cid=CBO9781139227247A006|dead-url = yes}}</ref><ref name="Hammond and Warner"/> * [[Hutteris]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Hutterites in North America|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lgUbHUXmrvYC|publisher = JHU Press|date = 2010-09-01|isbn = 9780801899256|language = en|first1 = Rod|last1 = Janzen|first2 = Max|last2 = Stanton}}</ref> * [[Urang Alawiyyah|Alawiyyah]]<ref>[[#Thomas|Thomas 2006]]</ref> * [[Urang Mennonit|Mennonit]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = Manufacturing Mennonites: Work and Religion in Post-War Manitoba|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bYWBAAAAQBAJ|publisher = University of Toronto Press|date = 2013-06-17|isbn = 9781442660595|language = en|first = Janis Lee|last = Thiessen}}</ref> * [[Valdois]] * [[Urang Šabak|Šabak]] | * [[Bon]] * [[Hellenisme]] * [[Hinduisme]] * [[Kejawen]] * [[Paganisme Arab]] * [[Paganisme Indo-Eropa]] * [[Sunda Wiwitan]] | * [[Urang Afar|Afar]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = Muslim Ethiopia: The Christian Legacy, Identity Politics, and Islamic Reformism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HtxCb3MueY8C|publisher = Palgrave Macmillan|date = 2013-04-18|isbn = 9781137322081|language = en|first1 = Patrick|last1 = Desplat|first2 = Terje|last2 = Østebø}}</ref> * [[Urang Armenia|Armenia]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dekmejian |first1=R. Hrair |author-link1=Richard Dekmejian |title=Reviewed Work: Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust by Robert F. Melson |url=https://archive.org/details/international-history-review_1994-05_16_2/page/377 |journal=[[The International History Review]] |date=1994 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=377 |quote=...both victimized groups [Armenians & Jews] were ethno-religious minorities...|jstor=40107201 }}</ref> * [[Urang Aššur|Aššur]]<ref>For Assyrians as a Christian people, see *[http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/archives/2000/zn112700.htm#TheLighthouse Joel J. Elias, The Genetics of Modern Assyrians and their Relationship to Other People of the Middle East ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313031613/http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/archives/2000/zn112700.htm#TheLighthouse |date=2018-03-13 }} * Steven L. Danver, Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues, p. 517</ref> * [[Urang Bosniak|Bosniak]]<ref name="Martin 1997"/> * [[Urang Dekkan|Dekkan]] * [[Urang Gorani|Gorani]]<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232789912|title = The development of identities among the Muslim population in the Balkans in an era of globalization and Europeanization: Cases of Torbeshi, Gorani and Pomaci|last = Zemon|first = Rubin}}</ref> * [[Urang Horvat|Horvat]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Marty|first=Martin E.|title=Religion, Ethnicity, and Self-Identity: Nations in Turmoil|year=1997|publisher=University Press of New England|quote=[...] the three ethnoreligious groups that have played the roles of the protagonists in the bloody tragedy that has unfolded in the former Yugoslavia: the Christian Orthodox Serbs, the Roman Catholic Croats, and the Muslim Slavs of Bosnia.|isbn=0-87451-815-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/religionethnicit00mart}}</ref> * [[Urang Hui|Hui]]/[[Urang Dungan|Dungan]] * [[Urang India Muslim|India Muslim]] * [[Urang Ir|Ir]] * [[Urang Kalaš|Kalaš]]<ref>{{Cite web|first=|date=|title=Kalash Religion|url=https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KalashaReligion.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> * [[Urang Koptik|Koptik]] * [[Urang Mahar|Mahar]]<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9DmV9-0on0C&q=Maratha+ethno+religious+group| title = The Challenge in South Asia: Development, Democracy and Regional Cooperation | page=278|editor1= Ponna Wignaraja| editor2 = Akmal Hussain | publisher = United Nations University Press| year = 1989 | isbn = 9780803996038 }}</ref> * [[Urang Malayu|Malayu]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Contesting Malayness: Malay identity across boundaries|page=7|author=Timothy P. Barnar |isbn=9971-69-279-1|year= 2004|publisher=Singapore University press|location=Singapore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Frith, T.|publisher=Routledge|journal=Asian Ethnicity|volume=1|issue=2|date=September 1, 2000|title=Ethno-Religious Identity and Urban Malays in Malaysia|pages=117–129|doi=10.1080/713611705|s2cid=143809013}}</ref> * [[Urang Maronit|Maronit]] * [[Urang Minangkabau|Minangkabau]]<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383458/Minangkabau ''Minangkabau people'']. [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</ref> * [[Urang Muhajir|Muhajir]] * [[Urang Rusia Ortodoks|Rusia Ortodoks]] * [[Urang Serb|Serb]] * [[Urang Seto|Seto]]<ref>Ladykowski, P., ''Estonian Cottage. Setu – ethno-religious borderland group.'', Warsaw University Press</ref> * [[Urang Sinhala|Sinhala]] * [[Urang Somali|Somali]]<ref>[https://www.refworld.org/docid/59b7d84313.html#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20federal%20Ministry,unknown%20number%20of%20Shia%20Muslims. 2016 Report on International Religious Freedom - Somalia ]</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title = Muslim Ethiopia: The Christian Legacy, Identity Politics, and Islamic Reformism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HtxCb3MueY8C|publisher = Palgrave Macmillan|date = 2013-04-18|isbn = 9781137322081|language = en|first1 = Patrick|last1 = Desplat|first2 = Terje|last2 = Østebø}}</ref> * [[Urang Turkmen Suriah|Turkmen Suriah]] * [[Urang Uighur|Uighur]]<ref>{{cite book | title =Strategic Asia 2002-03: Asian Aftershocks | page=368|authors = Richard J Ellings, Aaron L. Friedberg,Michael Wills | publisher = National Bureau of Asian Research | year = 2002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_EeHWWBpn14C&q=ethno+religious+Uighur&pg=PA165| title = Central Asia and the Caucasus:Transnationalism and Diaspora | page=165|editor= Touraj Atabaki |editor2=Sanjyot Mehendale | publisher = Routledge | year = 2004 | isbn = 9781134319947 }}</ref> * [[Urang Ulster Protestan|Ulster Protestan]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hunt|first1=Stephen|title=Contemporary Christianity and LGBT Sexualities|location=Chapter 7: Christians and Gays in Northern Ireland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCopDAAAQBAJ&q=ulster+protestants+%22ethnoreligious%22&pg=PT147|access-date=15 May 2017|isbn=9781317160922|date=13 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Byrne|first1=Sean|title=Social Conflicts and Collective Identities|page=94|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_ALolUT2WsC&q=ulster+protestants+%22ethnoreligious%22&pg=PA94|access-date=15 May 2017|isbn=9780742500518|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=It's never too late for 'us' to meet 'them': prior intergroup friendships moderate the impact of later intergroup friendships in educational settings|publisher=Medical Sciences Division, University of Oxford|url=https://www.psy.ox.ac.uk/publications/375854|access-date=15 May 2017|archive-date=6 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506164329/https://www.psy.ox.ac.uk/publications/375854/|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="OLuing">{{cite book|last1=Ó Lúing|first1=Seán|title=Art Ó Griofa|date=1953|publisher=Sairséal agus Dill|location=Dublin|page=217}}</ref><ref>NI Curriculum, ''{{lang|ga|[http://www.nicurriculum.org.uk/curriculum_microsite/local_global_citizenship_irish_medium/docs/Notai_Muinteori_Aonaid_1_2_3.pdf Teachers' Notes]}}'', p. 54</ref> * [[Urang Yunani Antiokhia|Yunani Antiokhia]] |- |} ===Minangkabau=== Unsua-unsua nan tapantiang pado adaik Minangkabau adolah agamo, adaik, jo jalua katurunan. Adaik Minangkabau manganuik prinsip "adaik basandi šarak, šarak basandi Kitabullah". Bilo ado saurang Minangkabau nan manafikan prinsip iko, mako pribadi tasabuik akan [[dibuang sapanjang adaik]]. Hukuman iko diagiah dek dewan pangulu dalam [[nagari]] atau [[Kerapatan Adat Nagari]] malalui proses rapat adaik jo bamušawaraik.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=gfYMAQAAMAAJ&q=dibuang+sepanjang+adat&dq=dibuang+sepanjang+adat&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiDwsOJjITqAhWS4zgGHUW9Dl4Q6AEIXDAF|title=Sirih pinang adat Minangkabau: pengetahuan adat Minangkabau tematis|last=Nain|first=Sjafnir Abu|date=2006|publisher=Sentra Budaya|language=id}}</ref> Palangga adaik dihukum buang dalam maso tatantu sampai kapado maso nan indak ditantuan. Hukuman iko dikalompokan manjadi buang siriah, buang biduak, jo buang tingkarang. Buang siriah mampunyoi maso hukum tatantu. Buang biduak dapek dibaya jo dando. Ado pulo buang tingkarang nan balaku salamo-lamonyo.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=x6AiAAAAMAAJ&q=%22buang+siriah%22&dq=%22buang+siriah%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjj2Nryh4TqAhVDeX0KHTLSCYQQ6AEIKzAA|title=Alam terkembang jadi guru: adat dan kebudayaan Minangkabau|last=Navis|first=A. A.|date=1984|publisher=Grafiti Pers|language=id}}</ref> ==Rujuakan== {{reflist}} ==Bibliografi== {{refbegin}} * {{cite web|title=The Samaritans – A Jewish Sect in Israel: Strategies for Survival of an Ethno-religious Minority in the Twenty First Century|author=Sean Ireton|publisher=Anthrobase|year=2003|access-date=2009-12-30|url=http://www.anthrobase.com/Txt/I/Ireton_S_01.htm|ref=Ireton|archive-date=2018-05-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180523100643/http://www.anthrobase.com/Txt/I/Ireton_S_01.htm|dead-url=yes}} * {{citation|last=Barry|first=David M.|title=Popular Perceptions of the Relationship Between Religious and Ethnic Identities: A Comparative Study of Ethnodoxy in Contemporary Russia and Beyond|chapter-url=http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1079&context=dissertations|year=2012|publisher=Western Michigan University|pages=6–19|chapter=THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGION AND ETHNICITY: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE}} * {{cite journal|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/10008.pdf|title=Toward a Theory of Disproportionate American Jewish Liberalism|last=Levey|first=Geoffrey Brahm|ref=Levey}} * {{cite book|last=Fox|first=Jonathan|title=Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late Twentieth Century: A General Theory|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3CKB_B-U0I8C&pg=PA26|year=2002|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-0418-7|pages=11–30|chapter=Defining Religion's Role in Society}} * {{cite journal|title=Crisis management in colonial states: Intelligence and counter-insurgency in Morocco and Syria after the First World War|first=Martin|last=Thomas|journal=Intelligence & National Security|date=October 2006|volume=21|issue=5|pages=697–716|doi=10.1080/02684520600957662|s2cid=153922797|ref=Thomas}} * {{cite journal|title=Symbolic Ethnicity or Religion Among Jews in the United States: A Test of Gansian Hypotheses|author=J. Alan Winter|journal=Review of Religious Research|volume=37|date=March 1996|issue=3|url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=96271706|ref=Winter|access-date=2021-03-31|archive-date=2020-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224183848/https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=96271706|dead-url=yes}} * Yang, F. and Ebaugh, H. R. (2001), [https://www.purdue.edu/crcs/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/YangReligion-EthnicityJSSR.pdf Religion and Ethnicity Among New Immigrants: The Impact of Majority/Minority Status in Home and Host Countries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415180728/https://www.purdue.edu/crcs/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/YangReligion-EthnicityJSSR.pdf |date=2016-04-15 }}. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40: 367–378. doi:10.1111/0021-8294.00063 * Phillip E. Hammond and Kee Warner, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1048676 Religion and Ethnicity in Late-Twentieth-Century America], The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social, Vol. 527, Religion in the Nineties (May, 1993), pp.&nbsp;55–66 {{Refend}} 87h7d89eotyzxszv6b4hc87snbloq06 0 336927 3351202 2053651 2026-08-05T19:42:46Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351202 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kromium''' adolah suatu unsua kimia dalam tabel periodik nan mamiliki lambang '''Cr''' jo nomor atom 24. Inyo adolah unsua patamo dalam [[Unsua golongan 6|golongan 6]]. Marupoan logam nan barono abu-abu cando bajo, [[Kilau (mineralogi)|bakilau]], kareh sarato rapuah<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brandes |first1=E. A. |last2=Greenaway |first2=H. T. |last3=Stone |first3=H. E. N. |date= 1956 |title=Ductility in Chromium |journal=Nature |volume=178 |issue=587 |doi=10.1038/178587a0 |page=587|bibcode = 1956Natur.178..587B }}</ref> nan butuah pamolesan tinggi, tahan [[kusam|pangusaman]], jo mamiliki titiak labua nan tinggi. Namo unsua iko diturunkan dari bahaso [[Yunani Kuno|Yunani]] χρῶμα, ''chrōma'', nan aratinyo [[warna|rono]],<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dxrw%3Dma χρῶμα], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> karano banyak senyawa kromium nan sangaik barono. Paduan [[ferokromium]] diproduksi sacaro komersial dari kromit jo caro [[silikotermal]] atau [[reaksi aluminotermal]] jo logam kromium malalui proses [[Pamanggangan (metalurgi)|pamanggangan]] jo [[Pelindian (metalurgi)|palindian]] nan diikuti jo reduksi manggunoan [[karbon]] nan kudian [[aluminium]]. Logam kromium banilai tinggi karano tingkek tahannyo nan tinggi taadok [[karat]] jo [[kekerasan|kakarehan]]nyo. Pangambangan utamonyo adolah pangungkapan baso bajo dapek dibuek sangaik tahan karat jo pangusaman jo caro panambahan kromium logam untuak mambantuak [[baja nirkarat|bajo nirkarat]]. bajo nirkarat jo [[pelapisan krom|palapisan krom]] ([[Galvanisasi|elektroplating]] jo kromium) sacaro gabuangan adolah 85% dari panggunoan komersial. [[Ion]] kromium [[trivalen]] (Cr(III)) dalam jumlah renik adolah [[nutrisi esensial]] pado manusia untuak [[metabolisme]] [[insulin]], [[gulo]] jo [[lipida]], maskipun persoalan iko masih diperdebatkan.<ref name="ods">{{cite web|url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Chromium-HealthProfessional/#h2|title=Chromium|date=2016|publisher=Office of Dietary Supplements, US National Institutes of Health|accessdate=06 Maret 2021}}</ref>. Samantaro logam kromium jo ion Cr(III) dianggap indak baracun, [[kromium heksavalen]] (Cr(VI)) basipaik toksik jo [[karsinogenik]]. Situs produksi kromium nan alah indak tapakai acok paralu [[Remediasi lingkungan|pambarasiahan lingkuangan]]. == Karakteristik == === Fisika === Kromium basipaik magnetik : inyo adolah satu-satunyo unsua padek nan manunjuakkan tingkek [[antiferomagnetik]] pado suhu ruang (nan di bawahnyo). Di ateh 38&nbsp;°C, inyo barubah manjadi [[paramagnetik]]. ==== Pasivasi ==== Logam kromium nan dipadiakan talatak di udaro tabukak maalami [[Pasivasi (kimia)|pasivasi]] dek oksidasi, nan mambantuak lapisan pamukaan tipih nan protektif. Lapisan iko adolah suatu struktur [[spinel]] jo katabalan hanyo babarapo molekul. Inyo sangaik padek, jo maambek difusi oksigen ka dalam logam di bawahnyo. Iko babeda dari oksida nan tabantuak pado pamukaan basi jo bajo karbon, nan dima oksigen elemental taruih bamigrasi, mancapai logam di bawahnyo nan manyababkan pakaratan nan bakalanjuikan. Pasivasi dapek ditingkekan jo caro kontak singkek jo [[asam oksidator]] cando [[asam nitrat]]. Kromium tapasivasi stabil taadok asam. Pasivasi dapek dihilangan jo [[reduktor]] kuek nan maancuakan lapisan oksida palinduang pado logam. Logam kromium nan alah diagiah palakuan iko mudah laruik dalam asam lamah. Kromium, indak cando logam sajinih saroman basi jo nikel, indak tapangaruah dek [[perapuhan hidrogen|parapuahan hidrogen]]. Namun inyo tapangaruah dek [[perapuhan]] nitrogen, bareaksi jo nitrogen dari aia jo mambantuak nitrida nan rapuah pado suhu tinggi nan marupoan bagian dari karya logam.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wallwork|first=G. R.|date=1976|title=The oxidation of alloys|journal=Reports on the Progress Physics|volume=39|issue=5|pages=401–485|bibcode=1976RPPh...39..401W|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/39/5/001}}</ref> === Isotop === Kromium alami tasusun dari tigo [[isotop]] nan stabil; ⁵²Cr, ⁵³Cr dan ⁵⁴Cr, jo {{sup|52}}Cr adolah nan paliang banyak ([[kelimpahan alami]] 83,789%). Sabanyak 19 [[radioisotop]] alah dikarakterisasi, jo nan paliang stabil adolah {{sup|50}}Cr jo [[wakatu paruh]] (labiah dari) 1,8{{e|17}} tahun, jo {{sup|51}}Cr jo wakatu paruh 27,7 hari. Sadoalah isotop [[radioaktif]] sisonyo mampunyoi wakatu paruah kurang dari 24 jam jo mayoritas kurang dari 1 minik. Unsua iko mamiliki 2 isotop [[meta stabil]].<ref name="NUBASE">{{Cite journal| first = Audi| last = Georges|title = The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties| journal = Nuclear Physics A| volume = 729| pages = 3–128| publisher = Atomic Mass Data Center| date = 2003| doi = 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001| bibcode=2003NuPhA.729....3A| last2 = Bersillon| first2 = O.| last3 = Blachot| first3 = J.| last4 = Wapstra| first4 = A. H.}}</ref>. Isotop kromium ado dalam kisaran [[massa atom]] dari 43&nbsp;[[satuan masa atom|u]] ({{sup|43}}Cr) hinggo 67&nbsp;u ({{sup|67}}Cr). [[Moda peluruhan]] utamo sabalun isotop stabil paliang banyak ado, {{sup|52}}Cr, adolah [[tangkapan elektron]], sadangkan moda utamo sasudahnyo adolah [[peluruhan beta|paluruahan beta]].<ref name="NUBASE"/> {{sup|53}}Cr alah diajukan sabagai proksi untuak konsentrasi oksigen atmosfer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frei|first1=Robert|last2=Gaucher|first2=Claudio|last3=Poulton|first3=Simon W.|last4=Canfield|first4=Don E.|title=Fluctuations in Precambrian atmospheric oxygenation recorded by chromium isotopes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2009-09-10_461_7261/page/250|journal=Nature|volume=461|pages=250–253|date=2009|doi=10.1038/nature08266|pmid=19741707|issue=7261|bibcode=2009Natur.461..250F}}</ref> == Rujuakan == 7l1ylf32x5be2t6idduchtmwggxwlki 0 337046 3351305 2054611 2026-08-05T22:59:12Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351305 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Biomaterial''' adolah zat apo sajo nan alah direkayasa untuak bainteraksi jo sistem biologis untuak tujuan medis - baik untuak terapi (maubekan, manambah, mampelokan atau mangganti fungsi jaringan tubuh) atau untuak diagnostik. Sabagai ilmu pangatahuan, '''biomaterial''' mamiliki usia sakitar limo puluah taun. Kajian tentang biomaterial disabuik '''ilmu''' '''biomaterial''' atau '''rekayasa biomaterial'''. Ilmu biomaterial alah maalami patumbuahan nan stabil sarato kuek salamo sajarahnyo, banyak parusahaan mainvestasikan sajumlah gadang pitihnyo ka dalam pangambangan produk nan paliang baru. Ilmu biomaterial mancakup unsua-unsua [[kadokteran]], [[biologi]], [[kimia]], [[teknik jaringan tubuh]] sarato [[Teknik material|ilmu material]]. Biomaterial babeda dari bahan biologis lainnyo, saparti [[tulang]], nan diproduksi dek [[ Sistem biologis|sistem biologis]]. Salain itu, paratian musti dilakukan dalam mandefinisikan sabuah biomaterial sabagai material nan [[ Biokompatibilitas|biokompatibel]], karano panarapannyo spesifik bagantuang pado kasusnyo. Biomaterial nan biokompatibel atau sasuai untuak suatu panarapan mungkin indak biokompatibel jo panarapan lainnyo.<ref name="SchmalzBio08">{{Cite book|title=Biocompatibility of Dental Materials|last=Schmalz, G.|last2=Arenholdt-Bindslev, D.|publisher=Springer-Verlag|year=2008|isbn=9783540777823|location=Berlin|pages=1–12|chapter=Chapter 1: Basic Aspects|access-date=13 April 2021|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrreTHuo54wC&pg=PA1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209201948/https://books.google.com/books?id=mrreTHuo54wC&pg=PA1|archive-date=9 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> == Aktivitas biologis == Kamampuan biomaterial nan direkayasa untuak mandorong respons fisiologis nan mandukuang fungsi sarato kinerja biomaterial dikana sabagai aktivitas biologis. Paliang umum, dalam [[Galeh bioaktif|gelas bioaktif]] jo kramik bioaktif, istilah iko marujuak pado kamampuan bahan nan ditanaman untuak baikatan baik jo jaringan di sakitarnyo baik dalam paran osseokonduktif maupun osseoproduktif.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cao|first=Wanpeng|last2=Hench|first2=Larry|year=1996|title=Bioactive Materials|journal=Ceramics International|volume=22|issue=6|pages=493–507|doi=10.1016/0272-8842(95)00126-3}}</ref> Bahan implan tulang acok dirancang untuak mandoroang patumbuahan tulang sambari malaruikan diri ka dalam cairan tubuh di sekitarnyo.<ref name="SDHA">{{Cite journal|last=Zhu|first=H.|displayauthors=et al|year=2018|title=Nanostructural insights into the dissolution behavior of Sr-doped hydroxyapatite|journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society|volume=38|issue=16|pages=5554–5562|arxiv=1910.10610|doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2018.07.056}}</ref> Nan kudian, biokompatibilitas nan baik, basamo jo kakuatan jo laju palarutan nan baik diinginkan bana. Umumnyo, aktivitas biologis biomaterial diukua dari laju biomineralisasi di permukaan material, nan manjadi tampek pambantuakan lapisan [[hidroksiapatit]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dabbs|first=D. M.|last2=Aksay|first2=I. A.|year=2000|title=Self-Assembledceramicsproduced Bycomplex-Fluidtemplation|journal=Annual Review of Physical Chemistry|volume=51|pages=601–22|bibcode=2000ARPC...51..601D|doi=10.1146/annurev.physchem.51.1.601|pmid=11031294}}</ref> == Swarakit == [[Swarakit]] (''self-assembly'') adolah istilah nan paliang umum digunoan dalam komunitas ilmiah modern untuak manggambakan agregasi atau pangumpulan partikel sacaro spontan (atom, molekul, [[Sistem koloid|koloid]], [[misel]], dll.) tanpa pangaruah kakuatan eksternal. Kalompok gadang partikel-partikel saparti itu dikatahui dapek manyusun diri manjadi susunan nan stabil sacaro [[termodinamika]], tastruktur jo baik, cukuik maingekan pado salah satu dari 7 sistem kristal nan ditamukan dalam [[metalurgi]] jo [[mineralogi]] (misalnyo kubik bapusek pado wajah (''face-centered cubic''), kubik bapusek pado tubuh (''body-centered cubic''), dll.). Bedanyo adolah dalam struktur kasaimbangan dalam skala spasial dari [[Struktur kristal|sel satuan]] (atau parameter kisi) dalam satiok kasus tatantu. Swarakit molekuler banyak ditamukan dalam sistem biologis jo manyadiokan dasar dari babagai macam struktur biologis nan kompleks. Dalam hal iko tamasuak babagai kelas biomaterial pegari (''emerging biomaterials'') nan unggul sacaro mekanis badasarkan mikrostruktur jo desain nan ditamukan di alam. Nan kudian, swarakit timbua juo sabagai strategi baru dalam sintesis kimia jo [[nanoteknologi]]. Kristal molekuler, kristal cair, koloid, misel, [[emulsi]], polimer fasa-tapisah, film tipis, jo lapisan tunggal swarakit sadoalah marupoan contoh dari jinih struktur nan teratur bana nan diparoleh jo manggunoan teknik iko. Ciri pambeda dari metode iko adolah adonyo pangorganisasian mandiri.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Whitesides|first=G.|last2=Mathias|first2=J.|last3=Seto|first3=C.|year=1991|title=Molecular self-assembly and nanochemistry: A chemical strategy for the synthesis of nanostructures|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1991-11-29_254_5036/page/1312|journal=Science|volume=254|issue=5036|pages=1312–9|bibcode=1991Sci...254.1312W|doi=10.1126/science.1962191|pmid=1962191}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ariga|first=K.|last2=Hill|first2=J. P.|last3=Lee|first3=M. V.|last4=Vinu|first4=A.|last5=Charvet|first5=R.|last6=Acharya|first6=S.|year=2008|title=Challenges and breakthroughs in recent research on self-assembly|journal=Science and Technology of Advanced Materials|volume=9|issue=1|pages=014109|bibcode=2008STAdM...9a4109A|doi=10.1088/1468-6996/9/1/014109|pmc=5099804|pmid=27877935}}</ref> == Rujuakan == [[Kategori:Biomolekul]] grqys0l82nktgzjjuksfsx1vqs4kgkp 0 337096 3351296 3156284 2026-08-05T22:32:35Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351296 wikitext text/x-wiki {{pareso tajamahan}} {{Speciesbox | fossil_range = {{fossil range|3.8|0}} | status = EN | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="IUCN">{{cite iucn |last1=Jessop |first1=Tim |last2=Ariefiandy |first2=Achmad |last3=Azmi |first3=Muhammad |last4=Ciofi |first4=Claudio| |last5=Imansyah |first5=Jeri |author6=Purwandana |first6=Deni |name-list-style=amp |year= 2021 |title=''Varanus komodoensis'' |page=e.T22884A123633058 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T22884A123633058.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | status2 = CITES_A1 | status2_system = CITES | status2_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php | title=Appendices |website=CITES |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref> | genus = Varanus | parent = Varanus (Varanus) | species = komodoensis | authority = [[Peter Ouwens|Ouwens]], 1912<ref name="Ouwens1912">{{cite journal |last=Ouwens |first=P. A. |author-link=Peter Ouwens |year=1912 |title=On a large ''Varanus'' species from the island of Komodo |journal=Bulletin de l'Institut Botanique de Buitenzorg. |volume=6 |pages=1–3 |series=2 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3873564#page/323/mode/1up |access-date=6 March 2017}}</ref> | binomial_authority = [[Peter Ouwens|Ouwens]], [[1912]] | range_map = Komodo dragon distribution id.png }} [[Berkas:Varanus komodoensis3.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Komodo nan sadang bajamua]]'''Komodo''' atau juo disabuik '''biawak komodo''' (''Varanus komodoensis''), adolah [[spesies]] [[biawak]] gadang nan ado di [[Komodo (pulau)|Pulau Komodo]], [[Rinca]], [[Pulau Flores|Flores]], [[Gili Motang]], jo [[Gili Dasami]] di [[Nusa Tenggara Timur]], [[Indonesia]].<ref name="itis">{{ITIS|ID=202168|taxon=Varanus komodoensis|year=2007|date=19 Juni}}</ref><ref name="komo">{{cite book|author=Trooper Walsh; Murphy, James Jerome; Claudio Ciofi; Colomba De LA Panouse|title=Komodo Dragons: Biology and Conservation (Zoo and Aquarium Biology and Conservation Series)|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/komododragonsbio0000unse|publisher=Smithsonian Books|location=Washington, D.C|pages=|isbn=1-58834-073-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Biawak iko dek panduduak asli pulau Komodo juo disabuik '''ora'''.<ref name="amnh">[http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/Endangered/ora/ora.html Endangered! Ora] URL diakses pada [[15 Januari]] [[2007]].</ref> Komodo marupoan spesies paliang gadang dari familia [[Varanidae]] sakaligus kadal paliang gadang di dunia, dengan rato-rato panjang 2-3 [[meter]] dan bareknyo bisa mancapai 100&nbsp;kg. Komodo marupoan pamangsa puncak di habitatnyo dek sajauh iko indak dikatahui adonya hewan karnivora gadang lain salain biawak iko di subarang geografisnyo.<ref name="world">{{cite book|author=Chris Mattison,|title=Lizards of the World (Of the World)|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|year=1989 & 1992|pages= pp. 16, 57, 99, 175|isbn=0-8160-5716-8|oclc=|doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Burness G, Diamond J, Flannery T |title=Dinosaurs, dragons, and dwarfs: the evolution of maximal body size |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=98 |issue=25 |pages=14518-23 |year=2001 |pmid=11724953}}</ref><ref name="firefly">{{cite book|author=Tim Halliday (Editor), Kraig Adler (Editor)|title=Firefly Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse_p6l7|publisher=Firefly Books Ltd|location=Hove|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse_p6l7/page/112 112], 113, 144, 147, 168, 169|isbn=1-55297-613-0|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> == Anatomi jo morfologi == [[Berkas:KDragon1mj.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Kaki jo ikua komodo]] Komodo lia dewasa biasonyo punyo barek sakitar 70&nbsp;kg,<ref name="animal">{{cite book |last = Burnie |first = David |coauthors = Don E. Wilson |title = Animal |publisher = DK Publishing, Inc. |date = 2001 |location = New York, New York |pages = 417, 420 |id = ISBN 0-7894-7764-5}}</ref> tapi komodo nan dipaliharo di panangkaran acok bana punyo bobot nan labiah barek. Spesimen lia paliang gadang nan pernah basobok panjangnyo mancapai 3.13 meter jo barek sakitar 166&nbsp;kg, tamasuak barek makanan nan alun dicerna di dalam paruiknyo.<ref name="sciam">Ciofi, Claudia. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000EFE16-865C-1CD6-B4A8809EC588EEDF The Komodo Dragon]. ''Scientific American'', Maret 1999. URL diakses pada [[21 Desember]] [[2006]]</ref> Komodo punyo ikua nan samo panjang jo tubuhnyo. Meskipun komodo tacataik sabagai kadal paliang gadang di dunia, tapi inyo bukan spesies nan paliang panjang. Reputasi panjang tubuh (indak tamasuak barek badan) dipacik dek [[biawak Papua]] (''Varanus salvadorii'').<ref name="biz">{{cite web |url=http://www.komododragon.biz/KomodoDragonFactSheet |title=Komodo Dragon - An Information Resource - Fact Sheet |accessdate=2008-03-13 |format= |work= |archive-date=2008-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307024159/http://www.komododragon.biz/KomodoDragonFactSheet |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Komodo jantan labiah gadang daripado komodo betino, dengan rono kulik dari abu-abu galok sampai sirah batu bata, samentaro komodo betino biasonyo barono hijau kacokelatan jo punyo bercak ketek kuniang pado tanggorokannyo. Komodo mudo labiah bavariasi rononyo, mulai dari rono kuning, hijau, jo putih dengan latar balakang hitam.<ref name="location">{{cite book|author=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|year=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Di dalam muluik komodo dewasa, terdapat sakitar 60 buah gigi nan bagerigi tajam sapanjang sakitar 2.5 [[sentimeter|cm]], nan acok talapeh atau ditanggaan.<ref name="location" /><ref name="whozoo">[http://whozoo.org/students/amabau/komodo_dragon.htm Whozoo Komodo Dragon]. Diakses pado 21 Desember 2006.</ref> Komodo punyo lidah nan panjang, barono kuniang kacokelatan jo bacabang.<ref name="sciam" /> Aia liur komodo marupoan salah coel hal nan acok dibicaroan banyak urang dek kabanyakan urang manganggapnyo beracun takah bisa ular atau kadal baracun, bahkan dianggap indak ado ubeknyo, apokah untuak mancagah maupun manetralkan racun tersebut. Walau baitu, hal iko manjadi sangketo panjang di antaro para ahli hewan di dunia.<ref name="docent">[http://szgdocent.org/resource/rr/c-komodo.htm Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061127173608/http://www.szgdocent.org/resource/rr/c-komodo.htm |date=2006-11-27 }}. Diakses pado 21 Desember 2006.</ref> == Fisiologi == [[Berkas:Komodo_Dragon_Eating_Rinca.jpg|ka|jmpl|250x250px|mudo Komodo di Rinca mamakan bangkai kerbau.]] Komodo dapek mancaliak sampai sajauh 300 m, tapi dek [[Retina|retinanyo]] hanyo mampunyoi [[sel kerucut]], binatang-binatang ko indak dapek mancaliak dengan baiak pado malam nan kalam. Komodo mampu mambedakan warna tapi indak mampu bana mambedakan benda nan indak bagerak. <ref name="nzpfactsheet">{{Cite web|url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Komododragon.cfm|title=Komodo Dragon Fact Sheet - National Zoo|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214060053/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/reptilesamphibians/facts/factsheets/komododragon.cfm|archive-date=2015-02-14|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-11-25|3=FONZ}}</ref> Komodo indak punyo indra pandangaran, walaupun inyo punyo lubang talingo. <ref name="bbc">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/336feature1.shtml|title=BBC - Science & Nature - Articles - The Komodo conundrum|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321094818/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/336feature1.shtml|archive-date=2005-03-21|dead-url=yes|access-date=2007-11-25}}</ref> Komodo manggunoan lidahnyo untuak mambaun mangsonyo sarupo nan dilakukan sabagian besar [[Squamata]] . Lidah Komodo manangkok partikel-partikel bau di udaro dan kamudian malatakkannyo ka dalam organ di langik-langik muluiknyo nan disabuik [[Organ jakobson|organ Jacobson]] bafungsi untuak manganalisis tando-tando bau. <ref name="draconian">[http://www.draconian.com/dragons/komodo-dragon-background.php Komodo Dragon - Background] {{Webarchive}} URL accessed April 13, 2007</ref> Jo bantuan angin jo kabiasoannyo mambaliakkan kapalonyo ka suok jo kida katiko bajalan, Komodo dapek mandeteksi adonyo bangkai dari jarak 4—9,5 meter.&nbsp;km. <ref name="location2">{{Cite book|last=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|year=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Lubang hiduang Komodo hanyo bafungsi untuak banapas dan indak mambaun karano Komodo indak punyo membran panarimo bau di hiduangnyo. <ref name="zipcode">[http://zipcodezoo.com/animals/v/varanus_komodoensis.asp Zipcodezoo.com - Varanus komodoensis] {{Webarchive}} URL accessed February 1, 2007.</ref>Komodo juo indak punyo organ raso pado lidahnyo, hanyo ado babarapo ujuang saraf raso di lihie bagian dalamnyo. <ref name="draconian" /> Komodo sempat dipakiroan pakak katiko panalitian manamuan bahwasonyo bisiak, suaro nan maningkek jo pakiak indak mampangaruahinyo. Hal iko kudian dibantah katiko pagawai [[Kabun Binatang ZSL London|ZSL Kabun Binatang London]] Joan Proctor malatiah kadal pantau Komodo untuak kalua untuak makan jo suaronyo, bahkan katiko inyo indak nampak dek kadal pantau. <ref name="liz">{{Cite book|last=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> == Parilaku == Komodo liar hanyo ado dan dapek ditamukan di [[Indonesia]] di tapeknyo di Provinsi [[Nusa Tenggara Timur]], khususnyo di [[Pulau komodo .|pulau-pulau Komodo]], [[Pulau Rinca|Rinca]] jo babarapo pulau ketek di sakitarnyo sarato di pasisia barat [[pulau Flores]] . <ref name="sczkd">[http://www.scz.org/animals/d/komodo.html Sedgewick County Zoo information about Varanus Komodoensis] {{Webarchive}} Pranala diakses pada [[Desember|21 Desember]] [[2006]].</ref> Habitat Komodo adolah padang rumpuik tabukak (savana) jo hutan samak, kadang-kadang juo di sakitaran pantai. Komodo aktif dari tangah hari sampai patang, tapi tingga di tampek taduah katiko suhu udaro sangaik angek. <ref name="gateway-faq">{{Cite web|url=http://www.komodo-gateway.org/faq1.html|title=Komodo National Park|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015175448/http://www.komodo-gateway.org/faq1.html|archive-date=2013-10-15|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-10-25|3=Komodo Island|4=Frequently Asked Questions}}</ref> <ref name="southsea">{{Cite book|last=Alison Ballance; Morris, Rod|title=South Sea Islands: A Natural History|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/southseaislandsn0000ball|publisher=Firefly Books Ltd|location=Hove|pages=|isbn=1-55297-609-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Komodo adolah binatang nan surang-surang dan hanyo bakumpua basamo-samo katiko makan atau bakambang biak. Komodo ko bisa balari sampai 20 km/jam pado jarak nan dakek. Komodo juo pandai baranang jo dapek manyalam sadalam 4,5 meter <ref name="jung">[http://www.sfsu.edu/~geog/bholzman/courses/316projects/komodo.htm The Biogeography of the Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive}} URL diakses pada [[Pebruari|24 Februari]] [[2007]].</ref> sarato pandai mamanjek batang kayu manggunoan cakarnyo nan kuek. <ref name="animal2">{{Cite book|last=Burnie|first=David|title=Animal|publisher=DK Publishing, Inc.|date=2001|location=New York, New York|pages=417, 420|id=ISBN 0-7894-7764-5}}</ref> Untuak manangkok mangso nan indak dapek dijangkau, Komodo dapek tagak jo kaki balakangnyo jo manggunoan ikuanyo sabagai panunjang. <ref name="liz2">{{Cite book|last=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Sairiang jo batambahnyo umua jo ukuran badannyo, Komodo labiah acok manggunoan cakarnyo sabagai sanjato, karano ukuran badannyo nan gadang mambueknyo susah untuak mamanjek pohon. Untuak tampek balinduang, Komodo mampu manggali lubang leba 1–3 meter jo kaki muko jo cakarnyo nan kuek. <ref name="cogger">{{Cite book|last=consultant editors, Harold G. Cogger & Richard G. Zweifel; illustrations by David Kirshner|title=Encyclopedia of reptiles & amphibians|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_h2i0|publisher=Academic Press|location=Boston|year=1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_h2i0/page/132 132], 157-8|isbn=0-12-178560-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Karano ukuran jo kabiasaannyo lalok di lubang, Komodo mampu manghemat paneh tubuah pado malam hari jo labiah saketek wakatu untuak bamain matohari pagi barikuiknyo. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Eric R. Pianka and Laurie J. Vitt; with a foreword by Harry W. Greene|title=Lizards: windows to the evolution of diversity|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=2003|page=244|isbn=0-520-23401-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> === Makanan === Sasudah makan, Komodo manyuruak-nyuruak badannyo nan lah kanyang mancari tampek tabukak untuak bamain matohari Komodo adolah binatang nan mamakan binatang lain ( [[karnivora]] ). Namun, labiah acok mamakan bangkai. <ref name="world2">{{Cite book|last=Chris Mattison,|title=Lizards of the World (Of the World)|url=https://archive.org/details/lizardsofworld0000matt|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|year=1989 & 1992|pages=pp. 16, 57, 99, 175|isbn=0-8160-5716-8|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Panalitian nan ado manunjuakan baso Komodo baburu mangso hiduik jo caro manyuruak-nyuruak diikuti jo sarangan tibo-tibo pado korbannyo. Katiko mangso alah dapek dijangkau, Komodo langsuang manyarangnyo jo manggigik sisi bawah tubuah atau lihie. <ref name="location3">{{Cite book|last=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|year=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Komodo manamukan mangsonyo manggunoan lidahnyo nan dapek marasoan [[baun]] mangso, binatang mati atau sadang mati pado jarak sampai 9,5 kilometer. <ref name="location3" /> Komodo mamakan mangsonyo jo caro mancabiak potongan-potongan dagiang gadang, kamudian manelannyo utuh, samantaro kaki mukonyo mamacik badan mangso. Untuak mangso ketek sampai sagadang [[kambiang]], Komodo kadang-kadang salasai dalam sakali. <ref name="southsea2">{{Cite book|last=Alison Ballance; Morris, Rod|title=South Sea Islands: A Natural History|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/southseaislandsn0000ball|publisher=Firefly Books Ltd|location=Hove|pages=|isbn=1-55297-609-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Aia liua nan ado di muluik Komodo mambantunyo manelan mangsonyo. Walaupun baitu, proses manelan masih mamakan wakatu nan lamo, biasonyo 15–20 minik diparaluan untuak manelan kambiang. Komodo kadang-kadang mancubo untuak mampacapek proses manelan jo caro manekan dagiang mangsonyo ka [[pohon]] atau batu, untuak mamaso dagiang "masuak" malalui kerongkongannyo. <ref name="southsea2" /> Untuak maindari panyumbatan udaro katiko manelan, Komodo banapas malalui tabuang ketek di bawah lidahnyo, nan tahubuang langsuang jo [[Paru-paru|paru-parunyo]] . <ref name="location4">{{Cite book|last=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|year=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Rahang Komodo dapek dibukak sacaro bebas dek otot tangkuraknyo nan fleksibel, nan mamungkinkan Komodo untuak malahap mangso gadang sampai 80% dari barek badannyo surang dalam sakali makan. <ref name="firefly2">{{Cite book|last=Tim Halliday (Editor), Kraig Adler (Editor)|title=Firefly Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse_p6l7|publisher=Firefly Books Ltd|location=Hove|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse_p6l7/page/112 112], 113, 144, 147, 168, 169|isbn=1-55297-613-0|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> <ref name="reptilis">[http://reptilis.net/lacertilia/varanidae/komodo.html The Reptipage: Komodo dragons] {{Webarchive}} URL accessed February 13, 2007.</ref> Mangso Komodo nan alah dewasa tamasuak [[reptil]] ketek (tamasuak jinihnyo surang), [[babi hutan]], [[kambiang]], [[Ruso|kijang]], [[kudo]], jo [[Kabau|kerbau]] . Samantaro itu, anak Komodo mamanciang [[Saranggo|sarangga]], talua, [[Binatang manyusuan|mamalia]] jo [[reptil]] ketek . <ref name="world3">{{Cite book|last=Chris Mattison,|title=Lizards of the World (Of the World)|url=https://archive.org/details/lizardsofworld0000matt|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|year=1989 & 1992|pages=pp. 16, 57, 99, 175|isbn=0-8160-5716-8|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> <ref name="reptilis" /> Sasudah makan, Komodo maelo-elo badannyo nan lah kanyang mancari tampek tabukak untuak bajamua di matohari jo mampacapek proses pencernaan. Kalau indak, makanan tu bisa lapuak di paruik dan maracun tubuah tu surang. Karano [[Alkitab|metabolismenyo]] nan lambek, Komodo gadang dapek batahan iduik jo hanyo makan sakitar 12 kali satahun atau sakali sabulan. <ref name="location5">{{Cite book|last=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|year=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Sasudah dagiang mangsonyo dicerna, Komodo mamuntahkan siso-siso tanduak, rambuik jo gigi mangsonyo, dalam gumpalan nan bacampua jo lendir nan babaun busuak. Kudian, Komodo maapuih mukonyo di tanah atau di samak-samak untuak mambarasiahan lendir nan tasiso nan masih tasangkuik di muluiknyo. <ref name="location5" /> Katiko makan sacaro bakalompok, Komodo nan paliang gadang biasonyo makan dulu, diikuti dek Komodo lainnyo nan labiah ketek. Jantan nan paliang gadang manunjuakan dominasinyo malalui bahaso tubuah jo mendesis, nan kamudian disambuik jo bahaso nan samo dek jantan lain nan labiah ketek untuak manunjuakan pangakuannyo tantang kakuatan Komodo gadang. Komodo nan samo gadangnyo buliah bacakak untuak mauji kakuatannyo, jo caro tagak jo kaduo kaki balakangnyo, kamudian saliang manembak jo mandorong jo kaki mukonyo, sampai salah surang mangaku kalah jo mundur, walaupun kadang-kadang nan kalah dapek dibunuah dalam pajuangan jo dimakan dek nan manang. <ref name="location6">{{Cite book|last=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|year=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Kadang-kadang Komodo juo mamanciang [[manusia]] jo mayik nan digali dari lubang pakuburan nan dangkal. <ref name="liz3">{{Cite book|last=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Kabiasaan iko manyababkan panduduak Pulau Komodo mahindari tanah pasia jo mamiliah untuak mangubuaan mayiknyo dalam tanah liat, jo manutuiknyo jo batu supayo Komodo indak dapek manggalinyo. <ref name="southsea3">{{Cite book|last=Alison Ballance; Morris, Rod|title=South Sea Islands: A Natural History|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/southseaislandsn0000ball|publisher=Firefly Books Ltd|location=Hove|pages=|isbn=1-55297-609-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Ado pulo nan mancurigai baso Komodo baevolusi untuak mamanciang [[gajah kerdil]] ''[[Stegodon]]'' nan pernah tingga di [[Flores]] . <ref name="Diamond">Diamond, J (1987) "Did Komodo dragons evolve to eat pygmy elephants?" ''Nature'' '''326'''(6116): 832-832</ref> Komodo dikatahui juo pernah mangajuikkan jo manakuik-nakuik-an ruso batino nan sadang manganduang, jo harapan baso inyo akan kaguguran jo bangkai janinnyo dapek dimankan, suatu nan juo tadapek pado binatang predator gadang di [[Afrika]] . <ref name="Diamond" /> === Biso jo bakteri === Pado akhia taun 2005, panaliti dari Universitas Melbourne, [[Australia]], manyimpulkan baso [[Kadal pamantau perentie|kadal monitor Perentie]] ( ''Varanus giganteus'' ) jo kadal monitor lainnyo, sarato kadal dari [[Famili|kaluarga]] Agamidae, kamungkinan mampunyoi babarapo bantuak [[Bisa|racun]] . Salamo ko, alah dikatahui baso luko nan disababkan dek gigitan binatang ko sangaik rawan [[Inpeksi|kanai infeksi]] dek bakteri nan hiduik di muluik cicak ko, tapi para panaliti ko manunjuakan baso efek langsuang nan muncua pado luko gigitan adolah disababkan dek masuaknyo racun nan kakuatan sadang. Para panaliti ko alah mangamati luko-luko pado tangan manusia nan disababkan dek gigitan ''Varanus varius'', ''V. scalaris'' jo kadal Komodo, dan kasadonyo manunjuakan reaksi nan sarupo: bangkak nan capek dalam hitungan minik, gangguan pembekuan darah, raso sakik nan manjala sampai siku, diiriangi jo babarapo Gejala persist untuak babarapo jam kamudian. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.naherpetology.org/pdf_files/467.pdf|title=Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes|last=Fry, Brian G., et al.|website=|format=PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010191815/http://www.naherpetology.org/pdf_files/467.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-10|dead-url=yes|access-date=2008-03-13}}</ref> Sabuah kalenjar nan manganduang racun nan sangaik baracun alah diambiak dari muluik Komodo di [[Kabun Binatang Singapura]], nan mayakinkan para panaliti tantang kanduangan racun Komodo. <ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20090519/sc_afp/scienceanimalkomodoaustralia_20090519073836 Scientists discover deadly secret of Komodo's bite] {{Webarchive}}, Yahoo News diakses pada 20/05/2009</ref> Bakteri nan paliang mambunuah dalam aia liua Komodo dipakiroan adolah bakteri ''[[Pasteurella banyak dam|Pasteurella multocida]]'' . Salain manganduang racun, aia liua Komodo juo mampunyoi babagai [[bakteri]] nan mamatikan di dalamnyo; labiah dari 28 bakteri [[Negatif gram|Gram negatif]] jo 29 bakteri [[Gram-positif|Gram positif]] alah diisolasi dari aia liua ko. <ref>Montgomery JM, Gillespie D, Sastrawan P, Fredeking TM, Stewart GL (2002) "Aerobic salivary bacteria in wild and captive Komodo dragons" ''Journal of Wildlife Diseases'' ''' 38''' (3): 545-551</ref> Bakteri ko manyababkan [[Sepsis|septisemia]] pado korbannyo. Jikok gigitan Komodo indak langsuang mambunuah mangso dan mangso dapek mailak, umumnyo mangso nan indak baruntuang ko akan mati dalam wakatu sahari atau saminggu dek infeksi, karano Komodo kamungkinan gadang kebal taradok mikrobanyo surang, banyak panalitian nan alah dilakukan dilakukan untuak mancari molekul antibakteri jo harapan dapek digunoan untuak ubek manusia. <ref name="nwf">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?articleId=810&issueId=63|title=Chasing the Magic Dragon - National Wildlife Magazine|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220164644/http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?articleId=810&issueId=63|archive-date=2009-02-20|dead-url=yes|access-date=2007-11-06}}</ref> === Reproduksi === Musim kawin untuak Komodo biasonyo balangsuang antaro [[Mai|bulan Mei]] jo [[Agustus]] . <ref name="jung2">[http://www.sfsu.edu/~geog/bholzman/courses/316projects/komodo.htm The Biogeography of the Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive}} URL diakses pada [[Pebruari|24 Februari]] [[2007]].</ref> Salamo maso iko, Komodo jantan acok bacakak jo jantan lainnyo ateh batino jo wilayahnyo. Duo jantan "bagulat" jo jantan lain sambia tagak jo kaki balakangnyo dan kamudian saliang mandorong jo mamukua jo kaki mukonyo. Komodo nan kalah akan jatuah dan "takunci" ka tanah. Kaduo Komodo jantan dapek muntah atau buang air besar katiko basiap-siap untuak bacakak. <ref name="liz4">{{Cite book|last=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Nan manang dalam cakak akan mancucuak lidahnyo nan panjang ka badan padusi untuak mancaliak panarimoannyo. <ref name="firefly3">{{Cite book|last=Tim Halliday (Editor), Kraig Adler (Editor)|title=Firefly Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse_p6l7|publisher=Firefly Books Ltd|location=Hove|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse_p6l7/page/112 112], 113, 144, 147, 168, 169|isbn=1-55297-613-0|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Komodo batino [[Lawan|antagonis]] jo bacakak jo gigi jo cakarnyo salamo fase awal kawin. Salanjuiknyo, jantan harus sapanuahnyo mangandalikan batino salamo kopulasi supayo inyo indak luko. Salamo kawin, jantan manggosok dagunyo pado batino, diiriangi jo manggaretek kareh di pungguangnyo jo manjilat. <ref name="library">[http://library.sandiegozoo.org/Fact%20Sheets/komodo_dragon/Komodo.htm Komodo Dragon: Varanus komodoensis 1998] {{Webarchive}} URL accessed January 24, 2007.</ref> Kopulasi tajadi katiko jantan mamasuakan salah satu [[Hemipenis|hemipennyo]] ka dalam kloaka batino. <ref name="nzpfactsheet2">{{Cite web|url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Komododragon.cfm|title=Komodo Dragon Fact Sheet - National Zoo|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214060053/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/reptilesamphibians/facts/factsheets/komododragon.cfm|archive-date=2015-02-14|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-11-25|3=FONZ}}</ref> Komodo [[Bakawin surang|monogam]] jo mambantuak "ikatan pasangan," parangai nan langka untuak kadal. <ref name="liz5">{{Cite book|last=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> <ref name="reptilis2">[http://reptilis.net/lacertilia/varanidae/komodo.html The Reptipage: Komodo dragons] {{Webarchive}} URL accessed February 13, 2007.</ref> Komodo batino biasonyo batalua di lubang-lubang tanah, lekukan di lereng bukik atau sarang nan ditinggaan dek buruang [[Pasia bakaki oranye|gosling bakaki oranye]] . Namun, Komodo labiah suko manyimpan taluanyo di sarang nan tatingga. <ref>Jessop TS, Sumner J, Rudiharto H, Purwandana D, Imansyah MJ, Phillips JA (2004) "Distribution, use and selection of nest type by Komodo Dragons" ''Biological Conservation'' '''117''' (5): 463-470</ref> Rato-rato sarang Komodo manganduang 20 buah talua. <ref name="liz6">{{Cite book|last=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Nan batino barado di ateh talua untuak ma-inkubasi jo malinduanginyo sampai manetas sasudah ma-inkubasi salamo 7-8 bulan. <ref name="jung3">[http://www.sfsu.edu/~geog/bholzman/courses/316projects/komodo.htm The Biogeography of the Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive}} URL diakses pada [[Pebruari|24 Februari]] [[2007]].</ref> Proses manatehan adolah usaho nan barek untuak mudo Komodo, nan kalua dari cangkang talua sasudah mancabiaknyo jo [[Gigi telur|gigi talua]] nan jatuah sasudah karajo kareh ko salasai. Sasudah sukses mancabiak cangkang talua, bayi Komodo dapek barado di cangkang taluanyo salamo babarapo jam sabalun mulai manggali kalua dari sarangnyo. Katiko manatas, bayi-bayi ko sangaik rawan dimangso dek predator. <ref name="location7">{{Cite book|last=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|year=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Komodo mudo maabihan taun-taun partamonyo di pohon, di mano inyo relatif aman dari predator, tamasuak Komodo dewasa kanibal, nan kadang-kadang mangsa kadal monitor mudo nan alah diburu. . <ref name="liz7">{{Cite book|last=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> <ref name="factsheet">[http://www.komododragon.biz/KomodoDragonFactSheet Facts and Data on the Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive}} URL diakses pada [[Januari|5 Januari]] [[2006]].</ref> Komodo mamakan wakatu tigo inggo limo taun untuak matang, dan dapek hiduik labiah dari 50 taun. <ref name="liz7" /> <ref name="reptilis3">[http://reptilis.net/lacertilia/varanidae/komodo.html The Reptipage: Komodo dragons] {{Webarchive}} URL accessed February 13, 2007.</ref> <ref name="cogger2">{{Cite book|last=consultant editors, Harold G. Cogger & Richard G. Zweifel; illustrations by David Kirshner|title=Encyclopedia of reptiles & amphibians|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_h2i0|publisher=Academic Press|location=Boston|year=1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_h2i0/page/132 132], 157-8|isbn=0-12-178560-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> === Partenogenesis === [[Berkas:Parthkomodo.jpg|ka|jmpl|Bayi Komodo [[Partenogenesis|partenogenetik]] di [[Kabun Binatang Chester]], [[Inggirih]] .]] [[Berkas:Aa_komodo_dragon_baby.jpg|ka|jmpl|Bayi Komodo [[Partenogenesis|partenogenetik]] di [[Kabun Binatang Chester]], [[Inggirih]] .]] Salain proses reproduksi normal, ado babarapo contoh kasus Komodo batino nan mahasilkan katurunan tanpa adonyo jantan ( [[Partenogenesis|parthenogenesis]] ), sabuah fenomena nan dikatahui juo tajadi pado babarapo spesies reptil lain sarupo [[Knemidofor|Cnemidophorus]] . <ref name="animal3">{{Cite book|last=Burnie|first=David|title=Animal|publisher=DK Publishing, Inc.|date=2001|location=New York, New York|pages=417, 420|id=ISBN 0-7894-7764-5}}</ref> "''Rive''r", Komodo di [[Kabun Binatang London]], batalua pado awal [[2006]] sasudah tapisah dari jantan salamo labiah dari duo taun. Para ilmuwan pado mulonyo manyangko baso Komodo ko dapek manyimpan [[Mani|sperma]] untuak babarapo wakatu dari kawin sabalunnyo jo Komodo jantan, adaptasi nan dikenal sabagai [[superfekundasi]] . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metafilter.com/58040/Virgin-Birth-No-Virgin-Hatch|title=Virgin Birth? No, Virgin Hatch.|website=www.metafilter.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815045848/https://www.metafilter.com/58040/Virgin-Birth-No-Virgin-Hatch|archive-date=2020-08-15|dead-url=no|access-date=2020-04-15}}</ref> Pado tanggal [[Desember|20 Desember]] [[2006]], dilaporkan baso "Flora", sabuah Komodo nan tingga di [[Kabun Binatang Chester]], [[Inggirih]] adolah Komodo kaduo nan dikatahui mahasiakan talua tanpa [[Pemupukan|pembuahan]] (pembuahan dari kawin). Inyo batalua 11 talua, dan 7 di antaronyo berhasil manatas. <ref>Catatan kandangnya di [[Kebun Binatang Chester]], [[Inggris]]</ref> Para panaliti dari [[Perguruan Tinggi|Universitas Liverpool]] di Inggirih utara malakuan uji genetik pado tigo talua nan gagal manatas sasudah dipindahkan ka inkubator, dan tabukti baso "Flora" indak punyo kontak fisik jo Komodo jantan. Sasudah panamuan nan mangajuikkan ko, tes kamudian dilakukan pado talua "Sungai" dan ditamukan baso talua ko diproduksi tanpa pembuahan eksternal. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article759338.ece|title=Wise men testify to Dragon's virgin birth - Times Online|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528134302/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/|archive-date=2020-05-28|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-11-26}}</ref> Komodo mampunyoi [[Sistem panantuan jinih kalamin|sistem panantuan jinih kelamin]] kromosom [[Sistem panantuan jinih kalamin ZW .|ZW]], bukan [[sistem panantuan jinih kelamin XY]] . Katurunan "Flora", nan jantan, manunjuakan baso babarapo hal tajadi, baso talua "Flora" nan alun dibuahi pado mulonyo [[haploid]], kamudian manggandaan kromosomnyo surang manjadi [[diploid]] . Hal iko manunjuakan baso inyo indak manghasilkan talua diploid, sarupo nan ka tajadi jikok salah satu proses reduksi-pambagian [[Meiosis|meiotik]] di [[Ovarium|ovariumnyo]] gagal. Katiko Komodo batino (mampunyoi kromosom jinih kalamin ZW) mahasilkan katurunan jo caro iko, inyo hanyo mawarisi ciek dari pasangan kromosomnyo, tamasuak ciek dari duo kromosom jinih kalaminnyo. Sakumpulan kromosom tungga ko kamudian digandakan dalam talua, nan bakambang sacaro partenogenetik. Talua nan manarimo kromosom Z akan manjadi ZZ (jantan) dan nan manarimo kromosom W akan manjadi WW dan gagal bakambang. <ref name="ZW">''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6196225.stm Virgin births for giant lizards] {{Webarchive}}''</ref> Dipakiroan baso adaptasi reproduksi sarupo iko mamungkinkan hewan batino untuak masuak ka [[Ceruk ekologis|ceruk ekologi]] nan taisolasi (sarupo pulau) dan jo caro partenogenesis kamudian mahasilkan katurunan jantan. Malalui kawin jo anaknyo, hewan-hewan ko kamudian dapek mambantuak populasi nan bakambang biak sacaro seksual, karano dapek mahasilkan katurunan jantan jo batino. <ref name="ZW2">''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6196225.stm Virgin births for giant lizards] {{Webarchive}}''</ref> Walaupun adaptasi ko baguno, kabun binatang paralu waspada karano partenogenesis dapek mangurangi karagaman genetik. <ref name="pmid">{{Cite journal|last=Watts PC, Buley KR, Sanderson S, Boardman W, Ciofi C, Gibson R|year=2006|title=Parthenogenesis in Komodo Dragons|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_december-21-28-2006_444_7122/page/1021|journal=Nature|volume=444|issue=7122|pages=1021-2|doi=10.1038/4441021a|pmid=17183308}}</ref> Pado tanggal 31 Januari 2008, Kabun Binatang Sedgwick County di Wichita, [[Kansas]] manjadi kabun binatang patamo nan mandokumentasikan parthenogenesis pado Komodo Amerika. Kabun binatang ko mampunyoi duo Komodo batino nan alah dewasa, salah satunyo mahasilkan 17 talua pado 19-20 Mei 2007. Hanyo duo talua nan diinkubasi jo ditatas dek masalah tasadionyo ruang; nan partamo manatas pado 31 Januari 2008, diikuti nan kaduo pado 1 Februari 2008. Duo mudo Komodo tu jantan. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scz.org/n_recent.html|title=Recent News - Sedgwick County Zoo|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080211184900/http://www.scz.org/n_recent.html|archive-date=2008-02-11|dead-url=yes|access-date=2008-02-12}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23058689/|title=Komodo dragons hatch with no male involved - Science - MSNBC.com|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023073929/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23058689/|archive-date=2012-10-23|dead-url=yes|access-date=2008-02-12}}</ref> === Evolusi === Pakambangan evolusi Komodo dimulai jo [[genus]] [[Varanus]], nan muncua di [[Asia]] sakitar 40 juta taun nan lalu lalu bapindah ka [[Australia]] . Kiro-kiro 15 juta taun nan lalu, patamuan lempeng benua Australia jo [[Asia Tenggara]] mamungkinkan kadal untuak mambuek migrasi baliak ka wilayah nan kini dikenal sabagai [[Kapulauan Nusantara|kapulauan]] . Komodo dipacayo alah baevolusi dari niniak muyangnyo di Australia sakitar 4 juta taun nan lalu, kamudian manyubarang jo manyebar ka arah timur sampai ka pulau [[Timor]] . Parubahan pamukoan lauik sajak [[Zaman Es]] manyababkan jumlah Komodo bakurang dan kini hanyo tadapek di babarapo pulau. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.komododragon.biz/Evolution|title=Komodo Dragon - Evolution theory of the Komodo Dragon|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310233607/http://www.komododragon.biz/Evolution|archive-date=2008-03-10|dead-url=no|access-date=2008-03-13}}</ref> === Komodo jo manusia === [[Berkas:Makan_bareng.jpg|ka|jmpl|250x250px|Sakalompok Komodo sadang mamakan kambiang di [[Kabun Binatang Surabaya]] .]] [[Berkas:KdragonT.zoo.jpg|ka|jmpl|250x250px|komodo di Kabun Binatang [[Toroto|Toronto]] .]] ==== Panemuan ==== Komodo pertamo kali didokumentasikan dek [[Eropa|urang Eropa]] pado taun 1910. Namonyo manjadi laweh sasudah taun 1912, katiko [[Pieter Antonie Ouwens]], direktur Museum Zoologi di [[Kota Bogor|Buitenzorg]] (kini [[Kota Bogor|Bogor]] ), manabikan jurnal tantang Komodo sasudah manarimo foto jo kulik reptil ko. <ref name="liz8">{{Cite book|last=text by David Badger; photography by John Netherton|title=Lizards: a natural history of some uncommon creatures, extraordinary chameleons, iguanas, geckos, and more|url=https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi|publisher=Voyageur Press|location=Stillwater, MN|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lizards00davi/page/32 32], 52, 78, 81, 84, 140-145, 151|isbn=0-89658-520-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> <ref name="factsheet2">[http://www.komododragon.biz/KomodoDragonFactSheet Facts and Data on the Komodo Dragon] {{Webarchive}} URL diakses pada [[Januari|5 Januari]] [[2006]].</ref> Adonyo kadal monitor Komodo marupokan faktor pandorong ekspedisi ka [[Pulau komodo .|pulau Komodo]] dek W. Douglas Burden pado taun 1926. Sasudah babaliak jo 12 spesimen nan alah dilestarikan jo 2 Komodo nan hiduik, ekspedisi ko mambarikan inspirasi untuak film King Kong taun 1933 <ref>[http://www.unmuseum.org/burden.htm The Virtual Exploration Society: the Burden Expedition to Komodo Island] {{Webarchive}} URL accessed March 18, 2007.</ref> [[Rajo Kong (film 1933)|.]] W. Douglas Burden adolah nan patamo kali maagiah namo ''" Komodo"'' kapado binatang ko. <ref name="gateway-faq2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.komodo-gateway.org/faq1.html|title=Komodo National Park|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015175448/http://www.komodo-gateway.org/faq1.html|archive-date=2013-10-15|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-10-25|3=Komodo Island|4=Frequently Asked Questions}}</ref> Tigo dari spesimen Komodo nan inyo dapekkan dipaliharo dan manjadi binatang pajangan nan masih disimpan di [[Museum Sejarah Alam Amerika]] . <ref>[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/expeditions/treasure_fossil/Treasures/Komodo_Dragons/komodo.html?aa American Museum of Natural History: Komodo Dragons] {{Webarchive}}. Retrieved 7 June 2007.</ref> ==== Panelitian ==== Sadar jo panurunan jumlah binatang ko di alam liar, ilmuwan jo organisasi internasional alah malarang paburuan Komodo jo mambatasi jumlah binatang nan diambiak untuak panalitian ilmiah. Ekspedisi Komodo baranti salamo [[Parang Dunia II]], dan indak dilanjutkan sampai taun 1950-an jo 1960-an, katiko panalitian dilakukan tantang parangai makan, reproduksi jo suhu tubuah . Pado taun-taun itu, ekspedisi lain direncanakan untuak panalitian jangka panjang tantang Komodo. Tugas iko jatuah kapado kaluarga Auffenberg, nan kamudian tingga salamo 11 bulan di Pulau Komodo pado taun 1969. Salamo maso itu, Walter Auffenberg jo Putra Sastrawan sabagai asistennyo, berhasil manangkok jo manandoi labiah dari 50 Komodo. <ref name="nwf2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?articleId=810&issueId=63|title=Chasing the Magic Dragon - National Wildlife Magazine|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220164644/http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?articleId=810&issueId=63|archive-date=2009-02-20|dead-url=yes|access-date=2007-11-06}}</ref> Hasia ekspedisi ko tanyato sangaik bapangaruah dalam maningkekan pambiakan Komodo. <ref name="komo2">{{Cite book|last=Trooper Walsh; Murphy, James Jerome; Claudio Ciofi; Colomba De LA Panouse|title=Komodo Dragons: Biology and Conservation (Zoo and Aquarium Biology and Conservation Series)|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/komododragonsbio0000unse|publisher=Smithsonian Books|location=Washington, D.C|pages=|isbn=1-58834-073-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Panalitian salanjuiknyo kamudian mambarikan gambaran nan labiah jaleh jo labiah jaleh tantang ciri-ciri alam Komodo, sahinggo ahli biologi sarupo Claudio Ciofi dapek malanjuikan panalitian nan labiah mandalam. <ref name="natgeo">{{Cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0129_030129_komodo.html|title=Trapping Komodo Dragons for Conservation|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309055154/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0129_030129_komodo.html|archive-date=2017-03-09|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-11-08}}</ref> ==== Konservasi ==== Komodo adolah spesies nan rawan punah, dan dikategorikan sabagai spesies Rawan dalam [[Daftar Merah IUCN]] . <ref>{{IUCN2006|assessors=World Conservation Monitoring Centre|year=1996|id=22884|title=Varanus komodoensis|downloaded=11 May 2006}} Listed as Vulnerable (VU B1+2cde v2.3) URL accessed December 21, 2006</ref> Sakitar 4.000–5.000 Komodo dipakiroan masih hiduik di alam liar. Panduduak iko tabateh pado pulau-pulau Rinca (1.300), Gili Motang (100), Gili Dasami (100), Komodo (1.700), jo Flores (mungkin sakitar 2.000). <ref name="komo3">{{Cite book|last=Trooper Walsh; Murphy, James Jerome; Claudio Ciofi; Colomba De LA Panouse|title=Komodo Dragons: Biology and Conservation (Zoo and Aquarium Biology and Conservation Series)|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/komododragonsbio0000unse|publisher=Smithsonian Books|location=Washington, D.C|pages=|isbn=1-58834-073-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Namun, ado kekhawatiran tantang populasi ko karano dipakiroan dari kasadonyo, hanyo tingga 350 batino nan produktif jo mampu bakambang biak. <ref name="amnh2">[http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/Endangered/ora/ora.html Endangered! Ora] {{Webarchive}} URL diakses pada [[Januari|15 Januari]] [[2007]].</ref> Karano kapadulian iko, pado taun 1980 Pamarintah Indonesia mandirian [[Taman Nasional Komodo]] untuak malinduangi panduduak Komodo jo ekosistemnyo di babarapo pulau tamasuak Komodo, Rinca, jo Padar. <ref name="knp">{{Cite web|url=http://www.komodonationalpark.org/|title=The official website of Komodo National Park, Indonesia.|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906181650/http://www.komodonationalpark.org/|archive-date=2017-09-06|dead-url=yes|access-date=2007-02-02}}</ref> Kudian, Cagar Alam Wae Wuul jo Wolo Tado juo didirian di Pulau Flores untuak mambantu malestarikan Komodo. <ref name="natgeo2">{{Cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0129_030129_komodo.html|title=Trapping Komodo Dragons for Conservation|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309055154/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0129_030129_komodo.html|archive-date=2017-03-09|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-11-08}}</ref> Tapi di sisi lain, ado bukti nan manunjuakan baso Komodo, paliang indak sabagian, alah tabiaso jo kahadiran manusia. - Komodo ko alah biaso diagiah makan bangkai taranak, sabagai daya tarik untuak manarik wisatawan di babarapo lokasi pangunjuangan. <ref name="world4">{{Cite book|last=Chris Mattison,|title=Lizards of the World (Of the World)|url=https://archive.org/details/lizardsofworld0000matt|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|year=1989 & 1992|pages=pp. 16, 57, 99, 175|isbn=0-8160-5716-8|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Aktivitas [[Gunuang api|vulkanik]], gampo bumi, parusakan habitat, kabakaran (populasi Komodo di Pulau Padar ampia punah karano kabakaran alam pernah tajadi di sinan), bakurangnyo mangso, maningkeknyo pariwisata, jo pamburuan liar, mambuek Komodo samakin rawan punah. [[KUTIPAN|CITES]] ( ''Konvensi Padagangan Internasional Spesies nan Tarancam Punah'' ) alah manantuan baso padagangan Komodo, baiak kulik maupun bagian lain dari binatang ko, adolah haram. <ref name="location8">{{Cite book|last=Tara Darling (Illustrator)|title=Komodo Dragon: On Location (Darling, Kathy. on Location.)|publisher=Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books|location=|year=|pages=|isbn=0-688-13777-6|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> <ref name="zipcode2">[http://zipcodezoo.com/animals/v/varanus_komodoensis.asp Zipcodezoo.com - Varanus komodoensis] {{Webarchive}} URL accessed February 1, 2007.</ref> <ref name="natgeo3">{{Cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0129_030129_komodo.html|title=Trapping Komodo Dragons for Conservation|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309055154/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0129_030129_komodo.html|archive-date=2017-03-09|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-11-08}}</ref> Walaupun jarang, Komodo tanamo mambunuah manusia. Pado 4 Juni 2007, Komodo manyarang surang anak laki-laki baumua lapan taun. Anak tu kudian maningga dek pandarahan barek. Iko adolah catatan partamo sarangan nan mangakibatkan kamatian dalam 33 taun. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19026658/|title=Komodo dragon kills boy in Indonesia - Asia-Pacific - MSNBC.com|website=|format=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607135725/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19026658/|archive-date=2007-06-07|dead-url=no|access-date=2007-06-07}}</ref> Pada [[:id:27_Februari|27 Februari]] [[:id:2020|2020]] alah lahia 6 ikua Komodo di [[:id:Kebun_Binatang|Kebun Binatang]] di [[:id:Bogor|Bogor]]. Pada [[:id:23_September|23 September]] [[:id:2023|2023]] 6 ikua Komodo alah dibebas di [[:id:Cagar_Alam|Cagar Alam]] [[:id:Wae_Wuul|Wae Wuul]].<ref>https://visual.republika.co.id/berita/rzdpue283/sebanyak-6-ekor-komodo-dikembalikan-dari-bogor-ke-tanah-asal-di-ntt ([[Bahasa Indonesia]])</ref><ref>https://www.kompas.id/baca/english/2023/09/24/en-enam-komodo-pulang-kampung-ke-habitat-asli-di-manggarai ([[Inggris]])</ref> === Panangkaran === Komodo alah lamo manjadi pamandangan nan manarik di babagai [[Kabun Binatang|kabun binatang]], tarutamo karano ukuran jo reputasinyo, nan mambueknyo jadi populer. Namun, binatang ko jarang dipamerkan di kabun binatang, karano Komodo rawan kanai infeksi jo panyakik nan disababkan dek parasit, sarato indak mudah bakambang biak. <ref name="amnh3">[http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/Endangered/ora/ora.html Endangered! Ora] {{Webarchive}} URL diakses pada [[Januari|15 Januari]] [[2007]].</ref>Komodo partamo kali dipamerkan di [[Kabun Binatang|Kabun Binatang Smithsonian]] pado taun 1934, tapi binatang ko hanyo batahan salamo duo taun. Usaho untuak mamaliharo reptil ko balanjuik, tapi umua hiduik binatang ko dalam tawanan indak lamo bana, rato-rato hanyo 5 tahun di kabun binatang. Panalitian nan dilakukan dek Walter Auffenberg di ateh, nan hasilnyo kudian dipublikasikan sabagai buku ''Ekologi Parilaku Monitor Komodo'', akhianyo mamungkinkan untuak mamaliharo jo mamaliaro binatang langka ko dalam tawanan. <ref name="komo4">{{Cite book|last=Trooper Walsh; Murphy, James Jerome; Claudio Ciofi; Colomba De LA Panouse|title=Komodo Dragons: Biology and Conservation (Zoo and Aquarium Biology and Conservation Series)|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/komododragonsbio0000unse|publisher=Smithsonian Books|location=Washington, D.C|pages=|isbn=1-58834-073-2|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Alah diamati baso banyak spesimen Komodo nan ditawan mampanampakkan parangai nan patuah untuak suatu jangka wakatu. Dalam babarapo kajadian, dilaporkan baso panangannyo bahasil mambaok Komodo kalua dari kandangnyo untuak bainteraksi jo pangunjuang, tamasuak anak-anak, tanpa manyababkan karusakan kapado pangunjuang. <ref name="procter2">Procter, J. B. 1928. On a living Komodo Dragon ''Varanus komodensis'' Ouwens, exhibited at the Scientific Meeting, October 23rd, 1928. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1928:1017-1019.</ref> <ref name="lederer2">Lederer, G. 1931. Erkennen wechselwarme Tiere ihren Pfleger? Wochenschr. Aquar.-Terrarienkunde 28: 636-638.</ref> Komodo mungkin bisa mengenali urang ciek-ciek. Ruston Hartdegen dari Kabun Binatang [[Dalas|Dallas]] mangatoan baso Komodo nan inyo paliharo bareaksi babeda katiko dihadapi jo panangan nan biaso manjagonyo, jo panangan lain nan labiah kurang akrab, atau jo panangan nan samo sakali indak dikenal. <ref name="dragons2">Murphy, J., and Walsh, T., 2006. Dragons and Humans. Herpetological Review, 37: 269-275.</ref>Panalitian pado Komodo nan dipaliharo mambuktikan baso binatang ko suko bamain. Sabuah panalitian tantang Komodo nan mandorong sekop nan ditinggaan dek panangannyo jaleh manunjuakan baso binatang tu tapikek jo bunyi nan dibuek sekop katiko inyo meluncur di sapanjang pamukaan nan babatu. Sabuah Komodo batino mudo di Kabun Binatang Nasional di [[Washington, D.C.|Washington, DC]] sanang marabuik jo mangguncang babagai benda tamasuak patung-patung, kaleng minuman, lingkaran plastik, jo salimuik. Komodo ko juo suko mamasuakan kapalonyo ka dalam kotak, sipatu jo babagai benda lainnyo. Bukannyo Komodo indak bisa mambedakan antaro benda-benda ko jo makanan; inyo hanyo mamakannyo katiko benda-benda tu dilumuri jo darah tikuih. Parangai main-main ko dapek dibandiangkan jo parangai main mamalia. Catatan lain manganai kanikmatan bamain Komodo didapek dari Universitas [[Tenesis|Tennessee]] . Sabuah mudo Komodo nan banamo "Kraken" bamain jo galang plastik, sipatu, ember jo kaleng, jo caro mandorongnyo, manembaknyo jo mambaoknyo jo caro manggigiknyo di muluiknyo. "Kraken" mampalakukan benda-benda ko babeda jo apo nan dimakannyo. <ref>"Such jokers, those Komodo dragons. (Reptiles)." Science News 162.5 (August 3, 2002): 78(1). Student Resource Center - Gold. Gale. 8 Oct. 2007 {{Webarchive}}.</ref>Bahkan Komodo nan tampaknyo jinak dapek batingkah laku agresif sacaro indak disangko-sangko, apolai jikok wilayahnyo dimasuakkan dek urang nan indak inyo kenal. Pado bulan Juni 2001, sabuah Komodo malukoi parah Phil Bronstein—suami aktris [[Batu Sharon|Sharon Stone]] wakatu itu—kutiko inyo masuak ka kandangnyo di Kabun Binatang ''[[Tambo San Fransisko|Los Angeles]]'' sasudah diundang masuak dek panjagonyo. Bronstein digigik dek Komodo di kakinyo sasudah panangannyo manasehatinyo untuak malapehan sipatu putiahnyo, nan inyo takuikkan dapek manarik paratian Komodo. <ref>''[https://web.archive.org/web/20010630213115/http://www.time.com/time/sampler/article/0,8599,133163,00.html Transcript: Sharon Stone vs. the Komodo Dragon]''</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Phillip T. Robinson|title=Life at the zoo: behind the scenes with the animal doctors|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeatzoobehind00robi|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|year=2004|page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeatzoobehind00robi/page/79 79]|isbn=0-231-13248-4|oclc=|doi=}}</ref> Walaupun urang tu salamat, inyo paralu operasi untuak manyambuang baliak [[Urat|tendon]] ototnyo nan luko . <ref>"Tale of the Dragon. (World News)." National Geographic World (Nov 2001): 7(1). Student Resource Center - Gold. Gale. 23 Oct. 2007 <http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS {{Webarchive}}>.</ref> == Caliak pulo == * [[Biawak]] * [[Pulau raksasa]] * ''[[Galania|Megalania prisca]]'' * [[Partenogenesis]] == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Biawak]] [[Kategori:Varanidae]] [[Kategori:Binatang]] a0u7a6s3j5o5yfrltc4b299ikrlihsx 0 337097 3351206 3158644 2026-08-05T19:49:17Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351206 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet | name = Kalisto | alt_names = Jupiter IV | adjectives = | image = [[Berkas:Callisto.jpg|250px|Kalisto]] | caption = | bgcolour = #a0ffa0 | discovery = yes | discoverer = [[Galileo Galilei]]<br />[[Simon Marius]]<ref name=Galilei/> | discovered = 7 Januari 1610<ref name=Galilei/> | semimajor = 1&nbsp;882&nbsp;700&nbsp;km<ref name=orbit/> | eccentricity = 0.007&nbsp;4<ref name=orbit/> | periapsis = 1&nbsp;869&nbsp;000&nbsp;km{{Ref_label|B|b|none}} | apoapsis = 1&nbsp;897&nbsp;000&nbsp;km{{Ref_label|A|a|none}} | period = 16,689&nbsp;018&nbsp;4&nbsp;d<ref name=orbit/> | avg_speed = 8,204&nbsp;km/s | inclination = 0,192° (terhadap [[bidang Laplace]])<ref name=orbit/> | satellite_of = [[Jupiter]] | physical_characteristics = yes | mean_radius = 2410.3&nbsp;±&nbsp;1.5&nbsp;km (0.378 Bumi)<ref name="Anderson 2001">{{cite journal|last=Anderson|first=J. D. |coauthors=Jacobson, R. A.; McElrath, T. P.; ''et al.'' |title=Shape, mean radius, gravity field and interior structure of Callisto |journal=Icarus|year=2001|volume=153|pages=157–161|doi=10.1006/icar.2001.6664| url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Icar..153..157A}}</ref> | surface_area = 7,30{{Esp|7}} [[kilometer persegi|km²]] (0.143 Earths){{Ref_label|C|c|none}} | volume = 5,9{{Esp|10}} [[kilometer kubik|km³]] (0.0541 Earths){{Ref_label|D|d|none}} | mass = 1,075&nbsp;938&nbsp;±&nbsp;0.000&nbsp;137{{Esp|23}} [[kilogram|kg]] (0.018 Earths)<ref name="Anderson 2001"/> | density = 1,834&nbsp;4&nbsp;±&nbsp;0.003&nbsp;4 g/cm³<ref name="Anderson 2001"/> | surface_grav = 1,235&nbsp;[[percepatan|m/s²]] (0.126 ''[[gaya g|g]]''){{Ref_label|E|e|none}} | escape_velocity = 2.440&nbsp;km/s{{Ref_label|F|f|none}} | rotation = sinkronis<ref name="Anderson 2001"/> | axial_tilt = zero<ref name="Anderson 2001"/> | albedo = 0.22 (geometrik)<ref name=Moore2004>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Moore|first=Jeffrey M.|coauthors=Chapman, Clark R.; Bierhaus, Edward B. et al.|title=Callisto|encyclopedia=Jupiter: The planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|editor=Bagenal, F.; Dowling, T.E.; McKinnon, W.B.|url=http://lasp.colorado.edu/~espoclass/homework/5830_2008_homework/Ch17.pdf|format=pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327052125/http://lasp.colorado.edu/~espoclass/homework/5830_2008_homework/Ch17.pdf |date=2009-03-27 }} {{Cite web |url=http://lasp.colorado.edu/~espoclass/homework/5830_2008_homework/Ch17.pdf |title=archive copy |access-date=2021-04-22 |archive-date=2009-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327052125/http://lasp.colorado.edu/~espoclass/homework/5830_2008_homework/Ch17.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> | magnitude = 5.65 ([[Oposisi (astronomi)|oposisi]])<ref name=magnitude>{{cite web|title=Classic Satellites of the Solar System|url=http://www.oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm|publisher=Observatorio ARVAL|accessdate=2007-07-13|archive-date=2013-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022050609/http://oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> | temperatures=yes | temp_name1 = K<ref name=Moore2004/> | max_temp_1 = 165&nbsp;±&nbsp;5 | mean_temp_1 = 134&nbsp;±&nbsp;11 | min_temp_1 = 80&nbsp;±&nbsp;5 | atmosphere = yes | surface_pressure = 7,5&nbsp;[[bar (satuan)|pbar]]<ref name="Carlson 1999">{{cite journal|last=Carlson|first=R. W.|coauthors=''et al.''|title=A Tenuous Carbon Dioxide Atmosphere on Jupiter's Moon Callisto|journal=Science|year=1999|volume=283|pages=820–821|doi=10.1126/science.283.5403.820|url=http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/16785/1/99-0186.pdf|format=pdf|pmid=9933159|issue=5403|access-date=2021-04-22|archive-date=2008-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003231710/http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/16785/1/99-0186.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> | atmosphere_composition = ~4{{Esp|8}}&nbsp;cm⁻³ [[karbon dioksida]]<ref name="Carlson 1999"/><br />hingga 2{{Esp|10}}&nbsp;cm⁻³ [[oksigen|molekular oksigen]](O₂)<ref name="Liang 2005">{{cite journal|last=Liang|first=M. C.|coauthors=Lane, B. F.; Pappalardo, R. T.; ''et al.''|title=Atmosphere of Callisto|journal=Journal of Geophysics Research|year=2005|volume=110|pages=E02003|doi=10.1029/2004JE002322|url=http://yly-mac.gps.caltech.edu/ReprintsYLY/N164Liang_Callisto%2005/Liang_callisto_05.pdf|format=pdf|access-date=2010-11-10|archive-date=2009-02-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225131107/http://yly-mac.gps.caltech.edu/ReprintsYLY/N164Liang_Callisto%2005/Liang_callisto_05.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> }} '''Kalisto'''<ref>{{pron-en|kəˈlɪstoʊ}}. Dalam kamus transkripsi Amerika Serikat: kə·lĭs′·tō.</ref><ref>{{Kamus|Kalisto}}</ref> adolah [[satelit Jupiter|satelit planet Jupiter]] nan basobok pado tahun 1610 dek [[Galileo Galilei]].<ref name=Galilei>Galilei, G.; [http://www.physics.emich.edu/jwooley/chapter9/Chapter9.html ''Sidereus Nuncius''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823094340/http://www.physics.emich.edu/jwooley/chapter9/Chapter9.html |date=2009-08-23 }} (13 Maret 1610)</ref> Kalisto marupoan [[Satelit alami|satelit paliang gadang katigo]] di [[Tata Surya]] dan paliang gadang kaduo di sistem Jupiter sasuah [[Ganimede (satelit)|Ganimede]]. Diameter Kalisto kurang labiah sakitar 99% diameter planet [[Merkurius]], taapi massanyo hanyo sakitar sapartigonyo. Bardasarkan jarak, inyo adolah [[satelit Galileo]] kaampek dari [[Jupiter]], dengan jari-jari orbit sakitar 1.880.000&nbsp;km.<ref name=orbit>{{cite web|title=Planetary Satellite Mean Orbital Parameters|publisher=Laboratorium Jet Propulsi, California Institute of Technology|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_elem}}</ref> Kalisto tadiri dari batu jo es, dengan rato-rato [[massa jenis]] sakitar 1,83&nbsp;g/cm³. Senyawa di parmukaan nan dideteksi jo [[spektroskopi]] maliputi [[es|es ai]]<nowiki/>a, [[karbon dioksida]], [[silikat]], jo [[senyawa organik]]. Panyalidikan nan dilakuan dek wahana ''[[Galileo (wahana)|Galileo]]'' manunjuakan bahasonyo di Kalisto mungkin terdapat inti nan tadiri dari silikat jo [[samudra]] aia di bawah parmukaan dengan kadalaman labiah dari 100&nbsp;km.<ref name=Kuskov2005>{{cite journal|last=Kuskov|first=O.L.|coauthors=Kronrod, V.A.|title=Internal structure of Europa and Callisto|year=2005|volume=177|issue=2|pages=550–369|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.014| bibcode=2005Icar..177..550K | journal = Icarus}}</ref><ref name=Showman1999>{{cite journal|last=Showman|first=Adam P.|coauthors=Malhotra, Renu|title=The Galilean Satellites|year=1999|journal=Science|volume=286|pages=77–84|doi=10.1126/science.286.5437.77|url=http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/showman-malhotra-1999.pdf|format=PDF|pmid=10506564|issue=5437|access-date=2021-04-22|archive-date=2011-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514231040/http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/showman-malhotra-1999.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Parmukaan Kalisto dipanuhi dek kawah tubrukan jo sangaik tuo. Indak ado tando-tando tajadinyo proses [[Tenaga endogen|endogenik]] takah [[tektonika lempeng]] atau [[vulkanisme]], jo evolusi Kalisto diduga sangaik dipangaruhi dek tubrukan.<ref name="Greeley 2000">{{cite journal|last=Greeley|first=R.|coauthors=Klemaszewski, J. E.; Wagner, L.; ''et al.''|title=Galileo views of the geology of Callisto|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_planetary-and-space-science_2000-08_48_9/page/829|journal=Planetary and Space Science|year=2000|volume=48|issue=9|pages=829–853| bibcode=2000P&SS...48..829G|doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00050-7}}</ref> == Panemuan jo panamoan == Kalisto basobok dek Galileo pado Januari 1610 basamoan jo tigo bulan Jupiter lainnyo: [[Ganimede (satelit)|Ganimede]], [[Io]], jo [[Europa (satelit)|Europa]].<ref name=Galilei/> Namo "Kalisto" (''Callisto'') diambiak dari putri [[Likaon]] nan banamo [[Kalisto (mitologi)|Kalisto]].<ref name=Galileo/> Namo iko diusulan dek [[Simon Marius]] indak lamo sausdah panamuan bulan iko.<ref name=Marius>{{cite book|author=[[Marius, S.]]|title=Mundus Iovialis anno M.DC.IX Detectus Ope Perspicilli Belgici|url=http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/marius.html|year=1614}}</ref> Marius mahubuangan usulan iko jo [[Johannes Kepler]].<ref name=Galileo>{{cite web|title=Satellites of Jupiter|publisher=The Galileo Project| url=http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/jupiter_satellites.html|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> Namun, namo-namo [[satelit Galileo]] sempat indak disukoi, dan indak banyak digunoan hinggo partangahan abaik ka-20. Dalam buku astronomi mulo-mulo, Kalisto disabuik '''Jupiter IV''' atau "satelit kaampek Jupiter.<ref name=Barnard1892>{{cite journal|last=Barnard|first=E. E.|url= http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AJ.../0012//0000081.000.html|title=Discovery and Observation of a Fifth Satellite to Jupiter|journal=Astronomical Journal|volume=12|year=1892|pages=81–85|doi=10.1086/101715|bibcode=1892AJ.....12...81B}}</ref> Dalam panulisan ilmiah bahaso Inggirih, bantuak adjektifnyo adolah ''Callistoan'',<ref name=Klemaszewski2001>{{cite web|last= Klemaszewski|first= J.A.|coauthors= Greeley, R.|title= Geological Evidence for an Ocean on Callisto |year=2001|publisher=Lunar and Planetary Science XXXI|page=1818|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2001/pdf/1818.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> dilafalan {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|l|ɨ|ˈ|s|t|oʊ|.|ə|n}}, atau ''Callistan''.<ref name=Moore1999>{{cite journal|last=Moore|first=Jeffrey M.|coauthors=Asphaug, Erik; Morrison, David; et al.|title=Mass Movement and Landform Degradation on the Icy Galilean Satellites: Results of the Galileo Nominal Mission|year=1999|volume=140|issue=2 |pages=294–312|doi=10.1006/icar.1999.6132|bibcode=1999Icar..140..294M | journal = Icarus}}</ref> == Rujuakan == [[Kategori:Satelit Jupiter]] tjrpiledbwov8kuc3mc3b050hq4igcs 0 337098 3351294 3185060 2026-08-05T22:31:01Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351294 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|[[planet]] nan ado di [[Solar System|Tata Surya]] Awak|[[galaxies|galaksi]] [[Milky Way Galaxy|Bima Sakti]]|Bima Sakti}} {{sadang karajo}} {{Infobox Planet <!-- Please note the formatting and layout of this infobox has been matched with the other bodies of the solar system. Please do not arbitrarily change it without discussion. Scroll down to edit the contents of this page. Additional parameters for this template are available at [[Template:Infobox Planet]]. --> |bgcolour = #97C3F4 |name = Neptunus |symbol = [[Berkas:Neptune symbol (bold).svg|24px|♆]] |image = [[Berkas:Neptune Voyager2 color calibrated.png|240px|Neptunus dari [[Voyager 2]]]] |caption = Neptunus dari wahana ''[[Voyager 2]]'' |discovery = yes |discoverer = [[Urbain Le Verrier]]{{br}} [[Johann Gottfried Galle|Johann Galle]] |discovered = [[23 September]] [[1846]]<ref name=Hamilton>{{cite web |first=Calvin J.|last=Hamilton|date=August 4, 2001 |url=http://www.solarviews.com/eng/neptune.htm |title=Neptune|publisher=Views of the Solar System |accessdate=2007-08-13}}</ref> |orbit_ref = <ref name=horizons>{{cite web|first=Donald K.|last=Yeomans|date=2006-7-13 |url = http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons|title = HORIZONS System|publisher = NASA JPL |accessdate = 2007-08-08}}—At the site, go to the "web interface" then select "Ephemeris Type: ELEMENTS", "Target Body: Neptune Barycenter" and "Center: Sun".</ref><!--<ref name=barycentre>Orbital elements refer to the barycentre of the Neptune system, and are the instantaneous [[osculating orbit|osculating]] values at the precise [[J2000]] epoch. Barycentre quantities are given because, in contrast to the planetary centre, they do not experience appreciable changes on a day-to-day basis from to the motion of the moons.</ref>--> |epoch = [[J2000]] |aphelion = 4.553.946.490&nbsp;[[Kilometer|km]]{{br}}30,44125206&nbsp;[[Satuan astronomi|sa]] |perihelion = 4.452.940.833&nbsp;km{{br}}29,76607095&nbsp;sa |semimajor = 4.503.443.661&nbsp;km{{br}}30,10366151&nbsp;sa |eccentricity = 0,011214269 |period = 164.8&nbsp;[[tahun julian (astronomi)|tahun]] <br> {{val|60190.03|u=hari}}<ref name="fact2">{{cite web |first=K.|last=Munsell|author2=Smith, H.; Harvey, S. |url = http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Neptune&Display=Facts |title = Neptune: Facts & Figures |date =November 13, 2007 |publisher = NASA|accessdate = August 14, 2007}}</ref> <br> {{val|89666|u=[[hari matahari]] Neptunus}}<ref name="planet_years"> {{cite web |last = Seligman|first = Courtney |url=http://cseligman.com/text/sky/rotationvsday.htm |title = Rotation Period and Day Length |accessdate = 13 Agustus 2009 }}</ref> |synodic_period = 367,49&nbsp;hari<ref name="fact">{{cite web|url = http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/neptunefact.html|title = Neptune Fact Sheet|date = 2004-9-1|publisher = NASA|accessdate = 2007-08-14|last = Williams|first = David R.|archive-date = 2010-07-01|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100701192119/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/neptunefact.html|dead-url = yes}}</ref> |avg_speed = 5,43&nbsp;km/s<ref name="fact"/> |inclination = 1,767975° ke [[Ekliptika]]{{br}}6,43° ke ekuator Matahari{{br}}0,72° ke [[bidang Invariabel]]<ref name=meanplane>{{cite web|date=2009-04-03|title=The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter|url=http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif|accessdate=2009-04-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420194536/http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif|archivedate=2009-04-20|dead-url=no}} (diproduksi dengan [http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ Solex 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220235836/http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ |date=2008-12-20 }} ditulis oleh Aldo Vitagliano)</ref> |asc_node = 131,794310° |arg_peri = 265,646853° |mean_anomaly = 267,767281° |satellites = 14 |physical_characteristics = yes |flattening = 0,0171 ± 0,0013 <!-- calculated from data in ref name=Seidelmann2007 --> |equatorial_radius = 24.764 ± 15&nbsp;km<ref name=Seidelmann2007>{{cite journal |first=Seidelmann|last=P. Kenneth|author2=Archinal, B. A.; A’hearn, M. F. et al|title= Report of the IAU/IAGWorking Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements|journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy|volume=90|pages=155–180|year=2007|doi=10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y|publisher=Springer Netherlands|accessdate=2008-03-07}}</ref><ref name=1bar>Merujuk kepada tekanan atmosfer {{convert|1|bar|kPa}}</ref>{{br}}3,883 Bumi |polar_radius = 24.341 ± 30&nbsp;km<ref name=Seidelmann2007/><ref name=1bar/>{{br}}3,829 Bumi |surface_area = 7,6408{{e|9}}&nbsp;km²<ref name=1bar/>{{br}}14,98 Bumi |volume = 6,254{{e|13}}&nbsp;km³<ref name="fact"/><ref name=1bar/>{{br}}57,74 Bumi |mass = 1,0243×10²⁶&nbsp;kg<ref name="fact"/>{{br}}17,147 Bumi |density = 1,638&nbsp;g/cm³<ref name="fact"/><ref name=1bar/> |surface_grav = 11.15&nbsp;[[Acceleration|m/s²]]<ref name="fact"/><ref name=1bar/>{{br}}1.14&nbsp;[[g-force|''g'']] |escape_velocity = 23,5&nbsp;km/s<ref name="fact"/><ref name=1bar/> |sidereal_day = 0,6713&nbsp;hari<ref name="fact"/>{{br}}16&nbsp;j 6&nbsp;men 36&nbsp;d |rot_velocity = 2,68&nbsp;km/det{{br}}9,660&nbsp;km/jam |axial_tilt = 28,32°<ref name="fact"/> |right_asc_north_pole = {{RA|19|57|20}}<ref name=Seidelmann2007/> |declination = 42,950°<ref name=Seidelmann2007/> |albedo = 0,290 ([[albedo terikat|terikat]]){{br}} 0,41 ([[albedo geometrik|geometrik]])<ref name="fact"/> |magnitude = 8,0 sampai 7,78<ref name="fact"/> |angular_size = 2,2[[menit busur|″]]–2.4″<ref name="fact"/> |temperatures = yes |temp_name1 = level 1 bar |min_temp_1 = |mean_temp_1 = 72&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]]<ref name="fact"/> |max_temp_1 = |temp_name2 = 0,1 bar{{br}}(10 kPa) |min_temp_2 = |mean_temp_2 = 55&nbsp;K<ref name="fact"/> |max_temp = |pronounced = {{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Neptune.ogg|ˈ|n|ɛ|p|tj|uː|n}}<ref> {{cite book |first= Elizabeth|last=Walter |date=21 April 2003 |title=Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=2nd |isbn = 978-0-521-53106-1 }}</ref> |adjectives = Neptunian |atmosphere = yes |atmosphere_ref = <ref name="fact"/> |scale_height = 19,7&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,6 km |atmosphere_composition = <table> <tr><td> 80±3,2%</td><td>[[Hidrogen]] (H₂) </td></tr><tr><td> 19±3,2%</td><td>[[Helium]] </td></tr><tr><td> 1,5±0,5%</td><td>[[Metana]] </td></tr><tr><td> ~0,019%</td><td>[[Hidrogen deuterida]] (HD) </td></tr><tr><td> ~0,00015%</td><td>[[Etana]] </td></tr><tr><td> '''Es''':</td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>[[Amonia]] </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>[[Air]] </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>[[Amonium hidrosulfida]](NH₄SH) </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td>Metana (?) </td></tr></table> }} '''Neptunus''' marupoan [[planet]] paliang jauah (kasalapan) kok ditinjau dari [[Matahari]]. Planet iko dinamoi dari [[Neptunus (mitologi)|dewa lautan Romawi]]. Neptunus marupoan planet paliang gadang kaampek bardasarkan diameter (49.530&nbsp;km) dan paliang gadang katigo berdasarkan massa. Massa Neptunus tacataik 17 kali labiah gadang daripado [[Bumi]], dan saketek labih ketek daripado [[Uranus]].<ref name=mass>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=David R.|date=2007-11-29|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/|title=Planetary Fact Sheet – Metric|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2008-3-13}}</ref> Neptunus mangorbit Matohari pado jarak 30,1 [[Satuan Astronomi|sa]] atau sakitar 4.450 juta km. Periode rotasi planet iko adolah 16,1 jam, sadangkan periode revolusinyo adolah 164,8 tahun. Simbol astronomisnya adolah ♆, nan marupoan [[trisula]] dewa Neptunus. Komposisi panyusun planet iko saroman jo [[Uranus]], dan komposisi kaduonyo babedo dari [[raksasa gas]] [[Jupiter]] jo [[Saturnus]]. Atmosfer Neptunus manganduang [[hidrogen]], [[helium]], [[hidrokarbon]], kamungkinan [[nitrogen]], jo kandungan "es" nan gadang takah es aia, [[amonia]], jo [[metana]]. Astronom kadang-kadang mangategorikan Uranus jo Neptunus sabagai "[[raksasa es]]" untuak manakanan pabedoannyo.<ref name=atmo>{{cite journal|title=The Atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune|last=Lunine|first=Jonathan I.|publisher=Lunar and Planetary Observatory, University of Arizona|year=1993|bibcode=1993ARA&A..31..217L|doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001245}}</ref> Tajag Uranus, interior Neptunus adiri dari es djo n batu.<ref name=Podolak1995>{{cite journal |last=Podolak|first=M.|author2=Weizman, A.; Marley, M.|year=1995|title=Comparative models of Uranus and Neptune|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_planetary-and-space-science_1995-12_43_12/page/1517|journal=Planetary and Space Science|volume=43|issue=12|pages=1517–1522 |bibcode=1995P&SS...43.1517P|doi=10.1016/0032-0633(95)00061-5}}</ref> Metana di wilayah paliang lua planet marupoan salah ciek penyebab kanampakan kabiruan Neptunus.<ref name=bluecolour>{{cite web|first=Kirk|last=Munsell|author2=Smith, Harman; Harvey, Samantha|date=2007-11-13|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Neptune&Display=OverviewLong|title=Neptune overview|work=Solar System Exploration|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2008-2-20|archive-date=2008-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303045911/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Neptune&Display=OverviewLong|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Penemuan == Lukisan [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] manunjuakan bahasonyo inyo patamo mancaliak Neptunus pado tangga [[28 Desember]] [[1612]] jo [[27 Januari]] [[1613]]. Pado kaduo hari tersebut, Galileo salah mangiro Neptunus sabagai sabuah [[bintang tetap]] katiko planet iko mancogok sangaik dakek—[[Konjungsi (astronomi dan astrologi)|konjungsi]]—dengan Jupiter pado langik malam;<ref>{{cite book |first=Alan|last=Hirschfeld|title=Parallax: The Race to Measure the Cosmos|year=2001|publisher=Henry Holt|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-8050-7133-4}}</ref> dek itu, inyo indak dianggap sabagai panamu Neptunus. Pado maso pangamatan patamonya bulan Desember 1612, Neptunus basipaik tetap di langik dek planet iko baru sajo mangalami [[Gerakan manghulu dan langsuang|panghuluan]] pado hari itu. Gerakan ka balakang iko tabantuak katiko orbit Bumi mambaok Bumi malewati planet paliang lua. Dek Neptunus baru sajo mamulai siklus panghuluan tahunannyo, gerakan planet iko terlalu sariak dilacak manggunoan [[teleskop]] ketek Galileo.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mark|last=Littmann|author2=Standish, E. M.|title=Planets Beyond: Discovering the Outer Solar System|year=2004|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=0-486-43602-0}}</ref> Pado Juli 2009, fisikawan [[Universitas Melbourne]], David Jamieson mangumuman adonyo bukti baru nan manyatoan bahasonyo Galileo saindaknyo sadar bahasonyo bintang nan inyo amati alah bapindah relatif terhadap [[bintang tetap]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Galileo discovered Neptune, new theory claims|first=Robert Roy|last=Britt|year=2009|publisher=MSNBC News|accessdate=2009-7-10|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31835303}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Tata surya}} {{Astronomi-stub}} t862l6mir2i8hlu16a469zvy6u5xemx 0 337144 3351295 3185313 2026-08-05T22:31:31Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351295 wikitext text/x-wiki {{disambig info|Titan|Titan (mitologi)}} {{Infobox planet | name = Titan | alt_names = Saturn VI | pronounced = {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Titan.ogg|ˈ|t|aɪ|t|ən}} | adjectives = Titanian | image = [[Berkas:Titan in natural color Cassini.jpg|220px]] | caption = Titan dalam rono alami. Atmosfer taba Titan barono jingga akibaik organonitrogen nan padek. | orbit_ref =<ref name=horizons>{{cite web |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi#top |title=JPL HORIZONS solar system data and ephemeris computation service |work=Solar System Dynamics|publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |accessdate=2007-08-19}}</ref | discovery = yes | discoverer = [[Christiaan Huygens]] | discovered = 25 Maret 1655 | periapsis = 1.186.680 km | apoapsis = 1.257.060 km | semimajor = 1.221.870 km | eccentricity = 0,0288 | period = 15,945 hari | inclination = 0,34854 ° (ka khatulistiwa Saturnus) | satellite_of = [[Saturnus]] | physical_characteristics = yes | mean_radius = 2,576±2 km (0,404 Bumi)<ref name="Jacobson 2006"> {{cite doi|10.1086/508812 }}</ref> (1,480 Bulan) |surface_area = 8,3×10⁷ km² |volume = 7,16×10¹⁰ km³ (0,066&nbsp;[[Bumi]]) (3,3&nbsp;[[Bulan]]) |mass = 1,3452±0,0002×10²³ kg (0,0225 Bumi) (1,829 Bulan) |density = 1,8798±0,0044 g/cm³ |surface_grav = |escape_velocity = 2,639 km/d (1,11 Bulan) |rotation = Sinkron |axial_tilt = Nol |albedo = 0,22<ref>{{cite web |author=Williams, D. R. |date=August 21, 2008 |title=Saturnian Satellite Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturniansatfact.html |accessdate=2000-04-18 |archive-date=2010-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100430122034/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturniansatfact.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> |magnitude = 8.2<ref name=arval>{{cite web |title=Classic Satellites of the Solar System |url=http://www.oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm |publisher=Observatorio ARVAL |accessdate=2010-06-28 |archive-date=2013-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022050609/http://oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> dan rato-rato magnitudo oposisi 8,4.<ref name=jpl-sat>{{cite web |title=Planetary Satellite Physical Parameters |publisher=[[JPL]] (Solar System Dynamics) |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par |date=April 3, 2009 |accessdate=2010-06-29}}</ref> hinggo 9.0 |single_temperature = {{convert|93.7|K|°C}}<ref name=Mitri> {{cite journal |author=Mitri, G. |year=2007 |title=Hydrocarbon Lakes on Titan |url=http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/mitri-etal-2007-lakes.pdf |journal=Icarus |volume=186 |issue=2 |pages=385–394 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.004 |bibcode=2007Icar..186..385M |last2=Showman |first2=Adam P. |last3=Lunine |first3=Jonathan I. |last4=Lorenz |first4=Ralph D. }}</ref> |atmosphere = yes |surface_pressure = 146,7 [[Pascal (satuan)|kPa]] |atmosphere_composition = Baragam<ref name=Niemann>{{cite journal|title= The abundances of constituents of Titan's atmosphere from the GCMS instrument on the Huygens probe |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-12-08_438_7069/page/779 |author= Niemann |journal=Nature|volume=438 |pages=779–784 |year=2005 |doi=10.1038/nature04122|pmid= 16319830|issue= 7069|bibcode = 2005Natur.438..779N|author2= H. B.|last3= Bauer|first3= S. J.|last4= Carignan|first4= G. R.|last5= Demick|first5= J. E.|last6= Frost|first6= R. L.|last7= Gautier|first7= D.|last8= Haberman|first8= J. A.|last9= Harpold|first9= D. N. }}</ref><br> [[Stratosfer]]:<br> 98,4% [[nitrogen]] (N₂),<br>1,4% [[metana]] (CH₄);<br>[[Troposfer]] rendah:<br>95% N₂, 4,9% CH₄ }} '''Titan''' (atau '''Saturnus VI''') adolah [[satelit alami]] [[kasaimbangan hidrostatik|elipsoidal]] kaanam sakaligus paliang gadang dari [[Saturnus (planet)|Saturnus]]. Satelit iko marupoan ciek-cieknyo satelit alami nan punyo [[atmosfer]] padek,<ref Name=NasaNews>{{cite web |title=News Features: The Story of Saturn |url=http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/features/saturn-story/moons.cfm |work=Cassini–Huygens Mission to Saturn & Titan |publisher=NASA & [[Jet Propulsion Lab|JPL]] |accessdate=2007-01-08 |archive-date=2005-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051202030828/http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/features/saturn-story/moons.cfm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> dan ciek-cieknyo objek salain [[Bumi]] nan tabukti punyo cairan di parmukaan.<ref name=NatureDefinitive>{{cite journal|title=The lakes of Titan|author=Stofan, E. R.|issue=1 |volume=445|pages=61–64|journal=Nature|year=2007|doi= 10.1038/nature05438|pmid=17203056|bibcode = 2007Natur.445...61S|last2=Elachi|first2=C.|last3=Lunine|first3=J. I.|last4=Lorenz|first4=R. D.|last5=Stiles|first5=B.|last6=Mitchell|first6=K. L.|last7=Ostro|first7=S.|last8=Soderblom|first8=L.|last9=Wood|first9=C. }}</ref> Satelit iko acok bana digambaran sabagai satelit nan mirip planet dan punyo diameter nan 50% labiah gadang dari [[Bulan]], samantaro massanyo 80% labiah gadang. Satelit iko marupoan satelit paliang gadang kadua di [[Tata Surya]], sasudah satelit [[Ganimede]] di [[Jupiter]], dan volumenyo labiah gadang daripado planet [[Merkurius]]. Titan patamo kali basobok pado tahun 1655 dek astronom [[Balando]] [[Christiaan Huygens]], dan marupoan satelit kalimo di Tata Surya nan basobok sasudah [[satelit-satelit Galileo|ampek satelit]] punyo Jupiter.<ref> {{cite web |author=Nemiroff, R. and Bonnell, J. |date=March 25, 2005 |title=Huygens Discovers Luna Saturni |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050325.html |accessdate=2007-08-18 |publisher=NASA |work=Astronomy Picture of the Day }}</ref> Titan utamonyo tadiri dari [[es|es aia]] dan materi babatu. Takah [[Venus]] sabalun maso panjelajahan angkaso, atmosfernyo nan padek jo buram manyulikan panyalidikan parmukaan Titan hinggo tibonya wahana ''[[Cassini-Huygens]]'' di Saturnus pado tahun 2004 nan mambukak pangetahuan baru takah panamuan danau [[hidrokarbon]] caia di wilayah kutub Titan. Parmukaannyo sacaro geologis masih mudo, dan meskipun pagunungan jo babarapo [[kriovolkano]] alah basobok, hanyo saketek kawah tubrukan nan basobok.<ref name="NASA">{{cite web|title=NASA Titan - Surface |year=Unknown|publisher=NASA|url=http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/science/index.cfm?SciencePageID=76|accessdate=2013-02-14}}</ref><ref name="Hydrocarbon lakes on Titan">{{cite web|title=Hydrocarbon lakes on Titan|year=2007|author=G Mitri|url=http://www.astro.sunysb.edu/astro/abstracts/JS09/jcl27Feb09-2.pdf|accessdate=2013-02-14}}</ref> == Panamuan jo panamoan == [[Berkas:Christiaan Huygens-painting.jpeg|jmpl|kiri|130px|[[Christiaan Huygens]] manamukan Titan pado tahun 1655.]] Titan basobok pado tangga 25 Maret 1655 dek astronom/fisikawan Balando [[Christiaan Huygens]]. Huygens tarilhami dek panemuan ampek [[satelit Galileo|satelit paliang gadang]] Jupiter dek [[Galileo]] pado tahun 1610 dan pamutakhiran teknologi [[teleskop]]nyo.<ref> {{cite web |date= September 4, 2008 |title=Discoverer of Titan: Christiaan Huygens |url=http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMJRT57ESD_index_0.html |publisher=European Space Agency |accessdate=2009-04-18 }}</ref> Christiaan, jo bantuan sanaknyo [[Constantijn Huygens, Jr.]], mulai mambangun teleskop sakitar tahun 1650. Christiaan Huygens manamuan satelit patamo nan mangorbit Saturnus jo teleskop patamo nan mereka bangun.<ref>[http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/object/telescoop-12-voets-v09196e/ Telescope by Huygens, Christiaan Huygens, The Hague, 1683 Inv V09196] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101144147/http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/object/telescoop-12-voets-v09196e/ |date=2012-11-01 }}, Rijksmuseum voor de Geschiedenis van de Natuurwetenschappen en van de Geneeskunde</ref> Namo "Titan" diusulan dek [[John Herschel]] (putra dari [[William Herschel]], panamu [[Mimas (satelit)|Mimas]] jo [[Enceladus (satelit)|Enceladus]]) dalam tarbitan tahun 1847-nyo ''Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope''.<ref> {{cite journal |author=Lassell |date=November 12, 1847 |title=Observations of Mimas, the closest and most interior satellite of Saturn |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0008//0000042.000.html |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=42 |accessdate=2005-03-29 }}</ref> Namo tersebut barasa dari [[Titan (mitologi)|Titan]] ({{lang-grc|[[wikt:Τιτάν#Ancient Greek|Τῑτάν]]}}), nan dalam [[mitologi Yunani]] marupoan ras dewa-dewi nan kuek jo katurunan dari [[Gaia (mitologi)|Gaia]] jo [[Uranus (mitologi)|Uranus]] sarato saudaro kanduang [[Kronos]]. == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Satelit]] 94ovyvit29ygmtwy5uqusa7qclelhgp 0 337146 3351327 3185071 2026-08-05T23:27:19Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox planet | name = Jupiter<br>Yupiter | alt_names = Musytari | symbol = [[Berkas:Jupiter symbol (bold).svg|24px|♃]] | image = Jupiter and its shrunken Great Red Spot.jpg | image_alt = Gambar Jupiter nan difoto dek teleskop lua angkasa Hubble | caption = Tampilan cakram panuh Jupiter dalam rono alaminyo pado bulan April 2014<ref group=lower-alpha name=caption>Gambar iko ditangkap dek [[Teleskop luar angkasa Hubble]], manggunakan [[Wide Field Camera 3]], pado tangga 21 April 2014. Atmosfer Jupiter jo panampakannyo [[Atmosfer Jupiter#Dinamika|taruih barubah]], dan dek panampakan Jupiter pado maso kini mungkin indak manyarupoi panampakan Jupiter sangkek gamba iko diambiak. Namun, apo nan ado di dalam gamba tersebut punyo babarapo fitur nan tetap konsisten, takah [[Bintik Merah Raksasa]] nan terkenal, nan manonjol di sabalah suok bawah gamba, jo panampakan takah pita nan dapek dikenali.</ref> | orbit_ref = <ref name=horizons>{{cite web |last = Yeomans |first = Donald K. |date = 2006-07-13 |url = http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=mb&sstr=5 |title = HORIZONS Web-Interface for Jupiter Barycenter (Major Body=5) |publisher = [[JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System]] |accessdate = 2007-08-08 }} – Select "Ephemeris Type: Orbital Elements", "Time Span: 2000-01-01 12:00 to 2000-01-02". ("Target Body: Jupiter Barycenter" and "Center: Sun" should be defaulted to.)</ref> | epoch = [[J2000]] | aphelion = {{convert|816520800|km|au|abbr=on}} | perihelion = {{convert|740573600|km|au|abbr=on}} | semimajor = {{convert|778547200|km|au|abbr=on}} | eccentricity = 0.048775 | inclination = {{plainlist | * 1,305° pado jalur [[ekliptika]] * 6,09° pado khatulistiwa [[Matohari]] * 0,32° pado [[bidang invariable]]<ref name=meanplane>{{cite web |date = 2009-04-03 |title = The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter |url = http://home.surewest.net/kheider/astro/MeanPlane.gif |accessdate = 2009-04-10 |archive-date = 2009-04-20 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090420194536/http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif |dead-url = yes }} (dihasilkan dengan manggunakan [http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ Solex 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210152814/http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ |date=2012-02-10 }} ditulis dek Aldo Vitagliano; lihat pula [[bidang invariabel]])</ref> }} | asc_node = 100.492° | arg_peri = 275.066° | mean_anomaly = 18.818° | period = {{plainlist | * 4.332,59&nbsp;[[hari]] * 11,8618&nbsp;[[tahun]] * 10.475,8 [[hari matohari]] Jupiter<ref name="planet_years">{{cite web |url = http://cseligman.com/text/sky/rotationvsday.htm |title = Rotation Period and Day Length |last = Seligman |first = Courtney |accessdate = 2009-08-13 }}</ref> }} | synodic_period = 398,88&nbsp;hari<ref name="fact">{{cite web |url = http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/jupiterfact.html |title = Jupiter Fact Sheet |publisher = NASA |last = Williams |first = Dr. David R. |accessdate = 2007-08-08 |date = November 16, 2004 |archive-date = 2011-09-26 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110926211234/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/jupiterfact.html |dead-url = yes }}</ref> | avg_speed = 13,07&nbsp;km/s<ref name="fact" /> | satellites = [[Satelit Jupiter|79]]<ref name="fact" /> | physical_characteristics = yes | flattening = 0,06487 ± 0,00015 <!--dihitung dari data di ref name="Seidelmann Archinal A'hearn et al. 2007" --> | equatorial_radius = {{plainlist | * 71.492 ± 4&nbsp;km<ref group=lower-alpha name=1bar>Marujuak pado level takanan atmosfer 1 bar</ref> * 11,209 [[Bumi]] }} | polar_radius = {{plainlist | * 66.854 ± 10&nbsp;km<ref group=lower-alpha name=1bar/> * 10,517&nbsp;Bumi }} | mean_radius = 69,911 ± 6&nbsp;km<ref group=lower-alpha name=1bar/> | surface_area = {{plainlist | * 6,1419×10¹⁰&nbsp;km²<ref group=lower-alpha name=1bar/><ref name="nasafact">{{cite web |url = http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jupiter&Display=Facts |title = Solar System Exploration: Jupiter: Facts & Figures |work = NASA |date = 7 May 2008 }}</ref> * 121,9 Bumi }} | volume = {{plainlist | * 1,4313×10¹⁵&nbsp;km³<ref name="fact" /><ref group=lower-alpha name=1bar/> * 1321,3&nbsp;Bumi }} | mass = {{plainlist | * 1,8986×10²⁷&nbsp;kg<ref name="fact" /> * 317,8&nbsp;Bumi * 1/1047 Matohari<ref name=ssd-constants>{{cite web |title = Astrodynamic Constants |publisher = JPL Solar System Dynamics |date = 2009-02-27 |url = http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?constants |accessdate = 2007-08-08 }}</ref> }} | density = 1,326&nbsp;g/cm³<ref name="fact" /><ref group=lower-alpha name=1bar/> | surface_grav = 24,79&nbsp;[[Percepatan|m/s²]]<ref name="fact" /><ref group=lower-alpha name=1bar/> <br /> 2.528&nbsp;[[Gaya g|g]] | escape_velocity = 59,5&nbsp;km/s<ref name="fact" /><ref group=lower-alpha name=1bar/> | sidereal_day = 9,925&nbsp;h<ref>{{cite web |author = Seidelmann, P. K.; Abalakin, V. K.; Bursa, M.; Davies, M. E.; de Burgh, C.; Lieske, J. H.; Oberst, J.; Simon, J. L.; Standish, E. M.; Stooke, P.; Thomas, P. C. |year = 2001 |url = http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag.htm |title = Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites: 2000 |publisher = HNSKY Planetarium Program |accessdate = 2007-02-02 |archive-date = 2011-08-10 |archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/60qCIcHwA?url=http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag.htm |dead-url = yes }}</ref> (9 jam 55 manit 30 detik) | rot_velocity = 12,6&nbsp;km/s <br /> 45.300&nbsp;km/j | axial_tilt = 3,13°<ref name="fact" /> | right_asc_north_pole = 268,057° <br /> 17&nbsp;jam 52&nbsp;menit 14&nbsp;detik | declination = 64,496° | albedo = 0,343 ([[Albedo Bond|Bond]]) <br /> 0,52 ([[Albedo geometrik|geom.]])<ref name="fact" /> | magnitude = -1,6 hingga -2,94<ref name="fact" /> | angular_size = 29,8" – 50,1"<ref name="fact" /> | pronounced = {{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Jupiter.ogg|ˈ|dʒ|uː|p|ɪ|t|ər}}<ref>Jupiter, entri di Oxford English Dictionary, disiapkan dek J. A. Simpson jo E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 8, edisi kadua, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. ISBN 0-19-861220-6 (vol. 8), ISBN 0-19-861186-2 (set.)</ref> | adjectives = Jovian | temperatures = yes | temp_name1 = Level 1 bar | min_temp_1 = | mean_temp_1 = 165&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]]<ref name="fact" /> | max_temp_1 = | temp_name2 = 0,1 bar | min_temp_2 = | mean_temp_2 = 112&nbsp;K<ref name="fact" /> | max_temp = | atmosphere = yes | atmosphere_ref = <ref name="fact" /> | surface_pressure = 20–200&nbsp;[[Pascal (satuan)|kPa]]<ref>{{cite journal |author = Anonymous |title = Probe Nephelometer |journal = Galileo Messenger |publisher = NASA/JPL |month = March |year = 1983 |issue = 6 |url = http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/messenger/oldmess/2Probe.html |accessdate = 2007-02-12 }}</ref> (lapisan awan) | scale_height = 27&nbsp;km | atmosphere_composition = <table> <tr><td> 89,8±2,0%</td><td>[[hidrogen]] (H₂) </td></tr><tr><td> 10,2±2,0%</td><td>[[helium]] (He) </td></tr><tr><td> ~0,3%</td><td>[[metana]] (CH₄) </td></tr><tr><td> ~0,026%</td><td>[[amonia]] (NH₃) </td></tr><tr><td> ~0,003%</td><td>[[hidrogen deuterida]] (HD) </td></tr><tr><td> 0,0006%</td><td>[[etana]] (C₂H₆) </td></tr><tr><td> 0,0004%</td><td>[[air]] (H₂O) </td></tr><tr><td> <tr><td colspan=2>'''Es''': * [[amonia]] (NH₃) * [[air]] (H₂O) * [[amonium hidrosulfida]] (NH₄SH) </table> }} '''Jupiter''' atau '''Yupiter''' adolah planet paliang dakek kalimo dari [[Maohari]] sasudah [[Merkurius]], [[Venus]], [[Bumi]], jo [[Mars]]. Planet iko juo marupoan planet paliang gadang di [[Tata Surya]].<ref>Pado tahun 2008, planet paliang gadang di lua Tata Surya nan diketahui adolah [[TrES-4]].</ref> Jupiter marupoan [[raksasa gas]] dengan [[massa]] separsaribu massa Matohari dan duo satengah kali jumlah massa sado planet lain di Tata Surya. Planet iko jo raksasa gas lain di Tata Surya (yaitu [[Saturnus]], [[Uranus]], jo [[Neptunus]]) kadang-kadang disabuik planet Jovian atau planet lua. Jupiter alah dikenal dek para astronom sajak zaman kuno,<ref>{{cite web |last = De Crespigny |first = Rafe |title = Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling |url = http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/HuanLing_part2.pdf |work = Asian studies, Online Publications |accessdate = 1 May 2012 |archive-date = 7 September 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060907044624/http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/HuanLing_part2.pdf |dead-url = yes }}</ref> sarato dikaikan jo mitologi dan kaparcayaan religius banyak paradaban. [[Romawi Kuno|Bangsa Romawi]] manamoi planet iko dari dewa [[Jupiter (mitologi)|Jupiter]] dalam [[mitologi Romawi]].<ref>{{cite book |author = Stuart Ross Taylor |year = 2001 |title = Solar system evolution: a new perspective : an inquiry into the chemical composition, origin, and evolution of the solar system |edition = 2nd, illus., revised |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 0-521-64130-6 |page = 208 }}</ref> Sangkek diamati dari [[Bumi]], [[magnitudo tampak]] Jupiter dapek mancapai −2,94, nan cukuik tarang untuak manghasilan bayangan, dan juo manjadikannyo objek paliang cerah katigo di [[langit malam]] sasudah [[Bulan]] jo [[Venus]], walaupun [[Mars]] dapek manyaingi kacerahan Jupiter pado wakatu tertentu.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2011/11/18/young-astronomer-captures-a-shadow-cast-by-jupiter/#.UaDO1UAoNAU |title = Young astronomer captures a shadow cast by Jupiter : Bad Astronomy |publisher = Blogs.discovermagazine.com |date = 2011-11-18 |accessdate = 2013-05-27 |archive-date = 2013-07-02 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130702142010/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2011/11/18/young-astronomer-captures-a-shadow-cast-by-jupiter#.UaDO1UAoNAU |dead-url = yes }}</ref> == Komposisi == [[Berkas:Jupiter by Cassini-Huygens.jpg|260px|jmpl|Citra Jupiter nan diabadikan dek wahana ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]''. Titiak hitam di gambar adolah bayangan [[Europa (satelit)|Europa]]. [[Bintik Merah Raksasa]] dapek dicaliak di sabalah suok bawah.|kiri]] Atmosfer ateh Jupiter tadiri dari 88–92% hidrogen jo 8–12% helium badasaran persen volume atau fraksi [[molekul]]. Dek [[massa]] [[atom]] helium ampek kali labiah gadang dari massa atom hidrogen, komposisi barubah bilo dideskripsikan badasarkan proporsi massa. Mako, atmosfer Jupiter tadiri dari 75% hidrogen jo 24% helium badasaran massa, dengan ciek persen sisanyo marupoan massa unsur-unsur lainnyo. Bagian dalam Jupiter manganduang materi nan labiah padek sahinggo pasebarannyo badasaran massa kurang labiah 1% hidrogen, 24% helium, jo 5% unsur lain. Atmosfer Jupiter mangandung [[metana]], [[uap air]], [[amonia]], jo senyawa babasis [[silikon]]. Terdapat pulo [[karbon]], [[etana]], [[hidrogen sulfida]], [[neon]], [[oksigen]], [[fosfin]], jo [[sulfur]]. Lapisan atmosfer paliang luaa manganduang [[kristal]] amonia baku.<ref name="voyager1">{{cite journal |author = Gautier, D.; Conrath, B.; Flasar, M.; Hanel, R.; Kunde, V.; Chedin, A.; Scott N. |title = The helium abundance of Jupiter from Voyager |journal = Journal of Geophysical Research |volume = 86 |issue = A10 |pages = 8713–8720 |year = 1981 |bibcode = 1981JGR....86.8713G |doi = 10.1029/JA086iA10p08713 }}</ref><ref name="cassini">{{cite journal |author = Kunde, V. G. et al. |title = Jupiter's Atmospheric Composition from the Cassini Thermal Infrared Spectroscopy Experiment |journal = Science |date = September 10, 2004 |volume = 305 |issue = 5690 |pages = 1582–86 |url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/305/5690/1582 |accessdate = 2007-04-04 |doi = 10.1126/science.1100240 |pmid = 15319491 |bibcode = 2004Sci...305.1582K }}</ref> Malalui pangukuran [[inframerah]] jo [[ultraviolet]], kabaradoan [[benzena]] jo hidrokarbon lain juo dapek basobok.<ref>{{cite journal |journal = Icarus |volume = 64 |issue = 2 |pages = 233–48 |year = 1985 |title = Infrared Polar Brightening on Jupiter III. Spectrometry from the Voyager 1 IRIS Experiment |bibcode = 1985Icar...64..233K |author = Kim, S. J.; Caldwell, J.; Rivolo, A. R.; Wagner, R. |doi = 10.1016/0019-1035(85)90201-5 }}</ref> Proporsi hidrogen jo helium di atmosfer hampiang samo jo komposisi [[nebula matohari]] primordial sacaro teoretis. Kanduangan neon di atmosfer ateh hanyo 20 [[bagian per juta]], kurang labiah saparsapuluah dari Matohari.<ref>{{cite journal |author = Niemann, H. B.; Atreya, S. K.; Carignan, G. R.; Donahue, T. M.; Haberman, J. A.; Harpold, D. N.; Hartle, R. E.; Hunten, D. M.; Kasprzak, W. T.; Mahaffy, P. R.; Owen, T. C.; Spencer, N. W.; Way, S. H. |title = The Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer: Composition of Jupiter's Atmosphere |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1996-05-10_272_5263/page/846 |journal = Science |year = 1996 |volume = 272 |issue = 5263 |pages = 846–849 |bibcode = 1996Sci...272..846N |doi = 10.1126/science.272.5263.846 |pmid = 8629016 }}</ref> Kanduangan helium juo takuras hinggo hanyo 80% dari komposisi helium Matohari. Hal iko mungkin disebabkan dek [[presipitasi]] unsur tersebut di bagian dalam planet.<ref name="galileo_ms">{{cite web |first = Paul |last = Mahaffy |url = http://ael.gsfc.nasa.gov/jupiterHighlights.shtml |title = Highlights of the Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer Investigation |publisher = NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Atmospheric Experiments Laboratory |accessdate = 2007-06-06 |archive-date = 2009-04-10 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090410221648/http://ael.gsfc.nasa.gov/jupiterHighlights.shtml |dead-url = yes }}</ref> == Catatan == <references group="lower-alpha"/> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} {{Tata surya }} [[Kategori:Planet]] fd2tc3pwwergomw1ej8865ecjvthyqm 0 337147 3351237 3350238 2026-08-05T21:00:56Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351237 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Otheruses4}} {{Infobox planet |bgcolour = #FFFFC0 |name = Ceres |symbol= [[Berkas:Ceres symbol (bold).svg|24px|⚳]] |image = [[Berkas:Ceres - RC3 - Haulani Crater (22381131691) (cropped).jpg|250px|250px]] |caption = Ceres dicaliak malalui wahana antariksa [[Dawn (pesawat lua angkasa)|''Dawn'']] pado Mei 2015.= |discovery = yes |discovery_ref =<ref>{{cite book|last=Schmadel|first=Lutz|authorlink=Lutz D. Schmadel|title=Dictionary of minor planet names|url=http://books.google.com/?id=KWrB1jPCa8AC&pg=PA15|edition=5th|year=2003|publisher=Springer|location=Germany|isbn=978-3-540-00238-3|page=15 }}</ref> |discoverer = [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] |discovered = 1 Januari 1801 |designations = yes |mp_name = '''1 Ceres''' |pronounced = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪər|iː|z}} {{respell|SEER|eez}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1)|work=Random House, Inc.|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ceres|accessdate=2007-09-26|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62D65VxlL?url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ceres|archivedate=2011-10-05|deadurl=no}}</ref> |named_after = [[Ceres (mitologi)|Cerēs]] |alt_names = A899 OF; 1943 XB |adjectives = Cererian {{IPA|/sɨˈrɪəri.ən/}}<ref name="Simpson1979">{{cite book|last = Simpson|first = D. P.|title = Cassell's Latin Dictionary|publisher = Cassell Ltd|year = 1979|edition = 5th|location = London|isbn = 978-0-304-52257-6|page = 883}}</ref> |mp_category = [[planet katai]]<br />[[sabuk utama]] |orbit_ref =<ref name="jpl_sbdb">{{cite web|last=Yeomans|first=Donald K.|date=5 July 2007|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=Ceres|title=1 Ceres|publisher=JPL Small-Body Database Browser|accessdate=2003-08-29|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/69fuVB1N8?url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=Ceres|archivedate=2012-08-04|deadurl=no}}—The listed values were rounded at the magnitude of uncertainty (1-sigma).</ref> |epoch = 18 Juni 2009<br />([[Hari Julian]] 2455000,5) |aphelion = {{convert|446669320|km|au|4|abbr=on|disp=flip}} |perihelion = {{convert|380995855|km|au|4|abbr=on|disp=flip}} |semimajor = {{convert|413690604|km|au|4|abbr=on|disp=flip}} |eccentricity = 0,079138 |period = 4,60&nbsp;[[Tahun Julian|tahun]]<br />1679,67&nbsp;hari |avg_speed = 17,882&nbsp;km/s |mean_anomaly = 113,410° |inclination = 10,587° ke [[ekliptik]]<br />9,20° ke [[bidang invariabel]]<ref name=meanplane>{{cite web |date=2009-04-03 |title=The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter |url=http://home.surewest.net/kheider/astro/MeanPlane.gif |accessdate=2009-04-10 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5glwILykY?url=http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif |archivedate=2009-05-14 |deadurl=no }} (dihasilkan melalui [http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ Solex 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080301111520/http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ |date=2008-03-01 }} ditulis oleh Aldo Vitagliano; lihat pula [[bidang invariabel]])</ref> |arg_peri = 72,5898° |asc_node = 80,3932° |p_orbit_ref =<ref name=Ceres-POE>{{cite web |title=AstDyS-2 Ceres Synthetic Proper Orbital Elements |publisher=Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy |url=http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/astdys/index.php?pc=1.1.6&n=1 |accessdate=2011-10-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121225850/http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/astdys/index.php?pc=1.1.6&n=1 |archivedate=2011-11-21 |deadurl=yes }}</ref> |p_semimajor = 2,7670962 |p_eccentricity = 0,1161977 |p_inclination = 9,6474122° |p_mean_motion = 78.193318 |perihelion_rate = 54,070272 |node_rate = −59,170034 |physical_characteristics = yes |equatorial_radius = 487,3&nbsp;±&nbsp;1,8&nbsp;km<ref name="Thomas2005">{{cite journal|first=P. C.|last=Thomas|coauthors=Parker, J. Wm.; McFadden, L. A.; ''et al.''|title=Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-09-08_437_7056/page/224|year=2005|journal=Nature|volume=437|pages=224–226|doi=10.1038/nature03938|bibcode=2005Natur.437..224T|pmid=16148926|issue=7056}}</ref> |equatorial_diameter = 975,6&nbsp;±&nbsp;1,8&nbsp;km<ref name="Thomas2005"/> |polar_radius = 454,7&nbsp;±&nbsp;1,6&nbsp;km<ref name="Thomas2005"/> |surface_area = 2.850.000 km² |mass=9,43&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,07{{e|20}}&nbsp;kg<br /> 0,00015 [[Bumi|Massa Bumi]]<br />0,0128 [[Bulan]] |density=2,077&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,036&nbsp;g/cm³<ref name="Thomas2005"/> |surface_grav = 0,27 [[percepatan|m/s²]]<br />0,028 [[gaya g|''g'']]<ref name="fact2">Dihitung berdasarkan parameter yang diketahui</ref> |escape_velocity=0,51&nbsp;km/s<ref name="fact2"/> |sidereal_day = 0,3781&nbsp;hari<br />9,074170&nbsp;jam<ref name="Chamberlain2007">{{cite journal |last=Chamberlain|first=Matthew A. |coauthors=Sykes, Mark V.; Esquerdo, Gilbert A. |year=2007 |title=Ceres lightcurve analysis – Period determination |journal=Icarus |volume=188|issue=2|pages=451–456 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.11.025 |bibcode=2007Icar..188..451C }}</ref> |right_asc_north_pole = 19 jam 24&nbsp;menit <br />291°<ref name="Thomas2005"/> |declination = 59°<ref name="Thomas2005"/> |axial_tilt = about 3°<ref name="Thomas2005"/> |albedo=0,090&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,0033&nbsp;([[albedo geometrik]]) |temperatures = yes |temp_name1 = [[Kelvin]] |min_temp_1 = ? |mean_temp_1 = ~168&nbsp;K<ref>{{cite book|author=Angelo, Joseph A., Jr|year=2006|title=Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy|publisher=Infobase|location=New York|isbn=0-8160-5330-8|page=122}}</ref> |max_temp_1 = 235&nbsp;K |spectral_type=[[Asteroid tipe C|C]] |magnitude = 6,64 hinggo 9,34 |abs_magnitude =3,36&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,02 |angular_size = 0,854" <!-- Horizons 1636-Feb-11 --> hinggo 0,339" }} '''Ceres''' (panamoan [[planet minor]] '''1 Ceres'''; simbol: [[File:Ceres symbol (bold).svg|16px|⚳]])<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/infographics/what-is-a-dwarf-planet |author= JPL/NASA |date= 2015-04-22 |website= Jet Propulsion Laboratory |title= What is a Dwarf Planet? |access-date= 2022-01-19}}</ref> adolah ciek-cieknyo [[planet katai]] di [[Tata Surya Dalam]].<ref name="NASADawnMission">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/dawn/mission/index.html|title=NASA – Dawn at a Glance|publisher=NASA|accessdate=14 August 2011|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62D66N3T7?url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/dawn/mission/index.html|archivedate=2011-10-05|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref> {{cite book|author=Space Telescope Science Institute|title=Hubble 2008: Science year in review|publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center|year=2009|page=66}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.challenger.org/podcasts/origins_stern.mp3 |title = Origin of the Solar System with Dr. Alan Stern |publisher = Challenger Center for Space Science Education |year = 2009 |author = [[Alan Stern]] }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Februari 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ceres marupoan bando langiik babatu jo ba-es dengan diameter sagadang 950&nbsp;km dan marupoan planet katai paliang ketek nan parnah basobok. Massa Ceres maliputi sapartigo massa [[sabuk asteroid]].<ref name="Moomaw">{{cite web |first = Bruce |last =Moomaw |title= Ceres As An Abode of Life |url = http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Ceres_As_An_Abode_Of_Life_999.html|accessdate= 2012-10-10 |publisher= Spacedaily |date= 2007-07-02}}</ref> Basobok pado tangga 1 Januari 1801 dek [[Giuseppe Piazzi]],<ref name="hoskin"/> Ceres marupoan asteroid patamo nan basobok, meskipun pado sangkek itu objek iko diklasifikasi sabagai planet.<ref name=coffey>{{cite web|last=Coffey|first=Jerry|title=The First Asteroid Discovered|url=http://www.universetoday.com/35925/the-first-asteroid-discovered/|publisher=universetoday.com|accessdate=2 September 2011|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/62D67mZQL?url=http://www.universetoday.com/35925/the-first-asteroid-discovered/|archivedate=2011-10-05|deadurl=no}}</ref> Pado [[24 Agustus]] [[2006]], [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional]] mamutuihan untuak maubah status Ceres manjadi "planet katai". Parmukaan Ceres mungkin marupoan campuran antaro es aia jo babagai mineral tahidrasi takah [[mineral karbonat|karbonat]] jo [[lempung]]. Planet katai iko tampaknyo [[diferensiasi planet|terdiferensiasi]] dengan [[inti (geologi)|inti]] nan babatu jo [[mantel (geologi)|mantel]] nan ba-es,<ref name="Thomas2005"/> dan mungkin manganduang [[samudra]] di bawah parmukaannyo. Dari Bumi, [[magnitudo tampak]] Ceres ba-variasi antaro 6.7 hinggo 9.3, sahinggo terlalu redup untuak dicaliak jo mato talanjang kacuali kok langik sangaik kalam.<ref name="Pasachoff1983">{{cite book|author=Menzel, Donald H.; and Pasachoff, Jay M.|year=1983|title=A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets|edition=2nd|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-395-34835-2|page=391}}</ref> == Namo == Piazzi awalnyo mangusulan namo ''Cerere Ferdinandea'', nan dinamoi dari tokoh mitologis [[Ceres (mitologi)|Ceres]] (dewi agrikultur [[Romawi]], dalam [[bahasa Italia]] disabuik ''Cerere'') jo [[Ferdinand I dari Sisilia|Raja Ferdinand III]] dari [[Kerajaan Sisilia]].<ref name="hoskin">{{cite web|last=Hoskin|first=Michael|date=1992-06-26|url=http://www.astropa.unipa.it/HISTORY/hoskin.html|title=Bode's Law and the Discovery of Ceres|publisher=Observatorio Astronomico di Palermo "Giuseppe S. Vaiana"|accessdate=2007-07-05|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5msUt6uRh?url=http://www.astropa.unipa.it/HISTORY/hoskin.html|archivedate=2010-01-18|deadurl=no}}</ref> "Ferdinandea" indak ditaimo dek negara lain sahinggo dihapuihan. Ceres juo sempat disabuik [[Hera]] di [[Jerman]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Foderà Serio, G.; Manara, A.; Sicoli, P.|editor=W. F. Bottke Jr., A. Cellino, P. Paolicchi, and R. P. Binzel|year=2002|chapter=Giuseppe Piazzi and the Discovery of Ceres|title=Asteroids III|publisher=University of Arizona Press|pages=17–24|location=Tucson, Arizona|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/books/AsteroidsIII/pdf/3027.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2009-06-25 }}</ref> Di Yunani, namo objek iko adolah [[Demeter]] (''Δήμητρα''), nan marupoan dewi ''Cerēs'' versi Yunani; dalam bahaso Inggirih, namo tersebut digunoan untuak asteroid [[1108 Demeter]]. Bantuak adjektif Ceres dalam bahaso Inggirih adaloh ''Cererian'',<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Jörg Rüpke]]|title=A Companion to Roman Religion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FRRLOltuxDcC&pg=PT90|accessdate=6 August 2011|date=25 March 2011|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-4131-7|pages=90–}}</ref> nan barasa dari bahaso [[Latin]] ''Cerēris''.<ref name="Simpson1979"/> [[Lambang astronomi]] lamo Ceres adolah sabit {{unicode|⚳}} ([[Berkas:Ceres symbol.svg|20px]]); lambang iko kudian diganti manjadi ①.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gould|first=B. A.|authorlink=Benjamin Apthorp Gould|title=On the symbolic notation of the asteroids|journal=Astronomical Journal|year=1852|volume=2|issue=34|page=80|bibcode=1852AJ......2...80G|doi=10.1086/100212}}</ref> Unsur [[cerium]] nan basobok pado tahun 1803 dinamai dari Ceres.<ref>{{cite web|author=Staff|url=http://www.webelements.com/cerium/history.html|title=Cerium: historical information|publisher=Adaptive Optics|accessdate=2007-04-27|archive-date=2010-04-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409042237/http://www.webelements.com/cerium/history.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Pado tahun nan samo, unsur lain juo dinamoi dari Ceres, tapi panamunyo mangganti namonyo manjadi [[palladium]] (dari asteroid [[2 Pallas]]) katiko cerium dinamoi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alchemy.chem.uwm.edu/amalgamator/features/feat2003/features.html#yag|date=2003-10-30|title=Amalgamator Features 2003: 200 Years Ago|accessdate=2006-08-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060207121906/http://alchemy.chem.uwm.edu/amalgamator/features/feat2003/features.html#yag|archivedate=2006-02-07|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} {{Tata surya}} [[Kategori:Planet katai]] mavg92noz38sjufir8u85ojklfefmcx 0 337148 3351223 3185058 2026-08-05T20:18:41Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351223 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet | bgcolour = #E8AB79 | name = Mars | alt_names = Marikh, Anggaraka | symbol = [[Berkas:Mars symbol (bold).svg|24px|♂]] | image = [[Berkas:Mars Hubble.jpg|240px|Planet Mars]] | caption = Citra Mars nan diabadian dek [[teleskop lua angkasa Hubble]] | orbit_ref = <ref name=horizons>{{cite web | last = Yeomans | first = Donald K. | date = 2006-07-13 | url = http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons | title = HORIZONS System | publisher = NASA JPL | accessdate = 2007-08-08 }} — Di situs, pergi ke "web interface" jo lalu pilih "Ephemeris Type: ELEMENTS", "Target Body: Mars" and "Center: Sun".</ref> | epoch = [[J2000]] | aphelion = 249.209.300 km{{br}} 1,665&nbsp;861 [[Satuan Astronomi|sa]] | perihelion = 206.669.000 km{{br}} 1,381&nbsp;497 sa | semimajor = 227.939.100 km{{br}} 1,523&nbsp;679 sa | eccentricity = 0,093&nbsp;315{{br}} | period = 686,971 hari{{br}} 1,8808 [[tahun julian (astronomi)|tahun Julian]]{{br}} 668,5991 [[penanggalan di Mars|sol]] | synodic_period = 779,96 hari{{br}} 2,135 tahun Julian | avg_speed = 24,077 km/s | inclination = 1,850° ke [[Ekliptika]]{{br}}5,65° ke [[ekuator]] [[Matohari]]{{br}}1,67° ke [[bidang Invariabel]]<ref name=meanplane>{{cite web |date=2009-04-03 |title=The MeanPlane (Invariable plane) of the Solar System passing through the barycenter |url=http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif |accessdate=2009-04-10 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420194536/http://home.comcast.net/~kpheider/MeanPlane.gif |archivedate=2009-04-20 |dead-url=no }} (dihasilkan melalui [http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ Solex 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220235836/http://chemistry.unina.it/~alvitagl/solex/ |date=2008-12-20 }} ditulis dek Aldo Vitagliano; lihat pula [[bidang Invariabel]])</ref> | asc_node = 49,562° | arg_peri = 286,537° | satellites = 2 | physical_characteristics = yes | equatorial_radius = 3.396,2 ± 0,1&nbsp;km{{Ref label|A|a|none}}<ref name=Seidelmann2007>{{cite journal | last= Seidelmann| first= P. Kenneth | coauthors= Archinal, B. A.; A'hearn, M. F.; et.al. | title= Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006 | journal= Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy | volume=98 | issue=3 | pages=155–180 | year=2007 | doi=10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y | accessdate=2007-08-28 }}</ref>{{br}}0,533 Bumi | polar_radius = 3.376,2 ± 0,1&nbsp;km{{Ref label|A|a|none}}<ref name=Seidelmann2007/>{{br}}0,531 Bumi | flattening = 0,005&nbsp;89 ± 0,000&nbsp;15 <!-- calculated from data in ref name=Seidelmann2007 --> | surface_area = 144.798.500&nbsp;km²{{br}}0,284 Bumi | volume = 1,6318{{e|11}} km³{{br}}0,151 Bumi | mass = 6,4185{{e|23}} kg{{br}}0,107 Bumi | density = 3,934 g/cm³ | surface_grav = 3,69 [[Percepatan|m/s²]]{{br}}0,376 ''[[gaya-g|g]]'' | escape_velocity = 5,027 km/s | sidereal_day = 1,025&nbsp;957 hari{{br}}{{RA|24|37|22}}<ref name=nasa/> | rot_velocity = 868,22 km/jam | axial_tilt = 25,19° | right_asc_north_pole = 21 j 10 m 44 d{{br}}317,681&nbsp;43° | declination = 52,886&nbsp;50° | albedo = 0,15<ref name="nssdc">{{cite web | author=Williams, David R. | title=Mars Fact Sheet | work=National Space Science Data Center | publisher=NASA | date=September 1, 2004 | url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html | accessdate=2006-06-24 | archive-date=2010-06-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612092806/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html | dead-url=yes }}</ref> | magnitude = +1,8 hingga −2,91<ref name="nssdc"/> | angular_size = 3,5—25,1"<ref name="nssdc" /> | temperatures = yes | temp_name1 = [[Kelvin]] | min_temp_1 = 186&nbsp;K | mean_temp_1 = 227&nbsp;K | max_temp_1 = 268&nbsp;K<ref name=nasa>{{cite web | title = Mars: Facts & Figures | publisher = NASA | url = http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Facts&System=Metric | accessdate = 2007-03-06 }}</ref> | temp_name2 = [[Celsius]] | min_temp_2 = −87&nbsp;°C | mean_temp_2 = −46&nbsp;°C | max_temp_2 = −5&nbsp;°C | adjectives = [[Martian]] | atmosphere = yes | surface_pressure = 0,6–1,0 [[Pascal (satuan)|kPa]] | atmosphere_density = | atmosphere_composition = 95,72% [[Karbon dioksida]]{{br}} 2.7% [[Nitrogen]]{{br}} 1.6% [[Argon]]{{br}} 0.2% [[Oksigen]]{{br}} 0.07% [[Karbon monoksida]]{{br}} 0.03% [[Uap air]]{{br}} 0.01% [[Nitrogen monoksida]]{{br}} 2.5 ppm [[Neon]]{{br}} 300 ppb [[Krypton]]{{br}} 130 ppb [[Formaldehida]]{{br}} 80 ppb [[Xenon]]{{br}} 30 ppb [[Ozon]]{{br}} 10 ppb [[Metana]]{{br}} }} '''Mars''' adolah [[planet]] paliang dakek kaampek dari [[Matohari]]. Namonyo diambiak dari [[dewa]] parang [[Romawi]], [[Mars (mitologi)|Mars]]. Planet iko acok dijuluki sabagai "planet sirah" dek tampak dari jauah barono kamerah-merahan. Iko disebabkan dek kabaradoan [[basi(III) oksida]] di parmukaan planet Mars.<ref name=nasa_hematite>{{cite web|title=The Lure of Hematite|work=Science@NASA|publisher=NASA|date=March 28, 2001|url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast28mar_1.htm|accessdate=2009-12-24|archive-date=2012-09-14|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120914152901/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast28mar_1/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Mars adolah [[planet babatuan]] dengan [[atmosfer]] nan tipis. Di parmukaan Mars terdapat kawah, gunuang barapi, lambah, gurun, jo [[tudung es]]. [[Periode rotasi]] jo siklus musim Mars saroman jo Bumi. Di Mars, tagak [[Olympus Mons]], gunuang paliang tinggi di Tata Surya, jo [[Valles Marineris]], lambah paliang gadang di Tata Surya. Salain itu, di balahan utaro terdapat [[cekungan Borealis]] nan maliputi 40% parmukaan Mars.<ref name=northcratersn>{{cite web|date=July 19, 2008|title=Impact May Have Transformed Mars|publisher=ScienceNews.org|first=Ashley|last=Yeager|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/33622/title/Impact_may_have_transformed_Mars_|accessdate=2008-08-12|archive-date=2012-09-14|archive-url=https://archive.is/20120914153420/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/33622/title/Impact_may_have_transformed_Mars_|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Ciri fisik == [[Berkas:Mars Earth Comparison.png|jmpl|kiri|Parbandingan ukuran [[Bumi]] jo Mars.]] Mars punyo jari-jari sakitar satengah dari jari-jari Bumi. Planet iko kurang padek bilo dibandiangan jo Bumi, dan hanyo mampunyoi sakitar 15% volume jo 11% massa Bumi. Lueh parmukaannyo labiah ketek dari jumlah wilayah kariang di Bumi.<ref name="nssdc"/> Mars labiah gadang daripado [[Merkurius (planet)|Merkurius]], tapi Merkurius labiah padek. Akibaiknyo kaduo planet mampunyoi tarikan gravitasi nan hampiang mirip di parmukaan—dan tarikan Mars labiah kuek sakitar kurang dari 1%. Ukuran, massa, jo gravitasi parmukaan Mars barado "di antaro" Bumi jo [[Bulan]] (diameter Bulan hanyo satangah dari Mars, samentaro Bumi duo kalinyo; Bumi sambilan kali labiah gadang dari Mars, jo Bulan ciek per sambilannyo). Kanampakan parmukaan Mars nan sirah-jingga diakibaikan dek kabaradoan [[besi(III) oksida]], nan labiah dikenal jo namo hematite.<ref name="rust">{{cite web|last=Peplow|first=Mark|title=How Mars got its rust|work=BioEd Online|publisher=MacMillan Publishers Ltd.|url=http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news-print.cfm?art=953|accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> == Geologi == Badasarkan pengamatan orbit jo pamariksaan terhadap kumpulan [[meteorit Mars]], parmukaan Mars tadiri dari [[basalt]]. Babarapo bukti manunjuakan bahasonyo sabagian parmukaan Mars mampunyoi silika nan labiah kayo daripado basalt biaso, dan mungkin mirip jo batu-batu [[andesit]] di Bumi. Sabagian gadang parmukaan Mars dilapisi dek debu [[besi(III) oksida]] nan maagiahnyo kanampakan sirah.<ref name=sci300a>{{cite journal|last=Christensen|first=Philip R.|coauthors=''et al''.|date=June 27, 2003|title=Morphology and Composition of the Surface of Mars: Mars Odyssey THEMIS Results|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2003-06-27_300_5628/page/2056|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5628|pages=2056–2061|doi=10.1126/science.1080885|pmid=12791998|bibcode = 2003Sci...300.2056C }}</ref><ref name=sci300b>{{cite journal|last=Golombek|first=Matthew P.|date=June 27, 2003|title=The Surface of Mars: Not Just Dust and Rocks|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2003-06-27_300_5628/page/2043|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5628|pages=2043–2044|doi=10.1126/science.1082927|pmid=12829771}}</ref> Pado maso kini, Mars indak mampunyoi [[medan magnet]] global,<ref name="magnetosphere">{{cite web|date=2006-11-09|title=Magnetic Fields and Mars|publisher=Mars Global Surveyor @ NASA|author=Valentine, Theresa; Amde, Lishan|url=http://mgs-mager.gsfc.nasa.gov/Kids/magfield.html|accessdate=2009-07-17}}</ref> tapi hasil pangamatan manunjuakan bahaso sabagian kerak planet termagnetisasi, jo medan magnet global parnah ado pado masa lalu. Salah ciek teori nan diumuman pado tahun 1999 jo dipareso ulang pado Oktober 2005 (dengan bantuan ''[[Mars Global Surveyor]]'') manunjuakan bahasonyo ampek miliar tahun nan lalu, [[teori dinamo|dinamo]] Mars baranti bafungsi jo maakibaikan medan magnetnyo mailang.<ref name="plates">{{cite web|publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center|title=New Map Provides More Evidence Mars Once Like Earth|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2005/mgs_plates.html|accessdate=2006-03-17|archive-date=2012-09-14|archive-url=https://archive.ph/20120914153601/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2005/mgs_plates.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Ado pulo teori bahasonyo asteroid nan sangaik gadang parnah mahantam Mars jo mamatian medan magnetnyo.<ref>{{cite|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/05/090511-mars-asteroid.html|title= "Supergiant" Asteroid Shut Down Mars's Magnetic Field|publisher=[[National Geographic]]|date=11 May 2009|accessdate=22 July 2011}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} {{Tata surya}} [[Kategori:Planet]] 6g43mmchweu5ig4o7f16zkv7xrcpxpj 0 337452 3351270 2055728 2026-08-05T21:58:19Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351270 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Persatuan Muslim Indonesia''', atau disingkek '''Permi''', marupoan partai politik beraliran nasionalisme-Islam nan ditagakan di [[Padang Panjang]] pado tahun 1930. Partai iko kudian bubar dek tekanan pamarentah [[Hindia Belanda]] pada tahun 1937.<ref>Elson, R. E. ''The Idea of Indonesia: A History''. Cambridge University Press, Apr 3, 2008. pp.xiii.</ref><ref>Mrázek, Rudolf. ''Sjahrir: Politics and Exile in Indonesia''. SEAP Publications, 1994. pp.523.</ref><ref>Wieringa, S. ''Sexual Politics in Indonesia''. Springer, May 21, 2002. pp.387.</ref><ref>Federspiel, Howard M. ''Islam and Ideology in the Emerging Indonesian State: The Persatuan Islam (Persis), 1923 to 1957''. BRILL, Jan 1, 2001. pp.51.</ref> Pendahulu Permi adolah Persatuan [[Sumatera Thawalib]] nan tagak pado tahun 1928. Pado kongresnya nan katigo di Padang Panjang, Persatuan Sumatera Thawalib barubah manjadi partai politik. Pado mulonyo, Permi bakadudukan di kota kalahirannyo, tapi kudian pusek partai iko dipindahan ka Padang.<ref name="Pa">[http://padangkita.com/sumatera-thawalib-sekolah-islam-modern-pertama-di-indonesia/ Sumatera Thawalib, Sekolah Islam Modern Pertama di Indonesia.] ''Padang Kita''. Retrieved November 29, 2017.</ref> Permi marupoan partai politik nan aktif manantang panjajahan Balando. Babedo jo partai-partai lainnyo di [[Indonesia]], Permi pado masonyo marangkul baiak asas nasionalisme maupun Islam, dan manampekannyo pado kadudukan sajajar. ==Sijarah== Cikal bakal Permi adolah organisasi Persatuan Sumatera Thawalib nan tabantuak pada November 1928 dalam sabuah konggres nan dihadiri dek utusan-utusan saluruah Sumatera Thawalib. Tujuan organisasi iko indak hanyo untuak maningkekan sistem parguruan tapi juo untuak mangorganisir kagiatan-kagiatan dalam bidang politik, ekonomi, jo sosial. Pado kongresnyo nan katigo bulan Mei 1930, Persatuan Sumatera Thawalib maubah dirinyo manjadi Persatuan Muslimin Indonesia (Permi).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Gerakan pembaharuan pemikiran Islam|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=CPQeAAAAMAAJ&hl=id&lr=&num=20|publisher=Tiara Wacana Yogya|date=1990|isbn=978-979-8120-13-8|language=id|first=Burhanuddin|last=Daya}}</ref> Permi mulonyo adolah organisasi kamasyarakatan barasasan Islam jo kabangsoan, nan kudian manjelma menjadi partai politik Islam. Anggota organisasi iko umumnyo adolah bakeh pelajar jo guru-guru Sumatera Thawalib nan sajak lamo manantang infiltrasi kumunih.<ref name=":0" /> Duo tahun sasudah ditagakan, Permi tumbuah manjadi partai nan bapangaruah di [[Sumatra Barat]], dan salanjuiknyo pangaruhnyo maluek ka daerah lain takah Tapanuli, Aceh, Bengkulu, jo Sumatra Selatan. Puncaknyo pado Desember 1932, Permi alah punyo 7.700 anggota, nan tadiri dari 4.700 laki-laki jo 3,000 padusi. Kagiatannyo maliputi dari pandidikan, kapanduan, penerbitan berkala jo pamflet, sarato mangadoan patamuan publik.<ref name="In">Ingelson, 1979. pp.230.</ref> ==Parlawanan== Sajak awal tagaknyo Permi alah manuai kacurigaan pamarentah kolonial nan mancaliaknyo sabagai ancaman. Para juru bicaro Permi biaso bapidato tarang-tarangan malawan panjajahan. Dek itu, sajak akhia tahun 1932 pargerakan tokoh-tokoh Permi mulai dibatasi. [[Rasuna Said]], salah surang pamimpin Permi nan kareh manantang pamarentah Balando dalam pidato-pidatonyo, ditangkok pado Desember 1932.<ref>[https://pahlawancenter.com/hj-rasuna-said/ Hj. Rasuna Said.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317030008/https://pahlawancenter.com/hj-rasuna-said/ |date=2018-03-17 }} ''Pahlawan Center''. Retrieved November 29, 2017.</ref> Ikuik ditangkok pulo yakni aktivis wanita Permi lainnyo [[Rasimah Ismail]].<ref>Blackburn, Susan. ''Indonesian women and political Islam''. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies / Volume 39 / Issue 01 / February 2008, pp 83–105. pp.87.</ref> Muchtar Lutfi ditangkok pado bulan Juli tahun 1933. Babarapo pimpinan Permi kanai larangan pai. Kudian partai iko kanai larangan bakumpua. Permi bausaho mancari aka jo manerbitkan kursus-kursus tatulih, nan kudian disita pamarentah. Pangarangnyo, [[Ilyas Ya'kub]], jo panerbitnyo [[Djalaluddin Thaib]] ditangkok pado bulan September. [[Muchtar Lutfi]], Ilyas Ya'kub, dan Djalaluddin Thaib kudian diasiangan ka Boven Digoel pado tahun 1934.<ref name="In" /> Penangkapan jo larangan tersebut efektif malumpuahan kagiatan Permi. [[Muhammad Sjafei]], satu-satunyo pimpinan nan masih aktif, mambubaran Permi pado 18 Oktober 1937. ==Ideologi== Pandangan Permi nan mamaduan paham nasionalisme dengan Islam sajalan jo pandapek banyak urang Minangkabau maso itu. Pandangan iko mangkritik partai-partai nasionalis lainnyo nan maambiak model gerakan nasionalis India dan cenderung enggan mangakui Islam sabagai faktor pamarsatu dalam parjuangan kamardekaan. Manuruik mereka di dalam negara nan 90 persen Muslim, katakutan maambiak asas Islam ibaraik "harimau takuik masuak rimbo atau aia manolak mangalir ka lauik." Dek baitu itu, Permi acok batantangan jo partai-partai non-agama maupun partai Islam nan cenderung hanyo mandasaran diri pado ciek paham se.<ref name="kahincornell">{{cite journal|author=Audrey R. Kahin|year=1984|title=Repression and regroupment: religious and nationalist organization in West Sumatra in the 1930s|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_indonesia_1984-10_38/page/39|journal=Indonesia|volume=38|pages=39–54}}</ref> Natsir, pado maso itu bagabuang dalam Persis, mancimooh Permi sabagai Islam nan pakai dan, babedo jo Persis nan marupoan Islam nan indak pakai jo (Islam sajo).<ref>{{cite book|last=Assyaukanie|first=Luthfie|title=Islam and the Secular State in Indonesia|pages=46|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies}}</ref> Filosofi Permi juo babedo jo filosofi tokoh nasional asal Minangkabau, Mohammad Hatta nan bapandapek bahasonyo partai politik saharusnyo indak barasas agama, meskipun Hatta surang Muslim taat. <ref>{{cite book|last=Kahin|first=Audrey|title=Dari Pemberontakan ke Integrasi: Sumatra Barat dan Politik Indonesia 1926-1998|year=2008|pages=67|publisher=Yayasan Obor Indonesia|location=Jakarta}}</ref> Gagasan Islam nasionalis [[Rasyid Ridha]] sabana maagiah pangaruah pado para ulama di Sumatera Barat. Namun, gagasan iko baru mandapekan wadah politk nan cocok katiko tabanatuaknyo Permi dan pulangnya duo cendekiawan Minangkabau tamatan [[Kairo]], [[Ilyas Ya'kub]] jo [[Muchtar Lutfi]] untuak mamacik tampuak kapamimpinan Permi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kahin|first=Audrey|title=Dari Pemberontakan ke Integrasi: Sumatra Barat dan Politik Indonesia 1926-1998|year=2008|pages=62–63|publisher=Yayasan Obor Indonesia|location=Jakarta}}</ref> Ilyas Yakub dalam tajuaknyo di ''Medan Rakjat'' terbitan Februari 1931 manyesalkan krisis dalam pargerakan rakyat Indonesia pado sangkek itu, utamonyo tapecahnyo gerakan Islam dengan nasionalis (kabangsoan). Manuruiknyo, meskipun didasaran atas duo asas nan babedo, indak ado pabedoan jo patantangan pado tujuan nan handak dicapai kaduo gerakan tersebut. Inyo manyaruan parsatuan sabagai tanda kadewasaan, dan bapandapek mamasuakan slogan Permi "Islam jo kabangsoan" ka dalam gerakan politik akan mamacahan krisis.<ref>{{cite book|last=Abdullah|first=Taufik|title=Schools and Politics: The Kaum Muda Movement in West Sumatra (1927-1933)|pages=177|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2009}}</ref> ==Caliak pulo== *[[Islam di Sumatera Barat]] *[[Kabangkitan Nasional Indonesia]] ==Rujuakan== {{reflist|30em}} ==Bibliografi== *Ingelson, John. (1979). ''Road to Exile: The Indonesian Nationalist Movement 1927-1934''. Asian Studies Association of Australia. [[Kategori:Partai politik di Indonesia|Persatuan Muslim Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Partai politik nan ditagakan tahun 1930]] [[Kategori:Pandirian tahun 1930 di Hindia Belanda]] lwkg1jv4klg86nb62pmbbba74t0kwnh 0 338160 3351247 3159395 2026-08-05T21:18:39Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351247 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Former Country |native_name = ''Samudera Darussalam'' |conventional_long_name = Kasultanan Samudera Pasai |common_name = Samudera Pasai<br>Pasai |continent = Asia |region = [[Asia Tenggara]] |country = [[Indonesia]] |religion = [[Islam]] |image_flag = |image_coat = |symbol_type = |p1 =Karajaan Jeumpa |p2 =Dharmasraya |s1 = Imperium Portugis |s2 = Kasultanan Aceh |flag_p1 = |flag_p2 = |flag_s1 = Flag Portugal (1640).svg |flag_s2 = Flag of Aceh Sultanate.svg |year_start = 1267 |year_end = 1521 |date_start = |date_end = |event_start = |event_end = Invasi Portugis |image_map = Pasai.jpg |capital = Pasai |common_languages = [[Bahaso Aceh|Aceh]] |government_type = Monarki |title_leader = Sultan |currency = Koin ameh jo perak |footnotes = | today = {{flag|Aceh Sultanate}}<br /> {{flag|Indonesia}}<br />{{flag|Malaysia}}<br />{{flag|Singapura}}<br /> }} '''Kasultanan Pasai''', tanamo juo sabagai '''Samudera Darussalam''', atau '''Samudera Pasai''', adolah [[karajaan]] [[Islam]] nan talatak di pasisia pantai utara [[Sumatera]], kurang labiah di sakitar [[Kota Lhokseumawe]] jo [[Kabupaten Aceh Utara|Aceh Utara]], Provinsi [[Aceh]], [[Indonesia]]. Alun baitu banyak bukti arkeologis tantang karajaan iko untuak dapek digunokan sabagai bahan kajian sijarah.<ref>Ricklefs, M.C., (1991), ''A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300'', 2nd Edition, Stanford: Stanford University Press, hlm. 15, ISBN 0-333-57690-X.</ref> Namun babarapo sijarawan mamulai manalusuri kabaradoan karajaan iko basumber dari [[Hikayat Rajo-rajo Pasai]],<ref name="Hill">Hill, A. H., (1960), ''[[Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai]]'', Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London. Library, MBRAS.</ref> dan iko dikaikkan jo babarapo makan rajo sarato panamuan koin babahan ameh jo perak nan barukia namo rajo.<ref>Wicks, R. S., (1992), ''Money, markets, and trade in early Southeast Asia: the development of indigenous monetary systems to AD 1400'', SEAP Publications, ISBN 0-87727-710-9.</ref> Karajaan iko didirikan dek Marah Silu, nan bagala [[Malik al-Saleh|Sultan Malik as-Saleh]], sakitar taun [[1267]]. Kabaradoan karajaan iko juo tacantum dalam kitab ''Rihlah ila l-Masyriq'' (Manjalajah ka Timur) karya ''[[Ibnu Batutah|Abu Abdullah ibn Batuthah]]'' (1304-1368), panjalajah [[Maroko]] nan singgah ka nagari iko pado taun [[1345]]. Kasultanan Pasai akhianyo runtuah salapeh sarangan [[Portugih]] pado taun [[1521]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=R63ACQAAQBAJ&pg=PA822&lpg=PA822&dq=Samudera+Pasai+Empire&source=bl&ots=b9bZRle3ra&sig=ACfU3U29_BNU5pr8VozUNmXRr7bpkbtC8Q&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjStsrs2vvpAhWbbysKHW9QDaEQ6AEwCnoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Samudera%20Pasai%20Empire&f=false|title=World Monarchies and Dynasties|last=Middleton|first=John|date=2015-06-01|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-45158-7|language=en}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|2}} == Bacoan lanjuik == * T. Ibrahim Alfian, (1979), ''Mata Uang Emas Kerajaan-kerajaan di Aceh'', Proyek Rehabilitasi dan Perluasan Museum, Aceh. * {{cite journal | last=Hall | first=Kenneth R. | year=1981 | title=Trade and statecraft in the Western Archipelago at the dawn of the European age | journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society | volume=54 | issue=1 | pages=21–47 | jstor=41492897 }} * {{cite book | last=Hall | first=Kenneth R.| year=2010 | title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500 | place=Plymouth, UK | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | isbn=978-0-7425-6761-0 }} * {{cite journal | last=Hill | first=A.H. | year=1963 | title=The coming of Islam to North Sumatra | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-southeast-asian-history_1963-03_4_1/page/6 | journal=Journal of Southeast Asian History | volume=4 | issue=1 | pages=6–21 | jstor=20067418 }} {{Karajaan di Sumatera}} [[Kategori:Kasultanan Samudera Pasai| ]] [[Kategori:Karajaan di Nusantara|Samudera Pasai]] [[Kategori:Karajaan di Aceh|Samudera Pasai]] [[Kategori:Karajaan Islam]] [[Kategori:Karajaan di Sumatera]] [[Kategori:Karajaan di Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Sijarah Aceh]] [[Kategori:Sijarah Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Kasultanan]] [[Kategori:Karajaan di Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Bakeh karajaan di Asia]] 47l6q3j1i0gj7wssi63yem18eb83vpc 0 338292 3351289 3350250 2026-08-05T22:23:27Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351289 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Elementbox|name=karbon|electrical resistivity=|thermal expansion=|thermal diffusivity=|thermal conductivity 2=|thermal conductivity=900-2300 (intan)<br />119-165 (grafit)|electrical resistivity at 20=|electrical resistivity at 0=|magnetic ordering=[[diamagnetik]]<ref>[http://www-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elementmagn.pdf Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds], in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press. </ref>|speed of sound=|oxidation states='''4''', 3<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://bernath.uwaterloo.ca/media/36.pdf|title=Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the System of CP|accessdate=2007-12-06|archive-date=2008-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216090126/http://bernath.uwaterloo.ca/media/36.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref>, 2, 1<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://bernath.uwaterloo.ca/media/42.pdf|title=Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of the Electronic Transition of the Jet-Cooled CCI Free Radical|accessdate=2007-12-06|archive-date=2008-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216090130/http://bernath.uwaterloo.ca/media/42.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref>, [[Formaldehyde|0]], [[Carbide|-1]], [[Methanol|-2]], [[Ethane|-3]], '''-4'''<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/C/comp.html|title=Carbon: Binary compounds|accessdate=2007-12-06|archive-date=2007-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071125044836/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/C/comp.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref>|crystal structure comment2=(grafit, hitam)|crystal structure2=Simple Hexagonal|crystal structure comment=(intan, bening)|crystal structure=diamond|Van der Waals radius=170|thermal expansion at 25=0.8 (intan)<ref name=ioffe>[http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/Diamond Properties of diamond], Ioffe Institute Database</ref>|speed of sound rod at 20=18350 (intan)|atomic radius calculated=|predicted by=|history comment label=Diketahui sebagai [[unsur kimia]] oleh|first isolation date=|first isolation by=|discovery date=3750 BC|discovered by=[[Mesir Kuno]] & [[Sumer|orang Sumeria]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caer.uky.edu/carbon/history/carbonhistory.shtml |title=History of Carbon and Carbon Materials - Center for Applied Energy Research - University of Kentucky |publisher=Caer.uky.edu |date= |accessdate=2008-09-12 |archive-date=2012-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101085829/http://www.caer.uky.edu/carbon/history/carbonhistory.shtml |dead-url=yes }}</ref>|prediction date=|isotopes=<!--[[Isotop dari karbon|15]]--> {{infobox element/isotopes decay | link=karbon-11 | mn=11 | sym=C | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=20&nbsp;min | dm= [[Beta emission|β⁺]] | de=0.96 |link1=boron-11 | pn=11 | ps=B}} {{Infobox element/isotopes stable | link=karbon-12 | mn=12 | sym=C | na=98.9% | n=6 |firstlinks=yes}} {{Infobox element/isotopes stable | link=karbon-13 | mn=13 | sym=C | na=1.1% | n=7 |firstlinks=no}} {{infobox element/isotopes decay | link=karbon-14 | mn=14 | sym=C | na=[[trace radioisotope|trace]] | hl=5730&nbsp;y | dm=[[Beta emission|β⁻]] | de=0.156 |link1=nitrogen-14 | pn=14 | ps=N}}|speed of sound rod at r.t.=|CAS number=7440-44-0|Mohs hardness=10 (intan)<br />1-2 (grafit)|Poisson ratio=0.1 (intan)<ref name=ioffe/>|Bulk modulus=442 (intan)<ref name=ioffe/>|Shear modulus=478 (intan)<ref name=ioffe/>|Young's modulus=1050 (intan)<ref name=ioffe/>|Tensile strength=|covalent radius=77(sp³), 73(sp²), 69(sp)|atomic radius=|number=6|group=14|image name 2=Carbon Spectra.jpg|image name comment=Intan (kiri) dan grafit (kanan), 2 alotrop terkenal dari karbon|image name=Diamond-and-graphite-with-scale.jpg|appearance=bening (intan) & hitam (grafit)|block=p|period=2|series=nonlogam|atomic mass=12.0107(8)|below=[[Silikon|Si]]|above=-|right=[[nitrogen]]|left=[[boron]]|pronounce=|symbol=C|image name 2 comment=Garis spektrum karbon|electron configuration=1s² 2s² 2p² atau [He] 2s² 2p²|3rd ionization energy=4620.5|triple point kPa=10800<ref name=triple2>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0008-6223(76)90010-5|title=Graphite-liquid-vapor triple point pressure and the density of liquid carbon|year=1976|author=Haaland, D|journal=Carbon|volume=14|pages=357|issue=6}}</ref><ref name=triple3>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2004.12.027|title=Measurements of the melting point of graphite and the properties of liquid carbon (a review for 1963–2003)|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_carbon_2005-05_43_6/page/n4|year=2005|author=Savvatimskiy, A|journal=Carbon|volume=43|pages=1115|issue=6}}</ref>|2nd ionization energy=2352.6|1st ionization energy=1086.5|number of ionization energies=6|electronegativity=2.55|heat capacity=6.155 (intan)<br />8.517 (grafit)|heat fusion=117 (grafit)|triple point K=4600|electrons per shell=2,4|sublimation point F=6588|sublimation point C=3642|sublimation point K=3915|density gpcm3nrt 3=Grafit: 2.267|density gpcm3nrt 2=Intan: 3.515|density gpcm3nrt=Amorf:<ref name="CRC">{{RubberBible86th}} </ref> 1.8–2.1|phase=Padat|history comment=[[Antoine Lavoisier|A. Lavoisier]]<ref>{{cite web|author=Senese, Fred|date=200-09-09|url=http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/inorganic/faq/discovery-of-carbon.shtml|title=Who discovered carbon?|publisher=Frostburg State University|accessdate=2007-11-24|archive-date=2007-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071207230348/http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/inorganic/faq/discovery-of-carbon.shtml|dead-url=yes}}</ref> (1789)}} '''Karbon''' ({{lang-la|Carbonium}}), atau '''zat arang''' marupokan [[unsua kimia]] nan mampunyoi simbol '''C''' dan [[nomor atom]] 6 pado [[tabel periodik]]. Sabagai unsua [[golongan 14]] pado [[tabel periodik]], karbon marupokan unsua non-logam dan bavalensi 4 (tetravalen), nan baarati basonyo ado ampek elektron nan dapek digunokan untuak mambantuak [[ikatan kimia|ikatan]] [[ikatan kovalen|kovalen]]. Ado tigo macam [[isotop]] karbon nan ditamukan sacaro alami, yakni [[Karbon-12|¹²C]] dan [[Karbon-13|¹³C]] nan stabil, dan [[Karbon-14|¹⁴C]] nan basipaik radioaktif jo [[wakatu paruah]] paluruahannyo sakitar 5730 taun.<ref name="isotopes">{{cite web|url=http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/C/isot.html|title=Carbon - Naturally occurring isotopes|publisher=WebElements Periodic Table|accessdate=2008-10-09}}</ref> Karbon marupokan salah satu dari babarapo unsua nan dikataui kabaradoannya sajak zaman saisuak.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chemicalelements.com/show/dateofdiscovery.html |title=Periodic Table: Date of Discovery|publisher=Chemical Elements.com|accessdate=2007-03-13}}</ref><ref name=D2>{{cite web|url=http://chemistry.about.com/library/das/aa030303a.htm|title=Timeline of Element Discovery|accessdate=2007-03-13}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Istilah "karbon" barasa dari [[bahaso Latin]] ''carbo'', nan aratinyo [[batu baro]]. Karbon mampunyoi babarapo [[alotrop karbon|jinih alotrop]], nan paliang tanamo adolah [[grafit]], [[intan]], dan [[karbon amorf]].<ref name="therm prop">{{cite web|url=http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod/point.html|title=World of Carbon - Interactive Nano-visulisation in Science &Engineering Edukation (IN-VSEE)|accessdate=2008-10-09|archive-date=2008-10-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005162616/http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod/point.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Sipaik-sipaik fisika karbon baragam bagantuang pado jinih alotropnyo. Sabagai contoh, intan barono [[transparan]], sadangkan grafit barono itam dan kusam. Intan marupokan salah satu materi paliang kareh di dunia, sadangkan grafit cukuik lunak untuak maninggakan bakehnyo pado karateh. Intan mamiliki [[konduktivitas listik]] nan sangek randah, sadangkan grafit adolah [[konduktor]] listrik nan sangek rancak. Di bawah kondisi normal, intan mampunyoi [[konduktivitas termal]] nan tatinggi di antaro materi-materi lain nan dikataui. Sado alotrop karbon babantuak padek dalam kondisi normal, tapi grafit marupokan alotrop nan paliang stabil sacaro [[termodinamika|termodinamik]] di antaro alotrop-alotrop lainnyo. Sado alotrop karbon sangek stabil dan mamaralukan suhu nan sangek tinggi untuak bareaksi, bahkan jo oksigen. [[Keadaan oksidasi|Kaadaan oksidasi]] karbon nan paliang umumnyo ditamukan adolah +4, manokalo +2 dijumpoi pado [[karbon monoksida]] dan senyawa kompleks [[logam transisi]] lainnyo. Sumber karbon anorganik paliang gadang ado pado [[batu kapua]], [[dolomit]], dan [[karbon dioksida]], sadangkan sumber organik ado pado [[batu baro]], tanah [[gambuik]], [[minyak bumi]], jo [[klatrat metana]]. Karbon dapek mambantuak labiah banyak [[senyawa kimia|senyawa]] daripada unsua-unsua lainnyo, jo ampia 10 juta [[senyawa organik]] murni nan alah dideskripsikan sampai kini.<ref name=lanl>{{cite web|author=Chemistry Operations|date=December 15, 2003|url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/6.html|title=Carbon|publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory|accessdate=2008-10-09|archive-date=2008-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913063402/http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/6.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Karbon adolah unsua paliang balimpah ka-15 di [[karak Bumi]] dan ka-4 di [[alam semesta]]. Karbon ado pado sado jinih [[mukaluak iduik]], dan pado manusia, karbon marupokan unsua paliang balimpah kaduo (sakitar 18,5%) sasudah oksigen.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/elbio.html|title=Biological Abundance of Elements|publisher = The Internet Encyclopedia of Science |accessdate=2008-10-09}}</ref> Kabalimpahan karbon iko, basamoan jo kaanekaragaman [[senyawa organik]] dan kamampuannyo mambantuak polimer mambuek karbon sabagai unsua dasa kimiawi kahidupan. Unsua iko adalah unsua nan paliang stabil di antaro unsua-unsua nan lain, sainggo dijadikan patokan dalam mangukua [[satuan massa atom]]. == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} {{Chemistry-stub}} [[Kategori:Kimia]] 5fb8vcoq09sgbdbjmfvl72durhuhfrm 0 385690 3351209 3146877 2026-08-05T19:55:14Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351209 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nama Batak|[[Suku Mandailing|Mandailing]]|Nasution}} {{infobox urang}} Jenderal Besar [[TNI]] (Purn.) Dr. (H.C.)<ref>https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1185196</ref> '''Abdul Haris Nasution''' (3 Desember 1918 – 6 September 2000) adolah saurang [[Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia|pahlawan nasional Indonesia]] nan marupoan tokoh TNI AD nan manjadi sasaran dalam peristiwa Gerakan 30 September. Baliau salamaik dari upayo penculikannyo, tapu harus rela kahilangan anak padusinyo Ade Irma Suryani Nasution sarato ajudannyo Lettu Pierre Tendean. Nasution marupoan konseptor Dwifungsi ABRI nan disampaian pado taun [[1958]] nan salanjuiknyo diadopsi salamo pamarintahan [[Soeharto]]. Konsep dasarnyo marupoan jalan supayo ABRI indah harus barado di bawah kandali sipil, tapi di wakatu nan samo indak buliah mandominasi sahinggo manjadi sabuah kediktatoran militer. Basamo [[Soeharto]] jo [[Soedirman]], Nasution manarimo pangkek kahormatan Jenderal Besar nan dianugrahan pado tanggal 5 Oktober [[1997]], katiko ulang tahun ABRI. == Kahidupan awal == Nasution dilahian di Desa Hutapungkut, [[Kotanopan, Mandailing Natal|Kotanopan]], [[Kabupaten Mandailing Natal]], [[Sumatra Utara]],<ref name="Bachtiar 1998 p220" /> dari kaluargo [[Batak]] [[Muslim]].<ref name="Conboy & Morrison 1999 p3" /> Baliau adolah anak kaduo jo marupoan anak laki-laki paliang gadang di kaluargonyo. Ayahnya adolah saurang panggaleh nan manjua tekstil, karet, kopi, jo marupoan anggota dari organisasi Sarekat Islam. Ayahnyo nan religius nio anaknyo masuak sikolah agamo, samantaro mandenyo nio anaknyo baraja kadokteran di Batavia. Namun, katiko lulus dari sikolah pado taun 1932, Nasution manarimo beasiswa untuak baraja di Sekolah Raja [[Bukittinggi]] (kini [[SMA Negeri 2 Bukittinggi]]). Pado taun 1935 Nasution pindah ka [[Bandung]] untuak malanjuikan studi, disinan baliau tingga salamo tigo taun. Baliau punyo kainginan untuak manjadi guru, namun lambek laun kainginannyo tu mamuda sairiang minaik politiknyo batumbuah. Baliau diam-diam mambali buku nan ditulih dek [[Soekarno]] jo mambaconyo basamo kawan-kawannyo. Salapeh lulus pado taun 1937, Nasution baliak ka [[Sumatera|Sumatra]] jo maaja di [[Bengkulu]], nan katiko itu baliau tingga di dakek rumah pangasingan Soekarno. Baliau kadang-kadang maota jo Soekarno jo mandangaan pidatonyo. Satahun kudian, Nasution pindah ka [[Tanjung Raja, Ogan Ilir|Tanjung Raja]], dakek [[Palembang]], disinan baliau malanjuikan maaja, tapi baliau samakin suko jo tertarik samo politik jo militer.{{sfn|Prsetyo|Hadad|1998|pp=21–34}} Pado taun 1940, Jerman Nazi manduduki Balando jo pamarintah kolonial [[Belanda|Balando]] mambuek korps perwira cadangan nan manarimo urang Indonesia. Nasution bagabuang untuak mandapekan palatihan militer. Basamo urang Indonesia lainnyo, baliau dikirim ka Akademi Militer Bandung untuak palatihan. Pado bulan September 1940 baliau dipromosian manjadi kopral, tigo bulan salanjuiknyo manjadi sersan. Baliau pernah pulo manjadi saurang perwira di Koninklijk Nederlands-Indische Leger (KNIL).<ref name="Keegan 1979 p314" /> Pado taun 1942, [[Japang|Jepang]] manyarang jo manduduki Indonesia. Katiko itu, Nasution barado di [[Surabaya]] ditampekan untuak mampatahanan palabuhan. Salanjuiknyo Nasution dapek caro baliak ka Bandung sarayo manyuruak dari Japang. Namun, baliau manolong milisi PETA nan dibuek dek panjajah Japang nan mambaok pasan. Tapi baliau indak sautuhnyo manjadi anggota PETA.{{sfn|Prsetyo|Hadad|1998|pp=35–41}} == Revolusi Nasional Indonesia == === Divisi Siliwangi === [[Berkas:Tasikmalaja_Voor_de_evacuatie_van_de_TNI_troepen_een_hele_organisatie_kijken._N,_Bestanddeelnr_1521-1-3.jpg|jmpl|Nasution basiap demobilisasi Divisi Siliwangi pasca Perjanjian Renville]] Sasudah Soekarno mamproklamasian kemerdekaan Indonesia pado 17 Agustus 1945, Nasution bagabuang jo militer Indonesia nan kudian dikana jo Tentara Keamanan Rakyat (TKR). Pado bulan Mei 1946, baliau diangkek manjadi Panglima Regional Divisi Siliwangi, nan manjago kaamanan [[Jawa Barat]]. Dalam posisi ko, Nasution mangambangan teori parang teritorial nan akan manjadi doktrin patahanan [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia]] (TNI) di maso salanjuiknyo.<ref name="pdat.co.id" /><ref name="Cribb 2001" /> Pado bulan Januari 1948, Pamerintah Indonesia jo Pamerintah Balando menandotangani Perjanjian Renville, mambagi [[Jawa]] antaro daerah nan dikuasai Balando jo Indonesia. Dek wilayah nan diduduki dek Balando tamasuak [[Jawa Barat]], Nasution dipaso untuak mamimpin Divisi Siliwangi untuak manyubarang ka [[Jawa Tengah]].<ref name="Kahin 1952 p233" />{{sfn|Ricklefs|1982|p=215}} === Wakil Panglima === [[Berkas:AH_Nasution_as_the_Deputy_Commander_of_the_Indonesian_Armed_Forces.jpg|jmpl|Nasution sabagai Wakil Panglima TKR]] Pado 1948 Nasution naiak ka posisi Wakil Panglima TKR. Walaupun hanyo bapangkek Kolonel, panunjukan ko mambuek Nasution manjadi urang paliang kuek kaduo di TKR sasudah Jenderal [[Soedirman]]. Pado bulan April, baliau manolong Soedirman mareorganisasi struktur pasukan. Pado bulan Juni di sabuah patamuan, Nasution maagiah saran basonyo TKR harus malakuan parang gerilya malawan Balando. Walapun Nasution bukanlah Panglima TKR, Nasution dapek pangalaman baparan manjadi Panglima Angkatan Bersenjata pado bulan September 1948 katiko Paristiwa Madiun. Kota Madiun di [[Jawa Timur]] diambik aliah dek mantan Perdana Menteri Amir Syarifuddin jo Musso dari Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI). Sasudah kaba tu sampai ka Markas TKR di [[Yogyakarta]], diadoan patamuan antaro perwira militer senior. Soedirman salanjuiknyo manugasan Letnan Kolonel [[Soeharto]], untuak manegosiasian kasapakatan jo komunis. Sasudah baliak dari pajalanannyo, Soeharto baliak ka Nasution jo Soedirman untuak malaporan basonyo di sagalo tampek indak ado nan damai. Nasution nan sadang sakik indak picayo jo kaba laporan nan dikatoan dek Soeharto. Salanjuiknyo Nasution sabagai Wakil Panglima mangirim pasukan untuak manyalasaian pemberontakan komunis disinan.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1982|p=217}}{{sfn|Elson|2001|p=26}} Pado 30 September, Madiun diambiak aliah dek pasukan republik dari Divisi Siliwangi. Ribuan anggota partai komunis tewas, 36.000 lainnyo dipanjaro. Diantaro nan tabunuah adolah Musso pado 31 Oktober, nan kabanyo tabunuah katiko nio malarian diri dari panjaro. Pamimpin PKI lainnyo sarupo DN Aidit pai ka pangasingan di Cino. [[Berkas:The_hand-over_of_Dutch_military_HQ_to_RIS_army_led_by_A.H._Nasution.JPG|jmpl|Panyerahan Markas Besar Militer Balando di Jakarta ka Tentara RIS nan dipimpin dek Kolonel Abdul Harris Nasution nan pado maso tu adolah Panglima Angkatan Darat RIS.]] Pado 19 Desember 1948, Balando manyarang Yogyakarta jo mandudukinyo. Nasution basamo TKR jo komandan lainnyo mundur ka padesaan untuak malawanjo taktik parang gerilya. Presiden [[Soekarno]] jo Wakil Presiden [[Mohammad Hatta]] ditawan dek Balando, [[Pemerintahan Darurat Republik Indonesia]] (PDRI) didirian di [[Sumatra]]. Dalam pamarintahan samantaro ko, Nasution diagiahan posisi Komandan Angkatan Darat joTeritorial Jawa. Sasudah pangakuan Balando untuak kamerdekaan Indonesia, PDRI mambaliakan kakuasaan ka Soekarno jo Hatta, salain itu Nasution baliak pulo ka posisinyo sabagai Wakil Panglima Soedirman. == Panghargoan == {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;" |- !Baris ke-1 | colspan="2"|Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipradana (26 September 1997)<ref name="Daftar WNI yang Menerima Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Republik Indonesia 1959 - sekarang">{{cite book |title= Daftar WNI yang Menerima Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Republik Indonesia 1959 - sekarang|url=https://cdn.setneg.go.id/_multimedia/document/20200107/3822wni_penerima_tanda_kehormatan_bintang_republik_indonesia_1959_sekarang.pdf |access-date=}}</ref> | colspan="2"|Bintang Republik Indonesia Utama (10 Januari 1963)<ref name="Daftar WNI yang Menerima Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Mahaputera tahun 1959 s.d. 2003">{{cite book |title=Daftar WNI yang Mendapat Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Mahaputera tahun 1959 s.d. 2003 |url=https://cdn.setneg.go.id/_multimedia/document/20180910/41462-Bintang_Mahaputera_tahun_1959-2003.pdf |access-date=}}</ref> |- !Baris ke-2 | colspan="1"|Bintang Mahaputera Adipradana (1961)<ref name="Daftar WNI yang Menerima Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Mahaputera tahun 1959 s.d. 2003"/> | colspan="1"|Bintang Sakti | colspan="1"|Bintang Dharma | colspan="1"|Bintang Yudha Dharma Utama |- !Baris ke-3 | colspan="1"|Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Utama | colspan="1"|Bintang Jalasena Utama | colspan="1"|Bintang Swa Bhuwana Paksa Utama | colspan="1"|Bintang Bhayangkara Utama |- !Baris ke-4 | colspan="1"|Bintang Gerilya | colspan="1"|Bintang Sewindu Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia | colspan="1"|Satyalancana Peringatan Perjuangan Kemerdekaan | colspan="1"|Satyalancana Kesetiaan 16 Tahun |- !Baris ke-5 | colspan="1"|Satyalancana Jasadharma Angkatan Laut | colspan="1"|Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan I | colspan="1"|Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan II | colspan="1"|Satyalancana G.O.M I |- !Baris ke-6 | colspan="1"|Satyalancana G.O.M II | colspan="1"|Satyalancana G.O.M III | colspan="1"|Satyalancana G.O.M IV | colspan="1"|Satyalancana Satya Dharma |- !Baris ke-7 | colspan="1"|Satyalancana Wira Dharma | colspan="1"|Satyalancana Penegak | colspan="1"|[[:en:Order of the White Elephant|Knight Grand Cross of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant]] - Thailand (1960) | colspan="1"|[[:en:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia#Orders|First Rank of the Order of the People's Army with Laurer Wreath]] - Yugoslavia (1960) |- !Baris ke-8 | colspan="1"|[[:en:Orders, decorations, and medals of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia#Orders|First Rank of the Order of the Yugoslav Flag with Sash]] - Yugoslavia (1961) | colspan="1"|Military Medal of the Republic - Republik Arab Bersatu (1961) | colspan="1"|[[:en:Philippine Legion of Honor|Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor]] - Filipina (1963) | colspan="1"|[[:en:Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany|Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]] - Jerman (1963) |- !Baris ke-9 | colspan="1"|[[:en:Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"|Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"]] - Uni Soviet (1965) | colspan="1"|[[:en:Order of Sikatuna|Grand Cross (''Datu'') of the Order of Sikatuna]] - Filipina (1967) | colspan="1"|[[:en:Order of the Holy Trinity|Grand Cross and Collar of the Order of the Holy Trinity]] - Kekaisaran Etiopia (1968) | colspan="1"|[[:en:Order of Orange-Nassau|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau]] - Balando (1971) |} == Rujuakan == {{reflist |colwidth = 30em |refs = <ref name="Bachtiar 1998 p220"> {{cite book |first = Harsja W. |last = Bachtiar |title = Siapa Dia?: Perwira Tinggi Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Darat |trans_title = Who's Who?: Senior Officers of the Indonesian Army |year = 1998 |publisher = Penerbit Djambatan |location = Jakarta |language = Indonesia |isbn = 978-979-428-100-0 |page = 220 }} </ref> <ref name="Conboy & Morrison 1999 p3"> {{cite book |last1 = Conboy |first1 = Kenneth J. |last2 = Morrison |first2 = James |title = Feet to the fire: CIA covert operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958 |publisher = Naval Institute Press |year = 1999 |pages = 3 |url = http://books.google.com.my/books?id=ldNPrKp_Q1gC |isbn = 978-1-55750-193-6 }} </ref> <ref name="Keegan 1979 p314"> {{cite book |last = Keegan |first = John |year = 1979 |page = 314 |title = World Armies |isbn = 978-0-333-17236-0 }} </ref> <ref name="pdat.co.id">{{cite web |title = Abdul Haris Nasution |publisher = pdat.co.id |url = http://www.pdat.co.id/hg/apasiapa/login.html |accessdate = |archive-date = 2011-10-02 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111002085107/http://www.pdat.co.id/hg/apasiapa/login.html |dead-url = unfit }}</ref> <ref name="Cribb 2001"> {{cite journal |first = Robert |last = Cribb |date=October 2001 |title = Military strategy in the Indonesian revolution: Nasution's concept of "Total People's War" in theory and practice |url = https://archive.org/details/war-society_2001-10_19_2/page/143 |journal = War & Society |volume = 19 |issue = 2 |pages = 143–154 |doi = 10.1179/072924701799733190 }} </ref> <ref name="Kahin 1952 p233"> {{cite book |last = Kahin |first = George McTurnan |year = 1952 |title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia |url = https://archive.org/details/nationalismrevol0000kahi |publisher = Cornell University Press |isbn = 0-8014-9108-8 |page = [https://archive.org/details/nationalismrevol0000kahi/page/233 233] }} </ref> }} '''Sumber rujuakan''' * {{cite book |editor1-last = Prsetyo |editor1-first = Adi |editor2-last = Hadad |editor2-first = Toriq |year = 1998 |language = Indonesia |title = Jenderal Tanpa Pasukan, Politisi Tanpa Partai: Perjalanan Hidup A.H. Nasution |publisher = Pusat Data dan Analisis Tempo (PDAT) |location = Jakarta |isbn = 978-979-9065-02-5 |ref = harv }} * {{cite book |last = Ricklefs |first = Merle Calvin |year = 1982 |title = A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher = Macmillan Southeast Asian |edition = reprint |isbn = 978-0-333-24380-0 |ref = harv }} [[Kategori:Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia]] 1g14inwt38u6zr7dgld260ra662kv0s 0 386177 3351245 3147484 2026-08-05T21:16:39Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351245 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Sadang karajo}} {{Automatic taxobox |name=Kapuyuak |fossil_range={{fossilrange|145|0}} [[Periode Karbon]]–kini |image=Snodgrass common household roaches.png |image_upright=1.15 |image_caption ='''Kapuyuak rumah biaso'''<br/>A) [[Kapuyuak Jerman]]<br/>B) [[Kapuyuak Amerika]]<br/>C) [[Kapuyuak Australia]]<br />D&E) [[Kapuyuak oriental]] (♀ & ♂) |taxon=Blattodea |subdivision_ranks=Famili |subdivision = [[Anaplectidae]]<br/> [[Blaberidae]]<br/> [[Blattidae]]<br/> [[Corydiidae]]<br/> [[Cryptocercidae]]<br/> [[Ectobiidae]]<br/> [[Lamproblattidae]]<br/> [[Nocticolidae]]<br/> [[Tryonicidae]] }} '''Kapuyuak''' atau '''lipeh''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id/index.php/arbitrer/article/download/39/27|title=VARIASI LEKSIKAL BAHASA MINANGKABAU DI KABUPATEN PESISIR SELATAN|first=Meksi Rahma|last=Nesti|website=webcache.googleusercontent.com|access-date=2022-07-07|publisher=Jurnal Arbitrer, Vol. 3, No. 1, Edisi April 2016|id=Program Studi Pascasarjana Program Linguistik, Universitas Andalas|page=53|archive-date=2019-09-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917085025/http://arbitrer.fib.unand.ac.id/index.php/arbitrer/article/download/39/27|dead-url=yes}}</ref> adolah [[saranggo]] dari ordo [[Blattodea]], nan tamasuak juo di dalamnyo [[anai-anai]]. Sakita 30 dari 4.600 spesies kapuyuak baubuangan jo habitat manusia. Babarapo spesies tanamo sabagai hama. Kapuyuak tagoloang ewan kuno, dipakiroan muyang kapuyuak barasa dari [[periode Karbon]] yaitu sakita 300-350 juta taun nan lalu. Namun, muyang nan awa itu indak punyo [[ovipositor]] internal sarupo kapuyuak moderen. Ewan iko dapek dianggap sabagai saranggo umum nan indak punyo adaptasi kusuih (misalnyo muluik pangisok co muluik [[kutu daun]] atau [[hemiptera]]); inyo punyo muluik pangunyah biaso, nan mungkin tamasuak salah satu saranggo [[Neoptera]] paliang primitif nan masiah ado. Mareka taseba di mano-mano, kuaik jo mampu iduik di babagai iklim, sarupo iklim dingin [[Arktik]] inggo [[tropis]] nan paneh. Kapuyuak tropis acok bana jauah labiah gadang daripado nan di tampek baiklim sadang. Balawanan jo kapicayoan populer, karabaik kuno kapuyuak ([[Blattoptera]]) jo saranggo sajinih lainnyo nan lah punah dari periode Karbon sarupo ''[[Archimylacris]]'' jo ''[[Apthoroblattina]]'' ukurannyo indak labiah gadang daripado ukuran spesies kapuyuak moderen nan tagadang. Babarapo spesies, sarupo [[kapuyuak Jerman]] nan iduiknyo bakalompok, punyo struktur sosial nan kompleks tantang tampek balinduang basamo, katagantuangan sosial, transfer informasi, jo panganalan karabaik. Kapuyuak alah jadi paratian dalam budayo manusia sajak [[jaman klasik]]. Mareka sacaro populer digambakan sabagai hama nan koto, meskipun sabagian gadang spesies itu indak manganggu jo iduik di babagai habitat lainnyo di saluruah dunio. == Taksonomi jo evolusi == Kapuyuak adolah anggota dari [[Superordo]] [[Dictyoptera]], nan maliputi juo [[anai-anai]] jo [[bilalang sambah]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/orthopteran|title=Orthopteran &#124; Description, Natural History, & Classification}}</ref> yaitu jinih-jinih saranggo nan daulu disangko tapisah jo kapuyuak. Kini ko, lah 4.600 spesies sarato labiah dari 460 genera alah dideskripsian di saluruah dunio.<ref name="Cockroach.SpeciesFile.org">{{cite web |author=Beccaloni, G. W. |year=2014 |title=Cockroach Species File Online. Version 5.0 |url=http://Cockroach.SpeciesFile.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Blattodea (Cockroaches & Termites) |url=http://anic.ento.csiro.au/INSECTFAMILIES/order_overview.aspx?OrderID=42509&PageID=overview |publisher=CSIRO Entomology |access-date=21 November 2015 |archive-date=21 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121165830/http://anic.ento.csiro.au/INSECTFAMILIES/order_overview.aspx?OrderID=42509&PageID=overview |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Namo ilmiah kapuyuah barasa dari [[bahaso Latin]] ''blatta'', "saranggo nan maindar dari cahayo"; nan dalam bahaso Latin klasik marujuak indak anyo kapado kapuyuak, tatapi balaku juo kapado bilalang sambah.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordh |first1=G. |last2=Headrick |first2=D. H. |title=A Dictionary of Entomology |date=2009 |publisher=CABI |location=Wallingford |isbn=978-1-84593-542-9 |page=200 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |title=Blatta |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dblatta1 |work=Perseus Digital Library |publisher=Tufts University |access-date=26 October 2015}}</ref> {{clade|style=font-size:85%;line-height:85% |label1=[[Dictyoptera]] |1={{clade |1={{clade |label1='''[[Blattodea]]''' |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |label1=[[Blattoidea]] |1={{clade |1={{clade |label1=[[Termitoidea]] (anai-anai) |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Termitidae]] |2=[[Rhinotermitidae]] }} |2=[[Kalotermitidae]] }} |2={{clade |1=[[Archotermopsidae]] |2=[[Hodotermitidae]] }} }} |2=[[Mastotermitidae]] }} |label2=[[Cryptocercoidae]] |2=[[Cryptocercidae]] (kapuyuak batudung coklat) }} |label2=[[Blattoidae]] |2=[[Blattidae]] (kapuyuak oriental, kapuyuak Amerika, jo lain-lain) }} |label2=[[Blaberoidea]] |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Blaberidae]] (kapuyuak raksaso) |2=[[Ectobiidae]] (bagian) }} |2=Ectobiidae (bagian) }} }} |label2=[[Corydioidea]] |2={{clade |1=[[Corydiidae]] (kapuyuak pasia, jll) |2=[[Nocticolidae]] (kapuyuak guo, jll) }} }} }} }} |2=[[Mantodea]] (bilalang sambah) }} }} }} == Deskripsi == Umumnyo spesies kapuyuak baukuran sagadang ibu jari, tapi ado babarapo spesies nan labiah gadang lai. Kapuyuak tabarek di dunio adolah [[kapuyuak panggali raksasa]] Australia ''Macropanesthia rhinoceros'', nan panjangnyo dapek mancapai 8 sentimeter (3 inci) jo bareknyo inggo 35 gram (1,2 oz).<ref>{{cite web |title=Pet facts: giant burrowing cockroaches |url=http://www.abc.net.au/creaturefeatures/facts/cockroach.htm |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |access-date=3 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218184323/http://www.abc.net.au/creaturefeatures/facts/cockroach.htm |archive-date=18 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Sabanding dalam ukuran tu adolah kapuyuak raksasa Amerika Tangah ''[[Blaberus giganteus]]''.<ref name="Huang">{{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=C. Y. |last2=Sabree |first2=Z. L. |last3=Moran |first3=N. A. |year=2012 |title=Genome Sequence of ''Blattabacterium'' sp. Strain BGIGA, Endosymbiont of the ''Blaberus giganteus'' Cockroach |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-bacteriology_2012-08_194_16/page/4450 |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |volume=194 |issue=16 |pages=4450–4451 |doi=10.1128/jb.00789-12|pmid=22843586 |pmc=3416254}}</ref> Spesies kapuyuak tapanjang adolah ''[[Megaloblatta longipennis]]'', nan panjangnyo dapek mancapai 97&nbsp;mm (3+7⁄8 inci) jo lebanyo 45&nbsp;mm (1+3⁄4 inci).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-10000/largest-cockroach/ |title=Guinness World Records: World's Largest Cockroach |author=Guinness World Records }}</ref> Spesies Amerika Tangah jo Selatan, ''[[Megaloblatta blaberoides]]'', punyo leba sayok tagadang inggo 185&nbsp;mm (7+1⁄4 inci).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2006/may/news_8129.html |title=Cockroaches hit the shelves |publisher=Natural History Museum |date=May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060819141741/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2006/may/news_8129.html |archive-date=19 August 2006 |access-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> Sabaliaknyo dalam skala ukuran, kapuyuak ''[[Attaphila]]'' nan iduik jo [[samuik pamotong daun]], tamasuak salah satu spesies taketek di dunio, jo panjangnyo sakita 3,5&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wheeler |first=William Morton |date=November 1900 |title=A New Myrmecophile from the Mushroom Gardens of the Texan Leaf-Cutting Ant |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-naturalist_1900-11_34_407/page/n14 |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=34 |issue=407 |pages=851–862 |doi=10.1086/277806 |s2cid=85112362}}</ref> == Distribusi jo habitat == == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Saranggo]] {{biologi-stub}} qlpxt9aiss3hfe953y7tsapkxz0jrr9 0 386530 3351323 2503610 2026-08-05T23:20:53Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Gunung | name = Gunung Tambora | photo = Caldera Mt Tambora Sumbawa Indonesia.jpg | photo_caption = [[Kaldera]] Gunung Tambora | map = Indonesia | map_alt = | map_border = | map_caption = Lokasi Gunung Tambora di Indonesia | map_relief = | map_size = | label = Tambora | label_position = | lat_d = 8 | lat_m = 15 | lat_s = 0 | lat_NS = S | long_d = 118 | long_m = 0 | long_s = 0 | long_EW = E | coordinates = {{coord|8|15|0|S|118|0|0|E|type:mountain|display=inline,title}} | elevation_m = 2850 | location = Semenanjung Sanggar, [[Sumbawa]] | region = [[Kabupaten Dompu]] dan [[Kabupaten Bima|Bima]], [[Nusa Tenggara Barat]], [[Indonesia]] | type = [[Gunuang api karucuik]] [[trakibasalt]]-[[trakiandesit]] | last_eruption = 1967<ref name="gvp1">{{cite web|title=Tambora|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04=|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2006-10-17|archive-date=2013-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220220824/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04=|dead-url=yes}}</ref> | age = [[Pleistosen|Pleistosen Akhir]]—[[Holosen]] | volcanic_arc = [[Busur Sunda]] }} '''Gunuang Tambora''' (atau biaso disabuik pulo '''Tomboro''') marupoan sabuah gunuang barapi karucuik aktif nan barado di Pulau Sumbawa, [[Nusa Tenggara Barat]], [[Indonesia]]. Gunuang ko talatak di duo kabupaten yaitu Kabupaten Dompu nan mancakup lereang bagian baraik jo salatan, sarato Kabupaten Bima nan mancakup lereang bagian timur jo utara. Gunung Tambora tabantuak dek zona subduksi aktif nan ado di bawahnyo. Pado masa lalu, katinggian Gunuang Tambora mancapai sakitar 4.300 [[meter|m]]<ref name="Stothers1984a">{{cite journal|last=Stothers|first=R. B.| journal=[[Science]]|title=The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1984-06-15_224_4654/page/1191| volume =224|issue=4654|date=1984|pages=1191–1198|doi=10.1126/science.224.4654.1191}}</ref> nan mambuek gunuang ko manjadi salah satu puncak tatinggi di Indonesia pado maso lalu. Aktivitas vulkanis gunuang barapi ko mamuncak akibaik latusan pado April 1815 nan mancapai skala tujuah VEI.<ref name="Degens1989">{{cite journal|last1=Degens|first1=E. T.|last2=Buch|first2=B.|title=Sedimentological events in Saleh Bay, off Mount Tambora|journal=Netherlands Journal of Sea Research|volume=24|issue=4|doi=10.1016/0077-7579(89)90117-8|pages=399–404|year=1989}}</ref> Latusan tu manjadi latusan vulkanis tagadang sajak latusan Taupo pado tahun 181.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=C.|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_progress-in-physical-geography_2003-06_27_2/page/230|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|year=2003|pages=230–259|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra}}</ref> Latusan tu mengaluarkan sakitar 140 miliar ton magma.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2022/04/10/080000565/sejarah-letusan-gunung-tambora-10-april-1815--lahirkan-sepeda-|title=Sejarah Letusan Gunung Tambora 10 April 1815: Lahirkan Sepeda!|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|date=2022-04-10|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|access-date=2022-07-23}}</ref> Suaro latusan tacatat tadanga sampai pulau [[Sumatra]] labiah dari 2.000 km ke baraik. Hujan abu vulkanis tajadi di [[Kalimantan]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Jawa]], jo [[Maluku]]. Latusan tu manelan korban jiwa saketeknyo mancapai 71.000 urang dengan 11.000—12.000 urang di antaranyo marupon korban langsuang dari latusan.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003" /> Babarapo paneliti mampakiroan jumlah korban jiwa ko bahkan mancapai 92.000 urang, tapi angko ko diraguan karano dinilai talalu gadang.<ref name="Tanguy1998">{{cite journal|title=Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database|url=https://archive.org/details/bulletin-of-volcanology_1998-09_60_2/page/137|last1= Tanguy|first1=J.-C.|last2=Scarth|first2= A.|last3=Ribière|first3=C.|last4=Tjetjep|first4= W. S.|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|pages=137–144|date=1998|doi=10.1007/s004450050222|volume=60|issue=2}}</ref> Latusan t manyababan parubahan iklim dunia saat tu. Tu, pado tahun barikutnyo (1816) acok disabuik sabagai tahun tanpa musim panas dek adanyo parubahan cuaca drastis di [[Amerika Utara]] jo [[Eropa]] akibaik debu nan dihasilan dari latusan tu. Peristiwa ko manyebaban kagagalan panen jo kamatian taranak massal nan pado gilirannyo manyebaban wabah kalaparan taburuak pado abaik ka-19.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003" /> Pado sabuah ekskavasi tahun 2004 di wilayah Gunuang Tambora, sakalompok arkeolog manamuan siso kabudayaan nan takubua 3 meter di bawah endapan piroklastik dari latusan tahun 1815. Tamuan ko acok disabuik sabagai ''Pompeii dari Timur'' akibaik kamiripannyo jo Kota Pompeii di [[Italia]] nan takubua material letusan vulkanis.<ref name="URI">{{cite press release|title=URI volcanologist discovers lost kingdom of Tambora|publisher=[[University of Rhode Island]]|date=2006-02-27|url=http://www.uri.edu/news/releases/index.php?id=3467|accessdate=2006-10-06}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} 9vxdx5w1w2foa0bs60mk50sv70utaos 0 386594 3351324 3344977 2026-08-05T23:22:33Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351324 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Animation of C-2018 Y1 orbit 1600-2500.gif|upright=1.5|thumb|Animasi nan manunjuakkan orbit [[Eksentrisitas orbit|eksentrisitas]] randah (lingkaran dokek, bawarno sirah), dan orbit eksentrisitas tinggi (elips, bawarno ungu)]] Pado [[mekanika bando langik]], '''orbit''' adolah [[lintasan]] malongkuang suatu [[Objek astronomi|objek]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/431123/orbit |title=orbit (astronomy) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=28 July 2008 |archive-date=5 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505012919/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/431123/orbit |url-status=live }}</ref> ajak lintasan planet di sakitar bintang, atau [[satelit alami]] di sakitar planet, atau satelit buatan di sakitar objek atau posisi di ruang angkaso ajak planet, bulan, asteroid, atau [[Titiak Lagrange|titiak Lagrange]]. Biasonyo, orbit mangacu pado lintasan nan barulang sacaro taratur, dek biktu mungkin juo mangacu pado lintasan nan indak barulang. ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} ==Pautan lua== {{Wiktionary}} *{{Commonscat-inline|Orbits|orbit}} * [http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit CalcTool: Orbital period of a planet calculator]. Has wide choice of units. Requires JavaScript. * [http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Motion.htm Java simulation on orbital motion]. Requires Java. * [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/forcing.html NOAA page on Climate Forcing Data] includes (calculated) data on Earth orbit variations over the last 50 million years and for the coming 20 million years * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100201160808/http://www.bridgewater.edu/~rbowman/ISAW/PlanetOrbit.html On-line orbit plotter]. Requires JavaScript. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204054322/http://www.braeunig.us/space/orbmech.htm Orbital Mechanics] (Rocket and Space Technology) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060210012245/http://www.astrobiology.ucla.edu/OTHER/SSO/ Orbital simulations] by Varadi, [[Michael Ghil|Ghil]] and Runnegar (2003) provide another, slightly different series for Earth orbit eccentricity, and also a series for orbital inclination. Orbits for the other planets were also calculated, by {{cite journal | author=F. Varadi | author2=B. Runnegar | author3=M. Ghil | title=Successive Refinements in Long-Term Integrations of Planetary Orbits | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2003-07-20_592_1/page/620 | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=592 | date=2003 | issue=1 | pages=620–630|doi=10.1086/375560 | bibcode=2003ApJ...592..620V| doi-access=free }}, but only the [https://web.archive.org/web/20041031055131/http://www.astrobiology.ucla.edu/OTHER/SSO/Misc/ eccentricity data for Earth and Mercury] are available online. * [http://www.lri.fr/~dragice/gravity/ Understand orbits using direct manipulation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108140606/http://www.lri.fr/~dragice/gravity/ |date=2017-11-08 }}. Requires JavaScript and Macromedia * {{cite web|last=Merrifield|first=Michael|title=Orbits (including the first manned orbit)|url=http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/orbit.htm|work=Sixty Symbols|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]]|access-date=2022-07-25|archive-date=2018-08-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830121717/http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/orbit.htm|dead-url=yes}} {{Authority control}} f6o29e4qtsa9sh1xddbo2ux8kjb8cbw 0 387243 3351218 3169900 2026-08-05T20:12:14Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351218 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Barbados infobox}} '''Republik Barbados''' adolah sabuah [[nagara kapulauan]] nan talatak di perbatasan [[Lauik Karibia]] dan [[Samudra Atlantik]]. Marangkum ciek dari gugusan pulau-pulau [[Antillen Ketek]], Barbados talatak di bagian timur gugusan tu. Nagara ko manempati area salaweh 432 km2 (167 sq mi) dan mamiliki panduduak sakitar 287.000 (pakiroan 2019).<ref name=geo/> Barbados dihuni oleh [[Kalinago|urang Kalinago]] sajak abad ka-13, dan sabalum itu oleh urang [[Panduduak asli Banua Amerika|Amerindia]] lainnyo. Navigator [[Spanyol]] manguasai Barbados pado akhia abad ka-15, maklaimnyo sabagai [[Karajaan Kastila dan León|Mahkota Kastilia]]. Iko patamo kali mancogok di peta Spanyol pado tahun 1511.<ref name="Spanish Main">{{cite book |last1=Sauer |first1=Carl Ortwin |title=Early Spanish Main, The |url={{GBurl|ayCi1EAaIWQC |pg=PA193}} |year=1969 |orig-year=1966 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-01415-4 |pages=192–197}}</ref> [[Imperium Portugal|Kekaisaran Portugis]] maklaim pulau itu antaro tahun 1532 dan 1536, namun maninggaannyo pado tahun 1620 dengan satu-satunyo siso mereka adolah pangenalan babi rimbo untuak persediaan dagiang nan elok setiok kali pulau itu dikunjungi. Sabuah kapa [[Inggirih]], ''Olive Blossom'', tibo di Barbados pado 14 Mei 1625; urang-urangnyo manguasai pulau itu ateh namo [[James Charles Stuart|Rajo James I]]. Pado 1627, pamukim permanen patamo tibo dari Inggirih, dan Barbados manjadi koloni Inggirih dan kamudian [[Penjajahan Inggirih di Amerika|jajahan Inggirih]].<ref name="Commonwealth History">{{cite web |url=http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/barbados/history |title=Barbados – History |author=Secretariat |work=[[Commonwealth of Nations]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820080026/http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/barbados/history |archive-date=20 August 2014}}</ref> Salamo periode iko, koloni baoperasi pado ekonomi perkebunan, mengandalkan tanago karajo urang [[Afrika]] nan dipabudak untuak bakarajo di perkebunan pulau. Perdagangan budak ka pulau itu balanjuik sampai dilarang di seluruh Karajaan Inggirih oleh [[Undang-Undang Pardagangan Budak 1807]], dengan emansipasi tarakhir urang-urang nan dipabudak di Barbados tajadi salamo limo tahun satalah [[Undang-Undang Pahapuihan Perbudakan 1833]]. Pado 30 November 1966, Barbados manjadi nagara mardeka dan wilayah [[Alam Pasemakmuran|Pasemakmuran]] dengan [[Elizabeth I dari Inggirih|Elizabeth II]] sabagai [[Monarki Barbados|Ratu Barbados]]. Pado 30 November 2021, Barbados baraliah ka [[Republik di Pasemakmuran Bangso|republik]] di dalam Pasemakmuran.<ref>{{cite web |title=Barbadians celebrate the birth of a republic and bid farewell to the Queen |first1=Lauren |last1=Said-Moorhouse |first2=Max |last2=Foster |date=2021-11-30 |work=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/11/29/americas/barbados-bids-farewell-to-queen-intl-cmd/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130080358/https://edition.cnn.com/2021/11/29/americas/barbados-bids-farewell-to-queen-intl-cmd/index.html |archive-date=2021-11-30 |access-date=2022-01-29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/30/at-the-stroke-of-midnight-barbados-becomes-the-worlds-newest-republic|last=Safi|first=Michael|title=Barbados parts way with Queen and becomes world's newest republic|work=The Guardian|date=30 November 2021|access-date=30 November 2021}}</ref> Panduduak Barbados sabagian gadang adolah katurunan Afrika. Meskipun sacaro teknis marupikan pulau [[Atlantik]], Barbados takaik arek jo [[Karibia]] dan digolongan sabagai salah ciek tujuan wisata takamuko.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Belle|first1=Nicole|last2=Bramwell|first2=Bill|date=1 August 2005|title=Climate Change and Small Island Tourism: Policy Maker and Industry Perspectives in Barbados|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-travel-research_2005-08_44_1/page/34|journal=Journal of Travel Research|volume=44|pages=34–38|doi=10.1177/0047287505276589|s2cid=154912745}}</ref> Barbados terkenal jo industri pariwisatanyo dan dikenal sabagai ''Little England'' atau 'Inggirih Ketek' kepulauan Karibia. Iko dikaranokan pangaruah [[Inggirih]] nan kuek di pulau ko. Pulau Barbados talatak 2.585 km sabalah tenggara [[Miami]], [[Amerika Sarikat]] dan 860 km dari [[Caracas]], [[Venezuela]]. == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Nagara di Karibia]] [[Kategori:Nagara nan Badaulaik]] rqi69me2foyzhhjizdjl5bv6uo78o8x 0 387254 3351316 3160465 2026-08-05T23:13:07Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351316 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ikon budaya''' ([[Bahaso Inggirih|Inggirih]]: ''Icon'' atau ''Iconic'') adolah urang atau [[artefak]] nan diidentifikasi oleh anggota budaya sabagai perwakilan dari budaya itu. Proses identifikasi basifat subjektif, dan "ikon" dinilai dari sajauah ma ikon tu dapek dicaliak sabagai simbol otentik dari budaya tu. Katiko individu marasokan ikon budaya, nyo mahubuangannyo jo persepsi umumnyo tantang identitas budaya nan diwakiaan.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grayson|first1=Kent|last2=Martinec|first2=Radan|date=2004-09-01|title=Consumer Perceptions of Iconicity and Indexicality and Their Influence on Assessments of Authentic Market Offerings|url=https://academic.oup.com/jcr/article-abstract/31/2/296/1824949/Consumer-Perceptions-of-Iconicity-and-Indexicality|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|volume=31|issue=2|pages=296–312|doi=10.1086/422109|issn=0093-5301}}</ref> Ikon budaya juo dapek diidentifikasi sabagai gambaran otentik dari praktik ciek budaya jo budaya lain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Motley|first1=Carol M.|last2=Henderson|first2=Geraldine Rosa|date=2008-03-01|title=The global hip-hop Diaspora: Understanding the culture|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-business-research_2008-03_61_3/page/243|journal=Journal of Business Research|series=Cross-Cultural Business Research|volume=61|issue=3|pages=243–253|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.06.020}}</ref> == Kritikan == [[File:Berlin Montage 2016.png|thumb|250px|Ikon-ikon kabudayaan [[Berlin]]]] Manggambarkan sasuatu sabagai ikonik atau ikon alah manjadi umum di media populer. Hal iko menuai kritik dari babarapo pihak.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-3713610.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026104454/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-3713610.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=October 26, 2012|title= Heard about the famous icon? We have – far too often|work=The Independent|location=London|date= January 27, 2007}}</ref> Misalnyo, surang panulih di ''[[Liverpool Daily Post]]'' manyabuik "ikon" "sabuah kato nan mambuek badannyo marindiang", sabuah kato "nan dipasoan untuak manggambarkan hampia sadoan hal".<ref name="LDP">[https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-191891103 Let's hear it for the Queen's English]{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''[[Liverpool Daily Post]]''</ref> Mark Larson dari ''[[Christian Examiner (California)|Christian Examiner]]'' balabel "iconic" sabagai kato nan talalu acok digunoan, disobokan lebiah dari 18.000 panggunoan "iconic" dalam kaba sajo, jo 30.000 lainnyo untuk "icon".<ref name="CE">[http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Aug09/Art_Aug09_oped2.html Modern word usage amazingly leaves us yearning for gay, old times] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225101358/http://www.christianexaminer.com/Articles/Articles%20Aug09/Art_Aug09_oped2.html |date=2010-12-25 }}, ''[[Christian Examiner (California)|Christian Examiner]]''</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Simbol]] s4o1k2y0mkwv6iohv7py4xecwfyzaf7 0 387264 3351288 2463348 2026-08-05T22:22:15Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351288 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Minamoto no Yoritomo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Minamoto no Yoritomo]], shogun partamo bagi Kashogunan Kamakura (1192-1199).]] {{nihongo|'''Shogun'''|将軍|Shōgun}} adolah istilah [[bahaso Japang|Jopang]] nan barorti [[jenderal]]. Dalam konteks sijarah Jopang, bilo disabuik pajabat syogun mako nan dimaksuik iyolah {{nihongo|'''Sei-i Taishōgun'''|征夷大将軍}} nan barorti "Panglima Tatinggi Pasukan Ekspedisi melawan Urang Biadab" (istilah "Taishōgun" barorti panglima angkatan basanjato).<ref name="worldbook-shogun">{{cite encyclopedia| year = 1992 | title = Shogun | encyclopedia = The World Book Encyclopedia | publisher = World Book | location = | id = ISBN 0-7166-0092-7 |pages = 432-433}}</ref> Jabatan Sei-i Taishōgun dihapuih sojak [[Restorasi Meiji]]. Dek biktu, pado bahaso Jopang, istilah "shōgun" nan barorti jenderal pado kamiliteran tatok digunoan hinggo kini. Sojak [[zaman Nara]] hinggo [[zaman Heian]], jenderal nan dikirim untuak manaklukkan wilayah bagian timua Jopang disabuik Sei-i Taishōgun, basingkek syogun. Jabatan nan labiah randah dari Sei-i Taishōgun disabuik {{nihongo|Seiteki Taishōgun|征狄大将軍|panglima panaklukan urang barbar}} dan {{nihongo|Seisei Taishōgun|征西大将軍|panglima panaklukan wilayah barat}}. Gala Sei-i Taishōgun diagiah ka panglima kasyogunan (''bakufu'') sojak [[zaman Kamakura]] hinggo [[zaman Edo]]. Syogun dapek juo iyolah pajabat ''Tōryō'' (kapalo klan [[samurai]]) nan didapekkannyo badasarkan garih katurunan. Pajabat syogun diangkek jo parintah [[kaisar Japang|kaisar]], dan dalam praktiknyo baporan sabagai kapalo pamarentahan (ajak [[Pardana Mantari]]) walaupun Nagaro asiang mangganggap syogun sabagai "rajo Japang", tapi sacaro rasmi syogun diparintah dari istano kaisar, dan bukan panguaso nan sasungguahnyo.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843-1845 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_harvard-journal-of-asiatic-studies_1966_26/page/102 | first=Conrad | last=Totman | journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies | volume=26 | year=1966 | pages=102-124}}</ref> Basobok kakuasaan tatinggi tatok barado di tangan Kaisar Jopang. ==Carito== ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} {{Authority control}} 9a2tmoevarfojsf5lcx3qwdlkgngm2i 0 387281 3351291 3154905 2026-08-05T22:26:50Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351291 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Gajah asia<ref name=MSW>{{MSW3 Proboscidea | id = 11500004 | page = 90}}</ref> | status = EN | status_system = iucn3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{IUCN2008|assessors=Choudhury, A., Lahiri Choudhury, D.K., Desai, A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M., Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A. & Wikramanayake, E. |year=2008|id=7140|title=Elephas maximus|downloaded=28 October 2008}}</ref> | image = Asian elephant - melbourne zoo.jpg | image_caption=Bong Su, seekor gajah asia jantan di Kebun Binatang Melbourne | image2 = ElephantSkelLyd2.png | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Proboscidea]] | familia = [[Elephantidae]] | genus = ''[[Elephas]]'' | species = '''''E. maximus''''' | binomial = ''Elephas maximus'' | binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]] | range_map = Asian Elephant range.png | range_map_caption = Penyebaran gajah Asia<br />(cokelat — daerah asal, hitam — asal belum jelas) }} '''Gajah asia''' ('''''Elephas maximus'''''), kadang disabuik juo jo namo salah satu subspesiesnyo, [[gajah india]], adolah satu dari tigo [[spesies]] gajah nan masih hiduik, dan marupoan satu-satunyo spesies gajah dari genus ''[[Elephas]]'' nan masih hiduik pado maso kiniko. Hewan iko adolah hewan darat nan paliang gadang di [[Asia]].<ref name="Shoshani82">{{cite journal |author=Shoshani, J, Eisenberg, J. F. |year=1982 |title=Elephas maximus |journal=Mammalian Species |volume=182 |pages=1–8 |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-182-01-0001.pdf |jstor=3504045 |doi=10.2307/3504045 |access-date=2013-05-19 |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924121940/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-182-01-0001.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Gajah Asia adolah [[spesies tarancam]] karano habitatnyo nan taruih bakurang sarato dek paburuan lia,<ref>Cynthia Turnage and Mark McGinley. 2010. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Asian_elephant ''Asian Elephant'']. Encyclopedia of Earth. C. Michael Hogan, Topic editor. eds. Cutler J. Cleveland. National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC</ref> populasi gajah asia ko di alam lia tasiso labiah kurang antaro 41,410 sampai 52,345.<ref name=iucn/> Gajah asia cenderung baumua panjang, sarato umua gajah ko nan paliang lamo nan dikatahui mancapai 86 tahun. Hewan iko banyak di[[domestikasi]] sarato diapagunoan atau diparuntuakan dalam ranah [[kahutanan]] di [[Asia Selatan]] jo [[Asia Tenggara|Tenggara]] salamo barabaik-abaik dan digunoan pulo untuak tujuan [[upacara|seremonial]]. Sumber-sumber sijarah mangindikasikan bahwasanyo hewan iko kadang digunoan salamo musim panen dalam kagiatan panggiliangan. Gajah lia dapek dimanfaaikan untuak manarik [[wisatawan]], namun hewan iko dapek pulo marusak [[panen]], sarato dapek mamasuki pakampuangan warga untuak marusak pakabunan warga.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wri-indonesia.org/id/blog/konflik-manusia-dan-gajah-dampak-hilangnya-hutan-yang-tak-terlihat|title=Konflik Manusia dan Gajah: Dampak Hilangnya Hutan yang Tak Terlihat {{!}} WRI Indonesia|website=wri-indonesia.org|access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref> == Panyebaran jo habitat == Gajah asia manghuni kawasan padang rumpuik, hutan hijau tropis, hutan semi-hijau, [[hutan gugur]] lambok, hutan gugur kariang jo hutan baduri kariang. Salain itu mereka dapek pulo biaso hiduik di hutan tanaman, hutan sekunder jo samak balukar. Babarapo dari tipe habitat gajah iko dapek mancapai katinggian {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=on}} di ateh pamukaan lauik. Ado tigo subspesies gajah asia nan tanamo:<ref name=iucn/><ref name="Shoshani82"/> * [[Gajah sri lanka]] nan dapek ditamui di daerah di [[Sri Lanka]]; * [[Gajah india]] nan dapek ditamui di daratan Asia: [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Semenanjung Malaya]], [[Vietnam]], [[Kamboja]], [[Laos]], jo [[Republik Rakyaik Cino|Tiongkok]]; * [[Gajah sumatera]] nan dapek ditamui di [[Sumatra]] jo [[Kalimantan (pulau)|Kalimantan]]. Di [[Republik Rakyaik Cino|Tiongkok]], gajah asia hanyo dapek ditamui di prefektur [[Xishuangbanna]], [[Distrik Simao|Simao]], jo [[Lincang]] di selatan [[Yunnan]]. Di Bangladesh, hanyo dapek ditamui di sabagian populasi gajah nan tampeknyo tapancia di [[Bukit Chittagong]].<ref name="sukumar93">Sukumar, R. (1993) [http://books.google.com/books?id=95MoRwdQlcYC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=true ''The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management''] Second edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43758-X</ref> == Ekologi jo parilaku == [[Berkas:Baby elephants at the Elephant Conservation Center (Laos).jpg|jmpl|kiri|Saikua anak gajah (5 bulan) jo sapupunyo (17 bulan) di sabuah suaka di Laos]] Gajah marupoan hewan [[krepuskular]].<ref name="Shoshani82"/> Mereka dikalompokan sabagai [[megafauna]] dan mangkonsumsi sakitar {{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}} pakan tanaman pa harinyo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Samansiri |first=K. A. P. |last2=Weerakoon |first2=D. K. |year=2007 |url=http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/27-27-Samansiri.pdf |title=Feeding Behaviour of Asian Elephants in the Northwestern Region of Sri Lanka |journal=Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group |volume=2 |issue= |pages=27–34 |doi= |access-date=2022-10-13 |archive-date=2016-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118170121/http://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/27-27-Samansiri.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Mereka adolah pamakan sagalo tumbuahan; pamakan rumpuik (''grazer'') tamasuak juo pamakan batang kayu atau batang pisang (''browser'') sakaligus. Tacatat 112 spesies tanaman nan babeda manjadi santapan hewan iko. Kabanyakan tumbuahan dari bangsa [[Malvales]], suku [[Leguminosae|polong-polongan]], [[Palmae|pinang-pinangan]], [[Cyperaceae|teki-tekian]] jo [[Graminae|padi-padian]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sukumar |first=R. |year=1990 |url=http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/JournalofTropicalEcologyB1989.pdf |title=Ecology of the Asian Elephant in southern India. II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns |journal=Journal of Tropical Ecology |volume=6 |issue= |pages=33–53 |doi= |access-date=2013-05-19 |archive-date=2007-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012123045/http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/JournalofTropicalEcologyB1989.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Mereka mamakan pohon (''browsing'') labiah banyak pado musim kamarau, nan mano kulik pohon atau batang kayu lah nan manjadi porsi utamonyo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pradhan |first=N. M. B. |last2=Wegge |first2=P. |last3=Moe |first3=S. R. |last4=Shrestha |first4=A. K. |year=2008 |title=Feeding ecology of two endangered sympatric megaherbivores: Asian elephant Elephas maximus and greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in lowland Nepal |journal=Wildlife Biology |volume=14 |issue= |pages=147–154 |doi= }}</ref> Mereka minum satidaknyo sakali sahari dan indak pernah tingga jauah dari sumber aia murni.<ref name="Shoshani82"/> Mereka mambutuahan sakitar 80 hinggo 200 liter aia dalam sa hari. Anak gajah biasonyo bagabuang dalam kawanan gajah batina nan dewasa. Namun gajah jantan akan mamisahkan mereka katiko sang anak mancapai maso remaja.<ref name="McKay1973">{{cite journal |last=McKay |first=G. M. |year=1973 |title=Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in southeastern Ceylon |journal=Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology |volume=125 |issue= |pages=1–113 |doi= }}</ref> Gajah mampu mangatahui suaro dengan amplitudo nan randah.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heffner |first=R. |last2=Heffner |first2=H. |year=1980 |title=Hearing in the elephant (''Elephas maximus'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1980-05-02_208_4443/page/518 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=208 |issue=4443 |pages=518–520 |doi=10.1126/science.7367876 }}</ref> Mereka manggunoan [[infrasonik]] untuak bakomunikasi satu samo lainnyo; hal iko partamo kali dikatahui dan dicatat dek naturalis asal India, [[Madhaviah Krishnan]], nan kamudian dipalajari labiah lanjuik lai dek [[Katharine Payne]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Payne, K.|year=1998|title=Silent Thunder|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9706848010867|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=0-684-80108-6}}</ref> Pamangsoan [[Harimau benggala|harimau]] tahadok gajah Asia jarang tajadi dan hanyo tabateh sajo pado anak gajah nan masih ketek.<ref>Karanth, K. U. and Nichols, J. D. (1998). [http://repository.ias.ac.in/89442/1/3-P.pdf ''Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic captures and recaptures''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809055944/http://repository.ias.ac.in/89442/1/3-P.pdf |date=2017-08-09 }}. Ecology, 79 (8): 2852–2862.</ref> == Caliak pulo == * [[Gajah kalimantan]] * [[Gajah afrika]] == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} == Pautan lua == {{commons category|Elephas maximus}} {{wikispecies|Elephas maximus}} * {{en}} [http://www.elephantnaturefoundation.org/ Elephant Nature Foundation] * {{en}} [http://www.asianelephant.net/ Asian Elephants at the Zoological Gardens of the World] * {{en}} [http://panda.org/elephants/asian WWF - Asian elephant species profile] * {{en}} [http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/AsianElephants/ National Zoo Facts on Asian Elephant and a Webcam of the Asian Elephant exhibit] * {{en}} [http://www.chaffeezoo.org/animals/elephant.html The Chaffee Zoo Asian Elephant Fact Sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060223213334/http://www.chaffeezoo.org/animals/elephant.html |date=2006-02-23 }} * {{en}} [http://ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/servlet/gov.doi.species_profile.servlets.SpeciesProfile?spcode=A059 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Species Profile] * {{en}} [http://www.elefantasia.org For information on Asian Elephants in [[Laos]]] * {{en}} [http://www.eia-international.org/ EIA 25 yrs investigating the ivory trade, reports etc] * {{en}} [http://www.eia-global.org/ EIA (in the USA) reports etc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423020747/https://eia-global.org/ |date=2020-04-23 }} * {{en}} [http://plainofjars.net/elephant.htm Web page that includes a description of the deteriorating plight of elephants with links to organizations dedicated to helping them] {{Taxonbar|from=Q133006}} [[Kategori:Gajah]] [[Kategori:Spesies EDGE]] [[Kategori:Fauna Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Fauna India]] [[Kategori:Mamalia Asia]] [[Kategori:Mamalia Bangladesh]] [[Kategori:Mamalia India]] [[Kategori:Megafauna Eurasia]] [[Kategori:Lambang nasional Laos]] [[Kategori:Lambang nasional Thailand]] [[Kategori:Mamalia Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Elephantidae]] lhsyvhrqa3tivpdk4r7zea0ysv0th2s 0 387389 3351269 2495898 2026-08-05T21:57:18Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351269 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox organization | name = Budi Utomo | full_name = | native_name = {{lang-nl|Boedi Oetomo}} | native_name_lang = <!-- re{{lang-jv|Budi Utomo}}quired ISO 639-1 code of the above native language --> | logo = | logo_size = | logo_alt = | logo_caption = | image = | image_size = | alt = <!-- see [[WP:ALT]] --> | caption = | map = <!-- map image --> | map_size = <!-- defaults to 250px --> | map_alt = | map_caption = | map2 = <!-- 2nd map image, if required --> | map2_size = | map2_alt = | map2_caption = | abbreviation = | nickname = | pronounce = | pronounce ref = | pronounce comment = | pronounce 2 = | named_after = | predecessor = | merged = <!-- any other organization(s) which it was merged into --> | successor = | formation = 20 Mei 1908 | founder = <!-- or |founders = --> | founding_location = | dissolved = 1935 | merger = <!-- other organizations (if any) merged with, to constitute the new organization --> | type = Organisasi nasionalis | tax_id = <!-- or |vat_id = (for European organizations) --> | registration_id = <!-- for non-profits --> | status = <!-- legal status or description (company, charity, foundation, etc.) --> | purpose = <!-- or |focus = --><!-- humanitarian, activism, peacekeeping, etc. --> | professional_title = <!-- for professional associations --> | headquarters = | location_city = | location_country = | location_city2 = | location_country2 = | addnl_location_city = | addnl_location_country = | addnl_location_city2 = | addnl_location_country2 = | coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LON|display=inline,title}} --> | origins = | region_served = <!-- or |area_served = or |region = --> | products = <!-- or |product = --> | services = | methods = <!-- or |method = --> | fields = <!-- or |field = --> | membership = <!-- number of members --> | membership_year = <!-- year to which membership numbers/data apply --> | language = <!-- or |languages = --><!-- any official language or languages used --> | owner = <!-- or |owners = --> | sec_gen = <!-- or |gen_sec for General Secretary --> | leader_title = <!-- defaults to "Leader" --> | leader_name = | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | board_of_directors = | key_people = | main_organ = <!-- or |publication = --><!-- organization's principal body (assembly, committee, board, etc.) or publication --> | parent_organization = <!-- or |parent_organisation = --> | subsidiaries = | secessions = | affiliations = | budget = | budget_year = | revenue = | revenue_year = | disbursements = | expenses = | expenses_year = | endowment = | endowment_year = | funding = <!-- source of funding e.g. for "think tanks" --> | staff = | staff_year = | volunteers = | volunteers_year = | students = | students_year = | awards = | website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --> | remarks = | formerly = <!-- or |former_name = --> | footnotes = | bodystyle = }} '''Budi Utomo''' (ejaan lamo: '''Boedi Oetomo'''), aratinyo "Budi Nan Utamo", adolah gerakan politik pribumi paling patamo nan muncul di Hindia Balando.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sejarah Pergerakan Nasional dari Budi Utomo sampai Proklamasi 1908-1945|last=Suhartono|publisher=Pustaka Pelajar|year=1994|isbn=9789798581083|location=Yogyakarta|pages=32}}</ref> Gerakan iko dianggap sabagai pamantik dari awal mulonyo Kebangkitan Nasional Indonesia. == Sijarah == Budi Utomo ditagakan pado 20 Mei 1908, dan marupoan gerakan politik pribumi paling patamo nan ado di Hindia Balando. Para pandiri Budi Utomo adolah pensiunan doktor di pamarentahan nan maraso bahasonyo para intelektual pribumi musti maningkekan pandidikan dan budaya di kalangan masyarakaik.<ref>Vickers, Adrian. 2005. ''A History of Modern Indonesia,'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 73</ref> Gerakan iko maadoan kongureh patamonyo pado Mei 1908.<ref name="vandenbosch31">cf. Vandenbosch (1931).</ref> Kongureh tersebut samacam partamuan mahasiswa-mahasiswa di Batavia. Pamimpin patamo Budi Utomo adolah Dr. [[Wahidin Soedirohoesodo]], tapi sasudah partamuan gadang patamo di [[Yogyakarta (city)|Yogyakarta]] pado Oktober 1908, inyo mangunduran diri untuak maagiah kasempatan ka urang nan labiah mudo. Sikap Pamarentah Hindia Balando toleran terhadap kabangkitan dan parkambangan nasionalisme Indonesia. Budi Utomo indak punyo daya tarik atau mamiliki massa nan signifikan dan mereka maanggap kagiatan nasionalis di dekade patamo abaik ka-20 adolah dampak alami dari kabijakan Politik Etis, nan manakanan pantiangnya manjago kasejahteraan rakyat.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} Anggota Budi Utomo barasa dari elit kelas atas pribumi, pajabaik pamarentah dan intelektual, sabagian gadang manetap di Jawa dan urang Jawa. Kagiatan utamo gerakan iko mandorong pamajuan pendidikan rakyat. Babarapo cabang mangambangan gerakannyo di bidang pardagangan jo industri pribumi. Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo, nan kudian managaakan National Indische Partij nan labiah radikal, mampalueh cakupan gerakan iko sahinggo dapek manjangkau labiah banyak kelas pekerja, dan juo mampalueh wilayahnyo ka saluruh Hindia Balando di lua Jawa.<ref>''Indïes'' was the popular term coined by the [[Dutch East Indies]] government to indicate the inhabitants of the ''Netherlands East Indïes''.</ref> Kaorganisasian Budi Utomo mangalami partumbuhan nan capek. Pado tahun 1910 inyo alah mamiliki 10.000 anggota nan terdaftar di 40 cabang.<ref name="vandenbosch31" /> Pado maso nan samo, inyo mandapek pangakuan resmi dari pamarentah kolonial.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pemberontakan Sarikat Rakyat Silungkang, Sumatera Barat, 1926-1927: pengalaman perjuangan dalam merintis kemerdekaan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_29FGQAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|publisher=Mutiara|date=1981|language=id|first=Abdul Muluk|last=Nasution}}</ref> Tujuan utamo Budi Utomo pado awalnyo indak mangarah ka politik. Namun, sacaro bertahap, inyo mulai manunjuakan kacenderungan politik sairiang adonyo perwakilan organisasi iko di Volksraad (Dewan Rakyat) nan konservatif dan di dewan provinsi di Jawa. Budi Utomo sacaro resmi dibubaran pado tahun 1935, tapi kabaradoannyo alah manjadi awal tumbuahnyo gerakan nasionalis di awal abaik ka-20. Sasudah dibubaran, babarapo anggota bagabuang dengan partai politik gadang sangkek itu, yakni Partai Indonesia Raya (Parindra) nan moderat. Sasuai jo pandangan Budi Utomo, para mantan anggota—baik di Volksraad maupun Parindra—manuntuik panggunoan bahasa Indonesia untuak sado pernyataan nan sipaiknyo publik.<ref>Mrazek, Rudolf. 2002. ''Engineers of Happy Land: Technology and Nationalism in a Colony,'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 33</ref> Manjadian Budi Utomo sabagai titiak lahirnya nasionalisme modern di Indonesia manimbulan kontroversi. Meskipun banyak panaliti satuju bahwa Budi Utomo kamungkinan adolah organisasi politik pribumi modern patamo,<ref>cf. Mrazek, p. 89</ref> muncul banyak pardebatan tantang duduak tagaknyo sabagai organisasi nasionalis. Sabagai contoh, dalam novel-novelnyo, [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]] mancaliak komposisi Budi Utomo adolah eksklusif aristokrat dan laki-laki.<ref name="blogs.arts.unimelb.edu.au">Heryanto, Ariel. 2008. "Questioning the relevance of national awakening today," ''The Jakarta Post,'' May 21, 2008. Archived at {{cite web|url=http://blogs.arts.unimelb.edu.au/arielh/2008/05/22/on-national-awakening/|title=Ariel Heryanto\'s Blog » on "national awakening"|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721135631/http://blogs.arts.unimelb.edu.au/arielh/2008/05/22/on-national-awakening/|archive-date=July 21, 2008|access-date=June 17, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Ariel Heryanto]]<ref>Convenor, Indonesia Studies, University of Melbourne</ref> mampatanyoan nasionalisme Budi Utomo, maingek kabaradoannya mandapek pangakuan rezim Balando. "Dek watak [Budi Utomo] nan sangaik konservatif, pamarentah kolonial Belanda manoleransi[-nyo]".<ref name="blogs.arts.unimelb.edu.au" /> Heryanto maagiah parbandingan pado asosiasi Muslim nan "labih populis dan egaliter" (Sarekat Dagang Islamiyah), nan lahia babarapo tahun sabalunnyo, sabagai organisasi nan labiah nasionalis sejati: organisasi nan dilarang dek Belanda. Baa Budi Utomo bisa distempel sabagai organisasi nasionalis patamo dek karano pamarentah maso kini hanyo mambeo sijarah versi kolonial.<ref name="blogs.arts.unimelb.edu.au" /> ==Warisan== Hari lahia Budi Utomo pado 20 Mei 1908, alah secaro resmi dirayoan sabagai Hari Kabangkitan Nasional di Indonesia sajak tahun 1948.<ref name="Abdullah2009">{{cite book|last=Abdullah|first=Taufik|title=Indonesia: Towards Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c39TDpLki8wC&pg=PA18|access-date=May 18, 2018|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=9789812303660|page=18}}</ref> Museum Kebangkitan Nasional di Jakarta diparuntuakan untuak mamparingati Kebangkitan Nasional Indonesia, tarutamo dek bangunan itu adolah bakeh instutusi STOVIA nan dianggap mamiliki kaitan dengan kalahiran Budi Utomo. Bangunan iko awalnyo dibagi manjadi empat museum: Museum Budi Utomo, Museum Wanita, Museum Pers, jo Museum Kesehatan dan Kedokteran. Pado tanggal 7 Februari 1984, kaampek museum tersebut digabuang manjadi Museum Kebangkitan Nasional.<ref name="kompas">{{cite news |language=id |title=Menelusuri Jejak Boedi Oetomo di Museum Kebangkitan Nasional |author=Egidius Patnistik |url=http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2008/07/17/10373471/Menelusuri.Jejak.Boedi.Oetomo.di.Museum.Kebangkitan.Nasional |newspaper=KOMPAS |date=July 17, 2008 |access-date=February 12, 2013}}</ref> ==Rujuakan== {{reflist|30em}} ==Daftar pustaka== * Kahin, George M. 1952. ''Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. * {{cite journal|title=Nationalism in Netherlands East India|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pacific-affairs_1931-12_4_12/page/1051|journal=Pacific Affairs|author=Amry Vandenbosch|volume=4|issue=12|year=1931|pages=1051–1069|doi=10.2307/2750579|publisher=Pacific Affairs, Vol. 4, No. 12|jstor=2750579}} ==Pautan lua== * Peter Lowensteyn, "[http://www.lowensteyn.com/indonesia/nationalist.html Indonesia Between 1908 and 1928: New Nationalism]" [[Category:Hindia Balando]] [[Category:Kebangkitan Nasional Indonesia]] 0w9sd2l8fd3nxdlrucrd5c9x5mgyl52 0 387894 3351303 3342682 2026-08-05T22:55:19Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351303 wikitext text/x-wiki {{kosmologi}} {{Infobox |title = Alam samasta |image = [[Berkas:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|300px]] |caption = Gamba [[Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] manunjuakkan babarapo [[galaksi]] paliang jauah nan tacaliak jo teknologi tarkini, masiang-masiang tadiri dari miliaran [[bintang]]. |label1 = [[Umua alam samasta|Umua]] (dalam [[Model Lambda-CDM]]) |data1 = 13,799 ± 0,021 milyar taun<ref name="Planck 2015">{{cite journal|author=Planck Collaboration|date=2015|title=Planck 2015 results. XIII. Cosmological parameters (See Table 4 on page 31 of pfd).|arxiv=1502.01589|bibcode=2016A&A...594A..13P|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201525830|volume=594|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics|pages=A13}}</ref> |label2 = Diameter |data2 = Indak dikatahui (kamungkinan [[tak hingga]]).<ref name="Brian Greene 2011">{{cite book |first=Brian |last=Greene |author-link=Brian Greene |title=The Hidden Reality |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |date=2011|title-link=The Hidden Reality }}</ref> Diameter [[alam samasta taramati]]: {{val|8.8|e=26|u=m}} {{nowrap|(28,5 G[[parsec|pc]] atau 93 G[[tahun cahaya|ly]])}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Itzhak Bars|author2=John Terning|title=Extra Dimensions in Space and Time|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFSMatekilIC&pg=PA27|accessdate=2011-05-01|date=November 2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-77637-8|pages=27–}}</ref> |label3 = Massa (materi biaso) |data3 = 10⁵³ kg<ref name="Paul Davies 2006 43">{{cite book|author=Paul Davies|date=2006|title=The Goldilocks Enigma|page=43ff|publisher=First Mariner Books|isbn=978-0-618-59226-5}}</ref> |label4 = Massa jenis rata-rata (termasuk kontribusi dari [[energi]]) |data4 = 9,9 x 10⁻³⁰ g/cm³<ref name="wmap_universe_made_of">{{cite web|author=NASA/WMAP Science Team|date=January 24, 2014|title=Universe 101: What is the Universe Made Of?|url=http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_matter.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=February 17, 2015}}</ref> |label5 = Suhu rato-rato |data5 = 2,72548 [[Kelvin|K]] (-270,4 [[Celsius|°C]] atau -454,8 [[Fahrenheit|°F]])<ref name=Fixsen>{{Cite journal|last1=Fixsen|first1=D. J.|date=2009|title=The Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2009-12-20_707_2/page/916|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=707|issue=2|pages=916–20|arxiv=0911.1955|bibcode=2009ApJ...707..916F|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/916}}</ref> |label6 = Isi |data6 = [[Materi]] [[Barion#materi barionik|umum (barionik)]] (4,9%)<br>[[Materi galok]] (26,8%)<br>[[Energi galok]] (68,3%)<ref name="planck2013parameters">{{cite web|title = First Planck results: the Universe is still weird and interesting|url = https://arstechnica.com/science/2013/03/first-planck-results-the-universe-is-still-weird-and-interesting/|work=Matthew Francis|publisher=Ars technica|date=March 21, 2013|accessdate=August 21, 2015}}</ref> |label7 = Bantuak |data7 = [[Bantuak alam samasta|Datar]] jo bateh kasalahan 0,4%<ref>{{cite web|author=NASA/WMAP Science Team|date=January 24, 2014|url=http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_shape.html|title=Universe 101: Will the Universe expand forever?|publisher=NASA|accessdate=April 16, 2015}}</ref> }} '''Alam samasta''' (disabuik juo '''jagaik rayo''' atau '''universum'''<ref name=":0">{{citation| author=Kementrian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan| url=https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/universum| title=universum| work=Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia edisi V| accessdate=9 Juni 2018| archive-date=2022-12-05| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205185323/https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/universum| dead-url=yes}}</ref>) adolah saluruah ruang wakatu kontinu tampek sanak barado, jo [[energi]] dan [[materi]] nan dimilikinyo. Usaho untuak mamahami pangartian alam samasta dalam lingkup iko pado skala tabosegh nan mamungkinkan, ado pado [[kosmologi]], [[ilimu pangatahuan]] nan bakambang dari [[fisika]] dan [[astronomi]]. Alam Samasta dapek juo didefinisikan sabagai sagalo sasuatu nan dianggap ado sacaro fisik, saluruah [[ruang]] dan [[wakatu]], dan sagalo bantuak [[materi]] sarato [[energi]]. Istilah samasta atau jagaik rayo dapek digunoan dalam indra kontekstual nan saketek babedo, nan manunjuakkan konsep-konsep ajak ''[[kosmos]]'', ''[[dunia]]'', atau ''[[alam]]''. ==Definisi== Alam samasta fisik didefinisikan sabagai kasaluruahan [[ruang]] dan [[wakatu]] (sacaro kolektif disabuik [[ruang-wakatu]]) dan isinyo.<ref name="Zeilik1998">{{cite book |title=Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductoryastr0000zeil |last1=Zeilik |first1=Michael |last2=Gregory |first2=Stephen A. |date=1998 |edition=4th |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |quote="The totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be." |isbn=978-0030062285}}</ref> Isi tasabuik tadiri dari sadonyo energi dalam babagai bantuak, tamasuak [[radiasi elektromagnetik]] dan [[materi]].<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Universe |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica online |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. |date=2012 |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/universe |accessdate=17 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Universe |title=Universe |work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |accessdate=September 21, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Universe?s=t |title=Universe |work=Dictionary.com |accessdate=September 21, 2012}}</ref> Alam samasta mancakuik juo [[hukum fisika|hukum-hukum fisika]] nan mamangaruhi energi dan materi, ajak [[hukum kekekalan]], [[mekanika klasik]], dan [[teori relativitas|relativitas]].<ref name="Schreuder2014">{{cite book|author=Duco A. Schreuder|title=Vision and Visual Perception|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I7a7BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|date=December 3, 2014|publisher=Archway Publishing|isbn=978-1480812949|page=135}}</ref> Alam semesta salalu didefinisikan sabagai "satu-kasaluruahan kabaradoan", atau [[sagalonyo|sagalo sasuatu]] nan ado, sagalo sasuatu nan alah ado, dan sagalo sasuatu nan akan ado.<ref name="Schreuder2014" /> Bahkan, babarapo filsuf dan ilmuwan mandukuang panyarotoan gagasan dan konsep abstrak – ajak matematika dan logika – dalam definisi Alam samasta.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tegmark|first=Max|title=The Mathematical Universe|journal=Foundations of Physics|volume=38|issue=2|pages=101–50|doi=10.1007/s10701-007-9186-9|bibcode = 2008FoPh...38..101T |arxiv = 0704.0646 |year=2008}} a short version of which is available at [https://arxiv.org/abs/0709.4024 ''Shut up and calculate.''] (in reference to David Mermin's famous quote "shut up and calculate" {{cite web |url=http://physicstoday.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_57/iss_5/10_1.shtml |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-06-02 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515100124/http://physicstoday.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_57/iss_5/10_1.shtml |archivedate=May 15, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jim Holt|title=Why Does the World Exist?|url=https://archive.org/details/whydoesworldexis0000holt|publisher=Liveright Publishing|year=2012|page=[https://archive.org/details/whydoesworldexis0000holt/page/308 308]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Timothy Ferris|title=The Whole Shebang: A State-of-the-Universe(s) Report|url=https://archive.org/details/wholeshebang00timo|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/wholeshebang00timo/page/n405 400]}}</ref> Kato ''alam samasta'' dapek jua marujuak pado konsep-konsep ajak ''kosmos'', ''dunia'', dan ''alam''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Creation Out of Nothing: A Biblical, Philosophical, and Scientific Exploration|url=https://archive.org/details/creationoutofnot0000copa|page=[https://archive.org/details/creationoutofnot0000copa/page/220 220]|author1=Paul Copan|author2=William Lane Craig|publisher=Baker Academic|date=2004 | isbn= 978-0801027338}}</ref><ref name="Bolonkin2011">{{cite book|author=Alexander Bolonkin|title=Universe, Human Immortality and Future Human Evaluation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TuWQx58ZnPsC&pg=PA3|date=November 2011|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-415801-6|pages=3–}}</ref> ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} ==Pautan lua== {{sisterlinks|d=Q1|mw=Alam samasta|m=Alam samasta|c:Special:Search/Category:Universe|species=no|n=Alam samasta|display=Alam samasta|wikt=alam|b=Judul:Fisika|v=Alam samasta|voy=yes}} {{Spoken Wikipedia|date=June 13, 2012|WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE - Universe (Part 1).oga|WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE - Universe (Part 2).oga|WIKPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE - Universe (Part 3).ogg|WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE - Universe (Part 4).oga}} * {{Commons category-inline|Universe|alam samasta}} * [http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED)] / ([http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/Library/Distances/ NED-Distances]). * [https://www.livescience.com/how-many-atoms-in-universe.html There are about 10⁸² atoms in the observable universe] – ''LiveScience'', July 2021. * [https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2019/05/21/this-is-why-we-will-never-know-everything-about-our-universe/ ''This is why we will never know everything about our universe''] – ''Forbes'', May 2019. {{Authority control}} {{Astronomi-stub}} 8uiyhdrap2o72fjy9xryh2bizwmm3b7 0 387962 3351278 3144766 2026-08-05T22:07:01Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351278 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Carex_spp_Sturm55.jpg|jmpl|Ilustrasi dua spesies Carex]] Barikuik adolah '''daftar spesies Carex''':<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/search?q=Carex|title=''Carex''|work=[[The Plant List]]|accessdate=11 Mei 2013|archive-date=2020-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224010909/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/search?q=Carex|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Spesies == {{compact ToC|side=yes}} === A === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex × abitibiana]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex aboriginum]]'' <small>M.E.Jones</small> * ''[[Carex × abortiva]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex abrupta]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex abscondita]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex acaulis]]'' <small>d'Urv.</small> * ''[[Carex accrescens]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–Seoul sedge<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://www.forest.go.kr/kna/special/download/English_Names_for_Korean_Native_Plants.pdf|title=English Names for Korean Native Plants|publisher=[[Korea National Arboretum]]|year=2015|isbn=978-89-97450-98-5|location=Pocheon|pages=388|access-date=24 December 2016|via=[[Korea Forest Service]]|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525105020/http://www.forest.go.kr/kna/special/download/English_Names_for_Korean_Native_Plants.pdf|archivedate=25 May 2017|df=}}</ref> * ''[[Carex acicularis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex acidicola]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex acocksii]]'' <small>C.Archer</small> * ''[[Carex acuta]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex × acutangula]]'' <small>(F.Nyl.) Väre</small> * ''[[Carex acutata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex acutiformis]]'' <small>Ehrh.</small> * ''[[Carex adelostoma]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex adrienii]]'' <small>E.G.Camus</small> * ''[[Carex adusta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex aematorrhyncha]]'' <small>Desv.</small> * ''[[Carex aequialta]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × aestivaliformis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex aestivalis]]'' <small>M.A.Curtis ''ex'' A.Gray</small> * ''[[Carex aethiopica]]'' <small>Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex agglomerata]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex aggregata]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex × akitaensis]]'' <small>Fujiw.</small> * ''[[Carex × akiyamana]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex alajica]]'' <small>Litv.</small> * ''[[Carex alata]]'' <small>Torr.</small> * ''[[Carex alba]]'' <small>Scop.</small> * ''[[Carex albata]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' Franch.</small>–ditch sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × albertii]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex albicans]]'' <small>Willd. ''ex'' Spreng.</small> * ''[[Carex albida]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex albidibasis]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex albolutescens]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex albonigra]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex alboviridis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex albula]]'' <small>Allan</small> * ''[[Carex albursina]]'' <small>E.Sheld.</small> * ''[[Carex algida]]'' <small>Turcz. ''ex'' V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex allanii]]'' <small>Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex alligata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex alliiformis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex allivescens]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex × allolepis]]'' <small>Rchb.</small> * ''[[Carex × alluvialis]]'' <small>Figert</small> * ''[[Carex alma]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex × almii]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex alopecoidea]]'' <small>Tuck.</small> * ''[[Carex alopecuroides]]'' <small>D.Don ''ex'' Tilloch & Taylor</small> * ''[[Carex × alsatica]]'' <small>Zahn</small> * ''[[Carex alsophila]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Carex altaica]]'' <small>Gorodkov</small> * ''[[Carex amgunensis]]'' <small>F.Schmidt</small> * ''[[Carex amicta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex amphibola]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex amplectens]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex amplifolia]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex andersonii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex andicola]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex andina]]'' <small>Phil.</small> * ''[[Carex andringitrensis]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex angolensis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex angustata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex angustifructus]]'' <small>(Kük.) Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex angustinowiczii]]'' <small>Meinsh. ''ex'' Korsh.</small> * ''[[Carex angustispica]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex angustisquama]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex angustiutricula]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex × aniaiensis]]'' <small>Fujiw. & Y.Matsuda</small> * ''[[Carex anisoneura]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex anisostachys]]'' <small>Liebm.</small> * ''[[Carex annectens]]'' <small>(E.P.Bicknell) E.P.Bicknell</small> * ''[[Carex anningensis]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex anomoea]]'' <small>Hand.-Mazz.</small> * ''[[Carex anthoxanthea]]'' <small>J.Presl & C.Presl</small> * ''[[Carex × anticostensis]]'' <small>(Fernald) Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex antoniensis]]'' <small>A.Chev.</small> * ''[[Carex aperta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex aphanolepis]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–nerved-scale sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex aphylla]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex aphyllopus]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex apiahyensis]]'' <small>Palla</small> * ''[[Carex apoiensis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex appalachica]]'' <small>J.M.Webber & P.W.Ball</small> * ''[[Carex appendiculata]]'' <small>(Trautv. & C.A.Mey.) Kük.</small>–appendicular sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex appressa]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex appropinquata]]'' <small>Schumach.</small> * ''[[Carex aquatilis]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex aquilonalis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex × arakanei]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex arapahoensis]]'' <small>Clokey</small> * ''[[Carex archeri]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex arcta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex arctata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex arctiformis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex × arctophila]]'' <small>F.Nyl.</small> * ''[[Carex arenaria]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex arenicola]]'' <small>F.Schmidt</small>–wet-sand sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex argentina]]'' <small>Barros</small> * ''[[Carex argunensis]]'' <small>Turcz. ''ex'' Ledeb.</small> * ''[[Carex argyi]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex argyrantha]]'' <small>Tuck. ''ex'' Boott</small> * ''[[Carex aridula]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex arisanensis]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex aristatisquamata]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex aristulifera]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex arkansana]]'' <small>(L.H.Bailey) L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex arnellii]]'' <small>Christ ''ex'' Scheutz</small>–Musan sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex arnottiana]]'' <small>Nees ''ex'' Drejer</small> * ''[[Carex arsenei]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × arthuriana]]'' <small>C.L.Beckm. & Figert</small> * ''[[Carex × aschersonii]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex ascotreta]]'' <small>C.B. Clarke</small>–long Mokpo sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex asperifructus]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex asraoi]]'' <small>D.M.Verma</small> * ''[[Carex assiniboinensis]]'' <small>W.Boott</small> * ''[[Carex asturica]]'' <small>Boiss.</small> * ''[[Carex asynchrona]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex atherodes]]'' <small>Spreng.</small> * ''[[Carex athrostachya]]'' <small>Olney</small> * ''[[Carex atlantica]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex atlasica]]'' <small>(H.Lindb.) Tattou</small> * ''[[Carex atractodes]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex atrata]]'' <small>L.</small>–black-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex atratiformis]]'' <small>Britton</small> * ''[[Carex atrivaginata]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex atrofusca]]'' <small>Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex atrofuscoides]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex atropicta]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex atrosquama]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex atroviridis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex aueri]]'' <small>Kalela</small> * ''[[Carex augustini]]'' <small>Tuyama</small> * ''[[Carex augustinowiczii]]'' <small>Meinsh.</small>–Augustinowicz's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex aurea]]'' <small>Nutt.</small> * ''[[Carex aureolensis]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex × auroniensis]]'' <small>L.C.Lamb.</small> * ''[[Carex austrina]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex austroafricana]]'' <small>(Kük.) Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex austroalpina]]'' <small>Bech.</small> * ''[[Carex austroamericana]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex austrocaroliniana]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex austrokoreensis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex austromexicana]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex austro-occidentalis]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' Y.C.Tang</small> * ''[[Carex austrosinensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex austrozhejiangensis]]'' <small>C.Z.Zheng & X.F.Jin</small> * ''[[Carex autumnalis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–Autumnal sand sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex aztecica]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex azuayae]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> {{div col end}} === B === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex baccans]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex backii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex baileyi]]'' <small>Britton</small> * ''[[Carex baimaensis]]'' <small>S.W.Su</small> * ''[[Carex baiposhanensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex × bakkeriana]]'' <small>D.T.E.Ploeg & Rudolphy</small> * ''[[Carex balansae]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex baldensis]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex balfourii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex ballsii]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex baltzellii]]'' <small>Chapm.</small> * ''[[Carex bambusetorum]]'' <small>Merr.</small> * ''[[Carex banksii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex baohuashanica]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex barbarae]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex barbata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex baronii]]'' <small>Baker</small> * ''[[Carex barrattii]]'' <small>Torr. ''ex'' Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex basiantha]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex bathiei]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex bavicola]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex bebbii]]'' <small>Olney ''ex'' Britton</small> * ''[[Carex beckii]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex × beckmanniana]]'' <small>Figert</small> * ''[[Carex × beckmannii]]'' <small>Keck</small> * ''[[Carex bella]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex × bengyana]]'' <small>H.Lév. & L.C.Lamb.</small> * ''[[Carex benkei]]'' <small>Tak.Shimizu</small> * ''[[Carex bequaertii]]'' <small>De Wild.</small> * ''[[Carex berggrenii]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex bermudiana]]'' <small>Hemsl.</small> * ''[[Carex berteroana]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex berteroniana]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex bichenoviana]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex bicknellii]]'' <small>Britton & A.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex bicolor]]'' <small>Bellardi ''ex'' All.</small> * ''[[Carex biegensis]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex bigelowii]]'' <small>Torr. ''ex'' Schwein.</small>–Gwanmo sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × biharica]]'' <small>Simonk.</small> * ''[[Carex bijiangensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang & S.R.Zhang</small> * ''[[Carex bilateralis]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex biltmoreana]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex × binderi]]'' <small>Podp.</small> * ''[[Carex binervis]]'' <small>Sm.</small> * ''[[Carex bitchuensis]]'' <small>T.Hoshino & H.Ikeda</small> * ''[[Carex blakei]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex blanda]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex blepharicarpa]]'' <small>Franch.</small>–ciliated-fruit sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex blinii]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex bodinieri]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex boecheriana]]'' <small>Á.Löve, D.Löve & Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex boelckeiana]]'' <small>Barros</small> * ''[[Carex × boenninghausiana]]'' <small>Weihe</small> * ''[[Carex × bogstadensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex bohemica]]'' <small>Schreb.</small> * ''[[Carex bolanderi]]'' <small>Olney</small> * ''[[Carex × bolina]]'' <small>Láng</small> * ''[[Carex boliviensis]]'' <small>Van Heurck & Müll.Arg.</small> * ''[[Carex bonanzensis]]'' <small>Britton</small> * ''[[Carex bonariensis]]'' <small>Desf. ''ex'' Poir.</small> * ''[[Carex bonplandii]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex boottiana]]'' <small>Hook. & Arn.</small>–coastal rock sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex borbonica]]'' <small>Lam.</small> * ''[[Carex borealihinganica]]'' <small>Y.L.Chang & Y.L.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex borii]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex boryana]]'' <small>Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex bostrychostigma]]'' <small>Maxim.</small>–curled-stigma sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex brachyanthera]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex brachycalama]]'' <small>Griseb.</small> * ''[[Carex brachystachys]]'' <small>Schrank</small> * ''[[Carex bracteosa]]'' <small>Kunze</small> * ''[[Carex bradei]]'' <small>Gross</small> * ''[[Carex brainerdii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex brasiliensis]]'' <small>A.St.-Hil.</small> * ''[[Carex brassii]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex breviaristata]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex brevicollis]]'' <small>DC.</small> * ''[[Carex breviculmis]]'' <small>R.Br.</small>–mountain nerved-fruit sedge<ref name=":0" /> ** [[Carex breviculmis var. fibrillosa|''Carex breviculmis'' var. ''fibrillosa'']] <small>(Franch. & Sav.) Matsum. & Hayata</small>–fibrillose short-stem sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex brevicuspis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex brevior]]'' <small>(Dewey) Mack. ''ex'' Lunell</small> * ''[[Carex breviscapa]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex breweri]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex brizoides]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex bromoides]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex brongniartii]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex brownii]]'' <small>Tuck.</small>–Brown's sedge<ref name=":0" /> ** [[Carex brownii subsp. transversa|''Carex brownii'' subsp. ''transversa'']] <small>(Boott) J.Kern</small>–transverse Brown's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex brunnea]]'' <small>Thunb.</small> * ''[[Carex brunnescens]]'' <small>(Pers.) Poir.</small> * ''[[Carex brunnipes]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex brysonii]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex buchananii]]'' <small>Berggr.</small> * ''[[Carex bucharica]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex buekii]]'' <small>Wimm.</small> * ''[[Carex bulbostylis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex bullata]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex burchelliana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex burttii]]'' <small>Noltie</small> * ''[[Carex bushii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex buxbaumii]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small>–marsh sedge<ref name=":0" /> {{div col end}} === C === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex caduca]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex caeligena]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex × caesariensis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex caespititia]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex calcicola]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex calcifugens]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex calcis]]'' <small>K.A.Ford</small> * ''[[Carex californica]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex callista]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex callitrichos]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> ** [[Carex callitrichos var. nana|''Carex callitrichos'' var. ''nana'']] <small>(H.Lév. & Vaniot) S.Yun Liang, L.K.Dai & Y.C.Tang</small>–low sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex cambodiensis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex camposii]]'' <small>Boiss. & Reut.</small> * ''[[Carex campylorhina]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex canaliculata]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex canariensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × candriana]]'' <small>Kneuck.</small> * ''[[Carex canescens]]'' <small>L.</small>–silvery sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex canina]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex capillacea]]'' <small>Boott</small>–tiny sedge<ref name=":0" /> * [[Carex capillacea var. sachalinensis|''Carex capillacea'' var. ''sachalinensis'']] <small>(F.Schmidt) Ohwi</small>–Sakhalin tiny sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex capillaris]]'' <small>L.</small>–hair-like sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex capilliculmis]]'' <small>S.R.Zhang</small> * ''[[Carex capilliformis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex capitata]]'' <small>Sol.</small> * ''[[Carex capitellata]]'' <small>Boiss. & Balansa</small> * ''[[Carex capricornis]]'' <small>Meinsh. ''ex'' Maxim.</small>–capricornis sedge<ref name=":0" />–short-hair spring sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex cardiolepis]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex careyana]]'' <small>Torr. ''ex'' Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex × cariei]]'' <small>Aubin</small> * ''[[Carex caroliniana]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex carsei]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex caryophyllea]]'' <small>Latourr.</small> ** [[Carex caryophyllea var. microtricha|''Carex caryophyllea'' var. ''microtricha'']] (Franch.) Kük. * ''[[Carex castanea]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex castanostachya]]'' <small>K.Schum. ''ex'' Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex catamarcensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke ''ex'' Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex cataphyllodes]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex cataractae]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex catharinensis]]'' <small>Boeck.</small> * ''[[Carex caudata]]'' <small>(Kük.) Pereda & Laínz</small> * ''[[Carex caudispicata]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex cavaleriensis]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex caxinensis]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex × cayouettei]]'' <small>A.Bergeron</small><ref>Bergeron, A. and S. Pellerin. 2014. Carex ×cayouettei (Cyperaceae), a new intersectional sedge hybrid from southern Québec, Canada. Phytoneuron 2014-52: 1–11. Published 2 June 2014. ISSN 2153-733X</ref> * ''[[Carex celebica]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × cenantha]]'' <small>A.E.Kozhevn.</small> * ''[[Carex cephaloidea]]'' <small>(Dewey) Dewey ''ex'' Boott</small> * ''[[Carex cephalophora]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex cephalotes]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Carex cercidascus]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex cespitosa]]'' <small>L.</small>–turfy sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × cetica]]'' <small>Rech.</small> * ''[[Carex ceylanica]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex chaffanjonii]]'' <small>E.G.Camus</small> * ''[[Carex chalciolepis]]'' <small>Holm</small> * ''[[Carex changmuensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex chaofangii]]'' <small>C.Z.Zheng & X.F.Jin</small> * ''[[Carex chapmanii]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex chathamica]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex cheniana]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex cherokeensis]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex chiapensis]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex chichijimensis]]'' <small>Katsuy.</small> * ''[[Carex chihuahuensis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex chikungana]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex chillanensis]]'' <small>Phil.</small> * ''[[Carex chinensis]]'' <small>Retz.</small> * ''[[Carex chinoi]]'' <small>Ohwi ''ex'' T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex chiovendae]]'' <small>Pamp.</small> * ''[[Carex chiwuana]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex chlorantha]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex chlorocephalula]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex chloroleuca]]'' <small>Meinsh.</small> * ''[[Carex chlorosaccus]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex chorda]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex chordorrhiza]]'' <small>L.f.</small>–creeping sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex chosenica]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–Korean sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex chrysolepis]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex chuiana]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex chuii]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex chungii]]'' <small>Z.P.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex cilicica]]'' <small>Boiss.</small> * ''[[Carex cinerascens]]'' <small>Kük.</small>–ashgrey sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex circinnata]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex cirrhosa]]'' <small>Berggr.</small> * ''[[Carex cirrhulosa]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex × clausa]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex clavata]]'' <small>Thunb.</small> * ''[[Carex clivorum]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex cochinchinensis]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex cochranei]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex cockayniana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex cognata]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex colchica]]'' <small>J.Gay</small> * ''[[Carex colensoi]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex collifera]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex collimitanea]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex collinsii]]'' <small>Nutt.</small> * ''[[Carex collumanthus]]'' <small>(Steyerm.) L.E.Mora</small> * ''[[Carex comans]]'' <small>Berggr.</small> * ''[[Carex commixta]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex communis]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex comosa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex complanata]]'' <small>Torr. & Hook.</small> * ''[[Carex composita]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex concinna]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex concinnoides]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex condensata]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex conferta]]'' <small>Hochst. ''ex'' A.Rich.</small> * ''[[Carex confertospicata]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex congdonii]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex congestiflora]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex conica]]'' <small>Boott</small>–miniature sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex conjuncta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × connectens]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex conoidea]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex conoides]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex conspecta]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex conspissata]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex constanceana]]'' <small>Stacey</small> * ''[[Carex continua]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex contracta]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Carex cordillerana]]'' <small>Saarela & B.A.Ford</small> * ''[[Carex cordouei]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex coriacea]]'' <small>Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex coriogyne]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex corrugata]]'' <small>Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex × corstorphinei]]'' <small>Druce</small> * ''[[Carex cortesii]]'' <small>Liebm.</small> * ''[[Carex × costei]]'' <small>Rouy</small> * ''[[Carex coulteri]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' Hemsl.</small> * ''[[Carex coxiana]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex cranaocarpa]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex crassibasis]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex crassiflora]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex crawei]]'' <small>Dewey ''ex'' Torr.</small> * ''[[Carex crawfordii]]'' <small>Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex crebra]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex crebriflora]]'' <small>Wiegand</small> * ''[[Carex cremnicola]]'' <small>K.A.Ford</small> * ''[[Carex × crepinii]]'' <small>Torges</small> * ''[[Carex cretica]]'' <small>Gradst. & J.Kern</small> * ''[[Carex crinita]]'' <small>Lam.</small> * ''[[Carex × crinitoides]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex cristatella]]'' <small>Britton & A.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex cruciata]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex cruenta]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex crus-corvi]]'' <small>Shuttlew. ''ex'' Kunze</small> * ''[[Carex × cryptochlaena]]'' <small>Holm</small> * ''[[Carex cryptolepis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex cryptostachys]]'' <small>Brongn.</small> * ''[[Carex × csomadensis]]'' <small>Simonk.</small> * ''[[Carex cubensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex cuchumatanensis]]'' <small>Standl. & Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex culmenicola]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex cumberlandensis]]'' <small>Naczi, Kral & Bryson</small> * ''[[Carex cumulata]]'' <small>(L.H.Bailey) Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex cuprina]]'' <small>(Sándor ''ex'' Heuff.) Nendtv. ''ex'' A.Kern.</small> * ''[[Carex curaica]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex curatorum]]'' <small>Stacey</small> * ''[[Carex curvicollis]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex curviculmis]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex curvula]]'' <small>All.</small> * ''[[Carex cusickii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex cuspidosa]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex cylindrostachya]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex cyprica]]'' <small>A.M.Molina, Acedo & Llamas</small> * ''[[Carex cyrtosaccus]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> {{div col end}} === D === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex dabieensis]]'' <small>S.W.Su</small> * ''[[Carex dahurica]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex dailingensis]]'' <small>Y.L.Chou</small> * ''[[Carex daisenensis]]'' <small>Nakai</small> * ''[[Carex dallii]]'' <small>Kirk</small> * ''[[Carex daltonii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex damiaoshanensis]]'' <small>X.F.Jin & C.Z.Zheng</small> * ''[[Carex × danielis]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex darwinii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex dasycarpa]]'' <small>Muhl.</small> * ''[[Carex davalliana]]'' <small>Sm.</small> * ''[[Carex davidii]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex david-smithii]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex davisii]]'' <small>Schwein. & Torr.</small> * ''[[Carex davyi]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex dayuongensis]]'' <small>Z.P.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex × deamii]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex debeauxii]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex debilis]]'' <small>Michx.</small> * ''[[Carex decaulescens]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex decidua]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex deciduisquama]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex declinata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × decolorans]]'' <small>Wimm.</small> * ''[[Carex decomposita]]'' <small>Muhl.</small> * ''[[Carex decora]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex decurtata]]'' <small>Cheeseman</small> * ''[[Carex deflexa]]'' <small>Hornem.</small> * ''[[Carex × deinbolliana]]'' <small>J.Gay</small> * ''[[Carex delavayi]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex delicata]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex densa]]'' <small>(L.H.Bailey) L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex densicaespitosa]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex densifimbriata]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex densinervosa]]'' <small>Chiov.</small> * ''[[Carex densipilosa]]'' <small>C.Z.Zheng & X.F.Jin</small> * ''[[Carex depauperata]]'' <small>Curtis ''ex'' Stokes</small> * ''[[Carex depressa]]'' <small>Link</small> * ''[[Carex deqinensis]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex derelicta]]'' <small>Å tepánková</small> * ''[[Carex × descendens]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × deserta]]'' <small>Merino</small> * ''[[Carex desponsa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex devia]]'' <small>Cheeseman</small> * ''[[Carex deweyana]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex dianae]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex diandra]]'' <small>Schrank</small> * ''[[Carex diastena]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex dichroa]]'' <small>Freyn</small> * ''[[Carex dickinsii]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–Dickins' sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex dielsiana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex digitalis]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex digitata]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex diluta]]'' <small>M.Bieb.</small> * ''[[Carex diminuta]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex dimorpholepis]]'' <small>Steud.</small>–dimorphous-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex dioica]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex diplodon]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex dipsacea]]'' <small>Berggr.</small> * ''[[Carex dispalata]]'' <small>Boott</small>–curved-utricle sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex disperma]]'' <small>Dewey</small>–two-seed sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex dissita]]'' <small>Sol. ''ex'' Boott</small> * ''[[Carex dissitiflora]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex dissitispicula]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex distachya]]'' <small>Desf.</small> * ''[[Carex distans]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex distentiformis]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex disticha]]'' <small>Huds.</small> * ''[[Carex distracta]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex divisa]]'' <small>Huds.</small> * ''[[Carex divulsa]]'' <small>Stokes</small> * ''[[Carex doenitzii]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex doisutepensis]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex dolichogyne]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex dolichostachya]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex dolomitica]]'' <small>Heenan & de Lange</small> * ''[[Carex doniana]]'' <small>Spreng.</small>–Don's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex donnell-smithii]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex douglasii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex drepanorhyncha]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex druceana]]'' <small>Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex drymophila]]'' <small>Turcz.</small>–forest-live sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × ducellieri]]'' <small>Beauverd</small> * ''[[Carex × duereriana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × dufftii]]'' <small>Hausskn.</small> * ''[[Carex × dumanii]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex dunniana]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex durangensis]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex durieui]]'' <small>Steud. ''ex'' Kunze</small> * ''[[Carex duriuscula]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small>–needle-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> ** [[Carex duriuscula subsp. rigescens|''Carex duriuscula'' subsp. ''rigescens'']] <small>(Franch.) S.Yun Liang & Y.C.Tang</small>–rigescent sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex dusenii]]'' <small>Kük. ''ex'' Dusén</small> * ''[[Carex duvaliana]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> {{div col end}} === E === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex earistata]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Y.L.Chang ''ex'' S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex ebenea]]'' <small>Rydb.</small> * ''[[Carex eburnea]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex echinata]]'' <small>Murray</small>–star sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex echinochloe]]'' <small>Kunze</small> * ''[[Carex echinochloiformis]]'' <small>Y.L.Chang ''ex'' Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex echinodes]]'' <small>(Fernald) P.Rothr., Reznicek & Hipp</small> * ''[[Carex echinus]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex ecklonii]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex ecostata]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex ecuadorica]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex edgariae]]'' <small>Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex edwardsiana]]'' <small>E.L.Bridges & Orzell</small> * ''[[Carex egena]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex egglestonii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex egorovae]]'' <small>A.M.Molina, Acedo & Llamas</small> * ''[[Carex ekmanii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × elanescens]]'' <small>Cif. & Giacom.</small> * ''[[Carex elata]]'' <small>All.</small> * ''[[Carex elatior]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex eleusinoides]]'' <small>Turcz. ''ex'' Kunth</small>–goosegrass sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex elingamita]]'' <small>Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex × elisabethae]]'' <small>J.Andrés & al.</small> * ''[[Carex elliottii]]'' <small>Schwein. & Torr.</small> * ''[[Carex elongata]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex eluta]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex elynoides]]'' <small>Holm</small> * ''[[Carex × elytroides]]'' <small>Fr.</small> * ''[[Carex emirnensis]]'' <small>Baker</small> * ''[[Carex × emmae]]'' <small>L.Gross</small> * ''[[Carex emoryi]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex endlichii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex enervis]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex engelmannii]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex enneastachya]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex enokii]]'' <small>A.M.Molina, Acedo & Llamas</small> * ''[[Carex ensifolia]]'' <small>Turcz. ''ex'' Besser</small> * ''[[Carex enysii]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex erawinensis]]'' <small>Korotky</small> * ''[[Carex ereica]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex eremitica]]'' <small>Paine</small> * ''[[Carex eremopyroides]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex eremostachya]]'' <small>S.T.Blake</small> * ''[[Carex ericetorum]]'' <small>Pollich</small> * ''[[Carex eriocarpa]]'' <small>Hausskn. & Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex erythrobasis]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small>–red-based leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex erythrorrhiza]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex esquiroliana]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex esquirolii]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex euprepes]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex euryphylla]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex evadens]]'' <small>S.González & Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex × evoluta]]'' <small>Hartm.</small> * ''[[Carex excelsa]]'' <small>Poepp. ''ex'' Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex exilis]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex × exsalina]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex exsiccata]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex extensa]]'' <small>Gooden.</small> {{div col end}} === F === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex faberiana]]'' <small>Loes.</small> * ''[[Carex fascicularis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex fastigiata]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex × favratii]]'' <small>Christ</small> * ''[[Carex feanii]]'' <small>F.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex fecunda]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex feddeana]]'' <small>H.Pfeiff.</small> * ''[[Carex fedia]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex × felixii]]'' <small>L.C.Lamb.</small> * ''[[Carex fenghuangshanica]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex × ferdinandi-sauteri]]'' <small>Asch. & Graebn.</small> * ''[[Carex fernandezensis]]'' <small>Mack. ''ex'' G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex ferruginea]]'' <small>Scop.</small> * ''[[Carex festivelloides]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex festucacea]]'' <small>Schkuhr ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex feta]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex × figertii]]'' <small>Asch. & Graebn.</small> * ''[[Carex filamentosa]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex filicina]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex filifolia]]'' <small>Nutt.</small> * ''[[Carex filiformis]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex filipedunculata]]'' <small>S.W.Su</small> * ''[[Carex filipes]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–fishing-rod-like sedge<ref name=":0" />–papillose sedge<ref name=":0" /> ** [[Carex filipes var. oligostachys|''Carex filipes'' var. ''oligostachys'']] Kük. * ''[[Carex × filkukae]]'' <small>Podp.</small> * ''[[Carex fimbriata]]'' <small>Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex finitima]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex firma]]'' <small>Host</small> * ''[[Carex firmicaulis]]'' <small>Kalela</small> * ''[[Carex × firmior]]'' <small>(Norman) Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex fischeri]]'' <small>K.Schum.</small> * ''[[Carex fissa]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex fissuricola]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex flabellata]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small>–flabellate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex flacca]]'' <small>Schreb.</small> * ''[[Carex flaccosperma]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex flagellifera]]'' <small>Colenso</small> * ''[[Carex flava]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex × flavicans]]'' <small>(F.Nyl.) F.Nyl.</small> * ''[[Carex flaviformis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex flavocuspis]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex flexirostris]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex flexuosa]]'' <small>Muhl. ex Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex floridana]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex fluviatilis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex foenea]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex foetida]]'' <small>All.</small> * ''[[Carex fokienensis]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex foliosissima]]'' <small>F.Schmidt</small> * ''[[Carex folliculata]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex foraminata]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex foraminatiformis]]'' <small>Y.C.Tang & S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex forficula]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–scissors-like sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex formosa]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex forrestii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex forsteri]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex fossa]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex fracta]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex fragilis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × fragosoana]]'' <small>Pau</small> * ''[[Carex frankii]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex fretalis]]'' <small>Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex × fridtzii]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex × friesii]]'' <small>Blytt</small> * ''[[Carex frigida]]'' <small>All.</small> * ''[[Carex fritschii]]'' <small>Waisb.</small> * ''[[Carex fructus]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex fucata]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex fuliginosa]]'' <small>Schkuhr</small>–short-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex fulta]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex × fulva]]'' <small>Gooden.</small> * ''[[Carex fulvorubescens]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex funhuangshanica]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex funingensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex furcata]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' C.B. Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex furva]]'' <small>Webb</small> * ''[[Carex fusanensis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–black-tiny sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex fuscolutea]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex fuscula]]'' <small>d'Urv.</small> * ''[[Carex fusiformis]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex × fussii]]'' <small>Simonk.</small> {{div col end}} === G === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex gandakiensis]]'' <small>Katsuy.</small> * ''[[Carex gaoligongshanensis]]'' <small>P.C. Li</small> * ''[[Carex garberi]]'' <small>Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex gaudichaudiana]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex × gaudiniana]]'' <small>Guthnick</small> * ''[[Carex gayana]]'' <small>Desv.</small> * ''[[Carex gemella]]'' <small>Hochst. ''ex'' Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex geminata]]'' <small>Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex genkaiensis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–Mokpo sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex gentilis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex geophila]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex × gerhardtii]]'' <small>Figert</small> * ''[[Carex geyeri]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex gholsonii]]'' <small>Naczi & Cochrane</small> * ''[[Carex gibba]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small>–gibbous sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex gibbsiae]]'' <small>Rendle</small> * ''[[Carex gibertii]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex gifuensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex gigantea]]'' <small>Rudge</small> * ''[[Carex × ginsiensis]]'' <small>Waisb.</small> * ''[[Carex giraldiana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex giraudiasii]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex glabrescens]]'' <small>(Kük.) Ohwi</small>–glabrate sedge,<ref name=":0" /> hairy forest-live sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex glacialis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex glareosa]]'' <small>Schkuhr ''ex'' Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex glaucescens]]'' <small>Elliott</small> * ''[[Carex glauciformis]]'' <small>Meinsh.</small>–pseudo-glaucous sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex glaucodea]]'' <small>Tuck. ''ex'' Olney</small> * ''[[Carex globistylosa]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex globosa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex globularis]]'' <small>L.</small>–globular-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex globulosa]]'' <small>Phulphong & D.A.Simpson</small> * ''[[Carex glomerabilis]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex glossostigma]]'' <small>Hand.-Mazz.</small> * ''[[Carex gmelinii]]'' <small>Hook. & Arn.</small>–Gmelin's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex godfreyi]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex goligongshanensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex gonggaensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex gongshanensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex gonochorica]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex goodenoughii]]'' <small>Gay</small> * ''[[Carex gotoi]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–two-toothed-beak sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex goyenii]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex gracilenta]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex gracilescens]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex graciliflora]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex gracilior]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex gracilispica]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex gracillima]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex graeffeana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex grallatoria]]'' <small>Maxim.</small> * ''[[Carex graminiculmis]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex graminifolia]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex grandiligulata]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex granifera]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex × grantii]]'' <small>A.Benn.</small> * ''[[Carex granularis]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex gravida]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex grayi]]'' <small>J.Carey</small> * ''[[Carex griersonii]]'' <small>Noltie</small> * ''[[Carex grioletii]]'' <small>Roem. ''ex'' Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex grisea]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex × grossii]]'' <small>Fiek</small> * ''[[Carex guatemalensis]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex guffroyi]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Perrier</small> * ''[[Carex gunniana]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex gynaecandra]]'' <small>H.Pfeiff.</small> * ''[[Carex gynandra]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex gynocrates]]'' <small>Wormsk.</small> * ''[[Carex gynodynama]]'' <small>Olney</small> {{div col end}} === H === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex hachijoensis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex × haematolepis]]'' <small>Drejer</small> * ''[[Carex haematorrhyncha]]'' <small>Ohwi & T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex haematosaccus]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex haematostoma]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex × hageri]]'' <small>E.Baumann</small> * ''[[Carex hakkodensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex hakonemontana]]'' <small>Katsuy.</small> * ''[[Carex hakonensis]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–small-needle sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex halleriana]]'' <small>Asso</small> * ''[[Carex halliana]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex hallii]]'' <small>Olney</small> * ''[[Carex hanamninhensis]]'' <small>K.K.Nguyen</small> * ''[[Carex hancockiana]]'' <small>Maxim.</small>–Hancock's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex hanensis]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex hangtongensis]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex hangzhouensis]]'' <small>C.Z.Zheng, X.F.Jin & B.Y.Ding</small> * ''[[Carex × hanseniana]]'' <small>Junge</small> * ''[[Carex harfordii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex harlandii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex harrysmithii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × hartii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex hartmanii]]'' <small>Cajander</small> * ''[[Carex hashimotoi]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex hassei]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex hassiana]]'' <small>Loes.</small> * ''[[Carex hastata]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex hatuyenensis]]'' <small>K.K.Nguyen</small> * ''[[Carex haydeniana]]'' <small>Olney</small> * ''[[Carex haydenii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex hebecarpa]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex hebes]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex hebetata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex hectori]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex heleonastes]]'' <small>Ehrh. ''ex'' L.f.</small> * ''[[Carex helferi]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex helingeeriensis]]'' <small>L.Q. Zhao & J. Yang</small><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Li-Qing Zhao |author2=Jie Yang |author3=Jian-Ming Niu |author4=Qing Zhang |year=2013 |title=''Carex helingeeriensis'' (Cyperaceae), a new species from Inner Mongolia, China |url=https://archive.org/details/annales-botanici-fennici_2013_50_1-2/page/32 |journal=[[Annales Botanici Fennici]] |volume=50 |issue=1–2 |pages=32–34 |doi=10.5735/085.050.0104}}</ref> * ''[[Carex helleri]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex helodes]]'' <small>Link</small> * ''[[Carex × helvola]]'' <small>Blytt</small> * ''[[Carex hemineuros]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex hendersonii]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex hermannii]]'' <small>Cochrane</small> * ''[[Carex herteri]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex heshuonensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex heterodoxa]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex heterolepis]]'' <small>Bunge</small>–different-scale sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex heteroneura]]'' <small>S.Watson</small> * ''[[Carex × heterophyta]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex heterostachya]]'' <small>Bunge</small>–different-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex heudesii]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex hexinensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang & Y.Z.Huang</small> * ''[[Carex hezhouensis]]'' <small>H.Wang & S.N.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex × hibernica]]'' <small>A.Benn.</small> * ''[[Carex hieronymi]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex hilairei]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex hilaireioides]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke ''ex'' Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex hildebrandtiana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex himalaica]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex hinnulea]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex hirsutella]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex hirta]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex hirtelloides]]'' <small>(Kük.) F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex hirticaulis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex hirtifolia]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex hirtigluma]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex hirtissima]]'' <small>W.Boott</small> * ''[[Carex hirtiutriculata]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex hispida]]'' <small>Willd. ''ex'' Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex hitchcockiana]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex hoatiensis]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex hochstetteriana]]'' <small>J.Gay ''ex'' Seub.</small> * ''[[Carex holostoma]]'' <small>Drejer</small> * ''[[Carex holotricha]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–woolly-scale sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex hondoensis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–Hondo sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex hongnoensis]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex hongyuanensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Tang & S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex hoodii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex hookeri]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex hookeriana]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex hoozanensis]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex hopeiensis]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang</small> * ''[[Carex hordeistichos]]'' <small>Vill.</small> * ''[[Carex hormathodes]]'' <small>Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex horsfieldii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex hostiana]]'' <small>DC.</small> * ''[[Carex hotaizanensis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex houghtoniana]]'' <small>Torr. ''ex'' Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex hovarum]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex huashanica]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex hubbardii]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex huehueteca]]'' <small>Standl. & Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex hultenii]]'' <small>Aspl.</small> * ''[[Carex humahuacaensis]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex humbertiana]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–Humbert's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex humbertii]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex humboldtiana]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex humida]]'' <small>Y.L.Chang & Y.L.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex humilis]]'' <small>Leyss.</small> * ''[[Carex humpatensis]]'' <small>H.E.Hess</small> * ''[[Carex huolushanensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex husnotiana]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex hwangii]]'' <small>Matsuda</small> * ''[[Carex hyalina]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex hyalinolepis]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex hymenodon]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex hymenolepis]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex hypandra]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Carex hypaneura]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex hypoblephara]]'' <small>Ohwi & Ryu</small> * ''[[Carex hypoleucos]]'' <small>E. Desv.</small> * ''[[Carex hypolytroides]]'' <small>Ridl.</small> * ''[[Carex hypsipedos]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex hypsobates]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex hystericina]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> {{div col end}} === I === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex ichangensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex idahoa]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex idzuroei]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–small Dickins' sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex iljinii]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex illegitima]]'' <small>Ces.</small> * ''[[Carex illota]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex × ilseana]]'' <small>Ruhmer</small> * ''[[Carex imandrensis]]'' <small>Kihlm. ''ex'' Hjelt</small> * ''[[Carex impexa]]'' <small>K.A.Ford</small> * ''[[Carex impressinervia]]'' <small>Bryson, Kral & Manhart</small> * ''[[Carex impura]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex inamii]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex inanis]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex incisa]]'' <small>Boott</small>–digitaria-like sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex inclinis]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex incomitata]]'' <small>K.R.Thiele</small> * ''[[Carex incurviformis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex indica]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex indiciformis]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex indistincta]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex indosinica]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex infirminervia]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex infossa]]'' <small>Z.P.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex infuscata]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex inopinata]]'' <small>V.J.Cook</small> * ''[[Carex inops]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex insaniae]]'' <small>Koidz.</small> * ''[[Carex insignis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex insularis]]'' <small>Carmich.</small> * ''[[Carex integra]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex interior]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex × interjecta]]'' <small>Waisb.</small> * ''[[Carex interrupta]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex intumescens]]'' <small>Rudge</small> * ''[[Carex inversa]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex inversonervosa]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex × involuta]]'' <small>(Bab.) Syme</small> * ''[[Carex iraqensis]]'' <small>[[Sheila Spenser Hooper|S.S.Hooper]] & Kukkonen</small> * ''[[Carex ischnogyne]]'' <small>Gilli</small> * ''[[Carex ischnostachya]]'' <small>Steud.</small>–thin-spiculate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex ivanoviae]]'' <small>T.V.Egorova</small> * ''[[Carex ixtapalucensis]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex iynx]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> {{div col end}} === J === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex jacens]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex jackiana]]'' <small>Boott</small> ** [[Carex jackiana var. macroglossa|''Carex jackiana'' var. ''macroglossa'']] (Franch. & Sav.) Kük.–big-tongue jack sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex jacutica]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex × jaegeri]]'' <small>F.W.Schultz</small> * ''[[Carex jaluensis]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–Amrokgang sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex jamesii]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex jamesonii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex jankowskii]]'' <small>Gorodkov</small> * ''[[Carex japonica]]'' <small>Thunb.</small>–East Asian sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex jeanpertii]]'' <small>E.G.Camus</small> * ''[[Carex jiaodongensis]]'' <small>Y.M.Zhang & X.D.Chen</small> * ''[[Carex jinfoshanensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex jisaburo-ohwiana]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex jizhuangensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex johnstonii]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex jonesii]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex joorii]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex × josephi-schmittii]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex jubozanensis]]'' <small>J.Oda & A.Tanaka</small> * ''[[Carex juncella]]'' <small>Th. Fries</small> * ''[[Carex juniperorum]]'' <small>Catling, Reznicek & Crins</small> * ''[[Carex × justi-schmidtii]]'' <small>Junge</small> * ''[[Carex juvenilis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke ''ex'' E.G.Camus</small> {{div col end}} === K === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex kabanovii]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex kagoshimensis]]'' <small>Tak.Shimizu</small> * ''[[Carex kaloides]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex kansuensis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex kaoi]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex karisimbiensis]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex karlongensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex karoi]]'' <small>(Freyn) Freyn</small> * ''[[Carex kashmirensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex × kattaeana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex kauaiensis]]'' <small>R.W.Krauss</small> * ''[[Carex × kenaica]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex kermadecensis]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex × ketonensis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex khoii]]'' <small>T.V.Egorova & Aver.</small> * ''[[Carex kiangsuensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex killickii]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex kimurae]]'' <small>Ohwi & T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex kingii]]'' <small>(R.Br. ''ex'' Boott) Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex kiotensis]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex kirganica]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–seosura sedge,<ref name=":0" /> slender-culm thick-nerve sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex kirinensis]]'' <small>W.Wang & Y.L.Chang</small> * ''[[Carex kirkii]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex kitaibeliana]]'' <small>Degen ''ex'' Bech.</small> * ''[[Carex klamathensis]]'' <small>B.L.Wilson & Janeway</small> * ''[[Carex klaphakei]]'' <small>K.L.Wilson</small> * ''[[Carex × knieskernii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex knorringiae]]'' <small>Kük. ''ex'' Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex kobomugi]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–Asian sand sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × kohtsii]]'' <small>K.Richt.</small> * ''[[Carex korkischkoae]]'' <small>A.E.Kozhevn.</small> * ''[[Carex korshinskyi]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–Korshinsky's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex koshewnikowii]]'' <small>Litv.</small> * ''[[Carex koyaensis]]'' <small>J.Oda & Nagam.</small> * ''[[Carex × krajinae]]'' <small>Domin</small> * ''[[Carex kraliana]]'' <small>Naczi & Bryson</small> * ''[[Carex krascheninnikovii]]'' <small>Kom. ''ex'' V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex krascheninnikowii]]'' <small>Kom. ''ex'' V. Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex krausei]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex kreczetoviczii]]'' <small>T.V.Egorova</small> * ''[[Carex kuchunensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex kucyniakii]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex × kuekenthaliana]]'' <small>Appel & A.Brückn.</small> * ''[[Carex × kuekenthalii]]'' <small>Dörfl. ''ex'' Zahn</small> * ''[[Carex kujuzana]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–Jangseong sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex kulingana]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex kumaonensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex kurdica]]'' <small>Kük. ''ex'' Hand.-Mazz.</small> * ''[[Carex × kurilensis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex kurtziana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex kwangsiensis]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex kwangtoushanica]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex × kyyhkynenii]]'' <small>Hiitonen</small> {{div col end}} === L === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex lachenalii]]'' <small>Schkuhr</small>–two-tip sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex lacistoma]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex × lackowitziana]]'' <small>Aug.R.Paul</small> * ''[[Carex lacustris]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex laeta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex laeviconica]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex laeviculmis]]'' <small>Meinsh.</small> * ''[[Carex laevigata]]'' <small>Sm.</small> * ''[[Carex laevissima]]'' <small>Nakai</small>–small nerved-fruit sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex laevivaginata]]'' <small>(Kük.) Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex lageniformis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex × laggeri]]'' <small>Wimm.</small> * ''[[Carex lagunensis]]'' <small>M.E.Jones</small> * ''[[Carex lainzii]]'' <small>Luceño, E.Rico & T.Romero</small> * ''[[Carex lambertiana]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex lamprocarpa]]'' <small>Phil.</small> * ''[[Carex lamprochlamys]]'' <small>S.T.Blake</small> * ''[[Carex lancangensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex lanceolata]]'' <small>Boott</small>–lanceolate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex lancifolia]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex lancisquamata]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex × langeana]]'' <small>Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex × langii]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex lankana]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex laosensis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex lapazensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex lapponica]]'' <small>O.Lang</small> * ''[[Carex larensis]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex laricetorum]]'' <small>Y.L.Chou</small> * ''[[Carex lasiocarpa]]'' <small>Ehrh.</small>–woolly-fruit sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex lasiolepis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex latebracteata]]'' <small>Waterf.</small> * ''[[Carex lateralis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex lateriflora]]'' <small>Phil.</small> * ''[[Carex laticeps]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke ''ex'' Franch.</small>–bent-beak sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex latisquamea]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–woolly-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex lativena]]'' <small>S.D.Jones & G.D.Jones</small> * ''[[Carex × lausii]]'' <small>Podp.</small> * ''[[Carex laxa]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small>–loosely-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex laxiculmis]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex laxiflora]]'' <small>Lam.</small> * ''[[Carex leavenworthii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex lebrunii]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex ledebouriana]]'' <small>C.A.Mey. ''ex'' Trevir.</small> * ''[[Carex leersii]]'' <small>F.W.Schultz</small> * ''[[Carex lehmannii]]'' <small>Drejer</small>–Lehman's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex leiorhyncha]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small>–mountain cat-tail sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex lemanniana]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex lemmonii]]'' <small>W.Boott</small> * ''[[Carex lenta]]'' <small>D.Don</small>–sluggish sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex lenticularis]]'' <small>Michx.</small> * ''[[Carex lepida]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex leporina]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex leporinella]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex leptalea]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex × leptoblasta]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex leptocladus]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex leptonervia]]'' <small>(Fernald) Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex leptopoda]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex leribensis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex lessoniana]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex leucantha]]'' <small>Arn. ''ex'' Boott</small> * ''[[Carex lianchengensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang & Y.Z.Huang</small> * ''[[Carex libera]]'' <small>(Kük.) Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex × lidii]]'' <small>Hadac</small> * ''[[Carex ligata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × ligniciensis]]'' <small>Figert</small> * ''[[Carex ligulata]]'' <small>Nees</small>–ligulate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × limicola]]'' <small>H.Gross</small> * ''[[Carex × limnogena]]'' <small>Appel</small> * ''[[Carex limosa]]'' <small>L.</small>–mud sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × limosoides]]'' <small>J.Cay.</small> * ''[[Carex limprichtiana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × limula]]'' <small>Fr.</small> * ''[[Carex lindleyana]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex lingii]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang</small> * ''[[Carex liouana]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang</small> * ''[[Carex liparocarpos]]'' <small>Gaudin</small> * ''[[Carex liqingii]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex lithophila]]'' <small>Turcz.</small>–rock-loving sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex litorhyncha]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex litorosa]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex litvinovii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex liuii]]'' <small>T.Koyama & T.I.Chuang</small> * ''[[Carex livida]]'' <small>(Wahlenb.) Willd.</small>–livid sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex lobolepis]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Carex lobulirostris]]'' <small>Drejer</small> * ''[[Carex loheri]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex loliacea]]'' <small>L.</small>–ryegrass sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex lonchocarpa]]'' <small>Willd. ''ex'' Spreng.</small> * ''[[Carex longhiensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex longibrachiata]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex longicaulis]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex longicruris]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex longiculmis]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex longicuspis]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex longii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex longiligula]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex longipes]]'' <small>D.Don ''ex'' Tilloch & Taylor</small> * ''[[Carex longirostrata]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small>–long-rostrate sedge<ref name=":0" /> ** [[Carex longirostrata var. pallida|''Carex longirostrata'' var. ''pallid''a]] <small>(Kitag.) Ohwi</small>–pallid long-rostrate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex longispiculata]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex longissima]]'' <small>M.E.Jones</small> * ''[[Carex longpanlaensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex longshengensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Tang & S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex longxishanensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex lophocarpa]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex × loretii]]'' <small>Rouy</small> * ''[[Carex louisianica]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex lowei]]'' <small>Bech.</small> * ''[[Carex lucorum]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex luctuosa]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex × ludibunda]]'' <small>J.Gay</small> * ''[[Carex lupuliformis]]'' <small>Sartwell ''ex'' Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex lupulina]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex lurida]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex luridiformis]]'' <small>Mack. ''ex'' Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex lushanensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex lutea]]'' <small>Leblond</small> * ''[[Carex × luteola]]'' <small>(Rchb.) Sendtn.</small> * ''[[Carex luzulifolia]]'' <small>W.Boott</small> * ''[[Carex luzulina]]'' <small>Olney</small> * ''[[Carex lyi]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex lyngbyei]]'' <small>Hornem.</small>–Lyngbye's sedge<ref name=":0" /> {{div col end}} === M === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex maackii]]'' <small>Maxim.</small>–Maack's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × macilenta]]'' <small>F.Nyl.</small> * ''[[Carex mackenziana]]'' <small>Weath.</small> * ''[[Carex mackenziei]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small>–Mackenzie's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex macloviana]]'' <small>d'Urv.</small> * ''[[Carex × macounii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex macrandrolepis]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small>–big male-scale sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex macrocephala]]'' <small>Willd. ''ex'' Spreng.</small> * ''[[Carex macrochaeta]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex macrogyna]]'' <small>Turcz. ''ex'' Steudel</small> * ''[[Carex macrolepis]]'' <small>DC.</small> * ''[[Carex macrophyllidion]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex macrorrhiza]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex macrosandra]]'' <small>(Franch.) V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex macrosolen]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex macrostigmatica]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex macrostyla]]'' <small>Lapeyr.</small> * ''[[Carex macroura]]'' <small>Meinsh.</small> * ''[[Carex maculata]]'' <small>Boott</small>–maculate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex madagascariensis]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex madrensis]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex magacis]]'' <small>A.M.Molina, Acedo & Llamas</small> * ''[[Carex magellanica]]'' <small>Lam.</small> * ''[[Carex magnoutriculata]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex mairei]]'' <small>Coss. & Germ.</small> * ''[[Carex makinoensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small>–tufted rock-living sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex makuensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex malaccensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex malmei]]'' <small>Kalela</small> * ''[[Carex malyschevii]]'' <small>T.V.Egorova</small> * ''[[Carex manca]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex manciformis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke ''ex'' Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex mandoniana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex mandshurica]]'' <small>Meinsh.</small>–Manchurian sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex manginii]]'' <small>E.G.Camus</small> * ''[[Carex manhartii]]'' <small>Bryson</small> * ''[[Carex mannii]]'' <small>E.A.Bruce</small> * ''[[Carex manongarivensis]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex maorica]]'' <small>Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex maorshanica]]'' <small>Y.L.Chou</small> * ''[[Carex maquensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex marahuacana]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex marianensis]]'' <small>Stacey</small> * ''[[Carex marina]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex mariposana]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey ''ex'' Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex maritima]]'' <small>Gunnerus</small> * ''[[Carex markgrafii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex martinii]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex martynenkoi]]'' <small>Zolot.</small> * ''[[Carex × massonii]]'' <small>Cay. & Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex matsumurae]]'' <small>Franch.</small>–big-wheat sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex maximowiczii]]'' <small>Miq.</small>–Maximowicz's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex mayebarana]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex mckittrickensis]]'' <small>P.W.Ball</small> * ''[[Carex mcvaughii]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex meadii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex media]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex mediterranea]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke ''ex'' Post</small> * ''[[Carex medwedewii]]'' <small>Leskov</small> * ''[[Carex meeboldiana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex meihsienica]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex meiocarpa]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex melanantha]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex melananthiformis]]'' <small>Litv.</small> * ''[[Carex melanocarpa]]'' <small>Cham. ''ex'' Trautv.</small> * ''[[Carex melanocephala]]'' <small>Turcz. ''ex'' Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex melanorrhyncha]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex melanostachya]]'' <small>M.Bieb. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex melinacra]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex membranacea]]'' <small>Hook.</small> * ''[[Carex × mendica]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex mendocinensis]]'' <small>Olney ''ex'' Boott</small> * ''[[Carex merritt-fernaldii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex mertensii]]'' <small>Prescott ''ex'' Bong.</small> * ''[[Carex merxmuelleri]]'' <small>Podlech</small> * ''[[Carex mesochorea]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex metallica]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small>–white-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex meyenii]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex meyeriana]]'' <small>Kunth</small>–Meyer's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex michauxiana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex michelii]]'' <small>Host</small> * ''[[Carex michoacana]]'' <small>Reznicek, Hipp & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex micrantha]]'' <small>Kük.</small>–small-flower sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex microcarpa]]'' <small>Bertol. ''ex'' Moris</small> * ''[[Carex microchaeta]]'' <small>Holm</small> * ''[[Carex microdonta]]'' <small>Torr.</small> * ''[[Carex microglochin]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex micropoda]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex microptera]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex microrhyncha]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex × microstachya]]'' <small>Ehrh.</small> * ''[[Carex × microstyla]]'' <small>J.Gay ''ex'' Gaudin</small> * ''[[Carex middendorffii]]'' <small>F.Schmidt</small> * ''[[Carex mildbraediana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex millsii]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex mingrelica]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex minuticulmis]]'' <small>S.W.Su & S.M.Xu</small> * ''[[Carex minutiscabra]]'' <small>Kük. ''ex'' Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex minutissima]]'' <small>Barros</small> * ''[[Carex minxianensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex minxianica]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex mira]]'' <small>Kük.</small>–remarkable sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × mirata]]'' <small>[[Chester Dewey|Dewey]]</small><ref>Cayouette, J. and P. M. Catling. 1992. Hybridization in the Genus ''Carex'' with Special Reference to North America. Botanical 58(4): 351-440.</ref> * ''[[Carex misera]]'' <small>Buckley</small> * ''[[Carex missouriensis]]'' <small>P.Rothr. & Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex mitchelliana]]'' <small>M.A.Curtis</small> * ''[[Carex × mithala]]'' <small>Callier</small> * ''[[Carex mitrata]]'' <small>Franch.</small>–mitra sedge<ref name=":0" /> ** [[Carex mitrata var. aristata|''Carex mitrata'' var. ''aristata'']] <small>Ohwi</small>–aristate mitra sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex miyabei]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex mochomuensis]]'' <small>Katsuy.</small> * ''[[Carex modesti]]'' <small>M.Escudero, Martín-Bravo & Jim.Mejías</small><ref>{{cite journal |author1=S. Martín-Bravo, M. Escudero |author2=P. Jiménez-Mejías |lastauthoramp=yes|year=2012 |title=''Carex modesti'' (Cyperaceae), a new species from southern Tanzania |journal=[[Blumea (journal)|Blumea]] |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=143–146 |doi=10.3767/000651912X657576}}</ref> * ''[[Carex mokkwaensis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex molesta]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex molestiformis]]'' <small>Reznicek & Rothrock</small> * ''[[Carex molinae]]'' <small>Phil.</small> * ''[[Carex mollicula]]'' <small>Boott</small>–small mucronate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex mollissima]]'' <small>Christ ''ex'' Scheutz</small>–softest sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex monodynama]]'' <small>(Griseb.) G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex monostachya]]'' <small>A.Rich.</small> * ''[[Carex monotropa]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex montana]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex montanoaltaica]]'' <small>Zolot.</small> * ''[[Carex montis-eeka]]'' <small>Hillebr.</small> * ''[[Carex montis-everesti]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex montis-wutaii]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex moorei]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex morii]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex × moriyoshiensis]]'' <small>Fujiw. & Y.Matsuda</small> * ''[[Carex morrowii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex mossii]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex motuoensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex moupinensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex mucronata]]'' <small>All.</small> * ''[[Carex mucronatiformis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex × mucronulata]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex muehlenbergii]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex muelleri]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex × muelleriana]]'' <small>F.W.Schultz</small> * ''[[Carex muliensis]]'' <small>Hand.-Mazz.</small> * ''[[Carex multicaulis]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex multicostata]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex munda]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex munipoorensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex munroi]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex muricata]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex muriculata]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex × musashiensis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex musei]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex muskingumensis]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex myosurus]]'' <small>Nees</small> {{div col end}} === N === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex nachiana]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex nairii]]'' <small>Ghildyal & U.C.Bhattach.</small> * ''[[Carex nakasimae]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex nanchuanensis]]'' <small>K.L.Chu ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex nandadeviensis]]'' <small>Ghildyal, U.C.Bhattach. & Hajra</small> * ''[[Carex nangtciangensis]]'' <small>Pamp.</small> * ''[[Carex nardina]]'' <small>(Hornem.) Fr.</small> * ''[[Carex neblinensis]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex nebrascensis]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex nebraskensis]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex nebularum]]'' <small>Phil.</small> * ''[[Carex neesiana]]'' <small>Endl.</small> * ''[[Carex negrii]]'' <small>Chiov.</small> * ''[[Carex nelmesiana]]'' <small>Barros</small> * ''[[Carex nelmesii]]'' <small>H.E.Hess</small> * ''[[Carex nelsonii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex nemostachys]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex nemurensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex × neobigelowii]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex neochevalieri]]'' <small>Kük. ''ex'' A.Chev.</small> * ''[[Carex neodigyna]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex × neofilipendula]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex neofilipes]]'' <small>Nakai</small> * ''[[Carex neoguinensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex neohebridensis]]'' <small>Guillaumin & Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex neokukenthaliana]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex × neomiliaris]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex neopetelotii]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex neopolycephala]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex × neorigida]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex nervata]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–nerved-mitra sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex nervina]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex neurocarpa]]'' <small>Maxim.</small>–nerved-fruit sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex neurophora]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex nevadensis]]'' <small>Boiss. & Reut.</small> * ''[[Carex × nicoloffii]]'' <small>Pamp.</small> * ''[[Carex niederleiniana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex nigerrima]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex nigra]]'' <small>(L.) Reichard</small> * ''[[Carex nigricans]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex nigromarginata]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex nikolskensis]]'' <small>Kom.</small> * ''[[Carex nitidiutriculata]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex nivalis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex nodaeana]]'' <small>A.I.Baranov & Skvortsov</small> * ''[[Carex nodiflora]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex nordica]]'' <small>A.M.Molina, Acedo & Llamas</small> * ''[[Carex normalis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex norvegica]]'' <small>Retz.</small>–Norway sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex notha]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex nova]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex novae-angliae]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex novogaliciana]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex × nubens]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex nubigena]]'' <small>D.Don ''ex'' Tilloch & Taylor</small> * ''[[Carex nudata]]'' <small>W.Boott</small> * ''[[Carex nugata]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> {{div col end}} === O === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex × oberrodensis]]'' <small>B.Walln.</small> * ''[[Carex obispoensis]]'' <small>Stacey</small> * ''[[Carex oblanceolata]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex obliquicarpa]]'' <small>X.F.Jin, C.Z.Zheng & B.Y.Ding</small> * ''[[Carex obliquitruncata]]'' <small>Y.C.Tang & S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex obnupta]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex obovatosquamata]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Y.L.Chang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex obscura]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex obscuriceps]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex obtusata]]'' <small>Lilj.</small> * ''[[Carex occidentalis]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex ochrochlamys]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–yellow-mantle sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex ochrosaccus]]'' <small>(C.B.Clarke) Hamlin</small> * ''[[Carex oedipostyla]]'' <small>Duval-Jouve</small> * ''[[Carex oedorrhampha]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex × oenensis]]'' <small>A.Neumann ''ex'' B.Walln.</small> * ''[[Carex × ohmuelleriana]]'' <small>O.Lang</small> * ''[[Carex okamotoi]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–creeping narrow-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex oklahomensis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex olbiensis]]'' <small>Jord.</small> * ''[[Carex oligantha]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex oligocarpa]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex oligocarya]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex oligosperma]]'' <small>Michx.</small> * ''[[Carex oligostachya]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex olivacea]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex olivieri]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex × olneyi]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex omeiensis]]'' <small>Tang</small> * ''[[Carex omeyica]]'' <small>Molina Gonz., Acedo & Llamas</small> * ''[[Carex omiana]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–Suwon sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex omurae]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex × oneillii]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex onoei]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small>–needle sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex opaca]]'' <small>(F.J.Herm.) P.Rothr. & Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex ophiolithica]]'' <small>Heenan & de Lange</small> * ''[[Carex ophiopogon]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex orbicularinucis]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex orbicularis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex oreocharis]]'' <small>Holm</small> * ''[[Carex oreophila]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex orizabae]]'' <small>Liebm.</small> * ''[[Carex ormostachya]]'' <small>Wiegand</small> * ''[[Carex ornithopoda]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex oronensis]]'' <small>Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex orthostemon]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex oshimensis]]'' <small>Nakai</small> * ''[[Carex otaruensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex × otayai]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex otomana]]'' <small>A.M.Molina, Acedo & Llamas</small> * ''[[Carex ouachitana]]'' <small>Kral, Manhart & Bryson</small> * ''[[Carex ovatispiculata]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Y.L.Chang ''ex'' S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex ovoidoconica]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex ownbeyi]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex oxyandra]]'' <small>(Franch. & Sav.) Kudô</small>–hill sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex oxylepis]]'' <small>Torr. & Hook.</small> * ''[[Carex ozarkana]]'' <small>P.Rothr. & Reznicek</small> {{div col end}} === P === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex pachygyna]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex pachyneura]]'' <small>Kitag.</small> * ''[[Carex pachystylis]]'' <small>J.Gay</small> * ''[[Carex × paczoskii]]'' <small>Zapal.</small> * ''[[Carex paeninsulae]]'' <small>Naczi, E.L.Bridges & Orzell</small> * ''[[Carex pairae]]'' <small>F.W.Schultz</small> * ''[[Carex paishanensis]]'' <small>Nakai</small> * ''[[Carex palawanensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex paleacea]]'' <small>Schreb. ''ex'' Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex pallescens]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex pallidula]]'' <small>Harmaja</small> * ''[[Carex × paludivagans]]'' <small>W.H.Drury</small> * ''[[Carex pamirica]]'' <small>(O.Fedtsch.) O.Fedtsch. & B.Fedtsch.</small> * ''[[Carex pandanophylla]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex panicea]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex paniculata]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex panormitana]]'' <small>Guss.</small> * ''[[Carex pansa]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex papillosissima]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex × paponii]]'' <small>Muret ''ex'' T.Durand & Pittier</small> * ''[[Carex papulosa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex paracuraica]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Y.L.Chang ''ex'' S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex parallela]]'' <small>(Laest.) Sommerf.</small> * ''[[Carex parryana]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex parva]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex parviflora]]'' <small>Host</small> * ''[[Carex parvigluma]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex patagonica]]'' <small>Speg.</small> * ''[[Carex × patuensis]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex pauciflora]]'' <small>Lightf.</small>–few-flower sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex paucimascula]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex × paulii]]'' <small>Asch. & Graebn.</small> * ''[[Carex paulo-vargasii]]'' <small>Luceño & Marín</small> * ''[[Carex paupera]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex paxii]]'' <small>Kük.</small>–Pax's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex paysonis]]'' <small>Clokey</small> * ''[[Carex peckii]]'' <small>Howe</small> * ''[[Carex pediformis]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small>–wide-leaf low sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex pedunculata]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex peiktusanii]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–Baekdu sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex peliosanthifolia]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex pellita]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex pelocarpa]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex pendula]]'' <small>Huds.</small> * ''[[Carex penduliformis]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex pensylvanica]]'' <small>Lam.</small> * ''[[Carex perakensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex percostata]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex perdentata]]'' <small>S.D.Jones</small> * ''[[Carex peregrina]]'' <small>Link</small> * ''[[Carex perglobosa]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex pergracilis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex perlonga]]'' <small>Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex perprava]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex perraudieriana]]'' <small>(Kük. ''ex'' Bornm.) Gay ''ex'' Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × persalina]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex pertenuis]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex peruviana]]'' <small>J.Presl & C.Presl</small> * ''[[Carex peruvida]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex petasata]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex petelotii]]'' <small>Gross</small> * ''[[Carex petitiana]]'' <small>A.Rich.</small> * ''[[Carex petricosa]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex petriei]]'' <small>Cheeseman</small> * ''[[Carex peucophila]]'' <small>Holm</small> * ''[[Carex phacota]]'' <small>Spreng.</small>–lentoid sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex phaeocephala]]'' <small>Piper</small> * ''[[Carex phaeodon]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex phaeothrix]]'' <small>Ohwi</small>–brown-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex phalaroides]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex phankei]]'' <small>K.K.Nguyen</small> * ''[[Carex phoenicis]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex phragmitoides]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex phyllocaula]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex phyllocephala]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex phyllostachys]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex × physocarpoides]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex physodes]]'' <small>M.Bieb.</small> * ''[[Carex pichinchensis]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex picta]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex pigra]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex pilosa]]'' <small>Scop.</small>–pilose-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × pilosiuscula]]'' <small>Gobi</small> * ''[[Carex pilulifera]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex pinophila]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex pisanensis]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex pisanoi]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex pisiformis]]'' <small>Boott</small>–thread sedge,<ref name=":0" /> Sakhalin mitra sedge,<ref name=":0" /> alternate-flower thread sedge<ref name=":0" /> ** [[Carex pisiformis var. sikokiana|''Carex pisiformis'' var. ''sikokiana'']] <small>(Franch. & Sav.) T.Koyama</small>–green thread sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex pityophila]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex planata]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex planiculmis]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–shady mucronate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex planiscapa]]'' <small>Chun & F.C.How</small> * ''[[Carex planispicata]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex planostachys]]'' <small>Kunze</small> * ''[[Carex plantaginea]]'' <small>Lam.</small> * ''[[Carex platyphylla]]'' <small>J.Carey</small> * ''[[Carex platysperma]]'' <small>Y.L.Chang & Y.L.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex plectobasis]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex pleiandra]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex pleioneura]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex pleiostachys]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex pleurocaula]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex × ploettneriana]]'' <small>Beyer</small> * ''[[Carex pluriflora]]'' <small>Hultén</small> * ''[[Carex poculisquama]]'' <small>Kük.</small>–bowl-shape-scale sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex podocarpa]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex podogyna]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex poeppigii]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke ''ex'' G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex poilanei]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex polyantha]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Carex polycephala]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex polymascula]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex polymorpha]]'' <small>Muhl.</small> * ''[[Carex polyschoenoides]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex polystachya]]'' <small>Sw. ''ex'' Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex polysticha]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex pomiensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex pontica]]'' <small>Albov</small> * ''[[Carex popovii]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex porrecta]]'' <small>Reznicek & Camelb.</small> * ''[[Carex potosina]]'' <small>Hemsl.</small> * ''[[Carex praeceptorium]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex praeclara]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex praecox]]'' <small>Schreb.</small> * ''[[Carex praegracilis]]'' <small>W.Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × prahliana]]'' <small>Junge</small> * ''[[Carex prairea]]'' <small>Dewey ''ex'' Alph.Wood</small> * ''[[Carex prasina]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex praticola]]'' <small>Rydb.</small> * ''[[Carex preissii]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex prescottiana]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex preslii]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex pringlei]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex projecta]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex × prolixa]]'' <small>Fr.</small> * ''[[Carex prolongata]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex proposita]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex provotii]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex proxima]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex pruinosa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex przewalskii]]'' <small>T.V.Egorova</small> * ''[[Carex pseudoaperta]]'' <small>Boeckeler ''ex'' Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × pseudoaxillaris]]'' <small>K.Richt.</small> * ''[[Carex pseudobicolor]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex pseudobrizoides]]'' <small>Clavaud</small> * ''[[Carex pseudochinensis]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small>–false Chinese sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex pseudocuraica]]'' <small>F.Schmidt</small>–creeper-like sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex pseudocyperus]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex pseudodahurica]]'' <small>A.P.Khokhr.</small> * ''[[Carex pseudodispalata]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex pseudofoetida]]'' <small>Kük. ''ex'' Ostenf.</small> * ''[[Carex × pseudohelvola]]'' <small>Kihlm.</small> * ''[[Carex pseudohumilis]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Y.L.Chang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex pseudohypochlora]]'' <small>Y.L.Chang & Y.L.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex pseudolaticeps]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex pseudoligulata]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex pseudololiacea]]'' <small>F.Schmidt</small> * ''[[Carex pseudomacloviana]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex × pseudomairei]]'' <small>E.G.Camus</small> * ''[[Carex pseudophyllocephala]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex pseudosadoensis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex pseudospachiana]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small> * ''[[Carex pseudosphaerogyna]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex pseudosupina]]'' <small>Y.C.Tang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex pseudotristachya]]'' <small>X.F.Jin & C.Z.Zheng</small> * ''[[Carex × pseudovulpina]]'' <small>K.Richt.</small> * ''[[Carex psilocarpa]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex psychrophila]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex pterocarpa]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex pterocaulos]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex pubigluma]]'' <small>Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex pudica]]'' <small>Honda</small> * ''[[Carex pulchra]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex pulchrifolia]]'' <small>A.E.Kozhevn.</small> * ''[[Carex pulicaris]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex pumila]]'' <small>Thunb.</small>–dwarf sand sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex punctata]]'' <small>Gaudin</small> * ''[[Carex purdiei]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex purplevaginalis]]'' <small>Q.S.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex purpureosquamata]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex purpureotincta]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex purpureovagina]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Y.L.Chang ''ex'' S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex purpureovaginata]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex purpurifera]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex × putjatini]]'' <small>Kom.</small> * ''[[Carex putuoensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex pycnostachys]]'' <small>Kar. & Kir.</small> * ''[[Carex pygmaea]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex pyramidalis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex pyrenaica]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> {{div col end}} === Q === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex qingdaoensis]]'' <small>F.Z.Li & S.J.Fan</small> * ''[[Carex qinghaiensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex qingliangensis]]'' <small>D.M.Weng, H.W.Zhang & S.F.Xu</small> * ''[[Carex qingyangensis]]'' <small>S.W.Su & S.M.Xu</small> * ''[[Carex qiyunensis]]'' <small>S.W.Su & S.M.Xu</small> * ''[[Carex quadriflora]]'' <small>(Kük.) Ohwi</small>–four-flower sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × quebecensis]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex queretarensis]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex quichensis]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex × quirponensis]]'' <small>Fernald</small> {{div col end}} === R === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex × raciborskii]]'' <small>Zapal.</small> * ''[[Carex raddei]]'' <small>Kük.</small>–Radde's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex radfordii]]'' <small>Gaddy</small> * ''[[Carex radiata]]'' <small>(Wahlenb.) Small</small> * ''[[Carex radicalis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex radiciflora]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex radicina]]'' <small>Z.P.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex rainbowii]]'' <small>Luceño, Jim.Mejías, M. Escudero & Martín-Bravo</small><ref>{{cite journal |author1=S. Martín-Bravo |author2=M. Escudero |author3=M. Miguez |author4=P. Jiménez-Mejías |author5=M. Luceño |year=2013 |title=Molecular and morphological evidence for a new species from South Africa: ''Carex rainbowii'' (Cyperaceae) |journal=[[South African Journal of Botany]] |volume=87 |pages=85–91 |doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2013.03.014}}</ref> * ''[[Carex raleighii]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex ramenskii]]'' <small>Kom.</small> * ''[[Carex ramentaceofructus]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex ramosa]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex ramosii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex randalpina]]'' <small>B.Walln.</small> * ''[[Carex raoulii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex raphidocarpa]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex rara]]'' <small>Boott</small>–pine-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex rariflora]]'' <small>(Wahlenb.) Sm.</small> * ''[[Carex ratongensis]]'' <small>(C.B.Clarke) C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex raynoldsii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex recta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × reducta]]'' <small>Drejer</small> * ''[[Carex regeliana]]'' <small>(Kük.) Litv.</small> * ''[[Carex reichei]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex reinii]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex relaxa]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex remota]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex remotiuscula]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small>–minute-gibbous sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex renauldii]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex reniformis]]'' <small>(L.H.Bailey) Small</small> * ''[[Carex renschiana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex repanda]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex repens]]'' <small>Bellardi</small> * ''[[Carex reptabunda]]'' <small>(Trautv.) V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex resectans]]'' <small>Cheeseman</small> * ''[[Carex retroflexa]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex retrofracta]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex retrorsa]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex reznicekii]]'' <small>Werier</small> * ''[[Carex rhizina]]'' <small>Blytt ''ex'' Lindblom</small> * ''[[Carex rhodesiaca]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex rhombifructus]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex rhynchoperigynium]]'' <small>S.D.Jones & Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex rhynchophysa]]'' <small>Fisch., C.A.Mey. & Avé-Lall.</small>–large-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex rhyncophora]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex richardsonii]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex ridongensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex × rieseana]]'' <small>Figert</small> * ''[[Carex rigidioides]]'' <small>(Gorodkov) V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex × rikuchiuensis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex riloensis]]'' <small>Stoeva & E.D.Popova</small> * ''[[Carex riparia]]'' <small>Curtis</small> * ''[[Carex rivulorum]]'' <small>Dunn</small> * ''[[Carex roanensis]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex robinsonii]]'' <small>Podlech</small> * ''[[Carex roraimensis]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex rorulenta]]'' <small>Porta</small> * ''[[Carex rosea]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex × rossiana]]'' <small>Degen</small> * ''[[Carex rossii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex rostellifera]]'' <small>Y.L.Chang & Y.L.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex rostrata]]'' <small>Stokes</small>–beak sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × rotae]]'' <small>De Not.</small> * ''[[Carex rotundata]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small>–round sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex royleana]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex rubicunda]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex rubrobrunnea]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex rufina]]'' <small>Drejer</small> * ''[[Carex rufulistolon]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex rugata]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex rugulosa]]'' <small>Kük.</small>–thick-nerve sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex runssoroensis]]'' <small>K.Schum.</small> * ''[[Carex rupestris]]'' <small>All.</small>–curly sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex rupicola]]'' <small>(Pedersen) G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex ruralis]]'' <small>J.Oda & Nagam.</small> * ''[[Carex rutenbergiana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex ruthii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex ruthsatziae]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex rzedowskii]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> {{div col end}} === S === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex sabulosa]]'' <small>Turcz. ''ex'' Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex sacerdotis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex sachalinensis]]'' <small>F.Schmidt</small> * ''[[Carex sacrosancta]]'' <small>Honda</small> * ''[[Carex sadoensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex sagaensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex sagei]]'' <small>Phil.</small> * ''[[Carex sahnii]]'' <small>Ghildyal & U.C.Bhattach.</small> * ''[[Carex sajanensis]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex × sakaguchii]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex sakonis]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex salina]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex × salisiana]]'' <small>Brügger</small> * ''[[Carex saltaensis]]'' <small>Gross</small> * ''[[Carex sambiranensis]]'' <small>(H.Lév.) Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex sampsonii]]'' <small>Hance</small> * ''[[Carex sanctae-marthae]]'' <small>L.E.Mora & J.O.Rangel</small> * ''[[Carex × sanionis]]'' <small>K.Richt.</small> * ''[[Carex sarawaketensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × sardloqensis]]'' <small>E.Dahl</small> * ''[[Carex sartwelliana]]'' <small>Olney</small> * ''[[Carex sartwellii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex satsumensis]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex savaiiensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex saxatilis]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex × saxenii]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex saxicola]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex saximontana]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex scabrata]]'' <small>Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex scabrella]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex scabrifolia]]'' <small>Steud.</small>–scabrous-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex scabripes]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex scabrirostris]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex scabrisacca]]'' <small>Ohwi & Ryu</small> * ''[[Carex scabriuscula]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex scaposa]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex schaffneri]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex × schallertii]]'' <small>Murr</small> * ''[[Carex schiedeana]]'' <small>Kunze</small> * ''[[Carex schlechteri]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex schliebenii]]'' <small>Podlech</small> * ''[[Carex schmidtii]]'' <small>Meinsh.</small>–Schmidt's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex schneideri]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex schottii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex × schuetzeana]]'' <small>Figert</small> * ''[[Carex schwackeana]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex schweinitzii]]'' <small>Dewey ''ex'' Schwein.</small> * ''[[Carex scirpoidea]]'' <small>Michx.</small> * ''[[Carex scita]]'' <small>Maxim.</small> * ''[[Carex scitiformis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex scitula]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex sclerocarpa]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex scolopendriformis]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex scoparia]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex scopulorum]]'' <small>Holm</small> * ''[[Carex secalina]]'' <small>Willd. ''ex'' Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex secta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex sectoides]]'' <small>(Kük.) Edgar</small> * ''[[Carex sedakowii]]'' <small>C.A.Mey. ''ex'' Meinsh.</small>–Sedakov's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex sellowiana]]'' <small>Schltdl.</small> * ''[[Carex semihyalofructa]]'' <small>Tak.Shimizu</small> * ''[[Carex sempervirens]]'' <small>Vill.</small> * ''[[Carex × senayana]]'' <small>Soó</small> * ''[[Carex × sendtneriana]]'' <small>Brügger</small> * ''[[Carex senta]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex seorsa]]'' <small>Howe</small> * ''[[Carex seposita]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex serpenticola]]'' <small>Zika</small> * ''[[Carex serratodens]]'' <small>S.Watson</small> * ''[[Carex × serravalensis]]'' <small>Beauverd</small> * ''[[Carex serreana]]'' <small>Hand.-Mazz.</small> * ''[[Carex seticulmis]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex setifolia]]'' <small>Kunze</small> * ''[[Carex setigera]]'' <small>D.Don</small> * ''[[Carex setigluma]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex setispica]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex setosa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex shaanxiensis]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex × shakushizawaensis]]'' <small>Akiyama</small> * ''[[Carex shandanica]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex shanensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex shangchengensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex shanghaiensis]]'' <small>S.X.Qian & Y.Q.Liu</small> * ''[[Carex shanghangensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex sheldonii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex shimidzensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small>–long-tail-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × shinanoana]]'' <small>Nakai ''ex'' Aliyama</small> * ''[[Carex shinnersii]]'' <small>P.Rothr. & Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex shiriyajirensis]]'' <small>Akiyama ''ex'' Tatew.</small> * ''[[Carex shortiana]]'' <small>Dewey & Torr.</small> * ''[[Carex shuangbaiensis]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex shuchengensis]]'' <small>S.W.Su & Q.Zhang</small> * ''[[Carex siccata]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex sichouensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex siderosticta]]'' <small>Hance</small>–creeping broad-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * [[Carex siderosticta var. pilosa|''Carex siderosticta'' var. ''pilosa'']] <small>H.Lév. ex T.Koyama</small>–hairy creeping broad-leaf sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex silicea]]'' <small>Olney</small> * ''[[Carex silvestrii]]'' <small>Pamp.</small> * ''[[Carex simensis]]'' <small>Hochst. ''ex'' A.Rich.</small> * ''[[Carex simulans]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex simulata]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex sinclairii]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' Cheeseman</small> * ''[[Carex sinoaristata]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex sinodissitiflora]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex sinomairei]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex siroumensis]]'' <small>Koidz.</small>–potae sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex skottsbergiana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex socialis]]'' <small>Mohlenbr. & Schwegman</small> * ''[[Carex sociata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex soczavaeana]]'' <small>Gorodkov</small> * ''[[Carex sodiroi]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × soerensenii]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex sohachii]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex solandri]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × sooi]]'' <small>Jakucs</small> * ''[[Carex sordida]]'' <small>Van Heurck & Müll.Arg.</small>–short forest-live sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex sorianoi]]'' <small>Barros</small> * ''[[Carex sororia]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex sozusensis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex spachiana]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex sparganioides]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex specifica]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex speciosa]]'' <small>Kunth</small> * ''[[Carex spectabilis]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex specuicola]]'' <small>J.T.Howell</small> * ''[[Carex sphaerogyna]]'' <small>Baker</small> * ''[[Carex spicata]]'' <small>Huds.</small> * ''[[Carex spicatopaniculata]]'' <small>Boeckeler ''ex'' C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex spicigera]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex × spiculosa]]'' <small>Fr.</small> * ''[[Carex spilocarpa]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex spinirostris]]'' <small>Colenso</small> * ''[[Carex spissa]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey ''ex'' Hemsl.</small> * ''[[Carex spongiosa]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex sprengelii]]'' <small>Dewey ''ex'' Spreng.</small> * ''[[Carex × squamigera]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz. & Luchnik</small> * ''[[Carex squarrosa]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex standleyana]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex stenandra]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex stenantha]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex stenocarpa]]'' <small>Turcz. ''ex'' V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex × stenolepis]]'' <small>Less.</small> * ''[[Carex stenophylla]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex stenoptila]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex stenostachys]]'' <small>Franch. & Sav.</small> * ''[[Carex sterilis]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex steudneri]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex stevenii]]'' <small>(Holm) Kalela</small> * ''[[Carex steyermarkii]]'' <small>Standl.</small> * ''[[Carex stipata]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small>–awl-fruit sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex stiphrogyne]]'' <small>Gilli</small> * ''[[Carex stipitiutriculata]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex stokesii]]'' <small>F.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex stracheyi]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex stramentitia]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex straminea]]'' <small>Willd. ''ex'' Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex straminiformis]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex streptorrhampha]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex striata]]'' <small>Michx.</small> * ''[[Carex striatula]]'' <small>Michx.</small> * ''[[Carex stricta]]'' <small>Lam.</small> * ''[[Carex × stricticulmis]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex × strictiformis]]'' <small>Almq.</small> * ''[[Carex strigosa]]'' <small>Huds.</small> * ''[[Carex × strigosula]]'' <small>Chatenier</small> * ''[[Carex stuessyi]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex × stygia]]'' <small>Fr.</small> * ''[[Carex styloflexa]]'' <small>Buckley</small> * ''[[Carex stylosa]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex subandrogyna]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler & Guagl.</small> * ''[[Carex subantarctica]]'' <small>Speg.</small> * ''[[Carex subbracteata]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex subcapitata]]'' <small>X.F.Jin, C.Z.Zheng & B.Y.Ding</small> * ''[[Carex subcernua]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex × subcostata]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex subdivulsa]]'' <small>(Kük.) G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex subdola]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex subebracteata]]'' <small>(Kük.) Ohwi</small>–beaked-fruit narrow mitra sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex suberecta]]'' <small>(Olney) Britton</small> * ''[[Carex subfilicinoides]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex subfuegiana]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex × subimpressa]]'' <small>Clokey</small> * ''[[Carex subinclinata]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex subinflata]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex sublateralis]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex submollicula]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex subnigricans]]'' <small>Stacey</small> * ''[[Carex × subpaleacea]]'' <small>J.Cay.</small> * ''[[Carex × subpatula]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex subperakensis]]'' <small>L.K.Ling & Y.Z.Huang</small> * ''[[Carex subphysodes]]'' <small>Popov ''ex'' V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex subpumila]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex × subrecta]]'' <small>J.Cay.</small> * ''[[Carex × subsalina]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex subscabrella]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex subspathacea]]'' <small>Wormsk. ''ex'' Hornem.</small>–Hoppner's sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex subumbellata]]'' <small>Meinsh.</small>–subumbellate sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex suifunensis]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–narrow-scale sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × sullivantii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × sumikawaensis]]'' <small>Fujiw. & Y.Matsuda</small> * ''[[Carex superata]]'' <small>Naczi, Reznicek & B.A.Ford</small> * ''[[Carex supina]]'' <small>Willd. ''ex'' Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex sutchuensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex × suziella]]'' <small>Podp.</small> * ''[[Carex swanii]]'' <small>(Fernald) Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex sychnocephala]]'' <small>J.Carey</small> * ''[[Carex sylvatica]]'' <small>Huds.</small> * ''[[Carex × sylvenii]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> {{div col end}} === T === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex tachirensis]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex tahitensis]]'' <small>F.Br.</small> * ''[[Carex tahoensis]]'' <small>Smiley</small> * ''[[Carex taihokuensis]]'' <small>Hayata</small> * ''[[Carex taihuensis]]'' <small>S.W.Su & S.M.Xu</small> * ''[[Carex taipaishanica]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex × takoensis]]'' <small>Y.Endo & Yashiro</small> * ''[[Carex tamana]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex tangiana]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex tangii]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex tangulashanensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex tapintzensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex taprobanensis]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex tarumensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex tashiroana]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex tasmanica]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex tatjanae]]'' <small>Malyschev</small> * ''[[Carex tatsiensis]]'' <small>(Franch.) Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex tavoyensis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex tegulata]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small>–orbicular sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex teinogyna]]'' <small>Boott</small>–slender-pedicel sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex tenax]]'' <small>Chapm. ''ex'' Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex × tenebricans]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex tenebrosa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex tenejapensis]]'' <small>Reznicek & S.González</small> * ''[[Carex × tenelliformis]]'' <small>Holmb.</small> * ''[[Carex tenera]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex tenuiculmis]]'' <small>(Petrie) Heenan & de Lange</small> * ''[[Carex tenuiflora]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small>–sparse-flower sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex tenuiformis]]'' <small>H.Lév. & Vaniot</small>–shadow sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex tenuinervis]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex tenuior]]'' <small>T.Koyama & T.I.Chuang</small> * ''[[Carex tenuipaniculata]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex tenuiseta]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex tenuispicula]]'' <small>Tang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex teres]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex tereticaulis]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Carex ternaria]]'' <small>G.Forst.</small> * ''[[Carex tessellata]]'' <small>Spruce ''ex'' C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex testacea]]'' <small>Sol. ''ex'' Boott</small> * ''[[Carex tetanica]]'' <small>Schkuhr</small> * ''[[Carex tetrastachya]]'' <small>Scheele</small> * ''[[Carex texensis]]'' <small>(Torr. ''ex'' L.H.Bailey) L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex thailandica]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex thanikaimoniana]]'' <small>Govind.</small> * ''[[Carex thecata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex thibetica]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex thompsonii]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex thomsonii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex thornei]]'' <small>Naczi</small> * ''[[Carex thouarsii]]'' <small>Carmich.</small> * ''[[Carex thunbergii]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex thurberi]]'' <small>Dewey ''ex'' Torr.</small> * ''[[Carex tianmushanica]]'' <small>C.Z.Zheng & X.F.Jin</small> * ''[[Carex tianschanica]]'' <small>T.V.Egorova</small> * ''[[Carex timida]]'' <small>Naczi & B.A.Ford</small> * ''[[Carex × timmiana]]'' <small>Junge</small> * ''[[Carex tincta]]'' <small>(Fernald) Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex titovii]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small> * ''[[Carex × toezensis]]'' <small>Simonk.</small> * ''[[Carex tojquianensis]]'' <small>Standl. & Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex tokarensis]]'' <small>T.Koyama</small> * ''[[Carex tolucensis]]'' <small>(F.J.Herm.) Reznicek</small> * ''[[Carex tompkinsii]]'' <small>J.T.Howell</small> * ''[[Carex tonsa]]'' <small>(Fernald) E.P.Bicknell</small> * ''[[Carex toreadora]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex × torgesiana]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × tornabenei]]'' <small>Chiov.</small> * ''[[Carex toroensis]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex torreyi]]'' <small>Tuck.</small> * ''[[Carex torta]]'' <small>Boott ''ex'' Tuck.</small> * ''[[Carex tovarensis]]'' <small>Reznicek & G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex townsendii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex toyoshimae]]'' <small>Tuyama</small> * ''[[Carex trachycarpa]]'' <small>Cheeseman</small> * ''[[Carex trachycystis]]'' <small>Griseb.</small> * ''[[Carex traiziscana]]'' <small>F.Schmidt</small> * ''[[Carex transandina]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex transcaucasica]]'' <small>T.V.Egorova</small> * ''[[Carex transversa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex trautvetteriana]]'' <small>Kom.</small> * ''[[Carex traversii]]'' <small>Kirk</small> * ''[[Carex × treverica]]'' <small>Hausskn.</small> * ''[[Carex triangularis]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex tribuloides]]'' <small>Wahlenb.</small> * ''[[Carex tricephala]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex × trichina]]'' <small>Fernald</small> * ''[[Carex trichocarpa]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex trichodes]]'' <small>Steud.</small> * ''[[Carex tricholepis]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex trichophylla]]'' <small>Nelmes</small> * ''[[Carex tricolor]]'' <small>Velen.</small> * ''[[Carex trifida]]'' <small>Cav.</small> * ''[[Carex trigonosperma]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex trinervis]]'' <small>Degl.</small> * ''[[Carex triquetra]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex trisperma]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex tristachya]]'' <small>Thunb.</small>–shiny-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> ** [[Carex tristachya var. pocilliformis|''Carex tristachya'' var. ''pocilliformis'']] <small>(Boott) Kük.</small>–small shiny-spike sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex tristis]]'' <small>M.Bieb.</small> * ''[[Carex trongii]]'' <small>K.K.Nguyen</small> * ''[[Carex troodi]]'' <small>Turrill</small> * ''[[Carex truncatigluma]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex tsaiana]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang ''ex'' P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex tsaratananensis]]'' <small>Cherm.</small> * ''[[Carex tsiangii]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang</small> * ''[[Carex tsoi]]'' <small>Merr. & Chun</small> * ''[[Carex tsushimensis]]'' <small>(Ohwi) Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex tuberculata]]'' <small>Liebm.</small> * ''[[Carex tubulosa]]'' <small>Pamp.</small> * ''[[Carex tuckermanii]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex tucumanensis]]'' <small>G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex tumidula]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex tuminensis]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–Dumangang sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex tumulicola]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex tungfangensis]]'' <small>L.K.Dai & S.M.Huang</small> * ''[[Carex tunimanensis]]'' <small>Standl. & Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex turbinata]]'' <small>Liebm.</small> * ''[[Carex × turfosa]]'' <small>Fr.</small> * ''[[Carex turgescens]]'' <small>Torr.</small> * ''[[Carex turkestanica]]'' <small>Regel</small> * ''[[Carex turrita]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex × turuli]]'' <small>Simonk.</small> * ''[[Carex turumiquirensis]]'' <small>Steyerm.</small> * ''[[Carex tweediana]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex typhina]]'' <small>Michx.</small> {{div col end}} === U === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex uda]]'' <small>Maxim.</small>–Uda needle sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex × uechtritziana]]'' <small>K.Richt.</small> * ''[[Carex ulobasis]]'' <small>V.I.Krecz.</small>–montane sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex umbellata]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex umbrosa]]'' <small>Host</small> ** [[Carex umbrosa subsp. sabynensis|''Carex umbrosa'' subsp. ''sabynensis'']] <small>(Less. ex Kunth) Kük.</small>–narrow mitra sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex umbrosiformis]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex uncifolia]]'' <small>Cheeseman</small> * ''[[Carex × ungavensis]]'' <small>Lepage</small> * ''[[Carex ungurensis]]'' <small>Litv.</small> * ''[[Carex unilateralis]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex unisexualis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex urelytra]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex ursina]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex uruguensis]]'' <small>Boeckeler</small> * ''[[Carex ussuriensis]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–Ussuri sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex utriculata]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex × uzenensis]]'' <small>Koidz.</small> {{div col end}} === V === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex vacillans]]'' <small>Drejer</small> * ''[[Carex vaginata]]'' <small>Tausch</small>–sheathed sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex valbrayi]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small> * ''[[Carex vallicola]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex vallis-pulchrae]]'' <small>Phil.</small> * ''[[Carex vallis-rosetto]]'' <small>K.Schum.</small> * ''[[Carex van-heurckii]]'' <small>Müll.Arg.</small>–northern meadow sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex ventosa]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex venusta]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex vernacula]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex verrucosa]]'' <small>Muhl.</small> * ''[[Carex verticillata]]'' <small>Zoll. & Moritzi</small> * ''[[Carex vesca]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke ''ex'' Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex vesicaria]]'' <small>L.</small>–blister sedge<ref name=":0" /> * ''[[Carex vesiculosa]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex vestita]]'' <small>Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex vexans]]'' <small>F.J.Herm.</small> * ''[[Carex × viadrina]]'' <small>Figert</small> * ''[[Carex vicinalis]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex vietnamica]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex × villacensis]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex × vimariensis]]'' <small>Hausskn. ''ex'' Berthold</small> * ''[[Carex virescens]]'' <small>Muhl. ''ex'' Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex virgata]]''<ref>[http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora_details.aspx?ID=1426 NZPCN Carex virgata]</ref> * ''[[Carex viridimarginata]]'' <small>Kük.</small> * ''[[Carex viridistellata]]'' <small>Derieg, Reznicek & Bruederle</small><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nathan J. Derieg |author2=Sarah J. Weil |author3=Anton A. Reznicek |author4=Leo P. Bruederle |year=2013 |title=''Carex viridistellata'' sp. nov. (Cyperaceae), a new cryptic species from prairie fens of the eastern United States |journal=[[Systematic Botany]] |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=82–91 |doi=10.1600/036364413X661971}}</ref> * ''[[Carex viridula]]'' <small>Michx.</small> * ''[[Carex vixdentata]]'' <small>(Kük.) G.A.Wheeler</small> * ''[[Carex × vratislaviensis]]'' <small>Figert</small> * ''[[Carex vulcani]]'' <small>Hochst. ''ex'' Seub.</small> * ''[[Carex vulpina]]'' <small>L.</small> * ''[[Carex vulpinaris]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex vulpinoidea]]'' <small>Michx.</small> {{div col end}} === W === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex wahlenbergiana]]'' <small>Boott</small> * ''[[Carex wahuensis]]'' <small>C.A.Mey.</small> * ''[[Carex wakatipu]]'' <small>Petrie</small> * ''[[Carex × walasii]]'' <small>Ceyn.-Gield</small> * ''[[Carex walkeri]]'' <small>Arn. ''ex'' Boott</small> * ''[[Carex wallichiana]]'' <small>Spreng.</small> * ''[[Carex wawuensis]]'' <small>W.M.Chu ''ex'' S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex wenshanensis]]'' <small>L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex werdermannii]]'' <small>L.Gross</small> * ''[[Carex whitneyi]]'' <small>Olney</small> * ''[[Carex wiegandii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex wightiana]]'' <small>Nees</small> * ''[[Carex willdenowii]]'' <small> Schkuhr ex Willd.</small> * ''[[Carex williamsii]]'' <small>Britton</small> * ''[[Carex × winkelmannii]]'' <small>Asch. & Graebn.</small> * ''[[Carex winterbottomii]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex × wolteri]]'' <small>Gross</small> * ''[[Carex woodii]]'' <small>Dewey</small> * ''[[Carex wootonii]]'' <small>Mack.</small> * ''[[Carex wui]]'' <small>W.M.Chu ''ex'' L.K.Dai</small> * ''[[Carex wushanensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex wutuensis]]'' <small>K.T.Fu</small> * ''[[Carex wuyishanensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> {{div col end}} === X === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex × xanthocarpa]]'' <small>Degl.</small> * ''[[Carex xerantica]]'' <small>L.H.Bailey</small> * ''[[Carex xiangxiensis]]'' <small>Z.P.Wang</small> * ''[[Carex xiphium]]'' <small>Kom.</small>–sword-like sedge<ref name=":0" /> {{div col end}} === Y === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex yajiangensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex yamatsutana]]'' <small>Ohwi</small> * ''[[Carex yangshuoensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Y.Liang</small> * ''[[Carex yasuii]]'' <small>Katsuy.</small> * ''[[Carex yonganensis]]'' <small>L.K.Dai & Y.Z.Huang</small> * ''[[Carex ypsilandrifolia]]'' <small>F.T.Wang & Tang</small> * ''[[Carex yuexiensis]]'' <small>S.W.Su & S.M.Xu</small> * ''[[Carex yulungshanensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex yunlingensis]]'' <small>P.C.Li</small> * ''[[Carex yunnanensis]]'' <small>Franch.</small> * ''[[Carex yunyiana]]'' <small>X.F.Jin & C.Z.Zheng</small> * ''[[Carex yushuensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> {{div col end}} === Z === {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Carex × zahnii]]'' <small>Kneuck.</small> * ''[[Carex zekogensis]]'' <small>Y.C.Yang</small> * ''[[Carex zhenkangensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang ''ex'' S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex zhonghaiensis]]'' <small>S.Yun Liang</small> * ''[[Carex zizaniifolia]]'' <small>Raymond</small> * ''[[Carex zuluensis]]'' <small>C.B.Clarke</small> * ''[[Carex zunyiensis]]'' <small>Tang & F.T.Wang</small> {{div col end}} == Referensi == {{reflist|26em}} {{Commons category|position=left|Carex}} [[Kategori:Carex|*]] 7kduv9gw1wszl2lypl80ldajrfsekd7 0 388278 3351271 3342684 2026-08-05T21:59:18Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351271 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Head_of_Socrates_in_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme_(Rome).JPG|pra=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Head_of_Socrates_in_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme_(Rome).JPG|jmpl|Patung [[:id:Sokrates|Sokrates]]]] '''Bapikia Kritis''' adolah caro bapikia manusia untuak marespon urang lain<ref>{{Cite book|title=Revolusi Beripikir|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ARGFGTHqGlYC&pg=PT207&lpg=PT207&dq=berpikir+kritis&source=bl&ots=Vcdm9qJ8hD&sig=jCouIJ-puTzZVXD8uWYp1RHgYRE&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwitvteC2cDaAhWLq48KHQY8Cn04ChDoAQhBMAc#v=onepage&q=berpikir%20kritis&f=false|publisher=PT Mizan Publika|isbn=978-979-1284-01-1|language=id}}</ref> dengan manganalisis fakta untuak mambantuak panilaian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766|title=Defining Critical Thinking|website=www.criticalthinking.org|access-date=2023-01-21}}</ref> Subjeknyo kompleks, jo ado babarapo defenisi yang babeda menyangkuik konsep iko, yang umumnyo mancangkup analisis rasional, skeptis, indak bias, atau evaluasi bukti faktual. Pado dasarnyo, bantuak bapikia kritis adolah pamikiran mandiri, pendisiplinan diri, pamantauan diri, jo koreksi diri.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Clarke|first=John|title=Critical Dialogues: Thinking Together in Turbulent Times|date=2019|publisher=Policy Press|isbn=978-1-4473-5097-2|location=Bristol|pages=6}}</ref> Bapikia kritis mangandalkan pasatujuan tahadok standar kaunggulan yang ketat jo panggunoan nan batua. Iko mamparalukan komunikasi nan efektif jo kamampuan pemecahan masalah sarato komitmen untuak mangatasi [[:id:Egosentrisme|egosentrisme]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/stages.htm|title=Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development|date=2019-05-09|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2023-01-21|archive-date=2019-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509060129/http://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/stages.htm|dead-url=unfit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201204/it-s-fine-line-between-narcissism-and-egocentrism|title=It’s a Fine Line Between Narcissism and Egocentrism {{!}} Psychology Today|website=www.psychologytoday.com|language=en-US|access-date=2023-01-21}}</ref> dan [[:id:Etnosentrisme|etnosentrisme]]. == Sijarah == Catatan paliang awal tentang pamikiran kritis adolah ajaran [[:id:Sokrates|Sokrates]] nan dicataik dek [[:id:Plato|Plato]]. Iko tamasuk bagian dalam dialog awal Plato, yang mano Sokrates ikuik sato jo badebat babarapo urang tentang masalah etika sarupo panyataan apokah batua dek Socrates untuak malarikan dari panjaro.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Visser|first1=Jan|title=Seeking Understanding: The Lifelong Pursuit to Build the Scientific Mind|last2=Visser|first2=Muriel|date=2019|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-41680-2|location=Leiden|pages=233|url=Https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Jm3DDwAAQBAJ&printsec=copyright&redir esc=y}}</ref> Para filsuf mampatimbangkan jo maranuangkan patanyoan iko jo sampai pado kasimpulan "malarikan diri" nan malanggar sado hal nan inyo pacik dek nan labiah tinggi dari dirinyo surang: yaitu hukum Athena jo suaro pamandu nan diklaim Sokrates denga.<ref name=":0" /> Sokrates manetapkan fakta bahaso sasaurang indak dapek bagantung pado mereka nan "bawenang" untuak mampunyoi pangetahuan jo wawasan nan elok. Inyo manunjuakkan bahaso urang mungkin mampunyoi kakuasaan jo posisi tinggi, namun sangaik binguang jo irasional. Sokrates bapandapek bahaso bagi saurang individu untuak mampunyoi kahidupan nan elok atau mampunyoi kahidupan nan layak untuak dijalani, inyo harus manjadi pananyo nan kritis jo mampunyoi jiwa nan interogatif.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Stanlick|first1=Nancy A.|title=Asking Good Questions: Case Studies in Ethics and Critical Thinking|last2=Strawser|first2=Michael J.|date=2015|publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=978-1-58510-755-1|location=Indianapolis|pages=6|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=qvr3BgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=id#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Inyo manatapkan pantiangnyo mangajukan patanyoan mandalam nan manyalidiki secaro mandalam ka dalam pamikiran sabelum kito manarimo gagasan sabagai sasuatu nan layak dipacayo. Sokrates manatapkan pantiangnyo "mancari bukti, mamareso panalaran jo asumsi dengan cermat, manganalisa konsep dasar, jo manalusuri implikasi indak hanyo dari apo nan dikatokan tetapi juo dari apo nan dikarajokan".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Chiarini|first1=Andrea|title=Understanding the Lean Enterprise: Strategies, Methodologies, and Principles for a More Responsive Organization|last2=Found|first2=Pauline|last3=Rich|first3=Nicholas|date=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-19994-8|location=Cham|pages=132}}</ref> Metode patanyoannyo kini dikenal sabagai "[[:id:Pertanyaan_Sokrates|Patanyoan Sokrates]]" jo marupakan strategi pengajaran bapikia kritis nan paliang takenal. Dalam mode patanyoannyo, Sokrates manyoroti parlaunyo bapikia untuak kajalean jo konsistensi logis. Inyo mangajukan patanyoan kapado urang-urang untuak mangungkapkan pamikiran irasional mereka atau kurangnyo pangatahuan nan dapek diandalkan. Sokrates manunjuakan bahwa mampunyoi otoritas indak manjamin pangatahuan nan akurat. Inyo manetapkan matode mampatanyokan kayakinan, mamreso asumsi jo taliti dan mangandalkan bukti jo alasan nan masuak aka. Plato mancatat ajaran Sokrates jo manaruihkan tradisi bapikia kritis. [[:id:Aristoteles|Aristoteles]] jo skeptis Yunani barikuiknyo manyampurnakan ajaran Socrates, manggunokan pamikiran sistematis jo mangajukan patanyoan untuak mamastikan sipaik sabananyo dari realitas di lua caro hal-hal nan muncua dari pandangan sakileh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.criticalthinking.org/template.php?pages_id=408|title=A Brief History of the Idea of Critical Thinking|website=www.criticalthinking.org|access-date=2023-01-27}}</ref> Sokrates manatapkan agenda untuak tradisi bapikia kritis, yaitu untuak sacaro reflektif mampatanyokan kayakinan jo panjalehan umum, jo hati-hati mambedakan kayakinan nan masuak aka jo logis dari nan—betapapun menariknyo egosentrisme asli kito, betapapun mereka malayani kapantiangan pribadi kito, betapapun nyamannyo, atau manghibua mereka mungkin—kurangnya bukti nan mamadai atau landasan rasional untuak manjamin kayakinan. Bapikia kritis digambarkan dek Richard W. Paul sabagai garakan dalam duo galombang (1994).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Re-Thinking Reason|last=Walters|first=Kerry|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1994|location=Albany|pages=181–98}}</ref> "Galombang peartamo" dalam bapikia kritis acok disabuik sabagai 'analisis kritis' nan jelas, yaitu pamikiran rasional nan malibatkan karitik. Rinciannyo bavariasi di antaro mereka nan mandefinisikannyo. Menuruik Barry K. Beyer (1995), bapikir kritis bararti mambuek panilaian nan jeleh jo baralasan. Salamo proses bapikir kritis, ide-ide harus baralasan, dipikiakan jo caro elok, jo dinilai.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myweb.wvnet.edu/~jelkins/critproj/overview.html|title=The Critical Thinking Movement: Alternating Currents in One Teacher's Thinking|last=Elkins|first=James R.|website=myweb.wvnet.edu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084853/http://myweb.wvnet.edu/~jelkins/critproj/overview.html|archive-date=13 Juni 2018|access-date=27 Januari 2023|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dewan Nasional AS untuak Kaunggulan dalam Bapikir Kritis<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.criticalthinking.org/template.php?pages_id=979|title=Critical Thinking|website=www.criticalthinking.org|access-date=2023-01-27}}</ref> mandefinisikan bapikir kritis sabagai "proses disiplin intelektual sacara aktif jo tarampil mangkonseptualisasikan, manerapkan, manganalisis, mansintesis, atau mangevaluasi informasi nan dikumpuakan dari, atau dihasiakan dek, pangamatan, pangalaman, refleksi, panalaran, atau komunikasi, sabagai panduan untuak kayakinan jo tindakan".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766|title=Defining Critical Thinking|website=www.criticalthinking.org|access-date=2023-01-27}}</ref> == Pangartian == === Sacaro tradisional === Sacaro tradisional, bapikia krisis alah didefenisikan sacaro baragam sabagai barikuik: * "Proses mangonseptualisasikan, manerapkan, manganalisis, manyensintesis, jo mangevaluasi informasi secaro aktif jo tarampil untuak mancapai sebuah jawaban atau kasimpulan".<ref name="reference.com">{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/critical|title=Critical – Define Critical at Dictionary.com|work=Dictionary.com|access-date=24 Januari 2023}}</ref> * "Pamikiran disiplin nan janiah, rasional, bapikiran tabuka, jo diinformasikan dek bukti".<ref name="reference.com" /> * "Panilaian nan batujuan jo [[:id:Pengendalian_diri|mangatur]] diri surang nan manghasilkan interpretasi, analisis, evaluasi, jo kasimpulan, sarato panjaleh tentang paretongan bukti, konseptual, metodologis, kriteriaologis, atau kontekstual nan manjadi dasar panilaian itu".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insightassessment.com/CT-Resources/Teaching-For-and-About-Critical-Thinking/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts-PDF|title=Critical Thinking: What It is and Why It Counts|last=Facione|first=Peter A.|year=2011|publisher=insightassessment.com|page=26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729185619/http://www.insightassessment.com/CT-Resources/Teaching-For-and-About-Critical-Thinking/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts/Critical-Thinking-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-Counts-PDF|archive-date=29 Juli 2013|access-date=24 Januari 2023|url-status=dead}}</ref> * "Tamasuak komitmen untuak manggunoan aka dalam parumusan kayakinan kito".<ref name="mulnix">{{cite journal|last1=Mulnix|first1=J. W.|year=2010|title=Thinking critically about critical thinking|journal=Educational Philosophy and Theory|volume=44|issue=5|page=471|doi=10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x|s2cid=145168346}}</ref> * "Katarampilan jo kacandarungan untuak ikuik sato dalam suatu kagiatan jo skeptisisme reflektif" (McPeck, [[:id:1981|1981]])".<ref>{{Cite document|last=Ana M. Nieto, Carlos Saiz|first=|title=Critical Thinking: A Question of Aptitude and Attitude?|url=https://www.pdcnet.org/inquiryct/content/inquiryct_2010_0025_0002_0019_0026|journal=Inquiry|volume=25|doi=10.5840/inquiryctnews20102524|s2cid=37573705}}</ref> * Bapikia tentang pamikiran sasaurang jo caro nan dirancang untuak mangatua jo mampajaleh, maningkekan efisiensi, jo manganali kasalahan jo bias dalam pamikirannyo Surang. Bapikia kritis indak bararti bapikia 'kareh', jo juo indak diarahkan untuak pamacahan masalah (salain 'maningkekan' pamikiran surang). Bapikia kritis diarahkan ka dalam yang bamukasuik mamaksimalkan rasionalitas si sipamikia. Sasaurang indak manggunokan pamikiran kritis untuak mamacahkan masalah, malainkan untuak maningkekan proses bapikianyo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scirp.org/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=1427234|title=Carmichael, K. (1997). About Critical Thinking Letter to Olivetti. Union School District Laguna Salada. - References - Scientific Research Publishing|website=scirp.org|access-date=2023-01-24}}{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * "Panilaian badasarkan evaluasi analitis nan cermat".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/critical+analysis|title=critical analysis|website=TheFreeDictionary.com|access-date=2023-01-27}}</ref> * "Bapikia kritis adolah jiniah pola bapikir nan manuntuik urang untuak reflektif, jo memperhatikan caro maambiak kaputusan nan mamandu kayakinan jo tindakan mereka. Bapikia kritis mamungkinkan urang untuak manyimpuakan jo lebiah banyak logika, mamproses informasi nan canggih jo maliek babagai sisi masalah sahinggo inyo dapek manghasiakan kasimpulan nan lebiah solid".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=Februari 1988|title=Book Reviews and Notes : Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice. Joan Baron and Robert Sternberg. 1987. W.H. Freeman, & Co., New York. 275 pages. Index. ISBN 0-7167-1791-3. Paperback|url=https://archive.org/details/bulletin-of-science-technology-society_1988_8_1/page/101|journal=Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society|volume=8|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1177/0270467688008001113|issn=0270-4676|s2cid=220913799}}</ref> * Bapikia kritis mampunyoi tujuah ciri-ciri kritis, yaitu nio tau taruih, bapikiran tabuka tahadok sisi nan babeda, mampu bapikia sistematis, analitis, gigiah tahadok kabanaran, pacayo diri tentang pamikiran kritis itu sendiri, jo nan terakhir, manjadi dewasa.<ref name="Facione 1–4">{{Cite journal|last1=Facione|first1=Peter A.|last2=Facione|first2=Noreen C.|date=March 1993|title=Profiling critical thinking dispositions|journal=Assessment Update|volume=5|issue=2|pages=1–4|doi=10.1002/au.3650050202|issn=1041-6099}}</ref> * Meskipun bapikia kritis dapek didefinisikan dalam babarapo caro nan babeda, ado kasapakatan umum dalam komponen utamanyo —kainginan untuak mancapai hasia nan mamuehkan, jo iko harus dicapai jo pamikiran rasional caro nan digerakkan dek hasia. Halpern bapikia bahwa bapikia kritis partama-tamo malibatkan kamampuan nan dipalajari sarupo panyalasaian masalah, paretongan, jo panerapan probabilitas nan berhasil. Iko juo tamasuak kacenderungan untuak talibat dalam proses bapikir. Baru-baru iko, Stanovich pacayo bahwa tes IQ modern hampia indak dapek mangukua kamampuan bapikia kritis.<ref>{{Citation|last=Halpern|first=Diane F.|editor3-first=Diane F|editor3-last=Halpern|editor2-first=Henry L|editor2-last=Roediger Iii|editor1-first=Robert J|editor1-last=Sternberg|chapter=The Nature and Nurture of Critical Thinking|pages=1–14|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511804632|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511804632.002|title=Critical Thinking in Psychology|year=[[2006]]}}</ref> * "Bapikia kritis pado dasarnyo adolah pandekatan mapatanyokan, manantang pangatahuan jo kabijaksanaan nan dirasokan. Iko malibatkan ide-ide jo informasi dari posisi objektif jo kamudian mampatanyokan informasi iko dalam terang nilai-nilai kito surang, sikap jo filosofi pribadi".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Critical Thinking Skills for Education Students|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=tGho4-SsPWEC&pg=PT8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|publisher=SAGE|date=2009-07-28|isbn=978-1-84445-556-0|language=en|first=Brenda|last=Judge|first2=Elaine|last2=McCreery|first3=Patrick|last3=Jones}}</ref> === Sacaro panalitian === Para sarjana pamikiran kritis kontemporer alah mampalaweh pamikiran kritis dalam definisi tradisional. Iko tamasuak kualitas, konsep, dan proses seperti kreativitas, imajinasi, penemuan, refleksi, empati, pengetahuan penghubung, teori feminis, subjektivitas, ambiguitas, dan indak bakajalehan. Babarapo defenisi bapika kritis mangacualikan praktik subjektif iko.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Re-Thinking Reason|last=Walters|first=Kerry|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=[[1994]]|location=Albany}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/critical|title=Definition of critical {{!}} Dictionary.com|website=www.dictionary.com|language=en|access-date=2023-01-27}}</ref> ==== Pangartian dek Ennis ==== # Manuruik Ennis, “Bapikir kritis adolah proses pandisiplinan intelektual untuak tarampil mangkonseptualisasikan, manerapkan, manganalisis, mansintesis, jo/atau mangevaluasi informasi nan dikumpuakan dari, atau dihasiakan dek, pangamatan, pangalaman, refleksi, panalaran, atau komunikasi, sabagai panduan pado kayakinan jo tindakan".<ref>{{Citation|last=Ennis|first=Robert H.|chapter=Critical Thinking|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9781137378057|doi=10.1057/9781137378057.0005|title=The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education|year=2015}}</ref> Definisi dek Ennis iko sangaik disatujui dek Harvey Siegel,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Siegel|first=Harvey|date=27 September 2013|title=Educating Reason|doi=10.4324/9781315001722|isbn=9781315001722|edition=1|published=1988}}</ref> Peter Facione,<ref name="Facione 1–42">{{Cite journal|last1=Facione|first1=Peter A.|last2=Facione|first2=Noreen C.|date=March 1993|title=Profiling critical thinking dispositions|journal=Assessment Update|volume=5|issue=2|pages=1–4|doi=10.1002/au.3650050202|issn=1041-6099}}</ref> jo Deanna Kuhn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuhn|first=Deanna|date=January 2015|title=Thinking Together and Alone|journal=Educational Researcher|volume=44|issue=1|pages=46–53|doi=10.3102/0013189x15569530|issn=0013-189X|s2cid=145335117}}</ref> # Manuruik definisi Ennis, bapikir kritis mamparalukan banyak paratian jo fungsi otak. Katiko pendekatan bapikir kritis diterapkan pado pandidikan, iko mambantu utak siswa bafungsi lebiah elok jo mamahami teks sacara babeda. # Bidang studi nan babeda mungkin mamaralukan jiniah pamikiran kritis nan berbeda. Bapikia kritis maagiah lebia banyak suduik jo perspektif pado materi nan samo. ==== Pangartian dek ''National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking'' ==== Pado tahun [[:id:1987|1987]], dalam pamaparannyo di ''Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform ke-8'', [[:id:Michael_Scriven|Michael Scriven]] jo Richard Paul manjalehan kalau bapikia kritis malibatkan proses nan secara aktif jo penuah kamampuan untuak mambuek konsep, manerapkan, manganalisis, manyarikan, jo mangamati sabuah masalah nan didapek ataupun diciptakan dari pangamatan, pangalaman, komunikasi jo lain sabagainyo. Ado duo komponen nan mambantuak kamampuan bapikia kritis, yaitu: # Kamampuan untuak manghasiakan jo mamproses informasi atau kapicayoan. # Kabiasaan, jo badasarkan komitmen intelektual. ==== Pangartian dek Edward Glaser ==== Dalam seminar pandidikan jo pamikiran kritis pado tahun [[:id:1941|1941]], Edward Glaser manjalehan tigo hal yan nalibat at dalaa pambentukaa kemampuaapiiia kr kritis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766|title=Defining Critical Thinking|website=www.criticalthinking.org|access-date=2023-01-28}}</ref> # Pamahaman bapikia santun untuak satiok pamasalahan nan tibo, nan ado pado rentang pangatahuan nan diponyoi dek inyo. # Pangetahuan jo kaingintahuan. # Kamampuan-kamampuan lain untuak manerapkan kamampuan bapikia. == Etimologi jo asa-usua == Dalam istilah bapikia kritis, kata ''[https://id.wiktionary.org/wiki/kritis kritis]'' barasal dari kato [[:id:Bahasa_Yunani|Yunani]] yaitu ''κριτικός'' (''kritikós'') yan ang aroinya "kritik/kritis", nan diidentifikasi sabagai kapasitas intelektual jo sarana untuak "mangakimi", "mangakimi", "manilai", jo "mampu mambedakan".<ref>Brown, Lesley. (ed.) ''The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary'' (1993) hlm. 551.</ref> Aka intelektual kritis<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dictionary.com/e/critical-thinking/|title=Lexical Investigations: Critical Thinking - Everything After Z by Dictionary.com|date=2013-06-25|work=Everything After Z by Dictionary.com|access-date=2018-04-03}}</ref> samo kunonyo jo etimologinyo, yang mano dapek dilacak, pado akhianyo, ka praktiak pangajaran jo visi [[:id:Socrates|Socrates]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biography.com/people/socrates-9488126|title=Socrates|website=Biography|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328012820/https://www.biography.com/people/socrates-9488126|archive-date=28 Maret 2019|access-date=2018-04-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> pado 2.500 tahun yang lal,unan aeaemukanjo aetode aenaelidikan artanoyan bahwa orangin ak dapek sacaro rasional mambatuakan klaim pacaya diri mereka tahadok [[:id:Pengetahuan|pangatahuan]]. == Fungsi == Barikuik adolah daftar katarampilan bapikia kritis inti nan maliputi [[:id:Observasi|observasi]], interpretasi, [[:id:Analisis|analisis]], inferensi, evaluasi, panjalasan, jo [[:id:Metakognisi|metakognisi]]. Manuruik Reynolds (2011), individu atau kalompok nan talibaik dalam caro bapikia kritis nan kuek mampu mamberikan patimbangan untuak manatapkan, misalnyo:<ref>Reynolds, Martin (2011). Critical thinking and systems thinking: towards a critical literacy for systems thinking in practice. In: Horvath, Chrii. Dan Forte, James M. eds. Critical Thinking. New York: Nova Science Publishers, hlm. 37–68.</ref> * Bukti malalui kanyataan. * Katarampilan konteks untuak mangisolasi masalah dari konteks. * Kriteria nan relevan untuak mambuek panilaian jo elok. * Metode atau teknik nan balaku untuak mambantuak panilaian. * Konstruksi teoretis nan dapek diterapkan untuk mamahami masalah dipatanyoan yang elok. Salain mampunyoi katerampilan bapikia kritis nan kuek, sasaurang harus siap untuak talibaik dalam masalah jo kaputusan manggunokan katerampilan tasabuik. Bapikir kritis indak hanyo manggunokan logika, tapi juo manggunokan kriteria intelektual nan lueh sarupo kajalehan, kredibilitas, [[:id:Akurasi|akurasi]], presisi, relevansi, kadalaman, kaluasan, [[:id:Signifikansi|signifikansi]], jo kaadilan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Elizabeth A., & And Others|year=1995|title=National Assessment of College Student Learning: Identifying College Graduates' Essential Skills in Writing, Speech and Listening, and Critical Thinking. Final Project Report (NCES-95-001)|isbn=978-0-16-048051-5|work=from National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, University Park, PA.; Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC.; U.S. Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328. PUB TYPE - Reports Research/Technical (143) hlm. 14–15|url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED383255.pdf|access-date=28 Januari 2023}}</ref> Bapikia kritis mambutuahkan kamampuan untuak: * Kenali masalah jo tamukan caro nan bisa dipakai untuak mangatasi masalah itu. * Mamahami pantiangnyo prioritas jo urutannyo dalam pamacahan masalah. * Mangumpuakan jo manyusun informasi takaik (relevan) Kenali asumsi jo nilai nan indak dinyatokan. * Mamahami jo meaggunokan bahaso jo akurasi, kajalehan, jo katajaman. * Manafsirkan data, manilai bukti jo mangevaluasi argumen. * Mangenali kabaradoan (atau indak adonyo) hubungan logis antaro proposisi. * Maambiak kasimpulan jo generalisasi nan dibatuakan Uji kasimpulan jo generalisasi di mano sasaorang tibo. * Marekonstruksi pola kayakinan sasaurang badasarkan pangalaman nan labiah lueh. * Maagiah panilaian nan akurat tentang hal-hal jo kualitas tatantu dalam kahidupan sahari-hari. Alhasil: “Suatu usaho nan gigiah untuak mamareso satiok kapicayoan atau bantuak pangatahuan nan diduga badasarkan bukti nan mandukuang atau manyangkalnyo jo kasimpulan lebiah lanjuik nan manjadi kacandrungannyo“.<ref name="glaser">{{Cite book|title=An Experiment in the Development of Critical Thinking|author=Edward M. Glaser|year=1941|publisher=New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University|isbn=978-0-404-55843-7}}</ref> == Karakteristik == Dalam artikel ''Using writing to develop and assess critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology'',<ref>Wade, C. (1995). Using writing to develop and assess critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 24-28.</ref> Wade manjalehan bahaso ado dalapan karakteristik dalam bapikia kritis, sabagai barikuik: # Kagiatan dalam marumuskan patanyoan. # Malakukan pambatasan masalah. # Manguji data-data nan didapek. # Manganalisis babagai pandapek nan bias. # Maelakan patimbangan nan sangaik emosional. # Maelakan panyadaranaan nan balabihan. # Mampatimbangkan babagai interpretasi. # Mantaloransi ambiguitas. == Kabiasaan atau ciri-ciri pikiran == Kabiasaan [[:id:Pikiran|bapikia]] nan mancirikan sasaurang nan sangaik candrung bapikia kritis mancangkup kainginan untuak mangikuti alasan jo bukti ka mano pun inyo mangarah, pandekatan sistematis untuak panyalasaian masalah, raso ingin tahu, sikap adia, jo kapicayoan diri dalam [[:id:Penalaran|panalaran]].<ref>''The National Assessment of College Student Learning: Identification of the Skills to be Taught, Learned, and Assessed, NCES 94–286, DepallUS Dept of Education, Addison Greenwood (Ed), Sal Carrallo (PI). Lihat juga, ''Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction''. ERIC Document No. ED 315–423''</ref> Menuruik analisis definisi dek Kompf samo Bond (2001), bapikia kritis malibatkan pamacahan masalah, paambiak kaputusan, [[:id:Metakognisi|metakognisi]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/metacognition/teaching_metacognition.html|title=Teaching Metacognition|website=Metacognition|language=en|access-date=2023-01-28}}</ref> [[:id:Rasionalitas|rasionalitas]], pamikiran rasional, panalaran, [[:id:Pengetahuan|pangetahuan]], kacerdasan, jo juo komponen moral sarupo pamikiran reflektif. Dek karano itu, para pamikia kritis paralu mancapai tingkek kadewasaan dalam pakembangannyo, mampunyoi sikap tatantu sarato saparangkaik katarampilan nan diajakan. Ado postulat dek babarapo panulih bahwa kacendrungan dari kabiasaan bapikia harus dianggap sabagai kabajikan untuak manunjuakan karakteristik seurang pamikia kritis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Facione|first1=Peter A.|last2=Sánchez|first2=Carol A.|last3=Facione|first3=Noreen C.|last4=Gainen|first4=Joanne|date=1995|title=The Disposition Toward Critical Thinking|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-general-education_1995_44_1/page/n10|journal=The Journal of General Education|volume=44|issue=1|pages=1–25|issn=0021-3667|jstor=27797240}}</ref> [[:id:Kebajikan_intelektual|Kabajikan intelektual]] iko adolah kualitas etis nan mandorong motivasi untuak bapikia jo caro tatantu menuju kaadaan tatantu. Namun, kabajikan-kabajikan iko juo alah dikritik dek para skeptis, nan bapandapek bahwa ado kakurangan bukti untuak dasar mental spesifik nan manyebabkan pamikiran kritis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bailin|first1=Sharon|last2=Case|first2=Roland|last3=Coombs|first3=Jerrold R.|last4=Daniels|first4=Leroi B.|date=May 1999|title=Common misconceptions of critical thinking|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-curriculum-studies_may-june-1999_31_3/page/269|journal=Journal of Curriculum Studies|language=en|volume=31|issue=3|pages=269–283|doi=10.1080/002202799183124|issn=0022-0272}}</ref> == Bacaan lanjutan == === Buku === * {{cite book|title=Critical Reasoning: Understanding and Criticizing Arguments and Theories|url=https://archive.org/details/criticalreasonin0000cede_g8g8|first1=J B.|last1=Cederblom|first2=David|last2=Paulsen|edition=7|isbn=978-0495808787|year=2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|location=Andover, Hampshire, UK}} * Damer, T. Edward. (2005) [[:id:Attacking_Faulty_Reasoning|Attacking Faulty Reasoning]], Edisi ke-6, Wadsworth. {{ISBN|0-534-60516-8}}. * Dauer, Francis Watanabe. ''Critical Thinking: An Introduction to Reasoning'', 1989, {{ISBN|978-0-19-504884-1}}. * Fisher, Alec and Scriven, Michael. (1997) ''Critical Thinking: Its Definition and Assessment'', Center for Research in Critical Thinking (Inggris)/Edgepress (AS). {{ISBN|0-9531796-0-5}}. * Hamby, B.W. (2007) ''The Philosophy of Anything: Critical Thinking in Context.'' Kendall Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque Iowa. {{ISBN|978-0-7575-4724-9}}. * [[:id:Vincent_F._Hendricks|Vincent F. Hendricks]]. (2005) ''Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression'', New York: [[:id:Automatic_Press_/_VIP|Automatic Press / VIP]]. {{ISBN|87-991013-7-8}}. * {{cite book|title=A Field Guide to Lies and Statistics|year=2017|first=Daniel|last=Levitin|author-link=Daniel Levitin|publisher=Viking|isbn=978-0241239995}} (alias ''Weaponized Lies: How to Think Critically in the Post-Truth Era''). * Moore, Brooke Noel and Parker, Richard. (2012) ''[https://ariadanesh.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Critical-Thinking-_10-Edition-_-ariadanesh.com_.pdf Critical Thinking] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124141515/https://ariadanesh.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Critical-Thinking-_10-Edition-_-ariadanesh.com_.pdf |date=2023-01-24 }}''. Edisi ke-10. Diterbitkan oleh McGraw-Hill. {{ISBN|0-07-803828-6}}. * Paul, Richard. (1995) ''Critical Thinking: How to Prepare Students for a Rapidly Changing World''. edisi ke-4. Foundation for Critical Thinking. {{ISBN|0-944583-09-1}}. * Paul, Richard and Elder, Linda. (2006) ''Critical Thinking Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life'', New Jersey: Prentice Hall Publishing. {{ISBN|0-13-114962-8}}. * Sagan, Carl. (1995) ''[[:id:The_Demon-Haunted_World:_Science_As_a_Candle_in_the_Dark|The Demon-Haunted World: Science As a Candle in the Dark]]''. Ballantine Books. {{ISBN|0-345-40946-9}}. * [[:id:Theodore_Schick|Theodore Schick]] & Lewis Vaughn "How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age" (2010) {{ISBN|0-7674-2048-9}}. * Van Den Brink-Budgen, R (2010) '[https://sites.google.com/site/ldcgculearn/academic-skills/critical-thinking?pli=1 Critical Thinking for Students]', How To Books. {{ISBN|978-1-84528-386-5}}. * Whyte, J. (2003) ''[https://books.google.co.id/books/about/Bad_Thoughts.html?id=lKCmswEACAAJ&redir_esc=y Bad Thoughts – A Guide to Clear Thinking]'', Corvo. {{ISBN|0-9543255-3-2}}. * David Carl Wilson (2020) ''A Guide to Good Reasoning: Cultivating Intellectual Virtues'' (2nd edition) University of Minnesota Libraries Ebook {{ISBN|978-1-946135-66-7}} Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0 International License, at https://open.lib.umn.edu/goodreasoning/. * Zeigarnik, B.V. (1927). Pado tugas nan alah salasai jo nan alun salasai. Dalam tajamahan Bahaso Inggris. Disuntiang dek Willis D. Ellis; jo pangantar oleh Kurt Koffka. (1997). Sebuah buku sumber psikologi gestalt xiv, hlm. 403: ill.; 22&nbsp;cm Highland, N.Y: Gestalt Journal Press. "Edisi Gestalt Journal Press iko adolah cetak ulang kato ka kato dari buku nan aslinyo ditabikan pado tahun 1938" – T.p. verso. {{ISBN|9780939266302}}. {{OCLC|38755142}}. === Pasa === * {{cite journal|author=Butler, Heather|author2=Christopher Pentoney|author3=Mabelle P. Bong|date=September 2017|title=Predicting real-world outcomes: Critical thinking ability is a better predictor of life decisions than intelligence|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1871187116300384|journal=[[Thinking Skills and Creativity]]|volume=25|pages=38–46|doi=10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.005}} * Facione, P. 2007. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20071215112052/http://www.insightassessment.com/articles.html Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts – 2007 Update].'' * Kompf, M., & Bond, R. (2001). Critical reflection in adult education. In T. Barer-Stein & M. Kompf(Eds.), ''The craft of teaching adults'' (hlm.&nbsp;21–38). Toronto, ON: Irwin. *McPeck, J. (1992). Thoughts on subject specificity. In S. Norris (Ed.), ''The generalizability of critical thinking'' (hlm.&nbsp;198–205). New York: Teachers College Press. *{{cite journal|last1=Mulnix|first1=J. W.|year=2010|title=Thinking critically about critical thinking|journal=Educational Philosophy and Theory|volume=44|issue=5|pages=464–479|doi=10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x|s2cid=145168346}} *{{cite journal|last1=Paul|first1=R|year=1982|title=Teaching critical thinking in the strong sense: A focus on self-deception, world views and a dialectical mode of analysis|journal=Informal Logic Newsletter|volume=4|issue=2|pages=2–7}} *{{cite journal|last1=Pavlidis|first1=Periklis|year=2010|title=Critical Thinking as Dialectics: a Hegelian–Marxist Approach|url=http://www.jceps.com/index.php?pageID=article&articleID=194|journal=Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies|volume=8|issue=2|access-date=2023-01-24|archive-date=2013-05-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511175223/http://www.jceps.com/index.php?pageID=article&articleID=194|dead-url=yes}} *Twardy, Charles R. (2003) [http://cogprints.org/3008/ Argument Maps Improve Critical Thinking]. ''[[:id:Teaching_Philosophy|Teaching Philosophy]]'' 27:2 Juni 2004. == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|colwidth=20em}} 425qy8msjg2kbnfkv0t2j6lzcwewqym 0 388557 3351300 3342642 2026-08-05T22:44:53Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox ethnic group |group = '''Urang Citak''' <br/>{{small|Citak, Cicak, Tjitak, Tjitjak, Tsitjak, Tyitak}} |native_name= '''Kau''' <br/> {{small|Kaunak}} |image = |caption = |population = 8.000<ref name=":0"/> |popplace = [[Papua Selatan]] ([[Indonesia]]) |langs = [[Bahaso Citak|Citak]] |rels = [[Kristen]] (umumnyo [[Katolik]]), [[Animisme]] |related = [[Suku Asmat|Asmat]], [[Suku Awyu|Awyu]] }} '''Urang Citak''', atau namo lainnyo '''Cicak''', marupoan sabutan eksonim dek [[Urang Awyu]] untuak panamoan [[suku]] atau urang iko, sadangkan urang Citak tasabuik mamanggia diri nyo surang jo namo endonin '''Urang Kau''' atau '''Kaunak'''. Salain itu urang iko manggunoan [[bahaso Citak]] atau nan mereka sabuik jo [[bahaso Citak|Kau Adagum]].<ref name="Antoni 2010 pp. 411–422">{{cite journal | last=Antoni | first=Alexander de | title=“Call Us Kau, Not Citak.” Constitutive Factors for the Ethnic Consciousness of an Asmat Subgroup | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_anthropos_2010_105_2/page/411 | journal=Anthropos | publisher=Nomos Verlag | volume=105 | issue=2 | year=2010 | issn=0257-9774 | doi=10.5771/0257-9774-2010-2-411 | pages=411–422}}</ref> == Sijarah == Awanyo Urang Citak bakahidupan semi-nomaden, dan tingga di kampuang-kampuang ketek nan taseba. Sasudah ado paksaan dari pamarintahan Hindia Balando mereka mulai hiduik parmanen di kampuang nan labih gadang. Makanan pokok urang Citak adolah sagu nan dilengkapi jo ikan dan dagiang. Sagu jo Ikan marupoan hasia dari kaum padusi sadangkan dagiang marupaoan hasia buruan kaum laki-laki manggunoan parahu dengan panjang 4 meter, labih ketek dari parahu untuak kaluarga nan mampunyoi panjang 10 meter.<ref name="Melalatoa 1995 p. 212 ">{{cite book | last=Melalatoa | first=M.J. | title=Ensiklopedi suku bangsa di Indonesia: A-K | publisher=Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI | series=Ensiklopedi suku bangsa di Indonesia | year=1995 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sU4OAQAAMAAJ | pages=212| language=id | access-date=2023-02-20 | page=}}</ref> Awanyo urang Citak manggunoan sistem kakarabatan [[matrilineal]] dengan adaik manatap manikah matrilokal. Selain itu urang Citak indak mangenal sistem klan. Walaupun kamudian palahan barubah aktiko masuaknyo misionaris barat.<ref name="Melalatoa 1995 p. 212 "/> == Panyebaran == Urang Citak marupoan suku bangsa nan mandiami hulu [[Sungai Brazza]] nan dibatahi di sabalah timur dek hulu [[Sungai Digul]], sadangkan di sabelah barat dibatehi dek [[Sungai Pulau]] jo [[Sungai Wildeman]]. Di sabalah baratnyo tadapek suku bangsa Asmat, sabalah salatannyo urang Awyu. Bahaso mereka ado pasamoan jo bahaso Asmat, sahinggo sabagian ahli cenderung manggolongkan mereka sabagai salah satu sub-suku bahasa Asmat.<ref name="Antoni 2010 pp. 411–422"/> Desa-desa mereka adolah Daikut, Samnak, Sipanap,<ref name=":0"/> Senggo, Kunasuma, Basman, Tiau, Amazu, Binerbis, Bidneu/Bidnew, Vamu/Vomu/Fomu, Ipem, Binam, Vakam, Bi-namzein/Mbinamzain, Womin, Sagamu, Buruba, Abau, Komasma/Kumasma, Vou, Imembi, Patipi, Piramanak, Burbis, Binam, Sagis, Emenepe, Tokemau, Dja-wok, Asserep.<ref name="Antoni 2010 pp. 411–422"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/infobahasa.php?idb=349|title=Peta Bahasa Kemendikbud, Bahasa Papua, Bahasa Citak|website=petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id|access-date=2023-02-20|archive-date=2023-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528230534/https://petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/infobahasa.php?idb=349|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Masyarakaik Citak masuak kadalam Kecamatan [[Citak Mitak, Mappi|Citak Mitak]] (Kampung Senggo), [[Kabupaten Mappi]], Provinsi [[Papua Selatan]], Indonesia. Jumlah populasinyo sakitar 8.000 jiwa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=w_FCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=suku+busami&source=bl&ots=yQCaItv-6R&sig=JfcfFwQo2c1zMLwkdGw-idqRFig&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiJ4bmN57nTAhWHMY8KHW71Bx4Q6AEIWTAK#v=onepage&q=suku%20busami&f=false|title=Ensiklopedi Suku Bangsa di Indonesia|last=Hidayah|first=Dr Zulyani|date=2015-01-01|publisher=Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia|isbn=9789794619292|language=id}}</ref> == Bahaso == Urang Citak mampunyoi bahaso Citak. Bahasa Citak ditutuaan dek suku Citak di Kampuang Tugumau, [[Distrik Ti Zain]], Kabupaten Mappi, Provinsi Papua. Bahaso Citak ditutuan pulo di Kampuang Kumaban, Sagis, Basman, Abau, Kumasma, Womin, Bidnew, Fomu, Tiau, jo Binerbis. Manuruik pangakuan panduduak di [[Distrik Senggo]] tadapek [[bahaso Awyu]] Darat, Asmat Darat, Korowai, jo Kombai. Namun, kasado kampuang di sakaliliang Kampuang Tugumau manggunoan bahaso Citak dalam kasahariannyo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/infobahasa.php?idb=349|title=Bahasa Citak|website=Bahasa dan Peta Bahasa di Indonesia|publisher=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|access-date=05-02-2023|archive-date=2023-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528230534/https://petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/infobahasa.php?idb=349|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Budaya == Paninggalan dari suku iko nan disimpan di [[Museum Kebudayaan dan Kemajuan Asmat]] disimpan di dalam koleksi ''Yupmakcain''. Manuruik direktur museim tasabuik, Eric Sarkol, namo tasabuik dibarikan dek pandahulunyo Yufentius Biakai. Manuruik Biakai, namo ''Yupmakcain'' marupoan namo [[emik jo etik|emik]] dari daerah utara Binam jo Mbinamzain. Babarapo contoh cabang seni suku iko barupo seni drama jo seni rupa, bagian dari upacara adaik. Mirip jo [[suku Asmat]], babarapo seni ukiran barupo pahatan perisai dengan pilihan warna nan mirip jo gaya seni Barat-Daya lainnyo sarupo [[suku Asmat]] jo [[Suku Awyu]].<ref name="Melalatoa 1995 p. 212 "/> == Legenda Agu Ibit == Manuruik Pido saurang ''zauwaibit'' (pamimpin parang) nan barasa dari Senggo Lama, awanyo suku iko tingga di rumah pohon tatapi kamudian barubah karano babahayo bagi anak ketek nan murah jatuah. Legenda leluhua suku iko adolah ''Agu Ibit'' nan dinarasian Pido kapado Josef Haas tahun 1981 (nan di translasikan badasarkan rekaman dek Alexander de Antoni, Stefanus Supprobo jo Cornelis di Senggo, 2007): <Blockquote> Agu Ibit malangkah kalua dari aia ka daraik. Sasudah samalaman di sungai, inyo kamudian duduak diateh pohon ''Ki'', kamudian inyo alah duduak diateh pohon ''Tinak''. Sasudah buang aia gadang inyo kamudian buang aia ketek di pagi hari. Inyo kamudian malompek dari pohon ka pohon, kamudian di ateh pohon inyo mahadok ka barat. Kamudian inyo mamakai ikek pinggang dari kerang jo kaluang dari gigi anjiang. Inyo kamudian bangun dengan kaki nan kaku dan mambukak tangan di ateh pohon ''Ki''. "''Oh pohon Ki berikanlah cuaca yang baik, sehingga lengan tangan bisa bergerak bebas''", jo suaro nan ceria, "''Saya sedang mencari sesuatu untuk dimakan, Hujan jangan turun, saya mau berburu tikus besar, kasuari, dan ikan di sungai. Jika ada perempuan disana, saya ingin memukul sagu''." Fo....fo. Kamudian padusi lain bakato, "''Saya tinggal di siang ini untuk menyusui bayi''." Siang ko sangaik terik, ingin pai jauah. Agu Ibit mambuek cuaca baiak. Di ateh pohon ''Ki'', di ateh pohon ''Kuru'', di ateh pohon ''Badam'', di ateh pohon ''Utua'', pohon kayu, pohon ''Pambam'', daun ''Tinak'', daun pohon, pohon Sagu. Daun pohon sagu, tatapan matonyo bacahayo. Agu Ibit, Agu Ibit, Tanambitda (''matahari laki-kaki'' nama lain Agu Ibit), Tanambitda, matonyo bacahayo sapanjang hari. Kiniko inyo kan pai barangkek dari timur ka barat, hinggo manghilang.<ref name="Antoni 2010 pp. 411–422"/></blockquote> == Rujuakan == {{reflist}} {{Suku banso di Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Suku banso di Indonesia]] 4p5nzfklvgid2mpf85hdmwkz2to0fyv 0 388791 3351308 3159500 2026-08-05T23:02:32Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox religious biography <!-- Philosopher Category --> | region = [[Kurdistan]] | era = 19th–20th century<ref>''Islam in Modern Turkey'', Şükran Vahide (Suny Press, 2005)</ref> | image = | image_size = | caption = Said Nursi <!-- Information --> | name = Said-i Nursi | honorific_suffix = Üstad{{*}} Bediüzzaman | birth_date = 1877<ref name="Sukran Vahide p 3">Şükran Vahide, Islam in Modern Turkey: An Intellectual Biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, p 3. {{ISBN|0791482979}}</ref> | birth_place = [[Hizan|Nurs]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vimeo.com/14360943|title=Bediüzzaman Said Nursi'nin köyü Nurs, TRT'de|via=vimeo.com}}</ref><ref>Ian Markham, Globalization, Ethics and Islam: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Introduction, xvii</ref> [[Bitlis Vilayet]], [[Ottoman Empire]] | death_date = 23 March {{death year and age|1960|1877}}<ref>Ian Markham, Engaging with Bediuzzaman Said Nursi: A Model of Interfaith Dialogue, p 4. {{ISBN|0754669319}}</ref> | death_place = [[Şanlıurfa|Urfa]], [[Turkey]] | religion = [[Islam]] | denomination = [[Sunni]] | jurisprudence = [[Shafi`i]] | creed = [[Ash'ari]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Ozgur|first=Koca|title=Said Nursi's Synthesis of Ash'arite Occasionalism and Ibn 'Arabi's Metaphysical Cosmology: "Diagonal Occasionalism," Modern Science", and "Free Will"|isbn=9781303619793|page=217|publisher=UMI Dissertations Publishing}}</ref> | movement = | ethnicity = [[Kurds|Kurdish]] | main_interests = [[Theology]],<ref name="Gerhard Böwering p482">[[Gerhard Böwering]], Patricia Crone, Mahan Mirza, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, p482</ref> [[Tafsir]],<ref name="Gerhard Böwering p482"/> Revival of Faith<ref>Robert W. Hefner, Shari?a Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World, p 170. {{ISBN|0253223105}}</ref> [[Kalam]], [[Eloquence]] | influences = [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]], [[Husayn ibn Ali]], [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]],<ref name="David Livingstone p. 568">David Livingstone, Black Terror White Soldiers: Islam, Fascism and the New Age, p. 568. {{ISBN|1481226509}}</ref> [[Al-Ghazali]],<ref name="David Livingstone p. 568"/> [[Rumi]]<ref name="David Livingstone p. 568"/> [[Ahmad Sirhindi]],<ref>M. Hakan Yavuz, John L. Esposito, Turkish Islam and the Secular State: The Gülen Movement, p. 6</ref> [[Baha' al-Din Naqshband]], [[Ash'ari]], [[Al-Taftazani]], [[Ahmad Khani]] <!-- 'influenced' is not a supported parameter | influenced [[Mohamed Said Ramadan Al-Bouti]] The Words (Turkish: Sözler)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/words-the-reconstruction-of-islamic-belief-and-thought/oclc/935721564&referer=brief_results|oclc = 935721564|title = The Words: The Reconstruction of Islamic Belief and Thought|isbn = 9781932099164|last1 = Nursi|first1 = Said|year = 2005}}</ref> </li> <li>The Letters (Turkish: Mektûbat)<ref>[Nursi, Said. The Gleams: Reflections on Qur'anic Wisdom and Spirituality. Tughra Books, 2008.]</ref></li> <li>The Flashes (Turkish: Lem'alar)<ref>[Nursi, Said. "Lemalar (The Flashes)." Istanbul: Sozler (Originally work published 1932) (2004).</ref> <li>The Rays (Turkish: Şuâlar)<ref>[Nursi, Said. The Rays: reflections on Islamic belief, thought, worship, and action. Tughra Books, 2010.]</ref> <li>Signs of Miraculousness (Turkish: İşârât-ül İ'caz)<ref>[Nursi, Said, and Şükran Vahide. Signs of Miraculousness: The Inimitability of the Qurʼan's Conciseness. Sözler Publications, 2007.]</ref> <li>The Staff of Moses (Turkish: Asa-yı Musa)<ref>[Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. The Staff of Moses. Işık Yayıncılık Ticaret, 2015.]</ref>. --> }} '''Said Nursi''' ({{lang-ota|سعيد نورسی}}, {{lang-ku|Seîdê Nursî ,سەعید نوورسی}}<ref>{{cite book |title=پەیامی حەشر سەعید نوورسی |url=https://archive.org/details/renas_20160708_1107 |access-date=21 December 2019 |language=ku}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Seîdê Kurdî ji ber piştgiriya Şêx Seîd hatiye sirgunkirin |url=https://www.rudaw.net/kurmanci/kurdistan/09122013 |access-date=21 December 2019 |work=Rûdaw}}</ref>&lrm;; 1877<ref name="Sukran Vahide p 3" /> – 23 March 1960), also spelled '''Said-i Nursî''' atau '''Said-i Kurdî''',<ref>{{cite book |author1=Janet Klein |title=The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone |date=2011 |pages=106 & 116}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Şükran Vahide |title=Bediuzzaman Said Nursi: Author of the Risale-i Nur |date=2019 |publisher=The Other Press |page=195}}</ref> dan umumnyo diimbau jo gala kahormatan '''Bediüzzaman''' (aratinyo "kaajaiban zaman") atau '''Üstad''' (artinyo "guru")<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nur.org/treatise/biography/from_Bediuzzamans_life09.htm|title=nur.org|website=www.nur.org|access-date=2023-02-23|archive-date=2017-02-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201083110/http://www.nur.org/treatise/biography/from_Bediuzzamans_life09.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> di antaro pangikuiknyo, adolah saurang teolog Muslim Kurdi nan manulih ''Kulliyat Rasa'il al'Nur'' (Koleksi Risalah Nur), risalah tafsir Al-Qur'an nan mamiliki taba labiah dari enam ribu halaman.<ref name="Gerhard Böwering p. 482">Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone, Mahan Mirza, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, p. 482. {{ISBN|0691134847}}</ref><ref name="Ian S. Markham 2011 p 194">Ian S. Markham; Suendam Birinci; Suendam Birinci Pirim (2011). An Introduction to Said Nursi: Life, Thought and Writings. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, p 194. {{ISBN|978-1-4094-0770-6}}.</ref><ref>Said Nursi. ''Risalah An Nur: Menjawab yang Tak Terjawab Menjelaskan yang Tak Terjelaskan''. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers.</ref> Barangkek dari kapacayoannyo bahasonyo sains jo logika modern adolah jalan masa depan, inyo maanjuaan pangajaran ilimu agamo di sakolah sekuler jo sains modern di sakolah agamo.<ref name="Gerhard Böwering p. 482" /><ref name="Ian S. Markham 2011 p 194" /><ref>Said Nursi, ''Munazarat'', p. 86 "The religious sciences are the light of the conscience; the modern sciences are the light of the mind; only on the combining of the two does the truth emerge. The students’ aspiration will take flight with those two wings. When they are parted, it gives rise to bigotry in the one, and skepticism and trickery in the other."</ref> Said Nursi mainspirasi sabuah gerakan agamo<ref>Serif Mardin, Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, p. 23. {{ISBN|0887069967}}</ref> nan mamiliki peran penting dalam kabangkitan Islam di Turki dan kini mamiliki jutaan pagikuik di saluruah dunia.<ref>Şükran Vahide, Islam in Modern Turkey: An Intellectual Biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, p. 425. {{ISBN|0791482979}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstthings.com/article/2007/03/render-unto-atatuumlrk |first=Mustafa |last=Akyol |title=Render Unto Atatürk |date=March 2007 |website=[[First Things]] |access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> Pangikuiknyo acok disabuik ''"gerakan Nurcu"'' atau ''"Nur cemaati"''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balci |first1=Bayram |title=Fethullah Gu¨len's Missionary Schools in Central Asia and their Role in the Spreading of Turkism and Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_religion-state-society_2003-06_31_2/page/153 |journal=Religion, State and Society |date=June 2003 |volume=31 |issue=2 |page=153 |doi=10.1080/09637490308283|s2cid=145455130 }}</ref> Dalam sabuah publikasi pado 2008, anggota Nurcu di saluruah dunia dipakiroan mancapai 5 hinggo 6 juta dan taruih naik hinggo manjadi 9 juta, dengan sakitar 5.500 ''dershane''s atau ruang baraja tampek para pangikuiknyo mambaco tulisan-tulisan Nursi sacaro bajamaah.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Banchoff|first=Thomas|title=Religious Pluralism, Globalization, and World Politics|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2008|pages=237}}</ref> Inyo talok mambaco banyak buku dari ingatannyo. Misalnyo: "Jadi inyo [Molla Fethullah] mamutuihan untuak mauji ingatannyo dan manyarahan salinan karya Al-Hariri dari Basra (1054–1122) — juo tanamo dek kacerdasan jo kakuatan ingatannyo — disabuik Maqamat al- Hariri . Said Nursi mambaco ciek halaman sakali, mahafanyo, lalu maulangnyo di lua kapalo. Molla Fethullah manyatoan kaheranannyo."<ref>Şükran Vahide. (2005). ''Islam in Modern Turkey''. State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-6515-2}}</ref><!-- ==Early life== Said Nursi was born in the Kurdish village of Nurs near [[Hizan]] in the [[Bitlis Vilayet]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="intellectual bio">{{cite book|title=Islam in modern Turkey: an intellectual biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|first=Sükran|last=Vahide|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2005 |isbn= 978-0-7914-6515-8|page=3|quote=They [Said Nursî's parents] were among the settled Kurdish population of the geographical region the Ottomans called Kurdistan.}}</ref> He received his early education from scholars of his hometown, where he showed mastery in theological debates. After developing a reputation for Islamic knowledge, he was nicknamed "Bediüzzaman", meaning "The most unique and superior person of the time". He was invited by the governor of the [[Van Vilayet|Vilayet of Van]] to stay within his residency.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vahide|first=Şükran|page=28|title = Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|publisher=Islamic Book Trust|year=2011|isbn=978-967-5062-86-5}}</ref> In the library of the governor, Nursi gained access to an archive of scientific knowledge he had not had access to previously. Said Nursi also learned the [[Ottoman Turkish language]] there. During this time, he developed a plan for university education for the [[Six vilayets|Eastern provinces]] of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name=ibrm>{{cite book|editor=İbrahim M. Abu-Rabi|year=2003|title=Islam at the crossroads: On the life and thought of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|publisher=SUNY Press|pages= xvii, 6|isbn=978-0-7914-5700-9}}</ref> By combining scientific and religious (Islamic) education, the university was expected to advance the philosophical thoughts of these regions. Although subsequently he twice received funds for the construction of his university, and its foundations were laid in 1913, it was never completed due to war.{{Citation needed|date= January 2022}} Contrary to the practice of religious scholars at that time, Nursi himself studied and mastered almost all the physical and mathematical sciences, and later studied philosophy. In the course of time, modern sciences had been dropped from the religious schools curriculum, which had contributed directly to the Ottoman decline relative to the advance of the West. Nursi’s endeavor was to prove and demonstrate that Islam is compatible with modern sciences and progress, the Holy Book [[Quran]] was the source of true progress and civilization.{{Citation needed|date= January 2022}} The years up to the end of the First World War were the final decades of the Ottoman Empire and were, in the words of Nursi, the period of the ‘Old Said’. In additions to his endeavors in the field of learning, he has had active involvement in social life and the public domain. In the War, he commanded the militia forces on the Caucasian Front against the invading [[Russian Empire|Russians]], for which he as later awarded a War Medal. He would enter the trenches himself despite heavy shelling which earned him the admiration of the troops he commanded. It was during these expereinces that he allegedly wrote his Koranic commentary, Signs of Miraculousness dictating to a scribe while on horseback. His commentary argues that the Koran encompasses the knowledge which allows for modern science. The commentary, in Nursi’s words, forms a sort model for commentaries he hoped would be written in the future fusing Islam and modern science. Nursi was taken prisoner in March 1916 and held in [[Russia]] for two years before escaping in early 1918, and returning to Istanbul via Warsaw, Berlin, and Vienna.{{Citation needed|date= January 2022}} Nursi's influence concerned the incipient leader of the Turkish Republic, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]],<ref>David Tittensor, The House of Service: The Gulen Movement and Islam's Third Way, p 37. {{ISBN|0199336415}}</ref> which lead to Ataturk offering Nursi the post ‘Minister of Religious Affairs" for the eastern provinces of Turkey in attempt to make sure Nursi would not oppose Ataturk's regime, a post that Nursi famously refused.<ref>David Livingstone, Black Terror White Soldiers: Islam, Fascism and the New Age, p. 569. {{ISBN|1481226509}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Islam in modern Turkey: an intellectual biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|first=Sükran|last=Vahide|publisher=SUNY Press |year=2005 |quote=He offered Nursi Shaikh Sanusi’s post as ‘general preacher’ in the Eastern Provinces with a salary of 300 liras, a deputyship in the Assembly, and a post equivalent to that he had held in the Darü’l-Hikmeti’l-Islamiye, together with various perks such as a residence. Part 1;Childhood and Early Life,chapter 8}}</ref> This was the beginning of his split from the Kemalist circle.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} Conversely to the authority offered to Kursi, the secular government in the Republic of Turkey would later stigmatize his attempts to renew traditional faith. Modernization of intellectual culture in Anatolia thusly bifurcated along two approaches; assimilation of occidental understanding; and functionalization of extant liturgics.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} Nursi was the major contributor to the latter approach, and his early life as a memorization savant enabled him to use scripture for teaching with mnemonic metaphor.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} Friction between the two spheres of thought led to breakdowns of civility and the eventual reclusion of Nursi.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} After arriving in Istanbul, Nursi allegedly declared: "I shall prove and demonstrate to the world that the [[Quran]] is an undying, inexhaustible Sun!",<ref>{{cite book|title=Islam in modern Turkey: an intellectual biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|first=Sükran|last=Vahide|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2005}}</ref> and set out to write his comprehensive ''Risale-i Nur'', a collection of Said Nursi's own commentaries and interpretations of the Quran and Islam, as well as writings about his own life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bediuzzamansaidnursi.org/merakedilenler/said-nursinin-yesilayin-kurucusu-oldugu-dogru-mudur-bu-teskilatin-kurtulus-savasi-ile|title=Said Nursi'nin Yeşilay'ın kurucusu olduğu doğru mudur? Bu teşkilatın Kurtuluş Savaşı ile hiçbir ilgisinin olmadığı söylenmektedir. Buna ne dersiniz?|language=tr|trans-title=Is it true that Said Nursi was the founder of the Green Crescent? It is said that this organization has nothing to do with the War of Independence. How about that?|date=25 February 2012|website=Sorularla Risale}}</ref> == Teachings and movement == {{Quote2|Some words and teachings of Said Nursi: *I can live without bread, but I can't live without freedom. *Distress teaches vice. Despair is the source of misguidance; and darkness of heart, the source of distress of the spirit. *Belief is not restricted to a brief affirmation based on imitation; rather, it has degrees and stages of development. It is like a seed growing into a fully grown, fruit-bearing tree; like the sun's image in a mirror or in a drop of water to its images on the sea's surface and to the sun itself. *Attributing to anything or anyone more good than God has attributed to them is not a positive move, nor does it mean that you have done them any good. A single grain of truth is preferable to a bumper harvest of false imaginings. *On the face of the universe, the face of the earth, and the face of man are three stamps of dominicality one within the other and each showing samples of the others. -The First is the great stamp of Godhead, which is manifested through the mutual assistance, co-operation, and embracing and corresponding to one another of beings in the totality of the universe. This looks to “In the Name of God.” -The Second is the great stamp of divine mercifulness, which is manifested through the mutual resemblance and proportion, order, harmony, favour and compassion in the disposal, raising, and administration of plants and animals on the face of the earth. This looks to “In the Name of God, the Merciful.” -Then is the exalted stamp of divine compassionateness, which is manifested through the subtleties of divine beneficence, fine points of divine clemency, and rays of divine compassion on the face of man’s comprehensive nature. This looks to “the Compassionate” in “In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate.”<ref>The Words, The First Word, p. 18-19</ref> *The human mind, which plunges into causes, is bewildered at the upheavals of the passing of the world, and laments despairingly. While the conscience, which desires true existence, severs the connection with metaphorical beloveds and transient beings through crying like Abraham, I love not those that set, and it binds itself to the Truly Existent One, and Eternal Beloved. *O my ignorant soul! Know that the world and its beings are certainly ephemeral, but you may find a way leading to permanence in each ephemeral thing, and may see two flashes, two mysteries, of the manifestations of the Undying Beloved’s Beauty. *Yes, it is within the bounty that the bestowal is to be seen and the favour of the Most Merciful perceived. If you pass from bounty to bestowal, you will find the Bestower. Also, each work of the Eternally Besought One makes known the All-Glorious Maker’s Names like a missive. If you pass from the decoration to the meaning, you will find the One signified by way of His Names. Since you can find the kernel, the essence, of these ephemeral beings, obtain it. *Among beings there is no work which is not a most meaningful embodied word and does not cause to be read numerous of the Glorious Maker’s Names. Since beings are words, words of power, read their meanings and place them in your heart. Fearlessly cast words without meaning onto the winds of transience. Do not concern yourself looking behind them, needlessly occupying yourself.<ref>Said Nursi, The Words, The Seventeenth Word, p. 229-230</ref> *Minds should be enlightened with science, and hearts need to be illumined with religion. Words *If you want an enemy, the ego (nafs) is sufficient. If you want advice, death is sufficient. *Sin penetrates to the heart, darkens and hardens it until it extinguishes the light of belief. Each sin has a path that leads to unbelief. Unless that sin is swiftly obliterated by seeking God's forgiveness, it grows from a worm into a snake that gnaws at the heart. *Do what you do only for God's sake, start for God's sake, work for God's sake, and act within the sphere of God's good approval. ~ Said Nursi *The heart does not derive pure pleasure from what is impermanent. ~ Said Nursi *A thing's innate disposition does not lie. ~ Said Nursi *All true happiness, pure joy, sweet bounties, and untroubled pleasure lie in knowledge of God and love of God; they cannot exist without them. *The magnificent cosmos is a palace that has the sun and the moon as its lamps and the stars as its candles; time is like a rope or ribbon hung within it, on to which the Glorious Creator each year threads a new world. *Nature is a divine art; it cannot be the artist. It is a dominical book and cannot be the scribe. It is an embroidery and cannot be the embroiderer. It is a register and cannot be the accountant. It is the law and cannot be the power. *Sin penetrates to the heart, darkens and hardens it until it extinguishes the light of belief. Each sin has a path that leads to unbelief. Unless that sin is swiftly obliterated by seeking God's forgiveness, it grows from a worm into a snake that gnaws at the heart. *The fact that there is a unity in everything demonstrates that they are the works and artefacts of a single being. The universe is like a rosebud swathed in a thousand veils of unity. Or it is a single macroanthropos dressed in unities to the number of Divine Names and universal Divine works. *If knowledge lacks the insight of the heart, it is ignorance. *Do not suffer pain and torment without reason. Somebody All-Powerful and All-Compassionate owns everything. Rely on His Power and do not accuse His Compassion. Renounce grief and anxiety ad accept relief. Be rid of your troubles and find serenity. }} Humanity faced the greatest corruption of this period and the danger of unbelief, which was the greatest threat to humanity. Therefore, according to him, the greatest service in this period was the service of faith rescue, and Risale-i Nur, who did this duty properly, represented the great [[Mahdi]]sm of the End Times.<ref name="sorularlarisale.com">{{Cite web|url=https://sorularlarisale.com/makale/soru-ve-cevaplarla-risale-i-nurda-mehdiyet|title=SORU VE CEVAPLARLA RİSALE-İ NUR'DA MEHDİYET » Sorularla Risale|date=13 October 2010|website=Sorularla Risale}}</ref> However, he was carrying out the first and most important steps of this task, which he called "the service of faith and the Quran" with his books called "Risale-i nur", and was preparing the ground and program for another person to come after him.<ref name="sorularlarisale.com" /> The period believed to be the "golden age of Mahdi" will come in the future, and after this period that will last 30–40 years, irreligion will prevail again. According to him, the Doomsday would fall on the heads of the atheists in the Hijri calendar between 1530 and 1540.<ref name="Kastamonu Lahikası, s.26">Kastamonu Lahikası, s.26</ref> Said Nursi was exiled to the [[Isparta Province]] for, amongst other things, performing the call to prayer in the Arabic language.<ref name="McDowall2004">{{cite book|author=David McDowall|title=A Modern History of the Kurds: Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgDi9qFT41oC&pg=PA210|date=14 May 2004|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-416-0|pages=210–211}}</ref> After his teachings attracted people in the area, the governor of Isparta sent him to a village named Barla<ref>Sükran Vahide, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, p. 230. {{ISBN|967506286X}}</ref> where he wrote two-thirds of his [[Risale-i Nur]].<ref name="EI2">{{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=C.E. |last2=van Donzel |first2=E. |last3=Heinrichs |first3=W.P. |last4=Lecomte |first4=G. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |volume=VIII (Ned-Sam) |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, Netherlands|date=1995 |isbn=978-9004098343 |page=144|edition=New }}</ref> These manuscripts were sent to Sav, another village in the region, where people duplicated them in [[Arabic script]] (which was officially replaced by the modern [[Turkish alphabet]] in 1928).<ref name="McDowall2004" /><ref name="EI2"/> After being finished, these books were sent to Nursi's disciples all over Turkey via the "Nurcu postal system".<ref>{{ cite journal | last1 = Awang | first1 = Ramli | last2 = Yusoff | first2 = Kamaruzaman | last3 = Ebrahimi | first3 = Mansoureh | last4 = Yilmaz | first4 = Omer | title = A Challenge from Teaching to Social Movement: Bediüzzaman Said Nursi's Struggles for Modification in Turkey | journal = Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | page =446 | year = 2015 | doi = 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n6s1p444| doi-access = free }}</ref> Nursi repeatedly stated that all the persecutions and hardships inflicted on him by the secularist regime were God's blessings and that having destroyed the formal religious establishment, they had unwittingly left popular Islam as the only authentic faith of the Turks.<ref name="EI2" /> Besides these writings themselves, a major factor in the success of the movement may be attributed to the very method Nursi had chosen, which may be summarized with two phrases: 'mânevî jihad,' that is, 'jihad of the word' or 'non-physical jihad', and 'positive action.'<ref>Ian S. Markham, Engaging with Bediuzzaman Said Nursi: A Model of Interfaith Dialogue, p 15 [Quoting Şükran Vahide, The Biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi: the author of the Risale-i Nur (Istanbul, Sozler Publications 1992), p. 352]. {{ISBN|0754669319}}</ref><ref>Arvind Sharma, ''The World's Religions After September 11''. p 92. {{ISBN|0275996212}}</ref> Nursi considered materialism and atheism and their source materialist philosophy to be his true enemies in this age of science, reason, and civilization.<ref>Ian S. Markham, Suendam Birinci, Suendam Birinci Pirim, An Introduction to Said Nursi: Life, Thought and Writings. p 46. {{ISBN|1409407713}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ziaulhaq |first1=Mochamad |last2=Sen |first2=Hasbi |date=2021-07-31 |title=Transforming Hate into Compassion as an Islamic Nonviolent Thought of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/jw/article/view/13159 |journal=Wawasan: Jurnal Ilmiah Agama Dan Sosial Budaya |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.15575/jw.v6i1.13159 |s2cid=237460737 |issn=2502-3489}}</ref> He combated them with reasoned proofs in the Risale-i Nur, considering the Risale-i Nur as the most effective barrier against the corruption of society caused by these enemies. In order to be able to pursue this 'jihad of the word,' Nursi insisted that his students avoided any use of force and disruptive action. Through 'positive action,' and the maintenance of public order and security, the supposed damage caused by the forces of unbelief could be 'repaired' by the 'healing' truths of the Quran. Said Nursi lived much of his life in prison and in exile, persecuted by the secularist state for having invested in religious revival.<ref>Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone, Mahan Mirza, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, p. 482.</ref>--> == Hari tuo == Sairing makin populernyo gerakan Said Nursi, nan alah manyebar indak hanyo di kalangan intelektual tetapi juo militer, pamarentah satampek manangkoknyo jo alasan dugaan malanggar undang-undang nan mangamanatkan sekularisme, lalu mangirimnyo ka pangasiangan. Inyo dibebaskan dari tuduhan tersebut pado tahun 1956.<ref name="EI2">{{cite book|last1=Bosworth|first1=C.E.|last2=van Donzel|first2=E.|last3=Heinrichs|first3=W.P.|last4=Lecomte|first4=G.|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam|volume=VIII (Ned-Sam)|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, Netherlands|date=1995|isbn=978-9004098343|page=144|edition=New}}</ref> Pado akhir dekade hiduiknyo, Said Nursi bamukim di Kota [[Isparta]]. Sasudah negara mamperkenalkan sistem multi-partai, inyo manyarankan para pangikuiknyo untuak mamiliah Partai Demokrat nan dipimpin dek Adnan Menderes, nan mandorong pado kabebasan baragamo.<ref name="EI2" /> Said Nursi adolah panantang komunisme, manyabuik komunis sebagai bahayo terbesar kini ko. Pado tahun 1956, inyo diizinan mancetak tulisannyo. Buku-bukunyo dikumpuaan dan ditabikan di bawha judul Risale-i Nur ("Surat Cahaya Ilahi"). Inyo maningga dek panek sasudah malakuan parjalanan ka Urfa.<ref>Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi, Islam at the Crossroads: On the Life and Thought of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, p. xxiv. {{ISBN|0791457001}}</ref> Inyo dikubuaan di sabuah makam di subarang gua tampek lahianyo Nabi Ibrahi.<ref>Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi, Islam at the Crossroads: On the Life and Thought of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, p. xxiii. {{ISBN|0791457001}}</ref><ref>Ian S. Markham; Suendam Birinci; Suendam Birinci Pirim (2011). An Introduction to Said Nursi: Life, Thought and Writings. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, p 17. {{ISBN|978-1-4094-0770-6}}.</ref> Sasudah kudeta militer di Turki pado tahun 1960, sakalompok tentara nan balakangan dipimpin dek politisi sayap kanan Alparslan Türkeş mambongka kuburannyo dan mangubuannyo di tampek nan indak diketahui di dakek Isparta salamo Juli 1960 untuak mancegah pamujaan terhadap kuburannyo.<ref>[http://www.zaman.com/?bl=1960militarycoup&alt=&hn=36483 Nursi's Letters Found in Yassiada Archives] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605040258/http://www.zaman.com/?bl=1960militarycoup&alt=&hn=36483|date=5 June 2011}}, [[Zaman (newspaper)|Zaman]]</ref><ref>[http://yenisafak.com.tr/arsiv/2003/agustos/16/turkes03.html Yes to 27 May No to 28th] (in Turkish), [[Yeni Şafak|Turkish Newspaper Yeni Şafak]], 16 August 2003, last accessed 17 June 2014</ref> ==Dalam budaya populer== Sabuah film Turki ''Free Man'' bardasarkan biografi Nursi dibuek pado tahun 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1783298/|title=Free Man (2011) - IMDb|via=m.imdb.com}}</ref> ==Rujuakan== {{reflist}} ==Bibliografi== * {{cite book|author=Camilla T. Nereid|title=In the Light of Said Nursi: Turkish Nationalism and the Religious Alternative|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFfYAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, University of Bergen|isbn=978-1-85065-309-7}} * Sahiner, Necmettin, ''Son Sahitler 3'', Nesil Yayinlari, 2004. * {{cite book|author=Şükran Vahide|title=Islam in Modern Turkey: An Intellectual Biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdX-iggjrxwC|date=16 February 2012|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8297-1}} * {{cite book|author1=Ian S. Markham|author2=Suendam Birinci|author3=Suendam Birinci Pirim|title=An Introduction to Said Nursi: Life, Thought and Writings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtpM-ae-P6QC|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-0770-6}} ==Bacoan lanjuik== * {{cite book|author1=Angel Rabasa|author2=F. Stephen Larrabee|title=The Rise of Political Islam in Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbP6ATQYHWQC|date=17 June 2008|publisher=Rand Corporation|isbn=978-0-8330-4531-7}} * {{cite book|author=Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi‘|author-link=Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi‘|title=Islam at the Crossroads: On the Life and Thought of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r5bPyy9SWs4C|date=9 April 2003|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5700-9}} * {{cite book|author=Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi‘|author-link=Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi‘|title=Spiritual Dimensions of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi's Risale-I Nur: The Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-yIcHAd7vawC|date=24 July 2008|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7815-8}} * {{cite book|author=Fred A. Reed|title=Anatolia Junction: A Journey Into Hidden Turkey|url=https://archive.org/details/anatoliajunction0000reed|url-access=registration|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Talonbooks, Limited|isbn=978-0-88922-426-1}} * {{cite book|author=Thomas F. Michel|title=Reflections on Said Nursî's Views on Muslim-Christian Understanding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLmIAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Söz Basim Yayin|isbn=978-975-6438-02-2}} * Thomas F. Michel (2013). ''Insights from the Risale-i Nur: Said Nursi's Advice for Modern Believers'' Clifton, NJ: Tughra Books {{ISBN|978-1597846783}} * {{cite book|author=Serif Mardin|author-link=Serif Mardin|title=Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=og-Q_JA28NwC|year=1989|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-88706-996-3}} * {{cite book|author1=Ibrahim Kalin|author2=Oxford University Press|author-link2=Oxford University Press|title=Islam in Turkey: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxomwT0_zZMC|date=1 May 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-980651-5}} * Mustafa Gökhan Sahin, [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1949-3606.2011.00097.x/abstract ''Said Nursi and the Nur Movement in Turkey: An Atomistic Approach''] * {{cite book|author1=Colin Turner|author2=Hasan Horkuc|title=Said Nursi: Makers of Islamic Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxM4LgAACAAJ|date=15 June 2009|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-774-0}} [[Kategori:Tokoh Kurdi]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Islam Turki]] [[Kategori:Cendekiawan Sunni]] iay7c1219elca3sya7el0zdlt7qbr8g 0 388826 3351272 2504078 2026-08-05T22:01:30Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 3 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Meningitis | image = Meninges-en.svg | caption = Meningen pado [[sistem saraf pusek]]: [[dura mater]], [[arachnoid mater]], jo [[pia mater]]. | field = [[Panyakik mamindah (spesialisasi)|Panyakik mamindah]], [[neurologi]] | symptoms = [[Damam]], [[sakik kapalo]], [[kaku kuduak]]<ref name=CDC2014B/> | complications = [[Pakak]], [[epilepsi]], [[hidrosefalus]], [[defisit kognitif]]s<ref name=Lancet/><ref name=NEJM/> | onset = | duration = | causes = Virus, bakteri, dan lainnyo<ref name=Ginsberg/> | risks = | diagnosis = [[Pungsi lumbar]]<ref name=CDC2014B/> | differential = [[Ensefalitis]], [[tumor utak]], [[lupus]], [[panyakik Lyme]], [[kajang]], [[sindrom malignansi neuroleptik]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferri |first=Fred F. |title=Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders |date=2010 |publisher=Elsevier/Mosby |isbn=978-0-323-07699-9 |edition=2nd |location=Philadelphia |page=Chapter M}}</ref> [[naegleriasis]]<ref name="MMWR2008">{{Cite journal |last=Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) |date=May 2008 |title=Primary amebic meningoencephalitis – Arizona, Florida, and Texas, 2007 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5721a1.htm |url-status=live |journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |volume=57 |issue=21 |pages=573–27 |pmid=18509301 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402060714/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5721a1.htm |archive-date=2 April 2020 |access-date=14 October 2017}}</ref> | prevention = [[Vaksinasi]]<ref name=Lancet/> | treatment = | medication = [[Antibiotik]], [[antivirus]], [[steroid]]<ref name=CDC2014B/><ref name=CDC2016Vir/><ref name=IDSA/> | frequency = 7.7 million (2019)<ref name="gdb2019">{{Cite web |title=Global Disease Burden 2019 |url=https://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-2019 |access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> | deaths = 236.000 (2019)<ref name="gdb2019" /> }} '''Meningitis''' adolah paradangan akut atau kronik pado lapisan selaput nan malinduangi utak jo sumsum tulang balakang, nan sacaro utuah banamo meningen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Putz|first1=Katherine|last2=Hayani|first2=Karen|last3=Zar|first3=Fred Arthur|year=2013|title=Meningitis|journal=Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice|volume=40|issue=3|pages=707–726|doi=10.1016/j.pop.2013.06.001|pmid=23958365}}</ref> Gejala nan paliang umum adolah damam, sakik kapalo, jo kaku kuduak.<ref name="CDC2014B">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/bacterial.html|title=Bacterial Meningitis|date=1 April 2014|website=CDC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305021530/http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/bacterial.html|archive-date=5 March 2016|access-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Gejala lain nan dapek turuik sato di antaronyo panurunan kasadaran, mual, muntah, ilang kamampuan mancaliak cahayo (fotofobia) sarato suaro bisiang.<ref name="CDC2014B" /> Anak-anak ketek acok muncua jo gejala nan indak spefisik cando iritabilitas (rewel), mangantuak, atau payah makan.<ref name="CDC2014B" /> Kadang muncua juo ruam nan indak mamucek.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/meningitis/|title=NHS medical conditions meningitis|date=20 October 2017|website=NHS|access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> Paradangan iko dapek disababkan dek adonyo infeksi dari virus, bakteri, atau mikroorganisme lain. Panyabab-panyabab nan bukan infeksi di antaronyo kaganasan (kanker), pardarahan subarachnoid, panyakik paradangan kronis (sarkoidosis), sarato ubek-ubek tatantu.<ref name="Ginsberg">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ginsberg L|date=March 2004|title=Difficult and recurrent meningitis|journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry|volume=75 Suppl 1|issue=90001|pages=i16–21|doi=10.1136/jnnp.2003.034272|pmc=1765649|pmid=14978146}}</ref> Meningitis dapek mangancam jiwa dek dakeknyo paradangan jo utak sarato sumsum tulang balakang; dek sabab itu, kondisi iko tamasuak dalam kadaruratan medis.<ref name="Lancet">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Sáez-Llorens X, McCracken GH|date=June 2003|title=Bacterial meningitis in children|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-06-21_361_9375/page/2139|journal=Lancet|volume=361|issue=9375|pages=2139–48|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13693-8|pmid=12826449|s2cid=6226323}}</ref><ref name="IDSA">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, Kaufman BA, Roos KL, Scheld WM, Whitley RJ|date=November 2004|title=Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2004-11-01_39_9/page/1267|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=39|issue=9|pages=1267–84|doi=10.1086/425368|pmid=15494903|doi-access=free}}</ref> Pungsi lumbal, pamaresoan jo mamasuakkan jarum ka kanal spinal (tulang balakang) untuak mangumpuakan cairan serebrospinal (CSS), dapek mandiagnosis meningitis.<ref name="CDC2014B" /><ref name="IDSA" /> Babarapo jinih meningitis dapek ditagah dek imunisasi jo vaksin meningokokus, gondok, pneumokokus, jo Hib.<ref name="Lancet" /> Maagiah antibiotik untuak urang nan tapapar jo jinih meningitis tatantu ka sangek baguno.<ref name="CDC2014B" /> Tatalaksana utamo untuak maubek meningitis akut tadiri ateh antibotil jo kadang ubek antivirus.<ref name="CDC2014B" /><ref name="CDC2016Vir">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/viral.html|title=Viral Meningitis|date=26 November 2014|website=CDC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203230/http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/viral.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Kortikosteroid juo dapek dijadikan ubek panagah komplikasi dari paradangan nan balabiahan.<ref name="NEJM">{{Cite journal|vauthors=van de Beek D, de Gans J, Tunkel AR, Wijdicks EF|date=January 2006|title=Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in adults|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-01-05_354_1/page/44|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=354|issue=1|pages=44–53|doi=10.1056/NEJMra052116|pmid=16394301}}</ref><ref name="IDSA" /> Meningitis dapek manjadi sangek serius-jangko lamo cando pakak, epilepsi, hidrosefalus, defisit kognitif, utamonyo nan indak lansuang diubek capek.<ref name="Lancet" /><ref name="NEJM" /> Pado 2019, prevalensi meningitis mancapai 7,7 juta urang di saluruah dunia.<ref name="gdb2019" /> Hal iko manyababkan 236.000 maninggga, manurun pado 1990<ref name="gdb2019" /> nan mancapai 433.000. Barubek nan batua dapek mengurangi risiko kamatian dek bakteri meningitis kurang dari 15%.<ref name="CDC2014B" /> Wabah meningitis bakterialis tajadi antaro Desember jo Juni tiok tahunnyo di area sub-Sahara Afrika nan tanamo juo jo sabuak meningitis.<ref name="WHO2015">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs141/en/|title=Meningococcal meningitis Fact sheet N°141|date=November 2015|website=WHO|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305103408/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs141/en/|archive-date=5 March 2016|access-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Wabah nan labiah ketek dapek juo tajadi di area lain di dunia.<ref name="WHO2015" /> Kato meningitis barasa dari bahaso Yunani μῆνιγξ ''meninx'', "membran/selaput", jo imbuahan akhiran ''-itis'', "inflamasi".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QGaoiFCIDMC&pg=PT4755|title=Mosby's pocket dictionary of medicine, nursing & health professions|date=2010|publisher=Mosby/Elsevier|isbn=978-0-323-06604-4|edition=6th|location=St. Louis|page=traumatic meningitis|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910145715/https://books.google.com/books?id=_QGaoiFCIDMC&pg=PT4755|archive-date=10 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=A Greek-English Lexicon|vauthors=Liddell HG, Scott R|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1940|location=Oxford|chapter=μῆνιγξ|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmh%3Dnigc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108025517/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmh%3Dnigc|archive-date=8 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Panyakik mamindah]] 0h0erxd7y20x8s8zs0j4mmd97oucvv3 0 389041 3351258 3161035 2026-08-05T21:39:20Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351258 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Catdryfood.jpg|jmpl|Kuciang nan sadang mamakan makanan kuciang jinih kariang.]] '''Makanan kuciang''' adolah [[makanan]] khusus nan baâgiah dan dimakan dek [[kuciang|kuciang domestik]]. Makanan kuciang haruih punyo kabutuhan gizi nan dibutuhkan dek kuciang,<ref>{{en}} {{cite journal | doi = 10.2460/javma.2005.226.512 | last = Knight | first = A | year = 2005 | title = In defense of vegetarian cat food | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-veterinary-medical-association-journal_2005-02-15_226_4/page/512 | journal = Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association | volume = 226 | issue = 4 | pages = 512–3 | pmid=15742685}} Diakses 05 Juni 2014.</ref> iyolah makanan nan banyak manganduang [[vitamin]] dan [[asam amino]].<ref>{{en}} Howell E. ''Food Enzymes for Health & Longevity'' Woodstock Valley, CT, US: Omangod Press. xx. 1980. Diakses 05 Juni 2014.</ref><ref name="perry">{{en}} Perry T. [http://www.preciouspets.org/truth.htm Commercial Pet Food Truth – What’s Really For Dinner] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010124024/http://www.preciouspets.org/truth.htm |date=2012-10-10 }}. Diakses 05 Juni 2014.</ref> Makanan nan manganduang asam amino [[Taurina|taurin]] contohnyo iyolah [[dagiang]]. Kakurangan zat [[Taurina|taurin]] pado jangko wakatu panjang, misalnyo jiko kuciang baâgiah [[makanan anjiang]] nan manganduang saketek taurin, dapek barakibat [[degenerasi]] [[retina]], kahilangan panglihatan, dan karusakan jantuang.<ref name=aquirre>{{en}} {{cite journal| last1= Aquirre | first1 = GD | year = 1978 | title = Retinal degeneration associated with the feeding of dog foods to cats | journal = J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. | volume = 172 | pages = 791–796}}</ref> ==Makanan kuciang nan umum== {{sadang karajo}} ===Makanan kariang=== [[Berkas:Katzenfutter.JPG|jmpl|Makanan kucing jenis kering.]] ===Makanan basah=== [[Berkas:Canned_Cat_Food1.jpg|jmpl|Makanan kucing jenis basah.]] ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} ==Bacoan labiah lanjuik == * {{Commons category-inline|Cat food|makanan kuciang}} * Dari ''Food and Drug Administration'' dan ''Center For Veterinary Medicine'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.fda.gov/cvm/petfoods.htm Pet Foods]'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.fda.gov/cvm/petfoodflier.html Information For Consumers - FDA's Regulation Of Pet Food]'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.fda.gov/cvm/market.htm Information For Consumers - Information On Marketing A Pet Food Product]'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.fda.gov/cvm/petlabel.htm Information For Consumers - Interpreting Pet Food Labels]'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.fda.gov/cvm/labelint.htm Information For Consumers - Interpreting Pet Food Labels - Special Use Foods]'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.fda.gov/cvm/may99.html#2564 Vegetarian Diets For Pets?]'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.fda.gov/cvm/FOI/DFreport.htm Report on the risk from pentobarbital in dog food]'' * Dari ''Association of American Feed Control Officials'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.aafco.org/Portals/0/Public/petfood_regulations.pdf Regulating Pet Foods (pdf)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724212818/http://www.aafco.org/Portals/0/Public/petfood_regulations.pdf |date=2011-07-24 }}'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.aafco.org/Portals/0/Public/Q-AND-A-REGARDING-PETFOODREGS.PDF Questions and Answers Regarding Pet Food Regulations (pdf)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117095239/http://www.aafco.org/Portals/0/Public/Q-AND-A-REGARDING-PETFOODREGS.PDF |date=2009-01-17 }}'' * Dari ''[http://maxshouse.com/ Max's House] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416124508/http://maxshouse.com/ |date=2021-04-16 }}'' ** {{en}} ''[http://maxshouse.com/feline_nutrition.htm Feline Nutrition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604212727/http://maxshouse.com/feline_nutrition.htm |date=2011-06-04 }}'' ** {{en}} ''[http://maxshouse.com/nutrition/aafco_cat_food_nutrient_profiles.htm Cat Food Nutrient Profiles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529172000/http://maxshouse.com/nutrition/aafco_cat_food_nutrient_profiles.htm |date=2015-05-29 }}'' ** {{en}} ''[http://maxshouse.com/feline_nutrition.htm#Dry_Food_vs_Canned_Food.__Which_is_reall Dry food v/s canned (wet) food] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604212727/http://maxshouse.com/feline_nutrition.htm#Dry_Food_vs_Canned_Food.__Which_is_reall |date=2011-06-04 }}'' * Lainnya ** {{en}} ''[http://www.vegsoc.org/info/catfood.html The Vegetarian Society UK on concerns relating to a vegetarian diet for cats] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105093636/http://www.vegsoc.org/info/catfood.html |date=2008-01-05 }}'' ** {{en}} ''[http://www.alternet.org/story/18767?page=entire The Cat That Ate Tofu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629173031/http://www.alternet.org/story/18767?page=entire |date=2011-06-29 }}'' Artikel dari ''[http://www.alternet.org/ Alternet]'' tentang makanan kucing vegan ** {{en}} ''[http://www.animalvoices.ca/shows/vegan_pets Vegan Pet Food: A Discussion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224082715/http://www.animalvoices.ca/shows/vegan_pets |date=2009-02-24 }}'' Audio wawancara dari ''[http://www.animalvoices.ca/ Animal Voices]'' ** {{en}} {{cite journal |author=Buffington CA |title=''Dry foods and risk of disease in cats'' |journal=Can. Vet. J. |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=561–3 |date=Juni 2008 |pmid=18624064 |pmc=2387258 }} ** {{en}} ''[http://www.api4animals.org/facts.php?p=359&more=1 Get The Facts - What's Really In Pet Food] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081017172555/http://www.api4animals.org/facts.php?p=359&more=1 |date=2008-10-17 }}'' dari ''Animal Protection Institute'' {{Authority control}} {{Binatang-stub}} [[Kategori:Hewan]] 56i03ecq3xhg8o51ka995xopxqssc9a 0 389186 3351188 3162361 2026-08-05T15:44:18Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 3351188 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Jameh Mosque of Sanandaj, 5 Ramadan 1437 (13950322141105962).jpg||thumb|right|300px|urang [[Islam]] nan Salat dipicayo untuak spiritualime.]]'''Spiritualisme''' adolah aliran pamikiran [[metafisika]] nan manorangkan basonyo hiduik tu batuah dan juo marupoan kategori dari sadonyo kayakinan/pandangan [[agamo]] (dalam monisme jo dualisme) dari [[Zaman Batu|zaman kuno]] hinggo [[zaman modern]]. Dangan kato lain picayo pado kabaradoan hal ghoib nan mungkin indak masuak dek [[Pikiran|ake]] manusia.<ref>{{ja}} 唯心論は必ずしも物体の存在を否定するものではない。</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author={{ja}} 藤田尚志 |title=唯心論(スピリチュアリスム)と心霊論(スピリティスム) : ベルクソン哲学における催眠・テレパシー・心霊研究(研究論文) |journal=フランス語フランス文学研究 |ISSN=0425-4929 |publisher=日本フランス語フランス文学会 |year=2007 |volume=91 |pages=168-183 |naid=110006402760 |doi=10.20634/ellf.91.0_168 |url=https://doi.org/10.20634/ellf.91.0_168}}</ref> Ado katalibekan emosional nan kuek, baiak pado panolakan maupun panerimoan tahadok spiritualisme iko nan mambuek suliknyo suatu uraian imparsial paguno untuak mambuktikannyo. Ado pulo spiritisme nan babedo jo spiritualisme nan marupoan katurunan langsuang atau pangembangan dari animisme “nan picayo dek sadonyo bando dan kajadian alam bajiwa”, dan dinamisme “nan picayo dek ado manifestasi-menifestasi dari kakuatan tatantu dibaliak sadonyo dinamika semesta dan fenomena-fenomena alam”. Pangaruah dari kaduo cikal-bakal spiritisme iko taraso sangek kuek di pado masyarakaik [[primitif]]. ==Kapicayoan == Karakteristik spiritual dibangun dek [[agamo]], kayakinan, karohanian, kaikhlasan, intuisi, pangatahuan, cinta nan tulus, raso mamiliki, raso bahubuangan jo alam semesta, panghormatan pado kahidupan dan maágiah kakuatan pribadi dan tantunyo partolongan antar umaik baragamo. ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} ==Pautan lua== {{Sister project links |1={{PAGENAME}}|author=UdaKami|auto=no|b=book:{{PAGENAME}}|collapsible=yes|commons=no|d=Q829348|display={{PAGENAME}}|m=no|mw=no|n=no|position=left|q=no|qid=no|s=no|species=no|species_author=no|style=Use with caution. (And don't use for evil!)|v={{PAGENAME}}|voy=no|b=y|wikt=rantau}} * {{Commons category-inline|Spiritualism|{{PAGENAME}}}} * [http://www.spiritist.org/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=30 International Spiritist Council] * [http://www.spiritwritings.com/library.html Spiritualist E-Texts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117124750/http://www.spiritwritings.com/library.html |date=2008-01-17 }} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14221a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia: Spiritism] * [http://www.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Spiritualism/ Google mirror of the Open Directory Project: Spiritualism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208160629/http://www.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Spiritualism/ |date=2008-12-08 }} * [http://www.survivalafterdeath.org/articles.htm Collection of Spiritualist E-Texts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311063503/http://www.survivalafterdeath.org/articles.htm |date=2007-03-11 }} * [http://www.spirithistory.com/ John B. Buescher's website on the history of Spiritualism] * [http://www.gerald-massey.org.uk/massey/cnr_miscellanea_tracts_3.htm#74_01_25 Poet and Egyptologist Gerald Massey on 'Why I Became a Spiritualist'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310233809/http://www.gerald-massey.org.uk/massey/cnr_miscellanea_tracts_3.htm#74_01_25 |date=2007-03-10 }} * [http://www.mysteriouspeople.com/Katie-King.htm Florence Cook and Katie King. The story of a Spiritualist medium] * [http://www.spiritualist.tv Spiritualist Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304181608/https://spiritualist.tv/ |date=2023-03-04 }} * [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath322/kmath322.htm Spiritualism and Electromagnetism] at MathPages * [http://www.spiritualists.org Spiritualist Seance Photography and Spiritualist Museum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218172904/http://www.spiritualists.org/ |date=2009-02-18 }} * Andrew Lang, [http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/852-Fetishism-and-Spiritualism.html Fetishism and Spiritualism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202042908/http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/852-Fetishism-and-Spiritualism.html |date=2013-02-02 }}, ''The Making of Religion'', (Chapter VIII), Longmans, Green, and C°, London, New York and Bombay, 1900, pp. 147-159. {{agama-stub}} [[Kategori:Spiritualisme| ]] [[Kategori:Kapicayoan]] kih9sawe58zlmf6t27ujnwdcpot3z5k 0 389197 3351281 3159301 2026-08-05T22:12:13Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 5 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351281 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Exoplanet Comparison Kepler-10 b.png|jmpl|350px|Ilustrasi ukuran bumi super [[Kepler-10 b]] (suok) babandiang jo bumi (kida).]] '''Bumi''' '''super''' adolah [[planet lua surya]] jo massa lebiah gadang dari [[Bumi]], tapi jauah di bawah [[raksasa es]] Tata Surya ajak [[Uranus]] dan [[Neptunus]], nan masiang-masiang punyo 14,5 dan 17 kali massa Bumi.<ref name="Valencia2">{{Cite journal|last=Valencia|first=V.|last2=Sasselov|first2=D. D.|last3=O'Connell|first3=R. J.|date=2007|title=Radius and structure models of the first super-earth planet|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-02-10_656_1/page/545|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=656|issue=1|pages=545–551|arxiv=astro-ph/0610122|bibcode=2007ApJ...656..545V|doi=10.1086/509800}}</ref> Istilah "Bumi super" hanyo mangacu pado massa gadangnyo planet, dan indak tasirek apo pun tantang kondisi parmukoan atau [[Kalayakhunian planet|kelaikhunian]]. Istilah alternatif "katai gas" mungkin labiah akurat untuak inyo nan barado di ujuang skala massa nan labiah tinggi, bilo " [[Neptunus mini]]" iyolah istilah nan labiah umum. == Definisi == Sacaro umum, Bumi super ditantuan dek [[massa]]nyo, dan istilah iko indak manjalehan suhu, komposisi, sifaik orbit, kalaikhunian, atau lingkuangan [[alam]]. Samantaro babarapo sumber umumnyo satuju jo bateh atas iyolah 10 kali [[massa Bumi]]<ref name="Valencia2"/><ref name="Fortney">{{Cite journal|last=Fortney|first=J. J.|last2=Marley|first2=M. S.|last3=Barnes|first3=J. W.|date=2007|title=Planetary Radii across Five Orders of Magnitude in Mass and Stellar Insolation: Application to Transits|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-04-20_659_2/page/1661|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=659|issue=2|pages=1661–1672|arxiv=astro-ph/0612671|bibcode=2007ApJ...659.1661F|doi=10.1086/512120}}</ref><ref name="Charbonneau-GJ1214b">{{Cite journal|last=Charbonneau|first=D.|displayauthors=etal|date=2009|title=A super-Earth transiting a nearby low-mass star|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2009-12-17_462_7275/page/891|journal=Nature|volume=462|issue=7275|pages=891–894|arxiv=0912.3229|bibcode=2009Natur.462..891C|doi=10.1038/nature08679|pmid=20016595}}</ref> (~69% dari massa [[Uranus]], nan marupoan planet raksasa Tata Surya jo massa taketek) dan batas bawah bavariasi dari 1 <ref name="Valencia2" /> atau 1,9 <ref name="Charbonneau-GJ1214b" /> hinggo 5 kali massa Bumi<ref name="Fortney" /> baikuti dek babagai definisi lain nan tabik di media populer.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Spotts|first=P. N.|date=28 April 2007|title=Canada's orbiting telescope tracks mystery 'super Earth'|url=http://www.thespec.com/news-story/2157544-canada-s-orbiting-telescope-tracks-mystery-super-earth-/|website=The Hamilton Spectator|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106163443/http://www.thespec.com/news-story/2157544-canada-s-orbiting-telescope-tracks-mystery-super-earth-/|archive-date=2015-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=11 November 2007|title=Life could survive longer on a super-Earth|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19626295.300-life-could-survive-longer-on-a-superearth.html|journal=New Scientist|issue=2629}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=10 April 2008|title=A team of ICE/IEEC astronomers announces the discovery of a possible terrestrial-type exoplanet orbiting a star in the constellation of Leo|url=http://www.ice.csic.es/en/view_new.php?NID=18|publisher=Institut de Ciències de l'Espai|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301185812/http://www.ice.csic.es/en/view_new.php?NID=18|archive-date=1 March 2012|access-date=2012-04-28|url-status=dead}}</ref> Istilah "Bumi super" paguno juo dek para astronom untuak marujuak pado planet nan labiah gadang dari planet sarupo Bumi (dari 0,8 hinggo 1,2 kali jari-jari Bumi), tapi labiah ketek dari [[Neptunus mini]] (dari 2 hinggo 4 kali jari-jari Bumi).<ref name="Fressin et al.">{{Cite journal|last=Fressin|first=François|displayauthors=etal|date=2013|title=The false positive rate of Kepler and the occurrence of planets|journal=Astrophysical Journal|volume=766|issue=2|pages=81|arxiv=1301.0842|bibcode=2013ApJ...766...81F|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/766/2/81}}</ref><ref name="doi.org">{{Cite journal|last=Fulton|first=Benjamin J.|last2=Petigura|first2=Erik A.|last3=Howard|first3=Andrew W.|last4=Isaacson|first4=Howard|last5=Marcy|first5=Geoffrey W.|last6=Cargile|first6=Phillip A.|last7=Hebb|first7=Leslie|last8=Weiss|first8=Lauren M.|last9=Asher Johnson|first9=John|displayauthors=1|year=2017|title=The California-Kepler Survey. III. A Gap in the Radius Distribution of Small Planets|journal=The Astronomical Journal|volume=154|issue=3|page=109|arxiv=1703.10375|bibcode=2017AJ....154..109F|doi=10.3847/1538-3881/aa80eb}}</ref> Definisi iko dibuek dek operator [[teleskop lua angkaso Kepler]].<ref name="Borucki et al.">{{Cite journal|last=Borucki|first=William J.|displayauthors=etal|date=2011|title=Characteristics of planetary candidates observed by Kepler, II: Analysis of the first four months of data|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=736|issue=1|pages=19|arxiv=1102.0541|bibcode=2011ApJ...736...19B|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/736/1/19}}</ref> Babarapo panulis labiah lanjuik manyarankan dek istilah Bumi super mungkin tabateh pado planet babatu tanpa atmosfer nan signifikan, atau planet nan indak hanyo punyo atmosfer tapi jua punyo parmukoan padek atau lautan jo bateh nan tajam antaro caiaran dan atmosfer, nan indak dipunyo dek ka[[ampek]] planet raksasa Tata Surya.<ref name="planetmodels">{{Cite journal|last=Seager|first=S.|last2=Kuchner|first2=M.|last3=Hier-Majumder|first3=C. A.|last4=Militzer|first4=B.|date=2007|title=Mass–radius relationships for solid exoplanets|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-11-10_669_2/page/1279|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=669|issue=2|pages=1279–1297|arxiv=0707.2895|bibcode=2007ApJ...669.1279S|doi=10.1086/521346}}</ref> Planet di ateh 10 kali massa Bumi disabuik [[Eksoplanetologi|planet padat masif]],<ref name="mass/radius sold">{{Cite journal|last=Seager|first=S.|year=2007|title=Mass‐Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-11-10_669_2/page/1279|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=669|issue=2|pages=1279–1297|arxiv=0707.2895|bibcode=2007ApJ...669.1279S|doi=10.1086/521346}}</ref> [[mega-Bumi]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-06/hcfa-afa053014.php |title=Astronomers find a new type of planet: The 'mega-Earth' |access-date=2023-04-28 |archive-date=2019-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412140729/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-06/hcfa-afa053014.php |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name="t6x29ntnQb0">{{Cite web|last=Dimitar Sasselov|date=2 June 2014|title=Exoplanets: From Exhilarating to Exasperating, 22:59, Kepler-10c: The 'Mega-Earth'|url=http://aas.org/media-press/archived-aas-press-conference-webcasts}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6x29ntnQb0 YouTube]</ref> atau [[Raksasa gas|planet raksasa gas]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mayor|first=M.|last2=Pepe|first2=F.|last3=Lovis|first3=C.|last4=Oueloz|first4=D.|last5=Udry|first5=S.|date=2008|title=A Decade of Extrasolar Planets around Normal Stars|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521897846|editor-last=Livio|editor-first=M.|chapter=The quest for very low-mass planets|editor-last2=Sahu|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Valenti|editor-first3=J.}}</ref> tagantuang pado apakah inyo tadiri ateh sabagian gadang batu dan es atau sabagian gadang gas. ==Caliak pulo== * {{Commons category-inline|Super-Earths|{{PAGENAME}}}} * [[Bumi]] ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} {{Astronomi-stub}} qln8e6rg0779r09soen8pasq12kk8cw 0 389597 3351238 3162595 2026-08-05T21:04:13Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 4 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351238 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Kalatiahan mental|synonyms=Lenyai mental, gangguan kalatiahan, neurasthenia|symptoms=[[Kalatiahan emosional]], [[Empati|depersonalisasi]], capaian diri bakurang, [[Lenyai|Lenyai]]|complications=|onset=|duration=|types=|causes=|risks=|diagnosis=|differential=[[Gangguan depresi mayor]]|prevention=|treatment=|medication=|prognosis=|frequency=|deaths=|image=File:Headache-1557872 960 720.jpg|image_size=300px|caption=Urang nan sadang [[stres psikologis]]}}'''Muak karajo, kalatiahan mental''' atau '''kalatiahan karajo''' (bahaso Inggirih: '''''burnout''''' atau '''''occupational burnout''''') adolah istilah psikologi nan digunokan untuak manggambarkan raso latiah, panek, jo indak tacapai dek tuntutan nan talampau mambabani tanago jo kamampuan sasaurang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tirto.id/mengenal-letih-mental-atau-burnout-saat-pandemi-gejala-penyebab-f3ug|title=Mengenal Letih Mental Atau Burnout Saat Pandemi, Gejala & Penyebab|website=tirto.id|language=id|access-date=31/5/2023}}</ref> Kalatiahan karajo marupokan gejala nan muncua dek panek jo latiah.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ahn|first=Juyeon|date=2021|url=https://renebook.com/mengapa-aku-mengalami-burnout-karya-ahn-juyeon/|title=Mengapa Aku Mengalami Burnout?|location=Jakarta|publisher=Rene Book|pages=11|translator-last=Gitta|translator-first=Ananda Lestari|url-status=live}}</ref> Istilah iko partamo kali ditanamokan dek [[Herbert J. Freudenberger]] pado taun 1974. Panalitian tantang topik iko mulonyo dilakukan di bidang pandidikan, tarutamo pado guru nan mangalami panurunan kinerja nan disababkan dek kalatiahan mental.<ref name="EBSCOhost">Canter, M. B., & Freudenberger, L. (2001). Herbert J. Freudenberger (1926&#x2013;1999). ''[[American Psychologist]]'', 56(12), 1171. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.</ref> == Arati == Manuruik Organisasi Kasihatan Dunia atau [[Organisasi Kasihatan Dunia|World Health Organization]] (WHO), kalatiahan karajo adolah [[:id:Sindrom|sindrom]] nan dihasiakan dek [[stres takaik karajo]] kronis, jo gejala nan ditandoi jo "raso abih tanago atau lenyai; paningkatan jarak mental urang dari karajonyo, atau raso negatif atau sinisme nan takaik jo karajo urang; jo mangurangi pancapaian karajo". Meskipun kalatiahan dapek mampangaruahi kasihatan jo dapek manjadi alasan urang maubuangi [[:id:Pelayanan_kesehatan|layanan kasihatan]], hal itu surang indak diklasifikasikan dek WHO sabagai [[:id:Penyakit|kondisi medis]] atau gangguan mental. WHO juo manyatokan baso "''Burn-out'' marujuak sacaro khusus pado fenomena dalam konteks karajo jo indak buliah diterapkan untuak manggambarkan pangalaman di bidang iduik nan lain".<ref name="WHO-2019">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/burn-out/en/|title=Burn-out an "occupational phenomenon": International Classification of Diseases|date=28 May 2019|website=WHO|access-date=31/5/2023}}</ref> Organisasi Kasihatan Dunia mampublikasikan definisi baru tantang kalatiahan karajo sabagai sabuah sindrom, per Januari 2022.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/05/28/727637944/who-redefines-burnout-as-a-syndrome-linked-to-chronic-stress-at-work WHO Redefines Burnout As A 'Syndrome' Linked To Chronic Stress At Work]</ref> Deskripsi kalatiahan karajo manuruik Organisasi Kasihatan Dunia adolah:{{quote|''Burnout'' adolah sindrom (kumpulan gejala) nan dikonseptualisasikan sabagai akibaik dari stres jangko lamo di tampek karajo nan alun barasia diolah. Hal iko ditandoi jo tigo dimensi: 1) raso abih tanago atau lenyai; 2) paningkatan jarak mental urang dari karajo, atau raso negativisme atau sinisme nan takaik jo karajonyo; jo 3) raso kurangnyo pancapaian karajo. ''Burn-out'' marujuak sacaro khusus pado fenomena dalam konteks karajo sainggo indak buliah dipakai untuak manjalehan pangalaman di bidang iduik nan lain. <!-- Burnout is a syndrome conceptualized as resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed. It is characterised by three dimensions: 1) feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion; 2) increased mental distance from one’s job, or feelings of negativism or cynicism related to one's job; and 3) a sense of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment. Burn-out refers specifically to phenomena in the occupational context and should not be applied to describe experiences in other areas of life. -->}}Stamm, B (2005) dalam ProQUOL Manual manjalehan kalatiahan mental dalam perspektif panalitian, yaitu diasosiasikan jo raso indak dapek diarok jo sulik untuak bakarajo atau sulik mangarajokan padok sacaro efektif. Salanjuiknyo, Stamm manjalehan baso biasonyo raso negatif itu muncua sacaro lambek-lambek. Urang nan karajo ka maraso baso usaho nan dilakukannyo indak mambaok parubahan apo pun. == Sijarah == Manuruik [[Wolfgang Kaskcha]], kalatiahan sabagai sabuah fenomena mungkin alah ado satiok wakatu jo di sadoalah budayo. Inyo mancataik baso kondisi tasabuik dijalehan dalam [[:id:Kitab_Keluaran|Kitab Keluaran]].<ref name="Burnout: A Fashionable Diagnosis">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kaschka WP, Korczak D, Broich K|date=November 2011|title=Burnout: a fashionable diagnosis|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt International|volume=108|issue=46|pages=781–787|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2011.0781|pmc=3230825|pmid=22163259}}</ref> Gordon Parker picayo baso konsep ''acedia'' Eropa saisial marujuak pado kalatiahan, dan bukan depresi sarupo nan diyakini banyak urang.<ref name="Parker_2021">{{Cite book|vauthors=Parker G, Tavella G, Eyers K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f1MmEAAAQBAJ|title=Burnout: A guide to identifying burnout and pathways to recovery|date=2021-07-02|publisher=Allen & Unwin|isbn=978-1-76106-214-8|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Parker_2021_2">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Parker G, Tavella G|date=December 2021|title=Burnout: modeling, measuring, and managing|journal=Australasian Psychiatry|volume=29|issue=6|pages=625–627|doi=10.1177/10398562211037332|pmid=34461751}}</ref> Alah disabuikkan baso panggunoan tacetak partamo dari istilah "kalelahan" dalam bahaso Inggris ado di salah satu soneta Shakespeare pado taun 1599,<ref name="Wiley_1996">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wilmarschaufeli.nl/publications/Schaufeli/082.pdf|title=Handbook of work and health psychology|publisher=Wiley|year=1996|pages=513–527|chapter=Professional Burnout|access-date=2023-05-31|archive-date=2023-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416004256/https://www.wilmarschaufeli.nl/publications/Schaufeli/082.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> marujuak pado cinto padusi nan mambaro. Soneta nan dimukasuik adolah salah satu karya Shakespeare nan paliang tanamo. Pado 1869, ahli saraf New York George Beard manggunokan istilah "[[:id:Neurastenia|neurasthenia]]" untuak manjalehkan kondisi nan sangaik laweh nan disababkan dek kalatiahan sistem saraf, nan dikito utamonyo tasuo pado "komunitas intelektual nan baradab".<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Beard G|date=1869-04-29|title=Neurasthenia, or Nervous Exhaustion|url=https://zenodo.org/record/2086793|journal=The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal|volume=80|issue=13|pages=217–221|doi=10.1056/NEJM186904290801301|issn=0096-6762}}</ref> Konsep tasabuik sagiro manjadi tanamo, jo banyak urang di Amerika Serikat picayo baso urang-urang mampunyoinyo juo. Babarapo datang untuak manyabuiknyo "Americanitis".<ref>{{Cite news|date=1998-01-26|title=One Step Back; Where Are the Elixirs of Yesteryear When We Hurt?|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A05E1DB133BF935A15752C0A96E958260|access-date=31/5/2023}}</ref> [[:id:Tirah_baring|Ubek istirahat]] adolah ubek nan biaso diresepkan (walaupun ado banyak pangubatan lain). Beard labiah lanjuik manjalehkan potensi gejala neurasthenia samakin laweh dari wakatu ka wakatu, sahinggo hampia sado gejala atau parilaku dapek dianggap disababkan deknyo.<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Beard GM|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3moPAAAAYAAJ|title=American Nervousness, Its Causes and Consequences: A Supplement to Nervous Exhaustion (neurasthenia)|date=1881|publisher=Putnam|language=en}}</ref> [[Don R Lipsitt]] kamudian batanyo-tanyo apokah istilah "kalatiahan" didefinisikan talampau laweh untuak baguno.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Lipsitt DR|date=September 2019|title=Is Today's 21st Century Burnout 19th Century's Neurasthenia?|journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease|language=en-US|volume=207|issue=9|pages=773–777|doi=10.1097/NMD.0000000000001014|pmid=31464987}}</ref> Psikolog, [[Wilmar Schaufeli]], Mammbiah kasajajaran antaro kalelahan jo neurasthenia jo manunjuakkan persamaan di antaro kaduanyo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Schaufeli|first=Wilmar B.|title=Burnout: A Short Socio-Cultural History|date=2017|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52887-8_5|journal=Burnout, Fatigue, Exhaustion: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on a Modern Affliction|pages=105–127|editor-last=Neckel|editor-first=Sighard|access-date=2023-05-31|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-52887-8_5|isbn=978-3-319-52887-8|editor2-last=Schaffner|editor2-first=Anna Katharina|editor3-last=Wagner|editor3-first=Greta}}</ref> Babarapo kasamaan iko tamasuak bahwa kadua kondisi tasabuik tarutamo ditandai dek kalelahan mental jo kaduonyo dianggap sabagai panyakik pado masanyo, produk dari masyarakat tampek kito iduik. Inyo mangatokan "Neurasthenia dipahami sabagai produk dari parubahan sosial jo teknologi nan capek, nan dihasiakan dari transformasi masyarakaik patanian manjadi masyarakaik industri. Jo nada nan samo, kalelahan dipandang sabagai produk dari parubahan sosial jo budayo nan dihasiakan dari transformasi masyarakaik industri manjadi masyarakaik berorientasi layanan pasca industri". Juo, inyo manunjuakkan kalau kaduo kondisi itu dianggap sabagai reaksi normal taradok situasi abnormal, menawarkan panjalehan untuak hal nan biaso jo bukan patologis. Pado 1961, [[:id:Graham_Greene|Graham Greene]] manabikkan novel ''[https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/%5Ben%E2%86%92id%5DA_Burnt-Out_Case A Burnt-Out Case]{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'', kisah saurang arsitek nan manjadi sangaik latiah jo karajonyo, dan mambutuahkan banyak wakatu untuak puliah.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/burntoutcase0000grah|title=A Burnt-Out Case|vauthors=Greene G|publisher=William Heinemann Ltd|year=1961|isbn=978-0140185393|pages=cover title|url-access=registration}}</ref> Pado 1969, HB Bradley manggunokan istilah "kalelahan" dalam makalah kriminologi untuak manggambarkan staf nan kalelahan di sabuah pusaik untuak marawat palanggar nan gadang jo mudo.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Bradley HB|date=July 1969|title=Community-based treatment for young adult offenders.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_crime-and-delinquency_1969-07_15_3/page/359|journal=Crime & Delinquency|volume=15|issue=3|pages=359–370|doi=10.1177/001112876901500307}}</ref> Iko alah dikutip sabagai karya akademik partamo nan diketahui manggunokan istilah untuak konsep iko.<ref name="Wiley_19962">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wilmarschaufeli.nl/publications/Schaufeli/082.pdf|title=Handbook of work and health psychology|publisher=Wiley|year=1996|pages=513–527|chapter=Professional Burnout|access-date=2023-05-31|archive-date=2023-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416004256/https://www.wilmarschaufeli.nl/publications/Schaufeli/082.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Pado 1974, [[:id:Herbert_Freudenberger|Herbert Freudenberger]], saurang psikolog Amerika, manggunokan istilah tasabuik dalam makalah akademisnyo "Staff Burn-Out."<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Freudenberger HJ|date=January 1974|title=Staff Burn-Out|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-social-issues_1974_30_1/page/159|journal=Journal of Social Issues|volume=30|issue=1|pages=159–165|doi=10.1111/J.1540-4560.1974.TB00706.X}}</ref> Makalah iko didasarkan pado pangamatan kualitatif staf relawan (tamasuak dirinyo surang) di sabuah klinik gratis untuak pacandu narkoba.<ref name="staffburnout1">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Freudenberger HJ|year=1974|title=Staff burnout|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-social-issues_1974_30_2/page/159|journal=Journal of Social Issues|volume=30|pages=159–165|doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1974.tb00706.x}}</ref> Inyo mancirikan burnout jo sarangkaian gejala nan mancakup kalelahan akibaik tuntutan karajo nan balabihan sarato gejala fisik sarupo sakit kapalo jo susah lalok, "cepek berang", jo pamikiran tatutuik. Inyo mangamati bahwa pakarajo nan kalelahan "taliek, batindak, jo tampak tatekan". Satelah publikasi makalah Freudenberger, minat tahadok konsep tasabuik tumbuah. Pado 1976, [[:id:Christina_Maslach|Christina Maslach]] mancatat istilah nan digunokan dek pengacara California nan bakarajo jo urang miskin, dan mulai mampelajari konsep tasabuik.<ref name="Wiley_19963">{{Cite book|url=https://www.wilmarschaufeli.nl/publications/Schaufeli/082.pdf|title=Handbook of work and health psychology|publisher=Wiley|year=1996|pages=513–527|chapter=Professional Burnout|access-date=2023-05-31|archive-date=2023-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416004256/https://www.wilmarschaufeli.nl/publications/Schaufeli/082.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Pada 1981, Maslach dan [[:id:Susan_E._Jackson|Susan E. Jackson]] manabikan instrumen untuak manilai kajenuhan, [[:id:Inventaris_Pembakaran_Maslach|Maslach Burnout Inventory]] (MBI).<ref name="Maslach2">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Maslach C, Jackson SE|year=1981|title=The measurement of experienced burnout|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-occupational-behavior_1981-04_2_2/page/99|journal=Journal of Occupational Behavior|volume=2|issue=2|pages=99–113|doi=10.1002/job.4030020205}}</ref> Itu adolah instrumen partamo dari jiniahnyo jo instrumen kalelahan nan paliang banyak digunokan.<ref name="SVB2019">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Schonfeld IS, Verkuilen J, Bianchi R|date=December 2019|title=Inquiry into the correlation between burnout and depression|url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1717&context=gc_pubs|journal=Journal of Occupational Health Psychology|volume=24|issue=6|pages=603–616|doi=10.1037/ocp0000151|pmid=30945922}}</ref> Kaduo panaliti manggambarkan kalelahan dalam hal kalelahan emosional, depersonalisasi (maraso randah empati taradok urang lain dalam pangaturan pekerjaan), jo mangurangi parasaan pancapaian pribadi nan bahubungan jo pekerjaan.<ref name="Maslach">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277816643|title=MBI: The Maslach Burnout Inventory: Manual|year=1996|publisher=Consulting Psychologists Press|location=Palo Alto}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceD">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ruotsalainen JH, Verbeek JH, Mariné A, Serra C|date=April 2015|title=Preventing occupational stress in healthcare workers|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2015|issue=4|pages=CD002892|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002892.pub5|pmc=6718215|pmid=25847433}}</ref> Pado 2005, [[:id:Dewan_Kesehatan_dan_Kesejahteraan_Swedia|Dewan Kesehatan dan Kesejahteraan Swedia]] mangadopsi konseptualisasi halus dari kalelahan parah nan digambarkan sabagai "gangguan kalelahan".<ref name="Besèr_2014">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Besèr A, Sorjonen K, Wahlberg K, Peterson U, Nygren A, Asberg M|date=February 2014|title=Construction and evaluation of a self rating scale for stress-induced exhaustion disorder, the Karolinska Exhaustion Disorder Scale|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Psychology|volume=55|issue=1|pages=72–82|doi=10.1111/sjop.12088|pmc=4235404|pmid=24236500}}</ref> Pado 2015, [[:id:Organisasi_Kesehatan_Dunia|Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia]] mangadopsi konseptualisasi kelelahan<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/Z00-Z99/Z69-Z76/Z73-/Z73.0|title=2022 ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code Z73.0: Burn-out|website=www.icd10data.com|access-date=2022-07-15}}</ref> nan konsisten jo Maslach. Itu mangadopsi versi modifikasi iko pado tahun 2022. Namun, "indak jo sendirinya diklasifikasikan dek WHO sabagai kondisi medis atau gangguan mental."<ref name="WHO-20192">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/burn-out/en/|title=Burn-out an "occupational phenomenon": International Classification of Diseases|date=28 May 2019|website=WHO|access-date=11/6/2023}}</ref> Juo pado 2015, Bianchi jo kawannyo maagiah tinjauan literatur tentang tumpang tindih kalelahan-depresi (badasarkan 92 panalitian) jo manyimpulkan bahwa panalitian tasabuik gagal mambuktikan sacara konsisten kekhasan fenomena kalelahan.<ref name="pmid25638755">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Bianchi R, Schonfeld IS, Laurent E|date=March 2015|title=Burnout-depression overlap: a review|url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1318&context=cc_pubs|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=36|issue=|pages=28–41|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.004|pmid=25638755}}</ref> Pado 2017, sambilan negara Eropa (Denmark, Estonia, Prancis, Hongaria, Latvia, Belanda, Portugal, Slovakia, dan Swedia) manganggap kalelahan sabagai gangguan medis nan diakui.<ref name="Lastovkova_2018">{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|vauthors=Lastovkova A, Carder M, Rasmussen HM, Sjoberg L, Groene GJ, Sauni R, Vevoda J, Vevodova S, Lasfargues G, Svartengren M, Varga M, Colosio C, Pelclova D|date=April 2018|title=Burnout syndrome as an occupational disease in the European Union: an exploratory study|journal=Industrial Health|volume=56|issue=2|pages=160–165|doi=10.2486/indhealth.2017-0132|pmc=5889935|pmid=29109358}}</ref> == Diagnosa == === Klasifikasi === Kalatiahan mental indak dikatahuai sabagai gangguan mental nan babeda dalam ''DSM-5'' (''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5''; tabik pado 2013).<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Vahia VN|date=July 2013|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 5: A quick glance|journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry|volume=55|issue=3|pages=220–223|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.117131|pmc=3777342|pmid=24082241}}</ref> Definisi [[:id:Gangguan_penyesuaian|Gangguan Panyasuaian]],<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Boudoukha AH, Hautekeete M, Abdellaoui S, Abdelaoui S, Groux W, Garay D|date=September 2011|title=[Burnout and victimisation: impact of inmates' aggression towards prison guards]|journal=L'Encéphale|volume=37|issue=4|pages=284–292|doi=10.1016/j.encep.2010.08.006|pmid=21981889|quote="Burnout doesn't appear per se in any international classification of mental disorders: clinicians often use the diagnosis of adjustment disorder"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Höschl C|date=January 2013|title=2394 – Burnout is a myth|journal=European Psychiatry|volume=28|issue=Supplement 1|page=1|doi=10.1016/S0924-9338(13)77215-8}}</ref><ref name="Liu, P.M. 2003 pp. 433-457">{{Cite book|vauthors=Liu PM, Van Liew DA|date=2003|chapter=Depression and burnout.|veditors=Kahn JP, Langlieb AM|title=Mental health and productivity in the workplace: A handbook for organizations and clinician|pages=433–457|location=San Francisco|publisher=Jossey-Bass}}</ref> jo [[:id:Trauma_psikologis|Gangguan Takaik Trauma jo Stres nan Indak Ditantuan]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=American Psychiatric Association|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/926613691|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing|isbn=978-0-89042-555-8|pages=290|oclc=926613691}}</ref> dalam babarapo kasus mancaminkan kondisi kalatiahan mental. Pambaruan 2022, ''DSM-5-TR'', indak manambahkan definisi kalatiahan mental.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://psychiatry.org:443/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/updates-to-dsm/updates-to-dsm-5-criteria-text|title=Psychiatry.org - Updates to DSM-5 Criteria & Text|website=psychiatry.org|language=en|access-date=11/6/2023}}</ref> Pado 2017, sambilan nagara Eropa mamparetongkan kalatiahan mentah sabagai gangguan medis nan diakui.<ref name="Lastovkova_20182">{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|vauthors=Lastovkova A, Carder M, Rasmussen HM, Sjoberg L, Groene GJ, Sauni R, Vevoda J, Vevodova S, Lasfargues G, Svartengren M, Varga M, Colosio C, Pelclova D|date=April 2018|title=Burnout syndrome as an occupational disease in the European Union: an exploratory study|journal=Industrial Health|volume=56|issue=2|pages=160–165|doi=10.2486/indhealth.2017-0132|pmc=5889935|pmid=29109358}}</ref> Nagara-nagara iko manggolongkannyo di bawah satu atau labiah kode ICD. ICD-10 manggolongkan "kalatiahan" sabagai jinih kapayahan maatua iduik non-medis di bawah kode Z73.0.<ref>ICD-10: International Classification of Diseases, Z73. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2015.</ref> Hal iko dianggap sabagai salah satu "faktor nan mampangaruahi status kasihatan sarato kontak jo layanan kasihatan" jo "indak buliah digunokan" untuak "kode kamatian primer".<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Chapter XXI: Factors influencing health status and contact with health services|chapter-url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/XXI|title=International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10)|date=2019|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> Hal iko juo dianggap sabagai salah satu "masalah nan bakaitan jo kapayahan maatua iduik".<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Z73 Problems related to life-management difficulty|chapter-url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/Z73|title=International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10)|date=2019|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> Kondisi iko salanjuiknyo didefinisikan sabagai "kaadaan kalatiahan vital", nan sacara historis disabuik [[:id:Neurastenia|neurasthenia]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Z73 Burn-out|chapter-url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/Z73.0|title=International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10)|date=2019|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> ICD-10 juo mamuek kategori kondisi medis "F43.8 Reaksi lain tahadok stres barek".<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=F43.8 Other reactions to severe stress|chapter-url=https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F43.8|title=International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10)|date=2019|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> Pado 2005, [[:id:Dewan_Kesehatan_dan_Kesejahteraan_Swedia|Dewan Kasihatan dan Kasejahteraan Swedia]] manambahkan "gangguan kalatiahan" (ED; F43.8A) ka versi Swedia dari ICD-10, ICD-10-SE, mawakili apo nan biasonyo disabuik "kalatiahan" dalam bahasa Inggirih.<ref name="Grossi_2015">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Grossi G, Perski A, Osika W, Savic I|date=December 2015|title=Stress-related exhaustion disorder--clinical manifestation of burnout? A review of assessment methods, sleep impairments, cognitive disturbances, and neuro-biological and physiological changes in clinical burnout|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Psychology|volume=56|issue=6|pages=626–636|doi=10.1111/sjop.12251|pmid=26496458}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mind.se/en/information/psychiatric-diagnoses/exhaustion-syndrome/|title=Exhaustion syndrome|website=Mind|language=en-US|access-date=11/6/2023|archive-date=2023-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101213723/https://mind.se/en/information/psychiatric-diagnoses/exhaustion-syndrome/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> ICD-10-SE mandefinisikan gangguan kalelahan nan tadiri dari:<blockquote>A. Physical and mental symptoms of exhaustion during at least two weeks. The symptoms have developed in response to one or more identifiable stressors present for at least six months. B. The clinical picture is dominated by markedly reduced mental energy, as manifested by reduced initiative, lack of endurance, or increased time needed for recovery after mental effort. C. At least four of the following symptoms have been present, nearly every day, during the same 2-week period: # Concentration difficulties or impaired memory # Markedly reduced capacity to tolerate demands or to work under time pressure # Emotional instability or irritability # Sleep disturbance # Marked fatigability or physical weakness # Physical symptoms such as aches and pains, palpitations, gastrointestinal problems, vertigo or increased sensitivity to sound D. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in occupational, social or other important respects. E. The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a physical illness/injury (e.g., hypothyroidism, diabetes, infectious disease).</blockquote>Manuruik Lindsäter et al., "Diagnosis alah manjadi hampia samo lazimnyo jo depresi barek di lingkungan parawatan kasehatan Swedia, jo saat iko manyumbang labiah banyak kasus panggantian cuti sakik jangko panjang daripado diagnosis tunggal lainnyo di negara itu." <ref name="Lindsäter_2022">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Lindsäter E, Svärdman F, Wallert J, Ivanova E, Söderholm A, Fondberg R, Nilsonne G, Cervenka S, Lekander M, Rück C|date=August 2022|title=Exhaustion disorder: scoping review of research on a recently introduced stress-related diagnosis|journal=BJPsych Open|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e159|doi=10.1192/bjo.2022.559|pmc=9438479|pmid=36458830}}</ref> The [[:id:Asosiasi_Medis_Kerajaan_Belanda|Royal Dutch Medical Association]] mandefinisikan "kalelahan" sabagai subtipe [[:id:Gangguan_penyesuaian|gangguan penyesuaian]]<ref name="jstor.org">{{Cite journal|vauthors=van der Klink JJ, van Dijk FJ|date=December 2003|title=Dutch practice guidelines for managing adjustment disorders in occupational and primary health care|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume=29|issue=6|pages=478–487|doi=10.5271/sjweh.756|jstor=40967326|pmid=14712856}}</ref> sabagai bagian dari sistem ICD-10. Di Balando, burnout dimasuakkan dalam buku pegangan jo staf medis dilatiah dalam diagnosis jo parawatannyo.<ref name="Burnout: 35 years of research and p">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Schaufeli WB|date=June 2009|title=Burnout: 35 years of research and practice|journal=Career Development International|volume=14|issue=3|pages=204–220|doi=10.1108/13620430910966406}}</ref> Reformasi asuransi kasehatan Belanda mangakibatkan penghapusan pangobatan gangguan panyasuaian dari paket dasar wajib pado tahun 2012. Praktisi diberitahu bahwa kasus nan lebiah serius dari kondisi tasabuik dapek mamanuhi syarat untuak klasifikasi sabagai [[:id:Gangguan_depresi_mayor|depresi]] atau [[:id:Gangguan_kecemasan|gangguan kecemasan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zoek.officielebekendmakingen.nl/stb-2011-467.html|title=Besluit van 30 september 2011, houdende wijziging van het Besluit zorgverzekering in verband met wijziging van de te verzekeren prestaties Zorgverzekeringswet per 2012 en de eigen bijdragen daarvoor en wijziging van dat besluit en het Besluit zorgaanspraken AWBZ in verband met stringent pakketbeheer en wijziging van het Besluit tegemoetkoming chronisch zieken en gehandicapten|last=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid Welzijn en Sport|date=2011-10-28|website=zoek.officielebekendmakingen.nl|language=nl|access-date=13/6/2023}}</ref> Versi baru ICD, ICD-11, dirilis pado Juni 2018, untuak panggunaan partamo pado Januari 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/18-06-2018-who-releases-new-international-classification-of-diseases-(icd-11)|title=WHO releases new International Classification of Diseases (ICD 11)}}</ref> Versi baru memiliki kode entri jo bajudul "QD85 Burn-out". ICD-11 manggambarkan kondisi tasebuik sebagai barikuik (urang dapek maliek baa iiko didasarkan pado definisi Maslac):<ref name="Maslach3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277816643|title=MBI: The Maslach Burnout Inventory: Manual|year=1996|publisher=Consulting Psychologists Press|location=Palo Alto}}</ref><blockquote>Burn-out is a syndrome conceptualized as resulting from chronic [[workplace stress]] that has not been successfully managed. It is characterized by three dimensions: 1) feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion; 2) increased mental distance from one’s job, or feelings of negativism or cynicism related to one's job; and 3) reduced professional efficacy. Burn-out refers specifically to phenomena in the occupational context and should not be applied to describe experiences in other areas of life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F129180281|title=QD85 Burn-out|website=icd.who.int|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3A%2F%2Fid.who.int%2Ficd%2Fentity%2F129180281|archive-date=2018-08-01|access-date=|url-status=|dead-url=yes}}</ref></blockquote>Kondisi iko diklasifikasikan dalam "Masalah nan terkait jo karajo atau pangangguran" di bagian "Faktor nan mampangaruhi status kasehatan atau kontak jo layanan kasehatan." Bagian iko dikhususkan untuak alasan salain panyakit nan diketahui atau kondisi kasehatan nan mambuek urang manghubungi layanan kasehatan.<ref name="WHO-20193">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/burn-out/en/|title=Burn-out an "occupational phenomenon": International Classification of Diseases|date=28 May 2019|website=WHO|access-date=13/6/2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1249056269|title=24. Factors influencing health status or contact with health services|website=icd.who.int|access-date=2019-05-28|quote=Categories in this chapter are provided for occasions when circumstances other than a disease, injury or external cause classifiable elsewhere are recorded as "diagnoses" or "problems." This can arise... When some circumstance or problem is present which influences the person's health status but is not in itself a current illness or injury. Such circumstance or problem may be elicited during population surveys, when the person may or may not be currently sick, or be recorded as additional information to be borne in mind when the person is receiving care for some illness or injury.|archive-date=2018-08-01|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1249056269|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Dalam panyatoannyo nan dibuek pado Mei 2019, [[:id:Organisasi_Kesehatan_Dunia|WHO]] mangatokan "Burn-out tamasuak ka dalam Revisi ke-11 Klasifikasi Panyakik Internasional (ICD-11) sabagai fenomena karajo. Itu indak diklasifikasikan sabagai kondisi medis."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/burn-out/en/|title=Burn-out an "occupational phenomenon": International Classification of Diseases|website=WHO}}</ref> Paramban jo alat pangkodean ICD mancantumkan istilah "kajanuahan pangasuah" ka kategori "QF27 Kasulitan atau kabutuahan akan bantuan di rumah jo indak ado anggota rumah tanggo lain nan dapek maagiah parawatan."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://id.who.int/icd/entity/757911124|title=Need for assistance at home and no other household member able to render care|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20140808100506/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/757911124|archive-date=2014-08-08|access-date=13/6/2023|url-status=live|dead-url=unfit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://icd.who.int/ct11/icd11_mms/en/release|title=ICD-11 Coding Tool Mortality and Morbidity Statistics (MMS)|website=icd.who.int|access-date=2023-06-13|archive-date=2023-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601050935/https://icd.who.int/ct11/icd11_mms/en/release|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Jo baitu, QF27 maakui baso kalatiahan dapek tajadi di lua konteks karajo. ICD-11 juo mampunyoi kondisi medis "6B4Y Gangguan khusus lainnyo nan sacaro khusus takaik jo stres",<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f991786158%2fmms%2fother|title=ICD-11 - Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|access-date=2023-06-13|archive-date=2018-08-01|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f991786158%2fmms%2fother|dead-url=yes}}</ref> nan sapangkek jo F43.8 ICD-10. Kok salapeh parawatan, urang jo kalatiahan taruih maalami gejala fisik manatap nan dipicu dek kondisi tasabuik, di Islandia, urang-urang tu mungkin dianggap maalami " [[:id:somatoform|gangguan gejala somatik]]" (DSM-5) jo "gangguan-gangguan tubuah" (ICD-11).<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Broddadóttir E, Flóvenz SÓ, Gylfason HF, Þormar Þ, Einarsson H, Salkovskis P, Sigurðsson JF|date=August 2021|title="I'm So Tired": Fatigue as a Persistent Physical Symptom among Working People Experiencing Exhaustion Disorder|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=18|issue=16|pages=8657|doi=10.3390/ijerph18168657|pmc=8392333|pmid=34444405}}</ref> Rincian labiah lanjuik tantang baragam caro dotor jo lainnyo manggunokan klasifikasi ICD jo DSM wakatu itu jo kalatiahan tabik dek psikolog Balando Arno Van Dam, psikolog Balando, pado tahun 2021.<ref name="van_Dam_2021">{{Cite journal|vauthors=van Dam A|date=2021-09-03|title=A clinical perspective on burnout: diagnosis, classification, and treatment of clinical burnout|journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology|volume=30|issue=5|pages=732–741|doi=10.1080/1359432X.2021.1948400|issn=1359-432X}}</ref> [[:id:Institut_Kesehatan_Nasional|National Institutes of Health]] pamarintah AS mamasuakan kondisi iko sabagai "kalatiahan psikologis" dalam indeks [[:id:Perpustakaan_Kedokteran_Nasional_Amerika_Serikat|National Library of Medicine]],<ref name="meshb.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077062|title=MeSH Browser|website=meshb.nlm.nih.gov|access-date=13/6/2023}}</ref> jo manyadiokan sajumlah sinonim. Iko mandefinisikan kondisi sabagai "Reaksi bakalabiahan tahadok stres nan disababkan dek lingkuangan dirinyo nan dapek ditandoi jo raso panek emosional jo fisik, ditambah jo rasa frustrasi jo kagagalan."<ref name="meshb.nlm.nih.gov" /> [[:id:SNOME_CT|SNOMED CT]] mamasuakan istilah "kalatiahan" sabagai sinonim untuak kondisi "lamah fisik jo emosional" nan didefinisikan, nan marupokan subtipe dari [[Gangguan cameh|gangguan cameh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.findacode.com/snomed/58535001--physical-and-emotional-exhaustion-state.html|title=58535001 - Physical AND emotional exhaustion state - SNOMED CT|website=www.findacode.com|language=en|access-date=2022-07-14|archive-date=2023-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416004253/https://www.findacode.com/snomed/58535001--physical-and-emotional-exhaustion-state.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> [[:id:Diseases_Database|Database Panyakik]] mandefinisikan kondisi tasabuik sabagai "kalatiahan karajo".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb33346.htm|title=Professional burnout information Diseases Database|date=2022-05-04|website=www.diseasesdatabase.com|language=en|access-date=2022-07-14}}</ref> == Pananggulangan == Kalatiahan mental marupokan masalah psikologis nan dapek ditangani capek. Babarapo caro capek manangani kalatiahan mental nan bisa dipraktikkan antaro lain:<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://health.kompas.com/read/2010/01/10/05495918/Mengatasi.Burnout.di.Tempat.Kerja|title=Mengatasi "Burnout" di Tempat Kerja|editor-last=Jimbon|work=[[Kompas.com]]}}</ref> # Buek jadwal rutin aktivitas sosial. # Ulahrago rutin. # Manjalani hobi. # Manjadi sukarelawan. # Mampatageh tujuan iduik. # Mamintak bantuan bilo sulik. # Mambuek urang lain tagalak. # Maubah karajo nan biaso. # Mampunyoi ritual pagi. # Baranti baralasan. # Batangguang jawek. == Rujuakan == {{reflist|2}} 7vrz8o53ey5dz1fp8sh0bxposseg91u 0 408031 3351208 2600759 2026-08-05T19:54:08Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351208 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox lake | lake_name = Danau Laacher | image_lake = Laacher_See_-_Luftaufnahme.jpg | caption_lake = Panorama kaldera gunuang api | location = [[Ahrweiler (distrik)|Ahrweiler]], [[Rhineland-Palatinate]] | basin_countries = Jerman |coords={{coord|50|24|45|N|07|16|12|E|region:DE_type:waterbody|display=inline,title}} |pushpin_map=Germany Rhineland-Palatinate#Germany |pushpin_map_caption=Lokasi di [[Jerman]] |type=[[Danau kawah|danau kaldera]] [[gunuang api|vulkanis]] |inflow= |outflow=Fulbert-Stollen (kanal) |catchment= |length=|width=|area={{cvt|3.3|km2|sqmi}} |depth= |max-depth={{cvt|53|m|ft}} |volume= |residence_time= |shore= |elevation={{cvt|275|m|ft}} |islands=}} '''Danau Laacher''' atau '''Laacher See''' ({{IPA-de|ˈlaːxɐ ˈzeː}}), adolah sabuah [[Danau kawah|danau kaldera]] [[Gunung berapi|vulkanis]] jo diameter {{cvt|2|km}} talatak di [[Rhineland-Palatinate]], [[Jerman]], sakitar {{cvt|24|km}} barat laut [[Koblenz]], {{cvt|37|km}} selatan [[Bonn]], dan {{cvt|8|km}} barat [[Andernach]]. Danau iko tamasuak dalam Barisan Gunuang [[Eifel]], dan marupakan bagian dari [[Eifel Vulkanis|medan vulkanis Eifel Timur]] dalam [[Eifel Vulkanis]] nan labiah gadang. Danau iko tabantuak dek [[Letusan Plinius|latusan Plinius]] sakitar 13.000 taun [[Sebelum Sekarang|BP]] jo [[Indeks Dayo Ladak Vulkanis]] (VEI) 6, skala nan saroman jo [[Gunuang Pinatubo#Latusan 1991|latusan Pinatubo tahun 1991]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Clive|last=Oppenheimer|title=Eruptions that Shook the World|url=https://archive.org/details/eruptionsthatsho00oppe|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-521-64112-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/eruptionsthatsho00oppe/page/n232 216]–217}}</ref><ref name="Klerk">{{cite journal|last=de Klerk|first=Pim|display-authors=etal|year=2008|title=Environmental impact of the Laacher See eruption at a large distance from the volcano: Integrated palaeoecological studies from Vorpommern (NE Germany)|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=270|issue=1–2|pages=196–214|bibcode=2008PPP...270..196D|doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.09.013}}</ref><ref name="Bogaard">{{cite journal|last=Bogaard|first=Paul van den|year=1995|title=⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar ages of sanidine phenocrysts from Laacher See Tephra (12,900 yr BP): Chronostratigraphic and petrological significance|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_earth-and-planetary-science-letters_1995-06_133_1-2/page/163|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|volume=133|issue=1–2|pages=163–174|bibcode=1995E&PSL.133..163V|doi=10.1016/0012-821X(95)00066-L}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://geosociety.org/meetings/2011munich/fieldTrips/e19a.htm|title=Geo-Education and Geopark Implementation in the Vulkaneifel European Geopark/Vulkanland Eifel National Geopark|year=2011|publisher=The Geological Society of America|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113232457/http://geosociety.org/meetings/2011munich/fieldTrips/e19a.htm|archive-date=13 January 2019|access-date=8 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Q|Q107389873|last=Reinig|first=Frederick|last2=Wacker|first2=Lukas|last3=Jöris|first3=Olaf|last4=Oppenheimer|first4=Clive|last5=Guidobaldi|first5=Giulia|last6=Nievergelt|first6=Daniel|last7=Adolphi|first7=Florian|last8=Cherubini|first8=Paolo|last9=Engels|first9=Stefan|last10=Esper|first10=Jan|last11=Land|first11=Alexander|last12=Lane|first12=Christine|last13=Pfanz|first13=Hardy|last14=Remmele|first14=Sabine|last15=Sigl|first15=Michael|last16=Sookdeo|first16=Adam|last17=Büntgen|first17=Ulf|display-authors=6|quote=[Measurements] firmly date the [Laacher See eruption] to 13,006 ± 9 calibrated years before present (BP; taken as AD 1950), which is more than a century earlier than previously accepted.}}</ref> [[Gas vulkanis|Palapehan vulkanis]] nan diamati sabagai [[mofeta]] di pantai tenggara danau marupokan tando-tando [[vulkanisme]] nan [[Gunuang api lalok|indak aktif]]. == Deskripsi == Danau iko babantuak lonjoang nan dikaliliangi dek tapian nan tinggi. Lavanyo dikali untuak batu giliang dari zaman Romawi sampai ditanamokannyo rol basi untuak manggiliang bijo-bijoan.<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward|last=Hull|author-link=Edward Hull (geologist)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwVQwrwendQC&pg=PA72|title=Volcanoes: Past and Present|pages=73–74|year=1892|edition=2010|publisher=Echo Library|isbn=9781406868180|access-date=2 December 2021|archive-date=28 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428065757/https://books.google.com/books?id=gwVQwrwendQC&pg=PA72|url-status=live}}</ref> == Caliak pulo == * [[Daftar gunuang api di Jerman]] == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Bacoan lanjuik == * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Laacher See|volume=16|last=|first=|author-link=|page=1|short=1}} * {{cite journal|author1=Ginibre, Catherine|author2=Wörner, Gerhard|author3=Kronz, Andreas|year=2004|title=Structure and Dynamics of the Laacher See Magma Chamber (Eifel, Germany) from Major and Trace Element Zoning in Sanidine: a Cathodoluminescence and Electron Microprobe Study|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-petrology_2004-11_45_11/page/2197|journal=Journal of Petrology|volume=45|issue=11|pages=2197–2223|bibcode=2004JPet...45.2197G|doi=10.1093/petrology/egh053|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|author1=Park, Cornelia|author2=Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich|year=1997|title=Lake Formation and Catastrophic Dam Burst during the Late Pleistocene Laacher See Eruption (Germany)|journal=Naturwissenschaften|volume=84|issue=12|pages=521–525|bibcode=1997NW.....84..521P|doi=10.1007/s001140050438|s2cid=36411187}} * {{cite journal|last=Riede|first=Felix|year=2008|title=The Laacher See-eruption (12,920 BP) and material culture change at the end of the Allerød in Northern Europe|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=35|issue=3|pages=591–599|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2007.05.007}} * {{cite journal|author1=Hensch, Martin|author2=Dahm, Torsten|author3=Ritter, Joachim|author4=Heimann, Sebastian|author5=Schmidt, Bernd|author6=Stange, Stefan|author7=Lehmann, Klaus|year=2019|title=Deep low-frequency earthquakes reveal ongoing magmatic recharge beneath Laacher See Volcano (Eifel, Germany)|journal=Geophysical Journal International|volume=216|issue=3|pages=2025–2036|bibcode=2019GeoJI.216.2025H|doi=10.1093/gji/ggy532|doi-access=free}} == Pautan lua == {{commons category|Laacher See}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120504095933/http://hisz.rsoe.hu/alertmap/read/index.php?pageid=svolcano_index&svid=10 Continuous event display of the 10 most recent registered seismic activities measured from the Laacher See] * {{Lakes Germany 2004|Laacher See|Rhineland-Palatinate|page=28}} * [https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=de&u=http://www.spektrumverlag.de/artikel/977241&ei=_h_rStXtNo_-sQPL8rDXCA&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAwQ7gEwAA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dhttp://www.spektrumverlag.de/artikel/977241%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff Apokalypse im Rheintal (Cornelia Park und Hans-Ulrich Schmincke)] * [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330425288_Deep_low-frequency_earthquakes_reveal_ongoing_magmatic_recharge_beneath_Laacher_See_Volcano_Eifel_Germany Martin Hensch, etal.: Deep low-frequency earthquakes reveal ongoing magmatic recharge beneath Laacher See Volcano (Eifel, Germany). Geophys. J. Int. (2019) 216, 2025–2036 doi:10.1093/gji/ggy532] * [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Foerster8/publication/288932428_Volcanic_activity_in_the_Eifel_during_the_last_500_000_years_The_ELSA-Tephra-Stack/links/5b1892250f7e9b68b424ade0/Volcanic-activity-in-the-Eifel-during-the-last-500-000-years-The-ELSA-Tephra-Stack.pdf Michael W. Förster, Frank Sirocko: Volcanic activity in the Eifel during the last 500,000 years: The ELSA-Tephra-Stack .Global and Planetary Change (2016)] (PDF) {{Authority control}} bb6h1frts34we4g7z3vnnigcpsyhxqn 0 408061 3351274 3344040 2026-08-05T22:03:10Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351274 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Flag of Malta.svg|thumb|240px|Bandera Malta]] '''Malta''' atau sacaro rasmi '''Republik Malta''' ([[bahaso Malta]]: ''Repubblika ta' Malta''), adolah [[nagara pulau]] di [[Eropa Selatan]], nan talatak di [[Lauik Mediterania]]. Nagara ko tadiri dari sabuah kapulauan, antaro [[Itali]] jo [[Libya]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chapman |first1=David |last2=Cassar |first2=Godwin |date=October 2004 |title=Valletta |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cities_2004-10_21_5/page/451 |journal=Cities |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=451–463 |doi=10.1016/j.cities.2004.07.001}}</ref> Itu talatak 80 km (50 mil) selatan [[Sisilia]] (Italia), 284 km (176 mil) timur [[Tunisia]],<ref name="ashby">{{Cite journal |last=Ashby |first=Thomas |year=1915 |title=Roman Malta |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449693 |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |volume=5 |pages=23–80 |doi=10.2307/296290 |jstor=296290|s2cid=250349579 }}</ref> dan 333 km (207 mil) utara Libya.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://kasa.officinastudimedievali.it/cd/risorse/Libro/Malta_and_Sicily.pdf |title=Malta and Sicily: Miscellaneous research projects |year=2008 |publisher=Officina di Studi Medievali |isbn=978-8888615837 |editor-last=Bonanno, Anthony |location=Palermo |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527173156/http://kasa.officinastudimedievali.it/cd/risorse/Libro/Malta_and_Sicily.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Ibu kota nagaranyo iolah [[Valletta]]. Politik Malta barado dalam karangko [[republik]] [[demokrasi perwakilan]] [[Sistem parlementer|parlementer]], dima [[Daftar Presiden Malta|Presiden]] sabagai kapalo nagara. Sistem parlementer jo administrasi publiknyo sarupo jo [[sistem Westminster]].<ref name="constitution">{{Cite web |title=Constitution of Malta |url=http://justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&itemid=8566 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001103554/http://justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&itemid=8566 |archive-date=1 October 2018 |access-date=10 February 2018 |publisher=Ministry for Justice, Culture and Local Government}} – Article 40: "all persons in Malta shall have full freedom of conscience and enjoy the free exercise of their respective mode of religious worship."</ref> Kuaso eksekutif barado ditangan presiden jo arahan umum sarato kendali pamarentahan tatap barado ditangan [[Daftar Pardana Mantari Malta|Pardana Mantari]] nan manjadi kapalo pamarentahan jo kabinet. [[Parlemen Malta|Parlemen]] [[Sistem ciek pintu|unikameral]] tadiri dari presiden jo Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (bahaso Malta: ''Kamra tad-Deputati'') nan punyo 65 anggota, dipiliah untuak maso jabatan limo tahun.<ref name="constitution" /> Manuruik sensus tahun 2021, panduduak Malta mancapai 519.562 jiwa,<ref name="NSO">{{Cite web |title=Census of Population and Housing 2021 |url=https://nso.gov.mt/en/nso/Media/Salient-Points-of-Publications/Documents/2022/Census%20of%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Preliminary%20Report/Census%20of%20population%202021.pdf |date=July 2022 |access-date=2 August 2022 |website=nso.gov.mt |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809130759/https://nso.gov.mt/en/nso/Media/Salient-Points-of-Publications/Documents/2022/Census%20of%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Preliminary%20Report/Census%20of%20population%202021.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> maningkek dibandiangan tahun 2011 nan dipakiroan bajumlah 408.000 jiwa. Panduduak asli [[Urang Malta|Malta]] marupokan mayoritas pulau. Namun, ado minoritas, nan tagadang adolah urang [[Urang Britania|Inggirih]], banyak diantaronyo pensiunan.<ref name="cia">{{Cite web |last=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) |title=Malta |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malta/ |access-date=16 May 2007 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402195116/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malta/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Nagara di Eropa]] krswk9tvlz2n0iuqnq3e7fti4wfy42z 0 414577 3351220 3343029 2026-08-05T20:14:07Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351220 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:CC-logo.svg|Creative Commons logo|200px]] '''Creative Commons''' ('''CC''') adolah suatu [[organisasi nirlaba]] nan mafokuskan diri untuak mampalueh cakupan karyo kreatip nan tasadio untuak urang lain sacaro legal, supayo dapek digunokan baliak jo disabaran sacaro lueh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wiki.creativecommons.org/FAQ|title=Frequently Asked Questions|date=|publisher=Creative Commons|access-date=20 December 2011}}</ref> Organisasi iko alah manabikkan babarapo lisensi [[hak cipta]] nan dikenal dengan lisensi Creative Commons. Lisensi-lisensi iko mambatehan atau bahkan mambabaihkan hak pancipta ateh karyonyo sahinggo panyabaran karyo tasabuik labiah mudah. == Sijarah == Creative Commons ditagakkan oleh profesor hukum dari Universitas Stanford, Lawrence Lessig, basamo jo rakan-rakannyo dari Institut Teknologi Massachusetts, Universitas Harvard, Universitas Duke, jo Universitas Villanova pado tahun [[2001]].<ref name="cc1">{{En}} [http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/All-Hail-Creative-Commons-Stanford-professor-2874018.php All Hail Creative Commons / Stanford professor and author Lawrence Lessig plans a legal insurrection], ''SF Gate''. Diakses pada 24 Oktober 2011.</ref> Dengan Creative Commons, Profesor Lessig manyadiokan saparangkek lisensi hak cipta tabuka untuak digunokan oleh publik. Saurang pancipta nan basadio untuak malapehan karyonyo di bawah lisensi Creative Commons (CC) dapek mangunjuangi [http://creativecommons.org situs web] Creative Commons dan mamiliah lisensi nan dikandakkan. Pamiliahan lisensi CC atribusi (CC BY), misalnyo, pancipta mampatahankan hak cipta, tatapi mamungkinkan publik untuak manggunokan karyo tanpa ijin sacaro langsuang dan indak ado pambayian, salamo mancantuman karedik pancipta, sumber, jo lisensi CC nan digunokan. Lisensi CC tasadio dalam bantuak piktogram, teks ringkeh, jo teks langkok (legal code). Untuak mangakomodasi kabutuahan di ranah digital, katigo bantuak tasabuik sangajo dirancang untuak dapek tabaco oleh masin (machine readable). Panarapan lisensi CC dapek dilaksanokan sacaro mandiri langsuang oleh Pancipta atau Pamacik Hak Cipta, sabagai pambari lisensi (licensor). Pambari lisensi dapek langsuang malakekkan katantuan lisensi nan dikahandoki dengan mamanfaaikkan kamampuan tabaco masin lisensi CC, atau malakekkannyo sacaro manual dengan mangunduah piktogram-piktogram tasabuik. Samantaro itu, pangguno nan tangah mancari konten untuak dapek dimanfaaikkan sacaro bebaih dan legal dapek mangunjuangi situih Creative Commons jo manyobokkan karyo balisensi CC dengan manggunokan masin pancari atau direktori di sinan. Creative Commons alah manarik babarapo respon positip jo samakin populer. 145 juta karyo per Juni 2006 (Rohter, 2006). Banyak barita alah ditulih manganoi kabarhasilan panggunoan lisensi CC (misalnyo, Chmielewski, 2004; "Garakan Barusaho," 2004; Rohter, 2006). Sajumlah panaliti juo mancataik potensi Creative Commons untuak malayani kapantiangan publik (Gasaway, 2003; Jones, 2004; Merges, 2004, O'Hara, 2003; Reichman & Uhlir, 2003; Stoeltje, 2004, Wagner, 2003) . Creative Commons barusaho manyalasaikan konflik saputar hukum hak cipta pado era digital. Ado duo visi basaiang dari dasar-dasar hukum hak cipta: visi kapamilikan pribadi jo visi kabijakan publik. Visi kapamilikan pribadi bagitu disabuik karano inyo nan mandukuang itu picayo bahwa hak cipta barasal sabagai hak milik nan timbua sacaro alamiah. Pancipta nan mambuek karyo asli barhak untuak mampunyoi hak punyo ateh pakarajoan inyo. Panakanan visi milik pribadi adolah pado kapantiangan pribadi pancipta dalam mangandalikan panggunoan karyo cipta sabagai punyo inyo. Visi kabijakan publik, sabaliaknyo, manakankan hak cipta sacaro historih bakambang sabagai insentip dalam bantuak monopoli tabataih nan batujuan manstimuluih para pancipta supayo samakin tamotivasi untuak bakaryo. Monopoli tabataih ditandoi dengan adonyo jangko wakatu palinduangan karyo karano pancipta jo pamacik hak cipta haruih juo mampatimbangkan kabebaihan urang lain untuak manggunokan karyo bahak cipta demi mandapekkan manfaaik ateh ilmu pangatahuan dan seni budayo. Visi kabijakan publik manggarihbawahi pantiangnyo kapantiangan publik dalam maakses jo manggunokan karyo bahak cipta. Dalam hal iko, hak cipta baparan sabagai suatu kabijakan publik nan diterapkan untuak mancapai kasaimbangan nan tapek antaro kapantiangan pribadi jo kapantiangan umum. Kaduo visi iko alah basaiang salamo pangambangan 300 tahun hukum hak cipta, namun friksi antar visi iko alah maningkek pado era digital. Pandukuang dari visi punyo pribadi baharok bahwa teknologi digital akan mamungkinkan pamacik hak cipta untuak mangumpuakan royalti untuak satiok panggunoan hak cipta karyo-karyo inyo (misalnyo, Goldstein, 2003). Sabaliaknyo, suko indak suko inyo haruih maakui palanggaran hak cipta gadang-gadangan nan tajadi jo tibonyo era digital. Panyadio konten, tamasuak industri kreatif barusaho malambagokan makanisme panagakkan hak cipta nan kuek untuak malinduangi kapamilikan inyo. Pandukuang visi kabijakan publik baharok bahwa teknologi digital akan maningkekkan proses produksi, babagi, jo bakolaborasi tahadok produk budayo (misalnyo, Benkler, 2000; Kranich, 2004). Hukum hak cipta kontemporer alah manjadi bagitu kataik sahinggo barisiko maambek pangambangan kreativitaih jo inovasi. Sabagai contoah, Samuelson (nd) manyatokan bahwa industri gadang babasis hak cipta hari iko, takuik kahilangan kontrol ateh materi bahak cipta karano pakambangan teknologi. Inyo malobi pambuek Undang-Undang untuak mandapekkan labiah banyak kontrol ateh konsumen dibandiangkan inyo nan parnah mampunyoi sabalumnyo. Kalahiran Creative Commons araik kaitannyo jo kakhawatiran bahwa upayo pamacik hak cipta untuak malinduangi kapamilikan hak cipta inyo mangancam kabebaihan barekspresi publik. Lessig, mancataik parubahan bahwa hukum hak cipta alah mandoroang (2004b), pageseran dari "budayo bebaih" ka arah budayo nan mambatehi dengan ijin (2004a). Katiko bakato budayo bebaih, mukasuiknyo bebaih dalam arati "kabebaihan" bukan dalam arati "perai". Kabebaihan nan dimukasuik adolah publik dapek mampunyoi kabebaihan untuak mambuek, mambagikan, manggunokan karya untuak bakontribusi jo mahasilkan labiah banyak sumber dayo pangatahuan basamo. Salah satu respon Lessig jo pandukuang visi kabijakan publik alah manyarankan dibantuaknyo Creative Commons, untuak mambangun katantuan hak cipta nan fleksibel dalam mahadoki aturan baru nan samakin hari samakin kataik. Meskipun Creative Commons disarankan oleh pandukuang visi kabijakan publik, tampaknyo Crrative Commons alum sapanuahnyo bapotensi untuak manyalasaikan konflik mandidiah antaro duo visi hukum hak cipta. Retrieved October 20, 2004 Untuak manjadi solusi, Creative Commons haruih mamanuahi tigo kondisi: Patamo, haruih sacaro akurek macaminkan caro urang mahasilkan karyo kreatip, kaduo, haruih malayani kapantiangan pribadi pancipta, jo katigo, haruih malayani kapantiangan umum pangguno. == Metodologi == Studi iko manggabuangkan tigo metode nan babedo. Patamo, analisis isi karajo CC-lisensi dilaksanokan dari tangga 24 Januari 2005 sampai 5 Pebruari, 2005 untuak mangeksplorasi panggunoan lisensi CC. Kaduo, survei babasis web pambari lisensi CC dilakukan untuak manggali labiah dalam dan pangguno lisensi CC. Undangan patamo survei itu dikirim pado tangga 9 Pebruari 2005, dan survei itu ditutuik pado tangga 6 Maret 2005. Tarakhia, ampek wawancaro mandalam dengan pangguno non-CC nan pawakilan industri konten utamo dilakukan pado tangga 16 Maret di [[Kota New York|New York City]] dan pado tangga 18 Maret 2005 di Washington DC wawancaro mangeksplorasi pandangan pawakilan industri pado hukum hak cipta, sarato pamikiran inyo manganoi lisensi<ref name="Gasaway">{{En}} CC.Gasaway, L. N. (2003). Copyright ownership & the impact on academic libraries. DePaul-LCA Journal of Art and Entertainment Law, 13, 277-311.</ref> == Populasi jo Sampel == Proses nan talibaik dalam mangidentifikasi populasi dan gambar sampel untuak survei babasis web pambari lisensi CC jo analisis isi karya CC-lisensi nan dibutuahkan babarapo inovasi. Populasi untuak analisis isi tadiri dari sadoalah pakarajoan CC-lisensi, samantaro populasi untuak survei babasis web tadiri dari sadoalah lisensi CC. Untuak maambiak sampel dari suatu populasi, daftar langkok dari populasi diparaluan. Mandapekkan daftar langkok karyo CC-ijin jo / atau pambari lisensi CC dari Creative Commons itu mustahil, karano indak ado. Dengan damikian, populasi dalam panalitian iko disobokkan malalui pancarian pautan sintaks di Yahoo!. Misalnyo, patanyoan nan dibuek sabagai "pautan: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/," jo Yahoo! manyobokkan sadoalah halaman web nan takaik dengan atribusi lisensi CC. Ini tampaknyo caro nan paliang akuraik untuak mancari sadoalah karyo-lisensi CC, karano sadoalah bakarajo CC-lisensi haruih dikaikkan jo lisensi CC. Pancarian pautan sintaks tabataih pado halaman web nan ditulih dalam [[Bahaso Inggirih|bahaso Inggeris]] jo host di Amerika Sarikaik. Ukuran populasi dipakirokan sabagai 2.571.800 malalui pautan sintaks pancarian manggunokan Yahoo! pado tangga 24 Januari 2005. Namun, sadoalah 2571800 halaman web indak buliah diakses, karano caro masin pancari bakarajo. Masin pancari Indak, tamasuak Yahoo!, disajikan hasil nan malabiahi hasil 1.000 th patamo. Untuak mangakses sampel nan labiah gadang, panulih studi iko dilakukan 13 pancarian sintaks pautan nan babedo. Masiang-masiang cari pautan ka lisensi CC nan babedo dan manunjuakkan halaman web patamo 1000 nan dilisensikan di bawah lisensi CC itu. Akibaiknyo, 13.000 halaman web lisensi CC-disobokkan dan buliah diakses. Contoah dari 1.000 halaman web di total sacaro acak diambiak dari 13.000 halaman web CC-lisensi. Karano sampel 1.000 diambiak dari halaman web paringkek nan labiah tinggi pado masin pancari, nan cenderung mampunyoi popularitas link labiah banyak dan alah diakses oleh pangguno labiah dari halaman web paringkek labiah randah, tamuan dari studi ini mungkin mampunyoi bias.<ref name="Chmielewski">{{En}} Chmielewski, D. C. (2004, November 8). Rip. sample. mash. share: The Wired CD's Creative Commons license lets listeners sample and swap songs online—legally. Mercury News. Retrieved November 10, 2004 from http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/business/10126944.htm?1c{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Februari 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> == Analisis Isi Pakarajoan lisensi == [[Berkas:Konten_Terbuka_–_Pedoman_Praktis_Penggunaan_Lisensi_Creative_Commons.pdf|jmpl|Konten Tabuko – Padoman Praktis Panggunoan Lisensi Creative Commons edisi bahaso Indonesia]] Tujuan dari analisis isi karya-lisensi CC adolah untuak mangidentifikasi apo jenis pakarajoan nan tasadio dan bagaimano inyo takaik dengan babagai jenis lisensi CC. Karakteristik lainnyo karyo CC-lisensi, saparti kualitaih karyo jo kalangsuangan hidup komersial inyo, indak diparikso. Sabuah cek sadarhano nan jenis karyo (audio, gambar, video, teks, atau lainnyo) nan tasadio di mano jenis lisensi CC dilakukan. Dalam mangklasifikasikan jenis pakarajoan CC-lisensi, anam kategori berikuik digunokan: # Teks, # Campuran dari duo atau labiah jenis pakarajoan utamo, # Gambar (foto, ilustrasi, jo desain), # Audio (musik jo pidato), # Video (filem jo cuplikan), # Lain-lain (software, alaik komputer, dll). Apakah karyo-lisensi CC tatantu jatuah ka dalam salah satu kategori tasabuik diputuihkan oleh jenis pakarajoan utamo. Sabagai contoah, sabuah blog nan tarutamo daftar teks tetapi juo barisi babarapo foto nan cocok dianggok sabagai karyo dalam format teks. Namun, sabuah blog nan mampunyoi duo bagian nan babedo-satu ditunjuak untuak entri teks dan nan lainnyo untuak entri foto-dianggok sabagai campuran dari duo jenis pakarajoan utamo. Dalam kategori Teks, limo barikuik jenis lisensi CC-karyo dibedokan: # Blog (teks sajo): sabuah blog dengan entri teks; # Blog (teks jo foto): sabuah blog nan tadiri dari tarutamo entri teks tetapi mampunyoi juo babarapo foto nan cocok jo entri teks; # Situs Web: baik situs Web nan hanyo tadiri dari teks atau website nan tadiri baik teks jo gambar nan cocok babarapo; # Teks lain: buku, artikel, esai, novel, jo dokumentasi parangkaik lunak, jo # Pandidiakan Bahan: sabuah website dengan rancano palajaran atau paket sajo. Pabedoan antaro blog jo website dibuek badasarkan paktor-paktor saparti apokah satiok entri alah tangga, apokah isi disajikan dalam format blog, jo apakah panulih manyabuiknyo sabuah blog atau website. Campuran dari duo atau labiah jenis kategori pakarajoan utamo tadiri tigo jenis lisensi CC-karyo: # Blog jo Foto bararti ado duo bagian nan babedo-satu dengan entri teks jo nan lainnyo dengan foto-entri dalam blog. # Website jo Foto bararti bahwa duo bagian nan babedo-satu dengan entri teks jo nan lainnyo dengan entri foto-ado dalam website. # Lain Konten Multimedia tamasuak situs di mano labiah dari duo jenis pakarajoan nan tasadio. Panerapan kriteria iko, duo [[coders]] malakukan analisis isi. Kaandalan intercoder, dihituang jo manggunokan (1969) formula Holsti, adolah 95%. == Tipe-Tipe Lisensi == Lisensi Creative Commons tadiri dari ampek modul utamo yaitu Atribusi (BY), nan mambutuahkan atribusi ka pancipta aslinyo, Babagi Sarupo (SA), nan mamungkinkan adonyo karyo turunan di bawah lisensi nan samo atau sarupo, Non-Komersial (NC), nan mano ciptaan tasabuik indak digunokan untuak tujuan komersial, dan indak ado Turunan (ND), nan mapabuliahkan hanyo ado ciptaan aslinyo, tanpa turunan. Kaampek modul iko dikombinasikan untuak mambantuak anam lisensi utamo dari Creative Commons. * ''[http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Licenses/by/3.0LegalText_%28Indonesian%29 Attribution (CC BY)]'' * ''[http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-sa/3.0LegalText_%28Indonesian%29 Attribution Share Alike (CC BY-SA)]'' * ''[http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-nd/3.0LegalText_%28Indonesian%29 Attribution No Derivatives (CC BY-ND)]'' * ''[http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-nc/3.0LegalText_%28Indonesian%29 Attribution Non-Commercial (CC BY-NC)]'' * ''[http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0LegalText_%28Indonesian%29 Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike (CC BY-NC-SA)]'' * ''[http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0LegalText_%28Indonesian%29 Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives (CC BY-NC-ND)]'' == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|3}} == Pustaka == * {{Cite journal|last=Ardito|first=Stephanie C.|year=2003|title=Public-Domain Advocacy Flourishes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_information-today_july-august-2003_20_7/page/17|journal=Information Today|volume=20|issue=7|pages=17, 19|ref=Ardito, Public-Domain Advocacy Flourishes}} * Asschenfeldt, Christiane. "[http://indico.cern.ch/conferenceDisplay.py?confId=a035925 Copyright and Licensing Issues—The International Commons.]" In ''CERN Workshop Series on Innovations in Scholarly Communication: Implementing the Benefits of OAI (OAI3), 12–14 February 2004 at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland''. Geneva: CERN, 2004. (video) * Brown, Glenn Otis. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110614224322/http://www.syllabus.com/article.asp?id=7475 Academic Digital Rights: A Walk on the Creative Commons.]" ''Syllabus Magazine'' (April 2003). * ———. "[http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0000009 Out of the Way: How the Next Copyright Revolution Can Help the Next Scientific Revolution.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827083059/http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0000009 |date=2011-08-27 }}" ''PLoS Biology'' 1, no. 1 (2003): 30–31. * Chillingworth, Mark. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20100228042054/http://www.iwr.co.uk/iwreview/1155821/ Creative Commons Attracts BBC's Attention.]" ''Information World Review'', 11 June 2004. * Conhaim, Wallys W. "[http://newsbreaks.infotoday.com/nbreader.asp?ArticleID=17167 Creative Commons Nurtures the Public Domain.]" ''Information Today'' 19, no. 7 (2002): 52, 54. * {{Cite journal|date=28 April 2004|title=Delivering Classics Resources with TEI-XML, Open Source, and Creative Commons Licenses|url=http://xml.coverpages.org/ni2004-04-28-a.html|journal=Cover Pages|ref=Cover Pages, Delivering Classics Resources|access-date=2023-06-26|archive-date=2005-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050208013514/http://xml.coverpages.org/ni2004-04-28-a.html|dead-url=yes}} * Denison, D.C. "For Creators, An Argument for Alienable Rights." ''Boston Globe'', 22 December 2002, E2. * {{Cite web|url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/06/15/german_creative_commons/|title=Germany Debuts Creative Commons|last=Ermert|first=Monika|date=15 June 2004|publisher=The Register|ref=Ermert, Germany Debuts Creative Commons}} * Fitzgerald, Brian, and Ian Oi. "[http://eprints.qut.edu.au/122/ Free Culture: Cultivating the Creative Commons.]" (2004). * Hietanen, Herkko "[https://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/42778 The Pursuit of Efficient Copyright Licensing — How Some Rights Reserved Attempts to Solve the Problems of All Rights Reserved] Diarsipkan 2012-01-30 di Wayback Machine." (2008) PhD dissertation. * Johnstone, Sally M. "Sharing Educational Materials Without Losing Rights." ''Change'' 35, no. 6 (2003): 49–51. * {{Cite journal|last=Lessig|first=Lawrence|author-link=Lawrence Lessig|year=2003|title=The Creative Commons|journal=Florida Law Review|volume=55|pages=763–777}} * Möller Erik, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080410233936/http://www.opensourcejahrbuch.de/download/jb2006/chapter_06/osjb2006-06-02-en-moeller.pdf The Case for Free Use: Reasons Not to Use a Creative Commons -NC License], in [http://www.opensourcejahrbuch.de/ Open Source Jahrbuch 2006]. * {{Cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2002/02/11/creatcom.DTL|title=All Hail Creative Commons: Stanford Professor and Author Lawrence Lessig Plans a Legal Insurrection|last=Plotkin|first=Hal|date=11 February 2002|publisher=[http://www.sfgate.com/ SFGate.com]|ref=Plotkin, All Hail Creative Commons|access-date=26 June 2023|archive-date=24 June 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050624074755/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2002/02/11/creatcom.DTL|dead-url=yes}} * Richard, Phillip, [http://www.thembj.org/2012/10/copyright-inefficiency/ "Copyright Inefficiency"], ''Music Business Journal'', Berklee College of Music (Oct. 2012) * {{Cite journal|last=Schloman|first=Barbara F.|date=13 October 2003|title=Creative Commons: An Opportunity to Extend the Public Domain|url=http://www.nursingworld.org/ojin/infocol/info_12.htm|journal=Online Journal of Issues in Nursing|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060104212710/http://www.nursingworld.org/ojin/infocol/info_12.htm|archive-date=2006-01-04|access-date=2013-11-16|ref=Schloman, Creative Commons}} * {{Cite journal|last=Stix|first=Gary|year=2003|title=Some Rights Reserved|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=7&articleID=000C2691-4F88-1E40-89E0809EC588EEDF|journal=[[Scientific American]]|volume=288|issue=3|page=46|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0303-46|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050915115752/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=7&articleID=000C2691-4F88-1E40-89E0809EC588EEDF|archive-date=2005-09-15|ref=Stix, Some Rights Reserved}} * Weitzman, Jonathan B., and Lawrence Lessig. "[http://www.biomedcentral.com/openaccess/archive/?page=features&issue=16 Open Access and Creative Common Sense.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070530042929/http://www.biomedcentral.com/openaccess/archive/?page=features&issue=16 |date=2007-05-30 }} Diarsipkan 2007-05-30 di Wayback Machine." ''Open Access Now'', 10 May 2004. == Pautan lua == * {{Laman rasmi|https://creativecommons.org/}} * [http://wiki.creativecommons.org/ Creative Commons wiki] {{En}} {{De}} {{Es}} (Katalan) {{Fr}} {{He icon}} (Italia) {{Pt}} {{Ru}} * [http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Videos Creative Commons Videos with subtitles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623023341/http://wiki.creativecommons.org/Videos |date=2011-06-23 }} Diarsipkan 2011-06-23 di Wayback Machine. * [http://mirrors.creativecommons.org/ Short Flash animation describing Creative Commons] * [http://www.cbc.ca/strombo/?id=975 Creative Commons Explained: Lawrence Lessig] on ''[[The Hour (serial TV Kanada)|The Hour]]'' with [[George Stroumboulopoulos]] * [http://eng.letscc.net/ Search Creative Commons Photos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924084437/http://eng.letscc.net/ |date=2013-09-24 }} Diarsipkan 2013-09-24 di Wayback Machine. * [http://www.dotspin.com/ dotspin.com - Photo Sharing Social Network powered by Creative Commons] * [http://www.thedrydenexperiment.com/ The Dryden Experiment - A Creative Commons Science Fiction Universe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208032420/http://www.thedrydenexperiment.com/ |date=2013-12-08 }} Diarsipkan 2013-12-08 di Wayback Machine. [[Kategori:Hukum komputer]] [[Kategori:Lisensi Hak Cipta]] [[Kategori:Creative Commons]] 2wb69z6jkyz4geo1iwpt5l4c0wky1w5 0 472445 3351222 3162096 2026-08-05T20:16:22Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351222 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Industri otomotif''' adolah parancangan, pangembangan, produksi, pamasaran, dan panjualan [[kandaraan]] ba[[masin|motor]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Hale|first=Christopher D.|date=2001|title=Indonesia's National Car Project Revisited|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_july-august-2001_41_4/page/629|journal=Asian Survey|volume=41|issue=4|pages=629–645|doi=10.1525/as.2001.41.4.629|issn=0004-4687|jstor=10.1525/as.2001.41.4.629}}</ref> Istilah industri otomotif biasonyo indak tamasuak industri satalah [[oto]] ditarimo dek pamboli, ajak [[Parbengkelan|bengkel]] jo [[Stasiun pangisian bahan baka|SPBU]]. == Rujuakan == <references /> {{Sister project links |1=Industri otomotif|author=UdaKami|auto=no|b=no|collapsible=yes|c:Special:Search/Category:Automotive industry|d=Q190117|display=Industri otomotif|m=no|mw=no|n={{PAGENAME}}|position=left|q=no|qid=no|s=no|species=no|species_author=no|style=Use with caution. (And don't use for evil!)|v=no|voy=no|wikt=pabirik}} {{Authority control}} {{Otomotif-stub}} oqx4d5u8zmn28kjlbdux1sikes1pdg4 0 472577 3351191 3145256 2026-08-05T19:21:39Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351191 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Galactic Cntr full cropped.jpg|jmpl|300px|ka|Pusek Galaksi tacaliak dek ciek dari teleskop infra merah 2MASS.]] '''Pusat Galaksi''' adolah titiak [[rotasi]] dari sabuah [[galaxies|galaksi]], contohnyo iyolah galaksi [[Milky Way Galaxy|Bima Sakti]], nan talatak sakitar 8.33±0.35 kiloparsek (~27.000±1000 taun cahayo) dari [[earth|Bumi]]<ref name="distance1">{{cite journal|last = Reid|first = Mark J.|title=The distance to the center of the Galaxy|journal=Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics|year=1993|volume=31|issue = 1| pages=345–372|bibcode=1993ARA&A..31..345R|accessdate=2007-05-10|doi= 10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002021}}</ref><ref name="distance2">{{cite journal|author=Eisenhauer, F.; Schödel, R.; Genzel, R.; Ott, T.; Tecza, M.; Abuter, R.; Eckart, A.; Alexander, T.|title=A Geometric Determination of the Distance to the Galactic Center| journal=The Astrophysical Journal|year=2003|volume=597|issue=2|pages=L121–L124|bibcode=2003ApJ...597L.121E | arxiv=astro-ph/0306220|doi=10.1086/380188}}</ref><ref name="distance3">{{cite journal|author=Horrobin, M.; Eisenhauer, F.; Tecza, M.; Thatte, N.; Genzel, R.; Abuter, R.; Iserlohe, C.; Schreiber, J.; Schegerer, A.; Lutz, D.; Ott, T.; Schödel, R.|title=First results from SPIFFI. I: The Galactic Center|journal=Astronomische Nachrichten|year=2004|volume=325|issue=2|pages=120–123|url=http://www.mpe.mpg.de/SPIFFI/preprints/first_result_an1.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-05-10|doi=10.1002/asna.200310181|bibcode=2004AN....325...88H|archive-date=2007-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621072120/http://www.mpe.mpg.de/SPIFFI/preprints/first_result_an1.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name=majaess2009>Majaess D. J., Turner D. G., Lane D. J. (2009). [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009arXiv0903.4206M ''Characteristics of the Galaxy according to Cepheids''], MNRAS</ref><ref name=gillessenetal2009>{{cite journal|last=Gillessen| first = S.|coauthors=Eisenhauer; Trippe; Alexander; Genzel; Martins; Ott|title=Monitoring Stellar Orbits Around the Massive Black Hole in the Galactic Center|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2009-02-20_692_2/page/1075|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=692|issue=2|pages=1075–1109|year=2009|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/692/2/1075|accessdate=2010-10-28|bibcode=2009ApJ...692.1075G|arxiv=0810.4674}}</ref> pado arah rasi [[Sagitarius]], Ophiuchus jo [[Scorpius]] di mano Galaksi Bima Sakti tacaliak labiah rancak. Pado pusek iko didapek [[black hole|Lubang Itam]] supermasif banamo [[Sagittarius A*]] {{Astronomi-stub}} et1n0nr8vufw33yrtsn6zpg7ay1q8ja 0 472784 3351194 3145679 2026-08-05T19:25:24Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351194 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Glikasi''' (kadang disabuik juo glikosilasi nonenzimatik) adolah ikatan kovalen antaro gulo jo protein atau lamak.<ref name=":0">Lima, M.; Baynes, J. W. (2013-01-01), [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123786302001201 "Glycation"], dalam Lennarz, William J.; Lane, M. Daniel, ''Encyclopedia of Biological Chemistry (Second Edition)'' (dalam bahasa Inggris), Waltham: Academic Press, hlm. 405–411, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-378630-2.00120-1, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-12-378631-9</nowiki>, diarsipan dari versi asli tanggal 2021-01-04, diakses tanggal 2020-12-16</ref> Jinih gulo nan talibek dalam proses glikasi adolah [[glukosa]], [[fruktosa]], jo derivatnyo. Glikasi adolah proses nan indak malibekan enzim nan batangguang jawok untuak tajadinyo kompliksi mikro jo makrovaskuler pado pandarito [[diabetes]] melitus jo talibek dalam proses panuoan jo babarapo panyakik.<ref>Glenn, J.; Stitt, A. (2009). "The role of advanced glycation end products in retinal ageing and disease". ''Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects''.</ref><ref>Semba, R. D.; Ferrucci, L.; Sun, K.; Beck, J.; Dalal, M.; Varadhan, R.; Walston, J.; Guralnik, J. M.; Fried, L. P. (2009). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2684987 "Advanced glycation end products and their circulating receptors predict cardiovascular disease mortality in older community-dwelling women"]. ''Aging Clinical and Experimental Research''. '''21''' (2): 182–190.</ref><ref>Semba, R.; Najjar, S.; Sun, K.; Lakatta, E.; Ferrucci, L. (2009). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2637811 "Serum carboxymethyl-lysine, an advanced glycation end product, is associated with increased aortic pulse wave velocity in adults"]. ''American Journal of Hypertension''. '''22''' (1): 74–79.</ref> Produk akhir proses glikasi diyakini marupokan panyabab komplikasi vaskuler pado diabetes. Babeda jo glikasi, glikosilasi adolah ikatan gulo jo protein atau lamak nan diperantai oleh enzim.<ref name=":0" /> Proses glikosilasi tajadi di [[molekul]] target. Proses iko adolah bantuak modifikasi posttranslasi protein nan lazim tajadi jo dibutuahan dek fungsi maturasi protein. == Biokimia == [[Berkas:GlycationViaAmadoriRgmt.svg|jmpl|364x364px|Jalur glikasi malalui reaksi Amadori.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Yaylayan, Varoujan A.|author2=Huyghues-Despointes, Alexis|year=1994|title=Chemistry of Amadori Rearrangement Products: Analysis, Synthesis, Kinetics, Reactions, and Spectroscopic Properties|url=https://archive.org/details/critical-reviews-in-food-science-and-nutrition_1994_34_4/page/321|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=34|issue=4|pages=321–69|doi=10.1080/10408399409527667|pmid=7945894}}</ref>]] [[Berkas:HydroimidazoloneAGE.png|ka|jmpl|266x266px|Imidazolon (R = CH₂CH(OH)CH(OH)CH₂OH) adolah produk glikasi. Senyawa iko tabantuak dari kondensasi 3-deoksiglukoson jo kalompok guanidina dari residu [[arginin]].<ref name="DRCP">{{cite journal|last1=Bellier|first1=Justine|last2=Nokin|first2=Marie-Julie|last3=Lardé|first3=Eva|last4=Karoyan|first4=Philippe|last5=Peulen|first5=Olivier|last6=Castronovo|first6=Vincent|last7=Bellahcène|first7=Akeila|year=2019|title=Methylglyoxal, a Potent Inducer of AGEs, Connects between Diabetes and Cancer|journal=Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice|volume=148|pages=200–211|doi=10.1016/j.diabres.2019.01.002|pmid=30664892}}</ref>]] Glikasi biasonyo tajadi di dalam aliran darah dari proses absorbsi gulo sadarhano dalam jumlah ketek; glukosa, fruktosa, jo galaktosa. Tampaknyo frtuktosa mamiliki aktivitas glikasi sapuluah kali labiah banyak daripado glukosa, nan marupokan bahan baka primer untuak badan.<ref>McPherson JD, Shilton BH, Walton DJ (March 1988). "Role of fructose in glycation and cross-linking of proteins". ''Biochemistry''. '''27''' (6): 1901–7. doi:10.1021/bi00406a016. <nowiki>PMID 3132203</nowiki>.</ref> Glikasi dapek tajadi malalui reaksi Amadori, reaksi basa Schiff, jo reaksi Maillard; nan akan mahasilan produk akhir glikasi atau ''advanced glycation end products'' (AGEs). == Glikasi jo panuoan == Proses glikasi tajadi pado badan manusia, kito sadang mangalami pamatangan. Labiah tapeknyo, kito barangsua-angsua manjadi hanguih, mangalok sarupo roti di pamanggang. Dalam badan kito, sajak lahia, tajadilah pamatangan, maski lambek sabana lambek. Katiko iluwan maliek tulang rawan iga bayi, warnanyo putiah. Baitu manusia mancapai usia 90 taun, tulang rawan nan samo bawarna coklat. Fenomena iko nan kini dikenal sabagai reaksi Mailard. Inyo manamuan bahwa pancokelatan tajadi katiko molekul glukosa manabrak molekul sanyawa lain. Banturan iko manyababkan reaksi. Molekul kaduo nan ditabrak glukosa ko disabuik mangalami "glikasi". Katiko molekul mangalami glikasi, artinyo molekul tuh rusak. Proses iko normal jo nisacayo dalam hiduik. Karano itulah kito manuo, organ-organ kito barangsua-angsua malamah, hinggo akhirnyo mati. Kito indak bisa mahantian proses iko, tapi bisa mampalambek atau mampacapeknyo. Samakin banyak glukosa nan kito antaran ka badan, samakin acok glikasi tajadi. Baitu molekul mangalami glikasi, rusaklah molekul itu salamonyo, sabagaimano roti nan alah hanguih indak bisa diputiahan baliak. Efek jangko panjang dari molekul terglikasi bamacam-macam, mulai dari karipuik jo katarak hinggo panyakik jantuang jo alzheimer.<ref>Inchauspe, Jessie (2023). ''Revolusi Glukosa: The Life-Changing Power of Balancing Your Blood Sugar''. Yogyakarta: PT Bentang Pustaka. hlm. 42–43. <nowiki>ISBN 978-623-186-003-3</nowiki>.</ref> == Rujuakan == 064w3t3t5gnk5359u39p9fzslyc4pek 0 472872 3351319 3154762 2026-08-05T23:16:41Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}}Barikuik iko adolah '''daftar parang nan malibatkan Indonesia'''. <!-- When making a major edit, please discuss in talk page to minimize edit conflict and edit warring. Criterias for this list can be seen in the talk page. --> {| class="wikitable" style="background:#efefef;" |- ! style="background-color:red; color:white;" | Konflik atau parang ! style="background-color:red; color:white;" | Pihak 1 ! style="background-color:red; color:white;" | Pihak 2 ! style="background-color:red; color:white;" | Hasil |- |style="background:#efefef"| Revolusi Nasional Indonesia<br/>(1945–1949) |style="background:#efefef"| {{flag|Indonesia}} '''Didukung dek:''' {{flag|Australia}} (after 1946)<ref name="downer">{{cite web |title=Australia & Indonesia's Independence: The Transfer Of Sovereignty: Documents 1949 |url=http://www.foreignminister.gov.au/speeches/1998/980709_ai_sovereignty.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194548/http://www.foreignminister.gov.au/speeches/1998/980709_ai_sovereignty.html |archive-date=29 October 2013 |access-date=11 May 2013 |publisher=Minister for Foreign Affairs}}</ref> {{flag|Amerika Sarikat|1912}} (sajak 1949)<ref name="marshall">{{Cite book |last=Gouda |first=Frances |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55842798 |title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia : US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949 |date=2002 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |others=Thijs Brocades Zaalberg |isbn=1-4175-2156-2 |location=Amsterdam |oclc=55842798}}</ref> {{flagdeco|India}} India (sajak 1947)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Suryanarayan |first1=V. |date=1981 |title=Presidential Address: India and the Indonesian Revolution |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141175 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=42 |pages=549–562 |issn=2249-1937 |jstor=44141175}}</ref> |style="background:#efefef"|{{flag|Balando|size=22px}} * {{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Hindia Balando]] * {{flagicon image|Flag of Legion of Ratu Adil.svg}} [[Legion of the Just Ruler|APRA]] * {{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Pao An Tui]]{{efn|claimed neutrality|group=infobox}} {{flagcountry|UK}} (sampai 1946) * {{flag|British Raj}} (until 1946) {{flagdeco|Japan|1870}} Japang (sampai 1946) '''Didukung dek:''' {{flagcountry|Australia}} (sampai 1946) ----'''Konflik internal''' {{flagicon image|Flag of Islamic State of Indonesia.svg}} [[Darul Islam (Indonesia)|Darul Islam]] {{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg}} Front Demokrasi Rakyat | Kamanangan militer Balando, kamanangan politik Indonesia<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony|title=The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950 |page=152|publisher=Longman |year=1974 |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-582-71046-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |page=115|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last =Friend| first =Theodore| title =Indonesian Destinies| page=38|publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| year =2003| isbn =0-674-01834-6}}</ref> * Merdekanyo Indonesia dari panajahan Balando |- |style="background:#efefef"| Pamberontakan Darul Islam <br/>(1949&ndash;1962) |style="background:#efefef"| {{flag|Indonesia|size=22px}} |style="background:#efefef"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Islamic State of Indonesia.svg}} Darul Islam<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Legion of Ratu Adil.svg}} Front Demokrasi Rakyat |Pamberontakan dipadaman * Darul Islam bubar * Tabantuaknyo [[Komando Jihad]]<nowiki/>dek veteran Darul Islam * Dimulainyo revanchisme di Aceh, nan baujuang pado dimulainyo pamberontakan baru di Aceh dek Gerakan Aceh Merdeka pado tahun 1976 |- |style="background:#efefef"| Invasi Ambon<br/>(1950) |style="background:#efefef"| {{flag|Indonesia}} |style="background:#efefef"|[[File:Flag of South Moluccas.svg|22px]] Republik Maluku Salatan |Manangnyo pamarentah Indonesia * Kapulauan Maluku tetap masuak Indonesia |- |style="background:#efefef"| Operasi Trikora<br/>(1961&ndash;1962) |style="background:#efefef"| {{flag|Indonesia|size=22px}} |style="background:#efefef"| {{flag|Balando|size=22px}} * {{flag|Netherlands New Guinea}} |Manangnyo pamarentah Indonesia * Kabuntuan militer<ref>{{cite journal |date=February 2011 |title=Operation Trikora – Indonesia's Takeover of West New Guinea |journal=Pathfinder: Air Power Development Centre Bulletin |issue=150 |pages=1–2 |url=http://airpower.airforce.gov.au/publications/Details/443/150-Operation-TRIKORA---Indonesias-Takeover-of-West-New-Guinea.aspx |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> * Papua Nugini Barat disarahan kapado PBB, kudian ka Indonesia<ref name="WiesPlatje">{{cite journal |last1=Platje |first1=Wies |year=2001 |title=Dutch Sigint and the Conflict with Indonesia 1950–62|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_intelligence-national-security_spring-2001_16_1/page/285 |journal=Intelligence and National Security |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=285–312 |doi= 10.1080/714002840|s2cid=153528325 }}</ref><ref>Soedjati Djiwandono, ''Konfrontasi Revisited'', p. 135.</ref> |- |- | style="background:#efefef" | Konflik Papua <br />(1962–present) | style="background:#efefef" | {{flag|Indonesia|size=22px}} | style="background:#efefef" | [[File:Morning Star flag.svg|22px|border]] [[Organisasi Papua Merdeka]] |'''Masih balansuang''' |- | style="background:#efefef" | Invasi Indonesia ke Timor Timur<br />(1975&ndash;1976) | style="background:#efefef" | {{flag|Indonesia|size=22px}} ----'''Partai nan sahaluan:''' * {{flagicon image|TL-UDT.png}} [[Timorese Democratic Union]] * {{flagicon image|Flag_of_APODETI.svg}} [[Timorese Popular Democratic Association]] | style="background:#efefef" | {{flagicon image|Flag of East Timor (3-2).svg}} Timor Timur * {{flagicon image|Flag of FRETILIN (East Timor).svg}} [[Fretilin]] ([[Falintil]]) |Manangnyo pamarentah Indonesia * Pendudukan Indonesia di Provinsi Timor Timur sampai 1999 |- | style="background:#efefef" | Pendudukan Indonesia di Provinsi Timor Timur<br />(1976–1999) | style="background:#efefef" | {{flag|Indonesia}} *{{flag|Timor Timur}} ----{{flagicon|Indonesia|size=22px}} Milisi pro-Indonesia * {{flagicon image|Flag of AITARAK.svg}} [[Aitarak]] * Besi Merah Putih * Garda Muda Penegak Integrasi * Laksaur * Mahidi | style="background:#efefef" | {{flag|East Timor}} *{{flagicon image|Flag of the National Council of Maubere Resistance (CNRT).svg}} Dewan Nasional Perlawanan Timor *{{flagicon image|Flag of FRETILIN (East Timor).svg}} [[Fretilin]] *{{flagicon image|TL-UDT.png}} Uni Demokrasi Timor |Intervensi PBB nan dipimpin dek Pasukan Internasional untuak Timor Timur * Genosina Timor Timur * Timor Timur mandapek kamerdekaan sausdah referendum * Krisis Timor Timur 1999 * Kekalahan milisi pro-Indonesia * Stabilisasi Timor Timur<ref name="Jacob20142">{{cite book |author=D. Jacob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ydHBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 |title=Justice and Foreign Rule: On International Transitional Administration |date=8 October 2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-45257-3 |pages=55–}}</ref> |- | style="background:#efefef" | Pemberontakan di Aceh<br />(1976&ndash;2005) | style="background:#efefef" | {{flag|Indonesia|size=22px}} '''Didukung dek:''' {{flag|Amerika Sarikat}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 June 2003 |title=U.S. Weapons Aid Repression in Aceh |url=https://ips-dc.org/us_weapons_aid_repression_in_aceh/ |access-date=4 December 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522010007/https://ips-dc.org/us_weapons_aid_repression_in_aceh/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> | style="background:#efefef" | {{flagicon image|Flag of Free Aceh Movement.svg}} [[Gerakan Aceh Merdeka]] '''Didukung dek:''' {{flagdeco|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} Libyan Arab Jamahiriya<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aspinall |first=Edward |title=Islam and nation: separatist rebellion in Aceh, Indonesia |date=2009 |publisher=Stanford University press |isbn=978-9971-69-485-2 |series=Studies in Asian security |location=Stanford (Calif.) |pages=105}}</ref> |Penyelesaian konflik secara damai; Nota Kesepahaman Helsinki * Otonomi khusus Aceh * Palucutan senjata GAM * Barakhianyo klaim kemerdekaan GAM * Baranjaknyo pasukan Indonesia non-lokal, hanyo manyisoan 25.000 tentara di provinsi tersebut |} ==Caliak pulo== * [[Hubuangan lua nagari Indonesia]] == Catatan == <references group="lower-alpha" /> {{reflist|group=note}} ==Rujuakan== <references /> [[Category:Wars involving Indonesia|*List]] [[Category:Lists of wars by country|Indonesia]] [[Category:Indonesia history-related lists|Wars]] [[Category:Indonesian military-related lists|Wars]] 3xfz05tltiwfhbli8yp4x88620tnhfz 0 473300 3351256 3161760 2026-08-05T21:36:25Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351256 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Fachrul Razi | image = Official Portrait of Fachrul Razi.jpg | caption = Poto taun 2019 sabagai menteri agamo | office = [[Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia|Menteri Agamo]] ke-23 | term_start = 23 Oktober 2019 | term_end = 23 Desember 2020 | president = [[Joko Widodo]] | vicepresident = [[Ma'ruf Amin]] | predecessor = [[Lukman Hakim Saifuddin]] | successor = [[Yaqut Cholil Qoumas]] | birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1947|7|26}} | birth_place = [[Banda Aceh|Kutaradja]], [[Sumatra]], Indonesia | serviceyears = 1970–2002 | allegiance = {{flag|Indonesia}} | rank = [[File:22-TNI_Army-GEN.svg|25px]] [[General officer|General]] | branch = [[File:Insignia of the Indonesian Army.svg|25px]] [[Indonesian Army]] | commands = Deputy Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces | party = [[Hanura]] }} '''Fachrul Razi''' ({{lahirmati||26|7|1947}}) adolah saurang politikus jo pansiunan tantara [[Indonesia]] nan manjabek sabagai [[Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia|Menteri Agamo]] sajak 23 Oktober 2019 sampai 23 Desember 2020. Inyo adolah urang militer katigo nan ditunjuak sabagai menteri agamo, satalah [[Tarmizi Taher]] (1993–1998) jo [[Alamsyah Ratu Perwiranegara]] (1978–1983).<ref>{{cite news |author=Muhammad Subarkah |title=Pancasila, Radikalisasi: Dari Alamsyah Hingga Fachrul Razi |url=https://nasional.republika.co.id/berita/pztogb377/dunia-islam/islam-nusantara/19/10/23/pztdpv385-pancasila-radikalisasi-dari-alamsyah-hingga-fachrul-razi|access-date=15 Januari 2024 |work=Republika.co.id|date=23 Oktober 2019 |language=id}}</ref> Karano Tarmizi bapangkek [[Laksamana muda|laksamana bintang duo]] jo Alamsyah adolah saurang [[Letnan jenderal|jenderal bintang tigo]], Fachrul nan bapangkek jenderal bintang ampek adolah eks militer nan pangkeknyo paliang tinggi nan parnah manjabek sabagai menteri agamo. Fachrul adolah Wakil Panglima [[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|TNI]] (1999–2000) tarakhir nan manjabek sabalum jabatan tu diapuih sarato salah saurang pandiri partai [[Hanura]]. ==Latar balakang== Fachrul Razi lahia di Kutaradja (kini [[Banda Aceh]]) pado tanggal 26 Juli 1947. Inyo adolah anak dari parantau [[Suku Minangkabau|Minangkabau]] nan barasa dari [[Maninjau|Maninjau]], [[Sumatra Barat]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Irwanda Saputra|title= Menteri Agama Fachrul Razi, Jenderal Asal Maninjau di Kabinet Jokowi-Ma’ruf |url= https://langgam.id/menteri-agama-fachrul-razi-jenderal-asal-maninjau-di-kabinet-jokowi-maruf/ |access-date=15 Januari 2024 |work=langgam.id|date=23 Oktober 2019 |language=id}}</ref> Fachrul adolah lulusan akademi militer taun 1970.<ref name="profil">{{cite news |last1=Ratya |first1=Mega Putra |title=Ini Profil Johny Lumintang dan Fahrul Razi yang Disebut Calon Pengganti Luhut |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-3007469/ini-profil-johny-lumintang-dan-fahrul-razi--yang-disebut-calon-pengganti-luhut |access-date=15 Januari 2019 |work=detiknews |date=2 September 2015 |language=id |archive-date=31 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131043230/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-3007469/ini-profil-johny-lumintang-dan-fahrul-razi--yang-disebut-calon-pengganti-luhut |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ==Karier== ===Militer=== Sapanjang kariernya di TNI AD, Fachrul batugas di infanteri, jo dipromosian manjadi pangkek bintang tigo pado taun 1995–1996.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Current Data on the Indonesian Military Elite, September 2005–March 2008 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_indonesia_2008-04_85/page/79 |journal=Indonesia |date=April 2008 |volume=85 |issue=85 |pages=79–121 |jstor=40376445 }}</ref> Inyo mamimpin [[Kontingen Garuda]] Indonesia pado bulan Agustus 1989 sampai September 1990 sabagai bagian dari Kalompok Pengamat Militer Iran-Irak PBB, katiko itu inyo bapangkek [[letnan kolonel]].<ref>{{cite web |title=DAFTAR MILITARY OBSERVER YANG TELAH BEROPERASI DALAM PEMELIHARAAN PERDAMAIAN INTERNASIONAL |url=https://www.kemhan.go.id/strahan/wp-content/uploads/migrasi//Produk/Pengerahan_Pasukan.pdf |publisher=Defense Ministry of Indonesia |access-date=16 Januari 2024 |language=id}}</ref> Inyo manjadi kapalo akademi militer (1996–1997) jo asisten operasional kapalo staf TNI AD (1997–1998), nan akhianyo manjadi kapalo staf TNI pado taun 1998 sampai 1999. Pado taun 1999, inyo diangkek manjadi wakil panglima TNI di bawah pimpinan Laksamana [[Widodo Adi Sutjipto]]. Tapi, Presiden [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] mamarentahkan jabatan Razi diapuihan, dan pado taun 2000, Razi dicopot dari jabatannyo. Inyo pansiun dari militer pado taun 2002.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Suriyanto |title=Fachrul Razi: Korban Penghapusan Jabatan Wakil Panglima TNI |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20150902083433-20-76062/fachrul-razi-korban-penghapusan-jabatan-wakil-panglima-tni |access-date=16 Januari 2024 |work=CNN Indonesia |date=2 September 2015 |language=id}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Putri|first=Aditya Widya|date=2 Agustus 2016|title=Uang Pensiun Saya Sebagai Jenderal Rp4,5 Jutaan|url=https://tirto.id/uang-pensiun-saya-sebagai-jenderal-rp45-jutaan-bwvS|access-date=16 Januari 2024|website=tirto.id|language=id}}</ref> Dalam sabuah wawancara taun 2004, Razi mambela tindakan [[Wiranto]] (katiko itu Panglima TNI) salamo tajadinyo [[karusuahan Jakarta 1998]]. Katiko itu Razi manjabek sabagai kapalo staf.<ref>{{cite news |title=Fachrul: Pangdam Jaya Tidak Memerlukan Penambahan Pasukan |url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/78100/fachrul-pangdam-jaya-tidak-memerlukan-penambahan-pasukan |accessdate=16 Januari 2024 |work=liputan6.com |date=14 May 2004 |language=id}}</ref> Razi adolah anggota dewan militer pado taun 1998 nan mamecat [[Prabowo Subianto]] dari jabatannyo. Katiko sabuah surek nan diklaim sabagai surek resmi pamecatan Prabowo baredar pado taun 2014, Razi manegaskan kaabsahannyo.<ref>{{cite news |last1=William |first1=Anton |title=Ini Alasan Prabowo Dipecat sebagai Perwira |url=https://pemilu.tempo.co/read/583812/ini-alasan-prabowo-dipecat-sebagai-perwira/full&view=ok |accessdate=16 Januari 2024 |work=Tempo |date=10 June 2014 |language=id }}{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Menteri Agamo== Razi ditunjuak manjadi[[Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia| Menteri Agamo]] pado [[Kabinet Indonesia Maju]] pado tanggal 23 Oktober 2019 dek Presiden [[Joko Widodo]] manggantian [[Lukman Hakim Saifuddin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/indonesian-president-jokowi-announces-new-cabinet|title=Indonesian President Jokowi announces new Cabinet|publisher=The Straits Times|date=23 October 2019|accessdate=16 Januari 2024}}</ref> Idak lamo satalah diangkek, Razi mangajuan kamungkinan paraturan nan malarang pamakaian cadar jo sirawa cingkrang–pakaian nan acok dipakai dek umat Islam–untuak dipakai di lingkuangan pamarentahan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Indonesia's religious minister sparks debate over veil and trousers worn by Muslims |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/indonesias-religious-minister-sparks-debate-over-veil-and-trousers-worn-by-muslims |accessdate=16 Januari 2024|work=The Straits Times |date=2 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref> Pado bulan September 2020, inyo dikritik dek DPR satalah inyo mangatoan baso radikalisme disebaran dek urang-urang nan rancak nan marupoan panghafal Alquran nan fasiah babahaso Arab. Pado Desember 2020, inyo majadi salah saurang dari anam menteri nan diganti dalam parombakan kabinet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rapat Dengan DPR, Menag Fachrul Razi Diprotes Sering Komentar Bikin Gaduh |url=https://www.merdeka.com/politik/rapat-dengan-dpr-menag-fachrul-razi-diprotes-sering-komentar-bikin-gaduh.html |website=Merdeka |date=8 September 2020 |language=id|accessdate=16 Januari 2024}}</ref> ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Politikus Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Militer Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh dari Banda Aceh]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Minangkabau]] 1waqtihi7k7v478qbibdo2x3fp2lw4e 0 473591 3351293 3344071 2026-08-05T22:30:32Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351293 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Flag of Samoa.svg|thumb|Bandera Samoa]] '''Samoa''' atau sacaro rasmi '''Nagara Mardeka Samoa''', sarato hinggo tahun 1997 dikenal sabagai '''Samoa Barat''', adolah sabuah [[nagara kapulauan]] di [[Polinesia]]. Jo laweh 2.842 km2 (1.097 sq mi),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2009-2010/Table03.pdf |title=Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density |publisher=United Nations Statistics Division |year=2010 |access-date=7 April 2014 |archive-date=10 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110162214/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2009-2010/Table03.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> nagara ko babatehan di barat jo [[Samoa Amerika]], timur laut [[Tonga]] jo [[Fiji]], timur [[Wallis jo Futuna]], tenggara [[Tuvalu]], selatan [[Tokelau]], barat daya [[Hawaii]], sarato barat laut [[Niue]]. Ibu kota jo kota tagadangnyo iolah [[Apia]].<ref name=cia>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/samoa/ |title=Samoa |work=CIA – The World Factbook |date=13 March 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=13 March 2024 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028124346/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/samoa/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Pulau-pulau Samoa sacaro geologis dihasiakan dek aktivitas vulkanik nan baasa dari titik paneh Samoa, nan mungkin disababkan oleh [[bulu mantel]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Koppers, Anthony A.P. |date=June 2008 |title=Samoa reinstated as a primary hotspot trail |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_geology_2008-06_36_6/page/435 |journal=[[Geology (journal)|Geology]] |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1130/G24630A.1 |bibcode=2008Geo....36..435K}} </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.geosociety.org/news/pr/08-23.htm |title=GSA Press Release – GEOLOGY/GSA Today Media Highlights |publisher=Geosociety.org |date=27 May 2008 |access-date=30 June 2010 |archive-date=15 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615233006/http://geosociety.org/news/pr/08-23.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Politik Samoa balansuang dalam karangko nagara [[demokrasi]] [[Sistem parlementer|perwakilan parlementer]] dimano [[Pardana Mantari Samoa|Pardana Mantari]] manjadi kapalo pamarentahan nagara.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Government and society|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Samoa-island-nation-Pacific-Ocean/Government-and-society|website=Britannica}}</ref> Kuaso legislatif dipacik dek [[Majelis Legislatif Samoa|Majelis Legislatif]] nan mampunyoi anggota 51, namun dapek ditambah hinggo 5 lai untuak mamastian 10% kursi untuak padusi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Samoa: Key Facts: Political |url=http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Countries/Pacific/Samoa.php |work=New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade |access-date=27 November 2007 |archive-date=29 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729214227/http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Countries/Pacific/Samoa.php |url-status=dead}}</ref> 49 dari 51 tu harus urang Samoa atau matai, jo nan 2 lai untuak urang non-Samoa.<ref name=usp>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUpmpeJz-8gC&q=Samoan+politics+matai+1991 |title=New Politics in the South pacific |first= Jean |last=Drage |page=162 |year=1994 |publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific |isbn=9789820201156 |access-date=11 April 2010 }} </ref> Anggota Dewan dipiliah sacaro lansuang. Pado sensus tahun 2021, nagara ko bapanduduak 205.557 jiwa,<ref name=census>{{cite web |url= https://www.sbs.gov.ws/documents/census/2021/Census_2021_Final_Report.pdf?_t=1670528927 |title=Population & Demography Indicator Summary |publisher=Samoa Bureau of Statistics |access-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403053500/http://www.sbs.gov.ws/index.php/population-demography-and-vital-statistics |archive-date=3 April 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> nan sapatigonyo tingga di pulau utamo, [[Upolu]].<ref name="DS">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Samoa |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1842.htm |publisher=U.S. State Department |access-date=26 November 2007 |archive-date=22 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194546/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1842.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> 96% dari panduduaknyo [[urang Samoa]], 2% urang [[Samoa-Selandia Baru]], jo 1,9% lainnyo pado tahun 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/samoa/ |title=Samoa |work=CIA – The World Factbook |date=28 October 2021 |url-status=live |access-date=13 March 2024 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028124346/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/samoa/ |dead-url=unfit }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Nagara di Polinesia]] blu5sv6w9kcy5dki3ivpzn7nfsfox40 0 473632 3351212 3151305 2026-08-05T20:04:16Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351212 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fibromyalgia''' atau '''sindrom fibromyalgia''' adolah kaadoan klikos nan ditandoi jo nyeri kronis nan jo respon nyeri nan maningkek jo panekanan.<ref name="pmid21303476"/> Gajalo lain tamasuak [[Kelelahan|kelelahan sampai]] pado tingkek tatantu nan mampangaruhi aktivitas normal, [[Gangguan tidur|masalah lalok]] jo masalah [[ingatan]].<ref name="JAMA2014">{{Cite journal|last=Clauw|first=Daniel J.|date=16 April 2014|title=Fibromyalgia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2014-04-16_311_15/page/1547|journal=JAMA|volume=311|issue=15|pages=1547–55|doi=10.1001/jama.2014.3266|pmid=24737367}}</ref> Babarapp pasien malaporkan adonyo sindrom kaki gelisah (''Restless Legs Syndrome; RLS''), [[Sindrom iritasi usus|masalah usus]] atau kanduang kemih, [[Parestesia|mati rasa jo kesemutan]], sarato kapekaan tahadook kabisingan, cahaya, atau suhu.<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/> Fibromyalgia acok dikakkan jo [[Kegelisahan|kecemasan]], [[Depresi (psikologi)|depresi]], jo [[Gangguan stres pascatrauma|gangguan stres pasca trauma]].<ref name="JAMA2014"/> Jenis [[Sakit kronis|nyeri kronis]] lainnyo juo acok muncua.<ref name="JAMA2014"/> Panyabab fibromyalgia masih alun dikatahui, tapi kombinasi faktor genetik jo lingkungan diyakiko ttalibaikt.<ref name="JAMA2014" /><ref name="NIH2014Tx">{{Cite web|url=http://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/fibromyalgia/|title=Questions and Answers about Fibromyalgia|date=July 2014|website=NIAMS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315112712/http://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/fibromyalgia/|archive-date=15 March 2016|access-date=24 Maret 2024|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kondisi iko diyakini dapek diturunkan sacara [[Lokus sifat kuantitatif|genetik]].<ref name="Buskila-2006">{{Cite journal|year=2006|title=Biology and therapy of fibromyalgia. Genetic aspects of fibromyalgia syndrome|journal=[[Arthritis Research & Therapy]]|volume=8|issue=5|page=218|doi=10.1186/ar2005|pmc=1779444|pmid=16887010|vauthors=Buskila D, Sarzi-Puttini P}}</ref> Faktor lain nan dapek taribaik antaro lain [[stres psikologis]], trauma jo [[infeksi]] tatantu.<ref name="JAMA2014"/> Raso sakit nan muncul dapek diakibaikkan dek proses di [[sistem saraf pusat]] jo kondisi iko disabuik sabagai "sindrom sensitisasi sentral".<ref name="pmid21303476"/><ref name="JAMA2014"/> Fibromyalgia dianggap sabagai sabuah kelainan dek [[Institut Kesehatan Nasional]] Amerika Serikat jo American College of Rheumatology.<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rheumatology.org/I-Am-A/Patient-Caregiver/Diseases-Conditions/Fibromyalgia|title=Fibromyalgia|date=May 2015|website=American College of Rheumatology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317104756/http://www.rheumatology.org/I-Am-A/Patient-Caregiver/Diseases-Conditions/Fibromyalgia|archive-date=17 March 2016|access-date=24 Maret 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> Saat iko indak ado tes diagnostik khusus.<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/> Diagnosis dapek ditegakkan jo menyingkirkan kemungkinan panyakik lainnya jo mambuktikan bahwa sajumlah gajalo ado.<ref name="JAMA2014"/><ref name="NIH2014Tx"/> Fibromyalgia dipakirokan dapek mampengaruhi 2-8% populasi.<ref name="JAMA2014"/> Wanita acok bana mandarito panyakik iko dua kali labiah acok dibandingan pria.<ref name="JAMA2014"/> Angko tasabuit tampak sarupo di banyak wilayah di dunia jo di antaro budaya nan babeda.<ref name="JAMA2014"/> Fibromyalgia patamo kali didefinisian pado tahun 1990, jo kriteria nan dipabarui pado tahun 2011.<ref name="JAMA2014"/> Tadapek kontroversi manganai klasifikasi, diagnosis, jo pengobatan fibromyalgia.<ref name="pmid19623319">{{Cite journal|date=June 2009|title=Fibromyalgia syndrome: classification, diagnosis, and treatment|url=|journal=Dtsch Arztebl Int|volume=106|issue=23|pages=383–91|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2009.0383|pmc=2712241|pmid=19623319|vauthors=Häuser W, Eich W, Herrmann M, Nutzinger DO, Schiltenwolf M, Henningsen P}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=SM|last2=Han|first2=C|last3=Lee|first3=SJ|last4=Patkar|first4=AA|last5=Masand|first5=PS|last6=Pae|first6=CU|date=June 2015|title=Fibromyalgia diagnosis: a review of the past, present and future.|journal=Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics|volume=15|issue=6|pages=667–79|doi=10.1586/14737175.2015.1046841|pmid=26035624}}</ref> Meskipun babarapo pihak maraso diagnosis fibromyalgia dapek berdampak nagatif pado sasaurang, panelitian lain maanganggapnyo bamanfaat. <ref name="JAMA2014" /> Pangobatan fibromyalgia dapek manjadi sulik.<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/>Rekomendasi pengobatannya acok mencakup lalok nan cukuik, berolahraga sacaro teratur, jo mengonsumsi [[Diet sehat|makanan nan sihaik]].<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/> [[Terapi perilaku kognitif]] (CBT) juo dapek mambantu penderita.<ref name="JAMA2014" /><ref name="JAMA2020">{{Cite journal|last=Mascarenhas|first=Rodrigo Oliveira|last2=Souza|first2=Mateus Bastos|last3=Oliveira|first3=Murilo Xavier|last4=Lacerda|first4=Ana Cristina|last5=Mendonça|first5=Vanessa Amaral|last6=Henschke|first6=Nicholas|last7=Oliveira|first7=Vinícius Cunha|date=26 October 2020|title=Association of Therapies With Reduced Pain and Improved Quality of Life in Patients With Fibromyalgia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=JAMA Internal Medicine|doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.5651}}</ref> Obat duloxetine, milnacipran atau pregabalin dapek digunoan.<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/> Penggunaan obat nyeri opioid masih kontroversial, babarapo pihak mangecekan kegunaannyo indak didukuang dek bukti<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/><ref name="Don2016">{{Cite journal|last=Goldenberg|first=DL|last2=Clauw|first2=DJ|last3=Palmer|first3=RE|last4=Clair|first4=AG|date=May 2016|title=Opioid Use in Fibromyalgia: A Cautionary Tale.|url=http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(16)00102-6/fulltext|url-status=live|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|type=Review|volume=91|issue=5|pages=640–8|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.02.002|pmid=26975749|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829130759/https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196%2816%2900102-6/fulltext|archive-date=29 August 2021|access-date=24 Maret 2024}}</ref>, sadangkan pihak lain mangecekan kalau opioid lamah mungkin dapek digunoaan kok ubek lain indak efektif.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sumpton|first=JE|last2=Moulin|first2=DE|date=2014|title=Fibromyalgia.|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|isbn=9780702040863|volume=119|pages=513–27|doi=10.1016/B978-0-7020-4086-3.00033-3|pmid=24365316}}</ref> [[Suplemen makanan]] indak mampunyoi bukti nan mandukuang sabagai pangotaban.<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/> Maskipun fibromyalgia dapek balangsuang lamo, namun indak manyebaban kamatian atau karusakan jaringan.<ref name="NIH2014Tx"/> Istilah "fibromyalgia" barasa dari [[bahasa Latin]] ''fibro-'', yaitu "jaringan berserat", [[bahasa Yunani]] μυώ ''myo-'', "otot", jo bahasa Yunani άλγος ''algos'', "nyeri", sahingga istilah iko dapek diartan sabagai "nyeri [[otot]] jo [[Jaringan ikat|jaringan ikat fibrosa]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bergmann|first=Uri|date=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxEiRjNm8nMC&pg=PA165|title=Neurobiological foundations for EMDR practice|location=New York, NY|publisher=Springer Pub. Co.|isbn=9780826109385|page=165}}</ref> == Referensi == <references /> {{Medical condition classification and resources | DiseasesDB = | ICD10 = {{ICD10|M79.7}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|729.1}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000427 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 790 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|med|2934}} {{eMedicine2|ped|777}} {{eMedicine2|pmr|47}} | MeshID = D005356 }} [[Kategori:Rematologi]] [[Kategori:Psikiatri]] 5m0x924xpn2z9w73hvz5mp2shx299za 0 473710 3351257 3185465 2026-08-05T21:38:15Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351257 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|None}} Daftar iko mamuek '''bibliografi antropologi''' yakni sajumlah publikasi penting di kajian antropologi, tamasuak berbagai sub-kajian. Daftar iko indak dimukasuikan manjadi daftar langkok sahinggo indak manutuik diri dari panambahan. Daftar iko juo mamuek sajumlah karya nan meskipun indak ditulih dek saurang antropolog tapi masih relevan jo kajian antropologi, takah teori antropologi sastra, sosiologi, psikologi, jo filosofis, Antropologi adalah ilmu tentang manusia.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Anthropology?|url=http://www.aaanet.org/about/WhatisAnthropology.cfm|publisher=[[American Anthropological Association]]|access-date=17 March 2013|archive-date=15 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015065744/http://www.aaanet.org/about/WhatisAnthropology.cfm|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=History and Mission|url=http://www.therai.org.uk/about-the-rai/|publisher=[[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]]|access-date=17 March 2013|archive-date=29 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329101348/http://www.therai.org.uk/about-the-rai/|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=L'Anthropologie |url=http://www.afa.msh-paris.fr/discipline.html |publisher=Association Française des Anthropologues |access-date=17 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109101912/http://www.afa.msh-paris.fr/discipline.html |archive-date=9 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Ruang Lingkup Antropologi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FDNAEAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ruang+Lingkup+Antropologi&hl=id|publisher=BASABASI|isbn=978-623-305-235-1|language=id|first=Claude|last=Lévi-Strauss}}</ref> Dideskripsikan sabagai "ilmu yang paling humanis dan paling ilmiah di bidang humaniora",<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Anthropology?|url=http://www.discoveranthropology.org.uk/about-anthropology/what-is-anthropology.html|work=Discover Anthropology|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|access-date=17 March 2013|archive-date=5 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305104545/http://www.discoveranthropology.org.uk/about-anthropology/what-is-anthropology.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> iinyo dianggap sabagai jambatan antaro ilmu alam, ilmu sosial, dan humaniora<ref>{{cite book|last=Shore|first=Bradd|title=Creating consilience: integrating the sciences and the humanities|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-979439-3|pages=140–158|editor=Edward Slingerland and Mark Collard|chapter=Unconsilience: Rethinking the Two-Cultures Conundrum in Anthropology}}</ref> sarato manggunoan berbagai bidang terkait. Di Amerika Utara, antropolgi sacaro tradisional dipacah manjadi ampek subdisiplin gadang: antropologi biologi, antropologi sosiokultural, antropologi linguistik dan arkeologi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Boas|first=Franz|title=The History of Anthropology|journal=Science|year=1904|volume=20|issue=512|pages=513–524|doi=10.1126/science.20.512.513|pmid=17797024|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1447928|bibcode=1904Sci....20..513B}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Segal|editor1-first=Daniel A.|editor2-last=Yanagisako|editor2-first=Sylvia J.|title=Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle: Reflections on the Disciplining of Anthropology|year=2005|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham|isbn=978-0-8223-8684-1}}</ref> Tradisi akademis lainnyo mamiliki definisi nan kurang laweh, yakni satu atau labih bidang iko dianggap sabagai disiplin ilmu nan tapisah tapi terkait.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kuper|first=Adam|title=Anthropology and Anthropologists: the Modern British School|year=1996|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-11895-8|edition=3rd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wulf|first=Christoph|title=Anthropology: A Continental Perspective|year=2013|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, IL|isbn=978-0-226-92507-3}}</ref> == Antropologi sosiokultural == === Bibliografi kronologis === ==== Dari awal hinggo tahun 1899 ==== * [[Georg Forster]], ''[[A Voyage Round the World]]'', 1777<ref name=Kuklick>{{harvnb|Kuklick|2008}}</ref>{{rp|28&ndash;29}} * [[Immanuel Kant]], ''[[Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View]]'', 1798 * [[Jacob Burckhardt]], ''[[The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy]]'', 1860 * [[Johann Jakob Bachofen]], ''Myth, Religion, and Mother Right: Selected Writings of J.J. Bachofen'', 1861 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1967) * [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], ''[[Primitive Culture (book)|Primitive Culture]]'', 1871<ref name=Kuklick/>{{rp|116}} * [[Lewis H. Morgan]], ''[[Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family]]'' (1871), ''[[Ancient Society]]'', 1877 * [[John Wesley Powell]], ''The Arid Lands'' (originally published as ''Report on the Lands of the Arid Regions of the United States''), 1878<ref name=Kuklick/>{{rp|39}} * [[Adolf Bastian]], ''Der Völkergedanke im Aufbau einer Wissenschaft vom Menschen'', 1881 (German; alun ditajamahan dalam bahaso Inggirih)<ref name=Kuklick/>{{rp|86&ndash;87}} * [[Friedrich Engels]], ''[[The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State]]'', 1884 * [[Anténor Firmin]], ''The Equality of the Human Races'', 1885 * [[James George Frazer]], ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', 1890<ref name=Jones/> * [[Edvard Westermarck]], ''[[The History of Human Marriage]]'', 1891<ref name=Kuklick/>{{rp|163}} *[[James Mooney]], ''The Ghost-dance religion and the Sioux outbreak of 1890.'' US [[Bureau of American Ethnology]], 1892-3 Annual Report, 2 vols., 1896. ==== 1900-an sampai 1910-an ==== * [[Henri Hubert]] and [[Marcel Mauss]], ''A General Theory of Magic'', 1902 (republished by Mauss in 1950) * [[Émile Durkheim]], ''Primitive Classification'', 1903<ref name=Jones/> * [[Max Weber]], ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', 1905 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1930) * [[Arnold van Gennep]], ''The Rites of Passage'', 1909 * [[Lucien Lévy-Bruhl]], ''How Natives Think'', 1910 * [[Franz Boas]], ''[[The Mind of Primitive Man]]'', 1911 * [[Fritz Graebner]], ''Methode der Ethnologie'', 1911 (in German, not yet translated into English) * Émile Durkheim, ''[[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life]]'', 1912<ref name=Jones/> * [[Sigmund Freud]], ''[[Totem and Taboo]]'', 1913 * [[W. H. R. Rivers]], ''Kinship and Social Organisation'', 1914 * Max Weber, ''[[The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism]]'', 1915 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1951) ==== 1920-an sampai 1930-an ==== * [[Bronisław Malinowski]], ''[[Argonauts of the Western Pacific]]'', 1922<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]], ''The Andaman Islanders'', 1922 * W. H. R. Rivers, ''Medicine, Magic and Religion'', 1924 * Marcel Mauss, ''[[The Gift (Mauss book)|The Gift]]'', 1925 * [[Maurice Halbwachs]], ''On Collective Memory'', 1925 * [[Franz Boas]], ''Primitive Art'', 1927<ref name=Jones/> * Bronisław Malinowski, ''[[Sex and Repression in Savage Society]]'', 1927 * [[Margaret Mead]], ''[[Coming of Age in Samoa]]'', 1928 * Franz Boas, ''Anthropology and Modern Life'', 1928 * [[Richard Thurnwald]], ''Die menschliche Gesellschaft in ihren ethnosoziologischen Grundlagen'', 1931–35 (German; not yet translated into English) * [[Ruth Benedict]], ''Patterns of Culture'', 1934<ref name=Jones/><ref name=Tozzer/> * [[Robert Lowie]], ''The Crow Indians'', 1935 * [[Zora Neale Hurston]], ''[[Mules and Men]]'', 1935 * Bronisław Malinowski, ''[[Coral Gardens and Their Magic|Coral Gardens and Their Magic: A Study of the Methods of Tilling the Soil and of Agricultural Rites in the Trobriand Islands]]'', 1935 * [[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]], ''Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande'', 1937 (abridged edition published in 1976)<ref name=Jones/><ref name=Oxford/> * [[Leo Frobenius]], ''African Genesis: Folk Tales and Myths of Africa'', 1937 * [[Johan Huizinga]], ''[[Homo Ludens|Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture]]'', 1938 * [[Jomo Kenyatta]], ''[[Facing Mount Kenya]]'', 1938 * Zora Neale Hurston, ''Tell My Horse'', 1938 * [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]], ''The Culture Historical Method of Ethnology'', 1939 ==== 1940-an sampai 1950-an ==== * Franz Boas, ''Race, Language and Culture'', 1940<ref name=Jones/> * E. E. Evans-Pritchard, ''[[The Nuer]]'', 1940<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Meyer Fortes]] and E. E. Evans-Pritchard, ''[[African Political Systems]]'', 1940 * [[Melville J. Herskovits]], ''The Myth of The Negro Past'', 1941 * [[Karl Polanyi]], ''[[The Great Transformation (book)|The Great Transformation]]'', 1944 * Ruth Benedict, ''[[The Chrysanthemum and the Sword]]'', 1946<ref name=Jones/> * [[Ernesto de Martino]], ''Il mondo magico: Prolegomeni allo studio del magismo'', 1948 * [[Fei Xiaotong]], ''[[From the Soil|From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society]]'', 1948 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1992) * [[Clyde Kluckhohn]], ''Mirror for Man: The Relation of Anthropology to Modern Life'', 1949 * [[Tarak Chandra Das]], '' Bengal Famine(1943) : As Revealed in a Survey of the Destitutes in Calcutta'', 1949 * [[Alfred L. Kroeber]], ''The Nature of Culture'', 1952 * [[Laura Bohannan]], ''Return to Laughter'', 1954<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Edmund Leach]], ''Political Systems of Highland Burma: A Study of Kachin Social Structure'', 1954 * [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], ''[[Tristes Tropiques]]'', 1955<ref name=Oxford>{{harvnb|Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology|2016}}</ref> * [[Ralph Linton]], ''The Tree of Culture'', 1955 (posthumously) * [[Julian Steward]], ''Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution'', 1955 * E. E. Evans-Pritchard, ''Nuer Religion'', 1956<ref name=Jones/> * [[Georges Balandier]], ''Ambiguous Africa: Cultures in Collision'', 1957 * [[Richard Hoggart]], ''[[The Uses of Literacy|The Uses of Literacy: Aspects of Working-Class Life]]'', 1957 * [[Leslie White]], ''The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome'', 1959 * Claude Lévi-Strauss, ''Structural Anthropology'', 1958 * [[Raymond Williams]], ''[[Culture and Society]]'', 1958 * [[Alfred Métraux]], ''Voodoo in Haiti'', 1958 * [[Fredrik Barth]], ''Political Leadership Among Swat Pathans'', 1959 * [[C. P. Snow]], ''[[The Two Cultures]]'', 1959 ==== 1960-an sampai 1970-an ==== * [[Godfrey Lienhardt|R. G. Lienhardt]], ''Divinity and Experience: the Religion of the Dinka'', 1961<ref name=Oxford/> * Robert Lowie, ''Empathy: Or 'Seeing from Within''', 1960 * [[Frantz Fanon]], ''[[The Wretched of the Earth]]'', 1961 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1963) * [[Colin Turnbull]], ''[[The Forest People]]'', 1961 * Claude Lévi-Strauss, ''[[The Savage Mind]]'', 1962 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1966) * [[Clifford Geertz]], ''[[Agricultural Involution: The Processes of Ecological Change in Indonesia]]'', 1963 * [[Peter Worsley]], ''The Third World'', 1964 * [[Max Gluckman]], ''Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society'', 1965 * [[Mary Douglas]], ''[[Purity and Danger|Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo]]'', 1966<ref name=Jones/> * [[Louis Dumont]], ''[[Homo Hierarchicus]]'', 1966<ref name=Oxford/> * [[George Devereux]], ''From Anxiety to Method in the Behavioral Sciences'', 1967 * [[Victor Turner]], ''The Forest of Symbols'', 1967<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Napoleon Chagnon]], ''Yanomamö: The Fierce People'', 1968<ref name=Jones/> * [[Joseph Campbell]], ''[[The Flight of the Wild Gander]]'', 1968 * Fredrik Barth, ''Ethnic Groups and Boundaries'', 1969 * Victor Turner, ''The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure'', 1969 * Mary Douglas, ''[[Natural Symbols]]'', 1970 * [[Gregory Bateson]], ''[[Steps to an Ecology of Mind]]'', 1972 * H. R. Bernard and P. J. Pelto, ''Technology and Social Change'', 1972<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''Outline of a Theory of Practice'', 1972<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Clifford Geertz]], ''[[The Interpretation of Cultures]]'', 1973 (including "[[Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight]]")<ref name=Tozzer>{{harvnb|Tozzer|2016}}</ref><ref name=Oxford/> * [[Ernest Becker]], ''[[The Denial of Death]]'', 1973 * [[Giulio Angioni]], ''Tre saggi sull'antropologia dell'età coloniale'', 1973 * [[Talal Asad]], ''Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter'', 1973<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Marshall Sahlins]], ''Stone Age Economics'', 1974 * [[Pierre Clastres]], ''[[Society Against the State]]'', 1974 * John W. Cole and Eric Wolf, ''[[The Hidden Frontier|The Hidden Frontier: Ecology and Ethnicity in an Alpine Valley]]'', 1974 (republished in 1999 with a new introduction by Eric Wolf) * [[Henri Lefebvre]], ''The Production of Space'', 1974 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1991) * [[Claude Meillassoux]], ''Maidens, Meal and Money: Capitalism and the Domestic Community'', 1975 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1981) * [[Michel de Certeau]], ''The Writing of History'', 1975 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1988) * [[Cornelius Castoriadis]], ''The Imaginary Institution of Society'', 1975 * [[Roy Wagner]], ''The Invention of Culture'', 1975 * [[Edward T. Hall]], ''[[Beyond Culture]]'', 1976 * Marshall Sahlins, ''Culture and Practical Reason'', 1976 * Giulio Angioni, ''Sa laurera: il lavoro contadino in Sardegna'', 1976 * [[Marvin Harris]], ''[[Cannibals and Kings]]'', 1977 * [[Jack Goody]], ''The Domestication of the Savage Mind'', 1977 * [[Jeanne Favret-Saada]], ''Les Mots, la mort, les sorts : la sorcellerie dans le bocage'', 1977 (''Deadly Words: Witchcraft in the Bocage'', 1980) * [[Paul Rabinow]], ''Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco'', 1977 * [[Hans Peter Duerr]], ''[[Dreamtime (book)|Dreamtime: Concerning the Boundary between Wilderness and Civilization]]'' * [[Edward Said]], ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'', 1978 * Marvin Harris, ''Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture'', 1979 * [[Bruno Latour]] and [[Steve Woolgar]], ''[[Laboratory Life]]'', 1979 ==== 1980-an ==== * [[Steven Feld]], ''Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weepings, Poetics and Sound in Kaluli Expression'', 1982 * [[Michelle Rosaldo]], ''Knowledge and Passion: Notions of Self and Society among the Ilongot'', 1980<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Lila Abu-Lughod]], ''Veiled Sentiments'', 1986 * [[Ulf Hannerz]], ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'', 1980 * [[George Lakoff]] and [[Mark Johnson (philosopher)|Mark Johnson]], ''Metaphors We Live By'', 1980 * Eric Wolf, ''[[Europe and the People Without History]]'', 1982 * [[Maurice Godelier]], ''The Making of Great Men'', 1982 * [[Nigel Barley (anthropologist)|Nigel Barley]], ''The Innocent Anthropologist: Notes From a Mud Hut'', 1983 * [[Benedict Anderson]], ''[[Imagined Communities]]'', 1983<ref name=Jones>{{harvnb|Jones|2010}}</ref> * [[Eric Hobsbawm]] and [[Terence Ranger]] (editors), ''The Invention of Tradition'', 1983 * [[Johannes Fabian]], ''Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object'', 1983 * Louis Dumont, ''Essays on Individualism: Modern Ideology in Anthropological Perspective'', 1983 * [[Clifford Geertz]], ''Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology'', 1983 * [[Ernest Gellner]], ''[[Nations and Nationalism (book)|Nations and Nationalism]]'', 1983 * Jack Goody, ''The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe'', 1983 * Maurice Godelier, ''The Mental and the Material'', 1984 * [[Sidney Mintz]], ''Sweetness and Power'', 1985 * [[James Clifford (historian)|James Clifford]] and [[George E. Marcus|George Marcus]] (editors), ''Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography'', 1986 * [[Philippe Descola]], ''La Nature domestique : symbolisme et praxis dans l'écologie des Achuar'', 1986 * [[Clifford Geertz]], ''Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author'', 1988 * [[Samir Amin]], ''Eurocentrism'', 1988 * [[David Kertzer]], ''Ritual, Politics, and Power'', 1988 * James Clifford, ''The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art'', 1988 * [[Bruce Kapferer]], ''[[Legends of People, Myths of State]]'', 1988 * [[Adam Kuper]], ''The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion'', 1988 (republished as an expanded and revised new edition, entitled ''The Reinvention of Primitive Society: Transformations of a Myth'' in 2005) * [[Marilyn Strathern]], ''The Gender of the Gift: Problems with Women and Problems with Society in Melanesia'', 1988 * [[Brackette Williams|Brackette F. Williams]], "A Class Act: Anthropology and the Race to Nation Across Ethnic Terrain", 1989 ==== 1990-an ==== *[[James Ferguson (anthropologist)|James Ferguson]], ''The Anti-Politics Machine: "Development", Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho'', 1990 *[[Judith Butler]], ''[[Gender Trouble]]'', 1990 * [[Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah]], ''Magic, Science and Religion and the Scope of Rationality'', 1990 * Bruno Latour, ''[[We Have Never Been Modern]]'', 1991 (tajamahan Inggirih: 1993) * [[Donna Haraway]], ''Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature'', 1991 * [[Donald Brown (anthropologist)|Donald Brown]], ''[[Human Universals]]'', 1991 * [[Helena Norberg-Hodge]], ''[[Ancient Futures|Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh]]'', 1991 * [[Sharlotte Neely]], ''Snowbird Cherokees '', 1991 * [[Jan Assmann]], ''Cultural Memory and Early Civilization: Writing, Remembrance, and Political Imagination'', 1992 (tajamahan Inggirih: 2011) * [[Marc Augé]], ''Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity'', 1992 * [[Maurice Bloch]], ''Prey into Hunter: The Politics of Religious Experience'', 1992 * [[Eduardo Viveiros de Castro]], ''From the Enemy's Point of View: Humanity and Divinity in an Amazonian Society'', 1992 * Jeremy Coote and A. Shelton (eds), ''Anthropology, Art and Esthetics'', 1992<ref name=Oxford/> * Mary Douglas, ''[[Risk and Blame|Risk and Blame: Essays in Cultural Theory]]'', 1992<ref name=Jones/> * Annette B. Weiner, ''[[Inalienable possessions|Inalienable Possessions: The Paradox of Keeping-While-Giving]]'', 1992. * [[Michael Taussig]], ''Mimesis and Alterity: A Particular History of the Senses'', 1993 * Fredrik Barth, ''Balinese Worlds'', 1993 * [[Homi K. Bhabha]], ''The Location of Culture'', 1994 * [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Technics and Time'' * [[Michel-Rolph Trouillot]], ''Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History'', 1995 * [[John Brockman (literary agent)|John Brockman]], ''[[The Third Culture]]'', 1995 * [[Raymond Firth]], ''Religion: A Humanist Interpretation'', 1996 * Jack Goody, ''The East in the West'', 1996 * Italo Pardo, ''Managing Existence in Naples: Morality, Action and Structure'', 1996 * [[Hugh Gusterson]], ''Nuclear Rites: a Weapons Laboratory at the End of the Cold War'', 1996 * [[Arjun Appadurai]], ''Modernity at Large'', 1996 * [[Anne Fadiman]], ''[[The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down]]'', 1997<ref>{{cite web |last=Nicol |first=Caitrin |title=Doctors Within Borders |url=http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/doctors-within-borders |publisher=The New Atlantis |access-date=19 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116013908/http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/doctors-within-borders |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}</ref> * James Clifford, ''Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century'', 1997 * [[Akhil Gupta]] and James Ferguson, ''Anthropological Locations: Boundaries and Grounds of a Field Science'', 1997 * [[Jeremy Narby]], ''[[The Cosmic Serpent|The Cosmic Serpent: DNA and the Origins of Knowledge]]'', 1998 * Stefan Helmreich, ''Silicon Second Nature: Culturing Artificial Life in a Digital World'', 1998 * [[Aihwa Ong]], ''Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality'', 1999 ==== 2000-an ==== * Sally Merry, ''Colonizing Hawai'i: The cultural power of law'', 2000 * Clifford Geertz, ''Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics'', 2000 *Gordon Mathews, ''Global Culture/Individual Identity: Searching for Home in the Cultural Supermarket'', 2000 * Patrick Tierney, ''[[Darkness in El Dorado]]'', 2000 **Tierney's book was determined to be deliberately fraudulent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/ucsbpreliminaryreport.pdf |title=Preliminary report: The major allegations against Napoleon Chagnon and James Neel presented in ''Darkness in El Dorado'' by Patrick Tierney appear to be deliberately fraudulent. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921134914/http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/ucsbpreliminaryreport.pdf |archive-date=September 21, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/05ref_eldorado.htm |title=AAA Rescinds Acceptance of the El Dorado Report |publisher=American Anthropological Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704095927/http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/05ref_eldorado.htm|archive-date=4 July 2015 |access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref> * [[Tim Ingold]], ''The perception of the environment: essays on livelihood, dwelling and skill'', 2000 * Italo Pardo, ''Morals of Legitimacy: Between Agency and System'', 2000 * [[Frans de Waal]], ''[[The Ape and the Sushi Master]]'', 2001 * William Ray, ''The Logic of Culture: Authority and Identity in the Modern Era'', 2001 * Vassos Argyrou, ''Anthropology and the Will to Meaning: A Postcolonial Critique'', 2002 * Jone Salomonsen, ''[[Enchanted Feminism|Enchanted Feminism: The Reclaiming Witches of San Francisco]]'', 2002 * [[Talal Asad]], ''Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity'', 2003 * [[Jean Rouch]], ''Cine-Ethnography'', 2003 * [[Theodore C. Bestor]], ''[[Tsukiji: The Fish Market at the Center of the World]]'', 2004 * Janet Carsten, ''After Kinship'', 2004<ref name=Oxford/> * [[Aihwa Ong]] and Stephen J. Collier, ''Global Assemblages: Technology, Politics, and Ethics as Anthropological Problems'', 2004 * [[Anna Tsing|Anna L. Tsing]], ''Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection'', 2005 * [[Marcel Detienne]], ''The Greeks and Us: A Comparative Anthropology of Ancient Greece'', 2005 (tajamahan Inggirih: 2007) * [[Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan]], ''Anthropology and development. Understanding contemporary social change'', 2005 * [[Nicholas Wade]], ''[[Before the Dawn (Wade book)|Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors]]'', 2006 * [[ Guha Abhijit]], ''Land, Law, and the Left: the Saga of Disempowerment of the Peasantry in the Era of Globalisation]]''2007<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arcus-www.amazon.in/Land-Law-Left-Disempowerment-Globalization/dp/8180693988|title=Buy Land, Law and the Left: Saga of Disempowerment of the Peasantry in the Era of Globalisation Book Online at Low Prices in India &#124; Land, Law and the Left: Saga of Disempowerment of the Peasantry in the Era of Globalisation Reviews & Ratings - Amazon.in}}</ref> * Philippe Descola, ''Beyond Nature and Culture'', 2005 (tajamahan Inggirih: 2013) * [[Paige West]], ''Conservation is our Government now: The Politics of Ecology in Papua New Guinea'', 2006 * [[Veena Das]], ''Life and Words: Violence and the Descent into the Ordinary'', 2007 * [[Andrew Apter]], ''Beyond Words: Discourse and Critical Agency in Africa'', 2007 * Paul Rabinow, ''Marking Time: On the Anthropology of the Contemporary'', 2008 * [[Eugene S. Hunn]], ''A Zapotec Natural History'', 2008 * Johannes Fabian, ''Ethnography as Commentary: Writing from the Virtual Archive'', 2008 * Stefan Helmreich, ''Alien Ocean: Anthropological Voyages in Microbial Seas'', 2009 * Giuliana B. Prato (editor), ''Beyond Multiculturalism'', 2009 * Neni Panourgiá, ''Dangerous Citizens: The Greek Left and the Terror of the State'', 2009 * Philippe Bourgeois and Jeff Schonberg, ''Righteous Dopefiend'', 2009 ==== 2010-an ==== * [[Margaret Lock]] and Vinh-Kim Nguyen, ''An Anthropology of Biomedicine'', 2010 * Ulf Hannerz, ''Anthropology's World: Life in a Twenty-First Century Discipline'', 2010 * [[Jesús Padilla Gálvez]], ''Philosophical Anthropology. Wittgenstein's Perspective''. Berlin, De Gruyter, 2010. {{ISBN|9783110321555}} * [[David Graeber]], ''[[Debt: The First 5000 Years]]'', 2011 * [[Tim Ingold]], ''Being Alive: Essays on Movement, Knowledge and Description'', 2011 * Alan Barnard, ''Social Anthropology and Human Origins'', 2011 * James D. Faubion, ''An Anthropology of Ethics'', 2011 * Maurice Bloch, ''Anthropology and the Cognitive Challenge'', 2012 * [[Jason Josephson Storm|Jason Ānanda Josephson]], ''The Invention of Religion in Japan,'' 2012 * [[Neil L. Whitehead]] and [[Michael Wesch]] (editors) ''Human No More: Digital Subjectivities, Unhuman Subjects, and the End of Anthropology'', 2012 * [[Eduardo Kohn]], ''How Forests Think: Toward an Anthropology Beyond the Human'', 2013 * Italo Pardo and Giuliana B. Prato, ''Legitimacy. Ethnographic and Theoretical Insights'', 2018 ==== 2020-an ==== * Italo Pardo and Giuliana B. Prato (editors), ''Urban Inequalities''. 2021 * Petra Kuppinger (editor), ''Emergent Spaces''. 2022 === Bibliografi tematik === ==== Perkenalan umum jo sijarah ==== * [[Eric Wolf]], ''Anthropology'', 1964 * Adam Kuper, ''Anthropology and Anthropologists: The Modern British School'', 1973 (3rd revised and enlarged edition, 1996) * Peter Just and John Monaghan, ''Social and Cultural Anthropology: A Very Short Introduction'', 2000 * Alan Barnard, ''History and Theory in Anthropology'', 2000 * [[Thomas Hylland Eriksen]], ''What is Anthropology?'', 2004 * [[Aleksandar Bošković]], ''Other People's Anthropologies: Ethnographic Practice on the Margins'', 2008 * John S. Gilkeson, ''Anthropologists and the Rediscovery of America, 1886–1965'', 2010 * Fredrik Barth, Andre Gingrich, Robert Parkin, and Sydel Silverman, ''One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American Anthropology'' (The Halle Lectures), 2005 ==== Teori ritual ==== * Arnold van Gennep, ''The Rites of Passage'', 1909 * Émile Durkheim, ''[[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life]]'', 1912<ref name=Jones/> * Sigmund Freud, ''Totem and Taboo'', 1913 * [[Erving Goffman]], ''Interaction Ritual'', 1967 * Victor Turner, ''The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure'', 1969 * David Kertzer, ''Ritual, Politics, and Power'', 1988 * Bruce Kapferer, ''A Celebration of Demons'', 1991 * [[Catherine Bell (religious studies scholar)|Catherine Bell]], ''Rituals : Perspectives and Dimensions'', 1997 * [[Mario Perniola]], ''Ritual Thinking: Sexuality, Death, World'', 2000 * [[Philippe Buc]], ''The Dangers of Ritual: Between Early Medieval Texts and Social Scientific Theory'', 2001 * Robert N. McCauley and [[E. Thomas Lawson]], ''Bringing Ritual to Mind: Psychological Foundations of Cultural Forms'', 2002 * [[Steven Heine]] and [[Dale S. Wright]] (editors), ''Zen Ritual: Studies of Zen Buddhist Theory in Practice'', 2008 ==== Antropologi siber ==== * [[Sherry Turkle]], ''The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit'', 1984 * [[Arturo Escobar (anthropologist)|Arturo Escobar]], "Welcome to Cyberia: Notes on the Anthropology of Cyberculture", 1994 * [[Sherry Turkle]], ''[[Life on the Screen|Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet]]'', 1995 * Stefan Helmreich, ''Silicon Second Nature: Culturing Artificial Life in a Digital World'', 1998 * [[Tom Boellstorff]], ''Coming of Age in Second Life: An Anthropologist Explores the Virtually Human'', 2008 * [[Bonnie Nardi]], ''My Life as a Night Elf Priest. An Anthropological Account of World of Warcraft'', 2010. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. * [[Daniel Miller (anthropologist)|Daniel Miller]], ''Tales from Facebook'', 2011 * Alexander Knorr, ''Cyberanthropology'' (''in German''), 2011 * Neil L. Whitehead and [[Michael Wesch]] (editors) ''Human No More: Digital Subjectivities, Unhuman Subjects, and the End of Anthropology'', 2012 * [[Christine Hine]], ''Ethnography for the Internet: Embedded, Embodied and Everyday'', 2015. London: Bloomsbury Academic. ==== Antropologi desain ==== * Wendy Gunn and Jared Donovan (eds), ''Design and Anthropology'', 2012<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pink|first=Sarah|author-link=Sarah Pink|date=2014-01-02|title=Design and anthropology|journal=Visual Studies|volume=29|issue=1|pages=109–110|doi=10.1080/1472586X.2014.863023|issn=1472-586X|s2cid=146709063}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Samuelsson|first=Marcus|title=Book Review: Wendy Gunn and Jared Donovan (eds), Design and AnthropologyGunnWendyDonovanJared (eds), Design and Anthropology. Farnham: Ashgate, 2012. 284 pp. ISBN 9781409421580 (hbk) £65.00.|journal=Qualitative Research|volume=15|issue=1|pages=125–126|doi=10.1177/1468794114520889|s2cid=147646929}}</ref> * Wendy Gunn, Ton Otto and Rachel Charlotte Smith (eds), ''Design Anthropology: Theory and Practice'', 2013<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Magee|first=Siobhan|date=2015-11-01|title=Design Anthropology: Theory and Practice|journal=Journal of Design History|language=en|volume=28|issue=4|pages=epv032|doi=10.1093/jdh/epv032|issn=0952-4649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=Nancy Fried|date=2015-08-01|title=Design Anthropology: Theory and Practice. Wendy Gunn, Ton Otto, and Rachel Charlotte Smith, eds. London: PB - Bloomsbury , 2013. 284 pp.|journal=American Ethnologist|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=566–567|doi=10.1111/amet.26_12146|issn=1548-1425}}</ref> ==== Antropologi ekologi ==== * Julian Steward, ''Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution'', 1955 * [[William Balée]], ''Cultural Forests of the Amazon: A Historical Ecology of People and Their Landscapes'', 2014 ==== Antropologi ekonomi ==== * Marcel Mauss, ''[[The Gift (Mauss book)|The Gift]]'', 1925 * [[Karl Polanyi]], ''[[The Great Transformation (book)|The Great Transformation]]'', 1944 * Marshall Sahlins, ''Stone Age Economics'', 1974 * Claude Meillassoux, ''Maidens, Meal and Money'', 1975 * Italo Pardo, ''Managing Existence in Naples'', 1996 * [[Karen Ho]], ''Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street'', 2009 * [[David Graeber]], ''[[Debt: The First 5000 Years]]'', 2011 * Chris Hann and [[Keith Hart (anthropologist)|Keith Hart]], ''Economic Anthropology: History, Ethnography, Critique'', 2011 ==== Antropologi politik ==== * Meyer Fortes and [[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]], ''[[African Political Systems]]'', 1940 * [[James C. Scott]], ''[[Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance]]'', 1985 * Ted Lewellen, ''Political Anthropology: An Introduction'', 2003 * Italo Pardo and Giuliana B. Prato (editors), ''Citizenship and the Legitimacy of Governance'', 2010 * Italo Pardo and Giuliana B. Prato, ''Legitimacy. Ethnographic and Theoretical Insights'', 2018 ==== Antropologi psikologis ==== *[https://wwwtest.uwpress.wisc.edu/books/0152.htm Charles W. Nuckolls, The Cultural Dialectics of Knowledge and Desire. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102190252/https://wwwtest.uwpress.wisc.edu/books/0152.htm |date=2023-11-02 }} * Lindholm, Charles, ''Culture and Identity. The history, theory, and practice of psychological anthropology'', 2007 * Robert, LeVine, ''Psychological Anthropology: A Reader on Self in Culture'', 2010 ==== Antropologi urban ==== *{{cite book|last=Delany|first=Samuel R.|author-link=Samuel R. Delany|title=Times Square Red, Times Square Blue|year=1999|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-8147-1919-8|title-link=Times Square Red, Times Square Blue}} * Ulf Hannerz, ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'', 1980 * Italo Pardo and Giulaina B. Prato (eds), ''The Palgrave Handbook of Urban Ethnography'', 2017 * Italo Pardo and Giuliana B. Prato (editors), ''Urban Inequalities'', 2021 * Petra Kuppinger (editor), ''Emergent Spaces'', 2022 == Antropologi linguistik == * [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], ''Treatise on the Origin of Language'', 1772 * [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], ''On Language: On the Diversity of Human Language Construction and its Influence on the Mental Development of the Human Species'', 1836 * [[Edward Sapir]], ''Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech'', 1921 * [[Benjamin Lee Whorf]], ''Language, Thought and Reality'', 1956 (published posthumously) * [[Roman Jakobson]], ''[[On Linguistic Aspects of Translation]]'', 1959 * [[Lev Vygotsky]], ''Thought and Language'', 1962 * [[Kenneth Lee Pike]], ''Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behaviour'', 1967 * [[Dell Hymes]], ''Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach'', 1974 * [[Brown, Penny B. & Levinson, Stephen C.]] Politeness: some Universals in Language Use. (1978) 1987 *[[Gumperz, J.J.]] Discourse Strategies, 1982. * [[Robert M. W. Dixon]], ''The Rise and Fall of Languages'', 1997 * [[Guy Deutscher (linguist)|Guy Deutscher]], ''The Unfolding of Language: The Evolution of Mankind's Greatest Invention'', 2005 == Antropologi biologi == * [[Charles Darwin]], ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', 1859<ref name=Tozzer/> * [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], ''[[Man's Place in Nature|Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature]]'', 1863 * [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], ''[[The Malay Archipelago]]'', 1869 * Charles Darwin, ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'', 1871<ref name=Tozzer/> * [[Rudolf Virchow]], ''The Freedom of Science in the Modern States'', 1877 * Rudolf Virchow, ''Anthropological Papers'', 1891 * [[Desmond Morris]], ''[[The Naked Ape]]'', 1967 * [[Jane Goodall]], ''In the Shadow of Man'', 1971 * [[Richard Dawkins]], ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', 1976 * [[E. O. Wilson]], ''[[On Human Nature]]'', 1979 * [[Stephen Jay Gould]], ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', 1981 * [[Wade Davis (anthropologist)|Wade Davis]], ''[[The Serpent and the Rainbow (book)|The Serpent and the Rainbow]]'', 1985 * [[Robert Boyd (anthropologist)|Robert Boyd]] and [[Peter Richerson|Peter J. Richerson]], ''Culture and the Evolutionary Process'', 1985 * [[Jared Diamond]], ''[[The Third Chimpanzee]]'', 1991 * [[Helen Fisher (anthropologist)|Helen Fisher]], ''Anatomy of Love: A Natural History of Mating, Marriage, and Why We Stray'', 1992 * Jared Diamond, ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]'', 1998<ref name=UCL>{{cite web|title=Suggested readings|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/anthropology/studying/suggested-readings|website=Anthropology|publisher=University College London|access-date=15 September 2016}}{{Dead link|date=September 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * E. O. Wilson, ''[[Consilience (book)|Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge]]'', 1998 * [[Sarah Blaffer Hrdy]], Mother Nature: ''A History of Mothers, Infants and Natural Selection'', 1999<ref name="Howells">{{cite web|url=http://bas.americananthro.org/awards/w-w-howells-book-award|title=W. W. Howells Book Award|date=2014-01-19|access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref> * [[Paul Farmer]], ''Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor'', 2003 * Jared Diamond, ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]'', 2005 * Peter J. Richerson and Robert Boyd, ''Not by Genes Alone'', 2005 *Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth, ''Baboon Metaphysics'', 2007 * [[Steven Pinker]], ''[[The Stuff of Thought|The Stuff of Thought: Language As a Window Into Human Nature]]'', 2007<ref name=UCL/> * [[Michael Tomasello]], ''Origins of Human Communication'', 2008 * [[Gregory Cochran]] and [[Henry Harpending]], ''The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilizations Accelerated Human Evolution'', 2009 * [[Richard Wrangham]], ''[[Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human]]'', 2009<ref name=UCL/> * Jared Diamond, ''[[The World Until Yesterday|The World Until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies?]]'', 2012<ref name=UCL/> * E. O. Wilson, ''[[The Social Conquest of Earth]]'', 2012 * [[Frans de Waal]], ''The Bonobo and the Atheist'', 2013<ref name=UCL/> == Arkeologi == * [[C. W. Ceram]], ''[[Gods, Graves and Scholars]]'', 1949 * [[Steven Mithen]], ''The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science'', 1996 * [[Julian Thomas]], ''Time, Culture and Identity: An Interpretive Archaeology'', 1996 * Chris Gosden, ''Archaeology & Anthropology: A Changing Relationship'', 1999 * [[Richard Bradley (archaeologist)|Richard Bradley]], ''An Archaeology of Natural Places'', 2000 * [[Alison Wylie]], ''Thinking from Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology'', 2002 * [[Randall H. McGuire]], ''Archaeology as Political Action'', 2008 === Teori arkeologi === * {{cite journal|last=Hawkes|first=Christopher|title=Archeological Theory and Method: Some Suggestions from the Old World|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_1954-04_56_2/page/155|journal=American Anthropologist|year=1954|volume=56|issue=2|pages=155–168|doi=10.1525/aa.1954.56.2.02a00660|author-link=Christopher Hawkes|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last=Binford|first=Lewis R.|author-link=Lewis Binford|title=Archaeology as Anthropology|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_1962-10_28_2/page/217|journal=American Antiquity|year=1962|volume=28|issue=2|pages=217–225|doi=10.2307/278380|jstor=278380|s2cid=162242910}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Binford|editor1-first=Sally R.|editor1-link=Sally Binford|editor2-last=Binford|editor2-first=Lewis R.|editor2-link=Lewis Binford|title=New Perspectives in Archeology|url=https://archive.org/details/newperspectivesi0000binf|url-access=registration|year=1968|publisher=Aldine Publishing Company|location=Chicago, IL|isbn=978-0-202-33022-8}} * {{cite book|last=Clarke|first=David L.|author-link=David L. Clarke|title=Analytical Archaeology|publisher=Methuen|location=London|year=1968|isbn=0-416-42850-9}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Clarke|editor-first=David L.|editor-link=David L. Clarke|title=Models in Archaeology|publisher=Methuen|location=London|year=1972|isbn=0-416-16540-0}} * {{cite journal|last=Clarke |first=David L. |title=Archaeology: the loss of innocence |journal=Antiquity |year=1973 |volume=47 |issue=185 |pages=6–18 |author-link=David L. Clarke |doi=10.1017/S0003598X0003461X |s2cid=34438511 }} * {{cite book|editor-last=Binford|editor-first=Lewis R.|editor-link=Lewis Binford|title=For Theory Building in Archaeology|year=1977|publisher=Academic Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-12-100050-9}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Hodder|editor-first=Ian|editor-link=Ian Hodder|title= Symbolic and Structural Archaeology|year= 1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn= 978-0-521-03550-7}} * {{cite book|last1=Shanks|first1=Michael|author-link1=Michael Shanks (archaeologist)|last2=Tilley|first2=Christopher|author-link2=Christopher Tilley|title=Social Theory and Archaeology|year=1993|publisher=Polity Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-7456-0184-7}} * {{cite book|title=A Marxist Archaeology|last=McGuire|first=Randall G.|year=1992|publisher=Academic Press|location=San Diego, CA|isbn=978-0-12-484078-2}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Renfrew|editor1-first=Colin|editor1-link=Colin Renfrew, Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn|editor2-last=Zubrow|editor2-first=Ezra B.W.|title=The Ancient Mind: Elements of Cognitive Archaeology|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-45620-3}} * {{cite book|last=Tilley|first=Christopher|title=A Phenomenology of Landscape: Places, Paths and Monuments|year=1997|publisher=Berg|isbn=978-1-85973-076-8|location=Oxford}} == Referensi == {{Reflist}} ==Bacaan lanjuik== {{Refbegin}} * {{cite web|title=Books Every Anthropology Major Should Read |first=Richard R. |last=Jones |publisher=Lee University |url=http://webpages.leeu.edu/rjones/for-anthropology-majors/ |date=2010 |access-date=14 March 2013}} *{{cite book|last1=Kuklick|first1=Henrika|title=A new history of anthropology|date=2008|publisher=Blackwell Pub.|location=Malden, MA|isbn=9780470766217}} *{{cite web |title=Reading list |work=Institute of Social & Cultural Anthropology |publisher=Oxford University |url=http://www.isca.ox.ac.uk/prospective-students/degrees/social-anthropology/reading-list/ |access-date=14 March 2013 |ref={{harvid|Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology|2016}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030010302/http://www.isca.ox.ac.uk/prospective-students/degrees/social-anthropology/reading-list |archive-date=30 October 2012 |url-status=dead }} *{{cite web |title=Anthropological Influences: Great Books Chosen by Harvard Anthropologists |work=Tozzer Library |publisher=Harvard University |url=https://hcl.harvard.edu:8001/libraries/tozzer/collections/great_books/index.cfm |access-date=23 September 2013 |ref={{harvid|Tozzer|2016}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918130617/https://hcl.harvard.edu:8001/libraries/tozzer/collections/great_books/index.cfm |archive-date=18 September 2016 |url-status=dead }} {{Refend}} [[Category:Antropologi]] [[Category:Literatur antropologi]] kaxkwc7hjye2zyfpieae842vhhr1tex 0 473756 3351236 3152060 2026-08-05T20:59:33Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351236 wikitext text/x-wiki {{istilah asing}} {{Untuak|makanan utak-utak|utak-utak|utak sapi|utak (makanan)}} {{Untuk|istilah bahaso Japang|otaku}} {{Infobox Anatomy |Name = Utak |Latin = |GraySubject = |GrayPage = |Image = Brain animated color nevit.gif |Caption = Bantuak animasi dari utak manusia |Image2 = Chimp Brain in a jar.jpg |Caption2 = Otak [[simpanse]] nan dilatakan dalam sabuah tabuang kaco |Precursor = |System = |Artery = |Vein = |Nerve = |Lymph = |MeshName = |MeshNumber = |DorlandsPre = |DorlandsSuf = }} Utak adolah puseknyo sistem saraf pado [[vertebrata]] jo banyak [[invertebrata]] lainnyo. Organ utak tasusun dari sajumlah jaringan pandukuang jo miliaran sel saraf nan saliang tahubuang. Utak dilinduangi dek lapisan pambungkuih nan disabuik salapuik utak (meninges) jo tulang tangkurak, sarato tahubuang ka saraf tulang balakang. Utak manusia<ref>Beatty, J. (2001) The Human Brain: Essentials of Behavioral Neuroscience. Thousand Oak, CA: Sage Publicaion</ref> adolah struktur pusek pangaturan nan mampunyoi volume sakitar 1.350 cc jo tadiri dari 100 milyar sel saraf atau neuron. Utak bafungsi untuak mangatur jo mangkordinir sabagian gadang, gerakan, perilaku, jo fungsi tubuh homeostasis sarupo datak jantuang, takanan darah, kasaimbangan cairan badan, jo suhu badan. Utak manusia batangguang jawab tahadok pangaturan sadoalah badan jo pamikiran manusia. Dek karano itu, tadapek kaitan arek antaro utak jo pamikiran. Utak jo sel saraf di dalamnyo dipacayoi dapek mampangaruhi kognisi manusia. Pangatahuan manganai utak mampangaruhi pakambangan psikologi kognitif. Utak juo batangguang jawab ateh fungsi sarupo panganalan, emosi, maingek, pambalajaran motorik, jo sagalo bantuak pambalajaran lainnyo. Untuak utak invertebrata muncua dari ganglia segmental bapasangan (nan masiang-masiang hanyo batangguang jawok ateh segmen tubuh nan basangkuikan) dari sumsum saraf ventral, Samantaro tuh utak vertebrata bakambang sacaro aksial dari sumsum saraf pungguang garih tangah sabagai pangadangan versikular pado ujuang rostral tabuang saraf, jo kontrol tapusek pado sadoalah segmen badan. Sadoalah utak vertebrata sacaro embrionik dapek dibagi manjadi tigo bagian: utak muko (prosencephalon, dibagi baliak manjadi telencephalon jo dienchephalon), utak tangan (mesencephalon), jo utak balakang (rhombencephalon jo mielencephalon). Sumsum tulang balakang, nan sacaro langsuang barinteraksi jo fungsi di bawah kapalo, dapek dianggap sabagai papanjangan ikua dari mielencephalon nan tatutuik di dalam tulang balakang. Basamo-samo, utak jo sumsum tulang balakang mambantuak sistem saraf pusek pado sadoalah vertebrata. Pado manusia, korteks serebral manganduang sakitaran 14-16 miliar neuron,<ref>Saladin, Kenneth (2011). ''Human anatomy'' (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 416. ISBN <bdi>978-0-07-122207-5.</bdi></ref> jo pakiroannyo jumlah neuron di utak ketek adolah 55-70 miliar.<ref>von Bartheld, CS; Bahney, J; Herculano-Houzel, S (15 December 2016). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5063692 "The search for true numbers of neurons and glial cells in the human brain: A review of 150 years of cell counting"]. ''The Journal of Comparative Neurology''. '''524''' (18): 3865–3895. doi:10.1002/cne.24040</ref> Sacaro fisiologis, utak mambuek kontrol tapusek ateh organ tubuh lainnyo. Utak bakarajo pado bagian tubuh lainnyo jo mahasilan pola aktivitas otot jo dengan mendorong sekresis bahan kimia nan disabuik hormon. Kontrol tapusek iko mamungkinan respons nan capek jo takoordinasi tahadok parubahan lingkuangan. Babarapo jinih respon dasar sarupo refleks dapek dimediasi dek sumsum tulang balakang atau ganglia perifer, tapi kontrol prilaku nan disangajo jo canggih badasarkan input sensorik nan kompleks mambutuahan kamampuan mangintegrasian informasi dari utak nan tapusek. Operasi sel-sel utak individu kiniko dipahami dengan cukuik rinci, tapi caro inyo bakarajo samo dalam manyusun jutaan sel-sel iko masih alum tapacahan.<ref>Yuste, Rafael; Church, George M. (March 2014). [https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190157/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/faculty/yuste/Publications/Yuste_Church_SciAm14.pdf "The new century of the brain"] (PDF). ''Scientific American''. diarsipan dari [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/faculty/yuste/Publications/Yuste_Church_SciAm14.pdf sumber asli] (PDF) pado 2014-07-14.</ref> Model tabaru dalam ilmu saraf modern mampalakuan utak sabagai komputer biologis, nan mekanismenyo sangek babeda jo komputer digital, tapi sarupo dalam arti bahwa utak mamparoleh informasi dari dunia sakitarnyo, manyimpannyo, jo mamprosesnyo jo babagai caro. === Neuron === [[Berkas:Neuron with ALL channels.jpg|jmpl|Neuron nampak sarupo pohon bakau]] Neuron adolah komponen utamo otak nan karajonyo untuak babagi informasi sacaro elektrokimia dengan neuron lainnyo. Babarapo rantai neuron mangirimkan informasi ka utak dari bagian tubuh paliang ujuang. Rantai neuron mamarintahkan utak untuak marasokan sakiknyo jari katiko kanai lakak palu, kabisiangan lalu-lintas nan mamakakan talingo, jo kaindahan warna langik katiko matahari tabanam. Rantai lainnyo mangirimkan informasi dari utak ka tubuh. <ref name=":0">SWEENEY, Micheal S (2024). ''Rahasia Otak - Memahami Cara Kita Melihat dan Berpikir''. KPG (Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia). Jakarta hal 14 </ref> Satiok neuron punyo tubuh sel jo sarabuik panjang babantuak ikua nan disabuik akson. Akson bakarajo mangiriman impuls listrik ka sel lain sahinggo mamarintahkan sel otot untuak bakontraksi, manaruihan sensasi dari badan, jo babagi informasi jo neuron lainnyo. Babarapo akson baukuran pendek nan hanyo dapek manjangkau sel tadakek di dalam utak. Akson lain jauah labiah panjang nan mambawok impuls dari sumsum tulang balakang untuak mangarikan tangan jo kaki. Akson dapek tapisah jo bacabang manjadi 10.000 ujuang babantuak tombol nan manyebaran impuls ka banyak sel.<ref name=":0" /> Satiok neuron manjulua ka jaringan dendrit, sarabuik pendeek jo tipih nan mahantaran sinyal listrik ka tubuh utamo neuron dari sumber lua. Jikok dilihek manggunoan mikroskop, akson jo dendrit tampak sarupo akar jo cabang pohon bakau. Utak manusia barisi kurang labiah 100 miliar neruron. Satiok neuron tahubuang jo banyak neuron lain sahinggo saluruah jaringan mambantuak triliunan koneksi, nan manjadikan utak sabagai objek paliang kompleks di alam semesta. Satiok neuron ko saling tahubuang melalui molekul nan disabuik [[neurotransmitter]] dimano neruon mangubah impuls listrik nan dibawoknyo manjadi kode kimia nan malompati celah antaro neuron. Dek hubuangan luweh itu, utak bisa mangubah koneksi didalamnyo salagi kito bara.<ref name=":0" /> == Bagian utak manusia == Utak mampunyoi tigo bagian utamo, yaitu utak gadang (''cerebrum''), utak ketek (''cerebellum''), jo batang utak (''brainstem''). barikuik iko panjalasannyo: === Utak gadang (''cerebrum'') === Cerebrum marupokan bagian utak tagadang dari utak. Cerebrum tabagi manjadi 2 bagian, yaitu utak suok jo utak kida. Balahan utak suok bafungsi untuak mangontrol pagarakan di sisi kida tubuh jo balahan utak kida mangontrol gerakan di sisi suok tubuh. Pamukoan lua cerebrum disabuik ''cerebral cortex''. Bagian iko marupokan area utak dimano sel saraf mambuek koneksi nan disabuik sinaps. Sinaps marupokan sistem saraf nan mangandalian aktivitas utak. Samantaro bagian dalam cerebrum manganduang sel-sel saraf basalubuang (mielin) nan bakarajo dalam manyampaian informasi antaro utak jo saraf tulang balakang. Utak gadang dibagi lai manjadi 4 bagian, yaitunyo: * Lobus frontal (bagian muko) nan mangandalian gerakan, mangecek, perilaku, memori, emosi, jo kepribadian. Bagian utak ik jo bakarajo dalam fungsi intelektual, sarupo proses bapikia, panalaran, pamacahan masalah, pangambilan kaputusan, jo parancanaan. * Lobus parietal (ateh) nan mangandalian sensasi, sarupo sentuhan, takanan, sakik, jo suhu. Lobus iko juo mangandalian orientasi spasial atau pamahaman tantang ukuran, bantuak, jo arah. * Lobus temporal (sampiang) nan mangandalian indra pandagaran, maingek-ingek, jo emosi. Lobus temporal kida juo bakarajo dalam fungsi mangecek. * Lobus oksipital (balakang) nan mangandalian fungsi maliek. === Utak ketek (''cerebellum'') === Utak ketek talatak di bawah utak gadang pado bagian balakang utak, tapeknyo di bawah lobus oksipital. Samo sarupo utak gadang, utak ketek juo punyo 2 balahan. Utak ketek batangguang jawok dalam mangandalian gerakan, manjago kasaimbangan, sarato mangatua posisi jo koordinasi gerakan tubuh. Bagian utak iko juo bakarajo dalam mangandalian gerakan haluih, sarupo manulih jo malukis. === Batang utak (''brainstem'') === Batang utak adolah saikek jaringan saraf di dasar utak. Batang utak ko manyambuangan utak ka sumsum tulang balakan, jo sabaliaknyo. Sacaro otomatih mangatua fungsi dasar sarupo baangok, detak jantuang, takanan darah, jo refleks. Basamo diensefalon, mangatua bagian utak manusia paliang sadarhano, karano (basamo utak ketek) bantuaknyo manyarupoi utak nan mangandalian gerak fisik reptil. Di hewan nan labiah maju, utak barevolusi manjadi labiah kompleks, untuak malangkok'i batang utak.<ref>SWEENEY, Micheal S (2024). ''Rahasia Otak - Memahami Cara Kita Melihat dan Berpikir''. KPG (Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia). Jakarta hal 17</ref> === Bagian pantiang utak lainnyo === salain katigo struktur utamo di ateh, tadapek bagian-bagian utak lainnyo nan indak kalah pantiang, yaitu: ==== 1. Cairan serebrospinal ==== Cairan serebrospinal bawarna baniang jo janiah nan mangaliliangi jo malinduangi utak sarato saraf tulang balakang. ==== 2. Meninges ==== Meninges adolah lapisan atau membran tipih nan bafungsis manutupi jo malinduangi utak jo saraf tulang balakang. ==== 3. ''Corpus Callosum'' ==== ''Corpus Callosum'' adolah saikek sarabuik saraf nan tadapek di antaro balahan utak kida jo utak suok. ==== 4. Talamus ==== Bagian iko marupokan struktur dari utak tangah nan mampunyoi 2 lobus (bagian). Talamus batindak sabagai pamanca untuak hampia sadoalah informasi nan datang jo bajalan di antaro utak jo sadoalah sistem saraf di tubuh. ==== 5. Hipotalamus ==== Hipotalamus adolah struktur ketek nan barado di tangah utak, tapeknyo di bawah talamus. Fungsinyo untuak mangandalian suhu tubuh, sistem reproduksi, takanan darah, emosi, nafsu makan, pola lalok, jo produksi hormon. ==== 6. Kelenjar pituitari (kelenjar hipofisis) ==== ==== 7. Ventrikel ==== Ventrikel adolah ruangan barisi cairan di dalam utak. Ado 4 ventrikel utak, yakni 2 ventrikel sampiang di balahan utak gadang, di tangah jo di balakang utak. ==== 8. Kelenjar pineal ==== Kelenjar pineal adolah kelenjar ketek nan barado di ventrikel utak. kelenjar iko bakarajo dalam pakambangan sistem reproduksi jo mahasilan hormon melatonin nan mampangaruhi pola lalok sahari-hari ==== 9. Saraf kranial ==== Tadapek 12 pasan saraf kranial jo fungsi spesifik di area kapalo jo lihia. Ciek pasang saraf kranial partamo barado di utak gadang, sadangkan 11 pasang lainnyo ado di batang utak. Fungsi saraf kranial antaro lain mangandalian pagarakan mato jo otot wajah, mampangaruhi indra paraso jo pandangaran, manjago kasaimbangan badan, jo mangandalian otot-oto jo kinerja organ di dalam tubuh. ==== 10. Sistem limbik ==== Sistem iko bakarajo dalam mangandalian amarah jo raso takuik sarato mampangaruhi daya ingek. == Fungsi == Informasi dari organ indera dikumpuan di utak. Di sinan, informasi tasabuik digunoan untuak manantuan tindakan apo nan harus diambiak dek organisme. Utak mamproses data mantah untuak mangekstrak informasi tantang struktur lingkuangan. Salanjuiknyo, utak manggabuangan informasi nan alah diproses tentang keadaan maso lalu. Akhirnyo, badasarkan hasil tasabuik, utak mandapekan pola respons motorik. Tugas pemrosesan sinyal iko mambutuahan interaksi nan rumik antaro babagai subsistem fungsional.<ref name=":1">Carew, TJ (2000). "[https://books.google.com/books?id=wEMTGwAACAAJ Ch. 1]". ''Behavioral Neurobiology: the Cellular Organization of Natural Behavior''. Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-092-0.</ref> Fungsi utak adolah untuak maagiah kontrol nan koheren ateh tindakan hewan. Utak nan tapusek mamungkinan kalompok otot untuak diaktifan basamo dalam pola nan kompleks; utak juo mamungkinan rangsangan nan manganai ciek bagian tubuh untuak mambangkikan respon di bagian lain, dan dapek mancegah tubuh nan babeda untuak batindak saliang balawanan ciek samo lain.<ref name=":1" /> === Persepsi === Utak manusia dibakali jo informasi tentang cahayo, suaro, komposisi kimiawi atmosfer, suhu, posisi tubuh di ruang angkaso (propriosepsi), komposisi kimiawi aliran darah, jo banyak nan lain. Pado hewan lain, tadapek indera tambahan, sarupo indera hangek inframerah pado ula, indera medan magnet pado babarapo buruang, atau indera medan listrik nan tarutamo taliek pado hewan aia. Satiok sistem sensorik dimulai jo sel reseptor khusus,<ref name=":2">Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James Harris; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000). ''[[iarchive:isbn_9780838577011|Principles of neural science]]'' (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-8385-7701-1.</ref> sarupo sel fotoreseptor di retina mato, atau sel rambuik nan peka kapado getaran di koklea talingo. Akson sel reseptor sensorik bajalan ka sumsum tulang balakan atau utak, di mano inyo mangirimkan sinyalnya ka nukleus sensorik tingkek partamo nan didedikasian untuak ciek modalitas sensorik tatantu. Inti sensorik tingkek tinggi nan didedikasian untuak modalitas nan samo. Akhirnyo malalui stasiun jalan di talamus, sinyal di kirim ka korteks serebral, di mano sinyal tasabuik diproses untuak mangekstrak fitur nan relevan, jo diintegrasikan jo sinyal nan barasa dari sistem sensorik lainnyo.<ref name=":2" /> === Kontrol motorik === Sistem motorik adolah area utak nan talibek dalam mamulai gerakan tubuh, yaitunyo mangaktifan otot. Kacuali otot nan mangontrol mato, nan digarikan dek inti di utak tangah, sadoalah otot sukarela dalam tubuh sacaro langsuang dipersarafi dek neuron motorik di sumsum tualng balakang jo utak balakan.<ref name=":2" /> Neuron motorik tulang balakang dikontrol dek sirkuit saraf intrinsik pado sumsum tulang balakang, dan dek input nan turun dari utak. Sirkuit tulang balakang intrinsik mangimplementasian banyak respons refleks, jo manganduang generator pola untuak gerakan ritmis sarupo bajalan atau baranang. Koneksi nan turun dari utak mamungkinan kontrol nan labiah canggih.<ref name=":2" /> Utak manganduang babarapo area motorik nan mamproyeksian langsuang k sumsum tulang balakang. Pado tingkek tarandah adolah area motorik di medula jo pons, nan mangontrol gerakan stereotip sarupo bajalan, baangok, atau malulua. Pado tingkek nan labiah tinggi adolah area di utak tangah, sarupo nukleus sirah, nan batanggung jawok untuak mangkordiansian gerakan langan jo kaki. Pado tingkek nan labiah tinggi lai adolah korteks motorik primer, sabuah strip jaringan nan talatak di tapi posterior lobus frontal. Korteks motorik primer mangiriman proyeksi ka area motoik subkortikal, tapi juo mangiriman proyeksi gadang-gadangan langsuang ka sumsum tulang balakang, malalui traktus piramidalis. proyeksi kortikospinalis langsuang iko mamungkinan kontrol sukarela nan tapek tahadok ditail gerakan nan haluih. Area utak nan bahubuangan jo motorik lainnyo maagiah efek sekunder jo mamproyeksikan ka area motorik primer. Di antaro area sekunder nan paliang pantiang adolah korteks premotor, area motorik tambahan, ganglia basal, jo utak ketek.<ref name=":2" /> Salain sadoalah hal di ateh, utak jo sumsum tulang balakang manganduang sirkuit nan luweh untuak mangontrol sistem saraf otonom nan mangontrol pagerakan otot polos tubuh. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" |+ Area utamo nan talibk dalam mangandalian pagerakan |- ! Area ! width="100" | Location ! Function |- ! scope=row style="text-align:left" | Ventral horn | style="background: tan" | Sumsum tulang balakang || style="background:#ffdead" | Barisi neuron motorik yang sacaro langsuang aktif ka otot<ref>{{cite web |last=Dafny |first=N |title=Anatomy of the spinal cord |publisher=Neuroscience Online |url=http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter03.html |access-date=2011-10-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008172218/http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter03.html |archive-date=2011-10-08 }}</ref> |- ! scope=row style="text-align:left" | Oculomotor nuclei | style="background: tan" | Utak tangah || style="background:#ffdead" | Barisi neuron motorik nan langsuang aktif ka otot mato<ref>{{cite web |last=Dragoi |first=V |title=Ocular motor system |publisher=Neuroscience Online |url=http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter07.html |access-date=2011-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117070343/http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter07.html |archive-date=2011-11-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |- ! scope=row style="text-align:left" | Cerebellum | style="background: tan" | Utak balakang || style="background:#ffdead" | Mangkalibrasi katapekan jo wakatu gerakan<ref name="Kandel 2000"/><!--Ch. 42--> |- ! scope=row style="text-align:left" | Basal ganglia | style="background: tan" | Utak muko || style="background:#ffdead" | Pamiliahan tindakan dek karano motivasi<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gurney |first1=K |year=2004 |title=Computational models of the basal ganglia: from robots to membranes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-neurosciences_2004-08_27_8/page/453 |journal=Trends in Neurosciences |volume=27 |pages=453–459 |pmid=15271492 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2004.06.003 |last2=Prescott |first2=TJ |last3=Wickens |first3=JR |last4=Redgrave |first4=P |issue=8|s2cid=2148363 }}</ref> |- ! scope=row style="text-align:left" | Motor cortex | style="background: tan" | Lobus frontal || style="background:#ffdead" | Aktivasi kortikal langsuang dari sirkuit motorik tulang balakang<ref>{{Cite web|last=Knierim|first=James|date=|title=Motor Cortex (Section 3, Chapter 3)|url=https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/s3/chapter03.html|access-date=2021-01-23|website=Neuroscience Online|publication-place=Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School}}</ref> |- ! scope=row style="text-align:left" | Premotor cortex | style="background: tan" | Lobus frontal || style="background:#ffdead" | Manggalompokan gerakan dasar ka dalam pola nan takoordinasi<ref name="Kandel 2000"/><!--Ch. 38--> |- ! scope=row style="text-align:left" | Supplementary motor area | style="background: tan" | Lobus frontal || style="background:#ffdead" | Manguruikan gerakan ka dalam pola temporal<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shima |first1=K |last2=Tanji |first2=J |year=1998 |title=Both supplementary and presupplementary motor areas are crucial for the temporal organization of multiple movements |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neurophysiology_1998-12_80_6/page/3247 |journal=[[Journal of Neurophysiology]] |volume=80 |pages=3247–3260 |pmid=9862919 |issue=6|doi=10.1152/jn.1998.80.6.3247 }}</ref> |- ! scope=row style="text-align:left" | Prefrontal cortex | style="background: tan" | Lobus frontal || style="background:#ffdead" | Marancanoan jo fungsi eksekutif lainnyo<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=EK |last2=Cohen |first2=JD |s2cid=7301474 |title=An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=167–202 |year=2001 |pmid=11283309 |doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167}}</ref> |} === Lalok === Banyak hewan nan bagantian antaro lalok jo tajago dalam siklus harian. Gairah jo kawaspadaan juo dimodulasi pado skala wakatu nan labiah haluih dek jaringan area utak.[] Komponen kunci nan labiah haluih dari sistem lalok adolah nukleus suprachiasmatic (SCN), bagian ketek dari hipotalamus nan talatak tapek di ateh titiak pasilangan saraf optik dari kaduo mato. SCN barisi jam biologis pusek tubuh. Neuron di sinan manunjuakan tingkeaktivitas nan naiak jo turun dalam jangko wakatu sakitaran 24 jam, ritme sirkadian: fluktuasi aktivitas iko didorong dek parubahan ritmis dalam ekspresi sarangkaian "gen jam". SCN taruih manjago wakatu maskipun dikaluan dek utak jo ditampekan di piriang barisi larutan nutrisi hangek, tapi biasonyo SCN manarimo input dari saraf optik, malallui saluran retinohipotalamus (RHT), nan mamungkinan siklus tarang-galok satiok hari untuak mangkalibrasi jam.<ref>Antle, MC; Silver, R (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20081031120051/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/silver/publications2/149%20antle%20et%20al.pdf "Orchestrating time: arrangements of the brain circadian clock"] (PDF). ''Trends in Neurosciences''. '''28''' (3): 145–151. Diarsipan dari [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/silver/publications2/149%20antle%20et%20al.pdf sumber aslinyo] (PDF) on 2008-10-31.</ref> SCN mamproyeksian ka sakumpulan area di hipotalamus, batang utak, jo utak tangah nan talibek dari sistem iko adolah formasi retikuler, sakalompok neuron nan taseba sacaro manyeba malalui inti utak bagian bawah. Neuron retikuler mangiriman sinyal ka talamus, nan pado gillirannyo mangiriman sinyal pangontrol tingkek aktivitas ka satiok bagian korteks. Karusakan pado formasi retikuler dapek manyababkan keadaan koma nan permanen. Lalok malibekan parubahan gadang dalam aktivitas utak. Hinggo taun 1950-an, sacaro umum diyakini bahwa utak pado dasarnyo mati salamo lalok,<ref>Kleitman, Nathaniel (1939). ''Sleep and Wakefulness''. Revised and enlarged edition 1963, Reprint edition 1987. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Midway Reprint. ISBN 978-0-226-44073-6.</ref> tapi hal iko kini diketahui indak batua; aktivitas taruih balanjuik, tapi polanyo manjadi sangek babeda. Ado duo jinih lalok: Lalok REM (jo bamimpi) dan lolok NREM (non-REM, biasonyo indak bamimpi), nan baulang dalam pola nan saketek babeda salamo episode lalok. Tigo jinih pola aktivitas utak nan babeda dapek diukua: REM, NREM ringan, jo NREM dalam. Salamo lalok NREM nan dalam, nan juo disabuik lalok galombang lambek, aktivitas di korteks babantuak galombang gadang nan tasinkronisasi, sadangkan dalam kondisi tajago, galombang tasabuik maeboh jo indak tasinkronisasi. Kadar neurotransmiter norepinefrin jo serotonin manurun salamo lalok galombang lambek, jo turun hamia ka nol salamo lalok REM; kadar asetitlkolin manunjuakan pola nan sabaliknyo.<ref name=":2" /> === Motivasi === Satiok hewan paralu maekspresian perilaku nan mandukuang kalangsuangan hiduik, sarupo mancari makanan, aia, tampe balinduang, jo pasangan.<ref>Chiel, HJ; Beer, RD (1997). "The brain has a body: adaptive behavior emerges from interactions of nervous system, body, and environment". ''Trends in Neurosciences''. '''20''' (12): 553–557. </ref> SIstem motivasi di utak mamonitor kondisi kapuehan kiniko kapado tujuan-tujuan iko, dan mangaktifan perilaku untuak mamanuhi kabutuhan apo pun nan muncua. Sistem motivasi bakarajo sabagian gadang dengan mekanisme haidah-hukuman. Katiko perilaku diikuti dek konsekuensi nan manguntuangan, mekanisme panghargaan di utak diaktifkan, nan mainduksi parubahan struktural di dalam utak nan manyababkan perilaku nan samo diulangi baliak, bilopun situasi sarupo muncua baliak. Sabaliknyo, katiko sabuah perilaku diikuti dek konsekuensi nan indak manguntuangan, mekanisme hukumandi utak diaktifan, mandorong parubahan struktural nan manyababkan perilaku tasabuik ditakan katiko situasi nan samo muncua di maso depan.<ref>Berridge, KC (2004). "Motivation concepts in behavioral neuroscience". ''Physiology & Behavior''. '''81''' (2): 179–209.</ref> Sabagian gadang organisme nan dipalajari hinggo kiniko manggunoan mekanisme hadiah-hukuman: misalnyo, caciang jo serangga dapek mangubah perilakunyo untuak mancari sumber makanan atau untuak mahindari bahayo.<ref>Ardiel, EL; Rankin, CH (2010). "[[doi:10.1101/lm.960510|An elegant mind: learning and memory in ''Caenorhabditis elegans''". ''Learning and Memory''. '''17''' (4): 191–201.]]</ref> Pado vertebrata, sistem hadiah-hukuman diimplementasian dek saparangkek struktur utak tatantu, nan intinyo adolah ganglia basal, saparangkek area nan saliang bahubuangan di dasar utak muko.<ref>Grillner, S; et al. (2005). "Mechanisms for selection of basic motor programs—roles for the striatum and pallidum". ''Trends in Neurosciences''. '''28''' (7): 364–370. </ref> Ganglia basal adolah tampek dimano kaputusan dibuwek; ganglia basal maagiah kontrol pahambek nan bakalanjukan pado sabagian gadang sistem motorik di utak; katiko pahambek iko dilapehan, sistem motorik diizinkan untuak manjalanan tindakan nan alah diprogram untuak dilakuan. Hadiah jo hukuman bafungsi dengan mangubah hubuangan antaro input nan ditarimo ganglia basal jo sinyal kaputusan nan dipancaran. Mekanisme hadiah labiah dipahami daripado mekanisme hukuman, karanoparannyo dalam panyalahgunoan narkoba alah manyababkan dipalajari jo sangaik intensif. Panalitian alah manujuakan bahwa neurotransmitter dopamin mamainan paran sentral: ubek-ubekan adiiktif sarupo kokain, amfetamin, jo nikotin manyababkan kadr dopamin maningkek atau manyababkan dopamin didalam utak maningkek.<ref>Hyman, SE; Malenka, RC (2001). [https://zenodo.org/record/1233105 "Addiction and the brain: the neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence"]. ''Nature Reviews Neuroscience''. '''2''' (10): 695–703. </ref> === Pambalajaran jo memori === Hampia sadoalah hewan bisa mamodifikasi perilakunyo sabagai hasil dari pangalaman-bahkan jinih caciang nan paliang primitif sakalipun. Karano perilaku digarikan dek aktivitas utak, parubahan dalam perilaku harus sasuai jo parubahan di dalam utak. Pado akhir abaik ka -19, para ahli teori sarupo Santiago Ramon y Cajal bapandapek bahwa panjalasan nan paliang masuak aka adolah bahwa pambalajaran jo mangingek diekspresian sabagai parubahan pado koneksi sinaptik antaro neuron.<ref>Ramón y Cajal, S (1894). [[doi:10.1098/rspl.1894.0063|"The Croonian Lecture: La Fine Structure des Centres Nerveux"]]. ''Proceedings of the Royal Society''. '''55''' (331–335): 444–468. Bibcode:1894RSPS...55..444C. doi:10.1098/rspl.1894.0063.</ref> Tapi, hinggo taun 1970, bukti eksperimental nan mandukuang hipotesis plastisitas sinptik masih sangek kurang. Pao taun 1971, Tim Bliss jo Terje Lomo manabikan sabuah makalah tentang fenomena nan kini disabuik potensiasi jangka panjang: makalah tasabuik manunjuakan bukti nan jaleh tentang parubahan sinaptik nan diinduksi dek aktivitas nan balangsuang satidaknyo salamo babarapo hari.<ref>Lømo, T (2003). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693150 "The discovery of long-term potentiation"]. [[:en:Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B|''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B''.]] '''358''' (1432): 617–620. doi:[[doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1226|10.1098/rstb.2002.1226]]. PMC 1693150. <nowiki>PMID 12740104</nowiki>.</ref> Sajak saat itu, kamajuan teknis alah mambuek eksperimen samacam iko jauah labiah murah untuak dilakuan, jo ribuan panalitian alah dilakuan nan alah mampajaleh mekaisme parubahan sinapsis, jo manamuan jinih parubahan sinapsis nan digarikan dek aktibitas di babagai area utak, tamasuak korteksserebral, hipokampus, ganglia basal, jo utak ketek.<ref>Malenka, R; Bear, M (2004). [[doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.012|"LTP and LTD: an embarrassment of riches"]]. ''Neuron''. '''44''' (1): 5–21. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.012. PMID [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15450156 15450156]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:79844 79844]</ref> Faktor neurotropik nan diturunadari utak jo aktivitas fisik tampaknyo mamainan paran nan bamanfaaik dalam proses tasabuik.<ref>Bos, I; De Boever, P; Int Panis, L; Meeusen, R (2004). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264793941 "Physical Activity, Air Pollution and the Brain"]. ''Sports Medicine''. '''44''' (11): 1505–1518. doi:[[doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0222-6|10.1007/s40279-014-0222-6]]. PMID [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25119155 25119155]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207493297 207493297].</ref> Para ahli saraf kiniko mambedaan babarapo jinih pambalajaran jo memori nan diimplementasian dek utak dengan caro nan babeda: * Memori karajo adolah kamampuan utak untuak mampatahanan representasi samantaro informasi tentang tugas nan sadang dilakuan dek hewan. Memori dinamis samacam iko dianggap dimediasi dek pambantuakan kumpuan sel-kalompok neuron nan diaktifan yang mampatahanan aktivitasnyo dengan taruih marangsang ciek samo lain.<ref>Curtis, CE; D'Esposito, M (2003). "Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory". ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences''. '''7''' (9): 415–423. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.457.9723. doi:[[doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9]]. PMID [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12963473 12963473]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15763406 15763406].</ref> * Memori episodik adolah kamampuan untuak mangingek ditail dari peristiwa tatantu. Memori samacam iko dapek batahan saumua hiduik. Banyak bukti nan manunjuakan bahwa hipokampus mamainan paran pantiang: urang jo karusakan parah pado hipokampus takadang manunjuakan amnesia, yaitu kaindakmampuan untuak mangingek episodik baru nan tahan lamo.<ref>Tulving, E; Markowitsch, HJ (1998). [https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291098-1063%281998%298%3A3%3C198%3A%3AAID-HIPO2%3E3.0.CO%3B2-G "Episodic and declarative memory: role of the hippocampus"]. ''Hippocampus''. '''8''' (3): 198–204. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1998)8:3<198::AID-HIPO2>3.0.CO;2-G. PMID [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9662134 9662134]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18634842 18634842].</ref> * Memori semantik adolah kamampuan untuak mampalajari fakta jo hubuangan. Memori samacam iko mungkin sabagian gadang disimpan di korteks serebral, nan dimediasi dek parubahan koneksi antar sel nan mawakili jinih informasi tatantu.<ref>Martin, A; Chao, LL (2001). "Semantic memory and the brain: structures and processes". ''Current Opinion in Neurobiology''. '''11''' (2): 194–201. doi:[[doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00196-3|10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00196-3]]. PMID [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11301239 11301239]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3700874 3700874].</ref> * Pambalajaran instrumental adolah kamampuan panghargaan jo hukuman untuak mangubah perilaku. Hal iko diimplementasikan dek jaringan area utak nan bapusek di ganglia basal.<ref>Balleine, BW; Liljeholm, Mimi; Ostlund, SB (2009). "The integrative function of the basal ganglia in instrumental learning". ''Behavioural Brain Research''. '''199''' (1): 43–52. doi:[[doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.10.034|10.1016/j.bbr.2008.10.034]]. PMID [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19027797 19027797]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36521958 36521958].</ref> * Pambalajaran motorik adolah kamampuan untuak mampabaiki pola gerakan tubuh jo balatiah, atau labiah umum lai jo pangulangan. Sajumlah area utak talibek, tamasuak korteks premoor, ganglia basal, jo tarutamo utak ketek, nan bafungsi sabagai bank memori gadang untuak panyasuaian mikro dari parameter gerakan.<ref>Doya, K (2000). "Complementary roles of basal ganglia and cerebellum in learning and motor control". ''Current Opinion in Neurobiology''. '''10''' (6): 732–739. doi:[[doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00153-7|10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00153-7]]. PMID [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11240282 11240282]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10962570 10962570].</ref> == Rujuakan == <references /> 1phq2ueu3a5lgocx3pv8toaipazhpjc 0 473959 3351310 3186007 2026-08-05T23:04:38Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351310 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new)|name=Stres psikologis|image=Headache-1557872 960 720.jpg|alt=Foto seorang pria mengekspresikan stres|caption=Saurang pria maekspresian stres}} Dalam [[psikologi]], '''stres''' atau '''cekaman''' adolah [[perasaan]] ketegangan jo tekanan emosional.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2013-11-18|title=Stress|url=http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/conditions/stress|work=Mental Health America|access-date=2024-05-31|archive-date=2018-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001182244/http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/conditions/stress|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Stres adolah salah ciek jenis [[penderitaan psikologis]]. Sabagian stres mungkin diinginkan, bamanfaat, jo bahkan manyehatkan. Stres positif mambantu maningkekan kinerja atletik. Iko juo baperan dalam [[motivasi]], adaptasi, jo reaksi tahadok lingkungan. Jumlah stres nan balabiahan, akan tatapi, dapek manyebaban [[Stres (biologi)|karusakan tubuh]]. Stres dapek maningkekan risiko [[strok]], [[infark miokard|serangan jantung]], [[ulkus]], jo [[model stres diatesis|panyakik mental]] sarupo depresi<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sapolsky|first=Robert M.|date=2004|title=Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers|url=https://archive.org/details/whyzebrasdontget0003edsapo|location=175 Fifth Ave, New York, N.Y.|publisher=St. Martins Press|isbn=978-0-8050-7369-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyzebrasdontget0003edsapo/page/37 37], 71, 92, 271|author-link=Robert Sapolsky|url-status=live|lokasi=175 Fifth Ave, New York, NY}}</ref> jo juo mampaburuak kondisi nan alah ado sabalumnyo. Stres dapek basifaik eksternal jo terkait jo lingkungan,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Fiona|last2=Bright|first2=Jim|last3=Clow|first3=Angela|date=2001|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=QGsX-N28wjkC&lpg=PP1&dq=%22Stress%22&as_brr=3&hl=bg&pg=PA4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Stress: Myth, Theory and Research|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0-13-041189-1|language=en}}</ref> tatapi juo dapek disebaban dek persepsi internal nan manyebaban saurang mangalami [[kegelisahan]] atau emosi negatif lainnyo di sekita suatu situasi, sarupo tekanan, [[ketidaknyamanan]], dll., nan kamudian dianggap manimbulan stres. [[Hans Selye]] (1974) mangusulan ampek variasi stres.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Selye|first=Hans|date=1974|url=http://archive.org/details/stresswithoutdis00sely|title=Stress without distress|location=Philadelphia|publisher=J.B. Lippincott Company|isbn=978-0-397-01026-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/stresswithoutdis00sely/page/171 171]|url-status=registration}}</ref> pado ciek sumbu ia manampekan stres baik (eustress) jo stres buruk (distress). Di sisi lain adolah over-stress (hyperstress) jo understress (hypostress). Selye maanjuran untuak manyeimbangkan iko: tujuan akhirnyo adolah manyaimbangan hyperstress jo hypostress jo sampurna jo mamiliki sabanyak mungkin eustress.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Selye|first=Hans|date=1983|title=Stress Research Issues for the Eighties|location=New York, NY|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-10246-5|editor-last=Cooper|editor-first=C. L.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/stressresearchis00cooprich/page/1 1–20]|chapter=The Stress Concept: Past, Present and Future|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/stressresearchis00cooprich|url-status=registration}}</ref> Istilah "eustress" berasa dari akar kata Yunani eu- nan bararti "baik" (sarupo dalam "euforia").<ref name = "Selye 1975">{{cite journal |last= Selye |first= Hans | date= 1975 |title= Implications of Stress Concept|journal= New York State Journal of Medicine|volume= 75 |issue= 12 |pages= 2139–2145|pmid= 1059917 }}</ref> Eustress tajadi katiko saurang mancaliak stresor sabagai hal nan positif.<ref name=Fevre> {{cite journal|last= Fevre|first= Mark Le|author2= Kolt, Gregory S. |author3= Matheny, Jonathan |title= Eustress, distress and their interpretation in primary and secondary occupational stress management interventions: which way first?|journal= Journal of Managerial Psychology|date= 1 January 2006|volume= 21|issue= 6|pages= 547–565|doi= 10.1108/02683940610684391}} </ref> "Distress" barasa dari [[bahasa Latin]] dis- (sarupo dalam "disonansi" atau "ketidaksepakatan").<ref name = "Selye 1975"/> Kasulitan nan didefinisikan sacaro medis marupoan ancaman bagi kualitas iduik. Itu tajadi katiko pamintaan jauah malabihi kamampuan saurang.<ref name= Fevre /> Stres dapek manyebaban [[sakit kepala|sakik kapalo]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yaniv|date=2009-12-09|title=Advances in the pathophysiology of tension-type headache: From stress to central sensitization|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-009-0078-x|journal=Current Pain and Headache Reports|language=en|volume=13|issue=6|pages=484–494|doi=10.1007/s11916-009-0078-x|issn=1534-3081|pmid=19889292|s2cid=36447117}}</ref> == Panyabab == === Netralitas penyebab stres === Stres adolah respons nan indakspesifik.<ref name=":2" /> iko netral, jo nan bervariasi adolah tingkek tanggapannyo. Iko sadonyo tantang konteks individu jo ba a mereka memanjog situasinya. Selye mendefinisikan stres sabagai "hasil nonspesifik (yaitu, umum) dari satiok tuntutan pado tubuh, baik efek mental atau somatik.”<ref name=":2" /> iko termasuk definisi medis dari stres sabagai tuntutan fisik jo definisi stres sehari-hari sabagai tuntutan psikologis. Stresor pado dasarnyo basifaik netral nan berarti bahwa penyebab stres nan sama dapek manyebaban stres atau stres. Perbedaan jo respons individulah nan manyebaban baik kesusahan atau eustress.<ref name = "HNC">{{cite journal |last1=Hargrove |first1=M. B. |last2= Nelson|first2=D. L. | last3= Cooper| first3= C. L. |date= 2013 |title= Generating eustress by challenging employees: Helping people savor their work. |journal= Organizational Dynamics|volume=42 |pages= 61–69 |doi=10.1016/j.orgdyn.2012.12.008}}</ref> ===Jenis Stres=== Sebuah [[stressor]] adolah satiok acara, pengalaman, atau stimulus lingkungan nan manyebaban stres pado individu.<ref>{{cite web |title=stressor |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/stressor |publisher=Collins English Dictionary{{snd}} Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved September 20, 2012, from CollinsDictionary.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620123917/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/stressor |archive-date=June 20, 2012 }}</ref> Peristiwa atau pengalaman ko dianggap sabagai ancaman atau tantangan bagi individu jo dapek basifaik fisik atau psikologis. Para peneliti alah menemukan bahwa stres dapek membuat individu lebih rentan terhadap masalah fisik jo psikologis, termasuk [[penyakit jantung|panyakik jantung]] and [[kecemasan]].<ref name="pastorino">Pastorino, E. & Doyle-Portillo, S. (2009). What is Psychology?. 2nd Ed. Belmont, CA: Thompson Higher Education.</ref> Stresor lebih mungkin mempengaruhi kesehatan individu katiko mereka "kronis, sangat mengganggu, atau dianggap indakterkendali".<ref name="pastorino" /> Dalam [[psikologi]], peneliti umumnyo mengklasifikasikan babagai jenis stres manjadi empat kategori: 1) krisis / bancano, 2) kajadian besar dalam iduik, 3) gangguan harian / mikro, jo 4) stres lingkungan. Menurut Ursin (1988), faktor umum antaro kategori ko adolah ketidakkonsistenan antaro kajadian nan diharapkan ("nilai nan ditetapkan") jo kajadian nan dirasakan ("nilai aktual") nan indak dapek diselesaikan sacaro memuaskan,<ref>{{cite book |last=Ursin |first=H. |chapter= Expectancy and activation: An attempt to systematize stress theory |year=1988 |editor1-first=D.H. |editor1-last=Hellhammer |editor2-first=I. |editor2-last=Florin |editor3-first=H. |editor3-last=Weiner |title= Neuronal Control of Bodily Function: Basic and Clinical Aspects, Vol. 2: Neurobiological Approaches to Human Disease |pages=313–334 |location= Kirkland, WA |publisher=Huber }}</ref> nan menempatkan tekanan ka dalam konteks nan lebih luas. dari [[teori kognitif-konsistensi]].<ref name=":Kampen">{{cite journal | last = van Kampen | first = H.S. | year = 2019 | title = The principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour | doi = 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013 | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 159 | pages = 42–54 | pmid = 30562561 | s2cid = 56478466 }}</ref> ====Krisis / malapetaka==== Jenis stresor ko indakterduga jo indakdapek diprediksi jo, jo demikian, sepenuhnyo di luar kendali individu.<ref name="pastorino" /> Contoh [[krisis]] jo bancano meliputi: [[bencana alam|bancano alam]], sarupo [[banjir]] atau [[gempa bumi]], [[perang]], [[pandemi]], jo lain-lain. Meskipun jarang tajadi, jenis pemicu stres ko biasanyo manyebaban banyak tekanan dalam iduik saurang. Sebuah studi nan dilakukan dek Stanford University menemukan bahwa sealah bancano alam, mereka nan terkena dampak mangalami peningkatan tingkek stres nan signifikan.<ref name="pastorino" /> Memerangi stres adolah masalah akut jo kronis nan tersebar luas. Dengan kecepatan nan cepat jo urgensi untuak menembak lebih dulu, episode tragis dari sacaro indaksengaja membunuh pasukan sahabat (“saudara” membunuh “saudara” atau saudara saudara) dapek tajadi. Pencegahan membutuhkan pengurangan stres, penekanan pado kendaraan jo pelatihan identifikasi lainnya, kesadaran akan situasi taktis, jo analisis risiko berkelanjutan dek para pemimpin di semua eselon.<ref>Headquarters, Department of the Army (1994). Leader’s Manual for Combat Stress Control, FM 22–51, Washington DC.</ref> ====Kajadian gadang dalam iduik==== Contoh umum dari kajadian besar dalam iduik meliputi: [[pernikahan]], pergi ka [[perguruan tinggi]], [[kematian]] orang nan dicintai, [[kelahiran]] anak, [[perceraian]], pindah rumah, jo lain-lain. Peristiwa ini, baik positif maupun negatif, dapek menimbulkan rasa ketidakpastian jo ketakutan, nan mana pado akhirnyo akan menimbulkan stres. Misalnya, penelitian alah menemukan peningkatan stres selama transisi dari sekolah menengah ka universitas, jo mahasiswa baru dua kali lebih mungkin mangalami stres dibandingkan mahasiswa tahun terakhir.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Teo |first1=Loo Yee |first2=Jia Yuin |last2=Fam |title=Prevalence and determinants of perceived stress among undergraduate students in a Malaysian University |journal=Journal of Health and Translational Medicine |volume=21 |issue=1 |year=2018 |pages=1–5 |url=https://mjes.um.edu.my/index.php/jummec/article/view/11016 }}</ref> Penelitian alah menemukan kajadian besar dalam iduik agak jarang manjadi penyebab utama stres, karena kajadian tasabuik jarang tajadi.<ref name="pastorino" /> Lamanyo waktu sejak kajadian jo apakah itu kajadian positif atau negatif atau indakadolah faktor penyebab stres atau indakjo seberapa besar stres nan ditimbulkannya. Para peneliti alah menemukan bahwa kajadian nan alah tajadi dalam sebulan terakhir umumnyo indakterkait jo stres atau panyakik, sementara kajadian kronis nan tajadi lebih dari beberapa bulan lalu terkait jo stres jo panyakik<ref name=pmid9619470>{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0278-6133.17.3.214 |pmid=9619470 |title=Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults |journal=Health Psychology |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=214–23 |year=1998 |last1=Cohen |first1=Sheldon |last2=Frank |first2=Ellen |last3=Doyle |first3=William J |last4=Skoner |first4=David P |last5=Rabin |first5=Bruce S |last6=Gwaltney |first6=Jack M |s2cid=15175643 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/f0fe8dd6bfe112fd092d0fe3272f0be592d8545a }}</ref> jo parubahan kepribadian.<ref name="Jeronimus2014">{{cite journal|last1=Jeronimus|first1=Bertus F|last2=Riese|first2=Harriëtte|last3=Sanderman|first3=Robbert|last4=Ormel|first4=Johan|year=2014|title=Mutual reinforcement between neuroticism and life experiences: A five-wave, 16-year study to test reciprocal causation|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_2014-10_107_4/page/751|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=107|issue=4|pages=751–64|doi=10.1037/a0037009|pmid=25111305}}</ref> Selain itu, kajadian keiduikan nan positif biasanyo indakterkait jo stres - jo jika demikian, umumnyo hanyo stres nan sepele - sejogkan kajadian keiduikan nan negatif dapek dikaitkan jo stres jo masalah kesehatan nan menyertainyo .<ref name="pastorino" /> Namun, pengalaman positif jo parubahan iduik nan positif dapek memprediksi penurunan neurotisme.<ref name="Jeronimus2014" /><ref name="Jeronimus2013">{{cite journal|last1=Jeronimus|first1=B. F|last2=Ormel|first2=J|last3=Aleman|first3=A|last4=Penninx|first4=B. W. J. H|last5=Riese|first5=H|year=2013|title=Negative and positive life events are associated with small but lasting change in neuroticism|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-medicine_2013-11_43_11/page/2403|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=43|issue=11|pages=2403–15|doi=10.1017/S0033291713000159|pmid=23410535}}</ref> ====Kerepotan / takanan mikro sahari hari==== Kategori ko mencakup [[gangguan]] harian jo gangguan ringan.<ref name="pastorino" /> Contohnyo meliputi: membuat keputusan, memenuhi tenggat waktu di tempat kerja atau sekolah, kemacetan lalu lintas, menghadapi kepribadian nan menjengkelkan, dll. Seringkali, jenis pemicu stres ko mencakup [[konflik]] jo orang lain. Stres harian, ba apun, berbeda untuak satiok individu, karena indaksemua orang memanjog kajadian tertentu sabagai stres. Misalnya, kebanyakan orang merasa berbicara di depan umum membuat stres, namun, politisi berpengalaman kemungkinan besar indakakan melakukannya. Keributan sehari-hari adolah jenis stresor nan paling sering tajadi pado kebanyakan orang dewasa. Frekuensi kerepotan nan tinggi manyebaban stresor ko memiliki efek fisiologis paling besar pado individu. Carolyn Aldwin, Ph.D., melakukan penelitian di Oregon State University nan meneliti intensitas kerepotan sehari-hari nan dirasakan pado kematian individu. Studi Aldwin menyimpulkan bahwa ado korelasi kuat antaro individu nan menilai kerepotan mereka sangat intens jo tingkek kematian nan tinggi. Persepsi saurang tentang pemicu stres harian mereka dapek memiliki efek modulasi pado dampak fisiologis pemicu stres harian.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.exger.2014.06.019 |pmid=24995936 |pmc=4253863 |title=Do hassles mediate between life events and mortality in older men? |journal=Experimental Gerontology |volume=59 |pages=74–80 |year=2014 |last1=Aldwin |first1=Carolyn M |last2=Jeong |first2=Yu-Jin |last3=Igarashi |first3=Heidi |last4=Choun |first4=Soyoung |last5=Spiro |first5=Avron }}</ref> Ada tiga jenis konflik psikologis utama nan dapek manyebaban stres. * Konflik pendekatan-pendekatan, tajadi katiko saurang memilih di antaro dua pilihan nan sama-sama menarik, yaitu pergi menonton film atau menonton konser.<ref name="pastorino" /> * Konflik penghindaran-penghindaran, tajadi di mana saurang harus memilih di antaro dua opsi nan sama-sama indakmenarik, misalnya, untuak mengambil pinjaman kedua jo persyaratan nan indakmenarik untuak melunasi hipotek atau menghadapi penyitaan rumah saurang<ref name="pastorino" /> * Konflik pendekatan-penghindaran,<ref name="pastorino" /> tajadi katiko saurang dipaksa untuak memilih apakah akan mengambil bagian dalam sesuatu nan memiliki sifat menarik jo indakmenarik - sarupo apakah akan menghadiri perguruan tinggi nan mahal atau indak(artinyo mengambil pinjaman sekarang, tapi juo berarti pendidikan jo pekerjaan nan berkualitas sealah lulus). Hasil stres terkait perjalanan dari tiga kategori utama: waktu nan hilang, kejutan (kajadian tak terduga sarupo bagasi hilang atau tertunda) jo pemutus rutin (ketidakmampuan untuak mempertahankan kebiasaan sehari-hari).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ttgmice.com/article/cwt-rolls-out-solution-to-tackle-cost-of-travel-stress/|title=CWT rolls out solution to tackle cost of travel stress|date=2013-04-25|publisher=TTGmice|archive-date=2013-11-10|access-date=2024-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110182351/http://www.ttgmice.com/article/cwt-rolls-out-solution-to-tackle-cost-of-travel-stress/|dead-url=yes}}</ref> ====Stres lingkungan==== Seperti nan tersirat dari namanya, ko adolah stresor tingkek rendah global (bukan individu) nan marupoan bagian dari lingkungan latar belakang. Mereka didefinisikan sabagai pemicu stres nan basifaik "kronis, bernilai negatif, indakmendesak, dapek dilihat sacaro fisik, jo sulit ditangani dek upaya individu untuak mengubahnya".<ref name=campbell>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0013916583153005 |title=Ambient Stressors |journal=Environment and Behavior |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=355–80 |year=2016 |last1=Campbell |first1=Joan M |s2cid=220442210 }}</ref> Contoh umum penyebab stres lingkungan adolah polusi, kebisingan, kepadotan, jo lalu lintas. Berbeda jo tiga jenis stresor lainnya, stresor lingkungan dapek (tatapi indakharus) berdampak negatif pado stres tanpa kesadaran. Dengan demikian, mereka rendah pado apa nan disebut Stokols sabagai "arti-penting perseptual".{{Non sequitur |date=September 2008| reason = Mentioned neither the author nor the concept before. Maybe just drop the sentence.}}<ref name = campbell/> ====Stres organisasi==== Studi nan dilakukan di bidang militer jo pertempuran menunjukkan bahwa beberapa penyebab stres nan paling kuat dapek disebaban dek masalah organisasi pribadi di unit atau di depan rumah.<ref>Headquarters, Department of the Army (2006). Combat and Operational Stress Control, FM 4-02.51, Washington, DC, p. 9</ref> Stres akibat praktik organisasi nan buruk sering dikaitkan jo "Toxic Leadership", baik di perusahaan maupun di organisasi pemerintah.<ref>[[Marcia Lynn Whicker|Whicker, Marcia Lynn]]. Toxic leaders: When organisations go bad. Westport, CT. Quorum Books. 1996.{{page needed|date=May 2018}}</ref> ===Akibaik stres=== Skala kajadian keiduikan dapek digunakan untuak menilai hal-hal stres nan dialami orang dalam iduik mereka. Salah ciek skala tasabuik adolah [[Saka Stres Holmes dan Rahe|Saka Stres Holmes jo Rahe]], juo dikenal sabagai Skala Peringkat Penyesuaian Kembali Sosial, atau SRRS.<ref name="holmes">{{cite journal|last1=Holmes|first1=TH|last2=Rahe|first2=RH|year=1967|title=The Social Readjustment Rating Scale|journal=J Psychosom Res|volume=11|issue=2|pages=213–8|doi=10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4|pmid=6059863}}</ref> Dikembangkan dek psikiater Thomas Holmes jo Richard Rahe pado tahun 1967, skala tasabuik mencantumkan 43 kajadian nan membuat stres. Untuk menghitung skor saurang, tambahkan jumlah "unit parubahan iduik" jika suatu kajadian tajadi dalam setahun terakhir. Skor lebih dari 300 berarti individu tasabuik berisiko sakik, skor antaro 150 jo 299 berarti risiko sakik sejog, jo skor di bawah 150 berarti individu tasabuik hanyo memiliki sedikit risiko panyakik.<ref name="pastorino" /><ref name="holmes" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !Peristiwa keiduikan !Unit parubahan iduik |- |Kamatian pasangan || 100 |- |Pacaraian || 73 |- |Papisahan panikahan || 65 |- |Hukuman pinjaro || 63 |- |Kamatian anggota keluarga dakek || 63 |- |Cidera atau panyakik pribadi || 53 |- |Panikahan || 50 |- |Pemberhentian dari pekerjaan || 47 |- |Rekonsiliasi pernikahan || 45 |- |Pensiun || 45 |- |Perubahan kesehatan anggota keluarga || 44 |- |Kehamilan || 40 |- |Kesulitan seksual || 39 |- |dapek anggota keluarga baru || 39 |- |Penyesuaian kembali bisnis || 39 |- |Perubahan keadaan keuangan || 38 |- |Kematian seorang teman dekat || 37 |- |Ubah ka bidang pekerjaan nan berbeda || 36 |- |Perubahan frekuensi argumen || 35 |- |Hipotek utama || 32 |- |Penyitaan hipotek atau pinjaman || 30 |- |Perubahan tanggung jawab di tempat kerja || 29 |- |Anak meninggalkan rumah || 29 |- |Kesulitan jo mertua || 29 |- |Prestasi pribadi nan luar biasa || 28 |- |Pasangan mulai atau berhenti bekerja || 26 |- |Memulai atau mengakhiri sekolah || 26 |- |Perubahan kondisi keiduikan || 25 |- |Revisi kebiasaan pribadi || 24 |- |Bermasalah jo bos || 23 |- |Perubahan jam atau kondisi kerja || 20 |- |Ganti tempat tinggal || 20 |- |Perubahan di sekolah || 20 |- |Ganti rekreasi || 19 |- |Perubahan dalam kegiatan gereja || 19 |- |Perubahan dalam aktivitas sosial || 18 |- |Hipotek atau pinjaman kecil || 17 |- |Ubah kebiasaan tidur || 16 |- |Perubahan jumlah reuni keluarga || 15 |- |Ubah kebiasaan makan || 14 |- |Liburan || 13 |- |Pelanggaran hukum ringan || 10 |} Versi modifikasi dibuat untuak non-dewasa. Skalanyo di bawah.<ref name="pastorino" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !Peristiwa keiduikan !Unit parubahan iduik |- |Hamil di luar nikah || 100 |- |Kematian orang tua || 100 |- |Menikah || 95 |- |Perceraian orang tua || 90 |- |Mendapekkan deformitas nan terlihat || 80 |- |Menjadi ayah dari kehamilan nan indakdinikahi || 70 |- |Hukuman penjara orang tua selama lebih dari ciek tahun || 70 |- |Pemisahan pernikahan orang tua || 69 |- |Kematian saudara laki-laki atau perempuan || 68 |- |Perubahan penerimaan dek teman sebaya || 67 |- |Kehamilan saudara perempuan nan indakmenikah || 64 |- |Penemuan manjadi anak angkat || 63 |- |Pernikahan orang tua jo orang tua tiri || 63 |- |Kematian seorang teman dekat || 63 |- |Memiliki kelainan bawaan nan terlihat || 62 |- |panyakik serius nan membutuhkan rawat inap || 58 |- |Kegagalan kelas di sekolah || 56 |- |Tidak mengadakan kegiatan ekstrakurikuler || 55 |- |Rawat inap orang tua || 55 |- |Hukuman penjara orang tua selama lebih dari 30 hari || 53 |- |Putus jo pacar || 53 |- |Mulai berkencan || 51 |- |Skorsing dari sekolah || 50 |- |Terlibat jo narkoba atau alkohol || 50 |- |Kelahiran saudara laki-laki atau perempuan || 50 |- |Bertambahnyo pertengkaran di antaro orang tua || 47 |- |Kehilangan pekerjaan dek orang tua || 46 |- |Prestasi pribadi nan luar biasa || 46 |- |Perubahan status keuangan orang tua || 45 |- |Diterima di perguruan tinggi pilihan || 43 |- |Menjadi senior di sekolah menengah || 42 |- |Rawat inap saudara kandung || 41 |- |Meningkatnyo ketidakhadiran orang tua dari rumah || 38 |- |Kakak atau adik meninggalkan rumah || 37 |- |Penambahan orang dewasa ketiga ka keluarga || 34 |- |Menjadi anggota penuh gereja || 31 |- |Penurunan pertengkaran di antaro orang tua || 27 |- |Mengurangi pertengkaran jo orang tua || 26 |- |Ibu atau ayah mulai bekerja || 26 |} SRRS digunakan dalam psikiatri untuak memberi bobot pado dampak kajadian keiduikan.<ref name="Riese2013">{{cite journal|last1=Riese|first1=Harriëtte|last2=Snieder|first2=Harold|last3=Jeronimus|first3=Bertus F|last4=Korhonen|first4=Tellervo|last5=Rose|first5=Richard J|last6=Kaprio|first6=Jaakko|last7=Ormel|first7=Johan|year=2014|title=Timing of Stressful Life Events Affects Stability and Change of Neuroticism|journal=European Journal of Personality|volume=28|issue=2|pages=193–200|doi=10.1002/per.1929|s2cid=142517975}}</ref> == Pangukuran == Manusia modern mungkin mencoba menilai "tingkek stres" mereka sendiri; pihak ketiga (terkajog dokter) juo dapek memberikan evaluasi kualitatif. Pendekatan kuantitatif memberikan hasil nan mungkin berkorelasi jo stres psikologis nan dirasakan termasuk pengujian untuak ciek atau lebih dari beberapa [[hormon stres]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lundberg|first=Ulf|date=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVlk8pnEKIC|title=The Handbook of Stress Science: Biology, Psychology, and Health|location=New York|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-1771-7|editor-last=Contrada|editor-first=Richard|pages=531|language=en|chapter=Neuroendocrine Measures|quote=[...] epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol are considered the most important 'stress hormones,' although a number of other hormones are also influenced by stress [...].|access-date=2024-05-31|editor-last2=Baum|editor-first2=Andrew|url-status=live}}</ref> untuak respon kardiovaskular,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krantz|first=David S.|last2=Falconer|first2=Jennifer F.|last3=Gordon|first3=Lynn Underwood|date=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xy_r37l0qzIC|title=Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512120-9|editor-last=Cohen|editor-first=Sheldon|editor-link=Sheldon Cohen|edition=revised|series=A project of the Fetzer Institute|publication-date=1997|pages=193–212|language=en|chapter=Measurement of cardiovascular responses|access-date=2024-05-31|editor-last2=Kessler|editor-first2=Ronald C.|editor-link2=Ronald C. Kessler|editor-last3=Underwood Gordon|editor-first3=Lynn|url-status=live}}</ref> atau untuak respon imun.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kiecolt-Glaser|first=Janice|last2=Glaser|first2=Ronald|date=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xy_r37l0qzIC|title=Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512120-9|editor-last=Cohen|editor-first=Sheldon|editor-link=Sheldon Cohen|series=A project of the Fetzer Institute|publication-date=1997|pages=213–230|language=en|chapter=Measurement of immune response|author-link=Janice Kiecolt-Glaser|access-date=2024-05-31|editor-last2=Kessler|editor-first2=Ronald C.|editor-link2=Ronald C. Kessler|editor-last3=Underwood Gordon|editor-first3=Lynn|url-status=live}}</ref> == Efek fisik == Tubuh kita merespons stres jo babagai cara. Menyesuaikan kembali level kimia hanyalah salah cieknya. Bagian ko mencakup beberapa contoh penyesuaian jo parubahan nan dilakukan dek tubuh kita. Untuk mengukur respons tubuh terhadap stres, psikolog cenderung menggunakan [[sindrom adaptasi umum]] Hans Selye. Model biologis ini, sering disebut{{by whom?|date=November 2020}} sabagai "respon stres klasik", berkisar pado konsep [[homeostasis]]. Sindrom adaptif umum, menurut sistem ini, tajadi dalam tiga tahap: # '''Reaksi alarm'''. Tahap ko tajadi saat stressor pertama kali muncul. Tubuh mulai mengumpulkan sumber daya untuak menghadapi pemicu stres. [[Sumbu hipotalamus-hipofisis-adrenal]] jo [[sistem saraf simpatis]] diaktifkan, sehingga menghasilkan pelepasan hormon dari [[kelenjar adrenal]] sarupo [[kortisol]], adrenalin ([[epinefrin]]), jo [[norepinefrin]] ka dalam aliran darah untuak menyesuaikan proses tubuh. Penyesuaian hormonal ko maningkekan tingkek energi, maningkekan ketegangan otot, mengurangi kepekaan terhadap nyeri, memperlambat sistem pencernaan, jo manyebaban peningkatan [[tekanan darah]].<ref name="GottliebBenjaminCoping">Gottlieb, Benjamin."Coping with Chronic Stress". Plenum Press. 1997.</ref><ref name="General Adaptive Syndrome">{{cite book|last1=Mitterer|first1=Jon|last2=Coon|first2=Dennis|date=2013|title=Introduction to Psychology|publisher=Jon-David Hague|pages=446–447}}</ref> Selain itu, [[lokus coeruleus]], kumpulan neuron nan mengandung norepinefrin di [[pons]] [[batang otak]] nan aksonnyo menjorok ka babagai wilayah otak, terlibat dalam pelepasan norepinefrin langsung ka neuron. tingkek tinggi norepinefrin nan bertindak sabagai neurotransmitter pado reseptornyo nan diekspresikan pado neuron di daerah otak, sarupo [[korteks prefrontal]],{{by whom?|date=November 2020}} dianggap terlibat dalam efek stres pado [[fungsi eksekutif]], sarupo gangguan [[memori kerja.]] # '''Tahap perlawanan'''. Tubuh kita akan terus membangun ketahanan sepanjang tahap perlawanan, baik sampai sumber daya tubuh habis, nan mengarah ka fase kelelahan, atau sampai rangsangan stres hilang. Saat tubuh menggunakan lebih banyak sumber dayanya, tubuh manjadi semakin lelah jo rentan terhadap panyakik. pado tahap ko gangguan [[Psikosomatik|psikosomatis]] mulai muncul pertama kali..<ref name="General Adaptive Syndrome" /> # '''Tahap kelelahan'''. Tubuh benar-benar kehabisan hormon jo sumber daya nan digunakan untuak mengelola pemicu stres. Orang tasabuik sekarang mulai menunjukkan perilaku sarupo kecemasan, mudah tersinggung, menghindari tanggung jawab jo hubungan, perilaku merusak diri sendiri, jo penilaian nan buruk. Seseorang nan mangalami gejala ko memiliki peluang lebih besar untuak menyerang, merusak hubungan, atau menghindari interaksi sosial sama sekali.<ref name="General Adaptive Syndrome" /> Respons stres fisiologis ko melibatkan aktivasi [[sistem saraf simpatis]] tingkek tinggi, nan sering disebut{{by whom?|date=November 2020}} sabagai respons "lawan atau lari". Responsnyo melibatkan pelebaran pupil, pelepasan [[endorfin]], peningkatan detak jantung jo pernapasan, penghentian proses pencernaan, sekresi adrenalin, pelebaran arteriol, jo penyempitan vena. tingkek gairah nan tinggi ko sering kali indakdiperlukan untuak mengatasi stresor mikro jo kerepotan sehari-hari sacaro memadai; Namun, ko adolah pola respons nan terlihat pado manusia, nan sering mengarah pado masalah kesehatan nan umumnyo dikaitkan{{by whom?|date=November 2020}} jo tingkek stres nan tinggi.<ref name="oregonstate.edu">{{cite web|title=HHS 231 – Extended Campus – Oregon State University|url=http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/dce/hhs231_w04/nine/studyguide.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010135321/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/dce/hhs231_w04/nine/studyguide.htm|archive-date=2012-10-10|url-status=live}}</ref>{{qn|date=November 2020}} === Kanker === Tidak ado bukti nan jelas mengenai hubungan antaro stres jo kanker {{as of|2019|lc=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=S|last2=Murphy|first2=MLM|last3=Prather|first3=AA|date=4 January 2019|title=Ten Surprising Facts About Stressful Life Events and Disease Risk.|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=70|pages=577–597|doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102857|pmc=6996482|pmid=29949726|quote=[...] the strongest conclusion derived from decades of research on stressors and cancer is that stressful events may be associated with decreased cancer survival but are probably not associated with disease incidence [...].}}</ref> Hal ko dapek disebaban dek kesulitan praktis dalam merancang jo menerapkan studi nan memadai.<ref name="Cohen2007">{{cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=Sheldon|last2=Janicki-Deverts|first2=Denise|last3=Miller|first3=Gregory E|year=2007|title=Psychological Stress and Disease|journal=JAMA|volume=298|issue=14|pages=1685–7|doi=10.1001/jama.298.14.1685|pmid=17925521}}</ref> Penelitian alah menemukan bahwa kepercayaan pribadi pado stres sabagai faktor risiko kanker adolah hal nan umum di [[Inggris]], meskipun kesadaran akan faktor risiko sacaro keseluruhan ternyata rendah.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shahab|first1=Lion|last2=McGowan|first2=Jennifer A.|last3=Waller|first3=Jo|last4=Smith|first4=Samuel G.|date=April 2018|title=Prevalence of beliefs about actual and mythical causes of cancer and their association with socio-demographic and health-related characteristics: Findings from a cross-sectional survey in England|url=https://www.ejcancer.com/article/S0959-8049(18)30778-0/fulltext|journal=European Journal of Cancer|volume=103|pages=308–316|doi=10.1016/j.ejca.2018.03.029|pmc=6202672|pmid=29705530}}</ref> === Lalok === {{See also|Stres psikologis dan Tidur}}[[Tidur]] memungkinkan orang untuak beristirahat jo memulihkan energi untuak hari lain nan berpotensi diisi jo interaksi jo tugas. Jika saurang stres, sangat penting bagi mereka untuak tidur nan cukup agar dapek berpikir jernih.{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}} Namun, parubahan kimiawi dalam tubuh nan disebaban dek stres dapek membuat tidur manjadi hal nan sulit dilakukan.{{cn|date=November 2020}} Tubuh kita melepaskan [[glukokortikoid]] sabagai respons terhadap stres; hal ko dapek mengganggu tidur.<ref>{{cite journal|date=September 2015|title=Interactions between sleep, stress, and metabolism: From physiological to pathological conditions|journal=Sleep Science (Sao Paulo, Brazil)|publisher=Sleep Science|volume=8|issue=3|pages=143–152|doi=10.1016/j.slsci.2015.09.002|pmc=4688585|pmid=26779321|vauthors=Hirotsu C, Tufik S, Andersen ML|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}} === Efek Lainnyo === [[File:In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_(7989958032).jpg|pra=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_(7989958032).jpg|ka|jmpl|Seorang wanita stres mengantri di pusat medis]] Kemungkinan besar terdapek suatu hubungan antaro stres jo panyakik.<ref name="Folkman, S. 2013">Folkman, S., 2013. Stress: appraisal and coping. In ''Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine'' (pp. 1913–1915). Springer New York.</ref>{{qn|date=November 2020}} Teori dari hubungan stres-panyakik nan diusulkan menunjukkan bahwa stres [[Reaksi stres akut|akut]] jo kronis dapek manyebaban panyakik, jo penelitian alah menemukan hubungan tasabuik.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schneiderman|first1=N.|last2=Ironson|first2=G.|last3=Siegel|first3=S. D.|year=2005|title=Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology|volume=1|pages=607–628|doi=10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141|pmc=2568977|pmid=17716101|quote=Both epidemiological and controlled studies have demonstrated relationships between psychosocial stressors and disease. The underlying mediators, however, are unclear in most cases, although possible mechanisms have been explored in some experimental studies.}}</ref> Menurut teori ini, kedua jenis stres dapek manyebaban parubahan perilaku jo fisiologi. Perubahan perilaku dapek melibatkan kebiasaan merokok jo makan serta aktivitas fisik. Perubahan fisiologis dapek berupa parubahan aktivasi [[Sistem saraf simpatik|simpatis]] atau aktivasi [[Aksis hipotalamus-hipofisis-adrenal|adrenokortikoid hipofisis hipotalamus]], jo fungsi imunologis.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Herbert|first1=T. B.|last2=Cohen|first2=S.|year=1993|title=Stress and immunity in humans: a meta-analytic review|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=55|issue=4|pages=364–379|doi=10.1097/00006842-199307000-00004|pmid=8416086|citeseerx=10.1.1.125.6544|s2cid=2025176}}</ref> Namun, ado banyak [[variabel]] dalam hubungan antaro stres jo panyakik.<ref name="Ogden">Ogden, J. (2007). Health Psychology: a textbook (4th ed.), pages 281–282 New York: McGraw-Hill {{ISBN|0335214711}}</ref> Stres dapek membuat individu lebih rentan terhadap panyakik fisik sarupo flu biasa.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Edmunds|first1=W. John|year=1997|title=Social Ties and Susceptibility to the Common Cold|journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association|volume=278|issue=15|pages=1231; author reply 1232|doi=10.1001/jama.1997.03550150035018|pmid=9333253}}</ref>{{qn|date=November 2020}} Peristiwa stres, sarupo pergantian pekerjaan, berkorelasi jo insomnia, gangguan tidur, jo keluhan kesehatan.<ref>Compare: {{cite journal|last1=Greubel|first1=Jana|last2=Kecklund|first2=Göran|date=March 2011|title=The Impact of Organisational Changes on Work Stress, Sleep, Recovery and Health|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/indhealth/49/3/49_MS1211/_pdf/-char/en|journal=Industrial Health|volume=49|issue=3|pages=353–364|doi=10.2486/indhealth.ms1211|pmid=21372437|quote=[...] organizational changes, which include a change in job tasks or downsizing, lead to a somewhat increased stress level as well as slightly increased health problems. This study added that complaints about poor sleep, sleepiness and incomplete recovery also increased in connection with extensive organizational changes. Another key finding was that this is even true for the anticipation of such changes.|doi-access=free}}</ref> Penelitian menunjukkan jenis stresor (apakah itu akut atau kronis) jo karakteristik individu sarupo usia jo kesejahteraan fisik sebelum timbulnyo stresor dapek digabungkan untuak menentukan efek stres pado individu.<ref name="Schneiderman, N. 2005">{{cite journal|last1=Schneiderman|first1=N.|last2=Ironson|first2=G.|last3=Siegel|first3=S. D.|year=2005|title=Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology|volume=1|pages=607–628|doi=10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141|pmc=2568977|pmid=17716101}}</ref> Karakteristik kepribadian saurang (sarupo tingkek [[neurotisme]]),<ref name="Jeronimus2014" /> genetika, jo pengalaman masa kanak-kanak jo penyebab stres jo trauma besar<ref name="Jeronimus2013" /> juo dapek menentukan respons mereka terhadap penyebab stres.<ref name="Schneiderman, N. 2005" /> Stres kronis jo kurangnyo sumber daya nan tersedia atau digunakan dek individu sering kali dapek manyebaban perkembangan masalah psikologis sarupo [[Gangguan depresi mayor|depresi]] jo [[Gangguan kecemasan|kecemasan]] (lihat di bawah untuak informasi lebih lanjut).<ref>Schlotz W, Yim IS, Zoccola PM, Jansen L, Schulz P (2011). "The perceived stress reactivity scale: Measurement invariance, stability, and validity in three countries". ''Psychol Assess.'' (pp. 80–94).</ref> Hal ko terutama berlaku untuak penyebab stres kronis. iko adolah pemicu stres nan mungkin indaksekuat pemicu stres akut sarupo bancano alam atau kecelakaan besar, tatapi dapek bertahan dalam jangka waktu nan lebih lama. Jenis stresor ko cenderung berdampak lebih negatif pado kesehatan karena tajadi sacaro berkelanjutan jo karenanyo memerlukan respons fisiologis tubuh nan tajadi satiok hari. Hal ko menghabiskan energi tubuh lebih cepat jo biasanyo tajadi dalam jangka waktu nan lama, terutama katiko mikrostresor semacam itu indakdapek dihindari (misalnya: stres nan berhubungan jo tinggal di lingkungan nan berbahaya). Lihat [[beban alostatis]] untuak pembahasan lebih lanjut tentang proses biologis di mana stres kronis dapek memengaruhi tubuh. Sebagai contoh, penelitian alah menemukan bahwa pengasuh, terutama pasien demensia, memiliki tingkek depresi nan lebih tinggi jo kesehatan fisik nan sedikit lebih buruk daripado bukan pengasuh.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pinquart|first1=Martin|last2=Sörensen|first2=Silvia|year=2003|title=Differences between caregivers and non-caregivers in psychological health and physical health: A meta-analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychology-and-aging_2003-06_18_2/page/250|journal=Psychology and Aging|volume=18|issue=2|pages=250–67|doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.2.250|pmid=12825775}}</ref> Penelitian juo menunjukkan bahwa stres kronis nan dirasakan jo permusuhan nan terkait jo kepribadian Tipe A sering kali berkorelasi jo risiko panyakik kardiovaskular nan jauh lebih tinggi. iko tajadi karena sistem kekebalan nan terganggu serta tingginyo tingkek gairah dalam sistem saraf simpatis nan tajadi sabagai bagian dari respons fisiologis tubuh terhadap kajadian stres.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kemeny|first=Margaret E.|date=August 2003|title=The Psychobiology of Stress|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|volume=12|issue=4|pages=124–129|doi=10.1111/1467-8721.01246|s2cid=145293197}}</ref> Namun, adolah mungkin bagi individu untuak menunjukkan ketangguhan - istilah nan mengacu pado kamampuan untuak manjadi stres kronis jo sehat.<ref>Kobasa, S. C. (1982). "The Hardy Personality: Toward a Social Psychology of Stress and Health". In G. S. Sanders & J. Suls (Eds.), ''Social Psychology of Health and Illness'' (pp. 1–25). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.</ref> Stres kronis dapek berkorelasi jo gangguan psikologis sarupo [[delusi]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kingston|first1=Cara|last2=Schuurmans-Stekhoven|first2=James|year=2016|title=Life hassles and delusional ideation: Scoping the potential role of cognitive and affective mediators|journal=Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice|volume=89|issue=4|pages=445–463|doi=10.1111/papt.12089|pmid=26846698}}</ref> Kecemasan patologis jo stres kronis manyebaban degenerasi struktural jo gangguan fungsi [[hipokampus]].<ref>{{cite journal|year=2016|title=Can anxiety damage the brain?|journal=Current Opinion in Psychiatry|type=Review|volume=29|issue=1|pages=56–63|doi=10.1097/YCO.0000000000000223|pmid=26651008|quote=Pathological anxiety and chronic stress lead to structural degeneration and impaired functioning of the hippocampus and the PFC, which may account for the increased risk of developing neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression and dementia.|vauthors=Mah L, Szabuniewicz C, Fiocco AJ|s2cid=17911798}}</ref> Sudah sejak lama diyakini{{by whom?|date=November 2020}} bahwa keadaan afektif negatif sarupo perasaan cemas jo depresi dapek mempengaruhi patogenesis panyakik fisik nan pado akhirnyo berdampak langsung pado proses biologis nan pado akhirnyo dapek maningkekan risiko panyakik. Namun, penelitian nan dilakukan dek University of Wisconsin-Madison jo tempat-tempat lain menunjukkan bahwa sebagian indakbenar; meskipun stres nan dirasakan tampaknyo maningkekan risiko kesehatan nan dilaporkan buruk, persepsi tambahan tentang stres sabagai sesuatu nan berbahaya maningkekan risiko lebih jauh.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Keller|first1=Abiola|last2=Litzelman|first2=Kristin|last3=Wisk|first3=Lauren E|last4=Maddox|first4=Torsheika|last5=Cheng|first5=Erika Rose|last6=Creswell|first6=Paul D|last7=Witt|first7=Whitney P|year=2012|title=Does the perception that stress affects health matter? The association with health and mortality|journal=Health Psychology|volume=31|issue=5|pages=677–84|doi=10.1037/a0026743|pmc=3374921|pmid=22201278|quote=High amounts of stress and the perception that stress impacts health are each associated with poor health and mental health. Individuals who perceived that stress affects their health <u>''and''</u> reported a large amount of stress had an increased risk of premature death.}}</ref><ref name="blog.ted.com">{{cite web|date=4 September 2013|title=Stress as a positive: Recent research that suggests it has benefits|url=http://blog.ted.com/could-stress-be-good-for-you-recent-research-that-suggests-it-has-benefits/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911215227/http://blog.ted.com/could-stress-be-good-for-you-recent-research-that-suggests-it-has-benefits/|archive-date=11 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Misalnya, katiko manusia mangalami stres kronis, parubahan permanen dalam respons fisiologis, emosional, jo perilaku mereka kemungkinan besar akan tajadi.<ref name="Jeronimus2014" /><ref name="Cohen2007" /> Perubahan sarupo itu bisa manyebaban panyakik.{{cn|date=November 2020}} Stres kronis tajadi akibat kajadian stres nan berlangsung dalam jangka waktu nan relatif lama, sarupo merawat pasangan jo demensia, atau akibat dari kajadian lokal singkat nan terus dialami bahkan lama sealah semuanyo berakhir, sarupo mangalami serangan seksual. Eksperimen menunjukkan bahwa katiko manusia nan sehat terpapar stres laboratorium akut, mereka menunjukkan peningkatan adaptif beberapa penanda kekebalan alami tatapi penekanan umum dari fungsi kekebalan tertentu. Sebagai perbandingan, katiko manusia nan sehat terpapar stres kronis keiduikan nyata, stres ko dikaitkan jo respons imun bifasik di mana penekanan parsial fungsi seluler jo humoral bertepatan jo perajogan nonspesifik tingkek rendah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.natap.org/2007/HIV/101107_02.htm|title=Psychological Stress and Disease (HIV/AIDS)|website=www.natap.org|access-date=2025-05-31}}</ref> Meskipun stres psikologis sering dikaitkan{{by whom?|date=November 2020}} jo panyakik, sebagian besar orang nan sehat masih tetap bebas panyakik sealah menghadapi kajadian stres kronis. Selain itu, orang nan indakpercaya bahwa stres akan memengaruhi kesehatannyo indakmemiliki peningkatan risiko panyakik, panyakik, atau kematian.<ref name="blog.ted.com" /> Hal ko menunjukkan bahwa ado perbedaan individu dalam kerentanan terhadap potensi efek patogenik stres; perbedaan individu dalam kerentanan muncul karena faktor genetik jo psikologis. Selain itu, usia saat stres dialami dapek menentukan pengaruhnyo terhadap kesehatan. Penelitian menunjukkan stres kronis di usia muda dapek berdampak seumur iduik pado respons biologis, psikologis, jo perilaku terhadap stres di kamudian hari.<ref><nowiki>{cite journal|last1= Miller|first1= Gregory|last2= Chen|first2= Edith|last3= Cole|first3= Steve W|year= 2009|title= Health Psychology: Developing Biologically Plausible Models Linking the Social World and Physical Health|journal= Annual Review of Psychology|volume= 60|pages= 501–24|doi= 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163551|pmid= 19035829|doi-access= free}}</nowiki></ref> == Dampak sosial == === Komunikasi === Ketika saurang stres, banyak tantangan nan muncul; salah ciek tantangan nan diakui adolah kesulitan komunikasi. Berikut adolah beberapa contoh ba a stres dapek menghambat komunikasi. Kebudayaan dunia umumnyo terbagi dalam dua kategori; individualistis jo kolektivis.<ref name="Sleep">{{cite book|last1=Craven|first1=Ruth|last2=Hirnle|first2=Constance|last3=Jensen|first3=Sharon|date=2013|title=Fundamentals of Nursing: Human and Health Function|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|edition=7|page=1319}}</ref> * Budaya [[Individualisme|individualistis]], sarupo di Amerika Serikat, di mana satiok orang adolah entitas independen nan ditentukan dek pencapaian jo tujuan mereka. * Budaya [[Kolektivisme|kolektivis]], sarupo nan tajadi di banyak negara Asia, lebih suka mancaliak individu saling bergantung ciek sama lain. Mereka menghargai kesopanan jo keluarga. Perbedaan budaya ko dapek memengaruhi cara orang berkomunikasi saat stres. Misalnya, seorang anggota budaya individualistis akan ragu-ragu untuak meminta obat pereda nyeri karena takut dianggap lemah. Seorang anggota budaya kolektivis indakakan ragu-ragu. Mereka dibesarkan dalam budaya di mana satiok orang saling mambantu jo marupoan ciek unit fungsional sejogkan anggota budaya individualistis merasa indaknyaman katiko meminta bantuan orang lain.<ref name="Sleep" /> ==== Lambatan bahasa ==== Hambatan bahasa dapek manyebaban stres jo membuat orang merasa indaknyaman karena perbedaan dalam sintaksis, kosa kata, cara nan berbeda untuak menunjukkan rasa hormat, jo penggunaan bahasa tubuh nan berbeda dapek membuat segalanyo manjadi sulit, jo bersama jo keinginan untuak interaksi sosial nan sukses, merasa indaknyaman jo komunikasi di sekitar saurang dapek membuat mereka enggan untuak berkomunikasi sama sekali. The System 1 – System 2 model dari joiel Kahneman (Thinking Fast and Slow) jo lainnyo akan membedakan antaro tanggapan otomatis, sarupo bahasa ibu saurang, jo bahasa asing nan memerlukan kerja Sistem 2 untuak diterjemahkan. Sistem 2 dapek "habis" dek upaya mental nan disadari, membuatnyo lebih sulit jo membuat stres.<ref name="Cultural Differences">{{cite book|last1=Morrison-Valfre|first1=Michelle|date=2009|title=Foundations of mental health care|url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofmen0004valf|location=St. Louis, Mo.|publisher=Mosby/Elsevier|isbn=978-0-323-05644-1|edition=4th}}</ref> ==== Parubahan di rumah ==== Perceraian, kematian, jo pernikahan kembali adolah kajadian nan mengganggu dalam rumah tangga.<ref name="Sleep" /> Meskipun satiok orang nan terlibat terpengaruh dek kajadian sarupo ini, hal itu dapek terlihat paling drastis pado anak-anak. Karena usia mereka, anak-anak memiliki keterampilan koping nan relatif belum berkembang.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002059.htm|title=Stress in childhood: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia|website=medlineplus.gov|access-date=2024-05-31}}</ref> Karena alasan ini, kajadian nan membuat stres dapek manyebaban beberapa parubahan dalam perilaku mereka. Bergabung jo kelompok baru, mengembangkan beberapa kebiasaan baru jo terkajog kebiasaan nan indakdiinginkan hanyalah beberapa parubahan nan dapek dipicu dek stres dalam iduik mereka.<ref name="Sleep" /> Tanggapan nan sangat menarik untuak stres adolah berbicara jo [[teman khayalan]]. Seorang anak mungkin merasa marah kepado orang tua atau teman sebayanyo nan mereka rasa membawa parubahan ko pado dirinya. Mereka membutuhkan saurang untuak diajak bicara tatapi jelas bukan orang nan membuat mereka marah. Saat itulah teman khayalan masuk. Mereka "berbicara" jo teman khayalan ko tatapi jo melakukan itu mereka memutuskan komunikasi jo orang-orang nyata di sekitar mereka.<ref name="Sleep" /> === Dukungan sosial jo kasehatan === Para peneliti alah lama tertarik pado ba a tingkek jo jenis [[dukungan sosial]] saurang berdampak pado efek stres pado kesehatan mereka. Penelitian sacaro konsisten menunjukkan bahwa dukungan sosial dapek melindungi terhadap konsekuensi fisik jo mental dari stres.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Uchino|first1=B. N.|year=2009|title=Understanding the links between social support and physical health: A life-span perspective with emphasis on the separability of perceived and received support|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|volume=4|issue=3|pages=236–255|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01122.x|pmid=26158961|citeseerx=10.1.1.713.8624|s2cid=17551921}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Berkman|first1=L. F.|last2=Glass|first2=T.|last3=Brissette|first3=I.|last4=Seeman|first4=T. E.|year=2000|title=From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-science-medicine_2000-09_51_6/page/843|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=51|issue=6|pages=843–857|doi=10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00065-4|pmid=10972429}}</ref> iko dapek tajadi melalui babagai macam mekanisme. Salah ciek model, nan dikenal sabagai model "efek langsung", berpendapek bahwa dukungan sosial memiliki dampak langsung jo positif pado kesehatan jo maningkekan pengaruh positif, mempromosikan perilaku kesehatan adaptif, prediktabilitas jo stabilitas dalam iduik, jo perlindungan terhadap masalah sosial, hukum, jo ekonomi nan dapek berdampak negatif pado kesehatan. Model lain, "efek pennanga", mengatakan bahwa dukungan sosial memberikan pengaruh terbesar pado kesehatan katiko stres, baik jo mambantu individu menilai situasi jo cara nan indakterlalu mengancam atau mengatasi stres nan sebenarnya. Para peneliti alah menemukan bukti untuak mendukung kedua jalur ini.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=S.|last2=Wills|first2=T. A.|year=1985|title=Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/523fb3964458ea60541137a955371ceda95e29c0|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=98|issue=2|pages=310–357|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310|pmid=3901065|s2cid=18137066}}</ref> Dukungan sosial didefinisikan sacaro lebih spesifik sabagai sumber daya psikologis jo material nan disediakan dek jaringan sosial nan ditujukan untuak mambantu saurang mengatasi stres.<ref name="Cohen, S. 20042">{{cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=S|year=2004|title=Social relationships and health|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-psychologist_2004-11_59_8/page/676|journal=American Psychologist|volume=59|issue=8|pages=676–684|doi=10.1037/0003-066x.59.8.676|pmid=15554821}}</ref> Peneliti umumnyo membedakan beberapa jenis dukungan sosial: dukungan instrumental – nan mengacu pado bantuan material (misalnya, dukungan keuangan atau bantuan dalam transportasi bertemu jo dokter), dukungan informasional (misalnya, pengetahuan, pendidikan atau nasihat dalam pemecahan masalah), jo dukungan emosional (misalnya, empati, jaminan, dll.).<ref name="Cohen, S. 20042" /> Dukungan sosial juo dapek mengurangi tingkek stres selama kehamilan. ==Pangalolaan== [[Stress management]] mengacu pado babagai teknik jo psikoterapi nan ditujukan untuak mengendalikan tingkek stres saurang, terutama stres kronis, biasanyo untuak tujuan maningkekan fungsi sehari-hari. iko melibatkan pengendalian jo pengurangan ketegangan nan tajadi dalam situasi stres jo membuat parubahan emosional jo fisik. === Pancegahan jo pambangunan ketahanan === Penurunan perilaku stres marupoan bagian dari pencegahan. Beberapa strategi jo teknik nan umum adolah: pemantauan diri, penyesuaian, penguatan materi, penguatan sosial, dukungan sosial, kontrak diri, kontrak jo orang penting lainnya, pembentukan, pengingat, kelompok bantuan mandiri, jo bantuan profesional.<ref>{{cite book|author=Greenberg|title=Comprehensive Stress Management 10E|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6Xr2waR9UEC&pg=PA261|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-067104-1|pages=261–|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218174937/https://books.google.com/books?id=D6Xr2waR9UEC&pg=PA261|archive-date=2017-02-18}}</ref>{{Explain |date=September 2018| reason = Some of these terms are probably unclear to the non-experts.}} Meskipun banyak teknik sacaro tradisional alah dikembangkan untuak menangani konsekuensi stres, banyak penelitian juo alah dilakukan pado pencegahan stres, subjek nan terkait erat jo [[pembentukan ketahanan psikologis]]. Sejumlah pendekatan swadaya untuak pencegahan stres jo pembangunan ketahanan alah dikembangkan, terutama berdasarkan teori jo praktik terapi perilaku-kognitif.<ref name="Robertson_2012">{{Cite book| author=Robertson, D | title=Build your Resilience| year=2012| publisher=Hodder| location=London| isbn=978-1-4441-6871-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwIstsEgkBMC}}</ref> [[Biofeedback]] juo dapek berperan dalam manajemen stres. Sebuah studi acak dek Sutarto et al. menilai efek biofeedback pernapasan resonan (mengenali jo mengontrol variabilitas denyut jantung tak sadar) di antaro operator manufaktur; depresi, kecemasan jo stres menurun sacaro signifikan.<ref name="Sutarto2012">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/10803548.2012.11076959 |pmid=23294659 |title=Resonant Breathing Biofeedback Training for Stress Reduction Among Manufacturing Operators |journal=International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=549–61 |year=2015 |last1=Purwandini Sutarto |first1=Auditya |last2=Abdul Wahab |first2=Muhammad Nubli |last3=Mat Zin |first3=Nora |doi-access=free }}{{Primary source inline|date=January 2013}}</ref> === Barolahraga untuak mangurangi stres === Penelitian alah menunjukkan bahwa olahraga mengurangi stres.<ref name=":0">Anxiety and Depression Association of America. (n.d.). Exercise for Stress and Anxiety. Retrieved from https://adaa.org/living-with-anxiety/managing-anxiety/exercise-stress-and-anxiety</ref> Anxiety and Depression Association of America. (n.d.). Olahraga sacaro efektif mengurangi kelelahan, maningkekan kualitas tidur, maningkekan fungsi kognitif sacaro keseluruhan sarupo kewaspadoan jo konsentrasi, menurunkan tingkek ketegangan sacaro keseluruhan, jo maningkekan harga diri.<ref name=":0" /> Karena banyak dari ko habis saat saurang mangalami stres kronis, olahraga menyediakan mekanisme koping nan ideal. Terlepas dari kepercayaan populer, olahraga indakperlu manjadi rutin atau intens untuak mengurangi stres; latihan aerobik selama lima menit dapek mulai merangsang efek anti-kecemasan.<ref name=":0" /> Selanjutnya, berjalan kaki 10 menit mungkin memiliki manfaat psikologis nan sama jo olahraga selama 45 menit, memperkuat pernyataan bahwa olahraga dalam jumlah atau intensitas apa pun akan mengurangi stres.<ref name=":0" /> ==== Panjalasan teoritis ==== Banyak teori alah disajikan untuak menjelaskan mengapa olahraga sacaro efektif mengurangi stres. Satu teori, nan dikenal sabagai hipotesis time-out, menyatakan bahwa olahraga mengalihkan perhatian dari pemicu stres. Hipotesis waktu istirahat menyatakan bahwa olahraga sacaro efektif mengurangi stres karena olahraga memberi individu istirahat dari pemicu stres mereka. iko diuji dalam sebuah penelitian baru-baru ko terhadap wanita perguruan tinggi nan mengidentifikasi belajar sabagai pemicu stres utama mereka.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Breus |first1=MJ |last2=O'Connor |first2=PJ |title=Exercise-induced anxiolysis: a test of the "time out" hypothesis in high anxious females. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medicine-and-science-in-sports-and-exercise_1998-07_30_7/page/1107 |journal=Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise |date=July 1998 |volume=30 |issue=7 |pages=1107–12 |pmid=9662680 |doi=10.1097/00005768-199807000-00013 }}</ref> Para wanita kamudian ditempatkan di bawah empat kondisi pado waktu nan berbeda-beda: "istirahat," "belajar," "berolahraga," jo "belajar sambil berolahraga." tingkek stres partisipan diukur melalui penilaian diri terhadap gejala stres jo kecemasan sealah satiok kondisi. Hasilnyo menunjukkan bahwa kondisi "olahraga" memiliki penurunan paling signifikan dalam gejala stres jo kecemasan.<ref name=":1" /> Hasil ko menunjukkan validitas hipotesis time-out.<ref name=":1" /> Penting juo untuak dicatat bahwa olahraga memberikan pengurangan stres nan lebih besar daripado istirahat. ===Mekanisme koping=== {{Main|Coping (psychology)}} Model Lazarus jo Folkman menunjukkan bahwa kajadian eksternal menciptakan suatu bentuk tekanan untuak mencapai, terlibat, atau mangalami situasi stres. Stres bukanlah kajadian eksternal itu sendiri, melainkan interpretasi jo respons terhadap potensi ancaman; inilah saat proses koping dimulai.<ref name="Coping With Stress">{{cite book|last1=Snyder|first1=C.R.|last2=Lefcourt|first2=Herbert M.|title=Coping With Stress|url=https://archive.org/details/copingwithstress0000unse_f8k6|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/copingwithstress0000unse_f8k6/page/68 68]–88}}</ref> Ada babagai cara individu menghadapi ancaman nan dirasakan nan mungkin membuat stres. Namun, orang memiliki kecenderungan untuak menanggapi ancaman jo gaya koping nan dominan, di mana mereka mengabaikan perasaan, atau memanipulasi situasi nan membuat stres.<ref name="Coping With Stress"/> Ada klasifikasi nan berbeda untuak mengatasi, atau [[mekanisme pertahanan]], namun semuanyo marupoan variasi pado gagasan umum nan sama: Ada cara nan baik / produktif jo negatif / kontraproduktif untuak menangani stres. Karena stres dirasakan, mekanisme berikut indakselalu berkaitan jo situasi aktual nan manyebaban stres individu. Namun, mekanisme tasabuik dapek dianggap sabagai mekanisme koping jika memungkinkan individu untuak mengatasi perasaan / kecemasan negatif nan mereka alami jo lebih baik karena situasi stres nan dirasakan, dibandingkan jo benar-benar memperbaiki hambatan konkret nan manyebaban stres. Mekanisme berikut diadaptasi dari DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994. ====Mekanisme nan sangaik adaptif / aktif / fokus pado masalah==== Keterampilan ko adolah apa nan bisa disebut sabagai "menghadapi masalah langsung", atau setidaknyo menangani emosi negatif nan dialami dek stres jo cara nan konstruktif. (umumnyo adaptif) * '''Afiliasi''' ("[[cenderung dan berteman|cenderung jo berteman]]") – melibatkan mengatasi stres jo beralih ka jejaring sosial untuak mendapekkan dukungan, tatapi saurang indakberbagi jo orang lain untuak meredakan atau menghindari tanggung jawab.<ref name="Levo, Lynn M. 2003">Levo, Lynn M. (2003, September.) Understanding Defense Mechanisms. ''Lukenotes''. 7(4). St. Luke Institute, MD.</ref><ref name="DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale 1994">Adapted from DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994.</ref> * '''[[Humor]]''' – langkah individu di luar situasi untuak mendapekkan perspektif nan lebih besar, jo juo untuak menyoroti aspek komik apa pun nan ditemukan dalam keadaan stres mereka.<ref name="Levo, Lynn M. 2003"/> [[File:Two people laughing.jpg|thumb|Mengatasi jo tawa]] ::“Association for Applied and Therapeutic Humor mendefinisikan humor terapeutik sabagai 'intervensi apa pun nan maningkekan kesehatan jo kebugaran jo merangsang penemuan, ekspresi, atau apresiasi nan menyenangkan tentang absurditas atau ketidaksesuaian situasi keiduikan. Intervensi ko dapek maningkekan kesehatan atau digunakan sabagai pengobatan pelengkap panyakik untuak memfasilitasi penyembuhan atau koping baik fisik, emosional, kognitif, atau spiritual ”.<ref name="Communication in Nursing">{{cite book|last1=Riley|first1=Julia|title=Communication in Nursing|date=2012|publisher=Mosby/Elsevier|location=Missouri|pages=160–173|edition=7}}</ref> ::[[Sigmund Freud]], seorang ahli saraf terkenal, berpendapek bahwa humor adolah strategi pertahanan nan sangat baik dalam situasi emosional.<ref name="Coping With Stress"/> Ketika saurang tertawa dalam situasi sulit, mereka merasa indakada dalam kekhawatiran mereka, jo ko memungkinkan mereka untuak berpikir sacaro berbeda.<ref name="Communication in Nursing"/> Ketika saurang mangalami pola pikir nan berbeda, mereka merasa lebih mengontrol respons mereka, jo ba a mereka akan menghadapi kajadian nan manyebaban stres. ::Lefcourt (2001) mengemukakan bahwa humor pengambilan perspektif ko paling efektif karena kamampuannyo untuak menjauhkan diri dari situasi stres nan hebat.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lefcourt|first1=H. M.|editor1-last=Snyder|editor1-first=C. R.|title=Coping with Stress: Effective People and Processes.|url=https://archive.org/details/copingwithstress0000unse_f8k6|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0198029953|pages=[https://archive.org/details/copingwithstress0000unse_f8k6/page/68 68]–92|chapter=The Humour Solution}}</ref> Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan tawa jo humor menciptakan rasa lega nan dapek bertahan hingga 45 menit sealah tertawa.<ref name="Communication in Nursing"/> ::Selain itu, sebagian besar anak-anak nan dirawat di rumah sakik terlihat menggunakan tawa jo bermain untuak menghilangkan rasa takut, sakik, jo stres mereka. Telah ditemukan bahwa ado pentingnyo penggunaan tawa jo humor dalam mengatasi stres.<ref name="Communication in Nursing"/> Manusia harus menggunakan humor sabagai sarana untuak melampaui pemahaman asli mereka tentang kajadian eksternal, mengambil perspektif nan berbeda, di mana kecemasan mereka dapek diminimalkan. * '''[[Sublimation (psychology)|Sublimasi]]''' –memungkinkan "resolusi konflik indaklangsung tanpa konsekuensi nan merugikan atau konsekuensi nan ditandai jo hilangnyo kesenangan."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Valliant | first1 = George E. | year = 2000 | title = Adaptive Mental Mechanisms | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-psychologist_2000-01_55_1/page/89 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 55 | issue = 1| pages = 89–98 | doi=10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.89| pmid = 11392869 }}</ref> pado dasarnya, mekanisme ko memungkinkan penyaluran emosi atau impuls nan mengganggu ka dalam saluran nan dapek diterima sacaro sosial. * '''Penilaian ulang positif''' – mengalihkan pikiran (energi kognitif) ka hal-hal baik nan sejog tajadi atau belum tajadi. iko dapek mengarah pado [[pertumbuhan pribadi]], [[refleksi diri]], jo kesadaran akan kekuatan / manfaat dari upaya saurang.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Folkman | first1 = S. | last2 = Moskowitz | first2 = J. | year = 2000 | title = Stress, Positive Emotion, and Coping | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_current-directions-in-psychological-science_2000-08_9_4/page/n6 | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 115–118 | doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00073| s2cid = 1288773 }}</ref> Misalnya, studi tentang [[veteran]] perang atau operasi penjaga perdamaian menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang nan menafsirkan makna positif dari pengalaman pertempuran atau ancaman mereka cenderung menyesuaikan diri lebih baik daripado mereka nan tidak.<ref name="pmid17532104">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schok ML, Kleber RJ, Elands M, Weerts JM |title=Meaning as a mission: a review of empirical studies on appraisals of war and peacekeeping experiences |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-psychology-review_2008-03_28_3/page/357 |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=357–65 |year=2008 |pmid=17532104 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.005 |type=Review}}</ref> Model jalur akhir cocok (CF1 = 1, RMSEA = 0.00) jo menunjukkan bahwa kualitas jalur iduik langsung jo β = -0.2, jo dukungan sosial indaklangsung jo β = -0.088 memiliki pengaruh paling besar terhadap pengurangan stres selama kehamilan.{{Non sequitur |date=September 2008| reason = Comes out of nowhere. Phrases require further explanations. Maybe just drop the sentence.}} Mekanisme koping adaptif lainnyo termasuk [[Anticipation (emotion)|Antisipasi]], [[altruisme]], and [[observasi diri]]. ====Mekanisme penghambatan / penolakan mental==== Mekanisme ko manyebaban individu memiliki kesadaran nan berkurang (atau dalam beberapa kasus indakada) tentang kecemasan mereka, ide-ide nan mengancam, ketakutan, dll., nan datang dari kesadaran akan ancaman nan dirasakan. * '''[[Displacement (psychology)|Perpindahan]]''' – iko adolah saat saurang mengalihkan perasaan emosional mereka tentang ciek situasi ka situasi lain, nan indakterlalu mengancam.<ref>"displacement n." A Dictionary of Psychology. Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.</ref> * '''[[Psychological repression|Represi]]''' – Represi tajadi katiko saurang mencoba untuak menghilangkan semua pikiran, perasaannya, jo segala sesuatu nan berhubungan jo ancaman nan mengganggu / stres (nan dirasakan) dari kesadaran mereka untuak diputuskan dari keseluruhan situasi. Jika dilakukan cukup lama jo cara nan sukses, ko lebih dari sekadar pennankalan. * '''[[Formasi reaksi]]''' – Upaya untuak menghilangkan "pikiran nan indakdapek diterima" dari kesadaran saurang jo menggantinyo jo kebalikannya.<ref>https://www.secretintelligenceservice.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Freudian-defense-mechanisms.pdf</ref> Mekanisme koping penghambatan lainnyo termasuk kehancuran, [[Dissociation (psychology)|disosiasi]], [[penolakan]], [[Psychological projection|proyeksi]], and [[Rationalization (making excuses)|rasionalisasi]]. Meskipun beberapa orang mengklaim bahwa mekanisme koping penghambatan pado akhirnyo dapek maningkekan tingkek stres karena masalahnyo indakterpecahkan, melepaskan diri dari pemicu stres terkajog dapek mambantu orang untuak sementara melepaskan stres jo manjadi lebih siap untuak menghadapi masalah di kamudian hari. ====Mekanisme aktif==== Metode-metode ko menangani stres dek saurang nan sacaro harfiah mengambil tindakan, atau menarik diri. * '''[[Bertindak]]''' – Sering dipanjog sabagai perilaku kontra normatif atau bermasalah. Alih-alih merefleksikan atau memecahkan masalah, saurang mengambil tindakan maladaptif.<ref name="DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale 1994"/> * '''[[Agresi pasif]]''' – Ketika saurang sacaro indaklangsung mengatasi kecemasan jo pikiran / perasaan negatif nan barasa dari stres mereka jo bertindak jo cara nan bermusuhan atau kesal terhadap orang lain. Keluhan Menolak Bantuan juo dapek dimasukkan dalam kategori ini. ====Promosi kasehatan==== Ada metode alternatif untuak mengatasi stres, di mana saurang bekerja untuak meminimalkan kecemasan jo stres mereka jo cara pencegahan. Jika saurang berusaha mengatasi stres satiok hari, perasaan stres jo cara-cara di mana saurang menghadapinyo saat kajadian eksternal muncul manjadi lebih sedikit beban. Strategi nan disarankan untuak maningkekan manajemen stres meliputi:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Potter|first1=Patricia|title=Canadian Fundamentals of Nursing|url=https://archive.org/details/canadianfundamen0000pott_ed05|date=2014|publisher=Elsevier|location=Toronto|pages=[https://archive.org/details/canadianfundamen0000pott_ed05/page/472 472]–488|edition=5}}</ref> # Olahraga teratur - buat program kebugaran, 3–4 kali seminggu # Sistem pendukung - untuak mendengarkan, menawarkan saran, jo saling mendukung # Manajemen waktu - kembangkan sistem organisasi # Citra terpandu jo visualisasi - ciptakan kondisi pikiran nan rileks # Relaksasi otot progresif - melemaskan otot-otot nan tegang # Pelatihan [[ketegasan]] – bekerja pado komunikasi nan efektif # Menulis jurnal - mengungkapkan emosi nan sebenarnya, refleksi diri # Manajemen stres di tempat kerja - atur sistem baru, ganti tugas untuak mengurangi stres sendiri. Bergantung pado situasinya, semua mekanisme koping ko mungkin adaptif, atau maladaptif. == Sijarah == Sebelum pengenalan konsep "stress" dalam pengertian psikologis c. 1955,<ref>"stres". [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (edisi ke-2). [[Oxford University Press]]. 1989. - "1955 H. Basowitz et al. Anxiety & Stress i. 7 Anxiety has been defined in terms of an affective response; stress is the stimulus condition likely to arouse such response."</ref><ref>Douglas, Harper. "[https://www.etymonline.com/word/stress stres]".''[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]''. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-22. - "stress (n.) [...] The purely psychological sense is attested from 1955."</ref> orang alah mengidentifikasi babagai ide nan lebih bernuansa untuak menggambarkan jo menghadapi [[emosi]] sarupo [[kekhawatiran]], [[kesedihan]], perhatian,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Linn|first=Margaret W.|date=1986|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJYiAwAAQBAJ|title=Stress, Social Support, And Women|location=Abingdon|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-77060-2|editor-last=Hobfoll|editor-first=Stevan E.|series=Clinical and Community Psychology|publication-date=2014|pages=233|language=en|chapter=Elderly Women's Health and Psychological Adjustment: Life Stressors and Social Support|quote=Although the SRRS identified women with high and low stress, it also appeared limited in covering certain areas of stress currently felt by these women. For example, worry and concern about events that have not happened, or in some cases did happen but were not included on the scale, were common.|access-date=2024-05-31|url-status=live}}</ref> [[obsesi]], [[ketakutan]], [[kejengkelan]], [[kegelisahan]], [[kesusahan]], [[penderitaan]] jo [[gairah]]<ref>Setelah diakui secara luas, penggunaan konsep "passion" tampaknya berkurang ketika konsep "stress" menjadi populer. Lihat [https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=passion%2Cstress&year_start=1750&year_end=2019&corpus=26&smoothing=3&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cpassion%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cstress%3B%2Cc0 penggunaan Ngram untuk dua istilah tersebut].</ref> "Stress" kamudian manjadi andalan dalam [[Psikologi popular|psikologi pop]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cohen|first=Lisa J.|date=2011-01-01|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=7MYDiuupuhYC&redir_esc=y|title=The Handy Psychology Answer Book|location=Detroit|publisher=Visible Ink Press|isbn=978-1-57859-354-5|pages=401|language=en|quote=Popular or ''pop psychology'' is aimed at a popular audience and communicated through the mass media. It addresses topics related to psychology—such as romantic relationships, stress management, child rearing, and sexuality [...]|access-date=2025-05-31|url-status=live}}</ref> == Caliak juo == * [[Reaksi stres akut]] * [[Performa adaptif]] * [[Stres kronis]] * [[Terapi perilaku kognitif]] * [[Disonansi kognitif]] * [[Gangguan stres pasca-trauma yang kompleks]] * [[Teori konservasi sumber daya]], teori stres * Eksperimen stres ekstrim [[Henry Murray]] di Harvard pada tahun 1960-an * [[Stres insiden]] * [[Dukungan tak terlihat]] * [[Maladaptation]] * [[Kerusakan mental]] * [[Pengurangan stres berbasis kesadaran]] * [[Stres kerja]] * [[Kelelahan kerja]] * [[Gangguan stres pasca trauma]] * [[Trauma psikologis]] * [[Psikoneuroimunologi]] * [[Stres (biologis)]] == Rujuakan == <references responsive="" /> == Bacaan lebih lanjut == * {{cite book|author=Kelly McGonigal|year=2015|title=The Upside of Stress: Why Stress Is Good for You, and How to Get Good at It|url=https://archive.org/details/upsideofstresswh0000mcgo|publisher=Avery|isbn=978-1583335611}} * {{Cite web|title=Manage Stress - healthfinder.gov|url=https://healthfinder.gov/HealthTopics/Category/health-conditions-and-diseases/heart-health/manage-stress|website=healthfinder.gov|access-date=2021-03-29}} {{Medical resources | ICD10 = <!--{{ICD10|Xxx.x}}--> | ICD10CM = <!--{{ICD10CM|Xxx.xxxx}}--> | ICD9 = <!--{{ICD9|xxx}}--> | DiseasesDB = | MedlinePlus = 003211 | eMedicineSubj = | eMedicineTopic = | PatientUK = | MeshID = D013315 | NORD = | NCI = | Scholia = | SNOMED CT =73595000 }} [[Kategori:Konsep psikologis]] [[Kategori:Stres (biologis dan psikologis)]] 3mpc256je53l1abzncgpyci77xjeug1 0 474163 3351283 3153229 2026-08-05T22:14:24Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351283 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:F-117 Nighthawk flight.jpg|jmpl|180px|[[F-117]], pasawat siluman lago]] [[Berkas:K32 HMS Helsingborg Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen cropped.jpg|jmpl|ka|180px|K32 HMS Helsingborg, kapa siluman]] '''Teknologi siluman''' (disabuik juo teknologi kurang caliak (''low observable technology'')) adolah sub-disiplin pado bidang tektik militer palawanan elektronik pasif (''passive electronic countermeasures''),<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rao G.A., Mahulikar S.P. | year = 2002 | title = Integrated review of stealth technology and its role in airpower | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_aeronautical-journal_2002-12_106_1066/page/629| journal = Aeronautical Journal | volume = 106 | issue = 1066| pages = 629–641 }}</ref> nan mancakuik [[teknologi]] nan paguno dek personil, [[pasawat siluman|pasawat]], [[kapa siluman|kapa]], [[kapa salam]], jo [[paluru kandali]] untuak manjadiannyo labiah indak tacaliak (atau bana-bana [[Transparansi|indak tacaliak]]) dek [[radar]], [[inframerah]], [[sonar]], dan metode deteksi lainnyo.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Mahulikar S.P., Sonawane H.R., Rao G.A. | year = 2007 | title = Infrared signature studies of aerospace vehicles | url = | journal = Progress in Aerospace Sciences | volume = 43 | issue = 7-8| pages = 218–245 |bibcode = 2007PrAeS..43..218M |doi = 10.1016/j.paerosci.2007.06.002 }}</ref> Teknologi iko bahubuangan jo kamuflase tahadok spektrum elektromagnetik takaik. {{colend}} {{Commons category-inline|Stealth technology|{{PAGENAME}}}} {{clr}}{{Authority control}} {{lindungidarianon}}{{sadang karajo}} {{Militer-stub}} [[Kategori:Teknologi militer]] [[Kategori:Radar]] [[Kategori:Paparangan udaro]] [[Kategori:Taktik paparangan lauik]] 7s5zl23ztbes9dl27l2qtiajx6vwmf4 0 474296 3351311 3184044 2026-08-05T23:05:54Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351311 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Minangkabau royal seal.svg|thumb|Cap Rajo [[Bagagarsyah]], rajo tarakhir [[Karajaan Pagaruyuang|Pagaruyuang]]]] '''Monarki''' adolah suatu bantuak pamarintahan di mano surang [[rajo]] manjadi [[kapalo nagara]] saumua hiduik atau sampai turun tahta. Legitimasi politik jo otoritaih rajo dapek bavariasi dari tabateh jo sabagian gadang basifat simbolis ([[monarki konstitusional]]), hinggo sapanuahnyo bakuaso ([[monarki absolut]]), jo dapek mancakuik kasadoan bantuak kuaso eksekutif, legislatif jo yudikatif.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Monarchy {{!}} Definition, Examples, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/monarchy |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Pangganti rajo sabagian gadang tajadi sacaro turun tamurun, acokkali barupo [[dinasti]]. Hal ko bararti pawarih tahta alah dikatahui jauah-jauah hari sabalum manjadi rajo untuak mamastian suksesi nan lancar.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurrild-Klitgaard|first=Peter|date=2000|title=The constitutional economics of autocratic succession|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_public-choice_2000-04_103_1-2/page/63|journal=Public Choice|volume=103|issue=1/2|pages=63–84|doi=10.1023/A:1005078532251|s2cid=154097838|issn=0048-5829}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kurrild-Klitgaard|first=Peter|title=The Encyclopedia of Public Choice |chapter=Autocratic Succession |date=2004|volume=103|pages=358–362|doi=10.1007/978-0-306-47828-4_39|isbn=978-0-306-47828-4}}</ref> Tapi [[Monarki tapiliah|monarki elektif]] jo nan [[Monarki nan maproklamasian diri|maproklamasian diri]] sabagai rajo acok juo tajadi dalam sijarah.<ref>{{Cite news | title = The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0010f8z | access-date = 29 March 2023 | series = In Our Time | series-link = In Our Time (radio series) | network = [[BBC Radio 4]] | date = 14 October 2021}}</ref> Meskipun sabagian gadang rajo dalam sijarah adolah laki-laki, banyak pulo rajo padusi nan pernah mamarentah.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Beemer |first=Cristy |date=2011 |title=The Female Monarchy: A Rhetorical Strategy of Early Modern Rule |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23064026 |journal=Rhetoric Review |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=258–274 |doi=10.1080/07350198.2011.581937 |jstor=23064026 |s2cid=144455583 |issn=0735-0198}}</ref> [[Aristokrat (kelas)|Aristokrat]] atau bangsawan, meskipun indak malakek pado monarki, acokkali bafungsi sabagai kalompok urang-urang nan dipiliah dek rajo, jo untuak maisi limbago-limbago nan mambantuaknyo, misalnyo pangadilan, nan maagiahan banyak elemen oligarki pado monarki. == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Monarki]] [[Kategori:Sistem politik]] 32q7nnkckzlv9vackg7ubraer5s5eww 0 474315 3351216 3169278 2026-08-05T20:09:53Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351216 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Flag of Zambia.svg|thumb|Bandera Zambia]] '''Zambia''' atau sacaro rasmi '''Republik Zambia''' adolah sabuah [[Nagara padalaman|nagara nan takuruang daratan]] di pasimpangan [[Afrika Bagian Tangah|Afrika Tangah]], [[Afrika Bagian Selatan|Selatan]] jo [[Afrika Timur|Timur]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henderson|first=Ian|date=1970|title=The Origins of Nationalism in East and Central Africa: The Zambian Case|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1970_11_4/page/591|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=11|issue=4|pages=591–603|doi=10.1017/S0021853700010471|jstor=180923|s2cid=154296266 |issn=0021-8537}}</ref> Biasonyo disabuik barado di Afrika Selatan-Tengah atau Afrika Selatan. Nagara ko babatehan jo [[Republik Demokratik Kongo]] di utara, [[Tanzania]] di timur laut, [[Malawi]] di timur, [[Mozambik]] di tenggara, [[Zimbabwe]] jo [[Botswana]] di selatan, [[Namibia]] di barat daya, sarato [[Angola]] di barat.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zambia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia|website=Britannica.com}}</ref> Ibu kota nagaranyo iolah [[Lusaka]]. Politik Zambia barado dalam karangko [[republik]] [[demokrasi perwakilan]] [[Sistem presidensial|presidensial]], di mano [[Presiden Zambia|Presiden]] adolah kapalo nagara jo kapalo pamarentahan, sarato [[sistem multi-partai]]. Presiden dipiliah malalui hak piliah universal untuak maso jabatan limo tahun.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Government and society|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia/Government-and-society|website=Britannica.com}}</ref> Kuaso legislatif dipacik dek [[Majelis Nasional Zambia|Majelis Nasional]] nan tadiri dari 156 anggota.<ref>{{Cite web|title=One Hundred Fifty Five Elected Members Of Parliament Have Been Sworn In|url=https://www.parliament.gov.zm/node/9469|website=National Assembly of Zambia}}</ref> Paradilan basifat independen dari eksekutif jo legislatif. Badasarkan hasia sensus tahun 2022, jumlah panduduak Zambia iolah 19.610.769 jiwa,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambia's Population up to 19,610,769 in 2022 from 13,092,666 in 2010 – Zambia Statistics Agency |url=https://www.zamstats.gov.zm/population-size-by-sex-and-rural-urban-zambia-2022/ |access-date=2024-03-27 |language=en-US |archive-date=5 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305022051/https://www.zamstats.gov.zm/population-size-by-sex-and-rural-urban-zambia-2022/ |url-status=live }}</ref> maningkek dari pakiroan Prospek Populasi Dunia tahun 2022 dimano nagara ko bapanduduak 19.473.125 jiwa pado tahun 2021.{{UN_Population|ref}} Panduduaknyo marupokan multi etnis nan tadiri dari 73 kalompok,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zambia – People|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=26 May 2020|archive-date=27 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527145345/https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia|url-status=live}}</ref> sabagian gadang [[Rumpun bahaso Bantu|babahaso Bantu]]. Salain tu, nagara ko sacaro konstitusi marupokan nagara Kristen, namun juo malindungi kababasan baagamo.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/3713564/Constitution-of-Zambia-1991Amended-to-1996 |title=Constitution of Zambia, 1991(Amended to 1996) |publisher=Scribd.com |date=30 June 2008 |access-date=18 December 2012 |archive-date=5 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105055544/http://www.scribd.com/doc/3713564/Constitution-of-Zambia-1991Amended-to-1996 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] r2aakk5ydsnzy1hdr0j3a7tkddmlyop 0 474516 3351252 3155772 2026-08-05T21:31:29Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351252 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}}[[File:Byzantine Constantinople-en.png|250px|thumb|Peta topografi Konstantinopel pado masa Bizantium, sasuai jo distrik Fatih di Istanbul pado maso kini. Kota iko dikenal sabagai Bizantium di bawah Kakaisaran Romawi.]] Barikuik iko adolah daftar '''pangapuangan kabakeh Konstantinopel''', kota basijarah nan talatak di wilayah nan kini manjadi bagian dari Istanbul, Turki. Konstantinopel dibangun di ateh daratan nan maubuangan Eropa jo Asia malalui Bosporus dan maubuangan Lauik Marmara jo Lauik Hitam. Sabagai kota lintas benua nan barado di Jalur Sutra, Konstantinopel punyo nilai strategis bagi banyak kakaisaran jo karajaan nan mancuba manaklukkannyo sapanjang sijarah. Mulonyo dikenal sabagai Bizantium pado Zaman Klasik, pangapuangan patamo nan tacataik di kota iko tajadi pado tahun 510 SM dek Kakaisaran Achaemenid di bawah komando Otanes. Sasudah pangapuangan nan sukses iko, kota iko jatuah di bawah kakuasaan Persia hinggo maraih kamerdekaannyo kembali, dan sakitar tahun 70 SM kota iko manjadi bagian dari Republik Romawi, nan kudian digantian dek Kakaisaran Romawi. Meskipun manjadi bagian dari Roma, kota iko marupoan kota nan bebas hinggo dikapuang dek Septimius Severus antaro tahun 193-196 jo sabagian dijarah salamo parang saudara. Sasudah dirabuik dek Konstantinus Agung pado tahun 324, kota iko manjadi ibu kota Kekaisaran Romawi, dengan nama Roma Baru. Kota iko kudian dikenal sabagai Konstantinopel, dan pado tahun-tahun barikuiknyo kota iko disarang dek Bizantium nan mamparabuikan takhta dan juo dek kakuatan asiang sabanyak 22 kali. Kota iko tetap barado di bawah kakuasaan Bizantium hingga Kakaisaran Ottoman maambiak aliah akibaik pangapuangan pado tahun 1453, nan dikenal sabagai Karuntuhan Konstantinopel, dan sasudah itu indak ado lai pangapuangan nan tajadi. Konstantinopel dikapuang sebanyak 36 kali sapanjang sijarahnyo. Dari sapuluah pangapuangan nan tajadi salamo manjadi negara kota dan sangkek barado di bawah kakuasaan Romawi, anam berhasil, tigo dipukua mundua, dan ciek berhasil dicabuik berkat kasapakatan antaro kaduo balah pihak. Tigo dari pengepungan iko dilakuan dek Romawi nan mangklaim takhta salamo parang saudara. Dari sado pangapuangan nan tajadi sajak didirian dek Konstantin Agung hinggo tahun 1453, hanyo tigo nan berhasil, 21 gagal, dan tigo lainnya dicabuik malalui kasapakatan basamo. Ampek dari pangapuangan iko tajadi salamo parang saudara. Pangapuangan Konstantinopel nan tajadi pado tahun 1204 salamo Perang Salib Kaampek manyebabkan kota iko jatuah dan ditetapkan sabagai ibu kota Kekaisaran Latin. Hal iko juo mambuek dinasti kekaisaran Bizantium mangasiangkan diri, dan managakan Kakaisaran Nicea. Konstantinopel kembali barado di bawah kakuasaan Bizantium pado tahun 1261, nan mamarentah salamo ampiang duo abaik. Kota iko dirabuik dek Ottoman dengan pangapuangan pado tahun 1453, dan akibaiknya Kakaisaran Bizantium pun barakhia. Kota iko barado di bawah kakuasaan Turki sajak pangapuangan terakhir, kecuali untuak periode pandudukan Sekutu dari tahun 1920 hinggo 1923. == Daftar pangapuangan == {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! data-sort-type="number" scope="col" | Wakatu ! scope="col" | Panyarang ! scope="col" | Partahanan ! scope="col" | Kakuatan ! scope="col" | Hasil{{efn|The "Result" column is relative to the side that carries out the siege.}} ! class="unsortable" scope="col" | Rujuakan |- | {{sort|-510|510 BC}} | [[Achaemenid Empire]] | [[Byzantium]] | Lauik jo darat | Berhasil | <ref>{{cite book|author=Herodotos|author-link=Herodot|title=Tarih|edition=8|year=2012|page=392|publisher=Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-975-458-721-0|others=Müntekim Ökmen, çev.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Miroslav Ivanov|last=Vasilev|title=The Policy of Darius and Xerxes towards Thrace and Macedonia|year=2015|page=86|publisher=Brill|location=Lahey|isbn=978-90-04-28214-8|doi=10.1163/9789004282155|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Kuban|first=Doğan|author-link=Doğan Kuban|encyclopedia=Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi|title=Bizantion|year=1993|publisher=Tarih Vakfı Yayınları|volume=2|location=İstanbul|pages=258–260}}</ref>{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=169}} |- | {{sort|-478|478 BC}} | [[Delian League]] | [[Achaemenid Empire]] | Naval | Berhasil | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=1}}{{sfn|Arslan|2010|p=78}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Jonathan|title=Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium|edition=2|year=2017|page=26|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|location=Londra|isbn=978-1-4742-5465-6|language=en|doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.2009.00246_52.x|s2cid=144417364}}</ref>{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=538}}{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=191}} |- | {{sort|-408|408 BC}} | [[Classical Athens|Athens]] | [[Byzantium]], [[Megara]], [[Boeotia]] | Lauik jo darat | Berhasil | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=39}}<ref>{{citation|last=Arslan|first=Murat|editor-first=Hamdi|editor-last=Şahin|editor2-first=Erkan|editor2-last=Konyar|editor3-first=Gürkan|editor3-last=Engin|title=Özsait Armağanı: Mehmet ve Nesrin Özsait Onuruna Sunulan Makaleler|year=2011|publisher=Suna-İnan Kıraç Akdeniz Medeniyetleri Araştırma Enstitüsü|location=Antalya|isbn=978-605-4018-09-3|chapter=Alkibiades'in Khalkhedon ve Byzantion Kuşatması: Nedenleri ve Sonuçları|pages=9–22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Grote|first=George|author-link=George Grote|title=A History of Greece: From the Time of Solon to 403 B.C.|year=2001|page=884|publisher=Routledge|location=Londra|isbn=0-415-22369-5|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=119}}{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=221}} |- | {{sort|-340|340–339 BC}} | [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] | [[Byzantium]], [[Classical Athens|Athens]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|2010|p=197}}<ref name=atcvs>{{cite book|first=Veli|last=Sevin|title=Anadolu'nun Tarihi Coğrafyası I|year=2016|page=24|publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları|location=Ankara|isbn=978-975-16-0984-7|edition=4}}</ref>{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=143}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Tekin|first=Oğuz|title=Byzas'tan I. Constantinus'a Kadar Eskiçağ'da İstanbul|year=2001|edition=2|page=33|publisher=Eskiçağ Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yayınları|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-975-7938-04-0}}</ref>{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=275}} |- | {{sort|-278|278–277 BC}} | [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]] | [[Byzantium]] | Darat | Dicabuik{{efn|As a result of the agreement reached with the mediator of Bithynia, the siege was lifted.}} | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=81}}{{sfn|Arslan|2010|p=233}}{{sfn|Arslan|2007|p=56}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Arslan|first=Murat|date=January–February 2014|title=Galatların Byzantion Kuşatması|journal=Aktüel Arkeoloji|issue=37|pages=68–75|location=İstanbul|publisher=Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları|issn=1307-5756}}</ref> |- | {{sort|-251|251 BC}} | [[Seleucid Empire]] | [[Byzantium]], [[Heraclea Pontica]],<br/>[[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=92}}{{sfn|Arslan|2010|p=243}}{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=310}} |- | {{sort|-73|73–72 BC}} | [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]] | [[Byzantium]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal{{efn|While some sources have used [[Cicero]] and [[Tacitus]]'s writings as a reference to argue that the city was in fact under a siege until it "repelled the enemies", other ancient writings found mention that a siege was planned through the sea but did not take place because of stormy weather conditions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Arslan|first=Murat|title=Mithradates VI Eupator: Roma'nın Büyük Düşmanı|year=2007|publisher=Odin Yayıncılık|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-91-20-21979-0|page=334}}</ref>{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=344}}}} | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=129}}{{sfn|Arslan|2010|p=343}}{{sfn|Arslan|2007|p=334}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Grillo|first=Luca|title=Cicero's De Provinciis Consularibus Oratio|year=2015|page=116|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Londra|language=en|isbn=978-0-19-022459-2}}</ref>{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=344}} |- | {{sort|193|193–194}} | [[Septimius Severus]] | [[Pescennius Niger]] | Lauik jo darat | Berhasil | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=133}}{{sfn|Arslan|2010|p=430}}{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=166}}{{sfn|Freely|2011|p=109}}{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=365}} |- | {{sort|313|313}} | [[Maximinus II]] | [[Licinius]] | Darat | Berhasil | <ref>{{cite book|author=Sextus Aurelius Victor|author-link=Sextus Aurelius Victor|title=Aurelius Victor: De Caesaribus|year=1994|page=188|publisher=Liverpool University Press|location=Liverpool|isbn=978-0-85323-218-6|doi=10.3828/978-0-85323-218-6|language=en|others=H. W. Bird, çev.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Edward|last=Gibbon|author-link=Edward Gibbon|title=Roma İmparatorluğu'nun Gerileyiş ve Çöküş Tarihi|volume=I|year=1988|page=444|publisher=Bilim, Felsefe, Sanat Yayınları|location=İstanbul|others=Asım Baltacıgil, çev.}}</ref>{{sfn|Freely|2011|p=318}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Meydan Larousse|title=İstanbul|year=1992|publisher=Sabah|volume=10|location=İstanbul|page=77}}</ref>{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=387}} |- | {{sort|324|[[Siege of Byzantium (324) |324]]}} | [[Constantine the Great]] | [[Licinius]] | Lauik jo darat | Berhasil | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=153}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013a|p=45}}{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=231}}{{sfn|Yavuz|2014|p=393}} |- | {{sort|378|[[Battle of Constantinople (378)|378]]}} | [[Goths]] | [[Roman Empire]] | Darat | Gagal | <ref>{{cite book|author=Alexander Van Millingen|title=Byzantine Constantinople: The Walls of the City and Adjoining Historical Sites|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x9N39KZn2QAC&pg=PA40|access-date=19 August 2013|date=31 October 2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-01456-4|pages=40–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Stephen Turnbull|title=The Walls of Constantinople AD 324-1453|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p4Ahnz2ltv0C&pg=PA5|access-date=19 August 2013|date=21 August 2012|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-78200-224-6|pages=5–}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jane Penrose|title=Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99haLasvV3gC&pg=PA269|access-date=19 August 2013|year=2005|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-84176-932-5|pages=269–}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |- | {{sort|626|[[Siege of Constantinople (626)|626]]}} | [[Pannonian Avars]], [[Sasanian Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=95}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013a|p=240}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reazaei|first=Iman S.|date=September 2016|title=V.-VII. Yüzyıllarda Bizans-Sâsânî İlişkileri|journal=İraniyat Dergisi|issue=1|pages=18–31|location=Ankara|publisher=İranoloji Derneği Yayınları}}</ref> |- | {{sort|654|[[Battle of the Masts#Siege of Constantinople of 654|654]]}} | [[Rashidun Caliphate]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | <ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Sullivan|first=Shaun|date=2004-01-01|title=Sebeos' account of an Arab attack on Constantinople in 654|journal=Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies|volume=28|issue=1|pages=67–88|doi=10.1179/byz.2004.28.1.67|s2cid=161590308 |issn=0307-0131}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3LDBAAAQBAJ&q=hoyland%20in%20god's%20path&pg=PA105|title=In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire|last=Hoyland|first=Robert G.|date=2014-01-01|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-991636-8|pages=107|language=en}}</ref> |- | {{sort|669|669}} | [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | <ref>{{citation|last=Jankowiak|first=Marek|editor-first=Constantin|editor-last=Zuckerman|editor-link=Constantin Zuckerman|title=Travaux et Mémoires Tome XVII - Constructing the Seventh Century|year=2013|pages=237–320|publisher=Association des Amis du Centre d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance|location=Paris|isbn=978-2-916716-45-9|chapter=The first Arab siege of Constantinople|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Apak|first=Adem|date=July 2009|title=Emevîler Döneminde Anadolu'da Arap-Bizans Mücadelesi|journal=Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi|volume=18|issue=2|pages=104|location=Bursa|publisher=Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi|issn=1301-3394}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~unan/akademik34.html|title=Müslümanlar ve İstanbul|last=Unan|first=Fahri|date=14 September 2009|publisher=hacettepe.edu.tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825210254/http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~unan/akademik34.html|archive-date=25 August 2017|access-date=26 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Uçar|first=Şahin|title=Anadolu'da İslâm-Bizans Mücadelesi|year=1990|publisher=İşaret Yayınları|location=İstanbul|page=82}}</ref> |- | {{sort|674|[[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|674–678]]}} | [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=249}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=115}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013a|p=263}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Hitti|first=Philip K.|author-link=Philip Khuri Hitti|title=Siyâsî ve Kültürel İslam Tarihi|volume=II|year=1989|publisher=Boğaziçi Yayınları|location=İstanbul|page=320|others=Salih Tuğ, çev.}}</ref> |- | {{sort|715|715}} | [[Theodosius III]], [[Byzantine Empire]] | [[Anastasios II]], [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Berhasil | {{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=144}}{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=1283}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sumner|first=Graham V.|year=1976|title=Philippicus, Anastasius II and Theodosius III|url=https://archive.org/details/greek-roman-and-byzantine-studies_autumn-1976_17_3/page/287|journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies|volume=17|issue=3|pages=287–294|location=Durham, North Carolina|publisher=Duke University Department of Classical Studies|issn=2159-3159|oclc=6415521|language=en}}</ref> |- | {{sort|717|[[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|717–718]]}} | [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=253}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=145}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013a|p=286}} |- | {{sort|813|[[Siege of Constantinople (813)|813]]}} | [[First Bulgarian Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=265}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=188}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=326}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013b|p=28}} |- | {{sort|821|[[Thomas the Slav#Siege of Constantinople|821–822]]}} | [[Thomas the Slav]] | [[Michael II]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=192}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=319}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013b|p=40}} |- | {{sort|860|[[Siege of Constantinople (860)|860]]{{efn|Byzantine sources give 860 and Russian sources give 866 as the year in which this siege occurred, although it is accepted that the latter is wrong.}}}} | [[Rus' Khaganate]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=282}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=322}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013b|p=66}} |- | {{sort|907|[[Rus'–Byzantine War (907)|907]]}} | [[Kievan Rus']] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=287}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=241}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=369}} |- | {{sort|913|913}} | [[First Bulgarian Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Darat | Gagal | {{CN|date=November 2023}} |- | {{sort|921|921}} | [[First Bulgarian Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Runciman|1930|pp=164–165}} |- | {{sort|923|923}} | [[First Bulgarian Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Darat | Gagal | {{CN|date=November 2023}} |- | {{sort|941|[[Rus'–Byzantine War (941)|941]]}} | [[Kievan Rus']] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=289}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=371}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013b|p=129}} |- | {{sort|1047|[[Leo Tornikios#Rebellion and siege of Constantinople|1047]]}} | [[Leo Tornikios]] | [[Constantine IX Monomachos]] | Darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=308}}{{sfn|Norwich|2013b|p=248}}{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=1289}} |- | {{sort|1203|[[Siege of Constantinople (1203)|1203]]}} | [[Fourth Crusade|Crusaders]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Dicabuik | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=341}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=518}}{{sfn|Freely|2011|p=159}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Işın|last=Demirkent|title=Haçlı Seferleri|year=1997|page=172|publisher=Dünya Yayıncılık|location=İstanbul|isbn=975-7632-54-6}}</ref> |- | {{sort|1204|[[Sack of Constantinople|1204]]}} | [[Fourth Crusade|Crusaders]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Berhasil | {{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=386}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=520}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert de Clari|author-link=Robert de Clari|title=İstanbul'un Zaptı (1204)|year=1994|page=VI|publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları|location=Ankara|others=Beynun Akyavaş, çev.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ayönü|first=Yusuf|date=July 2015|title=IV. Haçlı Seferi'nin Ardından Batı Anadolu'da Mücadele Eden İki Rakip: İstanbul Latin Krallığı ve İznik İmparatorluğu|journal=Cihannüma: Tarih ve Coğrafya Araştırmaları Dergisi|volume=1|issue=1|page=13|location=İzmir|publisher=İzmir Katip Çelebi Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Fakültesi|doi=10.30517/cihannuma.283488|issn=2149-0678|doi-access=free}}</ref> |- | {{sort|1235|[[Siege of Constantinople (1235)|1235–1236]]}} | [[Empire of Nicaea]], [[Second Bulgarian Empire]] | [[Latin Empire]], [[Duchy of the Archipelago]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=349}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=405}}{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=592}} |- | {{sort|1260|[[Siege of Constantinople (1260)|1260-1261]]}} | [[Empire of Nicaea]] | [[Latin Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Berhasil | <ref>{{cite book|author=Georgios Akrapolites|title=Vekayinâme|year=2008|page=162|publisher=Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-605-396-093-5|others=Bilge Umar, çev.}}</ref>{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=405}}{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=1296}}{{sfn|Freely|2011|p=168}} |- | {{sort|1376|1376}} | [[Andronikos IV Palaiologos]], [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]] | [[John V Palaiologos]] | Darat | Berhasil | {{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=499}}{{sfn|Hughes|2017|p=1298}}{{sfn|Baştav|1989|p=74}} |- | {{sort|1391|1391}} | [[Ottoman Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal{{efn|The besieging army retreated after Byzantine allies,the Hungarians attacked the Ottoman lands.}} | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=387}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eroğlu|first=Haldun|year=2004|title=Osmanlıların 1453 Öncesi İstanbul Kuşatmaları|journal=Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi|volume=22|issue=35|pages=89–101|location=Ankara|publisher=Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi|issn=1015-1826|doi=10.1501/Tarar_0000000188|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Demirkent|first=Işın|encyclopedia=İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=İstanbul|year=2001|publisher=Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları|volume=23|location=İstanbul|pages=205–212}}</ref>{{sfn|Baştav|1989|p=83}} |- | {{sort|1394|[[Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402)|1394–1402]]{{efn|The year in which the siege started is controversial. Fahameddin Başar, [[Halil İnalcık]] and [[Konstantin Josef Jireček]] gave it as 1394, while Feridun Emecen and Haldun Eroğlu believed that it was 1396. In addition, some sources mention that the siege started in 1391 and ended in 1396, and that between these years, there was only one siege, the severity of which increased and decreased from time to time.{{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=387}}<ref name=iamhy>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Yinanç|first=Mükrimin Halil|encyclopedia=İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Bayezid I|year=1979|publisher=Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü|volume=2|location=İstanbul|pages=369–392}}</ref>}}}} | [[Ottoman Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Gagal{{efn|The siege was lifted after Timur attacked the Ottoman lands.}} | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=390}}<ref name=iamhy/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Taeschner|first=Franz|year=1990|title=1453 Yılına Kadar Osmanlı Türkleri|journal=Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi|volume=5|issue=1|page=296|location=İzmir|publisher=Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü|issn=0257-4152|others=Necmi Ülker, çev.}}</ref>{{sfn|Baştav|1989|p=91}} |- | {{sort|1411|[[Siege of Constantinople (1411)|1411]]}} | [[Musa Çelebi]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Darat | Gagal{{efn|The siege was lifted after Mehmed Çelebi's move to Rumeli territory to fight against Musa Çelebi.}} | {{sfn|Arslan|Kaçar|2017|p=393}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cezar|first1=Mustafa|title=Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi|year=2010|publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları|location=Ankara|isbn=978-975-16-2322-5|page=233|volume=I}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Başar|first=Fahameddin|encyclopedia=İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Mûsâ Çelebi|year=2006|publisher=Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları|volume=31|location=İstanbul|isbn=975-389-427-9|pages=216–217}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Tekirdağ|first=Şehabeddin|encyclopedia=İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Mûsâ Çelebî|year=1979|publisher=Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü|volume=8|location=İstanbul|pages=661–666}}</ref> |- | {{sort|1422|[[Siege of Constantinople (1422)|1422]]}} | [[Ottoman Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Darat | Gagal{{efn|The siege was lifted after Mustafa Çelebi's move to Anatolian lands to fight against Murad II.}} | {{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2015|p=515}}{{sfn|İnalcık|2014|p=105}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=İnalcık|first=Halil|author-link=Halil İnalcık|encyclopedia=İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Murad II|year=1979|publisher=Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü|volume=8|location=İstanbul|page=600}}</ref>{{sfn|Vasiliev|2016|p=714}} |- | {{sort|1453|[[Fall of Constantinople|1453]]}} | [[Ottoman Empire]] | [[Byzantine Empire]] | Lauik jo darat | Berhasil |<ref>{{cite book|author=Yeorgios Francis|author-link=Georgios Frantzis|title=Şehir Düştü|year=1992|page=98|publisher=İletişim Yayınları|location=İstanbul|isbn=975-470-283-7|others=Kriton Dinçmen, çev.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Nicolò|last=Barbaro|title=Konstantiniye'den İstanbul'a|year=2007|page=183|publisher=Moralite Yayınları|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-975-6397-96-1|others=Muharrem Tan, çev.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Âşık Paşazâde|title=Osmanoğulları'nın Tarihi|year=2003|page=222|publisher= Koç Kültür Sanat Tanıtım|location=İstanbul|isbn=975296043X|others=Kemal Yavuz; M. A. Yekta Saraç, çev.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Mahmut|last1=Ak|first2=Fahameddin|last2=Başar|title=İstanbul'un Fetih Günlüğü|year=2010|edition=2|page=47|publisher=Çamlıca Basım Yayın|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-9944-905-96-1}}</ref> |} == Catatan kaki == {{notelist}} == Catatan == {{Reflist}} == Rujuakan == *{{citation|last=Arslan|first=Murat|title=İstanbul'un Antikçağ Tarihi: Klasik ve Hellenistik Dönemler|year=2010|publisher=Odin Yayıncılık|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-975-9078-01-0}} *{{citation|last1=Arslan|first1=Murat|last2=Kaçar|first2=Turhan|title=Byzantion'dan Constantinopolis'e İstanbul Kuşatmaları|year=2017|publisher=İstanbul Araştırmaları Enstitüsü|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-605-4642-67-0}} *{{citation|last=Baştav|first=Şerif|title=Bizans İmparatorluğu Tarihi: Son Devir (1261-1461)|year=1989|publisher=Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayınları|location=Ankara|isbn=975-456-024-2}} *{{citation|last=Freely|first=John|title=Troya Savaşı'ndan İstiklal Harbi'ne Anadolu'da Yunanlar|year=2011|publisher=Doğan Kitap|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-605-09-0434-5|author-link=John Freely|others=Gül Çağalı Güven, çev.}} *{{citation|last=Hughes|first=Bettany|author-link=Bettany Hughes|title=Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities|year=2017|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|location=Londra|isbn=978-0-297-86849-1|language=en}} *{{citation|last=İnalcık|first=Halil|author-link=Halil İnalcık|title=Devlet-i 'Aliyye|year=2014|edition=54|publisher=Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-9944-88-645-1}} *{{citation|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=Bizans: Erken Dönem (MS 323-802)|volume=1|year=2013a|publisher=Kabalcı Yayınevi|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-605-5093-01-3|author-link=John Julius Norwich|others=Hamide Koyukan, çev.}} *{{citation|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=Bizans: Yükseliş Dönemi (MS 803-1081)|volume=2|year=2013b|publisher=Kabalcı Yayınevi|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-605-5093-02-0|author-link=John Julius Norwich|others=Selen Hırçın Riegel, çev.}} *{{citation|last=Ostrogorsky|first=Georg|title=Bizans Devleti Tarihi|year=2015|publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları|location=Ankara|isbn=978-975-16-0348-7|edition=8|author-link=Georgiy Ostrogorskiy|others=Fikret Işıltan, çev.}} * {{citation |last = Runciman |first = Steven |author-link = Steven Runciman |title = A History of the First Bulgarian Empire |url = http://www.promacedonia.org/en/sr/index.html |chapter-url = http://www.promacedonia.org/en/sr/sr_3_1.htm |chapter = The Two Eagles |publisher = [[George Bell & Sons]] |location = [[London]] |oclc = 832687 |year = 1930 |access-date = 13 March 2016 }} *{{citation|last=Vasiliev|first=Alexander A.|title=Bizans İmparatorluğu Tarihi|year=2016|publisher=Alfa Yayınları|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-605-171-265-9|author-link=Alexander Vasiliev (historian)|others=Tevabil Alkaç, çev.}} *{{citation|last=Yavuz|first=Mehmet Fatih|title=Byzantion: Byzas'tan Constantinus'a Antik İstanbul|year=2014|publisher=İstanbul Araştırmaları Enstitüsü|location=İstanbul|isbn=978-605-4642-30-4}} [[Category:Konstantinopel]] svbe14gzmonp7t1c17ia0gwdjo80rts 0 474595 3351231 3156397 2026-08-05T20:51:58Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351231 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | name = Syam | other_name = Suriah Raya<ref name="Abu Sway 2011">{{cite news |author=Mustafa Abu Sway |title=The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Qur'an, Sunnah and other Islamic Literary Source |publisher=[[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] |url=http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Abusway_0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728001911/http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Abusway_0.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2011 }}</ref> <br /> Suriah-Palestina<ref name="Pfoh2016"/> <br /> [[Levant]] | native_name = {{lang|ar|ٱلشَّام}}<br />{{small|''Ash-Shām''}}<ref name="Abu Sway 2011"/> | native_name_lang = ar | caption = | image_map = File:1851 Henry Warren Map of Syria (cropped).jpg | map_caption = Peta [[Suriah Utsmaniyah]] pado tahun 1851, oleh Henry Warren | coordinates = {{coord|33|N|36|E|display=title,inline}} | parts_type = Nagara | parts = * {{flag|Yordania}} * {{flag|Israel}} * {{flag|Lebanon}} * {{flag|Palestina}} * {{flag|Suriah}} * {{flag|Turki}} ([[Provinsi Hatay|Hatay]]) | official_name = }} '''Syam''' atau dikenal juo jo '''Suriah''' adolah wilayah basijarah nan talatak di sabalah timur [[Lauik Mediterania]] di [[Asia Barat]], nan umumnyo identik jo [[Levant]].<ref name="KillebrewSteiner2014">{{cite book |author1=Killebrew, A. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: C. 8000–332 BCE |author2=Steiner, M. L. |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-921297-2 |page=2 |quote=The western coastline and the eastern deserts set the boundaries for the Levant ... The Euphrates and the area around Jebel el-Bishrī mark the eastern boundary of the northern Levant, as does the Syrian Desert beyond the Anti-Lebanon range's eastern hinterland and Mount Hermon. This boundary continues south in the form of the highlands and eastern desert regions of Transjordan.}}</ref> Sinonim lainnyo iolah '''Suriah Raya''' atau '''Suriah-Palestina'''.<ref name="Pfoh2016">{{cite book |last=Pfoh |first=Emanuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2KaCwAAQBAJ |title=Syria-Palestine in The Late Bronze Age: An Anthropology of Politics and Power |date=22 February 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-3173-9230-9}}</ref> Bateh wilayah alah baubah-ubah sapanjang sijarah. Namun, di zaman moderen, istilah “Suriah” sandiri digunoan untuak manyabuik nagara [[Suriah|Republik Arab Suriah]]. Istilah Suriah awalnyo baasa dari [[Asiria]], sabuah paradaban kuno nan bapusek di [[Mesopotamia]] utara, [[Irak]] moderen.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Rollinger |first1=Robert |year=2006 |title=The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-near-eastern-studies_2006-10_65_4/page/284 |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=284–287 |doi=10.1086/511103 |s2cid=162760021}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Frye |first1=R. N. |year=1992 |title=Assyria and Syria: Synonyms |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-near-eastern-studies_1992-10_51_4/page/281 |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=281–285 |doi=10.1086/373570 |s2cid=161323237}}</ref> Salamo [[periode Helenistik]], istilah Suriah diterapan ka kasadoan Levant sabagai [[Koile-Suriah|Coele-Suriah]]. Di bawah pamarentahan [[Kakaisaran Romawi|Romawi]], istilah ko digunoan untuak marujuak pado provinsi [[Suriah (provinsi Romawi)|Suriah]], nan kamudian dibagi manjadi Suriah Phoenicia dan Suriah Coele, jo provinsi [[Syria Palaestina]]. Di bawah [[Kakaisaran Romawi Timur|Romawi Timur]], provinsi [[Suriah Prima]] jo Suriah Secunda muncua dari Suriah Coele. Sasudah [[Panakluakan Levant dek Muslim|panakluakan Muslim di Levant]], istilah ko digantian dek padanan bahaso Arab ''Syam'', jo di bawah kakhalifahan [[Khulafaur Rasyidin|Rashidun]], [[Kakhalifahan Umayyah|Umayyah]], [[Kakhalifahan Abbasiyah|Abbasiyah]], sarato [[Kakhalifahan Fatimiyah|Fatimiyah]], [[Bilad asy-Syam]] adolah namo provinsi metropolitan nan maliputi sabagian wilayah ko. Pado abaik ka-19, namo Suriah dihiduikan baliak dalam bantuak Arab modered untuak manunjuakan kasadoan Bilad asy-Syam, baiak sabagai Suriyah atau bantuak moderen Suriyya, nan akhianyo manggantian namo Arab Bilad as-Sham.<ref name="Salibi2003">{{cite book |first=Kamal S. |last=Salibi |author-link=Kamal Salibi |title=A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_amYLJq4SQC |year=2003 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-912-7 |pages=61–62}} </ref> Sasudah [[Parang Dunia I]], bateh-bateh wilayah tu tarakhia kali ditantuan di zaman moderen malalui proklamasi jo definisi salanjuiknyo malalui pajanjian mandat [[Parancih]] jo [[Inggirih]]. Wilayah tu disarahan kapado Mandat Parancih jo Inggirih sasudah Parang Dunia I jo dibagi manjadi [[Lebanon Raya]], babagai nagara di bawah [[Mandat Parancih di Suriah jo Lebanon|Mandatori Parancih]], [[Mandat Palestina|Mandatori Palestina]] nan dikuasoi Inggirih, jo [[Kaamiran Transyordania]]. Istilah Suriah sandiri diterapkan pado babarapo nagara mandat di bawah pamarentahan Parancih jo [[Karajaan Arab Suriah]] nan baumua pendek. Nagara-nagara nan mandapek mandat Suriah sacaro batahap disatuan manjadi [[Nagara Suriah (1925–1930)|nagara Suriah]] jo akhianyo manjadi [[Suriah]] merdeka pado tahun 1946. Sapanjang periode ko, kaum nasionalis pan-Suriah maanjurkan mambantuak Suriah Raya. == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Wilayah historis]] 6hj7eca6e9cqkuo4nb7ld7ndv7qesir 0 474602 3351275 3349183 2026-08-05T22:04:27Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = Revolusi Nasional Indonesia | partof = Pasca-[[Parang Dunia Kaduo]] | image = [[Berkas:Indonesian National Revolution montage.jpg|290px]] | caption = '''Saarah jarum jam dari pojok suok:''' {{flatlist| * Kaadaan mobil milik [[Aubertin Walter Sothern Mallaby|Brigadir Mallaby]] nan tabaka, tampek inyo mati dibunuah pado 30 Oktober 1945 sangkek Pertempuran Surabaya * Duo tantaro Indonesia lari ka sabuah kampuang di [[Bandung Lautan Api|Bandung]] dengan pamandangan babarapo rumah tabaka * Delegasi dari Indonesia jo Belanda baliak ka [[Linggajati, Cilimus, Kuningan|Linggajati]] untuak maadoan [[Parundiangan Linggajati]] * [[Padang]] sasudah [[Agresi Militer Belanda II]] * [[Soekarno]] jo [[Mohammad Hatta]] sabalun dibuang ka [[Berastagi]], [[Sumatera Utara]] * [[Ratu Juliana]] manandatangani panyerahan kadaulatan Indonesia di [[Ridderzaal]] }} | date = 29 September 1945 – 27 Desember 1949{{br}}(4 tahun, 3 bulan, 2 hari) | place = [[Indonesia]] | casus = [[Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia]]<br>Manyarahnyo [[Japang]] pado [[Parang Dunia Kaduo]] | territory = | result = • Kemerdekaan Indonesia dari Belanda • Balando mangakui kamerdekaan Indonesia dalam [[Konferensi Meja Bundar]] • Tabantuaknyo [[Republik Indonesia Serikat]] • Tabantuaknyo [[Uni Indonesia-Belanda]] | combatant1 = {{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Sejarah Indonesia (1945–1949)|Republik Indonesia]] * [[PDRI]] * [[TNI|BKR/TKR/TRI/TNI]] * [[Korps Brigade Mobil]] {{flagdeco|Japan|1947}} Relawan [[Angkatan Darat Kekaisaran Jepang|Tentara Kekaisaran Jepang]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/09/09/national/japanese-recounts-role-fighting-to-free-indonesia|title=Japanese recounts role fighting to free Indonesia|first=Christine|last=Tjandraningsih|work=Kyodo News|date=9 September 2009|access-date=24 Maret 2020|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404074255/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/09/09/national/japanese-recounts-role-fighting-to-free-indonesia|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/15/world/asia/occupation-helped-put-indonesia-on-the-path-to-independence.html|title=Occupation Helped Put Indonesia On the Path To Independence|first=Donald|last=Greenless|work=The New York Times|date=15 Agustus 2005|access-date=2 November 2020}}</ref><br> <small>(sajak tahun 1945)</small> {{flagdeco|British Raj}} Desertir [[Angkatan Darat India Britania|Tentara India]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://historia.id/politik/articles/alasan-pembelotan-tentara-india-vxJ05/page/1|title=Alasan Pembelotan Tentara India|first=Hendri F.|last=Isnaeni|work=Historia|date=14 Juli 2018|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=2 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002002000/https://historia.id/politik/articles/alasan-pembelotan-tentara-india-vxJ05/page/1|dead-url=yes}}</ref> <small>(sajak tahun 1945)</small> '''Didukung oleh:''' {{flagcountry|Australia}}<ref name="downer">{{cite web|url=http://www.foreignminister.gov.au/speeches/1998/980709_ai_sovereignty.html|title=Australia & Indonesia's Independence:The Transfer Of Sovereignty: Documents 1949|publisher=Minister for Foreign Affairs|access-date=11 May 2013|archive-date=29 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194548/http://www.foreignminister.gov.au/speeches/1998/980709_ai_sovereignty.html|url-status=live}}</ref> <small>(sasudah tahun 1947)</small> {{flagcountry|India}}<ref>Foreign Policy of India: Text of Documents 1947–59 (p. 54)</ref> <small>(sasudah tahun 1947)</small> {{flagcountry|Amerika Serikat}}<ref name="marshall">{{Cite book|last=Gouda|first=Frances|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55842798|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia : US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949|date=2002|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|others=Thijs Brocades Zaalberg|isbn=1-4175-2156-2|location=Amsterdam|oclc=55842798}}</ref><small>(sasudah tahun 1949){{br}} {{Flag|Uni Soviet}}{{br}}<small>(diplomasi) | combatant2 = {{flagcountry|Belanda}} <small>(sajak tahun 1946)</small> *{{flagcountry|Hindia Belanda}} **[[Koninklijk Nederlands-Indische Leger|KNIL]] **[[NICA]] * {{flagicon image|Flag of Pontianak Sultanate.svg}} [[Kesultanan Pontianak]] *{{flagicon image|Flag of Legion of Ratu Adil.svg}} [[Angkatan Perang Ratu Adil]] *{{flagicon|Republik Tiongkok}} [[Pao An Tui]] (保案队) <small>(mangklaim netralitas)</small> {{flag|Britania Raya}} <small>(hinggo tahun 1946)</small> *{{flagdeco|British Raj}} [[Kemaharajaan Britania]] <small> '''Didukung oleh:''' {{flagcountry|Australia}} <small>(hinggo tahun 1946)</small> ---- {{flag|Kekaisaran Jepang}} <small>(hinggo tahun 1946)</small> ---- <small>Konflik internal:</small><br> {{flagicon image|Flag of Islamic State of Indonesia.svg}} [[Darul Islam]] {{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg}} [[Pemberontakan PKI 1948|Republik Soviet Indonesia]]. | commander1 = {{flagicon|Indonesia}}'[[Soekarno]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Mohammad Hatta]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Soedirman]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Oerip Soemohardjo]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Soetan Sjahrir]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Hamengkubuwana IX]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Pakubuwana XII]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Abdul Haris Nasution|A.H. Nasution]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Sjafruddin Prawiranegara]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Gatot Subroto]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Bambang Soegeng]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Bung Tomo|Soetomo]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Moehammad Jasin]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[T.B. Simatupang]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Soeharto]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Amir Sjarifuddin]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Alex Kawilarang]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Ventje Sumual]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Joop Warouw]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Daan Mogot]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Tan Malaka]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}}{{flagicon image|Flag of Pontianak Sultanate.svg}} [[Sultan Hamid II]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Agustinus Adisoetjipto]] {{KIA}}<br> {{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[R. E. Martadinata]] | commander2 = {{flagicon|Belanda}} [[Wilhelmina dari Belanda|Wilhelmina]] <small>(hinggo tahun 1948)</small><br>{{flagicon|Belanda}} [[Juliana dari Belanda|Juliana]] <small>(sajak tahun 1948)</small><br>{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Hubertus van Mook]]<br>{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Simon Hendrik Spoor|Simon Spoor]]<br>{{Flagicon|Belanda}} [[Dirk Reinhard Adelbert van Langen|Adelbert van Langen]]{{br}}{{Flagicon|Belanda}} [[Dirk Cornelis Buurman van Vreeden|Buurman Van Vreeden]]{{br}}{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Conrad Helfrich]]{{br}}{{Flagicon|Belanda}} [[Ludolph Hendrik van Oyen|Hendrik van Oyen]]<br>{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Louis Mountbatten]]<br>{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Philip Christison]]<br>{{Flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Robert Mansergh]]{{br}}{{Flagicon|Britania Raya}} [[Aubertin Mallaby]]{{KIA}}{{br}}{{flagicon|Belanda}}{{flagicon image|Flag of Legion of Ratu Adil.svg}} [[Raymond Westerling]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the State of East Indonesia.svg}} [[Tjokorda Gde Raka Soekawati]]<br>{{flagicon|Indonesia}}{{flagicon image|Flag of Pontianak Sultanate.svg}} [[Sultan Hamid II]]<br>{{flagicon|Belanda}}{{flagicon|Republik Tiongkok}} [[Loa Sek Hie]]<br>{{flagicon|Belanda}} [[A.K. Widjojoatmodjo]]<br>{{flagicon|Belanda}} [[Julius Tahija]] ---- {{flagicon image|Flag of Islamic State of Indonesia.svg}} [[Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo|Sekarmadji Kartosoewirjo]]{{executed}}<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Islamic State of Indonesia.svg}} [[Abdul Kahar Muzakkar]] {{KIA}} ---- {{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg}} [[Musso]] {{executed}}<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg}} [[Amir Sjarifuddin]]{{executed}} | strength1 = '''[[Badan Keamanan Rakyat|BKR]]/[[Tentara Keamanan Rakyat|TKR]]/[[Tentara Republik Indonesia|TRI]]/[[Tentara Nasional Indonesia|TNI]]''':<br>150.000<br>'''Laskar rakyat''':<br>dipakiroan 60,000<br>'''Relawan Muda:''' 100,000<br>'''Relawan Japang''': 1,000<br>'''Desertir India:''' 600 | strength2 = '''Belanda''': <br>200,000<ref name="niod">{{cite web |url=https://www.niod.nl/en/frequently-asked-questions/indonesian-war-independence-numbers |title=Indonesian War of Independence (in numbers) |access-date=2023-02-09 |publisher=[[NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies]] |archive-date=2023-02-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209180735/https://www.niod.nl/en/frequently-asked-questions/indonesian-war-independence-numbers |dead-url=yes }}</ref><br>'''Inggirih''': <br>50,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kompaspedia.kompas.id/baca/paparan-topik/pasukan-inggris-di-indonesia-1945-1946|title=Pasukan Inggris di Indonesia: 1945–1946|date=13 November 2020}}</ref> <br>'''Japang:'''<br>35,000 | casualties1 = 46,000+ tantaro, polisi dan milisi Indonesia tewas<ref>https://www.groene.nl/artikel/wie-telt-de-indonesische-doden</ref><br>531 relawan Japang tewas<br>525 Desertir India tewas | casualties2 = 980 tantaro Inggirrih jo India mati {{sfn|Kirby|1969|p=258}} <br>1,057 tantaro Japang tewas <br>4,585 tantaro Balando jo KNIL mati<ref name="niod"/> | casualties3 = 51,421 warga Indonesia mati | notes = }}'''Revolusi Nasional Indonesia'''{{efn|acok juo disabuik '''Parang Kamerdekaan Indonesia'''}} adolah sabuah konflik basanjato dan partantangan diplomasi antaro [[Republik Indonesia]] nan baru tagak malawan [[Kerajaan Belanda]] nan dibantu dek [[Sekutu Parang Dunia II|pihak Sekutu]], diwakili dek [[Inggirih]]. Rangkaian peristiwa iko tajadi mulai dari mandaraiknyo pasukan sekutu Inggirih patamo kali di [[Jakarta]] pado 29 September 1945 nan dipimpin dek Letnan Jenderal Christinson sasudah ditandatanganinyo Civil Affairs Agreement. Konflik iko balansuang salamo ampek tahun hinggo pangakuan kamerdekaan Indonesia dek Karajaan Balando pado 27 Desember 1949.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital/20393389-Sedjarah%20revolusi%20nasional%20indonesia%20tahapan%20revolusi%20bersendjata%201945-1950,%201966.pdf|title=SEDJARAH REVOLUSI NASIONAL INDONESIA Tahapan Revolusi Bersendjata 1945-1950|website=lib.ui.ac.id|access-date=2022-11-27|archive-date=2023-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404012637/https://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital/20393389-Sedjarah%20revolusi%20nasional%20indonesia%20tahapan%20revolusi%20bersendjata%201945-1950,%201966.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Meskipun baitu, gerakan revolusi itu surang alah dimulai pado tahun 1908, nan kimi diparingati sabagai tahun dimulainyo kabangkitan nasional Indonesia. Salamo sekitar ampek tahun, babarapo peristiwa badarah terjadi sacaro sporadis. Salain itu, tajadi pulo sangketo politik sarato duo intervensi internasional. Dalam peristiwa iko, pasukan Balando hanyo mampu manguasai kota-kota gadang di pulau [[Jawa]] dan [[Sumatra]], tapi gagal maambiak aliah kendali di kampuang jo daerah pinggiran. Dek sengitno perlawanan basanjato sarato perjuangan diplomatik, Balando berhasil dibuek tatakan untuak mangakui kamerdekaan Indonesia.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35}} Revolusi iko barujuang pado barakhianyo pamarentahan kolonial Hindia Balando dan mangakibatkan parubahan struktur sosial di Indonesia; kakuasaan rajo-rajo mulai dikurangi atau dihilangkan. Peristiwa iko disabuik juo "revolusi sosial", nan tajadi di babarapa bagian di pulau [[Sumatra]]. == Latar balakang == Pergerakan nasionalis untuak mandukuang kamerdekaan Indonesia dari Karajaan Balando, takah [[Budi Utomo]], [[Partai Nasional Indonesia]], [[Sarekat Islam]] jo [[Partai Komunis Indonesia]] tumbuah dengan capek di partangahan abaik ka-20. [[Budi Utomo]], [[Sarekat Islam]] dan gerakan nasional lainnyo mamprakarsai strategi karaja samo jo mangirim wakil mereka ka [[Volksraad]] (dewan rakyat) dengan harapan Indonesia akan diagiah hak mamarentah diri surang tanpa campua tangan Karajaan Balando.{{sfn|Vandenbosch|1931|p=1051-1069}} Adapun gerakan nasionalis lainnyo mamiliah caro non-kooperatif dengan manuntuik kabebasan pamarentahan Indonesia surang dari Balando. Pamimpin gerakan iko adolah [[Soekarno]] jo [[Mohammad Hatta]], duo urang mahasiswa nasionalis nan kelak manjadi [[Presiden Indonesia|presiden]] jo [[Wakil Presiden Indonesia|wakil presiden]] patamo.{{sfn|Kahin, Hatta|1980}} Pergerakan iko dimudahan dengan adonya kabijakan [[Politik Etis]] nan dijalanan dek Balando. Pandudukan [[Indonesia]] dek Japang salamo tigo satangah tahun maso Parang Dunia Kaduo marupoan faktor penting untuak revolusi barikuiknyo. Balando hanyo punyo saketek kamampuan untuak mampartahankan panjajahan di Hindia Balando. Hanyo dalam wakatu tigo bulan, Japang berhasil manguasai [[Sumatra]]. Japang kudian bausaho untuak maambiak hati kaum nasionalis dengan maagiah janji kamerdekaan untuak Indonesia jo mazinan panggunoan bahaso Indonesia di ruang publik. Iko manimbulkan lahianyo organisasi-organisasi parjuangan di sado nagari.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=85}} Katiko Japang barado di ambang kakalahan parang, Balando baliak untuak marabuik baliak bakeh koloni mereka. Pado 7 September 1944, Perdana Menteri Japang [[Kuniaki Koiso]] manjanjian kamerdekaan kapado Indonesia, walaupun indak manetapkan tanggal resmi.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1993|p=207}} == Dampak == [[Berkas:RI_Transfer_Signing.jpg|ka|jmpl|254x254px|Wakil Presiden Indonesia, [[Mohammad Hatta|Hatta]] jo Ratu Balando, Juliana manandatangani kadaulatan Indonesia di Den Haag, Balando.]] [[Berkas:Soevereiniteitsoverdracht_Indonesie-2000px_Foto_Jan_Zweerts.jpg|jmpl|Akta Penyerahan Kadaulatan Indonesia dengan stempel agung Ratu Juliana.]] Pakiroan nan maningga dalam paparangan untuak kamerdekaan Indonesia dari rakyat sipil jo pajuang nan tabunuah sabanyak 97,421 hinggo 100,000 korban jiwa dari pihak [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://historibersama.com/jumlah-korban-indonesia-imperial-global-forum/?lang=id|title=Jumlah Korban Indonesia – Imperial & Global Forum}}</ref> Salain itu, tantaro Inggirih nan bajumlah 980 dipakiroan dibunuah dan hilang di [[Jawa]] dan [[Sumatra]] antaro tahun 1945-1946, kabanyakan marupoan prajurit India. Adopun untuak Balando labih dari 4000 tantaronyo kahilangan nyawa mereka di [[Indonesia]]. Labiah banyak lai tantaro Japang gugur, tantaro Japang nan maningga dalam paparangan sabanyak 1057 jiwa. Salain itu, labiah dari tujuah juta jiwa mangungsi di [[Sumatra]] jo [[Jawa]].<ref>[http://docsonline.eu/doc/80 "Combination of footage and stories of Dutch war veterans.’ "Tom Verheul"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110093537/http://docsonline.eu/doc/80|date=2013-11-10}}. 1995. diakses pada 10 November 2013</ref> Tantaro Japang nan ikuik sato dalam parang kamerdekaan iko dan indak baliak ka Japang bahkan sasudah Indonesia merdeka, diagiah panghargaan dek pamarentah Indonesia dan diagiah pulo pitih pensiun. Katiko maningga, mereka dimakaman dalam pamakaman kanegaraan dek militer Indonesia. Gerakan revolusi nasional Indonesia iko maagiah efek langsung pado kondisi [[ekonomi]], [[sosial]], jo [[budaya]] [[Indonesia]] itu surang, di antaronyo kakurangan bahan makanan, jo bahan bakar. Ado duo efek dalam ekonomi nan ditimbulkan dek gerakan nasional Indonesia nan dampaknyo langsuang ka ekonomi Karajaan Balando jo [[Indonesia]], kaduonya baliak untuak mambangun ekonomi mereka sacaro berkelanjutan saudah Parang Dunia II dan gerakan revolusi Indonesia. [[Republik Indonesia]] matur baliak satiok hal nan dibutuhkan dek rakyat Indonesia nan mulonyo diblokade dek [[Belanda]]. ==Rujuakan== {{Reflist}} ==Catatan kaki== {{Notelist|20em}} ==Bibliografi== * {{Cite book | last = Agung | first = Ide Anak Agung Gde| author-link = Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung | title = Twenty Years Indonesian Foreign Policy: 1945–1965 | publisher = Mouton & Co | year = 1973 | isbn = 979-8139-06-2}} * {{cite book| last1 =Ashton| first1 =Nigel John | last2 = Hellema| first2 =Duco| title =Unspoken Allies: Anglo-Dutch Relations Since 1780| publisher=Amsterdam University Press| year =2001| isbn =978-90-485-0585-2}} * {{cite journal| last =Bidien| first =Charles|title=Independence the Issue|journal=Far Eastern Survey|volume=14|issue=24|pages=345–348|date=5 December 1945|doi=10.2307/3023219|jstor=3023219}} * {{Cite book |last=Bussemaker |first=H.Th. |title=Bersiap! 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Thomas | title = Roots of Violence in Indonesia: Contemporary Violence in Historical Perspective | publisher=Koninklijk Instituut Voor de Tropen | year =2002 | isbn = 90-6718-188-9 }} * {{cite journal|title=A revolution delayed: the Indonesian Republic and the Netherlands Indies, August–November 1945|last=Cribb|first=Robert|journal=Australian Journal of Politics and History|year=1986|issue=1|volume=32|pages=72–85 |url=https://works.bepress.com/robert_cribb/11/|publisher=The Australian National University|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8497.1986.tb00342.x |access-date=17 October 2018|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221154009/https://works.bepress.com/robert_cribb/11/|url-status=dead}} * {{Cite book |last=Fenton-Huie |first=Shirley h. |title=The Forgotten Ones: Women and Children Under Nippon |publisher=Angus and Robertson |year=2005 |location=Sydney |isbn=978-0207170775 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/forgottenoneswom0000huie }} * {{cite book| last =Frederick| first =Willam H.| title =Visions and Heat: The Making of the Indonesian Revolution| publisher=Ohio University Press| year =1989| location =[[Athens, Ohio]]| isbn =0-8214-0906-9}} * {{cite web | title =The National Revolution, 1945–50 | work=Country Studies, Indonesia |editor1-last = Frederick |editor1-first= William H. | editor2-last = Worden | editor2-first= Robert L. |year = 1993 | publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress | url =http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/16.htm }} * {{cite book| last =Friend| first =Theodore| title =Blue Eyed Enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942–1945| publisher =Princeton University Press| year =1988| isbn =978-0-691-05524-4| url-access =registration| url =https://archive.org/details/blueeyedenemyjap0000frie}} * {{Cite book |last =Friend| first =Theodore| title =Indonesian Destinies| publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| year =2003| isbn =0-674-01834-6}} * {{cite web | last = Heren | first = Patrick | date = November 2010 | title = The Death Knell of the British Empire | publisher = [[Standpoint (magazine)|Standpoint]] | url = http://www.standpointmag.co.uk/node/3489/full | access-date = 2 October 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|Heren 2010, The Death Knell}} | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111104231612/http://standpointmag.co.uk/node/3489/full | archive-date = 4 November 2011 | url-status = dead }} * {{cite book |last1=Jessup |first1=John E. |title=A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945–1985 |year=1989 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=New York |isbn=0-313-24308-5 }} * {{Cite book |last=Kahin| first=George McTurnan| year= 1952| title=Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia| publisher=Cornell University Press| location =Ithaca, NY| isbn=0-8014-9108-8}} * {{cite journal|title=In Memoriam: Mohammad Hatta (1902–1980)|last=Kahin| first=George McTurnan|journal=Indonesia|year=1980|pages=113–120|issue=30|doi=10.2307/3350997|volume=30|jstor=3350997| url= https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/53706/INDO_30_0_1107014416_113_120.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|publisher=Southeast Asia Program Publications at Cornell University|hdl=1813/53609|hdl-access=free}} * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.2307/3351273 | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Sukarno's Proclamation of Indonesian Independence | journal=Indonesia | volume = 69 |date= 2000 | issue = 69 | publisher=Cornell Modern Indonesia Project | place = Ithaca, NY | pages = 1–4 |url= https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54189/INDO_69_0_1106943303_1_4.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y | jstor = 3351273| hdl = 1813/54189 | hdl-access = free }} * {{Cite book |last =Kahin | first =George McTurnan |author2=Audrey Kahin | title =Southeast Asia: A Testament | publisher=Routledge Curzon| year =2003 | location =London |isbn=0-415-29975-6|ref=none}} * {{cite book| last =Kirby| first =Woodburn S| title =War Against Japan, Volume 5: The Surrender of Japan| publisher=HMSO| year =1969| page =258}} * {{cite book | last =McMillan| first =Richard | title =The British Occupation of Indonesia 1945–1946| publisher=Routledge | year =2005 | location =Melbourne | isbn = 0-415-35551-6 }} * {{Cite book |last= Lockwood |first=Rupert |title=Black Armada: Australia and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence 1942–49 |publisher=Australasian Book Society|year= 1975}} * {{cite journal |last=van Mook |first=H. J. |author-link =Hubertus Johannes van Mook |title=Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-affairs_1949-07_25_3/page/278 |journal=International Affairs |volume=25 |issue=3 |page=278 |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs |date=July 1949 |doi=10.2307/3016666 |jstor=3016666}} * {{cite journal|last =Parrott | first =J. G. A.| title = Who Killed Brigadier Mallaby?| volume=20| journal=Indonesia |date=October 1975| issue = 20 | publisher=Cornell Modern Indonesia Project|url= https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/53609/INDO_20_0_1107105566_87_111.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y| access-date =27 November 2006 | pages=87–111 | doi = 10.2307/3350997| format = PDF| jstor = 3350997| hdl =1813/53609| hdl-access =free}} * {{cite book| last =Pendit| first =Nyoman S.| title =Bali Berjuang| publisher=Gunung Agung| year =1988| orig-year=1954|edition=2nd|location=Jakarta|isbn=978-9799954114}} * {{cite book| author1=Pramoedya Anwar Toer|author2=Koesalah Soebagyo Toer|author3=Ediati Kamil| title =Kronik Revolusi Indonesia Vol I (1945)| publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|language=id| year =2005| isbn =978-9799023292|ref={{sfnref|Toer|Toer|Kamil|2005a}} }} * {{cite book| author1=Pramoedya Anwar Toer|author2=Koesalah Soebagyo Toer|author3=Ediati Kamil| title =Kronik Revolusi Indonesia Vol II (1946)| publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|language=id| year =2005| isbn =978-9799023308|ref={{sfnref|Toer|Toer|Kamil|2005b}} }} * {{cite book| author1=Pramoedya Anwar Toer|author2=Koesalah Soebagyo Toer|author3=Ediati Kamil| title =Kronik Revolusi Indonesia Vol III (1947)| publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|language=id| year =2005| isbn =978-9799023469|ref={{sfnref|Toer|Toer|Kamil|2005c}} }} * {{cite book| author1=Pramoedya Anwar Toer|author2=Koesalah Soebagyo Toer|author3=Ediati Kamil| title =Kronik Revolusi Indonesia Vol IV (1948)| publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|language=id| year =2014| isbn =978-9799106896|ref={{sfnref|Toer|Toer|Kamil|2014}} }} * {{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |title=The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950 |publisher=Longman |year=1974 |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-582-71046-4}} * {{cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |editor-last=Jeffrey |editor-first=Robin |title=Asia: the Winning of Independence |publisher=Macmillan |date=1981 |pages=113–162 |chapter=Indonesia: revolution without socialism |isbn=978-0333278574}} * {{Cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1991 |location=San Francisco|isbn=1349227005}} * {{Cite journal | last = Said| first = H. Mohammed | title = What was the Social Revolution of 1946" in East Sumatra? | journal=Indonesia | volume = 15 |date= 1973 | issue = April 1973 | publisher=Cornell Modern Indonesia Project | place = Ithaca, NY | pages = 145–186 | doi = 10.2307/3350795 | jstor = 3350795 | hdl = 1813/53556 |url= https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/53556/INDO_15_0_1107128614_145_186.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y| hdl-access = free }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.1945-1950ubachsberg.nl/site/erevelden.htm |title=Stichting 1945–1950 Ubachsberg |access-date=3 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110100802/http://www.1945-1950ubachsberg.nl/site/erevelden.htm|website=1945–1950ubachsberg.nl |archive-date=10 November 2013 |ref={{sfnref|Stichting 1945–1950 Ubachsberg}} }} * {{cite book| last =Stoler|first =Ann|title =Capitalism and Confrontation in Sumatra's Plantation Belt, 1870–1979| publisher=Yale University Press| year =1985|location=New Haven| isbn =978-0472082193}} * {{cite book | last1 =Sukarno | author-link = Sukarno|last2=Adams |first2=Cindy | title =Sukarno: An Autobiography| publisher = Bobbs-Merrill | year = 1965}} * {{cite book | last =Taylor | first =Jean Gelman | title =Indonesia: Peoples and History | publisher=Yale University Press | year =2003 | page = 325 | isbn = 0-300-10518-5 }} * {{cite news | url = https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/08/19/national/indonesians-to-get-book-on-japanese-freedom-fighter/#.W9aAumgzbIU | title = Indonesians to get book on Japanese freedom fighter | last = Tjandraningsih | first = Christine T. | date = 19 August 2011 | newspaper = [[Japan Times]] | access-date = 29 October 2018 | archive-date = 18 January 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200118162717/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/08/19/national/indonesians-to-get-book-on-japanese-freedom-fighter/#.W9aAumgzbIU | url-status = dead }} * {{cite journal|title=Nationalism in Netherlands East India|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pacific-affairs_1931-12_4_12/page/1051|journal=Pacific Affairs|first =Amry |last=Vandenbosch| volume=4 |issue=12|pages=1051–1069|year=1931 |doi=10.2307/2750579 |jstor=2750579 |publisher=Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia}} * {{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri/page/85 85–112] |isbn=0-521-54262-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri/page/85 }} ==Bacaan lanjuik== * {{Cite book |author=Anderson, Ben |title=Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946 |year=1972 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=0-8014-0687-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/javaintimeofrevo0000ande |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Cribb |first=Robert |title=Gangster and Revolutionaries: The Jakarta People's Militia and the Indonesian Revolution 1945–1949 |publisher=ASSA Southeast Asian Publications Series – Allen and Unwin |year=1991 |location =Sydney, Australia |isbn=0-04-301296-5 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Drooglever |first1=P. J. |title=Guide to the Archives on Relations between the Netherlands and Indonesia 1945–1963 |first2=M. J. B. |last2=Schouten |first3=Mona |last3=Lohanda |year=1999 |publisher=ING Research Guide |location=[[The Hague]], Netherlands |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=George |first=Margaret |title =Australia and the Indonesian Revolution |publisher=Melbourne University Press |year=1980 |isbn=0-522-84209-7 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Heijboer |first=Pierre |author-link=Pierre Heijboer |year=1979 |title=De Politionele Acties |publisher=Fibula-van Dishoeck |location=Haarlem |language=nl|ref=none}} * Holst Pellekaan, R.E. van, I.C. de Regt "Operaties in de Oost: de Koninklijke Marine in de Indische archipel (1945–1951)" (Amsterdam 2003). * Ide Anak Agug Gde Agung (1996) (translated to English by Linda Owens)''From the Formation of the State of East Indonesia Towards the Establishment of the United States of Indonesia'' Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia {{ISBN|979-461-216-2}} (Original edition Dari Negara Indonesia Timur ke Republic Indonesia Serikat 1985 Gadjah Mada University Press) * Jong, L. de (1988). ''Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog'', deel 12, Sdu, 's-Gravenhage (an authoritative standard text on both the political and military aspects, in Dutch) * {{Cite book |last=Kahin|first=Audrey|title=Regional Dynamics of the Indonesian Revolution|year=1995|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=0-8248-0982-3|ref=none}} * {{cite book | author=Kodam VI/Siliwang | title =Siliwangi dari masa kemasa |language=id | publisher=Fakta Mahjuma | year =1968}} * {{Cite book |last=Lucas |first=A. |title=One Soul One Struggle. Region and Revolution in Indonesia |year=1991 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |location=St. Leonards, Australia |isbn=0-04-442249-0 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book | last =Payne | first =Robert | title =The Revolt In Asia | publisher=John Day | year =1947 | location = New York |ref=none}} * {{Cite book | last =Poeze | first =Harry A. | title =Verguisd en vergeten. Tan Malaka, de linkse beweging en de Indonesische Revolutie 1945–1949 | publisher=KITLV | year =2007 | page =2200 | isbn = 978-90-6718-258-4|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Alastair M. |title=Indonesian Independence and the United Nations |author-link = Alastair M. Taylor |year=1960 |publisher=Stevens & Sons|location=London |asin=B0007ECTIA |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Yong Mun Cheong |title=The Indonesian Revolution and the Singapore Connection, 1945–1949 |year=2004 |publisher=KITLV Press |location=[[Leiden]], Netherlands |isbn=90-6718-206-0|ref=none}} [[Kategori:Parang Kemerdekaan Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Parang nan malibatkan Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Parang nan malibatkan Britania Raya]] [[Kategori:Parang nan malibatkan Belanda]] [[Kategori:Indonesia dalam tahun 1945]] [[Kategori:Indonesia dalam tahun 1946]] [[Kategori:Indonesia dalam tahun 1947]] [[Kategori:Indonesia dalam tahun 1948]] [[Kategori:Indonesia dalam tahun 1949]] [[Kategori:Dampak Parang Dunia II]] 9hm1asj6g7n0l0pjp0ob4tgk8ph4p9j 0 474658 3351232 3156686 2026-08-05T20:54:09Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351232 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox spesies|image2=Sliced Matsusaka wagyu beef.jpg|image2_caption=[[Dagiang]] [[jawi]] wagyu Matsusaka iris bakualitas tinggi{{br}}{{sadang karajo}}|item = Q1757956}} {{Nihongo|'''Wagyu'''|和牛|Wagyū|sapi Jepang}} mangacu pado babarapo [[Sapi potong|ras]] jawi dari [[Japang|Jopang]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gotoh |first=Takafumi |date=July 2018 |title=The Japanese Wagyu beef industry: current situation and future prospects – A review |journal=Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=942–947 |doi=10.5713/ajas.18.0333 |pmc=6039323 |pmid=29973029 |s2cid=49693378 |via=Science Citation Index |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ogino |first=Mizuna |last2=Matsuura |first2=Akihiro |last3=Yamazaki |first3=Atusi |last4=Irimajiri |first4=Mami |last5=Takahashi |first5=Hideyuki |last6=Komatsu |first6=Tokushi |last7=Kushibiki |first7=Shiro |last8=Shingu |first8=Hiroyuki |last9=Kasuya |first9=Etsuko |display-authors=6 |date=2013-01-17 |title=Biological rhythms related to metabolism in Japanese Shorthorn cattle under varying environments and management techniques |journal=Animal Science Journal |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=513–526 |doi=10.1111/asj.12029 |issn=1344-3941 |pmid=23607269}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Higuchi |first=Mikito |last2=Shiba |first2=Nobuya |last3=Imanri |first3=Mai |last4=Yonai |first4=Miharu |last5=Watanabe |first5=Akira |date=2018-04-01 |title=Effects of Grazing or Exercise in the Middle of the Fattening Period on the Growth and Carcass Traits of Japanese Shorthorn Steers |url=https://archive.org/details/japan-agricultural-research-quarterly_2018-04_52_2/page/163 |journal=Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=163–172 |doi=10.6090/jarq.52.163 |issn=0021-3551 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ciek ras di antaronyo punyo kacandarungan genetik barupo [[dagiang marmer|pamarmeran]] (''marbling'') tinggi dan mamproduksi [[lemak|lemak tak jenuh]] [[minyak#minyak organik|baminyak]] dalam jumlah gadang. {{Commons+cat|Wagyu|Wagyū}} * {{Commons category-inline|Wagyū|{{PAGENAME}}}} {{Binatang-stub}} ko3otkyot8n3s6ewuxqs5fjiv9q7gwg 0 474676 3351276 3346828 2026-08-05T22:05:19Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351276 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Intifada in Gaza Strip, 1987 V Dan Hadani Archive.jpg|thumb|Panduduak Palestina bahadokan jo tantara Israel katiko Intifadah Patamo]] '''Intifadah Patamo''' ({{lang-ar|الانتفاضة الأولى}}) atau dikenal juo sabagai '''Intifadah Palestina Patamo'''<ref name="Nasrallah56">Nami Nasrallah, 'The First and Second Palestinian ''intifadas'',' in David Newman, Joel Peters (eds.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=kftqQdNNDWAC&pg=PA61 ''Routledge Handbook on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict''], Routledge, 2013, pp. 56–68, p. 56.</ref><ref name="Alimi2006_1">{{cite book|author=Eitan Alimi|title=Israeli Politics and the First Palestinian Intifada: Political Opportunities, Framing Processes and Contentious Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRSVtzxH_10C&pg=PA1|date=9 January 2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-203-96126-1|page=1}}</ref> adolah sarangkaian protes, tindakan nan balanjuik ka pambangkangan sipil jo karusuahan nan dilakuan dek panduduak [[Palestina]] di [[Panduduakan wilayah Palestina|wilayah Palestina]] nan [[Wilayah panduduakan Israel|diduduaki dek Israel]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/intifada-begins-on-gaza-strip |title=Intifada begins on Gaza Strip|website=History.com |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref> Iko dilatar balakangi dek raso frustasi kolektif panduduak Palestina ateh panduduakan militer Israel di [[Tapi Barat]] jo [[Jalur Gaza]] sajak duo puluah tahun sabalumnyo, akibaik dari [[Parang Anam Hari|Parang Arab-Israel]] tahun 1967.<ref name="LockmanBeinin1989_5">[[#LockmanBeinin1989|Lockman; Beinin (1989)]], p.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPVNdzXUJkC&pg=PA5 5.]</ref> Pambarontakan ko balansuang dari bulan Desember 1987 hinggo [[Konferensi Madrid 1991|Konferensi Madrid]] tahun 1991, walaupun ado nan manyimpuannyo hinggo tahun 1993, tahun panandotanganan [[Pajanjian Oslo]].<ref name="Nasrallah56" /> Intifadah dimulai pado tanggal 9 Desember 1987<ref name="EdSaid">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPVNdzXUJkC&pg=PA5 |title=Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising Against Israeli Occupation |publisher=South End Press |author=Edward Said |year=1989 |pages=5–22|isbn=978-0-89608-363-9 }}</ref> di [[kamp pangungsi Jabalia]] sasudah surang supir oto Israel balantak jo oto sipil, manewasan ampek pakarajo Palestina, tigo di antaronyo baasa dari kamp pangungsi tu.{{sfn|Berman|2011|p=41}}<ref name=accident>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Omer-Man |newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |url=http://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/The-accident-that-sparked-an-Intifada |title=The accident that sparked an Intifada |date=4 December 2011|accessdate=3 September 2011}}</ref> Panduduak Palestina manuduah kacalakaan tu disingajo untuak baleh dandam ateh surang Israel nan tabunuah di Gaza babarapo hari sabalumnyo.<ref>David McDowall,''Palestine and Israel: The Uprising and Beyond'', University of California Press, 1989 p. 1</ref> Israel mambantah kacalakaan tu disingajo. Palestina maresponnyo jo protes, pambangkangan sipil, sarato kakarehan.<ref>Ruth Margolies Beitler, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FVd5dJGBYMsC&pg=PR11 ''The Path to Mass Rebellion: An Analysis of Two Intifadas''], Lexington Books, 2004 p.xi.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lustick|first=Ian S.|date=1993|editor-last=Brynen|editor-first=Rex|editor2-last=Hiltermann|editor2-first=Joost R.|editor3-last=Hudson|editor3-first=Michael C.|editor4-last=Hunter|editor4-first=F. Robert|editor5-last=Lockman|editor5-first=Zachary|editor6-last=Beinin|editor6-first=Joel|editor7-last=McDowall|editor7-first=David|editor8-last=Nassar|editor8-first=Jamal R.|editor9-last=Heacock|editor9-first=Roger|title=Writing the Intifada: Collective Action in the Occupied Territories|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-politics_1993-07_45_4/page/560|journal=World Politics|volume=45|issue=4|pages=560–594|doi=10.2307/2950709|jstor=2950709|s2cid=147140028 |issn=0043-8871}}</ref> Ado coretan dindiang, barikade,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/v3_ip_timeline/html/1987.stm |title=Palestinian intifada |publisher=BBC NEWS |accessdate=3 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Walid |last=Salem |chapter=Human Security from Below: Palestinian Citizens Protection Strategies, 1988–2005 |editor1-first=Monica |editor1-last=den Boer |editor2-first=Jaap |editor2-last=de Wilde |title=The Viability of Human Security |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |year=2008 |pages=179–201}}, on p. 190.</ref> jo paambuangan batu sarato bom molotov ka arah tantara Israel jo bangunannyo di Tapi Barat sarato Jalur Gaza. Iko kontras jo upayo-upayo sipil tamasuak pamogokan umum, boikot tahadok limbago-limbago pamarentahan sipil Israel di Jalur Gaza jo Tapi Barat, boikot ekonomi nan tadiri dari manulak untuak mambayia pajak, jo manulak mambaok oto jo lisensi Israel. Israel maarahan sakitar 80.000 tantara untuak maradam protes. Tindakan balasan Israel, nan awalnyo acok manggunoan paluru tajam dalam karusuahan, dikritik dek [[Human Rights Watch]] sabagai tindakan nan indak proporsional, salain panggunoan kakuatan mamatian nan balabiah dek Israel.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/campaigns/israel/intifada-intro.htm |title=The Israeli Army and the Intifada – Policies that Contribute to the Killings |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref> Dalam 13 bulan patamo, 332 panduduak Palestina jo 12 panduduak Israel tabunuah.<ref name="Cronin">Audrey Kurth Cronin 'Endless wars and no surrender,' in Holger Afflerbach, Hew Strachan (eds.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=gh6VIodYxNMC&pg=PA426 ''How Fighting Ends: A History of Surrender,''] Oxford University Press 2012 pp. 417–433 p. 426.</ref><ref name="pearlman">Wendy Pearlman, ''Violence, Nonviolence, and the Palestinian National Movement,''Cambridge University Press 2011, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Rn3CgDAymEC&pg=PG114 p. 114].</ref> Salamo 6 tahun Intifadah, tantara Israel alah mambunuah saketeknyo 1.087 panduduak Palestina, 240 diantaronyo anak-anak.<ref name="BTF">{{cite web|url=https://www.btselem.org/statistics/first_intifada_tables|work=B'tselem|accessdate=8 December 2023|title=Fatalities in the first Intifada}}</ref> Di antaro panduduak Israel, 100 warga sipil jo 60 tantara tabunuah,<ref name="btsestat">[http://www.btselem.org/english/statistics/first_Intifada_Tables.asp B'Tselem] Statistics; Fatalities in the first Intifada.</ref> acok kali dek pajuang di lua kandali [[Kapamimpinan Pambarontakan Nasional nan Basatu|UNLU]] Intifadah,<ref name=FaberKaldor>Mient Jan Faber, Mary Kaldor, 'The deterioration of human security in Palestine,' in Mary Martin, Mary Kaldor (eds.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=sHOMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 ''The European Union and Human Security: External Interventions and Missions''], Routledge, 2009 pp. 95–111.</ref> jo labiah dari 1.400 panduduak Israel jo 1.700 tantara luko-luko.<ref>'Intifada,' in David Seddon, (ed.)''A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East'', Taylor & Francis 2004, p. 284.</ref> Kakarehan intra-Palestina juo marupokan ciri manonjol dari Intifadah, jo eksekusi nan laweh tahadok sakitar 822 panduduak Palestina nan dituduah sabagai kolaborator Israel (1988–April 1994).<ref>[[Human Rights Watch]], ''Israel, the Occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip, and the Palestinian Authority Territories'', November, 2001. Vol. 13, No. 4(E), p. 49</ref> Pado wakatu itu Israel malaporan mandapek informasi dari sakitar 18.000 warga Palestina,<ref name="Pal">Amitabh Pal, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UF79Qxid7YkC&pg=PA191 ''"Islam" Means Peace: Understanding the Muslim Principle of Nonviolence Today''], ABC-CLIO, 2011 p. 191.</ref> nan kurang dari satangahnyo tabukti mampunyoi kontak jo Israel.<ref name="LockmanBeinin1989_38">[[First Intifada#LockmanBeinin1989|Lockman; Beinin (1989)]], p.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPVNdzXUJkC&pg=PA37-38.]</ref> [[Intifadah Kaduo]] tajadi dari September 2000 hinggo 2005. == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == * {{Cite book |last1=Ackerman |first1=Peter |last2=DuVall |first2=Jack |year=2000 |title=A Force More Powerful: A Century of Nonviolent Conflict |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=978-0-312-24050-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVtKS9DCN0kC |ref=AckermanDuVall2000}} * {{Cite book |last=Alimi |first=Eitan Y. |title=Israeli Politics and the First Palestinian Intifada |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |year=2006 |edition=2007 hardback |isbn=978-0-415-38560-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRSVtzxH_10C |ref=Alimi2006}} * {{Cite book |last=Aronson |first=Geoffrey |title=Israel, Palestinians, and the Intifada: Creating Facts on the West Bank |publisher=Kegan Paul International |location=London |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-7103-0336-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/israelpalestinia00aron }} * {{Cite book |last=Ben-Ami |first=Shlomo |authorlink=Shlomo Ben-Ami |title=[[Scars of War, Wounds of Peace]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-518158-6 |url= }} * {{cite book|last=Berman|first=Eli|author-link=Eli Berman|title=Radical, Religious, and Violent: The New Economics of Terrorism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7jvDS3OiAUC|year=2011|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-25800-5|page=314}} * {{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Norman |year=1996 |title=The Rise and Fall of Palestine: A Personal Account of the Intifada Years |location=Minnesota |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-8166-2858-2 |ref=Finkelstein1996}} * {{Cite book |last=Hiltermann |first=Joost R. |year=1991 |title=Behind the Intifada: Labor and Women's Movements in the Occupied Territories |edition=1993 reprint |location=Princeton, N.J |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-07869-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2fdWT3CuyQC |ref=Hiltermann1991}} * {{Cite book |last=King |first=Mary Elizabeth |title=A Quiet Revolution: The First Palestinian Intifada and Nonviolent Resistance |publisher=Nation Books |location=New York |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-56025-802-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/quietrevolutionf0000king }} * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Lockman |editor1-first=Zachary |editor2-last=Beinin |editor2-first=Joel |editor2-link=Joel Beinin |title=Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising Against Israeli Occupation |publisher=South End Press |location=Cambridge, MA |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-89608-363-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/intifadapalestin00lock |url-access=registration |ref=LockmanBeinin1989}} * {{Cite book |last=McDowall |first=David |title=Palestine and Israel: The Uprising and Beyond |publisher=University Press |location=California |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-06902-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWorYnKGZ5YC |ref=McDowall1989}} * {{Cite book |last=Morris |first=Benny |author-link=Benny Morris |title=Righteous Victims: a History of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881–1999 |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-74475-7 |ref=Morris1999 |url=https://archive.org/details/righteousvictims00morr_0 }} * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Nassar |editor1-first=Jamal Raji |editor2-last=Heacock |editor2-first=Roger |year=1990 |title=Intifada: Palestine at the Crossroads |location=New York |publisher=Praeger Publishers |isbn=978-0-275-93411-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/intifadapalestin00nass |url-access=registration |ref=NassarHeacock1990}} * {{Cite book |last=Peretz |first=Don |title=Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colorado |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8133-0860-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/intifadapalestin00pere }} * {{Cite book |last=Rigby |first=Andrew |title=Living the Intifada |publisher=Zed Books |location=London |year=1991 |isbn=978-1-85649-040-5 }}, out-of-print, now downloadable at [http://civilresistance.info/rigby1991 civilresistance.info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813161011/http://civilresistance.info/rigby1991 |date=2011-08-13 }} * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Roberts |editor1-first=Adam |editor1-link=Adam Roberts (scholar) |editor2-last=Garton Ash |editor2-first=Timothy |editor2-link=Timothy Garton Ash |year=2009 |title=Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present |location=Oxford |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-19-955201-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC |ref=RobertsGartonAsh2009}} * {{Cite book| publisher = Transaction Publishers | isbn = 978-0-7658-0255-2 | last = Shay | first = Shaul | title = The Axis of Evil: Iran, Hizballah, and the Palestinian Terror | year = 2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4kGIpMI5HC0C |ref=Shay2005}} * {{Cite book |last1=Schiff |first1=Ze'ev |author1-link=Ze'ev Schiff |last2=Ya'ari |first2=Ehud |author2-link=Ehud Ya'ari |title=Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising: Israel's Third Front |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-671-67530-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/intifadapalestin00schi_0 }} * {{Cite book |last=Shalev |first=Aryeh |title=The Intifada: Causes and Effects |publisher=Jerusalem Post & Westview Press |location=Jerusalem |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8133-8303-3 |ref=Shalev1991}} * {{Cite book |last=Shlaim |first=Avi |author-link=Avi Shlaim |year=2000 |title=The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World |location=London |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-028870-4 |ref=Shlaim2000}} == Pautan lua == * [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/intifada.html Jewish Virtual Library] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070119154126/http://www.intifada.com/palestine.html The Intifada in Palestine:Introduction] (www.intifada.com) * [http://www.un.org/Docs/scres/1987/scres87.htm United Nations Security Council Resolution 605] * [https://www.theguardian.com/israel/Story/0,2763,1275360,00.html Palestinian Arab "collaborators"] (Guardian, UK) * [http://libcom.org/library/rebellion-palestine-le-brise-glace The Future of a Rebellion – Palestine] An analysis of the 1980s intifada revolt of Palestinian youth. on libcom.org * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121125032137/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552681 U.S. Involvement with Palestine's Rebellions] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20120312181034/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130114153002/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552641 Israel's Post-Soviet Expansion] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20120312181034/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] [[Kategori:Konflik Israel-Palestina]] p8o0p8k2dfgdey1se1asf0dsck79fq5 0 474795 3351217 3157538 2026-08-05T20:11:20Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351217 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Maseru from Parliament Hill.jpg|thumb|Panorama kota]] '''Maseru''' adolah ibu kota jo kota tagadang nagara [[Lesotho]] nan talatak di dakek [[Sungai Caledon]]. Namo kota tu baasa dari kato Sesotho nan bararti ‘batu kasiak sirah’. Pado tahun 2016, panduduaknyo bajumlah 330.760 jiwa.<ref name="cities">{{cite journal|title=City profile: Maseru, Lesotho|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cities_1999-04_16_2/page/123|author1=Sam Romaya |author2=Alison Brown |journal=Cities|issue=2|volume=16|date=April 1999|pages=123–133|doi=10.1016/S0264-2751(98)00046-8}}</ref><ref name="dict">{{cite book|title=Southern Sotho English Dictionary|author1=A. Mabille |author2=H. Dieterlen |year=1993|edition=reclassified, revised and enlarged by R. A. Paroz; 1950|publisher=Morija Sesuto Book Depot|pages=349|location=[[Morija]]}}</ref> Kota Maseru mampunyoi laweh 138 km2 dikatinggian 1.600 meter di ateh pamukaan lauik.<ref>{{cite book|title=South Africa, Lesotho & Swaziland|author1=Mary Fitzpatrick |author2=Becca Blond |author3=Gemma Pitcher |author4=Simon Richmond |author5=Matt Warren |year=2004|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=1-74104-162-7 |pages=521}}</ref><ref name="hansenvaa" /> Iko marupokan pusek pamarentahan, ekonomi jo budaya nagara. Maseru didirian dek Inggirih sabagai kamp polisi ketek pado tahun 1869, sasudah baakhianyo [[Parang Nagara Bebas Basotho]].<ref>Britannica,[https://www.britannica.com/place/Maseru Maseru], britannica.com, USA, accessed on July 7, 2019</ref><ref name="ankomah">{{cite journal|title=Lesotho: Africa's Best Kept Secret|author1=Baffour Ankomah |author2=Khalid Bazid |journal=New African|date=May 2003}}</ref><ref name="hansenvaa">{{cite book |author1=Karen Tranberg Hansen |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Anai%3Adiva-103 |title=Reconsidering Informality: Perspectives from Urban Africa |author2=Mariken Vaa |publisher=Nordic African Institute |year=2004 |isbn=91-7106-518-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reconsideringinf00hans/page/n179 180] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Maseru talatak di tapi “wilayah taklukan” nan disarahan ka [[Nagara Bebas Oren]] (kini [[provinsi Nagara Bebas]] di [[Afrika Selatan]]) sabagai bagian dari pajanjian padamaian. Lataknyo 24 km sabalah barat banteang [[Urang Sotho|Basotho]] Rajo [[Moshoeshoe I]] di [[Thaba Bosiu]], ibu kota ''de facto'' sabalumnyo. Kota pasa nan rami sagiro tumbuah di sakitar area tu.<ref name="olivier">{{cite book|title=Touring in South Africa: The Great SA Road Trip Guide|author1=Willie Olivier |author2=Sandra Olivier |year=2005|publisher=Struik|pages=116|isbn=1-77007-142-3}}</ref> Katiko nagara mancapai kamerdekaan pado tahun 1966, Maseru mampatahanan statusnyo sabagai ibu kota. == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Maseru]] [[Kategori:Ibu kota nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Kota di Lesotho]] rjfcy8eietr26ktduf1kaz0r6z0t8yt 0 475242 3351325 3160287 2026-08-05T23:23:31Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351325 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Merpati biru''' ('''''Alectroenas''''') adolah [[Genus|genus]] ungge dalam kaluarga buruang dara jo merpati [[Columbidae|Columbidae]]. Mareka barasa dari pulau-pulau di sabalah barat [[Samudra_Hindia|Samudera Hindia]].{{Taxobox|name=Merpati biru|image=Seychelles Blue Pigeon.jpg|image_caption=[[Merpati biru Seychelles]].|image2=<!-- Suara jika ada -->|status=|status_system=IUCN3.1|status_ref=|domain=[[Eukariota|Eukaryota]]|regnum=[[Hewan|Animalia]]|phylum=[[Chordata]]|classis=[[Burung|Aves]]|ordo=[[Columbidae|Columbiformes]]|familia=[[Columbidae]]|genus=''''' Alectroenas '''''}} == Taksonomi == Genus Alectroenas partamo kali dideskripsikan pado taun 1840 dekahli zoologi Inggris [[:id:George_Robert_Gray|George Robert Gray]] jo [[:id:Merpati_biru_mauritius|merpati biru mauritius]] (''Alectroenas nitidissimus'') sabagai [[:id:Spesies_tipe|spesies tipenyo]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gray|first=George Robert|author-link=George Robert Gray|year=1840|title=A List of the Genera of Birds : with an Indication of the Typical Species of Each Genus|place=London|publisher=R. and J.E. Taylor|page=58|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13668975}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Peters|editor-first=James Lee|editor-link=James L. Peters|year=1937|title=Check-List of Birds of the World|volume=3|publisher=Harvard University Press|place=Cambridge, Massachusetts|page=40|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14477755}}</ref> Namo genusnyo manggabuangkan [[Bahasa_Yunani_Kuno|bahaso Yunani Kuno]] ''alektruōn'', nan bararti "ayam paliharoan", jo ''oinas'', nan bararti "merpati".<ref>{{cite book|last=Jobling|first=James A.|year=2010|title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names|publisher=Christopher Helm|location=London|isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4|page=41}}</ref> Merpati biru Alectroenas badusanak dakrk jo tasebar laweh di saluruh pulau di Samudera Hindia bagian barat. Mareka basifat [[Spesiasi_alopatrik|alopatrik]] jo dek itu dapaek dianggap sabagai [[Spesies|superspesies]].<ref>Goodwin, D. 1983, Pigeons and Doves of the World, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York.</ref> Ado tigo spesies nan masih ado: [[Merpati_biru_madagaskar|merpati biru madagaskar]], [Merpati_biru_komoro|merpati biru komoro]], dan [[Merpati_biru_seychelles|merpati biru seychelles]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shelley|first=G. E.|year=1883|title=On the Columbidae of the Ethiopian Region|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16243063|journal=Ibis|series=5th series|volume=1|issue=3|pages=258–331|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1883.tb07172.x}}</ref> Ketigo pulau Mascarene masiang-masiang marupokan rumah untuak ciek spesies, nan kasadonyo alah punah; [[Merpati_biru_mauritius|merpati biru mauritius]], [Merpati_biru_rodrigues|merpati biru rodrigues]], dan [[Merpati_biru_réunion|merpati biru réunion]].<ref name="Extinct Birds">{{cite book|last1=Hume|first1=J. P.|first2=M.|last2=Walters|year=2012|title=Extinct Birds|publisher=A & C Black|location=London|pages=134–136|isbn=978-1-4081-5725-1}}</ref> Merpati biru mungkin manjajah [[Kepulauan_Mascarenhas|Mascarenes]], [[Seychelles|Seychelles]], atau [[Titik_panas_(geologi)|pulau titik panas]] nan kiniko tarandam malalui "pulau hopping" nan barevolusi manjadi genus babeda di situ sabalun mancapai [[:id:Madagaskar|Madagaskar]].<ref name="Lost Land p22">{{cite book|last1=Cheke|first1=A. S.|first2=J. P.|last2=Hume|year=2008|title=Lost Land of the Dodo: an Ecological History of Mauritius, Réunion & Rodrigues|pages=22–115|publisher=T. & A. D. Poyser|location=New Haven and London|isbn=978-0-7136-6544-4}}</ref> Kerabat genetik tadakek mareka adolah merpati babulu tabalah, [[Drepanoptila_holosericea|''Drepanoptila holosericea'']], dari [[Kaledonia_Baru|Kaledonia Baru]], nan mano mareka tapisah 8–9 juta tahun nan lampau.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pereira|first1=S. L.|last2=Johnson|first2=K. P.|last3=Clayton|first3=D. H.|last4=Baker|first4=A. J.|year=2007|title=Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences support a Cretaceous origin of Columbiformes and a dispersal-driven radiation in the Paleogene|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_2007-08_56_4/page/656|journal=Systematic Biology|volume=56|issue=4|pages=656–672|doi=10.1080/10635150701549672|pmid=17661233|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kalompok nenek moyang mareka tampaknyo adolah [[:id:Walik|merpati buah]] (''Ptilinopus'') di [[:id:Asia_Tenggara|Asia Tenggara]] jo [[:id:Oseania|Oseania]].<ref name="Shapiro 2002">{{cite journal|last1=Shapiro|first1=B.|last2=Sibthorpe|first2=D.|last3=Rambaut|first3=A.|last4=Austin|first4=J.|last5=Wragg|first5=G. M.|last6=Bininda-Emonds|first6=O. R. P.|last7=Lee|first7=P. L. M.|last8=Cooper|first8=A.|date=2002|title=Flight of the Dodo|url=http://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/dodo_Shapiro02.pdf|journal=Science|volume=295|issue=5560|pages=1683|doi=10.1126/science.295.5560.1683|pmid=11872833}} [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/295/5560/1683/DC1 Supplementary information] (HTML abstract) [http://evolve.zoo.ox.ac.uk/papers/Shapiro+et+al+%282002%29+Science.pdf Free PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925071455/http://evolve.zoo.ox.ac.uk/papers/Shapiro+et+al+%282002%29+Science.pdf|date=2006-09-25}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20031229082732/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/295/5560/1683/DC1 Supplementary information]</ref> == Spesies == Genus iko mancakuik limo spesies nan masih ado atau baru punah:<ref name="ioc">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/pigeons/|title=Pigeons|year=2020|editor1-last=Gill|editor1-first=Frank|editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist)|editor2-last=Donsker|editor2-first=David|work=IOC World Bird List Version 10.1|publisher=International Ornithologists' Union|accessdate=11 March 2020|editor3-last=Rasmussen|editor3-first=Pamela|editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen}}</ref> * † [[Merpati_biru_mauritius|Merpati biru mauritius]] (''Alectroenas nitidissimus'') [[Kepunahan|punah]] * [[Merpati_biru_madagaskar|Merpati biru madagaskar]] (''Alectroenas madagascariensis'') * [[Merpati_biru_komoro|Merpati biru komoro]] (''Alectroenas sganzini'') * [[Merpati_biru_seychelles|Merpati biru seychelles]] (''Alectroenas pulcherrimus'') * † [[Merpati_biru_providence|Merpati biru providence]] (''Alectroenas'' sp.) punah Duo spesies nan punah pado zaman prasejarah mungkin tamasuak dalam genus iko: * † [[Merpati_biru_rodrigues|Merpati biru rodrigues]] (''Alectroenas payandeei'') * † Merpati biru réunion (''Alectroenas'' sp.) == Deskripsi == Dibandiangkan jo merpati lainnyo, merpati biru barukuran sadang hinggo gadang, kebadagokar, serta mampunyoi sayok jo ikua nan relatif panjang. Mareka sadonyo mamounyoi [[Bulu_leher|bulu talia]] nan babeda di kapalo dajo talia. ''[[Tibiotarsus|Tibiotarsus]]'' relatif panjang jo''[[Tarsometatarsus|tarsometatarsus]]'' pendek.<ref name="Mascarene Pigeons">{{cite journal|last=Hume|first=J.P.|year=2011|title=Systematics, morphology, and ecology of pigeons and doves (Aves: Columbidae) of the Mascarene Islands, with three new species|journal=Zootaxa|volume=3124|issue=1|pages=1–62|doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3124.1.1}} [http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2011/f/z03124p062f.pdf First page ]</ref> == Referensi == {{Reflist}} qyjn0faopjorynfc1msxslgwsvms0kr 0 475244 3351315 3350466 2026-08-05T23:10:50Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351315 wikitext text/x-wiki Teori manajemen teror (TMT) adolah teori psikologi sosial jo evolusioner nan awalnyo diusulan dek ''Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon'' jo ''Tom Pyszczynski''<ref name=":0">Greenberg, J.; Pyszczynski, T.; Solomon, S. (1986). "The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory". Dalam R. F. Baumeister. ''Public Self and Private Self''. New York: Springer-Verlag. hlm. 189–212.</ref> jo dikodean dalam bukunyo bajudul ''The Worm at the Core: On the Role of Death in Life'' (2015). Teori iko mangusulan bahwasanyo konflik psikologis dasar muncua dari mampunyoi naluri palastarian diri sambil manyadari bahwa kamatian indak dapek dihindari jo sampai bateh tatantu indak dapek diprediksi. Konflik iko manghasilan teror, nan dikalola malalui kombinasi eskapisme jo keyakinan budaya nan batindak untuak malawan realitas biologis dengan bantuak makna jo nilai nan labiah signifikan jo tahan lamo—pado dasarnyo malawan katidakpantiangan pribadi nan diwakili dek kamatin dengan signifikansi nan diagiah dek budaya simbolik.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Solomon, S.; Greenberg, J.; Pyszczynski, T. (1991). "A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews". ''Advances in Experimental Social Psychology''. '''24''' (93): 159.</ref> == Pangalolaan kacamehan akan kamatian == Contoh paliang jaleh dari nilai-nilai budaya nan mangurangi kacamehan kamatian adolah nilai-nilai nan mangklaim manawaran keabadian literal (misalnyo, kapacayoan pado kahidupan sasudah kamatian malalui agamo).<ref>Jonas, E.; Fischer, P. (2006). "Terror management and religion: evidence that intrinsic religiousness mitigates worldview defense following mortality salience". ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology''. '''91''' (3): 553–567. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.553. <nowiki>PMID 16938037</nowiki>. S2CID 45201747.</ref> Namun, TMT juo bapandapek bahwa nilai-nilai budaya lainnyo—tamasuak nan tampaknyo indak takaik jo kamatian manawaran kaabadian simbolik. Misalnyo, nilai-nilai identitas nasional, katurunan, perspektif budaya tentang seks, jo superioritas manusia ateh hewan alah dikaikan jo mananangan kekhawatiran kamatian. Dalam banyak kasus, nilai-nilai iko dianggap manawaran kaabadian simbolik, malalui; * Maagiah raso bahwa sasaurang adolah bagian dari sasuatu nan labiah gadang nan pado akhirnyo akan mangatasi individu (misalnyo negara, garih katurunan, spesies), atau * Mambuek identitas simbolik sasaurang labiah unggul daripado sifaik biologis (yaitu sasaurang adolah kapribadian, nan mambuek sasaurang labiah dari sakadar gumpalan sel). Karano nilai-nilai budaya mampangaruhi apo nan bararti, nilai-nilai tasabuik marupokan dasar bagi harga diri. TMT manggambaran harga diri sabagai ukuran pribadi jo subjektif tentang sabarapo elok individu manjalani nilai-nilai budaya inyo. == Akar pemikiran jo pangaruah Ernest Becker == Teori manajemen teror dikambangkan dek psikolog sosial ''Greenberg, Solomon'', dan ''Pyszczynski.'' Namun, gagasan TMT barasa dari karya nonfiksi pamanang panghargaan Pulitzer tahun 1973 karya antropolog Ernest Becker ''The Denial of Death'' yang juo alah ditajamahan kadalam Bahaso Indonesia dengan judul Penyangkalan Terhadap Kematian bapandapaik bahwa sabagian gadang tindakan manusia dilakuan untuak mangabaikan atau manghindari kapastian kamatian. Kangerian akan kahancuran total manciptakan kacamehan nan baitu mandalam, maskipun acok kali basifaik bawah sadar sahinggo manusia mahabisan hiduiknyo untuak mancubo mamahaminyo. Dalam skala gadang, masyarkat mambangun simbol sarupo hukum, makna, agamo, budaya, jo sistem kepercayaan untuak manjalehan signifikansi kahidupan, mandefinisian karakteristik tatantu nan luar biaso, maagiah panghargaan kapado inyo nan dianggap mancaminan atribut tatantu, sarato mahukum atau manyingkiran inyo-inyo nan indak sasuai jo pandangan dunia budaya. Kataatan tahadok simbol iko mambantu maredakan takanan nan takaik jo kanyataan akan kamatiaan. Pado tingkek individu, harago diri bafungsi sabagai panyangga tahadok kacamehan takaik jo kamatian. ==Bibliografi== *[[Ernest Becker|Becker, Ernest]] diterjemahkan ke Bahasa Indonesia (2004). "The Denial of Death Penyangkalan Terhadap Kematian", Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia (KPG). {{ISBN|978-623-134-195-2 * [[Ernest Becker|Becker, Ernest]] (1973). ''The Denial of Death'', The Free Press. {{ISBN|0-02-902380-7}} * Pyszczynski, Thomas; Solomon, Sheldon; Greenberg, Jeff (2003). ''In the Wake of 9/11: The Psychology of Terror'', American Psychological Association. {{ISBN|1-55798-954-0}} * Solomon, Sheldon, Greenberg, J. & Pyszczynski, T. (1991) "A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of esteem and cultural worldviews", in M. P. Zanna (Ed.) ''Advances in Experimental Social Psychology'', Volume 24, Academic Press, pp.&nbsp;93–159. {{ISBN|0-12-015224-X}} == Rujuakan == <references /> ==Bacoan lanjuik== * {{en}} {{cite journal | url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/v044/44.1curtis.html | author = Curtis, V. |author2=Biran, A. | year = 2001 | title = Dirt, disgust, and disease: Is hygiene in our genes? | journal = Perspectives in Biology and Medicine | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–31 | doi = 10.1353/pbm.2001.0001 | pmid=11253302 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.324.760 | s2cid = 15675303 }} * {{en}} {{cite book | url=http://www.human-nature.com/darwin/emotion/contents.htm | author = Darwin, C. | orig-year = 1872 | year=1998 | title = The expression of the emotions in man and animals | edition=3rd | location = London | publisher = Harper Collins }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | author = Florian, V. | author2=Mikulincer, M. | year = 1997 | title = Fear of death and the judgment of social transgressions: a multidimensional test of terror | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1997-08_73_2/page/n146 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | issn=0022-3514 | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 369–80 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.73.2.369 | pmid = 9248054 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | author = Goldenberg, J.L. |author2=Pyszczynski, T. |author3=Greenberg, J. |author4=Solomon, S. |author5=Kluck, B. |author6=Cornwell, R. | year = 2001 | title = I am not an animal: Mortality salience, disgust, and the denial of human creatureliness | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 130 | issue = 3 | pages = 427–435 | pmid = 11561918 | doi = 10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.427 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | author = Greenberg, J. |author2=Pyszczynski, T. |author3=Solomon, S. |author4=Rosenblatt, A. |author5=Veeder, M. |author6= Kirkland, S. | year = 1990 | title = Evidence for terror management theory. II: The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who threaten or bolster the cultural worldview | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | issn=0022-3514 | volume = 58 | issue = 2 | pages = 308–318 | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=6811697 | format=Fee required | access-date = 2007-07-27 | id=13817, 35400000600727.0100 (INIST-CNRS) | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.308 | citeseerx=10.1.1.454.2378 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | author = Greenberg, J. |author2=Solomon, S. |author3=Pyszczynski, T. | year = 1997 | title = Terror management theory of self-esteem and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements | journal = Advances in Experimental Social Psychology | volume = 29 | issue = S 61 | pages = 139 | doi=10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60016-7 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | author = Hansen, J |author2=Winzeler, S |author3=Topolinski, S | year = 2010 | title = When death makes you smoke: a terror management perspective on the effectiveness of cigarette on-pack warnings | journal = Journal of Experimental Social Psychology | volume = 46 | pages = 226–228 | doi = 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.09.007 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | author = Hirschberger, G. |author2=Florian, V. |author3=Mikulincer, M. | year = 2003 | title = Striving for romantic intimacy following partner complaint or partner criticism: A terror management perspective | journal = Journal of Social and Personal Relationships | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 675–687 | doi = 10.1177/02654075030205006 |s2cid=144657212 }} * {{en}} {{cite magazine | author = Judis, J.B. | date = August 27, 2007 | title = Death grip: How political psychology explains Bush's ghastly success | magazine = New Republic }} * {{en}} {{cite book | author = Lazarus, R.S. | year = 1991 | title = Emotion and adaptation | location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-506994-5 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | author = Mikulincer, M. |author2=Florian, V. |author3=Hirschberger, G. | year = 2003 | title = The existential function of close relationships: Introducing death into the science of love | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–40 | doi = 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0701_2 | pmid = 12584055 |s2cid=11600574 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | author = Pyszczynski, T. |author2=Greenberg, J. |author3=Solomon, S. | year = 1997 | title = Why do we need what we need? A terror management perspective on the roots of human social motivation | journal = Psychological Inquiry | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–20 | doi = 10.1207/s15327965pli0801_1 }} *{{cite journal | author = Pyszczynski, T. |author2=Greenberg, J. |author3=Solomon, S. | year = 1999 | title = A dual process model of defense against conscious and unconscious death-related thoughts: An extension of terror management theory | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-review_1999-10_106_4/page/835 | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 106 | issue = 4 | pages = 835–845 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.835 | pmid=10560330 |s2cid=2655060 }} *{{cite journal | author = Rosenblatt, A. |author2=Greenberg, J. |author3=Solomon, S. |author4=Pyszczynski, T. |author5=Lyon, D. | year = 1989 | title = Evidence for terror management theory: I. The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who violate or uphold cultural values | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1989-10_57_4/page/681 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | issn=0022-3514 | volume = 57 | issue = 4 | pages = 681–90 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.681 | pmid = 2795438 | citeseerx=10.1.1.457.5862 }} *{{cite journal | author = Royzman, E.B. | author2=Sabini, J. | year = 2001 | title = Something it takes to be an emotion: The interesting case of disgust | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-for-the-theory-of-social-behaviour_2001-03_31_1/page/n31 | journal = Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–59 | doi = 10.1111/1468-5914.00145 }} *{{cite journal | author = Shehryar, O. |author2=Hunt, D.M. | year = 2005 | title = A terror management perspective on the persuasiveness of fear appeals | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-consumer-psychology_2005_15_4/page/n6 | journal = Journal of Consumer Psychology | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 275–287 | doi = 10.1207/s15327663jcp1504_2 |s2cid=18866874 }} *{{cite journal | author = Simon, L. |author2=Arndt, J. |author3=Greenberg, J. |author4=Pyszczynski, T. |author5=Solomon, S. | year = 1998 | title = Terror management and meaning: Evidence that the opportunity to defend the worldview in response to mortality salience increases the meaningfulness of life in the mildly depressed | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 66 | issue = 3359–382 | doi = 10.1111/1467-6494.00016 | pages = 359–382 |pmid=9615422 |hdl=10150/187250 | hdl-access = free }} *{{cite journal | author = Simon, L. |author2=Greenberg, J. |author3=Harmon-Jones, E. |author4=Solomon, S. |author5=Pyszczynski, T. |author6=Arndt, J. |author7=Abend, T. | year = 1997 | title = Terror management and Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory: Evidence that terror management occurs in the experiential system | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1997-05_72_5/page/n189 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 72 | issue = 5 | pages = 1132–1146 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1132 | pmid = 9150588 }} *{{cite book | author = Greenberg, J. |author2=Koole, S. L. |author3=Pyszczynski, T. | year = 2004 | title = Handbook of experimental existential psychology | publisher = Guilford Press | isbn = 978-1-59385-040-1 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal | last1=Cohen | first1=Florette | last2=Solomon | first2=Sheldon | last3=Maxfield | first3=Molly | last4=Pyszczynski | first4=Tom | last5=Greenberg | first5=Jeff | title=Fatal Attraction | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-science_2004-12_15_12/page/n54 | journal=Psychological Science | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=15 | issue=12 | year=2004 | issn=0956-7976 | doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00765.x | pages=846–851| pmid=15563330 | s2cid=16787928 }} * {{en}} {{cite journal |author = Van Tilburg, W. A. P. |author2 = Igou, E. R |year = 2011 |title = On the meaningfulness of existence: When life salience boosts adherence to worldviews |journal = European Journal of Social Psychology |volume = 41 |issue = 6 |pages = 740–750 |doi = 10.1002/ejsp.819 |hdl = 10344/5416 |s2cid = 142993102 |url = https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/on-the-meaningfulness-of-existence(2d1737fd-1fb0-470e-a588-6d8bb5c29b14).html |type = Submitted manuscript |hdl-access = free |access-date = 2025-01-01 |archive-date = 2022-03-31 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220331121100/https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/on-the-meaningfulness-of-existence(2d1737fd-1fb0-470e-a588-6d8bb5c29b14).html |dead-url = yes }} * {{en}} {{cite news | author = Gutierrez, C. | year = 2006 | title = Consumer attraction to luxury brand products: Social affiliation in terror management theory }} '''Membahas TMT secara panjang lebar''' * {{en}} {{cite book | author = Griffin, R. | year = 2007 | title = Fascism & Modernism | isbn = 978-1-4039-8783-9 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = New York }} '''TMT dan harga diri''' * {{en}} {{cite journal | author1 = Schmeichel, B.J. | author2= Gailliot, M.T. |author3= Filardo, E.A. | author4= McGregor, I. | author5= Gitter, S. | author6= Baumeister, R.F. | year = 2009 | title = Terror management theory and self esteem revisited: The roles of implicit and explicit self-esteem in mortality salience effects | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=96 |number=5 |pages=1077–1087 | doi=10.1037/a0015091 | pmid=19379037 | s2cid= 13740871 | url= https://semanticscholar.org/paper/5835bdaeaa3c42a7afd541ff9b6f0f3832d8d750 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Terror Management Theory}} [[Kategori:Perubahan sikap]] [[Kategori:Kognisi]] [[Kategori:Kematian]] [[Kategori:Terapi eksistensial]] [[Kategori:Teori psikologi]] jxfwsew29jzml6j6a858s16ogp0sq08 0 475456 3351267 3160984 2026-08-05T21:53:04Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351267 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Agamodi Indonesia''' mampunyoi paran nan penting dalam kahidupan masyarakat. Hal iko dinyatoan dalam ideologi bangsa [[Indonesia]], [[Pancasila]]: “Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa”. Iko adolah kompromi antaro gagasan nagara Islam jo nagara sekuler.[2] Sajumlah [[agamo]] di Indonesia bapangaruh sacaro kolektif taadok politik, [[ekonomi]] jo [[budayo]]. Manuruik hasil Sensus Penduduk Indonesia 2018, 86,7% dari 237.641.326 panduduak Indonesia adolah pamaluak [[Islam]] (Nusantara marupoan wilayah jo panduduak nan paliang banyak [[muslim]] di dunia{{Sfn|Gross|2016|p=1}}), 7,6% [[Protestanisme|Kristen Protestan]], 3,12% Kristen Katolik, 1,74% [[Agamo Hindu|Hindu]], 0,77% [[Agamo Buddha|Buddha]], 0,03% [[Konfusianisme|Konghucu]], 0,04% sarato agamo lainnyo, nan 0,36% indak ado datanyo jo indak ditanyoan. == Sajarah == Sampai awal era Masehi, urang-urang Nusantara (suku bangsa Austronesia sarato bangsa Papua) mangikuti kepercayaan jo adat-istiadat kesukuan asli.[10] Sasuai sajarah, kalompok pandatang alah manjadi pandorong utamo keanekaragaman agamo jo budayo di dalam negeri jo pandatang dari subbenua India, [[Republik Rakyaik Cino|Tiongkok]], [[Portugis|Portugal]], [[Urang Arab|Arab]], jo [[Balando]].<ref name="indency">{{Cite web|url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/indon/geness.html|title=Indonesian Religions|last=Shaw, Elliott, ed.|date=28 November 2016|publisher=PHILTAR|access-date=02-03-2019}}</ref> Bagaimanapun, hal iko alah baubah sajak babarapo parubahan alah dibuek untuak manyasuaikan budayo di Indonesia. == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Kepustakaan == === Dalam bahaso Indonesia/Melayu === {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite journal |last=Ali |first=Wan Zailan Kamaruddin Wan |date=1994–95 |title=Aliran Syi'ah di Nusantara: perkembangan. Pengaruh dan Kesan |pages=67–93 |url=https://ejournal.um.edu.my/index.php/SEJARAH/article/view/9020/6369 |journal=Sejarah: Jurnal Jabatan Sejarah Universiti Malaya |volume=3 |issue=3 |issn=1985-0611 |doi=10.22452/sejarah.vol3no3.4 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Amrulla. |given=Abdul Malik Karim |authorlink=Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah |year=1982 |orig-year=1963|title=Dari Perbendaharaan Lama: Menyingkap Sejarah Islam di Indonesia |place=Jakarta |publisher=Pustaka Panjimas|isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Anwa. |given=Rosihan |authorlink=Rosihan Anwar|year=1971|title=Jatuh Bangun Pergerakan Islam di Indonesia|place=Jakarta |publisher=Kartika Tama|isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Aritonan. |given=Jan S. (Pdt. Dr. Jan S. Aritonang)|year=1995|title=Berbagai aliran di dalam dan di sekitar gereja|place=Singapore|publisher=BPK Gunung Mulia|url={{Google books|id=iTvXDeVZchEC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=978-979-415-796-1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Atjeh |given=Aboebakar (Prof. Dr. KH. Aboebakar Atjeh) |authorlink=Aboebakar Atjeh |year=1971 |title=Sekitar Masuknya Islam di Indonesia |place=[[Semarang]] |publisher=Ramadhani |isbn= |url=https://www.academia.edu/27918415/SEKITAR_MASUKNYA_ISLAM_KE_INDONESIA_by_Abu_Bakar_Aceh_ |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Atjeh|given=Aboebakar (Prof. Dr. KH. 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As'ad El|year=1977|title=Aliran-aliran Kepercayaan dan Kebatinan di Indonesia |place=Jakarta |publisher=Ghalia Indonesia |url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Hasymi|given=Ali|year=1981 |title=Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam di Indonesia |place=[[Bandung]] |publisher=Al Ma’arif’ |url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Hasymi|given=Ali|year=1983 |title=Syi’ah dan Ahlussunnah: Saling Rebut Pengaruh dan Kekuasaan Sejak Awal Sejarah Islam di Kepulauan Nusantara|place=[[Surabaya]]|publisher=Bina Ilmu|url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia|surname=Heuken|given=Adolf (Adolf Heuken, S.J.)|authorlink=Adolf Heuken|year=2004–2006 |encyclopedia=Ensiklopedi gereja|place=Jakarta |publisher=Yayasan Cipta Loka Caraka|volume=9 jld |url= |isbn=9799722950|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |author=Hurmain |year=1991 |title=Aliran kepercayaan terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa dan mistikisme dalam Islam |place= |publisher=Bumi Pustaka |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=3ysXAAAAIAAJ&hl=ru&source=gbs_book_similarbooks |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Husain|given=Sarkawi B. (Dr. Sarkawi B. Husain, M.Hum)|year=2017|title=Sejarah Masyarakat Islam Indonesia|place=Surabaya|publisher=[[Universitas Airlangga|Airlangga University press]]|pages=|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=QsOCDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A6026606475&hl=ru&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-602-6606-47-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname1=Ilyas |given1=Abd. Mutholib (Drs.) |surname2=Imam |given2=Abd. Ghofur (Drs.) |year=1988 |title=Aliran kepercayaan & kebatinan di Indonesia |place=Jakarta |publisher=Amin |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=byoeAAAAMAAJ&hl=ru&source=gbs_book_similarbooks |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |surname=Imam |given=Suwarno S. |year=2005 |title=Konsep Tuhan, manusia, mistik dalam berbagai Kebatinan Jawa |place=Jakarta |publisher=RajaGrafindo Persada |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=3BfYAAAAMAAJ&hl=ru&source=gbs_book_similarbooks |isbn=9789797690106 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |surname=Kartapradja |given=Kamil |year=1985 |title=Aliran kebatinan dan kepercayaan di Indonesia |place=Jakarta |publisher=Yayasan Masagung |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=RtgXAAAAIAAJ&hl=ru&source=gbs_similarbooks |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite journal |author=Krismono |date=2017 |title=Salafisme di Indonesia: Ideologi, Politik Negara, dan Fragmentasi |issue=2 |pages=173–202 |issn= |url=https://journal.uii.ac.id/Millah/article/view/8407/7322 |format=PDF |journal=Millah: Jurnal Studi Agama |publisher=[[Universitas Islam Indonesia]] |volume=16 |doi=10.20885/millah.vol16.iss2.art2 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Laffan|given=Michael (Prof.)|year=2015|orig-year=2011|title=Sejarah Islam di Indonesia|trans-title=The Makins of Indonesian Islam: orientalism and the narration of a Sufi past|place=Yogyakarta|publisher=Bentang|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=GPdUCwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=Islam%20di%20Indonesia&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Islam%20di%20Indonesia&f=false|isbn=978-602-291-058-9|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Mantra|given=Ida Bagus|year=1958 |title=Pengertian Siva–Buddha Dalam Sejarah Indonesia |place=[[Malang]]|publisher=t.p. |url= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname1=Maria |given1=Siti (Dra.) |surname2=Limbeng |given2=Julianus (S.Sn., M.Si.) |year=2007 |title=Marapu di Pulau Sumba, Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur |place=Jakarta |publisher=Departemen Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata; Direktorat Jenderal Nilai Budaya, Seni dan Film; Direktorat Kepercayaan Terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa |series=Seri pengungkapan nilai-nilai kepercayaan komunitas adat |format=PDF |url=http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/13205/ |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Mufid|given=Ahmad Syafi'i|year=2006|title=Tangklukan, abangan, dan tarekat: kebangkitan agama di Jawa|place=Jakarta|publisher=Yayasan Obor Indonesia|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=lBWsPc8y22wC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=979-461-593-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Mulder|given=Niels |authorlink=Niels Mulder |year=1980 |orig-year=1978 |title=Kebatinan dan Hidup Sehari-hari Orang Jawa: Kelangsungan dan Perubahan Kulturil |trans-title=Mysticism and Everyday Life in Contemporery Java: cultural persistence and change |place=Jakarta |publisher=[[Gramedia Pustaka Utama|Gramedia]] |url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Mulyati|given=Sri (Dr. Hj. Sri Mulyati, MA)|year=2010|title=Peran Edukasi Tarekat Qadariyyah Naqsabandiyyah Dengan Referensi Utama Suryalaya|place=Jakarta|publisher=Kencana|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=jNYvDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A9791486735&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-979-1486-73-6|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Popov |given=Igor (Dr. Igor Popov, LLM) |year=2017 |title=Buku rujukan semua aliran dan perkumpulan agama di Indonesia |url=http://indonesiafaiths.blogspot.com/p/book-index.html |place=[[Singaraja (kota)|Singaraja]] |publisher=Toko Buku Indra Jaya |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Rasjidi|given=Mohammad (Prof. Dr. H. Mohammad Rasjidi) |authorlink=Mohammad Rasjidi |year=1967|title=Islam dan Kebatinan |isbn= |place=Jakarta|publisher=Bulan Bintang |url=|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|authorlink=Merle Ricklefs|year=2013|orig-year=2012 |title=Mengislamkan Jawa: Sejarah Islamisasi di Jawa dan penentangnya dari 1930 sampai sekarang |trans-title=Islamisation and its opponents in Java: A political, social, cultural and religious history, c. 1930 to the present |place=Jakarta |publisher=Serambi Ilmu Semesta |url= |isbn=978-9790244085 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |author=Romdon |year=1993 |title=Tashawwuf dan aliran kebatinan: perbandingan antara aspek-aspek mistikisme Islam dengan aspek-aspek mistikisme Jawa |place=Yogyakarta |publisher=Lembaga Studi Filsafat Islam |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=517YAAAAMAAJ&hl=ru&source=gbs_book_similarbooks |isbn=9789795670018 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|author=Saifullah|author-mask=Saifullah (Dr. H. Saifullah, SA, MA)|year=2010|title=Sejarah & Kebudayaan Islam di Asia Tenggara |place=Yogyakarta |publisher=Pustaka Pelajar |isbn=978-602-8764-68-1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Saksono|given=Ign. Gatut |year=2007|title=Paranormal. Peran dan Tanggung Jawab Moralnya|place=Yogyakarta|publisher=Yayasan Pustaka Nusantara |url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Sastroatmodjo |given=Suryanto |year=1952|title=Masyarakat Samin Blora |place=Jakarta |publisher=Penerbit Central Jawa|url= |isbn=|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |author=Simuh |authorlink=Simuh |author-mask=Simuh (Dr.) |year=1995 |title=Sufisme Jawa: transformasi tasawuf Islam ke mistik Jawa |place=Yogyakarta |publisher=[[Yayasan Bentang Budaya]] |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=5C3GDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=ru&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|author=Solahudin|year=2011|title=NII Sampai JI: Salafy Jihadisme di Indonesia |place=[[Depok]] |publisher=Komunitas Bambu |url= |isbn=979-373-195-8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Stange |given=Paul (Dr.) |year=2009 |title=Kejawen Modern: Hakikat dalam Penghayatan Sumaroh |translator=Chandra Utama |place=Yogyakarta |publisher=[[Yayasan LKiS|LKiS]] |url=https://paulstange.net/politikperhatian.pdf |format=PDF |isbn=978-979-978-53-8-1 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |surname=Stange |given=Paul (Dr.) |year=2007 |orig-year=1998 |title=Politik Perhatian: Rasa dalam Kebudayaan Jawa |place=Yogyakarta |publisher=[[Yayasan LKiS|LKiS]] |edition=2 |format=PDF |url=https://paulstange.net/politikperhatian.pdf |isbn=978-979-1283-08-3 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Stuart-Fox|given=David J. |year=2010|orig-year=2002|title=Pura Besakih: Pura, agama, dan masyarakat Bali|trans-title=Pura Besakih: Temple, religion and society in Bali |place=[[Denpasar]]; Jakarta |publisher=Pustaka Larasan; [[Universitas Udayana|Udayana University Press]]; KITLV-Jakarta |url= |isbn=978-979-3790-36-7|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Subagiasta|given=I Ketut |year=2009|title=Reformasi Agama Hindu Dalam Perubahan Sisial Di Bali 1950-1959|place=[[Surabaya]] |publisher=Pāramita |url= |isbn=978-979-722-805-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Subagya|given=Rakhmat |year=1969 |title=Agama asli Indonesia: penelahan dan penilaian theologis |place=[[Medan]] |publisher=Pro Manuscripto |url= |series=Seri Puskat, jld. 95 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Subagya|given=Rahmat |year=1973 |title=Kepercayaan: Kebatinan–Kerohanian–Kejiwaan dan agama |place=Yogyakarta |publisher=[[Kanisius]] |url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname1=Sucipto |given1=Toto (Drs.) |surname2=Limbeng |given2=Julianus, S.Sn., M.Si. |editor=Dra. Siti Maria |year=2007 |title=Studi Tentang Religi Masyarakat Baduy di Desa Kanekes Provinsi Banten |place=Jakarta |publisher=Departemen Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata; Direktorat Jenderal Nilai Budaya, Seni dan Film; Direktorat Kepercayaan Terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=qgLFCgAAQBAJ&dq=bibliogroup%3A |series=Seri pengungkapan nilai-nilai kepercayaan komunitas adat |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|author=Sukamto|year=2018|title=Perjumpaan Antarpemeluk Agama di Nusantara: Masa Hindu-Buddha Sampai Sebelum Masuknya Portugis|place=Yogyakarta|publisher=Deepublish|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=B1BmDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PR1&hl=ru&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-602-475-476-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Suparyanto |given=Petrus |year=2019 |title=Bhīma's Mistical Quest: As a Model of Javanese Spiritual Growth |place=[[Wien]] |publisher=Lit |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=k1atDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor |isbn=978-3-643-90883-4 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Syukur|given=Abdul|year=2010|chapter=Keterlibatan etnis Tionghoa dan agama Buddha: Sebelub dan Sesudah Reformasi 1998|editor-surname1=Wibowi|editor-given1=I.|editor-surname2=Lan|editor-given2=Thung Ju|title=Setelah air mata kering: masyarakat Tionghoa pasca-peristiwa Mei 1998|place=Jakarta|publisher=[[Kompas Gramedia|Kompas]]|pages=105–38|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ac-xhxQXfpoC&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A9797094723&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-979-709-472-0|ref=harv}} {{refend}} === Dalam bahaso Inggris === {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book |surname=Abuza |given=Zachary |year=2007 |title=Political Islam and Violence in Indonesia |place=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url={{Google books|id=GcnJBWtR8okC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=978-0-415-39401-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|editor-surname1=Acri|editor-given1=Andrea |editor-surname2=Creese |editor-given2=Helen |editor-surname3=Griffiths |editor-given3=Arlo |year=2011 |title=From Lanka Eastwards: The Ramayaṇa in the Literature and Visual Arts of Indonesia |place=[[Leiden]] |publisher=KITLV Press|url=|isbn=|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |year=2008 |editor-surname1=Aritonang |editor-given1=Jan Sihar |editor-surname2=Steenbrink |editor-given2=Karel |title=A History of Christianity in Indonesia |place=[[Leiden]]; [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=cUoGJSs9yOUC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=978-90-04-17026-1 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |surname=Azra |given=Azyumardi |year=2006 |title=Islam in the Indonesian World: An Account of Institutional Formation |place=[[Bandung]] |publisher=Mizan Pustaka |isbn=979-433-430-8 |ref=harv |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ePSkf-DHu5YC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PP2#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite book|surname=Bakker|given=Frederik Lambertus |year=1993|title=The Struggle of the Hindu Balinese Intellectuals: Developments in Modern Hindu Thinking in Independent Indonesia|place=[[Amsterdam]] |publisher=VU University Press |url= |isbn=978-9053832219 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Beatty |given=Andrew |year=1999 |title=Varieties of Javanese Religion: An Anthropological Account |place=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=5iRLUvvzbz4C&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PR6#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=0-521-62444-4 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Belo|given=Jane|year=1960|title=Trance in Bali|place=New York|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|url=https://archive.org/details/tranceinbali0000belo|isbn=|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last1=Benda|first1=Harry J.|last2=Castles|first2=Lance|title=The Samin Movement|date=1969|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/125/2/article-p207_2.xml|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia|volume=125|issue=2|pages=207-40|issn=2213-4379|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Bertrand|given=Jaques|year=2004|title=Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia|place=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=2oZQRuT78JIC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PR5#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0-521-52441-5|oclc=237830260|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Brown|first=Iem |title=Contemporary Indonesian Buddhism and Monotheism |date=1987|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies_march-september-1987_18_1-2/page/108|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=18|issue=1|pages=108-17|doi= |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Brown|first=Iem|date=1990 |title=Agama Buddha Maitreya: A Modern Buddhist Sect in Indonesia |url= |journal=Southeast Asian Anthropology |volume= |issue=9 |pages= |doi= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Budiman |given=Michaela |year=2013 |title=Contemporary Funeral Rituals of Sa'dan Toraja: From Aluk Todolo to "New" Religions |place=[[Praha|Prague]] |publisher=Charles University in Prague |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=lEM3BAAAQBAJ&lpg=PA1&dq=Contemporary%20Funeral%20Rituals%20of%20Sa'dan%20Toraja%3A%20From%20Aluk%20Todolo&hl=ru&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q=Contemporary%20Funeral%20Rituals%20of%20Sa'dan%20Toraja:%20From%20Aluk%20Todolo&f=false |isbn=978-80-246-2228-6 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Buehler|given=Michael|year=2016|title=The Politics of Shari’a Law: Islamist Activist and the State in Democratizing Indonesia|place=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=gJC5DAAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-1-107-13022-7|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Burhani|first=Ahmad Najib|title=The Ahmadiyya and the Study of Comparative Religion in Indonesia: Controversies and Influences|date=2014|url=http://advokasi.elsam.or.id/assets/2015/09/20131220_Ahmadiyya-the-study-of-Comparative-Religion_Najib.pdf|format=PDF|journal=Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations|volume=25|issue=2|pages=141–58|doi=10.1080/09596410.2013.864191|ref=harv|access-date=2019-03-14|archive-date=2021-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612171216/http://advokasi.elsam.or.id/assets/2015/09/20131220_Ahmadiyya-the-study-of-Comparative-Religion_Najib.pdf|dead-url=yes| issn=0959-6410}} * {{cite book |editor-surname1=Burhanudin |editor-given1=Jajat |editor-surname2=Dijk |editor-given2=Kees van |title=Islam in Indonesia. Contrasting Images and Interpretations |year=2013 |place=Amsterdam |publisher=[[Universitas Amsterdam|Amsterdam University Press]] |isbn= |url= |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Chambert-Loir|first=Henri |date=April 2015|title=Confucius Crosses the South Seas|journal=Indonesia|volume=99|issue= |pages=67–107 |publisher=Southeast Asia Program Publications at [[Cornell University]] |doi=10.5728/indonesia.99.0067 |issn=2164-8654 |url= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Cheu |given=Hock Tong |year=1999 |title=Chinese Beliefs and Practices in Southeast Asia: Studies on the Chinese Religion in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia |place=Singapore |isbn=978-9679784527 |url=https://books.google.co.id/books/about/Chinese_Beliefs_and_Practices_in_Southea.html?id=tHXXAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |publisher=Pelanduk Publications |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Cooley|given=Frank L.|year=1968 |title=Indonesia: Church and Society |place=New York |publisher=Friendship Press|url= |isbn=978-0377180215 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Crouch |given=Melissa |year=2013 |title=Law and Religion in Indonesia: Conflict and the Courts in West Java |place=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415835947 |ref=harv |url=https://taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134508297 }} * {{cite book |surname=Domenig |given=Gaudenz |year=2014 |title=Religion and Architecture in Premodern Indonesia: Studies in Spatial Anthropology |place=Leiden; [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=MDNnAwAAQBAJ&lpg=PR1&dq=isbn%3A9004274073&hl=ru&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=978-90-04-27400-6 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Duncan|given=Christopher R.|year=2013|title=Violence and Vengeance: Religious Conflict and Its Aftermath in Eastern Indonesia|place=Ithaca, NY; London|publisher=[[Cornell University]] Press|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=bcimAQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&ots=wRLmqNpF10&lr&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0-8014-7913-7|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Epton|given=Nina Consuelo|year=1974|edition=revised|title=Magic and Mysticism in Java|place=London|publisher=Octagon Press|url=https://archive.org/details/magicmysticsofja00epto|isbn=978-0900860393|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Federspiel|given=H.|year=1970 |title=Persatuan Islam: Islamic Reform in Twentieth century Indonesia |place=Ithaca, NY|publisher=[[Cornell University]] Modern Indonesia Project|url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia|surname=Fox|given=James J. |year=1996 |editor-surname=Auger|editor-given=Timothy |encyclopedia=Indonesian Heritage: Religion and ritual |url= |place=Singapore|publisher=Archipelago Press |isbn=978-9813018587|series=Indonesian Heritage Series. Vol. 9|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Fox |given=Richard |year=2011 |title=Critical Reflections on Religion and Media in Contemporary Bali |place=[[Leiden]]; [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=VCuwCQAAQBAJ&lpg=PR1&dq=editions%3Aj7Nid_DtUnsC&hl=ru&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=978-90-04-17649-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|editor-surname1=Frederick|editor-given1=William H.|editor-surname2=Worden|editor-given2=Robert L.|year=2011|title=Indonesia: A Country Study|series=Area handbook series, 39|others=[[Library of Congress]], Federal Research Division|edition=6|place=Washington, DC|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgmXWMgWcwC|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Geels|given=Antoon|year=1997|title=Subud and the Javanese mystical tradition|place=Richmond, Surrey|publisher=Curzon Press|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=FOXnUJMknRAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Subud%20and%20the%20Javanese%20mystical%20tradition&hl=ru&pg=PP8#v=onepage&q=Subud%20and%20the%20Javanese%20mystical%20tradition&f=false|isbn=0-7007-0623-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Geertz|given=Clifford|authorlink=Clifford Geertz|year=1960|title=Religion of Java|place=Glencoe, IL|publisher=Free Press|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=-SYM4PW-YAgC&lpg=PR1&hl=ru&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Geertz|given=Clifford|authorlink=Clifford Geertz|year=1968|title=Islam Observed, Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia|place=Chicago; London|publisher=[[Pers Universitas Chicago|University of Chicago Press]]|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=d_ra-y_50GsC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0-226-28511-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|authorlink=Clifford Geertz|title=Religious Change and Social Order in Soeharto's Indonesia|journal=Asia|date=1972|volume=27|pages=62–84|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asia_autumn-1972_27/page/62|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Geertz|given=Clifford|authorlink=Clifford Geertz|year=1973|title=The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays|place=New York|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=G1cYDQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=Geertz.%20The%20Interpretation%20of%20Cultures&hl=ru&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q=Geertz.%20The%20Interpretation%20of%20Cultures&f=false|isbn=9780465097197|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Goh|given=Robbie B. 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Gordon|editor-surname2=Baumann|editor-given2=Martin|encyclopedia=Religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices|edition=2|place=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]]; Denver; Oxford|publisher=ABC-Clio|volume=4|pages=|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&printsec=frontcover&hl=ru&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-1-59884-203-6|ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia|surname=Metcalf|given=Peter |year=1987|title=Bornean Religion|editor-surname=Eliade |editor-given=Mircea|editorlink=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion|place=New York|publisher=MacMillan|volume=2|pages=290–92|url= |isbn=0029094801|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Muhaimin |given=Abdul Ghoffir |year=2006 |title=The Islamic Traditions of Cirebon: Ibadat and Adat Among Javanese Muslims |place=Canberra |publisher=[[Universitas Nasional Australia|ANU E Press]] |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2jbkqk |isbn=1-920942-30-0 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |surname=Mulder |given=Niels |authorlink=Niels Mulder |year=2005 |orig-year=1998 |title=Mysticism in Java: Ideology in Indonesia |place=Yogyakarta |publisher=[[Kanisius]] |edition=2 |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=YkXW2rZu0Y0C&lpg=PP1&dq=Mysticism%20in%20Java%3A%20Ideology%20in%20Indonesia&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Mysticism%20in%20Java:%20Ideology%20in%20Indonesia&f=false |isbn=979-21-1167-0 |ref=harv |archive-date=2020-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506235431/https://books.google.co.id/books?id=YkXW2rZu0Y0C&lpg=PP1&dq=Mysticism%20in%20Java%3A%20Ideology%20in%20Indonesia&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Mysticism%20in%20Java:%20Ideology%20in%20Indonesia&f=false |dead-url=yes}} * {{cite book |surname=Nash |given=Manning |chapter=Islamic Resurgence in Malaysia and Indonesia |chapter-url={{Google books|id=qd5yzP5hdiEC|plainurl=y|page=691|keywords=|text=}} |editor-surname=Marty |editor-given=Martin E. |editor-surname2=Appleby |editor-given2=R. Scott |year=1991 |title=Fundamentalisms Observed |series=The Fundamentalism Project, 1 |place=Chicago, Il; London |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |pages=691–739 |url={{Google books|id=qd5yzP5hdiEC|plainurl=y|page=}} |isbn=0-226-50878-1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Nooy-Palm |given=Hetty |year=1979 |title=The Sa’dan-Toraja: A study of their social life and religion. I: Organization, symbols and beliefs |place=[[The Hague]] |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |url=https://www.oxis.org/books/verhandelingen/nooy-palm-1-1979.pdf |isbn=90-247-2274-8 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Nooy-Palm |given=Hetty|year=1986 |title=The Sa’dan-Toraja: A study of their social life and religion. II: Rituals of the East and West|place=[[Leiden]]; [[Boston]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |url= |isbn=978-90-67-65207-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia|surname=Nooy-Palm |given=Hetty |year=1987|title=Toraja Religion|editor-surname=Eliade |editor-given=Mircea|editorlink=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion|place=New York|publisher=MacMillan|volume=14|pages=565–67|url= |isbn=0029094801|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Pedersen|given=Lene|year=2006 |title=Ritual and World Change in a Balinese Princedom |place=[[Durham, Carolina Utara|Durham]] |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |url= |isbn=978-1594600227 |ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia|surname=Pelras|given=Christian |year=1987|title=Bugis Religion|editor-surname=Eliade |editor-given=Mircea|editorlink=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion|place=New York|publisher=MacMillan|volume=2|pages=560–61|url= |isbn=0029094801|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|year=2011|editor-surname1=Picard|editor-given1=Michel|editor-surname2=Madinier|editor-given2=Rémy|title=The Politics of Religion in Indonesia: Syncretism, Orthodoxy, and Religious Contention in Java and Bali|place=London; New York|publisher=[[Routledge]]|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=u-CrAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PR1&hl=ru&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-979-709-472-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |year=2009 |editor-surname1=Putten |editor-given1=Jan van der |editor-surname2=Cody |editor-given2=Mary Kilcline |title=Lost Times and Untold Tales from the Malay World |place=Singapore |publisher=[[Universitas Nasional Singapura|NUS Press]] |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=r6ZQfWHzP0wC&lpg=PP1&dq=Lost%20Times%20and%20Untold%20Tales%20from%20the%20Malay%20World&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Lost%20Times%20and%20Untold%20Tales%20from%20the%20Malay%20World&f=false |isbn=978-9971-69-454-8 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Pringle|given=Robert|year=2010|title=Understanding Islam in Indonesia: Politics and Diversity|place=Singapore|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=kpv2VSKeAsUC&lpg=PA7&dq=Islam%20di%20Indonesia&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Islam%20di%20Indonesia&f=false|isbn=978-981-4260-09-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Rahman|first=Fatima Zainab |title=State restrictions on the Ahmadiyya sect in Indonesia and Pakistan: Islam or political survival?|date=2014|url= |journal=Australian Journal of Political Science|volume=49|issue=3|pages=408–22 |doi=10.1080/10361146.2014.934656|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|year=2004|editor-surname=Ramstedt|editor-given=Martin|title=Hinduism in Modern Indonesia: A minority religion between local, national, and global interest|place=London; New York|publisher=[[Routledge]]Curzon|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=-rBhGEN0RyYC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0-7007-1533-9|ref=Ramstedt}} * {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin |authorlink=Merle Ricklefs|year=2006|title=Mystic synthesis in Java: A history of Islamisation from the fourteenth to the early nineteenth centuries|url= |place=[[White Plains, New York|White Plains, NY]] |publisher=EastBridge |isbn=978-1891936616|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Ricklefs|given=Merle Calvin|authorlink=Merle Ricklefs|year=2007|title=Polarising Javanese society: Islamic and other visions c. 1830–1930|place=Singapore; [[Leiden]]; [[Honolulu]]|publisher=[[Universitas Nasional Singapura|NUS Press]]; KITLV Press; University of Hawai’i Press|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=3xxcn51j7_IC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-9971-69-346-6|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Rodgers|given=Susan|year=1981 |title=Adat, Islam, and Christianity in a Batak Homeland |place=Athens, Ohio|publisher=Ohio University |url= |isbn=978-0896801103|ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia|surname=Rodgers|given=Susan |year=1987|title=Batak Religion|editor-surname=Eliade |editor-given=Mircea|editorlink=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion|place=New York|publisher=MacMillan|volume=2|pages=81–83|url= |isbn=0029094801|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Ropi |given=Ismatu |year=2017 |title=Religion and Regulation in Indonesia |place=Singapore |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ApjZDQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR6&ots=oSvEDMdGwZ&sig=8OGm-DNLb7_6KJsbIi5rUVMULh8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=978-981-10-2826-7 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Rousseau|given=Jérôme|year=1998 |title=Kayan Religion: Ritual Life and Religious Reform in Central Borneo |place=[[Leiden]]|publisher=KITLV Press |url= |isbn=978-9067181327|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|editor-surname1=Sai |editor-given1=Siew-Min |editor-surname2=Hoon |editor-given2=Chang-Yau |title=Chinese Indonesians Peassessed. History, Religion and Belonging |year=2013 |place=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn= |url= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Sandkühler |given=Evamaria |chapter=Popularisation of Religious Traditions in Indonesia — Historical Communication of a Chinese Indonesian Place of Worship |title=Religion, Tradition and the Popular. Transcultural Views from Asia and Europe |editor1=Schlehe, Judith |editor2=Sandkühler, Evamaria |year=2014 |place=[[Bielefeld]] |publisher=transcript |pages=157–84 |isbn=978-3-8376-2613-1 |url= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |editor-surname=Saran |editor-given=Syam |year=2018 |title=Cultural and Civilisational Links between India and Southeast Asia: Historical and Contemporary Dimensions |place=Singapore |publisher=Palgrave McMillan |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Ye1lDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PR1&dq=isbn%3A9811073171&hl=ru&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=978-981-10-7316-8 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Schärer|given=Hans|year=1963 |orig-year=1946|title=Ngaju Religion: The Conception of God among a South Borneo People |place=[[The Hague]]|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff|url= |isbn=978-90-04-24799-4|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Schiller |first=Anne |year=1996 |title=An "Old" Religion in "New Order" Indonesia: Notes on Ethnicity and Religious Affiliation |journal=Sociology of Religion |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=409–17 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor-last=Schieman |editor-first=Scott |format=PDF |issn=1759-8818 |oclc=728290653 |doi=10.2307/3711895 |url=http://socrel.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/4/409.full.pdf |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |surname=Schlehe |given=Judith |chapter=Translating Traditions and Transcendence: Popularised Religiosity and the ''Paranormal'' Practitioners' Position in Indonesia |title=Religion, Tradition and the Popular. Transcultural Views from Asia and Europe |editor1=Schlehe, Judith |editor2=Sandkühler, Evamaria |year=2014 |place=[[Bielefeld]] |publisher=transcript |pages=185–201 |isbn=978-3-8376-2613-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMDWBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA201&lpg=PA201&dq=schlehe+judith&source=bl&ots=jW3xqbAxae&sig=ACfU3U3X6XIWB9A379X15ndI3XWaP50Cdg&hl=ru&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi0i4Ws0rrnAhWRX30KHTLMCfIQ6AEwEnoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=schlehe%20judith&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |surname=Schlehe |given=Judith |title=Cosmopolitanism, Pluralism and Self-Orientalisation in the Modern Mystical World of Java |journal=Asian Journal of Social Science |volume=47 |issue=3 |date=2019 |pages=185–201 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ajss/47/3/article-p364_5.xml |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |editor-surname=Schröter |editor-given=Susanne |title=Christianity in Indonesia. Perspectives of power |series=Southeast Asian Modernities, 12 |year=2010 |place=Berlin |publisher=Lit |isbn=9783643107985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?printsec=frontcover&vid=ISBN3643107986&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |surname=Segara |given=I Nyoman Yoga |title=The Future of Hindu Alukta in Tana Toraja Post-Integration With the Hindu Religion |journal=Heritage of Nusantara |volume=12 |number=2 |date=2023 |doi=10.31291/hn.v12i2.710 |url=https://heritage.kemenag.go.id/index.php/heritage/article/view/710 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Seo|given=Myengkyo|year=2013|title=State Management of Religion in Indonesia|place=London; New York|publisher=[[Routledge]]|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=GWEdAAAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=State%20Management%20of%20Religion%20in%20Indonesia&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=State%20Management%20of%20Religion%20in%20Indonesia&f=false|isbn=978-0-415-51716-4|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Shah |given=Dian A. H. |year=2017 |title=Constitutions, Religion and Politics in Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka |place=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=8ek4DwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=Constitutions%2C%20Religion%20and%20Politics%20in%20Asia%3A%20Indonesia%2C%20Malaysia&hl=ru&pg=PR6#v=onepage&q=Constitutions,%20Religion%20and%20Politics%20in%20Asia:%20Indonesia,%20Malaysia&f=falsel=ru&pg=PR6#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=978-1-107-18334-6 |ref=harv }} * {{cite journal |surname=Shiraishi |given=Takashi |title=Dangir’s Testimony: Saminism Reconstructed |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_indonesia_1990-10_50/page/95 |journal=Indonesia |date=1990 |volume=50 |pages=95–122 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Sidel|given=John T.|year=2006|title=Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/riotspogromsjiha00side|place=Ithaca, NY|publisher=[[Cornell University]] Press|isbn=978-0801473272|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Sievers|given=A.|year=1974 |title=The Mystical World of Indonesia |place=Baltimore; London|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|url=https://archive.org/details/mysticalworldofi0000siev|asin=B000Q1LA8E |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |editor-surname1=Smith |editor-given1=Rita Kipp |editor-surname2=Rodgers |editor-given2=Susan |year=1987 |title=Indonesian Religions in Transition |place=Tucson |publisher=[[Universitas Arizona|University of Arizona Press]] |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesianreligi0000unse |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Steenbrink|given=Karel|year=2003|title=Catholics in Indonesia: A documented history 1808–1942|place=[[Leiden]]|publisher=KITLV Press|volume=Vol. 1: A modest recovery 1808–1903|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=fnLQ4hmhYOsC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=90-6718-141-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Steenbrink|given=Karel|year=2007|title=Catholics in Indonesia: A documented history 1808–1942|place=[[Leiden]]|publisher=KITLV Press|volume=Vol. 2: The Spectacular Growth of a Self Confident Minority, 1903–1942|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=fnLQ4hmhYOsC&lpg=PP1&hl=ru&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=90-6718-260-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Steenbrink|given=Karel|year=2015|title=Catholics in Independent Indonesia: 1945–2010|place=[[Leiden]]; [[Boston]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|volume=|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1N8zDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PR2&hl=ru&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-90-04-28513-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|editor-surname=Swellengrebel|editor-given=J. L.|year=1960|title=Bali: Studies in Life, Thought, and Ritual |place=[[The Hague]]|publisher=W. van Hoeve |url= |asin=B00ET0VF56|isbn= |postscript=Selected studies on Bali by Dutch scholars |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|editor-surname=Swellengrebel|editor-given=J. L.|year=1969|title=Bali: Further Studies in Life, Thought, and Ritual |place=[[The Hague]] |publisher=W. van Hoeve|url= |asin=B0010P1VU2|isbn= |postscript=Selected studies on Bali by Dutch scholars |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Syryadinata|given=Leo|year=2005|chapter=Buddism and Confucianism in Contemporary Indonesia: Recent Developments|editor-surname1=Lindsey|editor-given1=Tim|editor-surname2=Pausacker|editor-given2=Helen|title=Chinese Indonesians: Remembering, Distorting, Forgetting|place=Singapore|publisher=ISEAS: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|pages=77–94|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=qkaWBgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A9812303030&hl=ru&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=981-230-303-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Volkman |given=Toby Alice |year=1985 |title=Feasts of Honor: Ritual and Change in the Toraja Highlands |place=Urbana |publisher=[[Universitas Illinois|University of Illinois Press]] |url=https://archive.org/details/feastsofhonorrit0000volk |isbn= |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|surname=Weinstock|given=Joseph |year=1983 |title=Kaharingan and the Luangan Dayaks: Religion and Identity in Central East Borneo. Thesis (Ph.D.) [[Universitas Cornell|Cornell University]] |url= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|editor-surname=Winzeler|editor-given=Robert L.|year=1993|title=The Seen and the Unseen: Shamanism, Mediumship and Possession in Borneo|pages= |place=[[Williamsburg, Va.]]|publisher=Borneo Research Council|url= |isbn=978-0962956812|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Woodward |given=Mark |title=Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Misticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta |year=1989 |place=Tucson |publisher=[[Universitas Arizona|University of Arizona Press]] |isbn= |url= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Woodward |given=Mark |title=Java, Indonesia and Islam |year=2011 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn= |url= |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Yang|first=Heriyanto|title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia|url=https://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/ep/0004/article/download/3627/3511/|format=PDF|journal=Marburg Journal of Religion|date=2005|volume=10|issue=1|pages=|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |author=Zulkifli |year=2011 |title=The struggle of Shi’is in Indonesia |place=Canberra |publisher=[[Universitas Nasional Australia|ANU E Press]] |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=IbhIAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PR3&ots=3DmMxCB6eM&dq=The%20struggle%20of%20Shi%E2%80%99is%20in%20Indonesia.%20Canberra&hl=ru&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q=The%20struggle%20of%20Shi%E2%80%99is%20in%20Indonesia.%20Canberra&f=false |isbn=978-1925021295 |ref=harv }} {{refend}} === Dalam bahaso lain === {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book |surname=Bratakesawa|given=Raden |year=1954|title=Falsafah Sitidjenar: ngrewat pangrembag paham wahdatul-wudjud (pantheisme) ing tanah Djawi, ingkang ménggok dados paham ngaken Allah tuwin ngorakaken wontenipun ingkang nitahaken (atheisme) |language=jv|pages= |place=[[Surabaya]] |publisher=Kulawarga Bratakesawa |url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|surname=Matthes|given=Benjamin F.|year=1872|title=Over de bissoe’s of heidensche priesters en priesteessen der Boeginezen |trans-title=Tentang bissu atau pendeta pagan Bugis |language=nl |place=[[Amsterdam]]|publisher= |url= |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Schefold |given=Reimar |authorlink=:en:Reimar Schefold |title=Spielzeug für die Seelen — Kunst und Kultur der Mentawai-Inseln (Indonesien) |trans-title=Mainan untuk Jiwa: seni dan budaya Mentawai (Indonesia) |year=1980 |place=Zürich |publisher=[[Museum Rietberg]] |language=de |isbn= |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |surname=Schefold |given=Reimar |authorlink=:en:Reimar Schefold |title=De wildernis als cultuur van gene ziijde: tribale concepten van "natuur" in Indonesiο |trans-title=Hutan belantara sebagai budaya masa lalu: konsep suku "alam" di Indonesia |journal=Antropologische verkenningen |date=1988 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=5–22 |language=nl |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |surname=Schlehe |given=Judith |title=Die Meereskönigin des Südens, Ratu Kidul. Geisterpolitik im javanischen Alltag |trans-title=Ratu Laut Selatan, Ratu Kidul. Politik Roh dalam Kehidupan Harian Jawa |year=1998 |place=Berlin |publisher=Dietrich Reimer |language=de|isbn=3-496-02657-X |ref=harv}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Halaman dengan argumen ganda di pemanggilan templat]] [[Kategori:Agamo di Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Islam]] [[Kategori:Protestan]] [[Kategori:Khatolik]] [[Kategori:Hindu]] [[Kategori:Budha]] 7v662gqzcd321fxbptfm0r8a57pc7cf 0 475694 3351200 3169072 2026-08-05T19:40:41Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351200 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo Kamp pambantaian Yahudi | name = Auschwitz<br />{{small|{{native name|de|Konzentrationslager Auschwitz}}}} | type = [[Kamp konsentrasi Nazi|Kamp konsentrasi]] jo [[Kamp pemusnahan|pamusnahan]] Nazi (1940–1945) | image = {{Photomontage |position = |photo1a = Auschwitz I (22 May 2010).jpg |photo2a = Birkenau múzeum - panoramio (cropped).jpg |size = 250 |spacing = 0 |color = #FFFFFF |border = 0 |foot_montage = }} | caption = ''Atas:'' Garbang Auschwitz I tatulih ''{{lang|de|[[Arbeit macht frei]]}}'' ("karajo mambebaskan Ang"){{pb}}''Bawah:'' Gerbang Auschwitz II-Birkenau. Rel kereta api, nan baroperasi dari bulan Mei hinggo Oktober 1944, mangarah langsuang ka kamar gas.<ref>{{cite web |title=The unloading ramps and selections |url=http://auschwitz.org/en/history/auschwitz-and-shoah/the-unloading-ramps-and-selections |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190121220003/http://auschwitz.org/en/history/auschwitz-and-shoah/the-unloading-ramps-and-selections |archive-date=21 Januari 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> | known for = [[Holokaus]] | location = [[Pendudukan Polandia (1939–1945)|Polandia nan bakaduduaki Jerman]] | coordinates = {{coord|50|02|09|N|19|10|42|E|region:PL-MA_type:landmark|display=inline,title}} | built by = | operated by = [[Jerman Nazi]] jo ''[[Schutzstaffel]]''}} '''Kamp konsentrasi Auschwitz''' ({{Lang-de|Konzentrationslager Auschwitz}}, {{IPA-de|kɔntsɛntʁaˈtsi̯oːnsˌlaːɡɐ ˈʔaʊʃvɪts|pron|De-Konzentrationslager_Auschwitz.ogg}}; juga '''{{lang|de|KL Auschwitz}}''' atau '''{{lang|de|KZ Auschwitz}}''') adolah kompleks [[Kamp konsentrasi Nazi|kamp konsentrasi]] jo [[kamp pemusnahan]] nan paguno dek [[Jerman Nazi]] di [[Pendudukan di Polandia (1939–1945)|Polandia nan bakaduduakinyo]] samaso [[Parang Dunia II]] jo [[Holokaus]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Auschwitz |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/auschwitz |url-status=live |access-date=2021-07-02 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |language=en |quote= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613200958/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/auschwitz |archive-date=13 Juni 2018}}</ref> Kompleks ko barisi labiah dari 40 kamp, ​​tamasuak Auschwitz I, kamp utamo (Stammlager) di Oświęcim; Auschwitz II-Birkenau, sabuah kamp konsentrasi jo pamusnahan nan dilangkoki jo ruang gas; Auschwitz III-Monowitz, sabuah kamp karajo nan dimiliki dek parusahaan kimia IG Farben; jo puluahan subkamp lainnyo. Kamp-kamp iko manjadi tampek utamo untuak palaksanaan kabijakan Solusi Akhia Nazi tantang patanyoan Yahudi. Jerman mamicu Parang Dunia II dengan manyarang Polandia pado bulan September 1939. Schutzstaffel (SS) kamudian maubah barak tantara di Auschwitz I manjadi kamp tawanan parang.{{sfn|Dwork|van Pelt|2002|p=166}} Tawanan politik partamo nan dipindahan ka Auschwitz ampia sadonyo urang Polandia. Salamo duo tahun partamo, mayoritas tahanan Auschwitz adolah urang Polandia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://auschwitz.org/en/education/study-visits/lectures/|title=Poles in Auschwitz|last=Auschwitz-Birkenau|first=Former German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp - Memorial and Museum|website=auschwitz.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812124017/http://auschwitz.org/en/education/study-visits/lectures/|archive-date=12 Agustus 2020|access-date=2021-07-08|quote=|url-status=live}}</ref> Pado bulan Mei 1940, panjahek Jerman nan dibaok ka kamp untuak manjabat sabagai panguruih kamp mamulai kajahatan taradok tahanan. Tawanan tu dipukua, disiksa dan dieksekusi jo alasan nan sepele. Pangasian gas patamo—tapi tahanan Soviet jo Polandia—dilakukan di blok 11 Auschwitz I sakitar Agustus 1941. Pambangunan Auschwitz II dimulai sabulan kamudian, dan dari tahun 1942 sampai akhia tahun 1944, urang Yahudi dari sado tampek Eropa nan diduduki Jerman diangkuik jo kareta barang ka kamar gas di Auschwitz. Dari 1,3 juta urang nan dikirim ka Auschwitz, 1,1 juta urang dibunuah. Korbannyo tamasuak 960.000 urang Yahudi (865.000 di antaronyo dibunuah jo gas baracun baitu tibo di kamp), 74.000 urang Polandia non-Yahudi, 21.000 urang Romani, 15.000 tawanan parang Soviet, jo labiah kurang 15.000 korban lainnyo.<ref name=Piperfigures>{{harvnb|Piper|2000b|pp=230–231}}; caliak pulo {{harvnb|Piper|1998b|pp=71–72}}.</ref> Korban nan indak dibunuah jo gas baracun maningga dek kalaparan, capek, panyakik, eksekusi, atau dipukua. Korban lain juo maningga akibaik eksperimen medis. Dari 802 tahanan nan mancubo kabua, hanyo 144 nan berhasil. Pado tanggal 7 Oktober 1944, duo unit Sonderkomando nan anggotnyo adolah para tahanan pangurus kamar gas maadoan pambarontakan, tapi gagal. Sasudah kamp-kamp itu dibebaskan dan Holocaust barakhia, hanyo 789 personil ''Schutzstaffel'' (kurang dari 15 persen) nan diadili.{{sfn|Lasik|2000b|p=116, n.&nbsp;19}} Sajumlah personil SS dihukum mati, tamasuak komandan Rudolf Höss. Kagagalan Sekutu untuak batindak capek sasudah manarimo laporan awal tantang pambunuahan massal masih diperdebatkan sampai kini. Samantaro Tantara Merah Soviet mandakek ka Auschwitz pado Januari 1945, SS mamaso sabagian gadang tahanan kamp untuak malakukan arak kamatian ka kamp-kamp di Jerman jo Austria. Pasukan Soviet tibo di Auschwitz pado 27 Januari 1945, hari nan diparingati sabagai Hari Peringatan Holocaust Internasional sajak 2005. Dalam puluahan tahun sasudah parang, urang-urang nan salamaik saroman Primo Levi, Viktor Frankl, jo Elie Wiesel manulih memoar jo pangalaman mareka. Pado tahun 1947, Polandia managakan Museum Nagara Auschwitz-Birkenau di tampek Auschwitz I jo II. Pado tahun 1979, situs iko dinyatoan sabagai Situs Warisan Dunia dek UNESCO. Auschwitz adolah tampek pambunuhan masal paliang gadang dalam sajarah nan dilakukan di ciek tampek.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/27/auschwitz-short-history-liberation-concentration-camp-holocaust|title=Auschwitz: a short history of the largest mass murder site in human history|last=Arnett|first=George|date=2015-01-27|website=amp.theguardian.com|access-date=2024-04-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mjhnyc.org/exhibitions/auschwitz/|title=Auschwitz. Not long ago. 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Central Issues in the History of the Camp |volume=I: The Establishment and Organization of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |date=2000a |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=Reasons for confinement in the camp and categories of prisoners |pages=11–43 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874340863|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Iwaszko |first=Tadeusz |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. 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Pamiętnik więźnia |trans-title=Auschwitz: Diary of a prisoner |journal=WIĘŹ |date=Januari 1985 |orig-year=1942 |volume=1–3 |issue=315 |pages=5–47 |publisher=Towarzystwo WIĘŹ |location=Warsaw |language=pl |url=http://www.wiez.pl/czasopismo/;s,czasopismo_szczegoly,id,215,art,6714 |access-date=27 April 2014 |archive-date=9 Agustus 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809171624/http://www.wiez.pl/czasopismo/;s,czasopismo_szczegoly,id,215,art,6714 |url-status=dead |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Krakowski |first=Shmuel |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=The Satellite Camps |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/50 50–60] |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Kubica |first=Helena |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=The Crimes of Josef Mengele |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/317 317–337] |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Kubica |first=Helena |title=Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945. Volume 1 |editor1-last=Megargee |editor1-first=Geoffrey P. |publisher=Indiana University Press, bekerja sama dengan United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |date=2009 |pages=233–234 |chapter=Budy |isbn=978-0-253-35328-3|ref=harv}}<!-- *{{cite book |last=Langbein |first=Hermann |author-link1 = Hermann Langbein |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=The Auschwitz underground |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/484 484–502] |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2}}--> *{{cite book |last=Langfus |first=Leib|author-link=Leib Langfus |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |volume=IV: The Resistance Movement |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |date=2000 |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874233579 |chapter=Appendix 3. Notes by Members of the Sonderkommando [...] The Extermination Procedure in the Bunker|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Lasik |first=Aleksander |author-link=Aleksander Lasik |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=Historical–Sociological Profile of the Auschwitz SS |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/271 271–287] |year=1998a |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Lasik |first=Aleksander |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=Rudolf Höss: Manager of Crime |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/288 288–300] |year=1998b |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Lasik |first=Aleksander |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |volume=I: The Establishment and Organization of the Camp |date=2000a |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=Organizational Structure of Auschwitz Concentration Camp |pages=145–279 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874340863|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Lasik |first=Aleksander |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |volume=V: Epilogue |date=2000b |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=The Apprehension and Punishment of the Auschwitz Concentration Camp Staff |pages=99–117 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=929235229|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Levi |first1=Primo |author-link=Primo Levi |title=If This is a Man and The Truce |title-link=If This Is a Man |date=2001 |orig-year=1947 and 1963 |publisher=Little, Brown (Abacus) |location=London |isbn=0-349-10013-6|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Levi |first1=Primo |title=The Drowned and the Saved |date=2017 |orig-year=1986 |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperbacks |location=New York |isbn=978-1-5011-6763-8 |title-link=The Drowned and the Saved|ref=harv}}<!-- *{{cite book |last1=Lifton |first1=Robert Jay |author-link1 = Robert Jay Lifton |last2=Hackett |first2=Amy |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=The Auschwitz Prisoner Administration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/363 363–378] |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2}}--> *{{cite book |last=Longerich |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Longerich |title=Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews |url=https://archive.org/details/holocaustnaziper0000long |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-280436-5 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York|ref=harv}}<!-- *{{cite book |last=Longerich |first=Peter |year=2012 |title=Heinrich Himmler: A Life |url=https://archive.org/details/heinrichhimmler0000long |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-959232-6}}--> *{{cite book |last1=Mais |first1=Yitzchak |last2=Engel |first2=David |last3=Fogelman |first3=Eva |title=Daring to Resist: Jewish Defiance in the Holocaust |year=2007 |publisher=Museum of Jewish Heritage |location=New York |isbn=978-0-9716859-2-5|ref=harv}}<!-- *{{cite book |last=Majer |first=Diemut |title="Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945 |year=2003 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore and London |isbn=978-0-8018-6493-3}}--> *{{cite book |last=Matthäus |first=Jürgen |author-link=Jürgen Matthäus |editor-last=Browning |editor-first=Christopher |editor-link=Christopher Browning |year=2004 |chapter=Operation Barbarossa and the Onset of the Holocaust, June–Desember 1941 |title=The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939&nbsp;– Maret 1942 |location=Lincoln and Jerusalem |publisher=University of Nebraska Press and Yad Vashem |pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsoffinalso00brow/page/244 244–308] |isbn=0-8032-1327-1|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Mehring |first1=Sigrid |title=First Do No Harm: Medical Ethics in International Humanitarian Law |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-27916-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrmjBQAAQBAJ |access-date=2 Oktober 2020 |archive-date=1 Februari 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201215421/https://books.google.com/books?id=JrmjBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Müller |first1=Filip |author-link=Filip Müller |title=Eyewitness Auschwitz: Three Years in the Gas Chambers |url=https://archive.org/details/eyewitnessauschw00fili |url-access=registration |date=1999 |orig-year=1979 |publisher=Ivan R. Dee |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1566632713 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Neufeld |first=Michael J. |title=The Bombing of Auschwitz: Should the Allies Have Attempted It? |chapter=Introduction to the Controversy |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312198381/page/1 1–9] |editor=Neufeld, Michael J. |editor2=Berenbaum, Michael |year=2000 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |isbn=0-312-19838-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312198381/page/1 |ref=harv}} *{{cite web |title=The Nobel Peace Prize for 1986 |publisher=Norwegian Nobel Committee |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1986/press.html |date=14 Oktober 1986 |access-date=25 Agustus 2013 |ref={{sfnRef|Norwegian Nobel Committee|1986}} |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103105632/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1986/press.html |url-status=live }} *{{cite book |last=Nyiszli |first=Miklós |author-link=Miklós Nyiszli |title=Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account |year=2011 |orig-year=1960 |publisher=Arcade Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-61145-011-8|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Perl |first1=Gisella |author-link1=Gisella Perl |title=I Was a Doctor in Auschwitz |date=1948 |url=https://archive.org/details/IWasADoctorInAuschwitz |publisher=International Universities Press |location=New York |oclc=937965417 |ref=harv}} *{{cite web |title=Permanent exhibition – grounds of former Auschwitz I Concentration Camp |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |url=http://en.auschwitz.org/z/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=52&Itemid=99999999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501142530/http://en.auschwitz.org/z/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=52&Itemid=99999999 |archive-date=1 Mei 2014 |access-date=10 Februari 2016 |url-status=dead |ref={{sfnRef|Permanent exhibition – Auschwitz I}} }} *{{cite journal |last1=Piper |first1=Franciszek |author-link=Franciszek Piper |title=Estimating the Number of Deportees to and Victims of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Camp |journal=Yad Vashem Studies |date=1991 |volume=XXI |pages=49–103 |issn=0084-3296|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Piper |first=Franciszek |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=The System of Prisoner Exploitation |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/34 34–49] |year=1998a |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Piper |first=Franciszek |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor1-link=Yisrael Gutman |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=The Number of Victims |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/61 61–76] |year=1998b |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Piper |first=Franciszek |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=Gas Chambers and Crematoria |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/157 157–182] |year=1998c |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Piper |first=Franciszek |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |volume=I: The Establishment and Organization of the Camp |date=2000a |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=The Origins of the Camp |pages=39–62 |oclc=929235229 |isbn=978-8385047872|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Piper |first=Franciszek |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |volume=III: Mass Murder |date=2000b |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |oclc=929235229 |isbn=978-8385047872|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Pressac |first1=Jean-Claude |author-link=Jean-Claude Pressac |last2=van Pelt |first2=Robert-Jan |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=The Machinery of Mass Murder at Auschwitz |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/183 183–245] |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Rees |first=Laurence |author-link=Laurence Rees |title=Auschwitz: A New History |year=2005 |publisher=Public Affairs, member of Perseus Books Group |location=New York |isbn=1-58648-303-X |url=https://archive.org/details/auschwitznewhist00rees |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Rosen |first=Alan |title=Tracking Jewish time in Auschwitz |journal=Yad Vashem Studies |year=2014 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=11–46 |publisher=Yad Vashem |oclc=1029349665|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |author-link=Timothy D. Snyder |title=Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin |year=2010 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-465-00239-9 |title-link=Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Spitz |first=Vivien |title=Doctors from Hell: the Horrific Account of Nazi Experiments on Humans |year=2005 |publisher=Sentient |location=Boulder, Colorado |isbn=978-1-59181-032-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/doctorsfromhellh00spit |ref=harv}} *{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Auschwitz 70th anniversary: Survivors warn of new crimes |work=BBC News |date=27 Januari 2015 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-30996555 |access-date=27 Januari 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|BBC News|2015a}} |archive-date=27 Januari 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150127090458/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-30996555 |url-status=live }} *{{cite news |author=Staff |title=British school students 'stole Auschwitz artefacts' |work=BBC News |date=9 September 2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-37322599 |access-date=10 September 2016 |ref={{sfnRef|BBC|2016}} |archive-date=10 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910002722/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-37322599 |url-status=live |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Stangneth |first=Bettina |author-link=Bettina Stangneth |title=Eichmann Before Jerusalem: The Unexamined Life of a Mass Murderer |url=https://archive.org/details/eichmannbeforeje0000stan_n9e8 |year=2014 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-95967-6|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Steinbacher |first=Sybille |author-link=Sybille Steinbacher |title=Auschwitz: A History |year=2005 |orig-year=2004 |publisher=Ecco Press |location=New York |isbn=0-06-082581-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/auschwitzhistory00stei |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Stone |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Stone (historian) |title=The Liberation of the Camps: The End of the Holocaust and Its Aftermath |url=https://archive.org/details/liberationofcamp0000ston |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven and London |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-300-20457-5|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Strzelecka |first1=Irena |author1-link=Irena Strzelecka |last2=Setkiewicz |first2=Piotr |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |volume=I: The Establishment and Organization of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |date=2000 |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=The Construction, Expansion and Development of the Camp and its Branches |pages=63–138 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874340863|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Strzelecka |first=Irena |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |editor-link2=Franciszek Piper |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |volume=II: The Prisoners—Their Life and Work |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |date=2000a |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=Quarantine on Arrival |pages=45–50 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874337926|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Strzelecka |first=Irena |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |editor-link2=Franciszek Piper |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |volume=II: The Prisoners—Their Life and Work |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |date=2000b |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=The Working Day for Auschwitz Prisoners |pages=65–70 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874337926|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Strzelecka |first1=Irena |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |volume=II: The Prisoners—Their Life and Work |date=2000c |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=Women in the Auschwitz Concentration Camp |pages=171–200 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874337926|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Strzelecka |first=Irena |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |editor-link2=Franciszek Piper |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |volume=II: The Prisoners—Their Life and Work |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |date=2000d |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=Experiments |pages=347–369 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874337926|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Strzelecka |first=Irena |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |editor-link2=Franciszek Piper |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |volume=II: The Prisoners—Their Life and Work |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |date=2000e |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=Punishment and Torture |pages=372–398 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874337926|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Strzelecki |first=Andrzej |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |editor-link2=Franciszek Piper |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |volume=V: Epilogue |date=2000a |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=The Liquidation of the Camp |pages=9–85 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=929235229|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Strzelecki |first=Andrzej |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |editor-link2=Franciszek Piper |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |volume=II: The Prisoners—Their Life and Work |date=2000b |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |chapter=Utilization of the Victims' Corpses |pages=399–418 |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=929235229|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Świebocki |first=Henryk |author-link=Henryk Świebocki |editor-last1=Długoborski |editor-first1=Wacław |editor-last2=Piper |editor-first2=Franciszek |title=Auschwitz, 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp |volume=IV: The Resistance Movement |title-link=Auschwitz 1940–1945 |date=2000 |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim |isbn=978-8385047872 |oclc=874233579|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Świebocki |editor1-first=Henryk |title=London Has Been Informed: Reports by Auschwitz Escapees |date=2002 |publisher=The Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |location=Oświęcim|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Szabó |first1=Zoltán Tibori |editor1-last=Braham |editor1-first=Randolph L. |editor2-last=vanden Heuvel |editor2-first=William |title=The Auschwitz Reports and the Holocaust in Hungary |date=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |chapter=The Auschwitz Reports: Who Got Them, and When?|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=van Pelt |first=Robert-Jan |author-link=Robert-Jan van Pelt |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |chapter=A Site in Search of a Mission |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00yisr/page/93 93–156] |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0-253-32684-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=van Pelt |first=Robert Jan |title=The Case for Auschwitz: Evidence from the Irving Trial |year=2016 |orig-year=2002 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=978-0-253-02298-1|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Westermann |first1=Edward B. |editor1-last=Cesarani |editor1-first=David |editor1-link=David Cesarani |title=Holocaust. Volume 5: Responses to the persecution and mass murder of the Jews |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0415318716 |pages=195–211 |chapter=The Royal Air Force and the bombing of Auschwitz: first deliberations, Januari 1941|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Wachsmann |first=Nikolaus |author-link=Nikolaus Wachsmann |year=2015 |title=KL: A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location=New York |isbn=978-0-374-11825-9|ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Wittmann |first=Rebecca Elizabeth |author-link=Rebecca Wittmann |title=Indicting Auschwitz? The Paradox of the Frankfurt Auschwitz Trial |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_german-history_2003_21_4/page/505 |journal=German History |date=Oktober 2003 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=505–532 |doi=10.1191/0266355403gh294oa|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Wittmann |first1=Rebecca |title=Beyond Justice: The Auschwitz Trial |date=2005 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0674016941 |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondjusticeaus00witt_0 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Zarembina |first1=Natalia |last2=Harriman |first2=Florence Jaffray |author-link2=Florence Jaffray Harriman |title=Oswiecim, Camp of Death (Underground Report) |year=1944 |publisher=Poland Fights |location=New York |oclc=3899327|ref=harv}} {{Refend}} ==Bacaan lanjutan== {{Refbegin|30em}} *[[Borowski, Tadeusz]] (1992) [1976]. ''[[This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen]]''. Trans. from the Polish by Barbara Vedder. East Rutherford: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-14-018624-7}} *{{cite news |last1=Glenday |first1=James |title=Life next to the world's most notorious concentration camp |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-24/life-next-to-the-worlds-most-notorious-concentration-camp/9480916 |publisher=ABC News (Australia) |date=23 Februari 2018 |access-date=25 Februari 2018 |archive-date=15 Februari 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215172042/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-24/life-next-to-the-worlds-most-notorious-concentration-camp/9480916 |url-status=live }} *{{cite book |last1=Huener |first1=Jonathan |title=Auschwitz, Poland, and the Politics of Commemoration, 1945–1979 |date=2003 |publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens |isbn=0-8214-1506-9}} *[[Witold Pilecki|Pilecki, Witold]] (2012). ''The Auschwitz Volunteer: Beyond Bravery''. Trans. from the Polish by Jarek Garlinski. Los Angeles: Aquila Polonica. {{ISBN|978-1-60772-010-2}} *{{cite book |title=The Black Book of Poland |url=https://archive.org/details/TheBlackBookOfPoland |location=New York |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |year=1942 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/TheBlackBookOfPoland/page/n41 87]–88 |oclc=489805 |author=Polish Ministry of Information }} *{{cite book |last=Raczyński |first=Edward |title=German Occupation of Poland, Extract of note addressed to the allied and neutral powers |publisher=Republic of Poland Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Greystone Press |location=London and New York |year=1941 |language=en |url=https://archive.org/stream/GermanOccupationOfPoland/German%20Occupation%20of%20Poland#page/n1/mode/2up }} *[https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/NT_major-war-criminals.html ''Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628202358/http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/NT_major-war-criminals.html |date=28 Juni 2011 }}. Nuremberg, 14 November 1945&nbsp;– 1 Oktober 1946. {{Refend}} [[Kategori:Holokaus di Polandia‎]] [[Kategori:Holokaus]] [[Kategori:Jerman tahun 1940]] [[Kategori:Kamp konsentrasi Auschwitz| ]] [[Kategori:Kamp konsentrasi Nazi]] pb6pntce7zn5hr7ki0c8ijc86egf8g5 0 475963 3351320 3163014 2026-08-05T23:17:35Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} [[Berkas:Balinese kingdoms map.jpg|jmpl|300px|Peta karajaan di Bali]] '''''Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali''''' adolah buku nan ditulih dek antropolog [[Clifford Geertz]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_1|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> Geertz bapandapek bahaso nagara Bali pra-kolonial bukanlah ciek "birokrasi hidrolik" ataupun despotisme oriental, tapi labiah kapado tontonan nan taorganisasi. Bangsawan nan bakuaso di pulau ko kurang baminaik untuak mangalola kahidupan masyarakaik Bali daripado mandramatisasikan pangkeknyo dan dek baitu inyo punyo superioritaspolitik malalui ritual jo upacara-upacara gadang dalam masyarakaik. Proses budaya ko indak mandukuang negara tersebut,keceknyo, tetapi adolah negara itu surang.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|pages=[https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761/page/n25 13]–17, 21}}</ref> <blockquote>Hal iko mungkin paliang jaleh dalam, baa ka baa, citra sentral dari kahidupan politik: monarki. Sadoalah nagara - kahidupan istana, tradisi-tradisi nan mangaturnyo, ekstraksi nan mandukuangnyo, hak istimewa nan mangiringinyo - pado dasarnyo diarahan untuak mandefenisian apo itu kakuasoan; dan apo itu kakuasoan adolah rajo. Rajo-rajo tatantu datang dan pai, 'fakta-fakta sepele nan buruak' dianonimkan dalam judul, indak manggariak dalam ritual, dan dibinasokan dalam api unggun. Tapi apo nan mereka wakili, konsepsi model-dan-salinan tatanan, tetap indak barubah, paliang indak salamo periode nan banyak kito katahui. Tujuan politik nan labiah tinggi adolah mambangun sabiah negara dengan mambangun rajo. Samakin samparono rajo, samakin tapek pusatnyo. Samakin tapek pusatnyo, samakin nyato pulo alamnyo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|page=[https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761/page/n136 124]}}</ref></blockquote> Geertz manggunoan kasus Bali untuak mangambangkan model abstrak [[negara teater]] nan balaku untuk sado kebijakan Asia Tenggara. Untuak sacaro singkek maringkas teorinyo, "Kakuasoan malayani kamegahan, bukan kamahiran kekuatan." Antropolog lain alah mamparjuangkan sifat statis, ahistoris dari model tersebut. Mereka manunjuakan bahaso inyo alah manyebarkan sabuah institusi politik dengan manekankan budaya sambil mangabaikan dasar materinyo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=MacRae|first=Graeme|title=Negara Ubud: The Theatre-state in Twenty-first-century Bali|journal=History and Anthropology|year=2005|volume=16|issue=4|pages=393–413|doi=10.1080/02757200500344616}}</ref> == Latar belakang == Clifford Geertz adalah seorang antropolog Amerika yang dikenang karena pengaruhnya terhadap praktik [[antropologi simbolis]], dan yang dianggap "selama tiga dekade...merupakan antropolog budaya paling berpengaruh di Amerika Serikat."<ref>Geertz, Clifford, Shweder, R. A., & Good, B. (2005). Clifford Geertz by his colleagues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref> Geertz menggunakan model ini untuk memberi "konsepsi alternatif mengenai arti politik tersebut"; untuk memajukan pendekatan terhadap sejarah sebagai suksesi skema budaya yang luas; serta untuk berkontribusi pada dimensi budaya dalam diskusi mengenai pemerintahan [[Asia Tenggara]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=MacRae|first=Graeme|title=Negara Ubud: The Theatre-state in Twenty-first-century Bali|journal=History and Anthropology|year=2005|volume=16|issue=4|pages=398|doi=10.1080/02757200500344616}}</ref> == Sinopsis == Buku ini merupakan pertimbangan dari banyak unsur kehidupan masyarakat Bali, seperti upacara kremasi, bahwa banyak tidak akan mempertimbangkan bagian dari aparatur negara. Dalam rangka memahami mengapa upacara kremasi harus begitu penting dalam "negara teater" Geertz memberikan penjelasan rinci tentang organisasi sosial Bali [[Etnografi|dalam istilah kebudayaannya sendiri]]. Aspek khusus kehidupan masyarakat Bali telah sangat ditekankan, menurut beberapa orang, untuk mengakomodasi modelnya. Aspek-aspek tersebut terutama berfokus pada peran irigasi. Buku ko marupoan pertimbangan dari banyak unsur kahidupan masyarakaik Bali, sarupo upacara kremasi, bahaso banyak nan indak maanggapnyo sabagai bagian dari aparatur negara. Untuak mamahami baa mangko upacara kremasi baitu bana pentingnyo dalam "negara teater" Geertz manyadiokan catatan rinci tantang organisasi sosial Bali dalam hal budayonyo surang. Aspek-aspek tatantu dari kahidupan masyarakaik Bali alah sangaik ditakankan, ado nan mangatoan, untuak manampuang modelnyo. Aspek-aspek iko tarutamo fokus pado peran irigasi. === Kelas Panguaso === Pado sabagian gadang abaik ka-19, ado tujuah karajaan utamo, di mano Klungkung dianggap sabagai nan paliang tuo jo paliang suci. Karajaan-karajaan lainnyo tamasuak Tabanan, Badung, Gianyar, Karangasem, Bangli, jo Mengwi. Karajaan nan tun tarutamo talatak di dataran di sisi selatan pulau. Satiok karajaan manguasoi lambah sungai dan dek itu, mampunyo pasokan aia nan diparaluan untuak irigasi padi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|page=[https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761/page/n23 11]}}</ref> Kerajaan Bali disabuik alah ditagakan dek pangungsi [[Jawa]] dari [[Sejarah Nusantara pada era kerajaan Hindu-Buddha|kerajaan Hindu]] [[Majapahit]] nan baru sajo jatuah ka tangan panjajah [[Muslim]]. Mereka, pado gilirannyo, manyarang [[Gelgel, Klungkung, Klungkung|Gelgel]] pado tahun [[1352]] dan managakan sabuah negara [[India|Indic]] bardasarkan [[sistem kasta]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|pages=[https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761/page/n26 14]–17}}</ref> === Desa jo negara bagian === [[Berkas:PuraDalemSidan.jpg|jmpl|ka|Pura Dalem Sidan]]Kelas panguaso Bali tampaknyo pacah-pacah, takuyak sacaro internal dek intrik-intrik dalam dadia, jo basakutu sacaro lungga antar-karajaan. Integrasi politik nan buruak ko dipaburuak dek kamardekaan politik kampuang-kampuang nan barado di bawah kakuasoan rajo di karajaan. Negara bagian Bali tadiri dari limbago-limbago lintaeh nagari. Kampuang-kampuang tu indak independen layaknyo "republik desa" mandiri, tapi disilang dek kaanggotaan di tigo limbago politik nan babasis lokal nan maatur kahidupan lokal: dusun (''banjar''), masyarakaik irigasi (''subak''), dan kongregasi pura (''pemaksan''). Kampuang-kampuang juo dipotong dek kawajiban pajak kapado panguaso nan babeda.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|pages=[https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761/page/n57 45]–47}}</ref> === Tontonan jo kakuatan politik === [[Berkas:Ubud Cremation 3.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Menara Kremasi Bali]] Geertz bapandapek bahaso upacara-upacara adaik di negara adolah "teater metafisika"; yaitu teater nan dirancang untuak manyatoan visi tantang sifaik akhia dari kanyataan sambia pado wakatu nan samo mancubo mambantuak kondisi kini untuak sasuai jo kanyataan itu. Sagalo kajadian ritual manciptakan baliak hubungan sosial ''jero'' (“batin”, kapado siapo urang manyarahan kakuasoan dalam kajadian ritual sahinggo mambuek kuek) dan ''jaba'' (“lua”, panyadio layanan kapado urang-urang jero) antaro tuan dan Kuwala. Satiok panampilan ritual mareproduksi hubuangan jero-jaba sabagai kanyataan simbolis nan ideal jo pragmatis, sahinggo mampakuek tatanan sosial. Jadi, walaupun nagara bagian ko dilintasi dek yurisdiksi nan basalisiah antaro pura, dusun, jo komunitas irigasi, kasadonyo mereka sadonyo bakumpua untuak ritual masyarakaik umum tampek tatanan sosial ideal nagara dibuek nyato.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|page=[https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761/page/n116 104]}}</ref> ==== Peran upacara kremasi ==== Upacara kremasi marupoan upacara ritual negara paliang gadang dan paliang tanamo, nan dihadiri dek sado tanggungan politik saurang tuan. Di tangah ritual ado menara kremasi (''badé'') tampek mayik tuan nan maningga dibariangan sampai tabaka kasadoalahannyo. Menara kremasi itu surang malambangan tatanan kosmik nan dibuek ritual untuak manjadianyo nyato. Di dasarnyo ado dunia setan (ula basayaok), di atehnyo tagak platform nan disabuik Rumah, mawakili dunia manusia. Di ateh itu, ado tingkat atok nan malambangkan dunia dewa, tampek almarhum naiak; rakyat biaso akan naiak ka sarugo patamo (tingkek partamo), sadangkan surang rajo naiak ka tingkek kasabaleh.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|page=[https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761/page/n131 119]}}</ref> Samantaro menara sabaleh lantai malambangkan status karajaan, manyalasaian ritual kremasi adolah suatu pancapaian – sabuah perjuangan – nan mambenarkan status itu. Bagian patamo dari upacara, misalnyo, malibaikkan pangangkutan menara dalam sabuah prosesi ka tampek kremasi, sabuah adegan massa nan mandatangan ribuan urang; babarapo di antaronyo mambaok peti mati ka muko, samantaro nan lain mancubo untuak maambeknyo. Perjuangan sarupo iko bapotensi untuak managah urang-urang nan kurang punyo status jo sumber daya untuak mambuek apo nan mungkin dianggap urang lain sabagai klaim palsu; pamandangan "saketek sarupo karusuahan nan manyanangkan - sabuah diskusi nan disangajo, bahkan dikaji, kekerasan, dirancang untuak mamantiak kesendian nan indak disingguang jo bahkan dikaji, nan dikumpuaan dek pandito-pandito, katurunan , jando, jo pambantunyo nan indak goyah untuak bakumpua mangalilingi menara tangah."<ref>{{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|pages=[https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_761/page/n130 118]–19}}</ref> == Panarimoan jo kritik == [[Berkas:Southeast Asian Historical Mandalas.svg|jmpl|ka|Negara mandala tanamo dalam [[sejarah Asia Tenggara]] (sakitar abaik ka-5 sampai ka-15). Dari utara ka selatan; [[Kerajaan Pagan|Bagan]], [[Kerajaan Ayutthaya|Ayutthaya]], [[Champa]], [[kerajaan Khmer|Angkor]], [[Sriwijaya]], jo[[Majapahit]].]] Meskipun Geertz maanggap buku iko sabagai puncak pamikirannyo terhadap politik jo sejarah, reaksi terhadap buku tersebut alah babagai, "manggabungkan kakaguman atas ruang lingkup jo ambisinyo dengan skeptis tentang klaimnyo."<ref>{{cite journal|last=MacRae|first=Graeme|title=Negara Ubud: The Theatre-state in Twenty-first-century Bali|journal=History and Anthropology|year=2005|volume=16|issue=4|pages=394|doi=10.1080/02757200500344616}}</ref> Salah satu sumber skeptisisme adolah bahaso buku iko jaleh bukanlah sijarah pamarentahan tertentu, malainan model tipe ideal nan umum dimukasuikan untuak mamandu representasi negara-negara Indic Asia Tenggara nan ditemukan di [[Bali]], [[Jawa]], [[Malaysia]], [[Thailand]], dan [[Burma]] pado abaik ka-5 sampai ka-15. Dengan baitu, iko adolah salah ciek dari babarapo model, takah model "[[Mandala (sejarah Asia Tenggara)|mandala]]" dari [[O. W. Wolters]], atau "pamarentahan Galaksi" dari [[Stanley Tambiah]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Day|first=Tony|title=Fluid Iron: State formation in Southeast Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/fluidironstatefo00dayt|year=2002|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fluidironstatefo00dayt/page/n20 8]–10}}</ref> Geertz mampajaleh bahaso panekanannyo adolah model umum "negara teater" dan bukan karajaan Bali nan spesifik dengan mangacu pado negara Bali dengan istilah Negara Indic, sadangkan rakyat Bali marujuak pado kaadaan pra-kolonial mereka sabagai ''kerajaan''. Dengan baitu, hal iko talmpau mampakiroan pangaruah Indic terhadap Bali, dan kurang mampakiroan kasamoannyo dengan kerajaan Polinesia di [[Tahiti]], [[Samoa]], jo [[Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=MacRae|first=Graeme|title=Negara Ubud: The Theatre-state in Twenty-first-century Bali|journal=History and Anthropology|year=2005|volume=16|issue=4|pages=398–403|doi=10.1080/02757200500344616}}</ref> Kritik terhadap buku iko berfokus pado: # Sabagai pandekatan budayawan terhadap sijarah, buku iko basipaik statis dan ahistoris nan luar biasa. [[Fredrik Barth]] bapandapek bahaso buku iko "mandepolitisasi" sabuah institusi politik sabagai hasilnyo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barth|first=Fredrik|title=Balinese worlds|url=https://archive.org/details/balineseworlds00bart|year=1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|page=[https://archive.org/details/balineseworlds00bart/page/n224 222]}}</ref> # Dengan mansubordinasikan kakuatan budaya, buku tersebut mangabaikan dasar materi kakuasaan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Howe|first=Leo|title=Rice, ideology and the legitimation of hierarchy in Bali|journal=Man|year=1991|volume=26|issue=4|pages=445–67}}</ref> Sajak buku Geertz tabik, babarapo studi historis lain tantang karajaan tertentu alah muncul nan manakanan bantuak ekonomi politik nan labiah konvensional nan mandasari negara.<ref>{{cite journal|last=MacRae|first=Graeme|title=Negara Ubud: The Theatre-state in Twenty-first-century Bali|journal=History and Anthropology|year=2005|volume=16|issue=4|page=395|doi=10.1080/02757200500344616}}</ref> # Geertz mambuek aspek ritual budaya Bali "labih eksotis, labih luar biaso, dan labih lain daripado surek parentah."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Howe|first=Leo|title=Rice, ideology and the legitimation of hierarchy in Bali|journal=Man|year=1991|volume=26|issue=4|page=451}}</ref> # Tambiah mancatatik bahaso Geertz manghadiran raja-raja Bali sabagai, sekaligus, fokus teater ritual nan manciptoan pusek taladan sabagai titik diam, "manggariak ka dalam kaadaan pasif jo reflektif" tapi pado maso nan samo "disewa dek intrik sacaro taruih-manaruih, sangketo, kakarasan, dan sajumlah gadang pergolakan ketek."<ref>{{cite book|last=Tambiah|first=Stanley|title=Culture, Thought, and Social Action: An Anthropological Perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/culturethoughtso0000tamb|year=1985|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/culturethoughtso0000tamb/page/320 320]–21}}</ref> Meskipun usaha terbaiknyo, Geertz indak malampaui jeda antaro tindakan ekspresif jo instrumental, atau antaro kakuatan sabagai kemegahan dan kakuatan sabagai kontrol terhadap rakyat dan sumber dayanyo. Jo baitu, inyo membiarkan dirinyo tabukak terhadap kritik Marxis nan mamandang negara sabagai sabuah mistifikasi, sabuah "representasi ilusi tentang kesatuan komunitas desa (takah nan dikecekan Marx dalam panggambarannyo mangenai 'despotisme oriental'), dan bahaso upacara negara indak ado malainkan spiritualisasi kapentingan materi jo penutupan konflik materi."<ref>{{cite book|last=Tambiah|first=Stanley|title=Culture, Thought, and Social Action: An Anthropological Perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/culturethoughtso0000tamb|year=1985|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge MA|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturethoughtso0000tamb/page/319 319]}}</ref> == Caliak pulo == * [[Mandala (sejarah Asia Tenggara)]] * [[Rajamandala]] * [[Ekonomi istana]] == Catatan kaki == {{Reflist|30em}} == Rujuakan == * {{cite book|last=Barth|first=Fredrik|title=Balinese worlds|url=https://archive.org/details/balineseworlds0000bart|year=1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}} * {{cite book|last=Geertz|first=Clifford|title=Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali|url=https://archive.org/details/negaratheatresta00geer_1|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ}} * {{cite journal|last=Hauser-Schaublin|first=Brigitta|title=Temple and King: Resource Management, Rituals and Redistribution in Early Bali |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-royal-anthropological-institute_2005-12_11_4/page/747|journal=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute|year=2005|volume=11|issue=4|pages=747–71|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9655.2005.00260.x}} * {{cite journal|last=Howe|first=Leo|title=Rice, ideology and the legitimation of hierarchy in Bali|journal=Man|year=1991|volume=26|issue=4|pages=445–67}} * {{cite journal|last=MacRae|first=Graeme|title=Negara Ubud: The Theatre-state in Twenty-first-century Bali|journal=History and Anthropology|year=2005|volume=16|issue=4|pages=393–413|doi=10.1080/02757200500344616}} [[Kategori:Buku antropologi]] [[Kategori:Teori politik]] [[Kategori:Buku tantang Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Sijarah Bali]] lum3nm4keym0gl763thxjjztsd7utpu 0 476107 3351201 3169650 2026-08-05T19:41:26Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351201 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Scene at Nyerere Square, Dodoma City.jpg|thumb|Panorama kota]] '''Dodoma''' adolah ibu kota nagara [[Tanzania]] nan talatak di tangah-tangah nagara.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |url=http://www.tanzania.go.tz/home/pages/68 |title=Country Profile from the official website of Tanzanian government |access-date=2014-03-01 |archive-date=2014-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301132500/http://www.tanzania.go.tz/home/pages/68 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Jo panduduak sabanyak 765.179 jiwa pado sensus tahun 2022,<ref name="2022 census"> {{cite web |url=http://www.nbs.go.tz/sensa/popu2.php|title=2012 The United Republic of Tanzania Population and Housing Census |access-date=2014-03-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413063741/http://www.nbs.go.tz/sensa/popu2.php|archive-date=2014-04-13}} </ref> kota ko alah melampaui [[Arusha]] jo manjadi kota katigo tagadang di Tanzania. Dodoma manjadi pusek pamarentahan, politik jo budaya nagara. Wilayah nan manjadi kota ko awalnyo marupokan kota pasa ketek nan dikenal sabagai ''Idodomya''. Kamudian, panjajah [[Jerman]] datang jo mandirian kota Dodoma moderen pado tahun 1907, salamo pambangunan jalur kareta api pusek Tanzania. Tata lataknyo maikuti parancanaan kolonial jo kawasan [[Eropa]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Siebolds |first1=Peter |last2=Steinberg |first2=Florian |title=Dodoma — A future African Brasilia? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_habitat-international_1980_5/page/681 |journal=Habitat International |volume=5 |issue=5–6 |pages=681–690 |doi=10.1016/0197-3975(80)90008-9 |year=1980}}</ref> Katiko Tanzania alah mardeka, ibu kota nagara dipindahan ka sinan dari [[Dar es Salaam]] pado tahun 1980-an.<ref>Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/place/Dodoma Dodoma], britannica.com, USA, accessed on June 24, 2019</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Dodoma]] [[Kategori:Kota di Tanzania]] [[Kategori:Ibu kota nagara di Afrika]] ld95tqjxe41s97oqgp6sxd10b3dgkq8 0 476227 3351326 3170050 2026-08-05T23:26:27Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351326 wikitext text/x-wiki {{bedakan|Insectoid robot}}{{Infobox spesies|image2=A Fly by Matthias Zimmermann.jpg|image2_caption=[[Lalat]]{{br}}{{sadang karajo}}|item = Q1390| synonyms = |subdivision = ''[[Archaeognatha]]''<br/> [[Coxoplectoptera|''†Coxoplectoptera]]''<br/> ''Dicondylia''{{br}}{{br}} [[Berkas:Commons-logo.svg|al=|class=noviewer|16x16px]] [[c:Insecta#Pterygota - الجناحيّات|Media: {{PAGENAME}}]]{{br}}[[Berkas:Wikispecies-logo.svg|al=|class=noviewer|16x16px]] [[Species:Insecta|Media: {{PAGENAME}}]] | synonyms_ref = }} '''Langau''' atau '''serangga''' marupoan hewan nan mambantuak [[Kelas (biologi)|kelas]] '''Insekta''' (baâsal dari [[bahaso Latin]]: ''{{lang|la|insectum}}'', sabuah [[kata serapan|kato serapan]] dari {{etimologi|el|ἔντομον|nan artinyo "tapotong manjadi babarapo bagian"}}) adolah [[invertebrata]] dalam [[filum]] [[Artropoda]] dan subfilum [[Heksapoda]] nan punyo [[eksoskeleton]] ba[[kitin]]. Bagian badannyo tabagi manjadi tigo bagian, iyolah [[kepala|kapalo]], [[toraks]], jo [[abdomen]]. Langau punyo juo [[mata majemuk|mato majemuk]], tigo pasang kaki nan tahubuang ka [[toraks]], jo sapasang [[antena (biologi)|antena]]. Langau tamasuak ciek dari kalompok [[hewan|binatang]] nan paliang baragam, mancakuik labiah dari {{val|1000000}} [[spesies]] dan manggambaán labiah dari satongah [[makhluk hidup|organisme hiduik]] nan alah ube.<ref name="Chapman">{{cite book|author=Chapman, A. D.|year=2006|title=Numbers of living species in Australia and the World|location=Canberra|publisher=Australian Biological Resources Study|language=Inggris|isbn=978-0-642-56850-2|url=http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publications/other/species-numbers/index.html|access-date=2014-12-03|archive-date=2009-06-09|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090609110928/http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publications/other/species-numbers/index.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/biodiversity/biodiversity.html|title=Threats to Global Diversity|last=Wilson|first=E.O.|accessdate=17-05-2009|language=Inggris|archive-date=2015-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220154543/http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/biodiversity/biodiversity.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Jumlah spesies nan [[Takson sintas|masih ado]] diparkiroan antaro {{val|6000000}}–{{val|10000000}}<ref name="Chapman" /><ref> {{cite journal |author=Novotny, Vojtech; Basset, Yves; Miller, Scott E.; Weiblen, George D.; Bremer, Birgitta; Cizek, Lukas; dan Drozd, Pavel |year=2002 |title=Low host specificity of herbivorous insects in a tropical forest |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-04-25_416_6883/page/841 |journal=Nature |pmid=11976681 |volume=416 |issue=6883 |language=Inggris|pages=841–844 |doi=10.1038/416841a|bibcode = 2002Natur.416..841N }}</ref><ref name="number">{{cite book|author=Erwin, Terry L.|year=1997|language=Inggris|title=Biodiversity at its utmost: Tropical Forest Beetles|pages=27–40}} Dalam: {{cite book|editor=Reaka-Kudla, M. L., Wilson, D. E. and Wilson, E. O.|title=Biodiversity II|publisher=Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C.}}</ref> dan bapotensi mawakili labiah dari 90% bantuak kahidupan hewan nan babedo-bedo di bumi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erwin|first=Terry L.|year=1982|language=Inggris|title=Tropical forests: their richness in Coleoptera and other arthropod species|journal=Coleopt. Bull.|volume=36|pages=74–75}}</ref> Serangga dapek basuo hampia di sadonyo [[lingkungan hidup|lingkungan]], dek tu hanyo sajumlah ketek nan hiduik di [[aia]] lauik, suatu habitat nan didominasi dek kalompok [[artropoda]] lain, [[krustasea]]. {{Serangga-stub}} [[Kategori:Hewan]] [[Kategori:Langau]] a13cjnykk08f6athoy0mw034kqjy5by 0 476311 3351183 3183840 2026-08-05T12:01:57Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 3351183 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | headerstyle = background-color:#eee; | labelstyle = background-color:#eee; | header1 = Petroliam Nasional Berhad (PETRONAS)<br />ڤيتروليام ناسيونل برحد | data2 = [[Berkas:PETRONAS Logo (2013).png{{!}}link=|thumb|upright=200pxl| [[Logo]] [[parusahoan]] PETRONAS]] | data3 = {{Infobox company | name = PETRONAS {{Tarjamah|Minang}} }} }} '''Petroliam Nasional Berhad'''<ref name="Petronas">[http://www.petronas.com.my/internet/corp/centralrep2.nsf/frameset_corp?OpenFrameset Petronas Malaysia: Corporate News 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716191218/http://www.petronas.com.my/internet/corp/centralrep2.nsf/frameset_corp?OpenFrameset |date=2011-07-16 }} About PETRONAS</ref> atau labiah dikana sabagai '''Petronas''' (batulih tabal sabagai '''PETRONAS''') adolah sabuah parusahoan [[Industri perminyakan|minyak dan gas]] [[Badan usaha milik negara|multinasional]] asa [[Malaysia]]. {{Industri-migas-stub}} [[Kategori:Parusahoan| ]] [[Kategori:Industri| ]] [[Kategori:Industri parminyakan| ]] pp5pqp55ffe9ds9lkdop3la38v0hoyf 0 476347 3351211 3184061 2026-08-05T20:02:43Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 7 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351211 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Roman republic, territory 44 BC.svg|thumb|Wilayah Republik Romawi pado tahun 44 SM.]] '''Republik Romawi''' adolah era [[Romawi Kuno|paradaban Romawi klasik]] nan dimulai jo pangguliangan [[Karajaan Romawi]] (sacaro tradisional ditanggalan pado tahun 509 SM) jo baakhia pado tahun 27 SM jo badirinyo [[Kakaisaran Romawi]] sasudah [[Parang Actium]]. Salamo pariode ko, kuaso [[Roma]] malaweh dari wilayah sakitar kotanyo hinggo manjadi kakuatan hegemoni di kasadoan kawasan [[Mediterania]]. == Sijarah == === Badiri === Roma alah diparintah dek rajo-rajo sajak pandiriannyo. Rajo-rajo tu dipiliah saumua hiduik dek anggota [[Senat Romawi]]. Rajo tarakhia banamo [[Tarquinius nan Ongah]], nan manuruik catatan sijarah tradisional diusia dari Roma pado tahun 509 SM sasudah anak laki-lakinyo, [[Sextus Tarquinius]], mampakosa surang padusi bansawan banamo [[Lucretia]].{{sfn|Cornell|1995|pp=215–218|ps=. Cornell offers a summary of "Livy's prose narrative" and derived literary works relating to the expulsion of the kings.}}{{sfn|Dion. Hal. ''Ant. Rom.''|loc=4.64–85}}{{sfn|Livy|loc=1.57–60}} Tradisi manyabuikan bahwa monarki dihapuih malalui sabuah revolusi nan dipimpin dek tokoh semi-mitologis [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], jo kuaso sang rajo kamudian dialiahan ka duo [[Konsul Romawi|konsul]] nan tapisah jo dipiliah untuak maso jabatan satahun; masiang-masiang mampunyoi kawenangan untuak saliang maimbangi malalui [[hak veto]].{{sfn|Cornell|1995|pp=226–228}} Sabagian gadang kajian moderen manilai kisah-kisah tu sabagai narasi satangah mitologi nan manggambaran kudeta aristokrat dari dalam kaluarga Tarquin surang,{{sfnm|Cornell|1995|1pp=215–218, 377–378|Drummond|1989|2p=178}} atau sabagai akibaik dari panduduakan Etruria ateh Roma, bukan sabagai revolusi rakyaik.{{sfn|Forsythe|2005|pp=148–149}} == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Frank Frost |author-link=Frank Frost Abbott |title=A history and description of Roman political institutions |date=1901 |isbn=0-54392-749-0 |publisher=Ginn & Company }} * {{cite book |last=Alföldy |first=Geza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zP_OBAAAQBAJ |title=The social history of Rome |publisher=Routledge Revivals |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-66858-9 |orig-date=First published, in German, 1975}} * {{cite journal |last=Austin |first=Roland |date=October 1934 |title=Roman Board Games |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_greece-rome_1934-10_4_10/page/24 |journal=Greece & Rome |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=24–34 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500002941 |issn=0017-3835 |s2cid=162861940}} * {{cite book |last=Bannon |first=Cynthia |title=Gardens and Neighbors: Private Water Rights in Roman Italy |date=2009 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-03353-9}} * {{cite book |last=Bauman |first=Richard |title=Women and Politics in Ancient Rome |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |orig-date=1992}} * {{cite journal |last=Beard |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Beard (classicist) |date=1980 |title=The Sexual Status of Vestal Virgins |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=70 |pages=12–27 |doi=10.2307/299553 |jstor=299553 |s2cid=162651935}} * {{cite book |last=Beard |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Beard (classicist) |title=SPQR: a history of ancient Rome |date=2015 |publisher=Profile Books |isbn=978-1-846-68380-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Beard |first1=Mary |author-link1=Mary Beard (classicist) |title=Religions of Rome |last2=North |first2=John |last3=Price |first3=S. R. F. |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-52130-401-6 |edition=1st |volume=1}} * {{cite book |last=Benko |first=Stephen |title=The virgin goddess: studies in the pagan and Christian roots of mariology |date=2004 |publisher=Brill}} * {{cite book |last=Bonfante |first=Larissa |author-link=Larissa Bonfante |title=The Barbarians of Ancient Europe: Realities and Interactions |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-19404-4}} * {{cite book |last=Bradley |first=Mark |title=Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Cambridge Classical Studies}} * {{cite book |last=Brennan |first=T Corey |title=The Praetorship |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-195-13867-2 |volume=1}} * {{cite book |last=Brent |first=Allen |author-link=Allen Brent |title=The Imperial Cult and the Development of Church Order: Concepts and Images of Authority in Paganism and Early Christianity Before the Age of Cyprian |date=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-004-11420-3}} * {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Frank |title=Roman Architecture |date=1961 |publisher=G. 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N. |c=Lucullus, Pompey, and the East |in=''CAH''² 9 |year=1994 |pages=229–273}} ** {{harvc |last=Wiseman |first=T. P. |c=The senate and the ''populares'' |in=''CAH''² 9 |year=1994 |pages=327–367}} * {{cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |title=Food in the Ancient World from A to Z |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-23259-3 |chapter=Posca}} * {{cite journal |last=D'Arms |first=J. B. |date=1980 |title=Senators' Involvement in Commerce in the Late Republic: Some Ciceronian Evidence |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |volume=36 |issue=The Seaborne Commerce of Ancient Rome: Studies in Archaeology and History |pages=77–89 |doi=10.2307/4238697 |jstor=4238697}} * {{cite journal |last=Develin |first=R. |date=1978 |title="Provocatio" and Plebiscites. Early Roman Legislation and the Historical Tradition |journal=Mnemosyne |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=45–60 |doi=10.1163/156852578X00256 |jstor=4430760}} * {{cite book |last=Eckstein |first=Arthur M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Czk_jxbHEDQC |title=Rome Enters the Greek East: From Anarchy to Hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, 230–170 BC |date=2012 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-118-25536-0 |lccn=2007037809}} * {{cite book |url=http://swbplus.bsz-bw.de/bsz276882725inh.htm |title=Roman dress and the fabrics of Roman culture |date=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-442-61079-8 |editor-last=Edmondson |editor-first=JC |doi=10.3138/9781442689039 |editor-last2=Keith |editor-first2=A.}} * {{cite book |last=Eiland |first=Murray |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.30861/9781407360713 |title=Picturing Roman Belief Systems: The iconography of coins in the Republic and Empire |date=2023 |publisher=British Archaeological Reports |isbn=978-1-407-36071-3 |page=31 |doi=10.30861/9781407360713}} * {{cite book |last=Fagan |first=Garrett |title=Bathing in Public in the Roman World |date=1999 |publisher=University of Michigan Press}} * {{cite book |last=Farrell |first=Joseph |title=Latin Language and Latin Culture |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Flower |first=Harriet |title=Ancestor Masks and Aristocratic Power in Roman Culture |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Flower |editor-first=Harriet |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=1st}} ** {{harvc |last=Culham |first=Phyllis |c=Women in the Roman Republic |pages=139–159 |in=Flower |year=2004}} * {{cite book |last=Forsythe |first=Gary |title=A Critical History of Early Rome |date=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-22651-7}} * {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=W Warde |title=Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic |date=1899 |publisher=Kennikat Press |pages=202–204}} * {{cite book |last1=Frier |first1=Bruce W. |title=A Casebook on Roman Family Law |last2=McGinn |first2=Thomas A. J. |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Gabucci |first=Ada |title=Dictionaries of Civilization: Rome |date=2005 |publisher=University of California Press}} * {{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Jane F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b2iweLcmkMMC&pg=PT209 |title=Women in Roman Law and Society |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-93026-5}} * {{cite book |last=Garnsey |first=Peter |title=Cities, Peasants and Food in Classical Antiquity: Essays in Social and Economic History |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-59147-8 |editor-last=Scheidel |editor-first=Walter |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511585395}} * {{cite book |last=Golden |first=Gregory K. |title=Crisis management during the Roman republic |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-05590-2 |oclc=842919750}} * {{cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy |title=The Punic Wars |date=2001 |publisher=Cassell |isbn=0-30435-967-X}} * {{cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy |title=In the Name of Rome: The Men who Won the Roman Empire |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-300-21852-7 |edition=1st Yale University Press |orig-date=First published 2003}} * {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |title=History of Rome |date=1978 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |isbn=0-02345-610-8 |edition=1st}} * {{cite journal |last=Greene |first=Kevin |author-link=Kevin Greene (archaeologist) |date=2000 |title=Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M. 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H. |c=Carthage and Rome |in=''CAH''² 7.2 |year=1989 |anchor-year=1989b |pages=486–569}} * {{cite journal |last=Walker |first=Susan |date=2008 |title=Cleopatra in Pompeii? |journal=[[Papers of the British School at Rome]] |volume=76 |pages=35–46 and 345–348 (pp. 35, 42–44) |doi=10.1017/S0068246200000404 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite book |last=Webster |first=Graham |title=The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries AD |date=1994 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press}} * {{cite book |last=Woolf |first=Greg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=94NuSg3tlsgC&q=fish+sauce |title=Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art |date=2007 |publisher=Barnes & Noble |isbn=978-1-435-10121-0}} * {{cite news |last=Zauzmer |first=Julie |date=3 November 2016 |title=Donald Trump, the Cicero of 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/book-party/wp/2016/11/03/donald-trump-the-cicero-of-2016 |newspaper=The Washington Post}} * {{cite journal |last=Ziolkowski |first=Adam |date=1988 |title=Mummius' Temple of Hercules Victor and the Round Temple on the Tiber |journal=[[Phoenix (classics journal)|Phoenix]] |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=309–333 |doi=10.2307/1088657 |jstor=1088657}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Republik Romawi]] [[Kategori:Bakeh republik]] 3yb18fuogwuacbigpkdk5693hhfgyto 0 476698 3351214 3347844 2026-08-05T20:07:26Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351214 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:StepanakertCollage.jpg|thumb|Panorama kota]] '''Stepanakert''' atau '''Khankendi''' adolah sabuah kota di wilayah [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], [[Azerbaijan]]. Kota ko sabalumnyo barado di bawah kandali sakaliguih manjadi ibu kota nagara nan indak diakui [[Artsakh]] hinggo tajadinyo sarangan Azerbaijan pado tahun 2023 di wilayah tu. Stepanakert talatak di sabuah lambah di lereang timur [[Pagunuangan Karabakh]], di tapi kida sungai [[Qarqarçay]].<ref name= RU>{{harvnb|Baranchikov|2016|p= 225}}</ref> Wilayah nan manjadi Stepanakert awalnyo marupokan pamukiman Armenia banamo Vararakn.<ref name= Vararakn>{{harvnb|Everett-Heath|2019|p= X}}; {{harvnb|Hewsen|2001|p=265}}; {{harvnb|Adalian|2010|p=553}}; {{harvnb|Mkrtchyan|1985|pp= 124–125}}; {{harvnb|Mutafian|Chorbajian|Donabédian|1994|p= 139}}; {{harvnb|Kuciukian|2003}}; {{harvnb|Baranchikov|2016|p= 225}}</ref> Pado maso [[Uni Soviet|Soviet]], kota tu dijadian ibu kota [[Oblast Otonom Nagorno-Karabakh]], bakambang manjadi pusek ekonomi jo industri.<ref name="hewsen">{{harvnb|Hewsen|2001|p= 265}}</ref> Sasudah [[Pambubaran Uni Soviet|jatuahnyo Uni Soviet]] jo pacahnyo [[Parang Nagorno-Karabakh Patamo]], kota tu hancua jo kamudian barado di bawah kandali [[urang Armenia]] satampek jo mandirian Artsakh. Pado tahun 2021, panduduaknyo bajumlah 75.000 jiwa,<ref name= Karen>{{cite web|last= Khachatryan|first= Karen|editor= Stepan Kocharyan|title= Drought leads to "unprecedented" water crisis in Stepanakert city|date= 13 August 2021|website= armenpress.am|location= Stepanakert|publisher= [[Armenpress]]|url= https://armenpress.am/en/article/1060676|access-date= 18 December 2021|url-status= live|archive-date= 2 July 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220702091347/https://armenpress.am/eng/amp/1060676}}</ref> maningkek dari tahun 1973 nan bajumlah 32.000 jiwa.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatsovietencyc0017unse |title=Great Soviet Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |year=1973 |volume=17 |location=New York |page=301 |language=en}}</ref> Pado September 2023, pamarintah Azerbaijan maambiak aliah kota tu jo hampia kasadoan panduduaknyo malarian diri ka Armenia.<ref name="independent.co.uk">{{Cite web |date=2023-09-29 |title=Armenians describe journey to safety after fall of their homeland |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-refugees-b2421023.html |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=The Independent |language=en |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930060130/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-refugees-b2421023.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Salamo satahun, kota tu manjadi [[kota hantu]]<ref name=eur1>{{cite news|title= Nagorno-Karabakh's abandoned capital transforms under Azerbaijani rule|date= January 11, 2024|work= [[Eurasianet]]|access-date= February 2, 2024|url= https://eurasianet.org/nagorno-karabakhs-abandoned-capital-transforms-under-azerbaijani-rule|quote= It was once the seat of a de facto government. Now it's a ghost town that plays host to projections of its conquerors' power}}</ref><ref name=nyt1>{{cite news|last= Nechepurenko|first= Ivan|title= What's Left When a Long War Suddenly Ends|date= November 17, 2023|work= [[The New York Times]]|issn= 1553-8095|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/17/world/europe/nagorno-karabakh-armenia-azerbaijan-wounds.html|quote= …the Nagorno-Karabakh city of Stepanakert, also known as Khankendi, a ghost town after its ethnic Armenian residents fled in fear as Azerbaijani troops captured the area.}}</ref> hinggo September 2024, Azerbaijan mulai manampekan panduduaknyo di Stepanakert jo dibukaknyo [[Universitas Karabakh]].<ref name="university">{{cite web|accessdate=14 November 2024|date=24 September 2024|last=Hajiyeva|first=Gunay|url=https://caspiannews.com/news-detail/classes-begin-at-karabakh-university-in-khankendi-2024-9-23-17/|title=Classes Begin at Karabakh University in Khankendi|website=Caspian News}}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin|indent=yes|35em}} * {{cite book|last= Adalian|first= Rouben Paul|author-link= Rouben Paul Adalian|title= Historical Dictionary of Armenia|year= 2010|edition= 2|number= 77|location= Lanham, Toronto, Plymouth|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|page= 553|isbn= 978-0-8108-7450-3}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last= Baranchikov|first= E.V.|editor= [[Yuri Osipov]]|title= STEPANAKERT|encyclopedia= [[Great Russian Encyclopedia]]|volume= 31|location= Moscow|publisher= Большая Российская энциклопедия|year= 2016|page= 225|url= https://old.bigenc.ru/geography/text/4165408|lang= ru|isbn= 978-5-85270-367-5|access-date= 30 June 2023|archive-date= 30 June 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230630154256/https://old.bigenc.ru/geography/text/4165408|url-status= live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630154256/https://old.bigenc.ru/geography/text/4165408 |date=30 June 2023 }} * {{cite encyclopedia|last= Busse|first= H.|title= ABU'L-FATḤ KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR|url= https://iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-fath-khan-javansir|volume= I|edition= 3|year= 1983|pages= 285–286|encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|editor= [[Ehsan Yarshater]]|location= New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn= 978-0-7100-9092-8|access-date= 15 December 2021|archive-date= 15 December 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211215075853/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-fath-khan-javansir|url-status= live}} * {{cite book|last= Chorbajian|first= Levon|author-link= Levon Chorbajian|title= The Making of Nagorno-Karabagh: From Secession to Republic|location= New York|publisher= [[Palgrave Macmillan]]|year= 2001|isbn= 978-0-230-50896-5|page= 140}} * {{cite book|last= Davies|first= Norman|author-link= Norman Davies|title= Beneath Another Sky: A Global Journey Into History|year= 2017|location= United Kingdom|publisher= [[Penguin Books Limited]]|isbn= 978-1-84614-832-3}} * {{cite book|last1=de Waal|first1=Thomas|author-link1=Thomas de Waal|title=Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War|date=2013|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-8578-2}} * {{cite book|last= Everett-Heath|first= John|author-link= John Everett-Heath|title= The Concise Dictionary of World Place Names|year= 2019|location= United Kingdom|url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191882913.001.0001/acref-9780191882913-e-8066|url-access= subscription|edition= 5|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-255646-2|access-date= 14 December 2021|archive-date= 14 December 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211214084240/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191882913.001.0001/acref-9780191882913-e-8066|url-status= live}} * {{cite book|last1= Hagobian|first1= Hagob Melik|last2= Melkonian|first2= Ara Stepan|title= The Five Melikdoms of Karabagh|year= 2020|location= Yerevan|publisher= [[Gomidas Institute]]|isbn= 978-1-909382-60-2|url= http://armenianhouse.org/raffi/novels-ru/khamsa/meliks41_46.html|access-date= 15 December 2021|archive-date= 23 September 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150923173816/http://www.armenianhouse.org/raffi/novels-ru/khamsa/meliks41_46.html|url-status= live}} *{{cite book|last1= Hakobyan|first1= Tadevos Kh.|last2= Melik-Bakhshyan|first2= Stepan T.|last3= Barseghyan|first3= Hovhannes Kh.|author-link1= Tadevos Hakobyan|trans-title= Dictionary of Toponyms of Armenia and Adjacent Territories|title= Հայաստանի և հարակից շրջանների տեղանունների բառարան|url= http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=61&dt=HY_HY&query=|publisher= Yerevan State University Press|year= 1998|volume= 4|page= 773|oclc= 247335945|language= hy|access-date= 16 December 2021|archive-date= 27 November 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211127132637/http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=61&dt=HY_HY&query=|url-status= live}} * {{cite book|last = Hewsen|first = Robert H. |author-link = Robert Hewsen |title = Armenia: A Historical Atlas |year = 2001|location = Chicago |publisher = University of Chicago Press|isbn= 0-226-33228-4|page = 265}} *{{cite book|last1= Holding|first1= Deidre|last2= Allen|first2= Tom|title= Armenia: With Nagorno Karabagh|year= 2019|location= United Kingdom|publisher= [[Bradt Travel Guides|Bradt]]|edition= 5|isbn= 978-1-78477-079-2}} * {{cite book|last= Holding|first= Nicholas|title= Armenia with Nagorno Karabagh|edition= 2|location= London|publisher= Bradt|year= 2006|isbn= 1-84162-163-3}} * {{cite journal|last= Ismail-Zadeh|first= D.|title= Русские поселения в Закавказье в 30-х — 80-х годах XIX века|url= https://libmonster.ru/m/articles/view/%D0%A0%D0%A3%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%98%D0%95-%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%95%D0%9B%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%AF-%D0%92-%D0%97%D0%90%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%92%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%97%D0%AC%D0%95-%D0%92-30-%D1%85-80-%D1%85-%D0%93%D0%9E%D0%94%D0%90%D0%A5-XIX-%D0%92%D0%95%D0%9A%D0%90|trans-title= Russian settlements in Transcaucasia in the 30s–80s of the 19th century|location= Moscow|journal= [[Voprosy Istorii]]|publisher= [[Russian Academy of Sciences]]|year= 1976|page= 20|issn= 0042-8779|language= ru|access-date= 15 December 2021|archive-date= 15 December 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211215085104/https://libmonster.ru/m/articles/view/%D0%A0%D0%A3%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%98%D0%95-%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%95%D0%9B%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%AF-%D0%92-%D0%97%D0%90%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%92%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%97%D0%AC%D0%95-%D0%92-30-%D1%85-80-%D1%85-%D0%93%D0%9E%D0%94%D0%90%D0%A5-XIX-%D0%92%D0%95%D0%9A%D0%90|url-status= live}} * {{cite book|last = Kaufman|first = Stuart|author-link= Stuart Kaufman|title = Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War|publisher = [[Cornell University|Cornell]] Studies in Security Affairs|year = 2001|location = New York|page= 61|isbn = 0-8014-8736-6}} * {{cite book|last1= Kiesling|first1= Brady|last2= Kojian|first2= Raffi|author-link1= Brady Kiesling|chapter= Stepanakert|title= Rediscovering Armenia: an archaeological/touristic gazetteer and map set for the historical monuments of Armenia|edition= 2|location= Yerevan|publisher= Matit|year= 2005|isbn= 99941-0-121-8|chapter-url= http://www.armeniapedia.org/wiki/Rediscovering_Armenia_Guidebook-_Stepanakert|access-date= 17 December 2021|archive-date= 17 December 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211217162618/http://www.armeniapedia.org/wiki/Rediscovering_Armenia_Guidebook-_Stepanakert|url-status= live}} * {{cite book|last2= Nevins|first2= Debbie|last1= King|first1= David C.|title= Azerbaijan|author-link1= David C. King|location= New York|year= 2020|publisher= Cavendish Square|page= 7|isbn= 978-1-5026-5871-5}} * {{cite book|last= Kocharyan|first= G. A.|title= Nagorno-Karabakh|location= Baku|publisher= Society for Survey and Study of Azerbaijan|year= 1925|page= 46|url= https://www.twirpx.com/file/3516807/|url-access= subscription}} * {{cite book|last= Kuciukian|first= Pietro|author-link= Pietro Kuciukian|title= Giardino di tenebra: viaggio in Nagorno Karabagh|chapter= Capitolo ottavo : La città di Stefano|trans-title= Garden of Darkness: Journey to Nagorno Karabakh|year= 2003|location= Milan|publisher= Guerini e Associati|url= http://digital.casalini.it/8883354133|doi= 10.1400/41657|pages= 1000–1005|isbn= 978-88-8195-285-4|access-date= 14 December 2021|archive-date= 6 July 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220706001620/https://digital.casalini.it/8883354133|url-status= live}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last= Kuliev|first= Jemil|author-link= :az:Cəmil Quliyev (tarixçi)|title= Khankendi|encyclopedia= [[Azerbaijani Soviet Encyclopedia]]|location= Baku|publisher= Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences|year= 1987|volume= 10|url= https://archive.org/details/ace-x-cild/page/49/mode/2up|lang= az}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last= Lagasse|first= Paul|title= Khankendi|url= https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Khankendi|volume= 1|encyclopedia= [[Columbia Encyclopedia|The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]]|year= 2000|edition= 6|location= New York|publisher= [[Columbia University Press]]|oclc= 746941797|access-date= 18 December 2021|archive-date= 18 December 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211218112813/https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Khankendi|url-status= live}} * {{cite book |url=http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/03/Karabagh-File.pdf |title=The Karabagh File |location=Cambridge, Toronto|year=1988 |isbn=0-916431-26-6 |editor-last=Libaridian |editor-first=Gerard J. |editor-link=Gerard Libaridian |edition=1st |publisher= [[Zoryan Institute]]|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220200213/http://karabakhfacts.com/wp-content/uploads/1988/03/Karabagh-File.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2022 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last1 = Lobell|first1 = Steven E.|last2 = Mauceri|first2 = Phillip|title = Ethnic Conflict and International Politics: Explaining Diffusion and Escalation|url = https://archive.org/details/ethnicconflictin00lobe|url-access = limited|publisher = Palgrave MacMillan|year = 2004|location = New York|isbn = 1-4039-6356-8|page = [https://archive.org/details/ethnicconflictin00lobe/page/n64 58]}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last= Mkrtchyan|first= Shahen|author-link= :hy:Շահեն Մկրտչյան|title= Stepanakert |encyclopedia= [[Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia]]|lang= hy|location= Yerevan|publisher= Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR|year= 1985|volume= 11|pages= 124–125|editor= [[Viktor Ambartsumian]]|oclc= 22420067}} * {{cite book|last1= Mutafian|first1= Claude|author-link1= Claude Mutafian|chapter= Karabagh In The Twentieth Century|title= The Caucasian Knot: The History & Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh|first2= Levon|last2= Chorbajian|first3= Patrick|last3=Donabédian|location= London and New Jersey|publisher= [[Zed Books]]|year= 1994|page= 139|isbn= 978-1-85649-288-1}} * {{cite book|last= New York|first= American Geographical Society of|author-link= American Geographical Society|title= Soviet Geography|volume= 29|year= 1988|issue= 1–6|location= United States|publisher= Scripta Publishing Company|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Dy4YAAAAIAAJ|page= 80|access-date= 23 January 2022|archive-date= 23 September 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230923063546/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dy4YAAAAIAAJ|url-status= live}} * {{cite book|last=Payaslian|first= Simon|author-link= Simon Payaslian|title= The History of Armenia: From the Origins to the Present|year= 2008|location= New York|publisher= [[Palgrave Macmillan]]|page= 174|isbn= 978-0-230-60858-0}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last= Prokhorov|first= Alexander|title= Stepanakert|url= https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Xankendi|encyclopedia= [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]|location= Moscow|year= 1977|publisher= Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya|edition= 3|author-link= Alexander Prokhorov|oclc= 14476314|access-date= 18 December 2021|archive-date= 18 December 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211218104049/https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Xankendi|url-status= live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Saparov |first1=Arsène |title=Contested spaces: the use of place-names and symbolic landscape in the politics of identity and legitimacy in Azerbaijan |journal=Central Asian Survey |date=2017 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=534–554 |doi=10.1080/02634937.2017.1350139|s2cid=149221754 | issn = 0263-4937 }} * {{cite journal|last= Saparov|first= Arséne|title= Why Autonomy? The Making of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region 1918–1925|journal= [[Europe-Asia Studies]]|volume= 64|number= 2|year= 2012|publisher= [[Routledge]]|url= https://newcoldwar.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Why-AutonomyThe-Making-of-Nagorno-Karabakh-Arsene-Saparov.pdf|pages= 281–323|doi= 10.1080/09668136.2011.642583|s2cid= 154783461|access-date= 24 December 2021|archive-date= 24 December 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211224092744/https://newcoldwar.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Why-AutonomyThe-Making-of-Nagorno-Karabakh-Arsene-Saparov.pdf|url-status= live}} * {{cite journal|last=Uhlig|first= Mark A.|title= The Karabakh war|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-policy-journal_winter-1993-94_10_4/page/47|journal= [[World Policy Journal]]|volume= 10|number= 4|year= 1993|pages= 47–52|location= New York|publisher= [[Duke University Press]]|issn= 0740-2775|jstor= 40209334}} * {{cite book|last= Vardanian|first= Manuk|title= Атлас Нагорно-Карабахской Республики|trans-title= Atlas Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|location= Yerevan|publisher= GNO "Center for Geodesy and Cartography"|year= 2009|isbn= 978-99941-0-336-2|page= 45|language= ru}} * {{cite journal|last= Zubkova|first= Elena Yurievna|title= Власть и развитие этноконфликтной ситуации в СССР. 1953-1985 гг.|trans-title= Power and Development of the Ethno-Conflict Situation in the USSR|url= https://xn----7sbxcach3agmieaceq1th.xn--p1ai/archive/2004-4|journal= [[Russian History (RAS journal)|Russian History]]|location= Moscow|publisher= [[Nauka (publisher)|Nauka]]|year= 2004|number= 4|page= 22|issn= 0869-5687|language= ru|access-date= 18 December 2021|archive-date= 18 December 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211218100217/https://xn----7sbxcach3agmieaceq1th.xn--p1ai/archive/2004-4|url-status= live}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Kota di Azerbaijan]] [[Kategori:Distrik di Azerbaijan]] im6pgsxyasoj2xdxa2is4xily1q6tga 0 476860 3351282 3187112 2026-08-05T22:13:05Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351282 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:ZMalcohaSide(small).jpg|al=head shot of greyish pigeon with red skin around the eye and a white chest|jmpl|'''Sabuah merpati gunuang Papua nan manunjuakan kulik muko nan merah, ciri khas dari genus ko.''']] '''Marpati gunuang''' adolah kalompok [[buruang]] nan tadiri dari ampek [[Spesies|jinih]] dalam [[genus]] ''[[Gymnophaps]]'' . Sacaro ilmiah, pangalompokan merpati gunuang dalam genus ''Gymnophaps'' pertamo kali [[Deskripsi spesies|dilakukan]] dek saurang [[Zoologi|ahli zoologi]] [[Itali|Italia]] nan banamo [[Tommaso Salvadori]] pado taun 1874. Kini ko, genus ko tamasuak ampek jinih, yaitu [[Merpati gunung papua|merpati gunuang Papua]] ( ''Gymnophaps albertrugentaii'' ), [[Merpati gunung buru|yaitu]] [[Merpati gunung seram|Seram]] ''montain'' [[Merpati gunung buru|marapati gunuang]] ( ''Gymnophaps mada'' ), jo [[Merpati gunung pucat|marapati gunuang Pucek]] ( ''Gymnophaps solomonensis'' ). Buruang-buruang ko tamasuak dalam [[Famili|kaluarga gadang]] merpati, yaitu [[Columbidae]] . Kalompok buruang ko dapek ditamukan di [[Utan|hutan]] daerah babukik jo [[Hutan pegunungan|pagunuangan]] di pulau-pulau nan talatak di [[Indonesia]] bagian timur jo [[Melanesia]] bagian barat. Bulunyo umumnyo bawarna abu-abu kusam, putiah, atau coklat kamerahan. Namun, salah satu ciri nan mencolok jo mudah dikana adolah kulik merah tarang nan mangaliliangi mato mareka. Pado kabanyakan spesies merpati gunuang, sulik untuak mambedakan jantan jo batino dari panampilan sajo. Namun, pado [[Merpati gunung papua|merpati gunuang Papua]] jo [[Merpati gunung pucat|merpati gunuang pucek]], ado saketek pabedaan fisik antaro jantan jo batino. Pabedaan iko dikenal dalam biologi sabagai [[dimorfisme seksual]]. Marpati gunuang dikenal sabagai buruang nan sangaik [[Sosialitas|sosial]] . Inyo biasonyo nampak tabang jo mancari makan dalam [[Kawanan (burung)|kalompok]] antaro 10–40 individu. Padohal, pado babarapo spesies merpati gunuang, sakalompok dapek mancapai labiah dari 100 individu. Walaupun mangalompokkan, merpati gunuang bukanlah buruang nan bising. Inyo cenderung tanang dan jarang mambuek suaro, kacuali bunyi deru khas nan dihasiakan dek sayapnyo nan mangapak-ngapak katiko tabang dari [[Bertengger bersama|tampeknyo]] nan tinggi di pagi hari untuak mancari makan. Indak sarupo jo babarapo kalompok buruang lainnyo, ampek spesies buruang dara gunuang ko mampunyoi daerah distribusi nan babeda, indak batumpuak. Dalam istilah biologi, kondisi ko disabuik [[Spesiasi alopatrik|alopatrik]] . Walaupun tapisah sacaro geografis, kaampek spesies ko bakaik dakek, sahinggo digolongkan manjadi ciek kalompok gadang nan disabuik [[superspesies]]. Burung dara gunuang adolah buruang [[Lokomosi arboreal|arboreal]]. Mareka mampunyoi makanan nan baragam, tarutamo buah-buahan nan badagiang sarupo [[Ficus|ara]] jo buah-buahan nan babiji kareh ( [[buah babijo|drupes]] ). Inyo umumnyo mancari makan di bagian ateh atau mahkota pohon. Katiko bakambang biak, buruang merpati gunuang punyo duo jinih sarang. Ado nan basarang di lekukan-lekukan nan dangkal di [[Utan|lantai rimbo]] atau di antaro rumpuik pendek. Jinih sarang nan lain adolah palantako sederhana nan tabuek dari rantiang-rantiang ketek nan dilatakkan babarapo meter ka ateh di batang kayu. Satiok kali [[Sekumpulan telur|inyo batalua]], buruang dara gunuang hanyo mahasilkan ciek talua [[Putih|putiah]]. Kini ko, ampek spesies merpati gunuang ko masih dikategorikan sabagai spesies nan eksistensinyo indak talalu mamprihatinkan atau mampunyoi status " [[risiko randah]] " manuruik [[IUCN Red List|Daftar Merah]] nan dikaluakan dek [[Uni Internasional untuk Konservasi Alam|Uni Internasional untuak Konservasi]] ''Alam'' (IUCN). == Taksonomi jo sistematika == [[Genus]] ''Gymnophaps'', nan tamasuak buruang merpati gunuang, pertamo kali diperkenalkan dek ahli zoologi Italia [[Tommaso Salvadori]] pado taun 1874. Pado maso itu, [[Merpati gunung papua|buruang merpati Papua]] ( ''Gymnophaps albertisii'' ) ditantuan sabagai [[Spesies tipe|spesies jinih]] atau spesies acuan untuak genus ko. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Salvadori|first=Tommaso|author-link=Tommaso Salvadori|year=1874|title=Altre nuove specie di uccelli della Nuova Guinea e di Goram raccolte dal Signor L.M. D'Albertis|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10812996|journal=Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova|language=Italia, Latin|volume=6|pages=81–88 [86]|oclc=820904343|via=[[Biodiversity Heritage Library]]}}</ref> Namo ''Gymnophaps'' sandiri barasa dari gabungan kato-kato [[Yunani Kuno]]: {{Lang|grc|γυμνος}} . ( gumnos ) aratinyo ' atau ' jo {{Lang|grc|φαψ}} ( phaps ) aratinyo ' . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Jobling|first=James A.|url=https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n182/mode/1up|title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names|publisher=Christopher Helm|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4|location=London|page=182|language=en|author-link=James A. Jobling}}</ref> Pado taun 1900, manuruik [[Deskripsi spesies|uraian]] [[Merpati gunung buru|buruang merpati gunuang paburuan]] ( ''Gymnophaps mada'' ) sabagai bagian dari genus ''[[Columba]]'' pado taun 1899, saurang [[Ornitologi|ahli buruang]] Jerman nan banamo [[Ernst Hartert]] manyatoan baso jikok ''Gymnophaps'' ka dipaliharo sabagai genus nan sah, mako pigeon paburuan itu juo harus dimasuakan dalam. Namun, pado maso itu Hartert sandiri labiah suko mamaliharo merpati gunuang Papua jo merpati gunuang paburuan dalam genus ''Columba'' . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartert|first=Ernst|author-link=Ernst Hartert|year=1900|title=The birds of Buru, being a list of collections made on that island by Messrs. William Doherty and Dumas|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3266906#page/255/mode/1up|journal=Novitates Zoologicae|language=en|volume=7|pages=226–242 [241]|oclc=1588421|via=[[Biodiversity Heritage Library]]}}</ref> [[Merpati gunung seram|Marpati gunuang Seram]] ( ''Gymnophaps stalkeri'' ), pado mulonyo digambarkan sabagai spesies tapisah, kudian dimasuakkan ka dalam ''Gymnophaps'' pado taun 1927 sabagai subspesies dari marpati gunuang paburuan. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Mathews|first=Gregory M.|author-link=Gregory Mathews|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/257003#page/78/mode/1up|title=Systema avium Australasianarum: A systematic list of the birds of the Australasian region|publisher=[[British Ornithologists' Union]]|year=1927|location=London|page=54|language=en|oclc=62578303}}</ref> Pado taun 1931, ahli ornitologi Jerman-Amerika [[Ernst Mayr]] manggambarkan [[Merpati gunung pucat|merpati gunuang pucek]] ( ''Gymnophaps solomonensis'' ). <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mayr|first=Ernst|author-link=Ernst Mayr|date=1931|title=Birds collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition XVII. The birds of Malaita Island (British Solomon Islands)|url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/4238|journal=[[American Museum Novitates]]|language=en-US|issue=504|pages=11–12}}</ref> Pado taun 2007, ahli ornitologi Frank Rheindt jo Robert Hutchinson [[Penyatu dan pemisah|mamisahkan]] baliak merpati gunuang jo merpati gunuang sabagai spesies nan babeda badasarkan pabedaan panampilan fisik antaro kaduo spesies tasabuik. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchinson|first=Robert|last2=Rheindt|first2=Frank|date=2007|title=A photoshot odyssey through the confused avian taxonomy of Seram and Buru (southern Moluccas).|journal=BirdingASIA|volume=7|pages=18–38}}</ref> Kini ko, kaampek spesies dalam genus ''Gymnophaps'' alah diakui. Kaampek spesies ko mampunyoi distribusi geografis nan babeda jo indak batumpuak, suatu kondisi nan disabuik [[Spesiasi alopatrik|alopatri]]. Walaupun tapisah sacaro geografis, inyo dianggap sabagai [[superspesies]] tungga, sabuah kalompok spesies nan bakaik dakek. <ref name="Gibbs2001">{{Cite book|last=Gibbs|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r__Tx8QKQfMC&q=pigeons+and+doves|title=Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World|last2=Barnes|first2=Eustace|last3=Cox|first3=John|publisher=[[Pica Press]]|year=2001|isbn=978-1-8734-0360-0|location=London|pages=577–580|language=en|oclc=701718514|author-link=David Gibbs (naturalist)}}</ref> Pado mulonyo, ''Gymnophaps'' dipakiroan paliang dakek jo genus ''Columba'' . Namun, pado taun 1956, ahli buruang Australia [[Tom Iredale]] bapandapek baso ''Gymnophaps'' labiah dakek hubungannyo jo [[Walik|buruang merpati hutan]] ( ''Ptilinopus'' ) karano kabiasoannyo ''[[Lokomosi arboreal|nan makan bapohon]]'' jo ''[[Frugivor|frugivora]].'' Pandapek iko kudian didukuang dek ahli buruang Inggirih [[Derek Goodwin]] pado taun 1963. Goodwin bahipotesis baso Gymnophaps labiah dakek bakaik jo Ptilinopus jo genus Ducula [[Pergam|daripado]] Columba, utamonyo karano kasamoan dalam pola [[Bulu|bulunyo]] . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goodwin|first=Derek|date=1963|title=On the Affinities of ''Gymnophaps''|journal=[[Ibis (journal)|Ibis]]|language=en|volume=105|issue=1|pages=116–118|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1963.tb02484.x}}</ref> Sabuah panalitian DNA [[DNA mitokondria|mitokondria]] jo [[DNA inti|inti]] dari 41 genus merpati dek ahli biologi evolusi Brasil Sérgio Luiz Pereira jo rekan-rekannyo pado taun 2007 manamuan baso ''Gymnophaps'' paliang dakek bakaik jo [[merpati jambul]] ( ''Lopholaimus antarcticus'' ). [[Klad|Kalompok]] iko kamudian [[Takson saudara|paliang dakek]] bakaik jo genus ''[[Hemiphaga]]'' . Katigo genera ko kamudian paliang arek hubungannyo jo kalompok lain nan tadiri dari ''Ptilinopus'', [[Merpati berbulu belah|buruang merpati babulu pacah]] ( ''Ocyphaps lophotes'' ), jo [[Marapati biru|buruang merpati biru]] ( ''[[Marapati biru|Alectroenas]]'' ), jo ''Ducula'' sabagai genus nan mampunyoi posisi paliang [[Basal (filogenetika)|basal]] atau mampunyoi garih katurunan paliang awal dalam kalompok tasabuik. Barikuik ko adolah diagram [[kladogram]] nan manggambarkan hubungan antaro genera dalam kalompok ko badasarkan panalitian: <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pereira|first=Sergio L.|last2=Johnson|first2=Kevin P.|last3=Clayton|first3=Dale H.|last4=Baker|first4=Allan J.|date=2007|editor-last=Paterson|editor-first=Adrian|title=Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences support a Cretaceous origin of Columbiformes and a dispersal-driven radiation in the Paleogene|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_2007-08_56_4/page/656|journal=Systematic Biology|language=en|volume=56|issue=4|pages=656–672|doi=10.1080/10635150701549672|issn=1063-5157|oclc=9986998490|pmid=17661233|doi-access=free}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;text-align:center" ! scope="col" style="width:20%;" |Namo umum !Namo ilmiah {{Efn|Nama dan tahun yang tertera setelah [[nama ilmiah]] menunjukkan [[otoritas binomial]] (ilmuwan yang pertama kali memberi nama spesies tersebut) dan tahun spesies tersebut [[Deskripsi spesies|dideskripsikan]]. Otoritas binomial yang berada dalam tanda kurung menunjukkan bahwa spesies tersebut awalnya dideskripsikan dalam genus selain ''Gymnophaps''.}} ! scope="col" |Gambar ! scope="col" style="width:10%;" |Status Daftar Merah IUCN ! scope="col" style="width:30%;" |Distribusi |- ! scope="row" |[[Merpati gunung papua|Marpati gunuang papua .]] |''Gimnofaps'' [[Tommaso Salvadori|Salvadori]], taun 1874 |[[Berkas:Albertistaube.JPG|173x173px]] |LC <ref name="albertsii status 11 November 2021">{{cite iucn|title=''Gymnophaps albertisii''|page=e.T22691850A93326139|author=BirdLife International|date=2016|volume=2016|access-date=2021-11-11|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22691850A93326139.en}}</ref> |[[Berkas:Gymnophaps_albertisii_map.svg|261x261px]] |- ! scope="row" |[[Merpati gunung buru|Baburu merpati gunuang .]] |''Senam mada'' ( [[Ernst Hartert|Karajo]], 1899) |[[Berkas:Gymnophaps_mada_247571885.jpg|137x137px]] |LC <ref name="mada status 11 November 2021">{{cite iucn|title=''Gymnophaps mada''|page=e.T45448755A95156047|author=BirdLife International|date=2016|volume=2016|access-date=2021-11-11|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T45448755A95156047.en}}</ref> |[[Berkas:Gymnophaps_mada_map.svg|199x199px]] |- ! scope="row" |[[Merpati gunung seram|Seram Gunuang Marpati .]] |''Pangintai gimnofaps'' ( [[William Ogilvie-Grant|Hibah Hibah]], 1911) |[[Berkas:Gymnophaps_stalkeri_265390794.jpg|204x204px]] |LC <ref name="stalkeri status 11 November 2021">{{Cite iucn|title=''Gymnophaps stalkeri''|page=e.T45448758A95156213|author=BirdLife International|date=2016|access-date=2021-11-11|language=en}}</ref> |[[Berkas:Gymnophaps_stalkeri_map.svg|199x199px]] |- ! scope="row" |[[Merpati gunung pucat|Marpati gunuang pucek]] |''Gimnofaps solomonensis'' [[Ernst Mayr|Mei]], 1931 | |LC <ref name="solomonensis status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn|title=''Gymnophaps solomonensis''|page=e.T22691860A93326309|author=BirdLife International|date=2016|volume=2016|access-date=2021-11-12|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22691860A93326309.en}}</ref> |[[Berkas:Gymnophaps_solomonensis_map.svg|224x224px]] |} Kaampek spesies merpati gunuang mampunyoi badan ukuran sadang jo ikua jo sayap nan relatif panjang. Panjangnyo labiah kurang {{Convert|33–38,5|cm|in}} ., bareknyo antaro {{Convert|259–385|g|oz}} . Bulunyo umumnyo bawarna abu-abu kusam, putiah, atau coklat kamerahan. Ciri nan paliang khas adolah kulik [[Orbita|di sakitar]] mato, nan bawarna merah tarang jo mencolok. <ref name="Gibbs2001" /> Pado kabanyakan spesies, jantan jo batino bantuaknyo sarupo. Namun, merpati gunuang jo merpati gunuang Papua punyo saketek [[Dimorfisme seksual|pabedaan fisik]] antaro jantan jo batino. <ref name="Baptista2020a">{{Cite journal|last=Baptista|first=Luis F.|last2=Trail|first2=Pepper W.|last3=Horblit|first3=H. M.|last4=Kirwan|first4=Guy M.|last5=Garcia|first5=Ernest|date=2020|editor-last=Billerman|editor-first=Shawn M.|editor2-last=Keeney|editor2-first=Brooke K.|editor3-last=Rodewald|editor3-first=Paul G.|editor4-last=Schulenberg|editor4-first=Thomas S.|title=Buru Mountain-Pigeon (''Gymnophaps mada'')|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/lotmop1/1.0/introduction|journal=Birds of the World|language=en|publisher=[[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]]|doi=10.2173/bow.lotmop1.01|issn=2771-3105|oclc=8542513730|url-access=subscription|access-date=2022-02-07}}</ref> <ref name="Baptista2020b">{{Cite journal|last=Baptista|first=Luis F.|last2=Trail|first2=Pepper W.|last3=Horblit|first3=H. M.|last4=Garcia|first4=Ernest|date=2020|editor-last=Billerman|editor-first=Shawn M.|editor2-last=Keeney|editor2-first=Brooke K.|editor3-last=Rodewald|editor3-first=Paul G.|editor4-last=Schulenberg|editor4-first=Thomas S.|title=Papuan Mountain-Pigeon (''Gymnophaps albertisii'')|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/pampig2/1.0/introduction|journal=Birds of the World|language=en|publisher=[[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]]|doi=10.2173/bow.pampig2.01|issn=2771-3105|oclc=8542513017|url-access=subscription|access-date=2022-02-07}}</ref> Merpati gunuang dapek dibedakan dari spesies merpati lainnyo jo kulik merah di sakitar mato, bagian ateh pungguang nan bawarna abu-abu kebiruan, jo pola sarupo sisiak di sayapnyo. <ref name="Beehler2016">{{Cite book|last=Beehler|first=Bruce|title=Birds of New Guinea: Distribution, Taxonomy, and Systematics|last2=Pratt|first2=Thane|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4008-8071-3|location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]]|pages=92|language=en|oclc=936447561|author-link=Bruce Beehler}}</ref> Marpati gunuang Papua mampunyoi panjang tubuah antaro {{Convert|33–36|cm|in}} jo barek rato-rato {{Convert|259|g|oz}} . Jantan nan alah dewasa mampunyoi bagian ateh nan bawarna abu-abu kusam, lihie jo paruik nan bawarna maroon, dado nan kaputiah, jo ujuang ikua nan bawarna abu-abu pucek. Daerah antaro mato jo [[Lore (anatomi)|bilah]] sarato kulik di sakitar mato bawarna merah tarang. Nan batino sarupo jo nan jantan, tapi mampunyoi dado nan bawarna abu-abu jo tapi bulu lihie nan bawarna abu-abu. <ref name="Baptista2020b" /> Merpati gunuang pucek mampunyoi panjang rato-rato 38 .cm (15dalam) barek antaro 310-385 g (10,9-13,6).ons). Kapalo jo langan bawarna abu-abu kaputiah, paruik jo bagian bawah dado bawarna pink [[Bungalan|kakuniangan]], sadangkan bagian bawah ikua jo [[Bulu terselubung|panutuik]] bawah ikua bawarna abu-abu pucek. [[Bagian atas|Bagian ateh]] bawarna abu-abu berasok jo palang nan labiah kalam pado mantel jo panutuik sayap. Baiak jantan maupun batino bantuaknyo sarupo, tapi ado variasi nan cukuik gadang dalam panampilan. <ref name="Gibbs2001" /> <ref name="Baptista2020c">{{Cite journal|last=Baptista|first=Luis F.|last2=Trail|first2=Pepper W.|last3=Horblit|first3=H. M.|last4=Boesman|first4=Peter F. D.|last5=Garcia|first5=Ernest|date=2020|editor-last=Billerman|editor-first=Shawn M.|editor2-last=Keeney|editor2-first=Brooke K.|editor3-last=Rodewald|editor3-first=Paul G.|editor4-last=Schulenberg|editor4-first=Thomas S.|title=Pale Mountain-Pigeon (''Gymnophaps solomonensis'')|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/pampig1/1.0/introduction|journal=Birds of the World|language=en|publisher=[[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]]|doi=10.2173/bow.pampig1.01|issn=2771-3105|oclc=8542493225|url-access=subscription|access-date=2022-02-07}}</ref> Merpati baburu gunuang mampunyoi panjang tubuah antaro {{Convert|33–38.5|cm|in}} . Mahkota jo langannyo bawarna abu-abu biru, bagian atehnyo bawarna abu-abu batu tulis nan labiah kalam, sarato lihie jo dado bawarna putiah inggo pucek bakuniang-pink, barubah warnanyo bakuniang-pink ka arah paruik. Marapati Paburuan Gunuang batino labiah ketek jo mampunyoi warna merah nan labiah kalam di dado daripado jantan. <ref name="Baptista2020a" /> Burung Merpati Gunuang Seram mampunyoi muko jo dado bawarna kuniang-pink, [[bagian bawah]] [[Merah anggur|bawarna burgundy]], balakang langan (angok), mahkota, jo paho bawarna abu-abu, sarato paruik jo ikua bawah bawarna coklat kastanye itam. <ref name="del Hoyo2020">{{Cite journal|last=del Hoyo|first=Josep|last2=Collar|first2=Nigel|last3=Kirwan|first3=Guy M.|last4=Garcia|first4=Ernest|date=2020|editor-last=Billerman|editor-first=Shawn M.|editor2-last=Keeney|editor2-first=Brooke K.|editor3-last=Rodewald|editor3-first=Paul G.|editor4-last=Schulenberg|editor4-first=Thomas S.|title=Seram Mountain-Pigeon (''Gymnophaps stalkeri'')|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/lotmop2/1.0/introduction|journal=Birds of the World|language=en|publisher=[[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]]|doi=10.2173/bow.lotmop2.01|issn=2771-3105|oclc=8542493967|url-access=subscription|access-date=7 Februari 2022}}</ref> == Suaro == Marpati gunuang dikenal sabagai buruang nan cenderung diam. Namun, iko bukan berarti mereka ko bisu sapanuahnyo. Babarapo jinih bunyi alah direkam, sarupo bunyi ''woooooo m'' atau ''woom'' nan dalam, siul nan lambuik, ''vrrhu'' nan badesis, jo ''vruu'' nan lambuik. <ref name="Gibbs2001" /> == Habitat == Marpati gunuang dapek ditamukan di pulau-pulau nan taseba di saluruah [[Kapulauan Maluku]] jo [[Melanesia]] . Marpati gunuang Papua tingga di [[Pulau Papua]], [[Pulau Yapen]], [[Kepulauan D'Entrecasteaux|Kapulauan D'Entrecasteaux]], [[Kepulauan Bismarck|Kapulauan Bismarck]], jo [[Bacan|Pulau Bacan]] . <ref name="Gibbs2001" /> Merpati gunuang Buru adolah [[Endemisme|endemik]] [[Buru|Pulau Buru]], artinyo spesies ko hanyo dapek ditamukan di pulau tasabuik dan indak ado di tampek lain sacaro alami. <ref name="Baptista2020a" /> Merpati gunuang Seram juo endemik, tapi pulau "rumah" mareka adolah [[Pulau Seram]] . <ref name="del Hoyo2020" /> Merpati gunuang Pale dapek ditamukan di wilayah [[Kepulauan Solomon (geografi)|Kapulauan Solomon]] nan marupoan habitatnyo. Inyo dapek ditamukan di [[Pulau Bougainville|Bougainville]], [[Kolombangara]], [[Vangunu]], [[Guadalcanal]] jo [[Malaita]] . <ref name="Gibbs2001" /> == Referensi == <references /> b7aioj8ntk29bqd605f7gariprjm8wn 0 477438 3351254 3344366 2026-08-05T21:34:12Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351254 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_(Napoli,_1969)_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg|pra=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_(Napoli,_1969)_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg|jmpl|Patuang dado [[:id:Zeno_dari_Citium|Zeno dari Citium]], nan dipandang sabagai pandiri Stoikisme]] '''Stoicisme''' adolah aliran [[filsafat Yunani Kuno]] nan kudian manjadi [[Filsafat Romawi Kuno|filsafat Romawi]] pado maso [[Filsafat Helenistik|Helenistik]] jo [[Filsafat Romawi Kuno|Kakaisaran Romawi]] . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism|title=Stoicism|last=Jason Lewis Saunders|website=Britannica|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628193627/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism|archive-date=28 June 2023|access-date=2 January 2022}}</ref> Urang-urang Stoa picayo baso alam semesta baoperasi pado aka, atau ''[[logos]]'', <ref name="shenefeltwhite74">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=74}}</ref> nan manyadiokan panjalehan nan basatu tantang dunia, jo dibangun pado cita-cita wacana rasional, fisika [[Monisme|monistik]], jo etika [[Naturalisme (filsafat)|naturalistik]] . <ref>Aetius, Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, 2.35</ref> Katigo landasan iko mambantuak kabajikan, nan sangaik pantiang untuak tujuan Stoa 'manjalani kahidupan nan baiak'. {{Sfn|Long|Sedley|1987}} Logika Stoa bafokus pado panalaran nan disangajo malalui [[proposisi]], [[argumen]], jo pabedaan antaro kabanaran jo kapalasuan. Wacana filosofis adolah pusek dari Stoicisme, tamasuak pandangan baso pikiran barado dalam dialog rasional nan taruih manaruih jo dirinyo surang. {{Sfn|Long|Sedley|1987|p=161}} Etika Stoa bapusat pado kabajikan sabagai kabaikan tatinggi, mamupuak [[Pengendalian diri|pangandalian diri]] emosional, kaadaan pikiran nan tanang dalam manyalasaian masalah, jo panilaian rasional untuak mancapai kasajahteraan langkok ( ''[[eudaimonia]]'' ). Pado wakatu nan samo, kainginan, raso cameh, jo raso indak aman dipandang sabagai reaksi nan salah nan harus dikontrol malalui praktek disiplin diri. Dari sadoalah aliran filsafat Barat kuno, Stoicisme mambuek klaim paliang gadang sabagai sistem nan sistematis sapanuahnyo. {{Sfn|Long|Sedley|1987|p=160}} Stoicisme didirian di [[Agora kuno Athena|Agora Athena kuno]] dek [[Zeno dari Citium]] sakitar 300 SM, dan bakambang di saluruah [[dunia Yunani-Romawi]] sampai abaik ka-3 Masehi. Hal iko muncua dari tradisi [[Sinisisme (filsafat)|Sinis]] dan dipopulerkan malalui pangajaran umum di [[Stoa Poikile]], sabuah [[Kolonade|tiang]] lukisan dinding . Di antaro panganuiknyo adolah Kaisar Romawi [[Marcus Aurelius]] . Sairiang jo [[logika leksikal]] Aristoteles, sistem [[logika proposisional]] nan dikambangkan dek kaum Stoa adolah salah satu dari duo sistem logika gadang di dunia klasik. Sistem iko sabagian gadang dibangun jo dibantuak dek [[Chrysippus]], kapalo katigo aliran Stoa pado abaik ka-3.&nbsp;SM. Logika Krisippus babeda jo [[logika leksikal]] karano didasarkan pado analisis [[proposisi]], bukan istilah. Stoicisme manurun sasudah [[Kristen|agamo Kristen]] manjadi agamo nagara pado abaik ka-4 Masehi, walaupun [[Gnostisisme]] batahan jo manggabuangkan unsur-unsur murni Stoicisme jo [[Platonisme]] . Sajak itu, aliran iko mangalami kabangkitan, tarutamo pado maso [[Filsafat Renaisans|Renaisans]] ( [[Neostoikisme|Neostoicisme]] ) jo pado era kontemporer. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Becker|first=Lawrence C.|author-link=Lawrence C. Becker|title=A New Stoicism|date=2001|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|location=Princeton|isbn=978-1400822447|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbqFt3RPsuQC|access-date=10 August 2017|archive-date=8 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708093213/https://books.google.com/books?id=NbqFt3RPsuQC}}</ref> Pangaruahnyo malaweh ka pamikir Romawi sarupo [[Seneca yang Muda|Seneca]] jo [[Epictetus]], dan kamudian mampangaruahi agamo Kristen jo pagerakan Neostoik Renaisans. Stoicisme mambantuak pakambangan logika salanjuiknyo jo mambari ilham [[terapi kognitif]] modern . == Sijarah == Namo ''Stoicisme'' barasa dari ''[[Stoa Poikile]]'' ( [[Bahasa Yunani Kuno|bahaso Yunani Kuno]] : ἡ ποικίλη στοά), atau "portiko nan dilukis," sabuah [[Serambi bertiang|portiko batiang]] nan dihiasi jo adegan parang mitos jo sajarah di sisi utara [[Agora kuno Athena|Agora]] di [[Athena]] jo gagasan [[Zeno dari Citium|mareka]], jo gagasan mareka di Athena. manuju akhia abaik kaampek SM. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Becker|first=Lawrence|title=A History of Western Ethics|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2003|isbn=978-0415968256|page=27}}</ref> Babeda jo [[Epikureanisme|Epikuros]], Zeno mamiliah untuak maajaan filsafatnyo di ruang umum. Stoicisme pado mulonyo dikenal sabagai Zenonisme. Namun, namo iko indak lamo kamudian ditinggaan, kamungkinan karano Stoa indak maanggap pandirinyo bijak samparono jo untuak mahindari resiko filsafat manjadi [[Kultus individu|kultus kepribadian]] . <ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Stoicism and the Art of Happiness|last=Robertson|first=Donald|publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]]|year=2018|location=Great Britain}}</ref> Gagasan Zeno bakambang dari gagasan [[Sinisisme (filsafat)|Sinis]] (nan dibaok ka inyo dek [[Crates dari Thebes]] ), nan pandirinyo, [[Antisthenes]], pernah manjadi murik [[Socrates]] . Panaruih Zeno nan paliang bapangaruah adolah [[Chrysippus]], nan manggantian [[Cleanthes]] sabagai pamimpin aliran, dan batangguang jawab untuak mambantuak apo nan kini disabuik Stoicisme. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iep.utm.edu/chrysippus/|title=Chrysippus {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009152625/https://iep.utm.edu/chrysippus/|archive-date=9 October 2023|access-date=31 August 2023}}</ref> Stoicisme manjadi filsafat populer tanamo di kalangan elit nan basikola dari dunia Helenistik jo Kakaisaran Romawi <ref>{{Cite book|title=These Were the Greeks|last=Amos|first=H.|publisher=Dufour Editions|year=1982|isbn=978-0802312754|location=Chester Springs|oclc=9048254}}</ref> sampai titiak di mano, manuruik kato-kato [[Gilbert Murray]], "ampia sadoalah [[Diadochi|panaruih Alexander]] [...] manyatoan dirinyo sabagai urang Stoa." <ref>Gilbert Murray, ''The Stoic Philosophy'' (1915), p. 25. In Bertrand Russell, ''A History of Western Philosophy'' (1946).</ref> Kudian Stoa Romawi fokus pado mampromosikan kahidupan nan harmonis dalam alam semesta, di mano kito adolah peserta aktif. Sarjana <ref>Sedley, D. (2003) The School, from Zeno to Arius Didymus. In: B. Inwood (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge University Press.</ref> biasonyo mambagi sajarah Stoa manjadi tigo fase: Stoa Awal, dari pandirian dek Zeno sampai [[Antipater dari Tarsus|Antipater]] ; Stoa Tangah, tamasuak [[Panaetius]] jo [[Posidonius]] ; jo Stoa Akhia, tamasuak [[Gaius Musonius Rufus|Musonius Rufus]], [[Seneca yang Muda|Seneca]], [[Epictetus]], jo [[Marcus Aurelius|Markus Aurelius]] . Indak ado karya langkok nan batahan dari duo fase partamo Stoicisme. Hanyo teks-teks Romawi dari Stoa Akhia nan masih ado. <ref>A.A.Long, ''Hellenistic Philosophy'', p. 115.</ref> [[Berkas:Detail._Marble_bust_of_Chrysippus._Roman_copy_(1st_century_CE)_of_an_original_(c._200_BCE)._Altes_Museum,_Berlin,_Germany.jpg|jmpl|[[Chrysippus|Krisippus]], pamimpin katigo dari aliran Stoa, manulih labiah dari 300 buku tantang logika. Karya-karyanyo alah ilang, tapi rangka sistem logisnyo dapek direkonstruksi dari pacahan-pacahan jo kesaksian.]] Bagi urang Stoa, logika ( ''logike'' ) adolah bagian dari filsafat nan mangkaji akal ( ''[[logos]]'' ). <ref name="sellars55">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=55}}</ref> Untuak mancapai kahidupan nan bahagia—hiduik nan layak untuak dijalani—paralu bapikia sacaro logis. <ref name="shenefeltwhite742">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=74}}</ref> Urang Stoa bapandapek baso mamahami etika indak mungkin tanpa logika. <ref name="shenefeltwhite78">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=78}}</ref> Dalam kato-kato Inwood, urang Stoa picayo baso: <ref>{{Harvnb|Inwood|2003|p=229}}</ref> Bagi urang Stoa, logika adolah bidang pangatahuan nan laweh nan tamasuak kajian tantang [[Filsafat bahasa|bahaso]], [[Tata bahasa|tata bahaso]], [[retorika]], jo [[epistemologi]] . <ref name="sellars552">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=55}}</ref> Namun, sadoalah bidang iko saliang bakaik, dan Stoa mangambangkan logika (atau "dialektika") mareka dalam konteks teori bahaso jo epistemologi mareka. <ref name="otoolejennings400">{{Harvnb|O'Toole|Jennings|2004|p=400}}</ref> Tradisi logika Stoa dimulai pado abaik ka-4 SM pado aliran filsafat nan babeda nan dikenal sabagai [[Aliran Megara|aliran Megarian]] . <ref name="bobzien880">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1996a|p=880}}</ref> Duo ahli dialektik aliran iko, [[Diodorus Cronus]] jo muriknyo [[Philo sang Dialektikawan|Philo]], nan mangambangkan teorinyo surang tantang [[Logika modal|modalitas]] jo [[Kondisional material|proposisi kondisional]] . <ref name="bobzien880" /> Pandiri Stoicisme, Zeno dari Citium, baraja di bawah kaum Megari, dan inyo kabanyo adolah kawan sasikola Philo. <ref name="sellars56">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=56}}</ref> Namun, tokoh pamimpin dalam pakambangan logika Stoa adolah [[Chrysippus|Krisippus dari Soli]] (kiro-kiro 279 – sakitar 206 SM), kapalo katigo dari aliran Stoa. <ref name="bobzien8802">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1996a|p=880}}</ref> Krisipus mambantuak banyak logika Stoa sarupo nan kito katahui kini, mambuek sistem logika proposisional. <ref name="shenefeltwhite80">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=80}}</ref> Namun, tulisan-tulisan logis Chrysippus ampia sadonyo hilang, <ref name="bobzien8802" /> sabaliaknyo, sistemnyo harus direkonstruksi dari catatan sabagian jo indak langkok nan dipaliharo dalam karya-karya panulis salanjuiknyo. <ref name="sellars562">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=56}}</ref> == Asertibel == Unit paliang ketek dalam logika Stoa adolah suatu proposisi ''nan dapek dinyatoan'' atau proposisi ( axiomata ), suatu proposisi nan batua atau salah dan nan afirmatif atau negatif. <ref name="sellars58">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=58}}</ref> Contoh nan dapek dinyatoan antaro lain "lah sanjo", "hari ko hujan", jo "indak ado urang nan bajalan." <ref name="sellars58-9">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|pp=58–59}}</ref> <ref name="bobzien102">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=102}}</ref> Asertif mampunyoi nilai kabanaran sahinggo inyo hanyo batua atau salah tagantuang pado pabilo inyo dinyatoan (misalnyo, asertif "lah patang" hanyo batua jikok batua baso itu patang). {{Sfn|Bobzien|1999|pp=95}} Urang Stoa mangatalogkan kato-kato nan dapek dinyatoan sederhana ko manuruik apokah inyo afirmatif atau negatif, jo apokah inyo pasti atau indak pasti (atau kaduonyo). <ref name="bobzien97-8">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|pp=97–98}}</ref> == Asertibel Majemuk == {| class="wikitable floatright" ! colspan="3" style="background:white;text-align:center;" |Pahubungan logis |- !Namo !Contoh |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Kondisional material|Basyarat]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |kalau siang hari, mako tarang |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Konjungsi logika|Konjungsi]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |siang jo tarang |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Disjungsi logika|Pamisahan]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |baiak siang atau malam . |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |Basyarat semu | style="white-space:nowrap;" |dek lah siang, lah tarang |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Kausalitas|Panyabab]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |dek lah siang, lah tarang |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |Pabandiangan | style="white-space:nowrap;" |labiah mungkin siang dari pado malam |} Asertibel majemuk dapek dibangun dari asertibel sederhana malalui panggunoan [[Konektif logika|konektif logis]], nan baurusan jo pilihan jo konsekuensi sarupo "jiko ... mako", "antah ... atau", jo "indak". <ref name="shenefeltwhite782">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=78}}</ref> <ref name="shenefeltwhite79">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=79}}</ref> Chrysippus tampaknyo alah mampakenalkan tigo jinih kato panyambuang utamo: [[Kondisional material|kato kondisional]] ( '''jiko''' ), [[Konjungsi logika|kato panyambuang]] ( '''jo''' ), jo [[Disjungsi logika|kato panyabuang]] ( '''atau''' ). <ref name="bobzien105">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=105}}</ref> Sabuah kondisional khas maambiak bantuak "jiko p mako q"; <ref name="bobzien106">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=106}}</ref> sadangkan konjungsi maambiak bantuak "baiak p atau q"; <ref name="bobzien106" /> dan disjunktif maambiak bantuak "baiak p atau q". <ref name="bobzien109">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=109}}</ref> Kato '''atau''' nan mereka gunoan adolah [[Disjungsi eksklusif|eksklusif]], babeda jo [[Disjungsi logika|inklusif atau]] nan umum digunoan dalam logika formal moderen. <ref>{{Harvnb|Inwood|2003|p=231}}</ref> Konektif ko digabuangan jo panggunoan '''indak''' untuak negasi. <ref name="sellars60">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=60}}</ref> Jadi, suatu kondisional dapek maambiak ampek bantuak barikuik: <ref name="bobzien129">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=129}}</ref> 1) "Jikok p, mako q" 2) "Jikok indak p, mako q" 3) "Jikok p, mako indak q" 4) "Jikok indak p, mako indak q." Urang Stoa kudian manambahkan labiah banyak kato panyambuang: pseudo-kondisional maambiak bantuak "karano p makonyo q"; dan kausal nan dapek dinyatokan maambiak bantuak "karano p makonyo q". [a] Ado pulo bantuak komparatif (atau disertif): "lah labiah/kurang (mungkin) baso p daripado q". <ref name="bobzien109-111">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|pp=109–111}}</ref> == Asertibel modal == Asertif dapek juo dibedakan jo [[Logika modal|sipaik modalnyo]] [b] —apokah inyo mungkin, indak mungkin, paralu, atau indak paralu. <ref name="sellars59">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=59}}</ref> Dalam hal iko, kaum Stoa mangambangkan debat aliran Megarian nan labiah awal nan diprakarsai dek Diodorus Cronus. <ref name="sellars59" /> Diodorus alah mandefinisikan ''kamungkinan'' jo caro nan tampaknyo maadopsi bantuak [[fatalisme]] . <ref name="kenny136">{{Harvnb|Adamson|2015|p=136}}</ref> Diodorus mandefinisikan ''kamungkinan'' sabagai "sasuatu nan ado atau akan batua". <ref name="ancientlogic">{{harvnb|Bobzien|2020}}</ref> Jadi, indak ado kamungkinan nan indak terwujud salamonyo; apo sajo nan mungkin adolah atau suatu saat akan manjadi batua. <ref name="kenny136" /> Muridnyo Philo manulak hal iko jo mandefinisikan ''kamungkinan'' sabagai "sasuatu nan mampu manjadi batua dek sifaik proposisi itu sandiri", <ref name="ancientlogic" /> sahinggo pernyataan sarupo "potongan kayu ko dapek tabaka" adolah ''mungkin'', walaupun potongan kayu tu mangaluaan saluruah eksistensinyo di ocean the bottom of. <ref name="kenny138">{{Harvnb|Adamson|2015|p=138}}</ref> Krisippus, di sisi lain, adolah saurang determinis kausal: inyo bapandapek baso panyabab nan batua tantu mahasilkan efeknyo jo baso sadoalah sasuatu tajadi jo caro iko. <ref name="adamson58">{{Harvnb|Adamson|2015|p=58}}</ref> Namun, inyo bukanlah determinis logis ataupun fatalis: inyo nio mambedakan antaro kabanaran nan mungkin jo kabanaran nan paralu. <ref name="adamson58" /> Dek karano itu, inyo maambiak posisi tangah antaro Diodorus jo Philo, manggabuangkan unsur-unsur kaduo sistem modal mareka. <ref name="bobzien120">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=120}}</ref> Rangkaian definisi modal Stoa manuruik Krisipus adolah sarupo barikuik: <ref name="bobzien118">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=118}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1.0em auto;" ! colspan="2" style="background:white;text-align:center;" |Pangaratian dari modal |- !Namo !Definisi |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |''Kamungkinan'' | style="white-space:wrap;" |Sabuah asertif nan bisa batua '''dan''' indak tahalang dek hal-hal lua untuak manjadi batua . |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |''indak mungkin'' | style="white-space:wrap;" |Sabuah assertible nan indak bisa batua '''atau''' nan bisa batua tapi dihalangi dek hal-hal lua untuak batua. |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |''pasti'' | style="white-space:wrap;" |Sabuah assertible nan (katiko batua) indak dapek manjadi salah '''atau''' nan dapek manjadi salah tapi dihalangi dek kaadaan lua untuak manjadi salah. |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |''alun tantu do'' | style="white-space:wrap;" |Sabuah assertible nan bisa salah '''dan''' indak dihalangi dek hal-hal lua untuak salah . |} == Argumen == Dalam logika Stoa, argumen didefinisikan sabagai kombinasi atau sistem premis jo kasimpulan. <ref name="bobzien121">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=121}}</ref> [[Silogisme]] khas Stoa adolah: "Jikok siang, mako siang; Siang; Karano itu tarang." <ref name="bobzien121" /> Silogisme ko mampunyoi asertif nan indak sederhana untuak premis partamo ("Jikok siang, mako alah cahayo") jo asertif sederhana untuak premis kaduo ("Itu siang"). <ref name="bobzien121" /> Logika Stoa juo manggunoan variabel nan mawakili proposisi untuak menggeneralisasikan argumen nan samo bantuaknyo. <ref name="bobzien881">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1996a|p=881}}</ref> Dalam istilah nan labiah umum, argumen ko akan tabaco: <ref name="sellars582">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=58}}</ref> "Jikok p, mako q; p; Karano itu q." == Argumen yang tak terbuktikan == Krisippus mancantumkan limo bantuak dasar argumen, nan disabuik indak dapek ditunjukkan, <ref name="Mates">{{Harvnb|Mates|1953|pages=67–73}}</ref> [c] nan sadoalah argumen lainnyo dikurangi: <ref name="ierodiakonou678">{{Harvnb|Ierodiakonou|2006|p=678}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1.0em auto;" ! colspan="4" style="background:white;text-align:center;" |Argumen nan indak dapek dibuktikan |- !Namo [d] !Katarangan !Contoh |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Modus ponens|Modus untuak]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |Kalau p, mako q.&nbsp;hlm.&nbsp;Karano itu, q. |''Kalau siang hari, mako tarang. Kini lah siang hari. Karano itu, iyo tarang.'' |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Modus tollens|Modus tol]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |Kalau p, mako q.&nbsp;Indak q.&nbsp;Karano itu, indak p. |''Kalau siang hari, mako tarang. Kalau indak tarang, mako indak siang hari.'' |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Modus ponendo tollens|Modus ponendo tollen]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |Indak p atau q.&nbsp;hlm.&nbsp;Karano itu, indak q.&nbsp; |''Ndak mungkin siang jo malam doh. Lah siang. Karano itu, alun malam doh.''&nbsp; |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Modus tollendo ponens|Modus tollendo ponens kuek .]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |Antah p atau q.&nbsp;Indak p.&nbsp;Karano itu, q. |''Baiak siang ataupun malam. Kini alun siang. Karano itu, hari lah malam.'' |- | style="white-space:nowrap;" |[[Modus ponendo tollens|Modus ponendo tollens kuat .]] | style="white-space:nowrap;" |Antah p atau q.&nbsp;hlm.&nbsp;Karano itu, indak q. |''Baiak siang ataupun malam. Lah siang. Karano itu, alun malam doh.'' |} Ado banyak variasi dari limo argumen nan indak bisa dibuktikan ko. <ref name="bobzien128">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=128}}</ref> Misalnyo, hal-hal nan dapek dinyatoan dalam premis dapek labiah kompleks, dan silogisme barikuik adolah contoh nan sah dari nan indak dapek ditunjukkan kaduo ( ''modus tollens'' ): <ref name="bobzien1292">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1999|p=129}}</ref> "jiko indak p atau q, mako r; indak r; karano itu indak: indak p atau q" Baitu juo urang dapek mamasuakan argumen-argumen ko ka dalam nega. <ref name="bobzien1292" /> Contoh nan sah dari nan indak dapek ditunjukkan kaampek ( ''modus tollendo ponens'' nan kuek atau silogisme disjunktif eksklusif) adolah: <ref name="shenefeltwhite87">{{Harvnb|Shenefelt|White|2013|p=87}}</ref> <ref name="shenefeltwhite87" /> [indak p] atau q; indak [indak p]; dek karano itu q" nan, mamasuakan prinsip [[negasi ganda]], satara jo "[ pei] indak ado ]; q." == Argumen komplek == Namun, banyak argumen lain nan indak dinyatoan dalam bantuak limo nan indak dapek ditunjukkan, dan tugas ahli logika adolah untuak manunjuakan baa caronyo dapek dikurangi manjadi salah satu dari limo jinih ko. <ref name="sellars602">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=60}}</ref> Contoh sederhana dari pangurangan Stoa dilaporkan dek [[Sextus Empiricus]] : <ref name="ierodiakonou521">{{Harvnb|Ierodiakonou|2009|p=521}}</ref> "jiko indak p atau q, mako r; indak r; tapi juo p; karano itu indak q" Hal iko dapek dikurangi manjadi duo argumen tapisah nan indak dapek ditunjukkan dari jinih kaduo jo katigo: <ref name="ierodiakonou522">{{Harvnb|Ierodiakonou|2009|p=522}}</ref> "jiko indak p atau q indak; q; indak: baiak p ataupun p; Urang Stoa mangaku baso silogisme nan rumik dapek dikurangi manjadi nan indak dapek dibuktikan malalui panggunoan ampek aturan dasar atau ''temata'' . <ref name="bobzien133">{{Harvnb|Bobzien|1996b|p=133}}</ref> Dari ampek ''temata'' ko, hanyo duo nan masih hiduik. <ref name="Kneale2">{{Harvnb|Kneale|Kneale|1962|p=169}}</ref> <ref name="ancientlogic2">{{harvnb|Bobzien|2020}}</ref> Salah satunyo, nan disabuik ''tema'' partamo, adolah aturan [[antilogisme]] : "Jikok dari duo [asertif] hal katigo manuruik, mako dari salah satunyo basamo-samo jo kontradiksi kasimpulannyo, kontradiksi dari asertif lainnyo manuruik." <ref>[[Apuleius]], ''De Interpretatione'' 209. 9–14)</ref> <ref name="ancientlogic2" /> Nan lain, ''tema'' katigo, adolah [[Aturan potong|aturan deduksi]] nan jo itu silogisme barantai dapek dikurangi manjadi silogisme sederhana. [e] Pantiangnyo aturan-aturan ko indak sapanuahnyo jaleh. <ref name="barnes82">{{Harvnb|Barnes|1997|p=82}}</ref> Pado abaik ka-2 SM, [[Antipater dari Tarsus]] kabanyo alah mampakenalkan metode nan labiah sederhana nan malibaikkan panggunoan ''themata'' nan labiah saketek, walaupun saketek rincian nan masih ado manganai hal iko. <ref name="barnes82" /> == Paradoks == Salain manjalehan kesimpulan mano nan sah, bagian dari palatiahan logika Stoa adolah pahitungan jo pambantahan argumen nan salah, tamasuak identifikasi paradoks, <ref>{{Harvnb|Inwood|2003|p=232}}</ref> nan manyajikan tantangan kapado konsep dasar logika Stoa, sarupo kabanaran atau kapasalahan. <ref name="ierodiakonou525">{{Harvnb|Ierodiakonou|2009|p=525}}</ref> Salah satu paradoks nan dipalajari dek Chrysippus, nan dikenal sabagai ''[[Paradoks pembohong|Paradoks Panduto]]'', batanyo "Saurang urang mangatokan inyo baduto; apokah apo nan dikatokannyo batua atau salah?"—jikok urang tu mangatokan sasuatu nan batua mako tampaknyo inyo baduto, tapi jikok inyo baduto mako inyo indak mangatokan apo-apo nan batua, dan sabagainyo. Paradoks lain, nan dikenal sabagai ''[[Paradoks sorites|Sorites atau paradoks "Tumpukan"]]'', batanyo "Bara butiran gandum nan paralu sabalun punyo tumpukan?" <ref name="ierodiakonou526">{{Harvnb|Ierodiakonou|2009|p=526}}</ref> Hal iko dikatokan manantang gagasan kabanaran atau salah jo manawarkan kamungkinan ambiguitas. <ref name="ierodiakonou526" /> Dalam manguasoi paradoks-paradoks iko, Stoa baharok untuak maasah fakultas rasionalnyo, <ref>{{Harvnb|Long|2001|p=95}}</ref> untuak mamudahkan refleksi etis, mamudahkan argumentasi nan aman jo yakin, jo mambimbiang dirinyo ka kabanaran. <ref name="nussbaum2009">{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2009}}</ref> == Kategori == Urang Stoa bapandapek baso sadoalah [[Wujud|makhluk]] ( {{Lang|grc|ὄντα}} )—walaupun indak sadonyo hal (τινά)—adolah [[materi]] . <ref>Jacques Brunschwig, ''Stoic Metaphysics'' in ''The Cambridge Companion to Stoics'', ed. B. Inwood, Cambridge, 2006, pp. 206–232</ref> Salain makhluk nan alah ado, mareka mangakui ampek hal immaterial (asomata): wakatu, tampek, kakosongan, jo sasuatu nan dapek dikatoan (lekton). <ref>[[Sextus Empiricus]], ''Adversus Mathematicos'' 10.218. (chronos, topos, kenon, lekton)</ref> Hal-hal iko dianggap hanyo 'bertahan' samantaro status sarupo itu dibantah kapado urang-urang nan universal. <ref>Marcelo D. Boeri, ''The Stoics on Bodies and Incorporeals'', The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54, No. 4 (Jun., 2001), pp. 723–752</ref> Dengan demikian, mareka manarimo gagasan [[Anaxagoras]] (sarupo Aristoteles) baso jikok suatu benda angek, itu karano sabagian dari badan angek universal alah masuak ka dalam benda tasabuik. Namun, babeda jo Aristoteles, mareka mampalaweh gagasan untuak mamasuakan sadoalah [[Aksiden (filsafat)|kajadian kabatulan]] . Jadi, jikok suatu benda bawarna merah, itu dek karano sabagian dari badan merah universal alah masuak ka dalam benda tu. Mereka bapandapek baso ado ampek [[Kategori Stoik|kategori]] : # '''[[Teori substansi|Zat]] ( {{Lang|grc|ὑποκείμενον}} ):''' Materi primer, zat nan indak babantuak, ( ''ousia'' ) nan mambantuak sagalo sasuatu . # '''[[Kualitas (filsafat)|Mutu]] ( {{Lang|grc|ποιόν}} ):''' Caro materi disusun untuak mambantuak benda masiang-masiang; dalam fisika Stoa, zat fisik ( ''[[Pneuma (Stoik)|pneuma]]'' : udaro atau angok), nan mambarikan bantuak pado materi # '''Dibuang jo caro tatantu ( {{Lang|grc|πως ἔχον}} ):''' Ciri-ciri tatantu, nan indak ado pado benda, sarupo ukuran, bantuak, tindakan, jo postur tubuah. # '''Dibuang jo caro tatantu dalam kaitannyo jo sasuatu ( {{Lang|grc|πρός τί πως ἔχον}} ):''' Ciri-ciri nan takaik jo fenomena lain, sarupo posisi suatu benda dalam wakatu jo ruang relatif kapado benda lain. == Epistimologi == Manuruik Stoa, pangatahuan dapek dicapai malalui penerapan aka pado kesan ( [[phantasiai]] ) nan ditarimo dek pikiran malalui indra. Pikiran mampunyoi kamampuan untuak manilai (συγκατάθεσις, ''sinkatatesis'' )—untuak manyatujui atau manulak—sabuah kesan, nan mamungkinkannyo untuak mambedakan representasi nan batua dari kanyataan dari nan salah. Babarapo kesan dapek disatujui jo mudah, tapi nan lain hanyo dapek mancapai tingkat persetujuan nan ragu-ragu, nan dapek disabuik [[Keyakinan|kapacayoan]] atau pandapek ( ''[[doxa]]'' ). Hanyo malalui aka kito mandapekkan pamahaman jo kayakinan nan jaleh ( ''[[katalepsis]]'' ). [[Kepastian|Kapastian]] jo pangatahuan nan batua ( ''[[episteme]]'' ), nan dapek dicapai dek saurang bijak Stoa, hanyo dapek dicapai jo mamverifikasi kapacayoan-kapacayoan tasabuik malalui kaahlian kawan-kawan jo panilaian kolektif kamanusiaan. == Fisika == Manuruik Stoa, [[Alam samasta|Alam Semesta]] adolah [[Substansi bernalar|zat rasional]] [[Materi (filsafat)#Filsafat Yunani Kuno|material]] ( ''[[logos]]'' ), nan tabagi manjadi duo kelas: nan aktif jo nan pasif. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Karamanolis|first=George E.|year=2013|chapter=Free will and divine providence|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVdsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151|title=The Philosophy of Early Christianity|location=[[Kota New York|New York]] and [[London]]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|edition=1st|series=Ancient Philosophies|page=151|isbn=978-1844655670|access-date=18 November 2021|archive-date=8 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708182043/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVdsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151}}</ref> Zat pasif adolah materi itu surang, sadangkan zat aktif adolah [[Aether (elemen klasik)|eter]] cadiak atau [[api]] primordial, nan batindak pado materi pasif ko, yaitu ''logos'' atau ''[[anima mundi]]'' nan marambah jo ma-animasi saluruah Alam Semesta. Zat ko dipahami sabagai bahan dan biasonyo diidentifikasi jo Tuhan atau Alam. Kaum Stoa juo marujuak pado ''aka biji'' (" ''[[logos spermatikos]]'' "), atau hukum pambentukan di Alam Semesta, nan marupoan prinsip aka aktif nan baoperasi dalam [[materi]] mati . Manusia juo masiang-masiang mampunyoi sabagian dari ''logos'' ilahi, nan marupoan Api jo aka primordial nan mangandalikan jo mamaliharo Alam Semesta. <ref>Tripolitis, A., ''Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman Age'', pp. 37–38. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.</ref> Sagalo sasuatu tunduak kapado hukum Nasib, karano Alam Semesta batindak sasuai jo sifaiknyo surang, jo sifaik materi pasif nan diaturnyo. Stoicisme indak manunjuakan awal atau akhia untuak Alam Semesta. <ref name="ferg">Ferguson, Everett. ''Backgrounds of Early Christianity''. 2003, p. 368.</ref> Alam Semesta kini adolah fase dalam siklus kini, nan didahului dek sajumlah Alam Semesta nan indak tabateh, nan ditakdirkan untuak dihancuakan ("Ekpyrosis", ''konflagrasi gadang'' ) jo [[Palingenesis|diciptakan baliak]], <ref>[[Michael Lapidge]], ''Stoic Cosmology'', in: John M. Rist, ''The Stoics'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 1978, pp. 182–183.</ref> dan diikuti dek sajumlah Alam Semesta lainnyo nan indak tabateh. == Etika == [[Berkas:Seneca._Double_herm_with_portraits_of_Socrates_and_roman_philosopher_Seneca.jpg|jmpl|Patung [[Seneca yang Muda|Seneca]], surang filsuf Stoa dari Kakaisaran Romawi nan manjabat sabagai panasehat [[Nero|Nero .]]]] Di sampiang [[etika Aristoteles]], tradisi Stoa mambantuak salah satu pandakekan pandiri utamo untuak [[etika kebajikan]] . <ref>Sharpe, Matthew, [http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30059463/sharpe-stoicvirtue-2013.pdf Stoic Virtue Ethics] {{Webarchive}}, ''Handbook of Virtue Ethics'', 2013, 28–41</ref> Urang Stoa picayo baso praktek [[Kebajikan|kabajikan]] cukuik untuak mancapai ''[[eudaimonia]]'' : kahidupan nan dijalani jo baiak. Urang Stoa mangidentifikasi jalan untuak hal iko jo kahidupan nan dihabihkan untuak mampraktekkan ampek [[Kebajikan utama|kabajikan kardinal]] dalam kahidupan sahari-hari— [[Kebijaksanaan|kehati-hatian]], [[Keberanian|katabahan]], [[Kesahajaan (kebajikan)|keterbatasan]], jo [[Keadilan|kaadilan]] —jo hiduik sasuai jo alam. Urang Stoa tanamo khususnyo karano maajaan baso "kabajikan adolah satu-satunyo kabaikan" untuak manusia, jo baso hal-hal lua, sarupo kasehatan, harato, jo kasannangan, indak sacaro alamiah baiak atau buruak ( ''[[adiaphora]]'' ) tapi mampunyoi nilai sabagai "bahan untuak kabajikan untuak batindak". Banyak urang Stoa—sarupo Seneca jo Epictetus—manakankan baso karano "kabajikan cukuik untuak [[Filsafat kebahagiaan|bahagia]] ", urang [[Resi (filsafat)|nan bijak]] akan mampunyoi katahanan emosional taradok musibah. Urang Stoa juo picayo baso emosi nan marusak tatantu diakibaikan dari kasalahan panilaian, jo baso urang harus batujuan untuak mamupuak kahandak (nan disabuik ''[[prohairesis]]'' ) nan "sasuai jo [[Alam (filsafat)|alam]] ". Dek karano iko, urang-urang Stoa bapandapek baso indikasi nan paliang rancak dari filsafat saurang bukanlah apo nan dikatoan urang tu, tapi labiah kapado baa inyo batingkah laku. <ref>John Sellars. ''Stoicism'', 2006, p. 32.</ref> Urang Stoa manakankan baso tindakan, pamikiran, jo reaksi kito surang-surang ado dalam kendali kito. Hal iko manyiratkan bahaso ado ranah hal-hal nan tagantuang pado awak atau dalam kuaso awak. Etika Stoa malibaikkan mampromosikan kasajahteraan etika jo moral individu: " ''Kebajikan'' tadiri dari ''kahandak'' nan sasuai jo Alam." <ref name="Russell">Russell, Bertrand. ''A History of Western Philosophy,'' p. 254</ref> Landasan etika Stoa adolah baso kabaikan talatak pado kaadaan jiwa itu sandiri, pado kabijaksanaan jo pangandalian diri. Bagi Stoa, aka bararti manggunoan logika jo mamahami proses alam—logos atau aka universal, nan melekat pado sagalo sasuatu, sabagai sarana untuak mangatasi [[emosi]] nan marusak . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Graver|first=Margaret|title=Stoicism and Emotion|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|year=2009|isbn=978-0226305585|oclc=430497127}}</ref> Prinsip iko juo balaku untuak ranah hubungan antarpribadi; "untuak bebas dari bangih, iri, jo iri", <ref name="Russell1">Russell, Bertrand. ''A History of Western Philosophy'', p. 264</ref> dan bahkan untuak manarimo budak sabagai samo karano sadonyo adolah produk alam. <ref name="Russell5">Russell, Bertrand. ''A History of Western Philosophy'', p. 253.</ref> Etika Stoa mamaluak suduik pandang [[Determinisme|nan manantukan]] ; manganai urang-urang nan kurang kabajikan Stoa, [[Cleanthes]] pernah bapandapek baso urang-urang jahek "sarupo anjiang nan diikat pado garobak, dan tapaso pai kama sajo garobak tu pai". <ref name="Russell" /> Sabaliaknyo, saurang Stoa nan babudi luhur akan manyasuaian kahandaknyo untuak manyasuaian dunia dan tatap, dalam kato-kato Epictetus, "sakik namun bahagia, dalam bahayo namun bahagia, maningga namun bahagia, dalam pangasingan namun bahagia, dalam hinaan namun bahagia", <ref name="Russell1" /> sahinggo mamposisikan suatu "sacaro sapanuahnyo otonom jo alam semesta sa suatu wakatu individu." kasaluruahan nan manantukan". == Hasrat == Bagi filsuf Stoa [[Chrysippus|Krisippus]], kainginan adolah panilaian nan manilai. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Groenendijk|first=L.F.|last2=de Ruyter|first2=D.J.|date=2009|title=Learning from Seneca: A Stoic perspective on the art of living and education|url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/learning-from-seneca-a-stoic-perspective-on-the-art-of-living-and|url-status=live|journal=Ethics and Education|volume=4|pages=81–92|doi=10.1080/17449640902816277|issn=1744-9642|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202183712/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/learning-from-seneca-a-stoic-perspective-on-the-art-of-living-and|archive-date=2 December 2022|access-date=5 July 2023}}</ref> Kainginan adolah kakuatan nan mangganggu jo manyasekkan dalam pikiran nan diakibaikan dek kagagalan untuak bapikia sacaro tapek. {{Sfn|Annas|1994|pp=103–104}} Urang Stoa manggunoan kato iko untuak manggambarkan banyak emosi umum sarupo bangih, takuik, jo sanang nan bakalabiahan. {{Sfn|Annas|1994|pp=103–104}} Salah manilai kabaikan maso kini mambarikan muncuanyo kasannangan, sadangkan kainginan adolah salah estimasi maso datang. {{Sfn|Annas|1994|pp=103–104}} Imajinasi nan indak realistis tantang kajahatan mambaok pado ibo hati tantang maso kini, atau takuik jo maso datang. {{Sfn|Capes|1880|pp=47-48}} Saurang Stoa nan ideal malah akan maukua sagalo sasuatu pado nilainyo nan sabananyo, {{Sfn|Capes|1880|pp=47-48}} jo mancaliak baso kainginan-kainginan iko indak wajar. {{Sfn|Capes|1880|pp=47-48}} Lapeh dari nafsu adolah mampunyoi kebahagiaan nan cukuik jo cukuik. {{Sfn|Capes|1880|pp=47-48}} Indak ka ado nan ka ditakuti—karano indak bakalasan adolah satu-satunyo kajahatan; indak ka ado alasan untuak berang—karano urang lain indak bisa marugikan awak. {{Sfn|Capes|1880|pp=47-48}} Urang Stoa mangalompokkan kainginan di bawah ampek judul: raso sakik, sanang, takuik, jo nafsu. <ref name="sorabji29">{{Harvnb|Sorabji|2000|p=29}}</ref> Salah satu catatan tantang definisi Stoa tantang kainginan iko muncua dalam risalah Krisippus ''Tantang Nafsu'' (terjemahan Long & Sedley, hal. 411, dimodifikasi): * '''Duka''' ( '''lupē''' ): [[Stres (kedokteran)|Duka]] adolah kontraksi [[Irasionalitas|nan indak rasional]], atau [[Opini|pandapek]] baru baso ado sasuatu nan buruak, dek karano itu urang maraso batua untuak [[Depresi|ditakan]] . * '''Takuik''' ( '''phobos''' ): [[Ketakutan|Takuik]] adolah [[Penghindaran risiko|raso]] indak rasional, atau mahindari [[Risiko|bahayo]] nan dirasakan . * '''Nafsu''' ( '''epithumia''' ): [[Nafsu]] adolah kainginan nan indak rasional, atau mangaja suatu nan dirasakan [[Teori kebaikan dan nilai|baiak]] nan pado kanyataannyo buruak. * '''Kasanangan''' ( '''hēdonē''' ): Kasanangan adolah pakambangan nan indak rasional, atau pandapek baru baso sasuatu nan baiak ado, dek karano itu urang maraso batua untuak [[Mania|bahagia]] . {| class="wikitable floatright" |- style="background:white" ! !'''Wakatu kini''' !'''Maso depan''' |- |'''Rancak''' |Kanikmatan |Nafsu |- |'''Buruak''' |Duka |Takuik |} Duo dari kainginan iko (duka jo sanang) marujuak pado emosi nan hadir pado maso kini, dan duo lai (takuik jo nafsu) marujuak pado emosi nan diarahkan ka maso datang. <ref name="sorabji292">{{Harvnb|Sorabji|2000|p=29}}</ref> Jadi, hanyo ado duo kaadaan nan diarahkan ka prospek baiak jo buruak, tapi inyo dibagi labiah lanjuik sasuai jo apokah inyo barado di maso kini atau maso datang: <ref name="graver54">{{Harvnb|Graver|2007|p=54}}</ref> Sajumlah subdivisi dari kelas nan samo dimasuakkan di bawah kapalo kainginan nan tapisah: <ref>Cicero's ''Tusculan Disputations'' by J. E. King.</ref> * '''Duka''' : [[Iri hati|Iri]], [[Persaingan]], [[Kecemburuan|Cemburu]], [[Belas kasih|Ibo hati]], [[Kecemasan]], [[Berkabung|Ratok]], Duka, [[Kesedihan|Gelisah]], [[Dukacita|Duka]], Ratok, [[Depresi]], Raso ndak sanang, Putuih Aso. * '''Takuik''' : Indak batindak, [[Rasa malu|Malu]], [[Ketakutan|Takuik]], [[Sifat penakut|Pengecut]], Takuik, Patah samangek, Binguang, jo Kelalaian. * '''Nafsu''' : [[Kemarahan|Bangih]], [[Murka (emosi)|Murka]], [[Kebencian|Banci]], Bamusuhan, [[Berang|Ire]], [[Tujuh dosa mematikan#Keserakahan|Tamak]], jo Rindu. * '''Kasanangan''' : Iri, [[Ekstase|Ekstasi]], jo Pamer. [[Resi (filsafat)|Urang nan bijaksano]] ( ''sophos'' ) adolah urang nan lapeh dari kainginan ( ''[[Apatheia|apateia]]'' atau impasif <ref name="IEP">{{cite IEP|url-id=neostoic|title=Neostoicism|last=Sellars|first=John}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/impassivity|title=Definition of IMPASSIVITY|date=2025-11-04|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|access-date=2025-12-05}}</ref> ). Sabaliaknyo, urang nan bijak mangalami raso baiak nan jaleh ( ''eupatheia'' ). <ref name="inwood705">{{Harvnb|Inwood|1999|p=705}}</ref> Dorongan emosi ko indak bakalabiahan, tapi indak pulo emosi nan bakurang. <ref name="annas115">{{Harvnb|Annas|1994|p=115}}</ref> <ref name="graver52">{{Harvnb|Graver|2007|p=52}}</ref> Sabaiknyo, itu adolah emosi nan batua, rasional. <ref name="graver52" /> Urang Stoa mancantumkan parasaan baiak di bawah judul sukacita ( ''chara'' ), kahandak ( ''boulesis'' ), jo bijaksana ( ''eulabeia'' ). {{Sfn|Annas|1994}} Jadi, jikok sasuatu nan hadir adolah kabaikan nan sabananyo, mako urang nan bijak mangalami paningkekan jiwa—sukacita ( ''chara'' ). <ref name="inwood701">{{Harvnb|Inwood|1999|p=701}}</ref> Urang Stoa juo mambagi-bagi parasaan baiak: <ref name="graver58">{{Harvnb|Graver|2007|p=58}}</ref> * '''Kasanangan:''' Kenikmatan, Keceriaan, Semangat nan elok * '''Kahandak:''' Muat baiak, Muat baiak, Manyambuik, Kasiah sayang, Cinto * '''Kehati-hatian:''' Malu moral, Hormat == Bunuh diri == Urang Stoa maanggap bunuah diri buliah bagi urang-urang nan bijak dalam kaadaan nan mungkin managahnyo untuak manjalani kahidupan nan babudi luhur, <ref name="marietta153">{{Cite book|last=Marietta|first=Don E.|title=Introduction to Ancient Philosophy|year=1998|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=Armonk, N.Y.|isbn=9780765602152|oclc=37935252|pages=153–154}}</ref> sarupo jikok inyo manjadi korban raso sakik atau panyakik nan barek, <ref name="marietta153" /> tapi sabaliaknyo bunuah diri biasonyo akan dipandang sabagai panulakan taradok kawajiban sosial seseorang. <ref name="irvine200">William Braxton Irvine, (2009), ''A guide to the good life: the ancient art of Stoic joy'', p. 200. Oxford University Press</ref> Misalnyo, [[Plutarch]] malaporan baso manarimo kahidupan di bawah tirani akan mambahayakan konsistensi diri [[Cato yang Muda|Cato]] ( ''constantia'' ) sabagai urang Stoa jo marusak kabebasannyo untuak mambuek pilihan moral nan terhormat. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zadorojnyi|first=Alexei V.|year=2007|title=Cato's suicide in Plutarch AV Zadorojnyi|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_classical-quarterly_2007-05_57_1/page/216|journal=The Classical Quarterly|volume=57|issue=1|pages=216–230|doi=10.1017/S0009838807000195}}</ref> == Warisan == [[Berkas:Marcus_Aurelius_Louvre_MR561_n01.jpg|jmpl|[[Marcus Aurelius]], kaisar Romawi nan Stoa .]] Salamo sakitar limo ratuih tahun, logika Stoa marupoan salah satu dari duo sistem logika nan gadang. <ref>{{Harvnb|Kneale|Kneale|1962|p=113}}</ref> Logika Krisippus dibahas basamo-samo jo logika Aristoteles, dan mungkin labiah tanamo karano Stoicisme adolah aliran filsafat nan dominan. <ref name="knealekneale177">{{Harvnb|Kneale|Kneale|1962|p=177}}</ref> Dari pandangan moderen, [[logika leksikal]] Aristoteles jo logika proposisional Stoa tampaknyo saling malangkapi, tapi kadang-kadang dianggap sabagai sistem nan basaiang. <ref name="sellars603">{{Harvnb|Sellars|2006|p=60}}</ref> == Platonis baru == Pado akhia zaman kuno, kaum Stoa manurun, dan aliran filsafat pagan tarakhia, kaum [[Neoplatonisme|Neoplatonis]], maadopsi logika Aristoteles sabagai logika mareka surang. <ref>{{Harvnb|Sharples|2003|p=156}}</ref> [[Plotinus]] pernah mangkritik Kategori Aristoteles jo Kategori Stoa; tapi muriknyo, [[Porphyry (filsuf)|Porfirius]], mampatahankan skema Aristoteles. Inyo mambenarkan hal iko jo mangatoan baso kategori-kategori tu harus ditafsirkan sacaro ketat sabagai ekspresi, bukan sabagai kanyataan metafisika. Pandekatan iko dapek dibenarkan, paliang indak sabagian, dek kato-kato Aristoteles surang dalam ''The Categories.'' Panarimoan [[Boethius]] taradok panafsiran Porfirius manyababkan panarimoan logika dek filsafat [[Skolastisisme|Skolastik]] . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/|title=Boethius|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=2026-01-09}}</ref> Akibaiknyo, indak ado tulisan Stoa tantang logika nan masih ado, dan hanyo unsur-unsur logika Stoa nan manamukan jalannyo ka dalam tulisan logis Boethius jo komentator kudian, nan manyampaikan bagian-bagian nan binguang dari logika Stoa ka Abaik Patangahan. <ref name="knealekneale1772">{{Harvnb|Kneale|Kneale|1962|p=177}}</ref> Logika proposisional dikambangkan baliak dek [[Peter Abelard]] pado abaik ka-12, tapi pado patangahan abaik ka-15, satu-satunyo logika nan dipalajari adolah versi logika Aristoteles nan disederhanakan. <ref name="hurley6">{{Harvnb|Hurley|2011|p=6}}</ref> Pangatahuan tantang logika Stoa sabagai sistem ilang sampai abaik ka-20, katiko ahli logika nan akrab jo [[kalkulus proposisional]] modern manilai baliak catatan-catatan kuno tantangnyo. == Kekristenan == [[Bapa Gereja|Bapak-bapak Gereja]] mamandang Stoicisme sabagai "filsafat pagan"; <ref name="Agathias">[[Agathias]]. ''Histories,'' 2.31.</ref> <ref name="Sedley">{{Cite encyclopedia}}</ref> namun baitu, panulih Kristen awal manggunoan babarapo konsep filosofis sentral Stoicisme. Contohnyo tamasuak istilah " [[logos]] ", " [[Kebajikan|kabajikan]] ", " Roh ", jo " [[hati nurani]] ". <ref name="ferg2">Ferguson, Everett. ''Backgrounds of Early Christianity''. 2003, p. 368.</ref> <ref name="ferg2" /> Kaduonyo mandorong katanangan batin taradok nafsu jo emosi nan labiah randah, sarupo nafsu jo iri, sahinggo kamungkinan nan labiah tinggi dari kamanusiaan seseorang dapek dibangunkan jo dikambangkan. Pangaruah Stoa dapek juo dicaliak dalam karya-karya [[Ambrosius dari Milan]], [[Marcus Minucius Felix]], jo [[Tertullian|Tertullianus]] . <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism|title=Stoicism &#124; Definition, History, & Influence &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628193627/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stoicism|archive-date=28 June 2023|access-date=2 January 2022}}</ref> == Neostoikisme == [[Neostoikisme|Neostoicisme]] adolah sabuah [[Gerakan filosofis|garakan filosofis]] nan muncua pado akhia [[Abad ke-16|abaik ka-16]] dari karya-karya [[Humanisme Renaisans|humanis Renaisans]] [[Justus Lipsius]], nan barusaho manggabuangkan kapacayoan Stoicisme jo Kristen. <ref name="IEP2">{{cite IEP|url-id=neostoic|title=Neostoicism|last=Sellars|first=John}}</ref> Proyek neostoik alah digambarkan sabagai usaho Lipsius untuak mambangun "etika sekuler nan didasarkan pado filsafat Stoik Romawi." Inyo indak manganjurkan [[Toleransi beragama|toleransi agamo]] tanpa syarat : dek karano itu, paralu bana untuak mampunyoi moral nan indak tagantuang pado agamo. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Israel|first=Jonathan Irvine|title=The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477–1806|date=1998|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-820734-4|page=372|language=en}}</ref> ''Traité de la Constance'' karya [[Guillaume du Vair]] (1594) adolah pangaruah pantiang lain pado garakan neo-stoik. Samantaro Lipsius mandasarkan karyanyo tarutamo pado tulisan-tulisan Seneca, du Vair manakankan Epictetus. <ref name="IEP2" /> [[Pierre Charron]] datang ka posisi neo-stoik malalui dampak [[Perang Agama Prancis|Parang Agamo Parancih]] . Inyo mambuek pamisahan langkok antaro akhlak jo agamo. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmitt|first=C. B.|last2=Kraye|first2=Jill|last3=Kessler|first3=Eckhard|last4=Skinner|first4=Quentin|title=The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy|year=1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-39748-3|page=374|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJnyxg3xxTEC&pg=PA374|language=en}}</ref> == Penilaian kembali logika stoik == Pado abaik ka-18, [[Immanuel Kant]] manyatoan baso "sajak Aristoteles ... logika alun dapek mamajukan satu langkah pun, jo demikian tampaknyo marupoan badan doktrin nan tatutuik jo langkok." <ref>{{Harvnb|O'Toole|Jennings|2004|p=403}} quoting Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.</ref> Untuak sejarawan abaik ka-19, nan picayo baso filsafat Helenistik mawakili panurunan dari filsafat Plato jo Aristoteles, logika Stoa dipandang randah. <ref name="otoolejennings403">{{Harvnb|O'Toole|Jennings|2004|p=403}}</ref> [[Karl von Prantl|Carl Prantl]] bapandapek baso logika Stoa adolah "kabodohan, dangkal, jo pertikaian skolastik nan sepele" dan inyo manyambuik baiak fakta baso karya-karya Chrysippus indak lai batahan. <ref name="otoolejennings397">{{Harvnb|O'Toole|Jennings|2004|p=397}}</ref> Walaupun pakambangan logika modern nan paralel jo logika Stoa dimulai pado patangahan abaik ka-19 jo karya [[George Boole]] jo [[Augustus De Morgan]], <ref name="hurley62">{{Harvnb|Hurley|2011|p=6}}</ref> logika Stoa sandiri indak dievaluasi ulang sampai abaik ka-20, <ref name="otoolejennings3972">{{Harvnb|O'Toole|Jennings|2004|p=397}}</ref> dimulai jo karya ahli logika Polandia Jan [[Benson Mates|Bencz]] [[Jan Łukasiewicz|Łukates]] <ref name="otoolejennings3972" /> <ref name="otoolejennings3972" /> Manuruik [[Susanne Bobzien]], "Banyak kasamoan dakek antaro logika filosofis Chrysippus jo [[Gottlob Frege]] nan mencolok". {{Sfn|Bobzien|2020}} == Stoik kontemporer == Panggunoan kontemporer mandefinisikan stoik sabagai "urang nan manyandang parasaan atau batahan jo sabar". <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=stoic|title=Stoic|last=Harper|first=Douglas|date=November 2001|website=etymonline.com, Online Etymology Dictionary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119033326/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=stoic|archive-date=19 November 2016|access-date=2006-09-02}}</ref> Entri ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|Ensiklopedia Filsafat Stanford]]'' tantang Stoicisme mancataik: "raso Inggirih dari kato sifat 'stoical' indak sapanuahnyo manyimpang dalam hal asa usua filosofisnyo". {{Sfn|Baltzly}} Stoicisme kontemporer punyo akar pado lonjakan publikasi ilmiah tantang Stoicisme kuno pado akhia abaik ka-20 jo awal abaik ka-21. Kabangkitan Stoicisme pado abaik ka-20 dapek ditelusuri pado panabikan ''Problems dalam Stoicisme'' dek [[A. A. Long|A.A. Long]] pado taun 1971. {{Sfn|Long|1971}} Manuruik filsuf [[Pierre Hadot]], filsafat bagi saurang Stoa bukan hanyo sakumpulan kapacayoan atau klaim etika; labiah tapeknyo, marupoan caro iduik nan malibaikkan praktek jo palatiahan nan taruih manaruih (atau " [[Askestisisme|askēsis]] "), proses aktif dari praktek nan taruih manaruih jo maingek diri. Epictetus, dalam ''[[Discourses of Epictetus|Wacana-]]'' wacananyo, mambedakan antaro tigo jinih tindakan: kaputusan, gairah, jo kecenderungan, {{Sfn|Hadot|1995}} nan diidentifikasi Hadot sabagai logika, fisika, jo etika, masiang-masiang. {{Sfn|Hadot|1998}} Hadot manulih baso dalam ''Meditasi'', "Satiok maksim mangambangkan salah satu dari ''topoi'' nan sangaik khas ko [i.e., tindakan], atau duo, atau tigo darinyo." <ref>Hadot, P. (1987) ''Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique''. Paris, 2nd ed., p. 135.</ref> == Psikologi dan psikoterapi == Filsafat Stoa adolah inspirasi filosofis asali untuak [[psikoterapi kognitif]] modern, khususnyo sabagai nan dimediasi dek [[Terapi perilaku emotif rasional|terapi parilaku emotif rasional]] (REBT) [[Albert Ellis]], <ref name="Ellis">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rebtnetwork.org/|title=REBT Network: Albert Ellis &#124; Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy|website=www.rebtnetwork.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114001008/http://rebtnetwork.org/|archive-date=14 November 2020|access-date=13 January 2023}}</ref> pandahulu utamo untuak [[Terapi perilaku kognitif|terapi parilaku kognitif]] (CBT). Buku panduan ubek terapi kognitif asli untuak depresi dek [[Aaron T. Beck|Harun T.]] manyatoan, "Asal usul filosofis terapi kognitif dapek ditelusuri baliak ka filsuf Stoa." <ref>Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery (1979) ''Cognitive Therapy of Depression'', p. 8.</ref> Sabuah kutipan nan tanamo dari ''[[Enchiridion of Epictetus|Enchiridion karya Epictetus]]'' diajaan kapado sabagian gadang klien salamo sesi awal REBT tradisional dek Ellis jo pangikuiknyo: "Indak kajadian nan manggaduah kami, tapi panilaian kami tantangnyo." {{Sfn|Robertson|2010}} == Rujuakan == nkoqt71yt9fmk2gyjrdbutwgtjszoiy 0 477579 3351260 3345380 2026-08-05T21:45:24Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 10 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351260 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox spesies|fossil_range={{fossil range|Pleistosen|Kini}}|image=Red Panda (24986761703).jpg|status=EN|subdivision_ranks=Subspesies|subdivision=''A. f. fulgens'' {{small|F. Cuvier, 1825}}<br/> ''A. f. styani'' {{small|[[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], 1902}}<ref name="thomas_1902">{{Cite journal |author=Thomas, O. |year=1902 |title=On the Panda of Sze-chuen |journal=Annals and Magazine of Natural History |series=7 |volume=X |issue=57 |pages=251–252 |doi=10.1080/00222930208678667 |url=https://archive.org/stream/s7annalsmagazine10londuoft#page/251/mode/1up}}</ref>|range_map=RedPanda distribution.png|range_map_caption=Wilayah persebaran panda merah}} '''Panda merah''' ( '''''Ailurus fulgens''''' ), disabuik juo '''panda ketek''', adolah [[Binatang manyusuan|mamalia]] ketek nan barasa dari [[Himalaya timur|timur Himalaya]] jo [[Tiongkok barat daya|Cino barat daya]]. nyo mampunyoi bulu padek, bawarna coklat kamerahan jo paruik jo kaki hitam, talingo babingkai putiah, muncuang nan kabanyakan putiah, jo ikua nan bapita. Panjang kapalo-ka-badannyo 51–63,5 cm (20,1-25,0 di) jo ikua panjang 28–48,5 di, jo bareknyo bakisar antaro 3,2 hingga 15 kg (7,1 sampai 33,1). Inyo manyasuaian diri jo baiak untuak mamanjek dek pasandiannyo nan fleksibel jo cakarnyo nan malengkung jo satangah tarik. Panda merah [[Deskripsi spesies|digambarkan]] sacaro resmi pado taun 1825. Duo subspesies nan diakui, iyolah panda merah Himalaya jo panda merah Cino, mangalami [[divergensi genetik]] sakitar 250.000 taun nan lalu. Posisi panda merah pado [[Pohon filogenetika|pohon evolusi]] alah diperdebatkan, tapi bukti genetik modern malatakkannyo bakaik dakek jo [[Procyonidae|rakun]], [[Mustelidae|mink]], jo [[Mephitidae|Siguang]]. ndak bakaik dakek jo [[Panda|panda raksasa]], nan marupoan jinih [[Baribeh|baruak]], walaupun kaduonyo punyo tulang pergelangan tangan nan panjang atau " [[Tulang sesamoid#Hewan lain|jari tunjuak palsu]] " nan digunoan untuak mangganggam [[Bambu|buluah]]. [[Garis keturunan (evolusi)|Garih katurunan]] evolusi panda merah ( [[Ailuridae]] ) tabantang sakitar 25 sampai 18 juta taun nan lalu, sarupo nan ditunjukkan dek karabaik fosil punah nan tadapek di Eurasia jo Amerika Utara. Panda merah mandiami [[hutan runjung]], [[Hutan gugur daun iklim sedang dan hutan campur|hutan gugur beriklim sedang, jo hutan campuran]], labiah mamiliah lereng nan curam jo panutuik buluah padek dakek sumber aia. Inyo sunyi dan sabagian gadang [[Arboreal|ado di pohon]] . Makannyo tarutamo [[Rabuang|pucuak]] jo daun buluah, tapi juo buah-buahan jo bungo. Panda merah bakawin pado awal musim semi, jo batino malahiaan sampai ampek anak pado musim paneh. Inyo tarancam dek [[Perburuan liar|pamburuan liar]] jo [[Kerusakan habitat|parusakan]] habitat sarato [[Fragmentasi habitat|pacahan]] dek [[Deforestasi|panebangan hutan]] . Spesies ko alah tacantum sabagai [[Daftar Merah IUCN]] [[Spesies terancam|nan Tarancam Punah]] sajak 2015. Spesies ko dilinduangi di sadoalah [[Negara persebaran|nagara jangkauannyo]]. Program [[Konservasi berbasis masyarakat|konservasi babasis masyarakaik]] alah dimulai di [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], jo [[India Timur Laut|India timur lauik]] ; di Cino, binatang ko alah mandapek manfaat dari proyek-proyek [[konservasi alam]]. . Program [[Penangkaran|pambiakan tawanan]] daerah untuak panda merah alah didirikan di kabun binatang di saluruah dunia. Inyo alah ditampilkan dalam film animasi, video game, buku komik, jo sabagai namo parusahaan jo kalompok musik. == Etimologi == Asa usua namo ''panda'' indak pasti, tapi salah satu teori nan paliang mungkin adolah baso panda ko barasa dari kato [[Bahasa Nepal|Nepal]] "ponya". <ref name="Introduction2022">{{Cite book|last=Glatston, A. R.|year=2021|chapter=Introduction|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|pages=xix–xxix|edition=Second|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> Kato {{Lang|ne|पञ्जा}} ''pajā'' atau {{Lang|ne|पौँजा}} ''pañjā'' bararti "bantalan kaki" jo "cakar". <ref>{{Cite book|last=Turner, R. L.|year=1931|title=A Comparative and Etymological Dictionary of the Nepali Language|publisher=K. Paul, Trench, Trübner|location=London|chapter=पञ्जा pañjā|page=359|chapter-url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/turnernepali_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact|access-date=27 January 2022|archive-date=27 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127063121/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/turnernepali_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE&searchhws=yes}}</ref> Kato Nepal "nigalya ponya" alah ditarjamahan sabagai "kaki buluah" dan dipakiroan sabagai namo Nepal untuak panda sirah. Dahulunyo hanyo disabuik ''panda'', dan marupoan satu-satunyo binatang nan dikenal jo namo iko salamo labiah dari 40 taun; kudian dikana sabagai ''panda merah'' atau ''panda ketek'' untuak mambedakannyo dari [[Panda|panda raksasa]], nan sacaro resmi digambarkan jo diagiah namo pado taun 1869. <ref name="Introduction2022" /> Namo genus ''Ailurus'' diambiak dari kato [[Bahasa Yunani Kuno|Yunani Kuno]] αἴλουρος ''ailouros'' nan baarati 'kuciang'. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Liddell, H. G.|last2=Scott, R.|title=A Greek-English Lexicon|edition=Revised and augmented|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|year=1940|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ailouros&la=greek|chapter=αἴλουρος|access-date=21 February 2021|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227015130/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=ailouros&la=greek}}</ref> [[Nama spesies|Namo spesies]] ''fulgens'' barasa dari [[Bahasa Latin|kato Latin]] nan bararti 'bakilek, tarang'. <ref name="Introduction2022" /> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis, C. T. A.|last2=Short, C.|title=Latin Dictionary|location=Oxford|year=1879|edition=Revised, enlarged, and in great part rewritten|publisher=Clarendon Press|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?type=begin&lookup=fulgens&lang=la|chapter=fulgens|access-date=21 February 2021|archive-date=04-01-2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228130039/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?type=begin&lookup=fulgens&lang=la}}</ref> [[Berkas:Anh48_0368_1.jpg|al=Lukisan cat air seekor panda merah di atas dahan dengan tiga penggambaran terpisah dari cakar di bagian atas|jmpl|Sabuah lukisan cat aia panda merah nan ditugaskan dek [[Thomas Hardwicke]] ca 1820 <ref name="Lowther2021">{{Cite journal|last=Lowther, D. A.|year=2021|title=The first painting of the Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') in Europe? Natural history and artistic patronage in early nineteenth-century India|journal=Archives of Natural History|volume=48|issue=2|pages=368–376|doi=10.3366/anh.2021.0728}}</ref>]] Panda merah [[Deskripsi spesies|digambarkan]] jo diagiah namo pado taun 1825 dek [[Frederic Cuvier]], nan maagiah [[Nama ilmiah|namo ilmiahnyo]] Ailurus fulgens. Deskripsi Cuvier didasarkan pado [[spesimen zoologi]], tamasuak kulik, cakar, tulang rahang, jo gigi "dari pagunuangan di utara India", sarato catatan [[Alfred Duvaucel]] . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Cuvier, F.|year=1825|chapter=Panda|page=LII 1–3|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/HistoirenaturelVGeof/page/LII|editor-last=Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, E.|title=Histoire naturelle des mammifères, avec des figures originales, coloriées, dessinées d'après des animaux vivans: publié sous l'autorité de l'administration du Muséum d'Histoire naturelle|volume=5|publisher=A. Belin|location=Paris|language=fr}}</ref> <ref name="Introduction2022" /> <ref>{{Cite book|last=Cuvier, G.|year=1829|title=Le règne animal distribué d'après son organisation|volume=1|publisher=Chez Déterville|location=Paris|chapter=''Le Panda éclatant''|page=138|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/lergneanimaldi01regn#page/138/mode/2up|language=fr}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hardwicke, T.|year=1827|title=Description of a new genus of the class Mammalia, from the Himalaya chain of hills between Nepal and the Snowy Mountains|url=https://archive.org/stream/transactionsofli15182627linn#page/160/mode/2up|journal=The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London|volume=XV|pages=161–165}}</ref> digambarkan sabalunnyo dek [[Thomas Hardwicke]] [[Oldfield Thomas|pado]] taun 1821, tapi makalahnyo indak ''ditabikan'' sampai taun [[Frederick William Styan|1827]] . di [[Sichuan]] . == Subspesies dan spesies == Panda merah moderen adolah [[Takson monotipik|satu-satunyo spesies nan diakui]] dalam genus ''Ailurus'' . Sacaro tradisional, inyo alah dibagi manjadi duo [[subspesies]]: panda merah Himalaya ( ''A.f. fulgens'' ) jo panda merah Cino ( ''A.f. styan'' ). Subspesies Himalaya mampunyoi bangunan nan labiah luruih, kaniang nan labiah ringan, jo rambuik [[Oker|baujuang oker]] di bagian bawah pungguang jo pungguang. Subspesies Cino mampunyoi kaniang nan labiah melengkung jo muncuang nan miring, bulu nan labiah kalam jo muko nan kurang putiah, jo kontras nan labiah tajam antaro cincin ikua. <ref name="taxonomy">{{Cite book|last=Groves, C.|year=2021|chapter=The taxonomy and phylogeny of ''Ailurus''|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|pages=95–117|edition=Second|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> Pado taun 2020, analisis genetik sampel panda merah manunjuakan baso populasi panda merah Himalaya jo Cino manyimpang labiah kurang 250.000 taun nan lalu. Para panaliti manyarankan baso kaduo subspesies ko harus diparatian sabagai spesies nan babeda. Panda sirah di Tibet tenggara jo Myanmar utara ditamukan marupoan bagian dari subspesies ''styani'', sadangkan panda merah di Tibet selatan ditamukan marupoan bagian dari subspesies sampik ''fulgens'' . <ref name="Hu">{{Cite journal|last=Hu|first=Y.|last2=Thapa|first2=A.|last3=Fan|first3=H.|last4=Ma|first4=T.|last5=Wu|first5=Q.|last6=Ma|first6=S.|last7=Zhang|first7=D.|last8=Wang|first8=B.|last9=Li|first9=M.|last10=Yan|first10=L.|last11=Wei|first11=F.|year=2020|title=Genomic evidence for two phylogenetic species and long-term population bottlenecks in red pandas|journal=Science Advances|volume=6|issue=9|bibcode=2020SciA....6.5751H|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aax5751|pmc=7043915|pmid=32133395}}</ref> [[Pengurutan DNA|Urutan DNA]] dari 132 sampel feses panda merah nan dikumpuakan di [[India Timur Laut]] jo Cino juo mangungkapkan duo gugusan nan babeda, nan manunjuakan baso [[Sungai Brahmaputra|Sungai Siang]] mambantuak bateh antaro panda merah Himalaya jo Cino. <ref name="Joshi">{{Cite journal|last=Joshi, B. D.|last2=Dalui, S.|last3=Singh, S. K.|last4=Mukherjee, T.|last5=Chandra, K.|last6=Sharma, L. K.|last7=Thakur, M.|year=2021|title=Siang river in Arunachal Pradesh splits Red Panda into two phylogenetic species|journal=Mammalian Biology|volume=101|issue=1|pages=121–124|doi=10.1007/s42991-020-00094-y}}</ref> Kamungkinan gadang mareka manyimpang dek kajadian [[glasiasi]] di [[Dataran Tinggi Tibet]] selatan salamo [[Pleistosen]] . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dalui, S.|last2=Singh, S. K.|last3=Joshi, B. D.|last4=Ghosh, A.|last5=Basu, S.|last6=Khatri, H.|last7=Sharma, L. K.|last8=Chandra, K.|last9=Thakur, M.|year=2021|title=Geological and Pleistocene glaciations explain the demography and disjunct distribution of Red Panda (''A. fulgens'') in eastern Himalayas|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=11|issue=1|page=65|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-80586-6|pmc=7794540|pmid=33420314|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Filogeni == Palatakan panda merah pado [[pohon evolusi]] alah diperdebatkan. Pado awal abaik ka-20, babagai ilmuwan malatakkannyo dalam [[Famili|kaluarga]] [[Procyonidae]] basamo-samo jo [[rakun]] jo karabaiknyo. Pado wakatu itu, kabanyakan ahli biologi tanamo juo maanggap panda merah bakaik jo panda raksasa, nan akhianyo diakui sabagai jinih [[Baribeh|baruak]]. Sabuah panalitian pado taun 1982 mamareso kasamoan jo pabedaan tangkurak panda merah jo panda raksasa, baruak, jo procyonida lainnyo, sarato malatakkan spesies ko dalam kaluarganyo surang, [[Ailuridae]]. Panulis panalitian ko maanggap panda merah labiah dakek jo baruak. <ref name="taxonomy" /> Analisis [[DNA mitokondria]] pado taun 1995 mangungkapkan baso panda sirah mampunyoi afinitas nan dakek jo Procyonidae. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pecon-Slattery, J.|last2=O'Brien, S. J.|year=1995|title=Molecular phylogeny of the red panda (''Ailurus fulgens'')|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-heredity_november-december-1995_86_6/page/413|journal=The Journal of Heredity|volume=86|issue=6|pages=413–422|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111615|pmid=8568209}}</ref> Panalitian genetik labiah lanjuik pado taun 2005, 2018, jo 2021 alah malatakkan panda merah dalam [[Klad|clade]] [[Musteloidea]], nan juo tamasuak Procyonidae, [[Mustelidae]] ( [[Cerpelai]] jo karabaiknyo), jo [[Mephitidae]] ( [[Sigung|skunk]] jo karabaiknyo). <ref name="Flynn2005">{{Cite journal|last=Flynn, J. J.|last2=Finarelli, J. A.|last3=Zehr, S.|last4=Hsu, J.|last5=Nedbal, M. A.|year=2005|title=Molecular phylogeny of the Carnivora (Mammalia): Assessing the impact of increased sampling on resolving enigmatic relationships|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_2005-04_54_2/page/317|journal=Systematic Biology|volume=54|issue=2|pages=317–337|doi=10.1080/10635150590923326|pmid=16012099|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Law-2018">{{Cite journal|last=Law, C. J.|last2=Slater, G. J.|last3=Mehta, R. S.|date=2018|title=Lineage Diversity and Size Disparity in Musteloidea: Testing Patterns of Adaptive Radiation Using Molecular and Fossil-Based Methods|journal=Systematic Biology|volume=67|issue=1|pages=127–144|doi=10.1093/sysbio/syx047|pmid=28472434|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Hassanin">{{Cite journal|last=Hassanin, A.|last2=Veron, G.|last3=Ropiquet, A.|last4=van Vuuren, B. J.|last5=Lécu, A.|last6=Goodman, S. M.|last7=Haider, J.|last8=Nguyen, T. T.|year=2021|title=Evolutionary history of Carnivora (Mammalia, Laurasiatheria) inferred from mitochondrial genomes|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=16|issue=2|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1640770H|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0240770|pmc=7886153|pmid=33591975|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Catatan jo fosil == [[Berkas:Simocyon_batalleri_head.jpg|al=Gambar tengkorak (atas) dan kepala (bawah) hewan yang sudah punah|ka|jmpl|Rekonstruksi tangkurak jo kapalo ''[[Simocyon]]'', karabaik karnivora gadang awal panda merah moderen.]] Kaluarga Ailuridae tampaknyo bakambang di Eropa salamo [[Oligosen Akhir|Oligosen Akhia]] atau [[Miosen Awal]], sakitar 25 sampai 18 juta tahun nan lalu . Anggota paliang awal, ''[[Amphictis]]'', dikana dari tangkuraknyo nan panjangnyo 10 kaki. dan kamungkinan ukurannyo sarupo jo spesies moderen. [[Dentisi|Giginyo]] tadiri dari [[Premolar|gigi premolar]] nan tajam jo [[Gigi pemotong|gigi pamotong]] (P4 jo m1) sarato [[gigi geraham]] nan diadaptasi untuak digiliang (M1, M2 jo m2), nan manunjuakan makanan [[Karnivor|karnivora]] umum. Palatakannyo dalam Ailuridae didasarkan pado alur di sisi [[Gigi taring|gigi anjiangnyo]] . Ailurid awal atau [[Basal (filogenetika)|basal]] lainnyo tamasuak ''[[Alopecocyon]]'' jo ''[[Simocyon]]'', nan fosilnyo tadapek di saluruah Eurasia jo Amerika Utara, dari [[Miosen Tengah|Miosen Tangah]], jo nan tarakhia batahan sampai [[Pliosen Awal]]. Kaduonyo punyo gigi nan sarupo jo ''Amphictis'' dan sahinggo punyo pola makan nan sarupo. <ref name="Salesa">{{Cite book|last=Salesa, M. J.|last2=Peigné, S.|last3=Antón, M.|last4=Morales, J.|year=2021|chapter=The taxonomy and phylogeny of ''Ailurus''|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|pages=15–29|edition=Second|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> ''Simocyon'' sagadang [[puma]] ko kamungkinan adolah pandaki pohon dan punyo "jempol palsu"—tulang pergelangan tangan nan panjang—sarupo jo spesies modern, nan manunjuakan baso lampirannyo marupoan adaptasi untuak [[lokomosi arboreal]] dan bukan untuak mamakan [[Bambu|buluah]] . <ref name="Salesa" /> <ref name="PNAS-Salesa-2006">{{Cite journal|last=Salesa|first=M. J.|last2=Mauricio|first2=A.|last3=Peigné|first3=S.|last4=Morales|first4=J.|year=2006|title=Evidence of a false thumb in a fossil carnivore clarifies the evolution of pandas|journal=PNAS|volume=103|issue=2|pages=379–382|bibcode=2006PNAS..103..379S|doi=10.1073/pnas.0504899102|pmc=1326154|pmid=16387860|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ailurid nan kudian dan labiah [[Apomorfi dan sinapomorfi|baevolusi]] digolongkan dalam subfamili Ailurinae dan dikenal sabagai panda merah "sejati". Binatang-binatang iko labiah ketek jo labiah manyasuaian diri jo makanan [[Omnivor|omnivora]] atau [[Herbivor|herbivora]] . Panda sejati paliang awal nan dikatahui adolah ''[[Magerictis]]'' dari Miosen Tangah Spanyol dan dikatahui hanyo dari ciek gigi, gigi geraham kaduo nan labiah randah. Gigi ko manampilkan ciri-ciri niniak muyang jo nan baru-baru ko, jo [[Mahkota gigi|mahkota]] nan relatif randah jo sederhana tapi juo pamukoan nan manghancuakan nan mamanjang jo [[Bonjol (anatomi)|cusp]] nan bakambang sarupo spesies salanjuiknyo. <ref name="Wallace">{{Cite book|last=Wallace, S. C.|last2=Lyon, L.|year=2021|chapter=Systemic revision of the Ailurinae (Mammalia: Carnivora: Ailuridae): with a new species from North America|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|pages=31–52|edition=Second|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> Ailurines salanjuiknyo tamasuak ''[[Pristinailurus bristoli]]'' nan iduik di bagian timur Amerika Utara dari Miosen Akhia hinggo Pliosen Awal <ref name="Wallace" /> <ref name="Wallace2004">{{Cite journal|last=Wallace|first=S. C.|last2=Wang|first2=X.|date=2004|title=Two new carnivores from an unusual late Tertiary forest biota in eastern North America|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/13466/files/PAL_E141.pdf|journal=Nature|volume=431|issue=7008|pages=556–559|bibcode=2004Natur.431..556W|doi=10.1038/nature02819|pmid=15457257}}</ref> jo spesies dari genus ''[[Parailurus]]'' nan patamo kali muncua di Eropa pado Pliosen Awal, manyebar ka saluruah Amerika Utara jo ka Eurasia. <ref name="Wallace" /> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tedford, R. H.|last2=Gustafson, E. P.|year=1977|title=First North American record of the extinct panda ''Parailurus''|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1977-02-17_265_5595/page/621|journal=Nature|volume=265|issue=5595|pages=621–623|bibcode=1977Natur.265..621T|doi=10.1038/265621a0}}</ref> Binatang iko diklasifikasikan sabagai [[Takson saudara|takson adiak]] dari garih katurunan panda merah modern. Babeda jo spesies herbivora moderen, panda kuno ko kamungkinan gadang marupoan omnivora, jo gigi geraham nan sangaik manjorok jo [[Geraham depan|gigi geraham]] nan tajam . <ref name="Wallace" /> <ref name="Wallace2004" /> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sotnikova|first=M. V.|year=2008|title=A new species of lesser panda ''Parailurus'' (Mammalia, Carnivora) from the Pliocene of Transbaikalia (Russia) and some aspects of ailurine phylogeny|journal=Paleontological Journal|volume=42|issue=1|pages=90–99|bibcode=2008PalJ...42...90S|doi=10.1007/S11492-008-1015-X}}</ref> Catatan fosil paliang awal dari genus ''Ailurus'' moderen indak labiah awal dari [[Pleistosen]] dan tampaknyo tabateh pado Asia. Garih katurunan panda merah modern diadaptasi untuak makanan buluah khusus, mampunyoi gigi premolar sarupo gigi geraham jo cusp nan labiah tinggi. <ref name="Wallace" /> Jempol palsu sacaro sekunder mandapekkan fungsi dalam mambari makan. <ref name="Salesa" /> <ref name="PNAS-Salesa-2006" /> == Genomika == Analisis 53 sampel panda merah dari Sichuan jo Yunnan manunjuakan tingkek [[Keanekaragaman genetik|karagaman genetik]] nan tinggi . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Su, B.|last2=Fu, Y.|last3=Wang, Y.|last4=Jin, L.|last5=Chakraborty, R.|year=2001|title=Genetic diversity and population history of the Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') as inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequence variations|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2001-06_18_6/page/1070|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=18|issue=6|pages=1070–1076|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003878|pmid=11371595|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Genom]] langkok panda merah diuruik pado taun 2017. Para panaliti mambandiangkannyo jo genom panda raksasa untuak mampalajari genetika [[evolusi konvergen]], karano kaduo spesies ko mampunyoi jari tunjuak palsu jo diadaptasi untuak makanan bambu khusus walaupun mampunyoi sistem pencernaan karnivora. Kaduo panda ko manunjuakan modifikasi pado gen pambangunan anggota tubuah tatantu ( [[DYNC2H1]] jo [[PCNT]] ), nan mungkin baparan dalam pambangunan jari tunjuaknyo. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hu|first=Y.|last2=Wu, Q.|last3=Ma, S.|last4=Ma, T.|last5=Shan, L.|last6=Wang, X.|last7=Nie, Y.|last8=Ning, Z.|last9=Yan, L.|last10=Xiu, Y.|last11=Wei, F.|year=2017|title=Comparative genomics reveals convergent evolution between the bamboo-eating giant and red pandas|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=114|issue=5|pages=1081–1086|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.1081H|doi=10.1073/pnas.1613870114|pmc=5293045|pmid=28096377|doi-access=free}}</ref> Dalam transisi dari makanan karnivora ka herbivora, kaduo spesies ko alah maaktifkan baliak gen reseptor raso nan digunoan untuak mandeteksi [[Rasa pahit|raso paik]], walaupun gen spesifiknyo babeda. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shan|first=L.|last2=Wu|first2=Q.|last3=Wange|first3=L.|last4=Zhang|first4=L.|last5=Wei|first5=F.|year=2017|title=Lineage-specific evolution of bitter taste receptor genes in the giant and red pandas implies dietary adaptation|journal=Integrative Zoology|volume=13|issue=2|pages=152–159|doi=10.1111/1749-4877.12291|pmc=5873442|pmid=29168616}}</ref> == Gambaran == [[Rambut hewan|Bulu]] panda merah kabanyakan bawarna sirah atau coklat oranye jo paruik jo kaki nan bawarna hitam. Moncong, pipi, alis mato, jo tapi talingo bagian dalam kabanyakan bawarna putiah, sadangkan ikuanyo nan samak-samak mampunyoi pola cincin merah jo [[Warna kulit (warna)|bungo]] sarato ujuangnyo bawarna coklat tua. <ref name="Fisher">{{Cite book|last=Fisher|first=Rebecca E.|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|publisher=Academic Press|year=2021|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3|editor-last=Glatston|editor-first=Angela R.|edition=2nd|location=London|pages=81–93|chapter=Red Panda Anatomy|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-823753-3.00030-2}}</ref> <ref name="roberts+gittleman">{{Cite journal|last=Roberts, M. S.|last2=Gittleman, J. L.|date=1984|title=''Ailurus fulgens''|url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/4231/Roberts1984.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Mammalian Species|issue=222|pages=1–8|bibcode=1984MamSp.222....1R|doi=10.2307/3503840|jstor=3503840|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201234131/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/4231/Roberts1984.pdf|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=04-01-2026}}</ref> <ref name="Wozencraft">{{Cite book|editor-last=Xie, Y.|year=2013|title=Mammals of China|last=Wozencraft, W. C.|chapter=Carnivora|page=334|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15427-5}}</ref> Warna iko tampaknyo bafungsi sabagai [[kamuflase]] pado habitat jo [[Lumuik|lumut]] merah jo pohon nan tatutuik jo [[Lumut kerak|lichen]] putiah. [[Rambut pelindung|Rambuik panjago]] labiah panjang jo kasa, sadangkan [[Bulu#Rambut halus|rambuik bawah]] nan padek labiah haluih jo helai nan labiah pendek. <ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> Rambuik panjago di balakang mampunyoi panampang nan malingkar jo panjangnyo 47–56 . . Binatang ko punyo [[Misai|kumis]] nan cukuik panjang di sakitar muluik, rahang bawah, jo dagu. Rambuik di tapak kakinyo mambuliahan binatang ko bajalan di ateh salju. <ref name="Fisher" /> Panda merah mampunyoi kapalo nan relatif ketek, walaupun sacaro proporsional labiah gadang daripado rakun nan ukurannyo sarupo, jo muncuang pendek jo talingo sagi tigo, sarato kaki nan ampia samo panjangnyo. <ref name="Fisher" /><ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> Panjang kapalo-ka-badan adolah 51–63,5 cm (20,1-25,0 dalam) jo ikua panjang 28–485 11-191 di) . Panda sirah Himalaya alah tacataik bareknyo 3,2–94 kg., sadangkan panda merah Cino bareknyo 4–15 pon. untuak padusi jo 4,2–13,4 kg (9,3-29,5 pon) untuak nan laki-laki. <ref name="Fisher" /> Panda merah mampunyoi limo [[Jari|jari kaki]] nan malengkung pado satiok kaki, masiang-masiang dilangkoki jo cakar nan malengkung, satangah dapek ditariak nan mambantu dalam mandaki. <ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> [[Panggul]] jo anggota tubuah balakang mampunyoi pasandian nan fleksibel, adaptasi untuak gaya iduik bakaki ampek arboreal. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makungu|first=M.|last2=du Plessis|first2=W. M.|last3=Groenewald|first3=H. B.|last4=Barrows|first4=M.|last5=Koeppel|first5=K. N.|year=2015|title=Morphology of the pelvis and hind limb of the Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') evidenced by gross osteology, radiography and computed tomography|journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia|volume=44|issue=6|pages=410–421|doi=10.1111/ahe.12152|pmid=25308447|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Anggota mukonyo mampunyoi "jempol palsu," nan marupoan panyambuangan tulang pergelangan tangan, [[Tulang sesamoid|sesamoid]] radial nan tadapek pado banyak [[Carnivora]]. Jempol iko mamungkinkan binatang untuak mangganggam batang buluah, dan baiak jari jo tulang pergelangan tangan sangaik fleksibel. Panda merah mambagi ciri iko jo panda raksasa, nan mampunyoi sesamoid nan labiah gadang jo datar di sampiangnyo. Salain itu, sesamoid panda merah punyo ujuang nan labiah cembung, sadangkan sesamoid panda raksasa malengkung di tangah. Fitur-fitur iko mambarikan panda raksasa ketangkasan nan labiah bakambang. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Antón|first=M.|last2=Salesa|first2=M. J.|last3=Pastor|first3=J. F.|last4=Peigné|first4=S.|last5=Morales|first5=J.|year=2006|title=Implications of the functional anatomy of the hand and forearm of ''Ailurus fulgens'' (Carnivora, Ailuridae) for the evolution of the 'false-thumb' in pandas|journal=Journal of Anatomy|volume=209|issue=6|pages=757–764|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00649.x|pmc=2049003|pmid=17118063|doi-access=free}}</ref> Tangkurak panda merah ko leba, dan rahang bawahnyo kokoh. <ref name="Fisher" /> <ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> Namun, karano makan daun jo batang nan kurang tangguh, inyo punyo otot mangunyah nan labiah ketek daripado panda raksasa. Sistem pencernaan panda merah hanyo 4,2 kali panjang tubuahnyo, jo paruik sederhana, indak ado pambagian nan babeda antaro [[ileum]] jo [[Usus besar|usus gadang]], jo indak ado [[Sekum|cecum]]. <ref name="Fisher" /> Kaduo jinih kalamin mampunyoi sapasang [[Kelenjar anal|kelenjar dubur]] nan mangaluaan sekresi nan tadiri dari [[asam lemak]] barantai panjang, [[kolesterol]], [[skualena]], jo [[2-Piperidinon]] ; senyawa tarakhia ko paliang babaun dan dianggap dek manusia sabagai mampunyoi baun sarupo amonia atau sarupo lado. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=W. F.|last2=Dragoo|first2=G. A.|last3=Richard|first3=M. J.|last4=Dragoo|first4=J. W.|year=2003|title=Long-chain fatty acids in the anal gland of the red panda, ''Ailurus fulgens''|journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1057–1060|bibcode=2003BioSE..31.1057W|doi=10.1016/S0305-1978(03)00060-7}}</ref> == Persebaran jo habitat == [[Berkas:Red_Panda_at_Neora_Valley_National_Park_West_Bengal_India_2012.jpg|al=Panda merah di sebuah pohon|jmpl|Panda merah di [[Taman Nasional Lembah Neora|Taman Nasional Lambah Neora]]]] Panda merah mauni [[Nepal]], nagara bagian India [[Sikkim]], [[Benggala Barat]], jo [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Tibet]] selatan, [[Myanmar]] utara, jo provinsi Cino [[Sichuan]] jo [[Yunnan]]. Habitat potensial global panda merah dipakiroan mancakuik paliang banyak 47.100 km, habitat ko talatak di zona [[Iklim sedang|iklim beriklim sedang]] [[Pagunuangan Himalaya|Himalaya]] jo kisaran suhu rato-rato tahunan 18–24 °C (64-75 °F) . <ref name="Kandel_al2015">{{Cite journal|last=Kandel, K.|last2=Huettmann, F.|last3=Suwal, M. K.|last4=Regmi, G. R.|last5=Nijman, V.|last6=Nekaris, K. A. I.|last7=Lama, S. T.|last8=Thapa, A.|last9=Sharma, H. P.|last10=Subedi, T. R.|year=2015|title=Rapid multi-nation distribution assessment of a charismatic conservation species using open access ensemble model GIS predictions: Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') in the Hindu-Kush Himalaya region|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=181|pages=150–161|bibcode=2015BCons.181..150K|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.007}}</ref> Di saluruah wilayah distribusi ko, binatang ko alah tacataik pado katinggian 2.000–4.300 m (6.600-14.100 kaki) . <ref name="Mallick2010">{{Cite journal|last=Mallick, J. K.|year=2010|title=Status of Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' in Neora Valley National Park, Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India|url=http://nebula.wsimg.com/3f41b38cdea8b81234a0398f336febcc?AccessKeyId=35E369A09ED705622D78&disposition=0&alloworigin=1|url-status=live|journal=Small Carnivore Conservation|volume=43|pages=30–36|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318223222/http://nebula.wsimg.com/3f41b38cdea8b81234a0398f336febcc?AccessKeyId=35E369A09ED705622D78&disposition=0&alloworigin=1|archive-date=18 March 2022|access-date=04-01-2026}}</ref> <ref name="Dorji_al2012">{{Cite journal|last=Dorji, S.|last2=Rajaratnam, R.|last3=Vernes, K.|year=2012|title=The Vulnerable Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' in Bhutan: distribution, conservation, status and management recommendations|journal=Oryx|volume=46|issue=4|pages=536–543|bibcode=2012Oryx...46..536D|doi=10.1017/S0030605311000780|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Thapa_al2020">{{Cite journal|last=Thapa, K.|last2=Thapa, G. J.|last3=Bista, D.|last4=Jnawali, S. R.|last5=Acharya, K. P.|last6=Khanal, K.|last7=Kandel, R. C.|last8=Karki Thapa, M.|last9=Shrestha, S.|last10=Lama, S. T.|last11=Sapkota, N. S.|year=2020|title=Landscape variables affecting the Himalayan Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' occupancy in wet season along the mountains in Nepal|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=15|issue=12|bibcode=2020PLoSO..1543450T|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0243450|pmc=7740865|pmid=33306732|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Dong_al2021">{{Cite journal|last=Dong, X.|last2=Zhang, J.|last3=Gu, X.|last4=Wang, Y.|last5=Bai, W.|last6=Huang, Q.|year=2021|title=Evaluating habitat suitability and potential dispersal corridors across the distribution landscape of the Chinese Red Panda (''Ailurus styani'') in Sichuan, China|journal=Global Ecology and Conservation|volume=28|bibcode=2021GEcoC..2801705D|doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01705|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Lin_al2021">{{Cite book|title=Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|year=2021|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|edition=Second|isbn=978-0-12-823754-0|chapter=The conservation status of Red Panda in north-east Myanmar|last=Lin, A. K.|last2=Lwin, N.|last3=Aung, S. S.|last4=Oo, W. N.|last5=Lum, L. Z.|last6=Grindley, M.|pages=475–488|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gcwnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA475|access-date=24 January 2022|archive-date=04-01-2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129185311/https://books.google.com/books?id=gcwnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA475}}</ref> Di Nepal, tajadi di anam kompleks kawasan lindung dalam ekoregion [[Hutan berdaun lebar Himalaya Timur|hutan daun leba Himalaya Timur]].<ref name="Thapa_al2020" /> Catatan paliang barat sampai kini didapek di tigo [[Kehutanan masyarakat di Nepal|hutan komunitas]] di [[Distrik Kalikot|Kacamatan Kalikot]] pado 2019. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shrestha, S.|last2=Lama, S.|last3=Sherpa, A. P.|last4=Ghale, D.|last5=Lama, S. T.|year=2021|title=The endangered Himalayan Red Panda: first photographic evidence from its westernmost distribution range|journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa|volume=13|issue=5|pages=18156–18163|doi=10.11609/jott.6100.13.5.18156-18163|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Distrik Ilam|Kacamatan]] [[Distrik Panchthar|Panchthar]] jo Ilam mawakili jangkauan paliang timur di nagara ko, di mano habitatnyo nan bahutan dikuliliangi dek kampuang, [[Padang rumput|tanah marambaik]], jo jalan. <ref name="Bista_al2021b">{{Cite journal|last=Bista, D.|last2=Baxter, G. S.|last3=Hudson, N. J.|last4=Lama, S. T.|last5=Weerman, J.|last6=Murray, P. J.|year=2021|title=Movement and dispersal of a habitat specialist in human-dominated landscapes: a case study of the Red Panda|journal=Movement Ecology|volume=9|issue=1|page=62|bibcode=2021MvEco...9...62B|doi=10.1186/s40462-021-00297-z|pmc=8670026|pmid=34906253|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Metapopulasi]] di kawasan lindung jo [[Koridor hidupan liar|koridor satwa liar]] di lanskap [[Kangchenjunga]] Sikkim jo utara Benggala Barat sabagian tahubuang malalui [[hutan primer]] di lua kawasan lindung. <ref name="Dalui_al2020">{{Cite journal|last=Dalui, S.|last2=Khatri, H.|last3=Singh, S. K.|last4=Basu, S.|last5=Ghosh, A.|last6=Mukherjee, T.|last7=Sharma, L. K.|last8=Singh, R.|last9=Chandra, K.|last10=Thakur, M.|year=2020|title=Fine-scale landscape genetics unveiling contemporary asymmetric movement of Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') in Kangchenjunga landscape, India|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=10|issue=1|page=15446|bibcode=2020NatSR..1015446D|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-72427-3|pmc=7508845|pmid=32963325|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hutan di lanskap iko didominasi dek kayu ek Himalaya ( ''[[Quercus lamellosa]]'' jo ''[[Quercus semecarpifolia|Q. semecarpifolia]]'' ), [[Betula utilis|kayu bir Himalaya]], [[Abies densa|cemara Himalaya]], [[Acer caesium|maple Himalaya]] jo buluah, ''[[Rhododendron]]'', jo babarapo samak [[Juniperus indica|juniper hitam]] nan tumbuah di [[Tumbuhan dasar hutan|bawah kayu]] .<ref name="Mallick2010" /> <ref name="Panthi_al2012">{{Cite journal|last=Panthi, S.|last2=Aryal, A.|last3=Raubenheimer, D.|last4=Lord, J.|last5=Adhikari, B.|year=2012|title=Summer diet and distribution of the Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens fulgens'') in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, Nepal|url=https://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/51.5/701.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Zoological Studies|volume=51|issue=5|pages=701–709|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322012942/https://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/51.5/701.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2022|access-date=04-01-2026}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khatiwara, S.|last2=Srivastava, T.|year=2014|title=Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' and other small carnivores in Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, East Sikkim, India|url=http://nebula.wsimg.com/0dc8fda3217eac3b2623bbe2f08efb52?AccessKeyId=35E369A09ED705622D78&disposition=0&alloworigin=1|url-status=live|journal=Small Carnivore Conservation|volume=50|pages=35–38|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213112531/http://nebula.wsimg.com/0dc8fda3217eac3b2623bbe2f08efb52?AccessKeyId=35E369A09ED705622D78&disposition=0&alloworigin=1|archive-date=13 February 2020|access-date=04-01-2026}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bashir, T.|last2=Bhattacharya, T.|last3=Poudyal, K.|last4=Sathyakumar, S.|year=2019|title=First camera trap record of Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' (Cuvier, 1825) (Mammalia: Carnivora: Ailuridae) from Khangchendzonga, Sikkim, India|journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa|volume=11|issue=8|pages=14056–14061|doi=10.11609/jott.4626.11.8.14056-14061|doi-access=free}}</ref> Catatan di Bhutan, [[Lembah Pangchen|Lambah Pangchen]] Arunachal Pradesh, jo kabupaten [[Distrik Kameng Barat|Kameng Barat]] jo [[Distrik Shi Yomi|Shi Yomi]] manunjuakan baso inyo acok manampuah habitat jo buluah ''[[Yushania]]'' jo ''[[Thamnocalamus]]'', ''Rhododendron'' ukuran sadang, jo [[Sorbus|whitepin]] trees jo [[Castanopsis|chiqua]] . <ref name="Dorji_al2012" /> <ref name="Chakraborty_al2015">{{Cite journal|last=Chakraborty, R.|last2=Nahmo, L. T.|last3=Dutta, P. K.|last4=Srivastava, T.|last5=Mazumdar, K.|last6=Dorji, D.|year=2015|title=Status, abundance, and habitat associations of the Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') in Pangchen Valley, Arunachal Pradesh, India|journal=Mammalia|volume=79|issue=1|pages=25–32|doi=10.1515/mammalia-2013-0105}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Megha, M.|last2=Christi, S.|last3=Kapoor, M.|last4=Gopal, R.|last5=Solanki, R.|year=2021|title=Photographic evidence of Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' Cuvier, 1825 from West Kameng and Shi-Yomi districts of Arunachal Pradesh, India|journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa|volume=13|issue=9|pages=19254–19262|doi=10.11609/jott.6666.13.9.19254-19262|doi-access=free}}</ref> Di Cino, inyo mandiami [[Hutan runjung subalpen Pegunungan Hengduan|hutan runjung subalpine Pagunuangan Hengduan]] jo [[hutan runjung Qionglai-Minshan]] di Pagunuangan [[Pegunungan Hengduan|Hengduan]], [[Pegunungan Qionglai|Qionglai]], [[Pegunungan Xiaoxiang|Xiaoxiang]], [[Daxiangling]], jo [[Pegunungan Liangshan|Liangshan]] Sichuan. <ref name="Dong_al2021" /> Di provinsi Yunnan nan badakek-an, hal iko alah tacataik hanyo di pagunuangan barat laut. <ref name="Wei">{{Cite journal|last=Wei|first=F.|last2=Feng|first2=Z.|last3=Wang|first3=Z.|last4=Hu|first4=J.|date=1999|title=Current distribution, status and conservation of wild Red Pandas ''Ailurus fulgens'' in China|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-conservation_1999-08_89_3/page/285|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=89|issue=3|pages=285–291|bibcode=1999BCons..89..285W|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00156-6}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Li, F.|last2=Huang, X. Y.|last3=Zhang, X. C.|last4=Zhao, X. X.|last5=Yang, J. H.|last6=Chan, B. P. L.|year=2019|title=Mammals of Tengchong Section of Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve in Yunnan Province, China|journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa|volume=11|issue=11|pages=14402–14414|doi=10.11609/jott.4439.11.11.14402-14414|doi-access=free}}</ref> Panda sirah labiah suko jo [[Mikrohabitat|habitat mikro]] nan bajarak 70–240 m. dari sumber aia. <ref name="Wei_al2000">{{Cite journal|last=Wei, F.|last2=Feng, Z.|last3=Wang, Z.|last4=Hu, J.|year=2000|title=Habitat use and separation between the Giant Panda and the Red Panda|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-mammalogy_2000-05_81_2/page/448|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=81|issue=2|pages=448–455|doi=10.1644/1545-1542(2000)081<0448:HUASBT>2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Dorji_al2012" /> <ref name="Dendup2018">{{Cite journal|last=Dendup, P.|last2=Lham, C.|last3=Wangchuk, J.|last4=Tshering, K.|year=2018|title=Winter habitat preferences of Endangered Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') in the Forest Research Preserve of Ugyen Wangchuck Institute for Conservation and Environmental Research, Bumthang, Bhutan|url=https://bes.org.bt/articles/winter-habitat-preferences-of-endangered-red-panda-ailurus-fulgens-in-the-forest-research-preserve-of-ugyen-wangchuck-institute-for-conservation-and-environmental-research-bumthang-bhutan-2/|url-status=live|journal=Journal of the Bhutan Ecological Society|volume=3|pages=1–13|issn=2410-3861|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510084033/https://bes.org.bt/articles/winter-habitat-preferences-of-endangered-red-panda-ailurus-fulgens-in-the-forest-research-preserve-of-ugyen-wangchuck-institute-for-conservation-and-environmental-research-bumthang-bhutan-2/|archive-date=10 May 2021|access-date=18 March 2022}}</ref> <ref name="Dendup_al2020">{{Cite journal|last=Dendup, P.|last2=Humle, T.|last3=Bista, D.|last4=Penjor, U.|last5=Lham, C.|last6=Gyeltshen, J.|year=2020|title=Habitat requirements of the Himalayan Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') and threat analysis in Jigme Dorji National Park, Bhutan|journal=Ecology and Evolution|volume=10|issue=17|pages=9444–9453|bibcode=2020EcoEv..10.9444D|doi=10.1002/ece3.6632|pmc=7487235|pmid=32953073|doi-access=free}}</ref> Balak jo [[Tunggul pohon|tunggua pohon]] nan jatuah marupoan ciri habitat pantiang, karano mamudahkan akses ka daun buluah. <ref name="Zhang_al2006">{{Cite journal|last=Zhang, Z.|last2=Wei, F.|last3=Li, M.|last4=Hu, J.|year=2006|title=Winter microhabitat separation between Giant and Red Pandas in ''Bashania faberi'' Bamboo forest in Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-wildlife-management_2006_70_1/page/231|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=70|issue=1|pages=231–235|doi=10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70[231:WMSBGA]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> Panda merah alah tacataik manggunoan lereng nan curam jo gradien labiah gadang dari 20° jo tunggua labiah gadang dari 30 diameternyo. <ref name="Wei" /> <ref name="Dendup2018" /> Panda merah nan diamati di [[Taman Nasional Phrumsengla]] tarutamo manggunoan lereng nan maadok ka timur jo selatan jo gradien rato-rato 34° jo panutuik [[Tajuk (biologi)|kanopi]] 66 persen nan ditutuik jo buluah sakitar 23 tingginyo. <ref name="Dorji_al2012" /> Di [[Cagar Alam Dafengding]], hewan ko labiah suko lereng nan curam maadok ka selatan pado musim dingin dan manghuni hutan jo buluah nan tingginyo 1,5–2,5 m. <ref name="Zhou_al2013">{{Cite journal|last=Zhou, X.|last2=Jiao, H.|last3=Dou, Y.|last4=Aryal, A.|last5=Hu, J.|last6=Hu, J.|last7=Meng, X.|year=2013|title=The winter habitat selection of Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') in the Meigu Dafengding National Nature Reserve, China|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/105/10/1425.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Current Science|volume=105|issue=10|pages=1425–1429|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322012946/https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/105/10/1425.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2022|access-date=04-01-2026}}</ref> Di [[Cagar Alam Nasional Gaoligongshan]], binatang ko manghuni hutan runjung campuran jo panutuik kanopi padek labiah dari 75 persen, lereng nan curam, jo kapadekan buluah sakurang-kurangnyo 70 tanaman bambu. <ref name="Liu_al2021">{{Cite journal|last=Liu, X.|last2=Teng, L.|last3=Ding, Y.|last4=Liu, Z.|year=2021|title=Habitat selection by Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens fulgens'') in Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve, China|url=https://researcherslinks.com/uploads/articles/1629808802PJZ_MH20190726090725-R2_Liu%20et%20al.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Pakistan Journal of Zoology|volume=54|issue=4|doi=10.17582/journal.pjz/20190726090725|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128172250/https://researcherslinks.com/uploads/articles/1629808802PJZ_MH20190726090725-R2_Liu%20et%20al.pdf|archive-date=28 January 2022|access-date=04-01-2026}}</ref> Di babarapo bagian Cino, panda merah hiduik basamo jo panda raksasa. Di [[Cagar Alam Nasional Yele|Cagar Alam Nasional]] [[Cagar Alam Nasional Fengtongzhai|Fengtongzhai]] jo Yele, mikrohabitat panda merah dicirikan jo lereng nan curam jo buluah nan malimpah, [[Batang tumbuhan|samak]] -samak, batang kayu nan jatuah, jo tunggua pohon, samantaro panda raksasa labiah suko lereng nan labiah lembut jo buluah nan labiah tinggi tapi kurang malimpah, jo fitur habitat nan labiah saketek sacaro kasaluruahan. [[Relung ekologi#Segregasi relung|Pamisahan relung]] sarupo iko mangurangi pasaingan antaro kaduo spesies pamakan buluah. <ref name="Wei" /> <ref name="Zhang_al2006" /> == Parilaku jo ekologi == Panda merah sulik diamati di alam liar, <ref name="Gebauer">{{Cite book|last=Gebauer, A.|year=2021|chapter=The early days: maternal behaviour and infant development|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|pages=149–179|edition=Second|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> dan sabagian gadang panalitian tantang parangainyo alah dilakukan dalam tawanan. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karki|first=S.|last2=Maraseni|first2=T.|last3=Mackey|first3=B.|last4=Bista|first4=D.|last5=Lama|first5=S. T.|last6=Gautam|first6=A. P.|last7=Sherpa|first7=A. P.|last8=Koju|first8=A. P.|last9=Koju|first9=U.|last10=Shrestha|first10=A.|last11=Cadman|first11=T.|year=2021|title=Reaching over the gap: A review of trends in and status of red panda research over 193 years (1827–2020)|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=781|bibcode=2021ScTEn.78146659K|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146659|pmid=33794452}}</ref> Panda merah tampaknyo [[nokturnal]] jo [[krepuskular]], [[Tidur bifasik dan polifasik|lalok baselang-seling]] pado malam hari. Inyo biasonyo istirahat atau lalok di pohon atau tampek tinggi lainnyo, tasebar di paruiknyo di dahan jo kakinyo manjuntai pado cuaco angek, dan mangguluang jo kaki balakangnyo manutuik mukonyo pado cuaco dingin. Inyo diadaptasi untuak mamanjek jo manurun kapalo ka tanah jo kaki balakangnyo nan mangganggam tangah batang kayu. Inyo bagerak kancang di tanah jo caro bajalan kaki atau malompek. <ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> == Jarak sosial == Panda dewasa umumnyo [[Hewan soliter|sunyi]] jo [[Teritori (hewan)|teritorial]] . Individu manandoi [[Daerah jelajah|jangkauan rumah]] atau bateh wilayahnyo jo urin, [[Feses|kotoran]], jo sekresi dari kelenjar [[Kelenjar anal|dubur]] jo sakitarnyo. Panandaan aroma biasonyo dilakukan di tanah, jo panandaan jantan labiah acok jo untuak wakatu nan labiah lamo. <ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> Di [[Cagar Alam Nasional Wolong]] Cino, jangkauan rumah padusi nan bakarah radio adolah 0,94 km , sadangkan jangkauan rumah jantan adolah 1,11 km. <ref name="Reid1991">{{Cite journal|last=Reid|first=D. G.|last2=Jinchu|first2=H.|last3=Yan|first3=H.|year=1991|title=Ecology of the Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' in the Wolong Reserve, China|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-zoology_1991-11_225_3/page/n4|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=225|issue=3|pages=347–364|bibcode=1991JZoo..225..347R|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb03821.x}}</ref> Sabuah panalitian pamantauan satahun pado sapuluah panda merah di Nepal timur manunjuakan baso ampek jantan mampunyoi jangkauan rumah median 1,73 km jo anam padusi nan mancakuik wilayah 0,94 km dalam panutuik hutan paliang indak 19,2 ha (47 hektar) . Padusi marantau 419–841 m (1.375-2.759 kaki) sahari jo laki-laki 660–1.473 m (2.165-4.833 kaki) . Salamo musim kawin dari Januari inggo Maret, panda dewasa manutuik rato-rato 795 m (2.608 ft) jo sub-dewasa rato-rato 861 m (2.825 kaki) . <ref name="Bista_al2021b2">{{Cite journal|last=Bista, D.|last2=Baxter, G. S.|last3=Hudson, N. J.|last4=Lama, S. T.|last5=Weerman, J.|last6=Murray, P. J.|year=2021|title=Movement and dispersal of a habitat specialist in human-dominated landscapes: a case study of the Red Panda|journal=Movement Ecology|volume=9|issue=1|page=62|bibcode=2021MvEco...9...62B|doi=10.1186/s40462-021-00297-z|pmc=8670026|pmid=34906253|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kasadonyo mampunyoi jangkauan rumah nan labiah gadang di daerah jo panutuik hutan nan randah jo mangurangi aktivitasnyo di daerah nan digaduah dek manusia, taranak, jo anjiang. <ref name="Bista_al2021b2" /> == Pola jo caro makan == Panda merah sabagian gadang marupoan herbivora dan mamakan kabanyakan buluah, utamonyo dari genera ''[[Phyllostachys]]'', ''[[Sinarundinaria]]'', ''Thamnocalamus'', jo ''[[Chimonobambusa]]'' . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Nijboer, J.|last2=Dierenfeld, E. S.|year=2021|chapter=Red panda nutrition: how to feed a vegetarian carnivore|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|pages=225–238|edition=Second|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> Inyo juo mamakan buah-buahan, bungo, [[Biji ek|jeruk nipis]], talua, buruang, jo mamalia ketek. Daun buluah mungkin adolah barang makanan mareka nan paliang malimpah sapanjang tahun dan satu-satunyo makanan nan mareka punyo akses pado musim dingin. <ref name="ecology">{{Cite book|last=Wei, F.|last2=Thapa, A.|last3=Hu, Y.|last4=Zhang, Z.|year=2021|chapter=Red Panda ecology|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|pages=329–351|edition=Second|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> Di Cagar Alam Nasional Wolong, daun spesies buluah ''[[Bashania fangiana]]'' ditamukan pado ampia 94 persen kotoran nan dianalisa, jo [[Rabuang|pucuaknyo]] ditamukan pado 59 persen kotoran nan ditamukan pado bulan Juni. <ref name="Reid19912">{{Cite journal|last=Reid|first=D. G.|last2=Jinchu|first2=H.|last3=Yan|first3=H.|year=1991|title=Ecology of the Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' in the Wolong Reserve, China|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-zoology_1991-11_225_3/page/n4|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=225|issue=3|pages=347–364|bibcode=1991JZoo..225..347R|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb03821.x}}</ref> Makan panda merah nan dipantau di tigo tampek di [[Taman Nasional Singalila]] salamo duo taun tadiri dari 40–83 persen buluah ''[[Yushania maling]]'' jo 51–91,2 persen ''[[Thamnocalamus spathiflorus]]'', {{Efn|''Arundinaria maling'' dan ''A. aristata'' yang dirujuk dalam sumber tersebut telah diklasifikasikan ulang ke dalam genus berbeda yang terdapat di Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stapleton, C. M. A. |year=1994 |title=The bamboos of Nepal and Bhutan. Part II: ''Arundinaria'', ''Thamnocalamus'', ''Borinda'', and ''Yushania'' (Gramineae: Poaceae, Bambusoideae) |journal=Edinburgh Journal of Botany |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=275–295 |doi=10.1017/S0960428600000883|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Triplett, J. K. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Clark, L. G. |year=2010 |title=Phylogeny of the temperate bamboos (Poaceae: Bambusoideae: Bambuseae) with an emphasis on Arundinaria and allies |journal=Systematic Botany |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=102–120 |doi=10.1600/036364410790862678|bibcode=2010SysBo..35..102T |s2cid=85588401 }}</ref>}} nan ditambah jo pucuak buluah, buah-buahan ''[[Actinidia strigosa]]'', jo buah-buahan musiman. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pradhan|first=S.|last2=Saha|first2=G. K.|last3=Khan|first3=J. A.|year=2001|title=Ecology of the Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens'' in the Singhalila National Park, Darjeeling, India|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-conservation_2001-03_98_1/page/11|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=98|issue=1|pages=11–18|bibcode=2001BCons..98...11P|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00079-3}}</ref> Di taman nasional ko, kotoran panda merah juo manganduang siso-siso spesies [[Rosa sericea|mawar sutera]] jo [[Rubus|buah samak]] pado musim paneh, ''[[Actinidia callosa]]'' pado musim pasca-musim hujan, sarato ''[[Merrilliopanax alpinus]]'', ''[[Sorbus cuspidata]]'' [[Sorbus|balok putiah]], jo [[Rhododendron arboreum|rhododendron pohon]] pado kaduo musim. Najis ditamukan manganduang 23 spesies tumbuahan tamasuak spesies [[Lithocarpus|ek batu]] ''[[Lithocarpus pachyphyllus]]'', [[Magnolia campbellii|magnolia Campbell]], spesies [[Castanopsis|chinquapin]] ''[[Castanopsis tribuloides]]'', bir Himalaya, ''[[Litsea sericea]]'', jo spesies [[Ilex|holly]] ''[[Ilex fragilis]]'' . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roka, B.|last2=Jha, A. K.|last3=Chhetri, D. R.|year=2021|title=A study on plant preferences of Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') in the wild habitat: foundation for the conservation of the species|url=https://abs.pensoft.net/article/71816/download/pdf/|url-status=live|journal=Acta Biologica Sibirica|volume=7|pages=425–439|doi=10.3897/abs.7.e71816|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628075846/https://public.pensoft.net/items/?p=7TVeXpoqfNYT89tyrm3ifrTeG9Wv8P676JSQp%2FH2pj9hhtoybol4GF7LEbj3fxHT5Fo8esHsudYAYpBvYRXDagjNH%2F0WB4wgAIotii7Ae3LaW2Fr9Ax1LqaArmQ%3D&n=gxh9ddQ8acsRsM1Z%2BCizLOv1G9aD7qC545Y%3D|archive-date=28 June 2022|access-date=04-01-2026|doi-access=free}}</ref> Di [[Taman Nasional Rara]] Nepal, ''Thamnocalamus'' ditamukan pado sadoalah kotoran nan dicontoh, baiak sabalun maupun sasudah [[Monsun|musim hujan]] . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=H. R.|last2=Swenson|first2=J. E.|last3=Belant|first3=J.|year=2014|title=Seasonal food habits of the Red Panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') in Rara National Park, Nepal|journal=Hystrix|volume=25|issue=1|pages=47–50|doi=10.4404/hystrix-25.1-9033}}</ref> Makanan musim panehnyo di [[Cagar Perburuan Dhorpatan|Cagar Budaya Dhorpatan]] juo tamasuak babarapo lichen jo [[Berberis|barberry]] . <ref name="Panthi_al2012" /> Di [[Taman Nasional Jigme Dorji]] Bhutan, kotoran panda merah nan ditamukan pado musim babuah manganduang biji [[Hedera nepalensis|ivy Himalaya]] . <ref name="Dendup_al2020" />[[Berkas:Endangered_Red_Panda.jpg|al=Panda merah memegang tanaman dan memakannya|jmpl|Makan panda merah .]] Panda merah manjapuik makanan jo salah satu cakar mukonyo dan biasonyo makan duduak atau tagak. Katiko mancari makan untuak buluah, inyo mangganggam batang tanaman dan manariknyo ka bawah ka dalam rahangnyo. Inyo manggigik daun jo sisi [[Gigi pipi|gigi pipinyo]], kamudian mamotong, mangunyah, jo manelan. Barang-barang nan labiah ketek sarupo bungo, buah beri, jo daun-daun ketek dimakan babeda, dipotong jo gigi sayoknyo. <ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> Karano mampunyoi [[saluran pencernaan]] karnivora, panda merah indak dapek mancerna buluah sapanuahnyo, nan malalui ususnyo dalam wakatu duo inggo ampek jam. Dek karano itu, inyo harus mamakan bahan tumbuahan nan paliang bagizi dalam jumlah gadang. Inyo makan labiah dari 1,5 kilo (3 pon oz) daun segar atau 4 kilo (9 pon) pucuak buluah segar sahari, jo protein kasa jo lamak nan paliang dapek dicerna. Pencernaan paliang tinggi pado musim paneh jo musim gugur tapi paliang randah pado musim dingin, dan labiah mudah dicerna pucuak buluah daripado daun. <ref name="wei_1999">{{Cite journal|last=Wei, F.|last2=Feng, Z.|last3=Wang, Z.|last4=Zhou, A.|last5=Hu, J.|date=1999|title=Use of the nutrients in bamboo by the Red Panda ''Ailurus fulgens''|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=248|issue=4|pages=535–541|bibcode=1999JZoo..248..535W|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb01053.x}}</ref> [[Laju metabolisme|Tingkat metabolisme]] panda merah sabandiang jo mamalia lain nan saumua jonyo, walaupun makanannyo buruak. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fei, Y.|last2=Hou, R.|last3=Spotila, J. R.|last4=Paladino, F. V.|last5=Qi, D.|last6=Zhang, Z.|year=2017|title=Metabolic rate of the Red Panda, ''Ailurus fulgens'', a dietary bamboo specialist|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=12|issue=3|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1273274F|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0173274|pmc=5356995|pmid=28306740|doi-access=free}}</ref> Panda merah mancerna ampia sapartigo [[Bahan kering|bahan kariang]], nan labiah efisien daripado 17 persen panda raksasa. <ref name="wei_1999" /> Mikroba di usus dapek mambantu dalam pangolahan buluah; komunitas [[mikrobiota]] pado panda sirah kurang baragam daripado mamalia lainnyo. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kong, F.|last2=Zhao, J.|last3=Han, S.|last4=Zeng, B.|last5=Yang, J.|last6=Si, X.|last7=Yang, B.|last8=Yang, M.|last9=Xu, H.|last10=Li, Y.|year=2014|title=Characterization of the gut microbiota in the red panda (''Ailurus fulgens'')|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=2|bibcode=2014PLoSO...987885K|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0087885|pmc=3912123|pmid=24498390|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Komunikasi == Sakurang-kurangnyo tujuah vokalisasi nan babeda alah tacataik dari panda merah, nan tadiri dari manggaretek, latah, manggaretek, manggaretek, manggaretek, jo kicauan. Garetek, latah, manggaretek, jo manggigia dihasiakan salamo bacakak jo mangaja sacaro agresif. Panggilan dibuek sabagai tanggapan taradok didakek-i dek individu lain. Bleeping dihubuangkan jo panandoan aroma jo manganduang. Jantan dapek mangaluah katiko kawin, sadangkan batino bakicau. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Qi|first=D.|last2=Zhou, H.|last3=Wei, W.|last4=Lei, M.|last5=Yuan, S.|last6=Qi, D.|last7=Zhang, Z.|year=2016|title=Vocal repertoire of adult captive red pandas (''Ailurus fulgens'')|journal=Animal Biology|volume=66|issue=2|pages=145–155|doi=10.1163/15707563-00002493}}</ref> Salamo [[Bermain (aktivitas)#Hewan lain|bacakak bamain-main]] jo bacakak agresif, individu malengkungkan pungguang jo ikuanyo sambia manggarikkan kapalonyo lambek-lambek ka ateh jo ka bawah. Inyo kamudian mambaliakkan kapalo sambia mangapik rahang, manggarikkan kapalo ka sampiang, jo maangkek kaki muko untuak manyarang. Inyo tagak jo kaki balakang, maangkek kaki muko ka ateh kapalo, sudah tu mancogok. Duo panda merah mungkin saliang "manatap" dari jauah. <ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> == Reproduksi jo pangasuahan == [[Berkas:Two_Red_Panda_Cubs_in_the_Tree_01.jpg|jmpl|Duo anak panda merah tabang di batang kayu di Taman Nasional Langtang, Nepal]]Panda merah adolah paternak [[Fotoperiodisme#Hewan|nan panjang hari]], bakambang biak sasudah [[Titik balik matahari musim dingin|titik baliak matoari musim dingin]] sairiang jo cahayo siang nan batambah panjang. Dek karano itu kawin tajadi dari bulan Januari sampai Maret, jo kalahiran tajadi dari bulan Mei sampai Agustus. Reproduksi ditunda anam bulan untuak panda nan ditawan di Balahan Bumi Selatan. [[Estrus]] balangsuang salamo sahari, dan batino dapek masuak estrus babarapo kali samusim, tapi interval antaro satiok siklus indak dikatahui. <ref name="Curry">{{Cite book|last=Curry, E.|year=2021|chapter=Reproductive biology of the Red Panda|title=Red Panda: Biology and Conservation of the First Panda|editor-last=Glatston, A. R.|pages=119–138|edition=Second|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-823753-3}}</ref> Sairiang jo dimulainyo musim bakambang biak, jantan jo batino labiah banyak bainteraksi, istirahat, bagerak, jo makan dakek satu samo lain. Padusi dalam estrus akan labiah banyak wakatu untuak manandoi wilayah, dan jantan akan mamareso daerah anogenitalnyo. Padusi nan reseptif akan manggarik-garik ikuanyo jo mamposisikan dirinyo dalam pose [[Perilaku lordosis|lordosis]], jo anggota tubuah mukonyo nan diturunkan ka tanah jo tulang balakangnyo nan melengkung. [[Sanggama|Kopulasi]] malibaikkan jantan mamasang batino dari balakang jo di ateh, walaupun kawin tatap muko jo kawin paruik-ka-pungguang sambia barado di sampiangnyo juo tajadi. Nan jantan akan mangganggam sisi batino jo kaki mukonyo daripado manggigik langannyo. Intromisi balangsuang salamo 2-25 minik, jo pasangan [[Perawatan sosial|saliang manyalidiki]] antaro putaran. <ref name="Curry" /> [[Gestasi|Maso kahamilan]] balangsuang sakitar 131 hari. <ref name="Roberts1979">{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=M. S.|last2=Kessler|first2=D. S.|year=1979|title=Reproduction in Red pandas, ''Ailurus fulgens'' (Carnivora: Ailuropodidae)|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=188|issue=2|pages=235–249|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1979.tb03402.x}}</ref> Sabalun malahiakan, batino mamiliah tampek sarang, sarupo pohon, batang kayu atau tunggua nan barongga, atau celah batu, jo mambangun sarang manggunoan bahan dari daerah sakitarnyo, sarupo rantiang, tungkek, dahan, karipik kulik kayu, daun, rumpuik, jo lumut. <ref name="Gebauer" /> [[Kelahiran (zoologi)|Litters]] biasonyo tadiri dari ciek inggo ampek anak, nan lahia babulu panuah tapi buto. Inyo sapanuahnyo tagantuang pado induaknyo salamo tigo inggo ampek bulan partamo sampai inyo partamo kali kalua dari kandang. Mereka manyusui salamo limo bulan partamo. <ref name="Roberts1979" /> Ikatan antaro induak jo anaknyo balangsuang sampai musim kawin barikuiknyo. Anak-anaknyo tumbuah panuah pado umua sakitar 12 bulan dan pado umua sakitar 18 bulan inyo mancapai [[Kematangan seksual|kamatangan seksual]] . <ref name="roberts+gittleman" /> Duo anak panda nan bakerah radio di Nepal timur tapisah dari induaknyo pado umua 7–8 bulan dan maninggaan daerah lahianyo tigo minggu kamudian. Mareka mancapai jangkauan rumah baru dalam wakatu 26–42 hari dan manjadi panduduak tatap sasudah bakaliaran salamo 42–44 hari. <ref name="Bista_al2021b" /> == Konservasi == Panda merah tacantum pado [[CITES#Apendiks I - sekitar 800 spesies|Lampiran I CITES]] dan dilinduangi di sadoalah nagara jangkauannyo; baburu tu haram. Inyo alah tacataik sabagai spesies [[Spesies terancam|Tarancam Punah]] dalam [[Daftar Merah IUCN|Daftar Sirah IUCN]] sajak taun 2008 karano populasi globalnyo dipakiroan 10.000 individu, jo kecenderungan populasi manurun. Sabagian gadang habitatnyo adolah kawasan nan dilindungi. == Rujuakan == <references /> fcpnwgjcdx6bsymzjg82n0mpsz1psxe 0 477674 3351328 3345928 2026-08-05T23:29:55Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351328 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Antarctica, Australia territorial claim.svg|thumb]] '''Wilayah Antarktika Australia''' (biasonyo disingkek '''AAT''') adolah wilayah di [[Antarktika|Antarktika Timur]] nan diklaim dek [[Australia]] sabagai wilayahnyo. Iko adolah sektor Antarktika tagadang badasarkan laweh wilayah nan diklaim dek nagara manopun jo disarahan kapado Australia dek [[Baritania Rayo]] pado tahun 1933.{{sfn|Kerr|2009|pp=230–232}}{{sfn|Greenwood|Harper|1963|p=384}} Australia adolah panandotangan asali [[Pajanjian Antartika]] tahun 1959, di mano kasadoan klaim teritorial ditangguahan.{{sfn|Kerr|2009|p=235}} Hanyo ampek nagara lain nan manarimo kadaulaikan Australia, yakni [[Selandia Baru]], Baritania Rayo, [[Parancih]], jo [[Norwegia]].{{sfn|Rothwell|Scott|2007|p=9}} Wilayah Antarktika Australia manampeki area di selatan paralel ka-60 selatan antaro maridian ka-160 timur jo maridian ka-45 timur, indak tamasuak [[Terre Adélie]] punyo Parancih, nan manampeki area maridian ka-136 jo ka-142 timur.<ref name="ga">{{cite web |title=Australian Antarctic Territory |url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/remote-offshore-territories/australian-antarctic-territory |access-date=2 April 2026 |website=[[Geoscience Australia]]}}</ref> Laweh kasadoannyo sakitar 5.900.000 km2 (2.300.000 sq mi), atau sakitar 42% dari laweh daratan Antarktika.<ref name="aat">{{cite web |title=Australian Antarctic Territory |url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/australia-in-antarctica/australian-antarctic-territory/ |access-date=2 April 2026 |website=[[Australian Antarctic Program]] |publisher=[[Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water]]}}</ref> Duo gunuang tatinggi di Wilayah Antarktika Australia adolah [[Gunuang McClintock]] jo katinggian 3.490 m (11.450 kaki) dan [[Gunuang Menzies]] jo katinggian 3.355 m (11.007 kaki).<ref name="ga" /> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin}} *{{cite book |last1=Buchanan |first1=Elizabeth |title=Australia on the World Stage: history, politics, and international relations |date=2023 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Oxon |isbn=9781003221197 |pages=185–197 |chapter=Australia's Southern Flank: Antarctica|editor1-first=Bridget|editor1-last=Brooklyn|editor2-first=Benjamin T.|editor2-last=Jones|editor3-first=Rebecca|editor3-last=Strating}} *{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Gerard |title=The Constitutional Systems of the Australian States and Territories |date=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780511607288 |chapter=Commonwealth Territories |pages=436–488}} *{{cite book |chapter=Australian Antarctic Territory |title=Australia in World Affairs 1956–1960 |date=1963 |pages=384–418 |doi=10.1017/9781009458191.010|first1=Gordon|last1=Greenwood|first2=Norman|last2=Harper|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781009458191|location=Cambridge}} *{{cite journal |last1=Haward |first1=Marcus |last2=Rothwell |first2=Donald R. |last3=Jabour |first3=Julia |last4=Hall |first4=Robert |last5=Kellow |first5=Aynsley |last6=Kriwoken |first6=Lorne |last7=Lugten |first7=Gail |last8=Hemmings |first8=Alan |title=Australia's Antarctic Agenda |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_australian-journal-of-international-affairs_2006-09_60_3/page/439 |journal=[[Australian Journal of International Affairs]] |date=2006 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=439–456 |doi=10.1080/10357710600865705}} *{{cite journal |last1=Hodgson-Johnston |first1=Indi |title=Australian Politics and Antarctic Sovereignty: Themes, Protagonists and Antagonists |journal=Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs |date=2015 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=183–202 |doi=10.1080/18366503.2015.1101811}} *{{cite book |title=Looking South: Australia's Antarctic Agenda |date=2007 |publisher=Federation Press |location=Leichhardt |isbn=9781862876576 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781862876576|editor1-first=Lorne K.|editor1-last=Kriwoken|editor2-first=Julia|editor2-last=Jabour|editor3-first=Alan D.|editor3-last=Hemmings|chapter=Emerging Issues of Australian Antarctic Tourism: Legal and Policy Directions|first1=Murray P.|last1=Johnson|first2=Lorke K.|last2=Kriwoken}} *{{cite book|chapter=Australian Antarctic Territory |url=https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/department/media/publications/federation-these-seas-account-acquisition-australia-its-external-territories-alan-kerr|title=A Federation in These Seas: An Account of the Acquisition by Australia of its External Territories|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|first=Alan|last=Kerr|year=2009|isbn=1921241721|pages=247-266}} *{{cite book |title=Looking South: Australia's Antarctic Agenda |date=2007 |publisher=Federation Press |location=Leichhardt |isbn=9781862876576 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781862876576|editor1-first=Lorne K.|editor1-last=Kriwoken|editor2-first=Julia|editor2-last=Jabour|editor3-first=Alan D.|editor3-last=Hemmings|chapter=Australian Influence in the Antarctic Treaty System: An End or a Means?|first1=Stephen|last1=Powell|first2=Andrew|last2=Jackson}} *{{cite book |title=Looking South: Australia's Antarctic Agenda |date=2007 |publisher=Federation Press |location=Leichhardt |isbn=9781862876576 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781862876576|editor1-first=Lorne K.|editor1-last=Kriwoken|editor2-first=Julia|editor2-last=Jabour|editor3-first=Alan D.|editor3-last=Hemmings|chapter=Flexing Australian Sovereignty in Antarctica: Pushing Antarctic Treaty Limits in the National Interest|first1=Donald R.|last1=Rothwell|first2=Shirley V.|last2=Scott}} *{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Michael W. D. |title=Australian Offshore Laws |date=2009 |publisher=Federation Press |location=Annandale |isbn=9781862877429 |chapter=Antarctic and Southern Ocean Territories Laws}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Nagara bagian jo wilayah di Australia]] n664d5s5dxufutllqi303qq3ledahq4 0 477676 3351322 3345932 2026-08-05T23:19:13Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351322 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Australia in its region (Coral Sea Islands Territory special).svg|thumb]] '''Wilayah Kapulauan Lauik Koral''' adolah [[Nagara bagian jo wilayah di Australia|wilayah subarang lauik Australia]] nan maliputi area salaweh 780.000 km2 (301.160 sq mi) di [[Lauik Koral]], timur lauik [[Queensland]].<ref name = "infra>{{cite web | url=https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/territories-regions/territories/coral-sea-islands | access-date=12 March 2026 | website = [[Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications, Sport and the Arts]]|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia | title=Coral Sea Islands}}</ref><ref name="europa">{{cite book|author=|title=The Europa World Year Book 2018|edition=59|year=2018|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-85743-934-2|pages=701–702|volume=1|chapter=Coral Sea Islands}}</ref> Wilayah ko mancakuik sajumlah pulau ketek jo tarumbu karang, jo total laweh darek sakitar 7 km2 (3 sq mi). Salain sajumlah patugaih cuaca di [[Pulau Willis]], wilayah ko indak baunyi.<ref name = "cia">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Coral Sea Islands}}</ref> Pulau-pulau jo tarumbu karang di Wilayah Kapulauan Lauik Koral patamo kali dipetaan pado awal tahun 1800-an.{{Sfn|Burmester|1983|p=14}} Antaro tahun 1870-an jo 1880-an, banyak pulau ditambang untuak [[guano]], tapi indak ado pamukiman parmanen nan didirian. Sajumlah gadang kapa karam tajadi di wilayah ko salamo tahun 1800-an.<ref name = "ga">{{cite web |title=Coral Sea Islands |url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/remote-offshore-territories/coral-sea-islands |website=[[Geoscience Australia]] |publisher=Australian Government |access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref>{{Sfn|Burmester|1983|pp=14–15}} == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|chapter=Coral Sea Islands |url=https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/department/media/publications/federation-these-seas-account-acquisition-australia-its-external-territories-alan-kerr|title=A Federation in These Seas: An Account of the Acquisition by Australia of its External Territories|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|first=Alan|last=Kerr|year=2009|isbn=1921241721|pages=365-397}} *{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Gerard |title=The Constitutional Systems of the Australian States and Territories |date=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780511607288|chapter=Commonwealth territories|pages=436–488}} *{{cite journal |last1=Burmester |first1=Henry |title=Outposts of Australia in the Pacific Ocean |url=https://archive.org/details/australian-journal-of-politics-and-history_1983_29_1/page/14 |journal=[[Australian Journal of Politics & History]] |date=1983 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=14–25 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00299.x}} *{{cite report|title=Australia's Coral Sea: A Biophysical Profile|date=August 2011|first=Daniela|last=Ceccarelli|publisher=Protect our Coral Sea Coalition|url=https://www.pew.org/-/media/legacy/uploadedfiles/peg/publications/report/pewcoralseabiophysicalprofileaug2011pdf.pdf|access-date=29 March 2026}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Nagara bagian jo wilayah di Australia]] 3rzh7odsipjshck8ke9s6aginjxb8cw 0 477695 3351298 3346110 2026-08-05T22:43:10Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 7 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351298 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Australia in its region (Heard Island and McDonald Islands special).svg|thumb]] '''Pulau Heard jo Kapulauan McDonald''' adolah [[Nagara bagian jo wilayah di Australia|wilayah subarang lauik Australia]] jo [[Situs Warisan Dunia]] di [[Lautan Hindia]] bagian selatan. Disobokan pado patangahan abaik ka-19,<ref name = "mills2003">{{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=William James |title=Exploring Polar Frontiers: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2003 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-57607-423-7 |pages=290–291 |chapter=Heard Island}}</ref> wilayah ko tadiri dari sakalompok [[pulau vulkanik]] sub-Antarktika nan talatak di [[Dataran Tinggi Kerguelen]]. Lataknyo sakitar 4000 kilometer (2500 mil) barat daya daratan utamo [[Australia]] jo 1700 kilometer (1100 mil) utara [[Antarktika]].<ref name = "loc-geo">{{cite web|title=Location and geography – Heard Island and McDonald Islands|url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/antarctic-operations/stations-and-field-locations/heard-island/location-geography/|website=[[Australian Antarctic Program]]|date=19 December 2024 |publisher=[[Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water]]|access-date=1 April 2026}}</ref> Wilayah ko mampunyoi satu-satunyo gunuang barapi aktif di Australia jo marupokan rumah bagi titiak tatinggi di lua [[Wilayah Antarktika Australia]], [[Puncak Mawson]]. Pulau-pulau ko digambaran sabagai salah ciek tampek paliang tapancia di [[Bumi]].{{sfn|Whinam|Shaw|2018|p=153}}{{sfn|McGowan|2000|p=61}}{{sfn|Constable|Cresswell|Bax|Reid|2024|p=6}}{{sfn|Greenslade|Vernon|Smith|2012|p=841}} == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin}} *{{cite journal |last1=Allison |first1=Ian F. |last2=Keage |first2=Peter L. |title=Recent Changes in the Glaciers of Heard Island |journal=[[Polar Record]] |date=1986 |volume=23 |issue=144 |pages=255–272 |doi=10.1017/S0032247400007099|bibcode=1986PoRec..23..255A |author-link1=Ian Allison (scientist)}} *{{cite journal |last1=Baird |first1=Rachel |title=Coastal State Fisheries Management: A Review of Australian Enforcement Action in the Heard and McDonald Islands Australian Fishing Zone |journal=[[Deakin Law Review]] |date=2004 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=91–118 |url=https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/DeakinLawRw/2004/4.html}} *{{cite journal |last1=Bergstrom |first1=D. M. |last2=Selkirk |first2=P. M. |title=Terrestrial Vegetation and Environments on Heard Island |journal=[[Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania]] |date=2000 |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=33–46 |doi=10.26749/rstpp.133.2.33|author-link1=Dana Bergstrom|author-link2=Patricia Margaret Selkirk}} *{{cite journal |last1=Bergstrom |first1=Dana M. |last2=Whinam |first2=Jennifer |last3=Belbin |first3=Lee |title=A Classification of Subantarctic Heard Island Vegetation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arctic-antarctic-and-alpine-research_2002-05_34_2/page/169 |journal=[[Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research]] |date=2002 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=169–177 |doi=10.1080/15230430.2002.12003481|bibcode=2002AAAR...34..169B |author-link1=Dana Bergstrom}} *{{cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Cassandra M. |last2=Epstein |first2=Graham |last3=Ban |first3=Natalie C. |title=Managing Marine Protected Areas in Remote Areas: The Case of the Subantarctic Heard and McDonald Islands |journal=[[Frontiers in Marine Science]] |date=2019 |volume=6 |article-number=631 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2019.00631 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019FrMaS...6..631B }} *{{cite journal |last1=Budd |first1=Grahame M. |title=Changes in Heard Island Glaciers, King Penguins and Fur Seals Since 1947 |journal=[[Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania]] |date=2000 |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=47–60 |doi=10.26749/rstpp.133.2.47}} *{{cite journal |last1=Budd |first1=Grahame M. |title=Australian Exploration of Heard Island, 1947–1971 |journal=[[Polar Record]] |date=2007 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=97–123 |doi=10.1017/S0032247407006080 |bibcode=2007PoRec..43...97B }} *{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Gerard |title=The Constitutional Systems of the Australian States and Territories |date=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-511-60728-8 |chapter=Commonwealth Territories |pages=436–488}} *{{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1528-5|isbn=978-94-024-1526-1|year=2018|pages=429–434|chapter=Heard and McDonald Islands, Australia|title=Coastal World Heritage Sites|first=Vanda|last=Claudino-Sales|series=Coastal Research Library |volume=28 |publisher=[[Springer (publisher)|Springer]]}} *{{cite report|first1=Andrew J.|last1=Constable|first2=Ian D.|last2=Cresswell|first3=Nicholas J.|last3=Bax|first4=Keith|last4=Reid|year=2024|publisher=[[Australian Marine Conservation Society]]|title=Understanding the Marine Ecosystems Surrounding Heard Island and McDonald Islands (HIMI) and Their Conservation Status|url=https://www.marineconservation.org.au/heard-and-mcdonald-islands-report/|access-date=1 April 2026}} *{{cite journal |last1=Duhamel |first1=Guy |last2=Williams |first2=Richard |title=History of Whaling, Sealing, Fishery and Aquaculture Trials in the Area of the Kerguelen Plateau |journal=Cybium |date=2011 |volume=35 |pages=15–28 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2011-35SP-003}} *{{cite journal |last1=Duncan |first1=R. A. |last2=Quilty |first2=Patrick G. |last3=Barling |first3=J. |last4=Fox |first4=J. M. |title=Geological Development of Heard Island, Central Kerguelen Plateau |journal=[[Australian Journal of Earth Sciences]] |date=2016 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=81–89 |doi=10.1080/08120099.2016.1139000|bibcode=2016AuJES..63...81D |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/22944266 |author-link2=Patrick Quilty}} *{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Jodi M. |last2=McPhie |first2=Jocelyn |last3=Carey |first3=Rebecca J. |last4=Jourdan |first4=Fred |last5=Miggins |first5=Daniel P. |title=Construction of an Intraplate Island Volcano: The Volcanic History of Heard Island |journal=[[Bulletin of Volcanology]] |date=2021 |volume=83 |issue=5 |article-number=37 |doi=10.1007/s00445-021-01452-5|bibcode=2021BVol...83...37F |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/22997480 |author-link2=Jocelyn McPhie}} *{{cite journal |last1=Greenslade |first1=Penelope |last2=Vernon |first2=P. |last3=Smith |first3=D. |title=Ecology of Heard Island Diptera |journal=[[Polar Biology]] |date=2012 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=841–850 |doi=10.1007/s00300-011-1128-5 |bibcode=2012PoBio..35..841G }} *{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Janet |last2=Lazer |first2=Estelle |title=Importance of "Historic Sites" on Heard Island for Protection of Scientific Resources and Environmental Management of a World Heritage Site |journal=[[Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania]] |date=2000 |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=71–77 |doi=10.26749/rstpp.133.2.71|author-link2=Estelle Lazer}} *{{cite journal |last1=Kaye |first1=Stuart |title=Australian Sovereignty over Heard and McDonald Islands: Law of the Sea Implications |journal=Maritime Studies |date=1990 |volume=1990 |issue=52 |pages=11–17 |doi=10.1080/07266472.1990.10878240|author-link=Stuart Kaye}} *{{cite book|chapter=Heard Island and McDonald Islands |url=https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/department/media/publications/federation-these-seas-account-acquisition-australia-its-external-territories-alan-kerr|title=A Federation in These Seas: An Account of the Acquisition by Australia of its External Territories|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|first=Alan|last=Kerr|year=2009|isbn=978-1-921241-72-7|pages=247–266}} *{{cite journal |last1=Kiernan |first1=Kevin |last2=McConnell |first2=Anne |title=Geomorphology of the Sub-Antarctic Australian Territory of Heard Island-McDonald Island |url=https://archive.org/details/australian-geographer_1999-07_30_2/page/159 |journal=[[Australian Geographer]] |date=1999 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=159–195 |doi=10.1080/00049189993693|bibcode=1999AuGeo..30..159K |author-link1=Kevin Kiernan (geomorphologist)}} *{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=David J. |last2=Chown |first2=Steven L. |title=The Acarine Fauna of Heard Island |journal=[[Polar Biology]] |date=2002 |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=688–695 |doi=10.1007/s00300-002-0404-9 |bibcode=2002PoBio..25..688M }} *{{cite journal |last1=McGowan |first1=Angela |title=On Their Own: Towards an Analysis of Sealers' Sites on Heard Island |journal=[[Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania]] |date=2000 |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=61–70 |doi=10.26749/rstpp.133.2.61|author-link=Angela McGowan}} *{{cite journal |last1=McIvor |first1=Ewan |title=Heard Island and McDonald Islands |journal=[[Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania]] |date=2007 |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=7–10 |doi=10.26749/rstpp.141.1.7}} *{{cite journal |last1=Øvstedal |first1=D. O. |last2=Gremmen |first2=N. J. M. |title=Lichens of Sub-Antarctic Heard Island |journal=[[South African Journal of Botany]] |date=2006 |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=353–366 |doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2005.09.008 |bibcode=2006SAJB...72..353O }} *{{cite journal |last1=Øvstedal |first1=D. O. |last2=Gremmen |first2=N. J. M. |title=Additions and Corrections to the Lichens of Heard Island |journal=[[The Lichenologist]] |date=2008 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=233–242 |doi=10.1017/S002428290800741X |bibcode=2008ThLic..40..233O }} *{{cite journal |last1=Page |first1=Brad |last2=Welling |first2=Andrew |last3=Chambellant |first3=Magaly |last4=Goldsworthy |first4=Simon D. |last5=Dorr |first5=Tony |last6=van Veen |first6=Rick |title=Population Status and Breeding Season Chronology of Heard Island Fur Seals |journal=[[Polar Biology]] |date=2003 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=219–224 |doi=10.1007/s00300-003-0478-z |bibcode=2003PoBio..26..219P }} *{{cite journal |last1=Quilty |first1=Patrick G. |last2=Wheller |first2=Graeme |title=Heard Island and the McDonald Islands: A Window into the Kerguelen Plateau |journal=[[Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania]] |date=2000 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.26749/rstpp.133.2.1|author-link1=Patrick Quilty}} *{{cite book |last1=Schmieder |first1=Robert William |title=Heard Island: Two Centuries of Change, and More Coming |date=2023 |publisher=[[Springer (publisher)|Springer]] |isbn=978-3-031-20342-8|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-20343-5|author-link=Robert Schmieder}} *{{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=J. J. |chapter=Changes in Vegetation on Heard Island, 1947–1987 |title=Antarctic Ecosystems |date=1990 |pages=61–76 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-84074-6|isbn=978-3-642-84076-0|publisher=[[Springer (publisher)|Springer]]|editor1-first=K. R.|editor1-last=Kerry|editor2-first=G.|editor2-last=Hempel}} *{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=J. J. |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=J. B. |title=Changes in Subantarctic Heard Island Vegetation at Sites Occupied by Poa Annua, 1987–2000 |journal=[[Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research]] |date=2005 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=366–371 |doi=10.1657/1523-0430(2005)037[0366:CISHIV]2.0.CO;2 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/23203298 }} *{{cite journal |last1=Selkirk |first1=P. M. |last2=Whinam |first2=J. P. |last3=Downing |first3=A. J. |last4=Skotnicki |first4=M. L. |title=Mosses of Sub-Antarctic Heard Island: An Updated List and Discussion of Their Distribution |journal=[[Polar Record]] |date=2008 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=155–164 |doi=10.1017/S003224740700722X|bibcode=2008PoRec..44..155S |author-link1=Patricia Margaret Selkirk}} *{{cite book |title=Marine Mammals of Australasia: Field Biology and Captive Management |date=1988 |publisher=[[CSIRO Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-9599951-4-5|doi=10.7882/RZSNSW.1988.014|first1=P. D.|last1=Shaughnessy|first2=G. L.|last2=Shaughnessy|first3=P. L.|last3=Keage|chapter=Fur-seals at Heard Island: Recovery from Past Exploitation?|editor-first=Michael L.|editor-last=Augee}} *{{cite journal |last1=Slip |first1=David J. |last2=Burton |first2=Harry R. |title=Population Status and Seasonal Haulout Patterns of the Southern Elephant Seal (''Mirounga Leonina'') at Heard Island |journal=[[Antarctic Science]] |date=1999 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=38–47 |doi=10.1017/S0954102099000061 |bibcode=1999AntSc..11...38S }} *{{cite journal |last1=Stephenson |first1=Jon |last2=Budd |first2=Grahame M. |last3=Manning |first3=J. |last4=Hansbro |first4=P. |title=Major Eruption-Induced Changes to the McDonald Islands, Southern Indian Ocean |journal=[[Antarctic Science]] |date=2005 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=259–266 |doi=10.1017/S095410200500266X |bibcode=2005AntSc..17..259S }} *{{cite journal |last1=Thost |first1=Douglas E. |last2=Truffer |first2=Martin |title=Glacier Recession on Heard Island, Southern Indian Ocean |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arctic-antarctic-and-alpine-research_2008-02_40_1/page/199 |journal=[[Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research]] |date=2008 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=199–214 |doi=10.1657/1523-0430(06-084)[THOST]2.0.CO;2 |doi-broken-date=19 April 2026 |bibcode=2008AAAR...40..199T }} *{{cite journal |last1=Tielidze |first1=Levan G. |last2=Mackintosh |first2=Andrew N. |last3=Yang |first3=Weilin |title=Glacier Inventories Reveal an Acceleration of Heard Island Glacier Loss over Recent Decades |journal=[[The Cryosphere]] |date=2025 |volume=19 |issue=7 |pages=2677–2694 |doi=10.5194/tc-19-2677-2025 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2025TCry...19.2677T }} *{{cite book |last1=Valentine |first1=Peter |title=World Heritage Sites of Australia |date=2023 |publisher=[[National Library of Australia]] |isbn=978-1-922507-58-7 |pages=247–263 |chapter=Heard Island and McDonald Islands}} *{{cite journal |last1=Welsford |first1=Dirk C. |last2=Constable |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Nowara |first3=Gabrielle B. |title=The Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve and Conservation Zone – A Model for Southern Ocean Marine Reserves? |journal=Cybium |date=2011 |volume=35 |pages=297–304 |doi=10.26028/CYBIUM/2011-35SP-034 |doi-broken-date=19 April 2026 }} *{{cite report|first1=Dirk C.|last1=Welsford|first2=Tim|last2=Lamb|first3=Cara|last3=Masere|first4=Michael|last4=Sumner|year=2024|publisher=[[Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water]]|title=Conservation Values in the Marine Environment Surrounding Heard Island and McDonald Islands|url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/antarctic-operations/stations-and-field-locations/heard-island/research/conservation-values-himi/|access-date=16 April 2026}} *{{cite book|first1=Jennie|last1=Whinam|first2=Justine D.|last2=Shaw|chapter=Australia's World Heritage Islands|year=2018|title=Australian Island Arks: Conservation, Management and Opportunities|editor1-first=Dorian|editor1-last=Moro|editor2-first=Derek|editor2-last=Ball|editor3-first=Sally|editor3-last=Bryant|doi=10.1071/9781486306619.BK07646_ch10|isbn=978-1-4863-0660-2|publisher=[[CSIRO Publishing]]|author2-link=Justine Shaw|pages=147–163 |doi-broken-date=19 April 2026 }} *{{cite journal |last1=Whinam |first1=Jennifer |title=Structure and Floristic Composition of the Heard Island "Pool Complex" Community |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_polar-biology_1989-08_9_8/page/499 |journal=[[Polar Biology]] |date=1989 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=499–503 |doi=10.1007/BF00261033 |bibcode=1989PoBio...9..499W }} *{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Joel |last2=Foster |first2=Scott |last3=Woolley |first3=Skip |last4=Ziegler |first4=Philippe |last5=Masere |first5=Cara |last6=Naughten |first6=Kaitlin |last7=Ovaskainen |first7=Otso |last8=Johnson |first8=Craig |last9=Hill |first9=Nicole |title=Climate Change, Fisheries Management, and Increases in Demersal Fish Distribution in a Southern Ocean Biodiversity Hotspot |journal=[[Global Change Biology]] |date=2025 |volume=31 |issue=10 |article-number=e70549 |doi=10.1111/gcb.70549 |pmid=41110834 |bibcode=2025GCBio..3170549W }} *{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=R. |title=The Inshore Fishes of Heard and McDonald Islands, Southern Indian Ocean |journal=[[Journal of Fish Biology]] |date=1983 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=283–292 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1983.tb02906.x |bibcode=1983JFBio..23..283W }} *{{cite journal |last1=Woehler |first1=Eric J. |last2=Green |first2=Ken |title=Consumption of Marine Resources by Seabirds and Seals at Heard Island and the McDonald Islands |url=https://archive.org/details/polar-biology_1992_12_6-7/page/659 |journal=[[Polar Biology]] |date=1992 |volume=12 |issue=6–7 |page=659 |doi=10.1007/BF00236989 |bibcode=1992PoBio..12..659W }} {{refend}} <!-- <ref name = "hughes1987">{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Jocelyne M. R. |title=The Distribution and Composition of Vascular Plant Communities on Heard Island |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_polar-biology_1987-05_7_3/page/153 |journal=[[Polar Biology]] |date=1987 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=153–162 |doi=10.1007/BF00259203}}</ref> <ref name = "edgar2000">{{cite journal |last1=Edgar |first1=Graham J. |last2=Burton |first2=Harry R. |title=The Biogeography of Shallow-Water Macrofauna at Heard Island |journal=[[Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania]] |date=2000 |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.26749/rstpp.133.2.23}}</ref> <ref name = "green1994">{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=K. |last2=Mound |first2=L. A. |title=An Extension to the Insect Fauna of Heard Island |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_polar-record_1994-04_30_173/page/131 |journal=[[Polar Record]] |date=1994 |volume=30 |issue=173 |pages=131–132 |doi=10.1017/S0032247400021343}}</ref> <ref name = "bergstrom1998">{{cite book |last1=Bergstrom |first1=Dana |author1-link=Dana Bergstrom|editor1-last=Selkirk |editor1-first=Patricia |editor1-link=Patricia Selkirk |title=Heard Island Wilderness Reserve: Reports on Natural Science and Cultural Heritage Research |date=1998 |publisher=[[Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions]] |location=Kingston |isbn=978-0-642-25337-8 |pages=3–4 |chapter=Plant Ecology on Heard Island: A New Vegetation Scheme and Predictions for Climate Change|series=ANARE Research Notes|volume=101}}</ref> <ref name = "research">{{cite web|title=Research – Heard Island and McDonald Islands|url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/antarctic-operations/stations-and-field-locations/heard-island/research/|website=[[Australian Antarctic Program]]|publisher=[[Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water]]|access-date=1 April 2026}}</ref> --> [[Kategori:Nagara bagian jo wilayah di Australia]] pz3w1brpjx1x47fgimjklrkebe75260 0 477793 3351207 3346687 2026-08-05T19:51:41Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 5 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351207 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Berkas:Cinchona_officinalis_001.JPG|jmpl|ka|[[Kulit kayu]] pohon [[kina]] digunoan sabagai ubat [[malaria]]]] [[File:Lythrum salicaria - harilik kukesaba.jpg|thumb|[[Lythrum salicaria]] alah digunoan sabagai pangetek pori-pori (''astringent''), ubek diare, jo ubek disentri di babagai tampek di balahan bumi utara sarato Australia]] '''Tumbuahan ubek''' adolah [[tumbuhan]] nan alah diidentifikasi dan dikatahui badasarkan pangamatan manusia mampunyoi senyawa nan bamanfaat untuak mancagah jo manyambuahan [[panyakik]], malakukan fungsi biologis tatantu, hinggo mancagah serangan saranggo jo jamua. Setidaknyo 12 ribu senyawa alah diisolasi dari babagai tumbuahan ubat di dunia, tatapi jumlah iko hanyo sapuluah persen dari jumlah total senyawa nan dapek diekstraksi dari saluruah tumbuahan ubek.<ref name="tapsell">{{cite journal |author=Tapsell LC, Hemphill I, Cobiac L, ''et al.'' |title=Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future |journal=Med. J. Aust. |volume=185 |issue=4 Suppl |pages=S4–24 |date=August 2006 |pmid=17022438 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="lai">{{cite journal |author=Lai PK, Roy J |title=Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices |journal=Curr. Med. Chem. |volume=11 |issue= 11|pages=1451–60 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15180577 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Pamanfaatan tumbuahan sabagai ubek alah ado samanjak zaman prasejarah manusia. Pado tahun 2001, para panaliti alah mangidentifikasi bahwa 122 senyawa nan digunoan di dunia kedokteran modern marupokan turunan dari senyawa tumbuahan nan alah digunoan samanjak zaman prasejarah.<ref name=Fabricant2001>{{cite journal |author=Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR |title=The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug discovery |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=109 Suppl 1 |issue= Suppl 1|pages=69–75 |date=March 2001 |pmid=11250806 |pmc=1240543 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Bagitu banyak ubek-ubekan nan tasadio kini ko marupoan turunan dari pangobatan herbal, sarupo [[aspirin]] nan tabuek dari kayu pohon [[dedalu]], jo [[digitalis]], [[quinine]], dan [[opium]]. WHO mampakiroan bahwa 80 persen warga di benua Asia jo Afrika mamanfaatkan pangobatan herbal untuak babarapo aspek parawatan kasehatan. Amerika Serikat jo Eropa mampunyoi katagantuangan nan labiah saketek, tatapi mampaliekan kacandarungan maningkek samanjak efektivitas babarapo tumbuahan ubek alah tauji sacaro ilmiah dan tapublikasikan. Pado tahun 2011, total tumbuahan ubek nan dipadagangkan di saluruah dunia mancapai nilai labiah 2.2 miliar USD.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.traffic.org/medicinal-plants/ |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2014-04-13 |archive-date=2018-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301133744/http://www.traffic.org/medicinal-plants/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Dengan sumber nan bamulo dari tumbuahan, mako kakayoan hayati suatu negara sarupo [[hutan]] manjadi penting,<ref>{{cite journal |title = Strategi Pelestarian dan Pemanfaatan Keanekaragaman Hayati Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia |author = Zuhud, Ervizal A. M. |date = 1989 |url = http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/29993 |journal = Media Konservasi [[Institut Pertanian Bogor|IPB]]}}</ref> dan karusakan hutan mangancam kabaradoan tumbuahan ubek nan pernah dan saat kini ko dimanfaatkan dek [[masyarakaik adat]] panghuni kawasan hutan dan sakitarnyo.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Kebijakan Pembangunan Kesehatan Masyarakat Indonesia yang "Bhineka Tunggal Ika" dengan Pengembangan Potensi Lokal Ethno-Forest-Pharmacy (Etno-Wanafarma) pada Setiap Wilayah Sosio-Biologi Satu-Satuan Masyarakat Kecil |author = Zuhud, Ervizal A. M. |url = http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/30700 |date = 2009 |journal = Fakultas Kehutanan [[Institut Pertanian Bogor]]}}</ref> [[Kaanekaragaman hayati]] di dalam hutan penting salain sabagai sarana malestarikan spesies tumbuahan ubek untuak manusia, dapek juo manjadi sumber ubek-ubeka darurat untuak [[hewan langka]] nan ado di [[cagar alam]]. Tumbuahan nan bamanfaat tasabuik paralu diidentifikasi jo ditaliti labiah lanjuik, dan pakar konservasi atau [[jagawana]] paralu dilatiah untuak manggunoan tumbuahan ubat tasabuik.<ref>{{cite journal |title = The Potency of Medicinal Plants as A Multi Function Phytobiotic to Improve Performance and Health Condition of Wild Animals in Captivity |author = Ulfah, Maria |date = 2006 |url = http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/43545 |journal = Media Konservasi [[Institut Pertanian Bogor|IPB]]}}</ref> Pangatahuan manganai pamanfaatan tanaman ubek di dalam hutan dapek digali dari masyarakaik satampek badasarkan pangalaman mereka nan diturunkan dari generasi ka generasi.<ref>{{cite journal |title = The Role Of Local Knowledge In Developing Indigenous Indonesian Medicine |author = Sangat, Harini M. |url = http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/43514 |date = 2006 |journal = Media Konservasi [[Institut Pertanian Bogor|IPB]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title = Ethonobotany of People Live in Amarasi of Kupang, Mollo and Amanatun of South Central Timor, West Timor, Indonesia |author = Pulunggono, Heru Bagus |date = 1999 |url = http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/43484 |journal = Media Konservasi [[Institut Pertanian Bogor|IPB]]}}</ref> Masyarakaik [[Suku Tugutil]] di [[Taman Nasional Aketajawe Lolobata]], [[Halmahera]], mampunyoi pangatahuan tahadok saindaknyo 116 spesies tumbuahan lokal, dengan 71 spesies dimanfaatkan sabagai tanaman pangan dan 45 spesies dimanfaatkan sabagai tumbuahan ubek.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Utilization of plant genetic biodiversity by Tugutil tribe in Aketajawe Lolobata National Park |author = Karim, Kartini Abd.; Thohari, Mahmud; Sumardjo |date = 2006 |url = http://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/43544 |journal = Media Konservasi [[Institut Pertanian Bogor|IPB]]}}</ref> == Sijarah == Samajak zaman prasejarah, [[rempah-rempah]] pado awanyo digunoan sabagai [[bumbu]] panyadap makanan, tetapi palahan dikatahui mampunyoi baragam manfaat.<ref name="tapsell" /><ref name="lai" /> Tarutamo rempah-rempah nan mampunyoi kamampuan [[antimikroba]] sahinggo dapek mangawetkan makanan. Cara iko dipakiraan barawa di wilayah tropis di mano makanan indak dapek diawetkan karano faktor iklim. Babeda jo wilayah iklim sadang nan mampunyoi musim dingin sahinggo makanan dapek diawetkan sacaro temperatur randah.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlink = Billing J, Sherman PW. | title = Antimicrobial functions of spices: why some like it hot | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_quarterly-review-of-biology_1998-03_73_1/page/n4 | journal = Q Rev Biol. | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages =3–49 |date=March 1998 | doi =10.1086/420058 | pmid = 9586227 | author =Billing, Jennifer | last2 =Sherman | first2 =PW }}</ref> Dagiang sacaro umum di babagai budaya dibumbui labiah banyak dari [[Sayur|sayuran]] karano dagiang labih capek rusak.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlink = Sherman PW, Hash GA. | title = Why vegetable recipes are not very spicy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution-and-human-behavior_2001-05_22_3/page/147 | journal = Evol Hum Behav. | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 147–163 |date=May 2001|doi =10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00068-4 | pmid = 11384883 | author =Sherman, P | last2 =Hash | first2 =GA }}</ref> Babagai bukti arkeologis manamuan bahwa manusia manggunoan tumbuahan ubek saindaknyo sajak zaman Paleolitikum, sakitar 60 ribu tahun nan lalu. Namun dipakirakan hal itu tajadi labiah awa, karano primata nan masih hiduik pado maso kini ko alah manggunoan babagai dadaunan spesifik untuak manyambuahan panyakik tatantu.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sumner, Judith|title=The Natural History of Medicinal Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof0000sumn|publisher=Timber Press|year=2000|isbn=0-88192-483-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof0000sumn/page/16 16]}}</ref> Sampel tumbuahan nan dikumpuan dari lokasi prasejarah Neanderthal [[Gua Shanidar]] di Iran manemuan sajumlah besar [[polen]] dari 8 spesies tumbuahan, dengan tujuah di antaronyo masih digunoan sampai kiniko sabagai pangobatan herbal.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Solecki, Ralph S. |title=Shanidar IV, a Neanderthal Flower Burial in Northern Iraq |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1975-11-28_190_4217/page/880 |work=Science |volume=190 |issue=4217 |date=November 1975 |pages=880–881 |doi = 10.1126/science.190.4217.880}}</ref> Dalam sijarah tatulih, saindaknyo studi manganai rempah daun alah dilakukan samanjak 5000 tahun lalu di Sumeria, dan tatulih di tablet tanah liek nan mamuek daftar ratusan tumbuahan ubek. Pado tahun 1500 SM bangsa Mesir Kuno manulih [[Papirus Eber]] nan barisi labiah dari 800 tumbuahan ubek, tamasuak di antaronyo [[bawang putih]] jo [[mariyuana]].<ref name="Sumner-2000-p17">{{cite book|author=Sumner, Judith|title=The Natural History of Medicinal Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof0000sumn|publisher=Timber Press|year=2000|isbn=0-88192-483-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof0000sumn/page/17 17]}}</ref> Di India, pangobatan [[Ayurveda]] alah manggunoan babagai tumbuahan ubek samanjak 1900 SM.<ref name=Aggarwal2007>{{cite journal |author=Aggarwal BB, Sundaram C, Malani N, Ichikawa H |title=Curcumin: the Indian solid gold |journal=Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. |volume=595 |issue= |pages=1–75 |year=2007 |pmid=17569205 |doi= 10.1007/978-0-387-46401-5_1|url= |series=ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY |isbn=978-0-387-46400-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilnadu.com/herbs/turmeric.html|title=Turmeric Herb|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=15 December 2012|access-date=2014-04-15|archive-date=2013-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108023305/http://tamilnadu.com/herbs/turmeric.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Kaisar Chino [[Shennong]] disabuikan alah manulih saindaknyo 365 tumbuahan ubek dan pamanfaatannyo, tamasuak [[mariyuana]] jo [[ephedra]] (nan manjadi asa kato namo ubek [[ephedrine]]).<ref name="Sumner-2000-p18">{{cite book|author=Sumner, Judith|title=The Natural History of Medicinal Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof0000sumn|publisher=Timber Press|year=2000|isbn=0-88192-483-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof0000sumn/page/18 18]}}</ref> Pado Yunani Kuno, saindaknyo tumbuahan ubek alah dipalajari samanjak abaik ka 3 SM oleh [[Diocles of Carystus]], tetapi sabagian besar isinyo mirip jo nan ditamuan di Mesir.<ref>{{cite book|authors=Robson, Barry & Baek, O.K.|title=The Engines of Hippocrates: From the Dawn of Medicine to Medical and Pharmaceutical Informatics|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2009|isbn=9780470289532|page=50|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DVA0QouwC4YC&pg=PA50}}</ref><!--<ref></ref>--> == Fitokimia == Kasado tumbuahan manghasiakan [[senyawa kimia]] sabagai bagian dari aktivitas [[metabolisme]]. Senyawa [[fitokimia]] iko dibagi manjadi babarapo jinih, yaitu: * [[Metabolit primer]] sarupo [[gula]] jo [[lemak]] nan ditamuan di saluruah jinih tumbuahan. * [[Metabolit sekunder]] nan indak ditamuan di kasado jinih tumbuahan, dan satiok jinih tumbuahan dapek mampunyoi jinih jo fungsi metabolit sekunder nan babeda-beda.<ref name="meskin-2002-p123">{{cite book|author=Meskin, Mark S.|title=Phytochemicals in Nutrition and Health|publisher=CRC Press|year=2002|isbn=9781587160837|page=123|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cJHsMALUDj0C&pg=PA123}}</ref> Contoh metabolit sekunder yaitu [[toksin]] nan digunoan untuak malawan [[predator]] jo [[feromon]] nan digunoan untuak menarik perhatian [[serangga]] untuak malakukan [[penyerbukan]]. Metabolit sekunder ikolah nan banyak digunoan sabagai ubek-ubekan pado manusia, sarupo [[inulin]] dari [[akar]] [[dahlia]] sabagai media panyimpanan energi digunoan manusia untuak pangobatan [[ginjal]]; [[kuinina]] dari [[kina]] manghasilkan raso paik sahinggo mancagah tumbuahan dimakan [[herbivora]], pado manusia dijadian ubek malaria; dan [[morfin]] dari [[lateks]] [[opium]] marupoan patahanan katiko biji opium nan sadang bakambang diserang, dek manusia dijadian bahan ubek-ubekan.<ref name="meskin-2002-p123" /> Bahkan tumbuahan nan baracun dapek mampunyoi manfaat sacaro medis.<ref name="Angio">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Angiospermae: Division Magnoliophyta: General Features |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] (volume 13, 15th edition) |year=1993 |pages=609 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Tanaman Obat Berpotensi Sebagai Antimalaria|last=Sri Laksemi|first=Dewa ayu agus|publisher=Grup Penerbitan CV Budi Utama|year=2025|isbn=978-634-01-0974-0|location=Yogyakarta|pages=7}}</ref> Tumbuahan mensintesis babagai jinih fitokimia, tatapi sabagian besar marupoan turunan dari senyawa biokimia dasar:<ref>{{cite book|authors=Springbob, Karen & Kutchan, Toni M.|chapter=Introduction to the different classes of natural products|editor=Lanzotti, Virginia|title=Plant-Derived Natural Products: Synthesis, Function, and Application|publisher=Springer|year=2009|isbn=9780387854977|page=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Y8SpVXEng4QC&pg=PA3}}</ref> * [[Alkaloid]] marupoan senyawa kimia nan mampunyoi cincin [[nitrogen]]. Alkaloid dihasilkan dari babagai jinih organisme dari bakteri hinggo [[Hewan|animalia]]. Alkaloid dapek dimurnikan dengan manggubakan ekstraksi asam-basa. Babagai alkaloid basifaik toksik bagi organisme lain. Contoh alkaloid adolah [[kafeina]]. Sacaro umum alkaloid mampunyoi raso paik. * [[Polifenol]] adolah senyawa nan manganduang cincin [[fenol]]. Contoh polifenol yaitu [[antosianin]] nan maagia warna ungu pado [[anggur]], [[tannin]] nan memberi raso pado [[teh]], jo [[isoflavon]] dari [[kedelai]]. * [[Glikosida]] adolah molekul gulo nan takaik dengan substansi non-karbohidrat, biasonyo senyawa organik. Glikosida berperan sabagai media panyimpanan energi pado tumbuahan dan dapek diaktifkan malalui hidrolisis dek enzim nan malepaskan rantai gulo dari glikosida sahinggo dapek dimanfaatkan dek tumbuahan. * [[Terpena]] adolah senyawa organik nan umumnyo dihasilkan dek [[konifer]]. Terpena mampunyoi aroma nan kuek dan bafungsi malinduangi konifer dari serangan serangga. Terpena ado pado [[resin]] atau [[getah]] konifer. Dek manusia, terpena digunoan sabagai parfum, pambari raso pado makanan, jo [[aromaterapi]]. == Uji klinis == Babagai rempah daun mampunyoi efek positif katiko diuji sacaro in-vitro, pado hewan, dan uji klinis skala ketek,<ref>{{cite journal| author = Srinivasan K | year= 2005 | title = Spices as influencers of body metabolism: an overview of three decades of research | journal = Food Research International | volume = 38 | issue = 1 | pages = 77–86 | doi = 10.1016/j.foodres.2004.09.001 | id = | url = }}</ref> tetapi indak jarang babarapo tumbuahan ubek mampunyoi efek negatif.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite journal | authorlink = Pittler MH, Abbot NC, Harkness EF, Ernst E | title = Location bias in controlled clinical trials of complementary/alternative therapies | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-epidemiology_2000-05_53_5/page/485 | journal = International Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 53 | issue = 5 | pages = 485–489 | year = 2000 | doi =10.1016/S0895-4356(99)00220-6 | author =Pittler, M | pmid =10812320 | last2 =Abbot | first2 =NC | last3 =Harkness | first3 =EF | last4 =Ernst | first4 =E }}</ref> Pado tahun 2002, [[National Institutes of Health]] mulai mambiayai [[uji klinis]] tahadok efektivitas ubek herbal.<ref>[http://health.nih.gov/result.asp/324 Herbal Medicine, NIH Institute and Center Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213001003/http://health.nih.gov/result.asp/324 |date=2009-02-13 }}, [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]], [[National Institutes of Health]].</ref> Survey pado tahun 2010 tahadok 1000 jinih tumbuahan, 356 di antaronyo alah mampunyoi hasia uji klinis manganai manfaaiknyo sacaro farmakologi. Sakitar 12 persen dikatoan "indak mampunyoi manfaat nan signifikan" meski alah tasadio di pasa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cravotto G, Boffa L, Genzini L, Garella D |title=Phytotherapeutics: an evaluation of the potential of 1000 plants |journal=J Clin Pharm Ther |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=11–48 |date=February 2010 |pmid=20175810 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01096.x |url=}}</ref> Dan badasarkan [[Cancer Research UK]], indak ado satupun pangobatan herbal nan tabukti sacaro klinis dapek mancagah atau mangobati [[kanker]].<ref name="cruk-herbs">{{cite web |publisher=[[Cancer Research UK]] |url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/herbal-medicine |title=Herbal medicine |accessdate=August 2013 |archive-date=2014-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828200822/http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/herbal-medicine |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Babagai pakar pangobatan herbal mangkritik studi ilmiah tahadok ubek-ubekan herbal karano indak mamasuakan pangatahuan historis nan dapek memberikan informasi mengenai dosis optimal, spesies nan detail, wakatu pamanenan, dan target populasi panarimo ubek.<ref name=Fabricant2001/><ref>{{cite journal | author = Eric Yarnell, N.D., R.H., and Kathy Abascal, J.D| coauthors = | title = Dilemmas of Traditional Botanical Research | journal = HerbalGram. | volume = 55 | pages = 46–54 | year = 2002 }}</ref> == Caliak pulo == {{portal|Pertanian}} * [[Etnobotani]] * [[Sijarah farmasi]] * [[Fitoterapi]] * [[Fitofarmakologi]] == Rujuakan == {{Reflist|2}} == Bahan bacaan terkait == * {{cite book|author=Aronson, Jeffrey K.|title=Meyler's Side Effects of Herbal Medicines|publisher=Elsevier|year=2008|isbn=9780080932903|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_hkSTiEsKvkC}} * {{cite book|authors=Braun, Lesley & Cohen, Marc|year=2007|title=Herbs and Natural Supplements: An Evidence-Based Guide|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=9780729537964}} * {{cite book|author=Collins, Minta|title=Medieval Herbals: The Illustrative Traditions|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2000|isbn=9780802083135|page=32|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s7c2EaxDYjUC&pg=PA32}} * {{cite book|authors=Crellin, J.K. et al|title=Herbal Medicine Past and Present: A reference guide to medicinal plants|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1990|isbn=9780822310198|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0JaqB07uTx4C}} * {{Cite book|last=Girish Dwivedi|first=Shridhar Dwivedi|year=2007|title=History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence|publisher=[[National Informatics Centre]]|url=http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-10-08|archive-date=2008-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf|dead-url=yes}} * {{cite book|last=Grene|first=Marjorie|title=The philosophy of biology: an episodic history|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64380-1|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TJSGJjh8Jo8C&pg=PA11|page=11}} * {{cite book|author=Lewis, Walter H.|title=Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Human Health|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2003|isbn=9780471628828|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ipQmSriMF9sC}} * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1136/bmj.329.7479.1408 | last1 = Lichterman | year = 2004 | first1 = B. L | pages = 1408 | volume = 329 | journal = British Medical Journal |title=Aspirin: The Story of a Wonder Drug | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-journal_2004-12-11_329_7479/page/1408 | issue = 7479}} * {{Cite journal | author = Lindequist, U. | coauthors = Niedermeyer, T.H.J. ; Jülich, W.D. | year = 2005 | title = The Pharmacological Potential of Mushrooms | journal = Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. | doi = 10.1093/ecam/neh107 | url = http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/2/3/285 | pmid = 16136207 | volume = 2 | pages = 285–99 | issue = 3 | pmc = 1193547 | access-date = 2014-04-13 | archive-date = 2009-04-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090427092000/http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/2/3/285 | dead-url = yes }} * {{cite book|author=Loudon, Irvine|title=Western Medicine: An Illustrated History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=9780199248131|page=54|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dJEWZq0bq8kC&pg=PA54}} * {{cite book|authors=Newall, Carol A. et al|title=Herbal medicines: a guide for health-care professionals|publisher=Pharmaceutical Press|year=1996|isbn=9780853692898|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=n_psAAAAMAAJ}} * {{EB1911|title=Theophrastus|url=http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theophrastus |inline=1}} * {{cite book|author=Wu, Jing-Nuan|title=An Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=9780195140170|page=6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H9Q8agQrJR0C&pg=PA6}} 3nmyvsju1rdq9uic6xq2wyf7na035do 0 477849 3351193 3349609 2026-08-05T19:24:43Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 5 books for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351193 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | name = Urangutan | fossil_range = {{fossil range| Early Pleistocene |0|Pleistosen Awal-Kini}} | image = Orang Utan, Semenggok Forest Reserve, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia.JPG | image_caption = [[Urangutan kalimantan]]<br />(''Pongo pygmaeus'') | taxon = Pongo | authority = [[Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, Comte de Lacépède|Lacépède]], 1799 | type_species = ''[[Urangutan kalimantan|Pongo borneo]]'' | type_species_authority = [[Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, Comte de Lacépède|Lacépède]], 1799 <br />(= ''Simia pygmaeus'' [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1760)<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=183–84|id=12100803 }}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = Spesies | subdivision = ''[[Urangutan kalimantan|Pongo pygmaeus]]''<br /> ''[[Urangutan sumatra|Pongo abelii]]''<br /> ''[[Urangutan tapanuli|Pongo tapanuliensis]]''<br /> †''[[Pongo hooijeri]]''<br /> †''[[Pongo weidenreichi]]''<br /> †''[[Pongo grovesei]]''<br /> †''[[Pongo nguyenbinheri]]'' | range_map = Orangutan distribution.png | range_map_caption = Sebaran tigo spesies nan [[Neontologi|masih ado]] | synonyms = ''Faunus'' <small>Oken, 1816</small> <br /> ''Lophotus'' <small>Fischer, 1813</small> <br /> ''Macrobates'' <small>Billberg, 1828</small> <br /> ''Satyrus'' <small>Lesson, 1840</small> }} '''Urangutan''' adolah [[karo]] gadang nan baasa dari utan ujan [[Indonesia]] jo [[Malaysia]]. Kini ko, urangutan hanyo disobokan di babarapo bagian [[Kalimantan]] jo [[Sumatera|Sumatra]], tapi pado zaman [[Pleistosen]] nyo taseba di kasadoan [[Asia Tenggara]] hinggo [[Republik Rakyaik Cino|Cino Selatan]]. Diklasifikasian sabagai genus ''Pongo'', urangutan pado awalnyo dianggap sabagai ciek [[spesies]]. Pado tahun 1996, urangutan dibagi manjadi duo spesies, yaitu [[Urangutan kalimantan|urangutan Kalimantan]] (''P. pygmaeus'', jo tigo [[subspesies]]) dan [[Urangutan sumatra|urangutan Sumatra]] (''P. abelii''). Spesies katigo, yaitu [[Urangutan tapanuli|urangutan Tapanuli]] (''P. tapanuliensis''), sacaro definitif diidentifikasi pado tahun 2017. Urang utan marupokan satu-satunyo anggota nan masih batahan dari [[subfamili]] Ponginae, nan sacaro genetik tapisah dari hominid lainnyo, takah [[gorila]], [[simpanse]], jo manusia, antaro 19,3 hinggo 15,7 juta tahun nan lampau. Urangutan marupokan binatang nan [[arboreal]], mahabihan sabagian gadang hiduiknyo di ateh batang. Inyo mampunyoi tangan nan panjang, bulu coklat tasirah-sirah, jo pola hiduik nan condoang surang-surang. Makanan utamonyo adolah buah-buahan, tapi inyo bisa mamakan tumbuahan lain, madu, siranggo, jo talua buruang. Urangutan dapek hiduik labiah dari 30 tahun. Binatang ko tamasuak [[primata]] paliang santiang, mampu manggunoan alaik jo mambangun sarang tampek lalok dari rantiang sarato daun. Katigo spesies nan ado kini ko bastatuih sangaik tarancam punah akibaik paburuan, hilangnyo habitat karano [[deforestasi]] jo pakabunan sawit, sarato [[Binatang paliharan eksotik|padagangan satwa]] liar ilegal. == Namo == Namo orangutan umumnyo baasa dari [[bahaso Malayu Kuno]], yaitu ''orang'' (manusia) jo ''utan'' (rimbo).<ref name="sastrawan">{{cite journal |author=Sastrawan, Wayan Jarrah |year=2020 |title=The Word 'Orangutan': Old Malay Origin or European Concoction |journal=Bijdragen tot de Land-, Taal- en Volkenkunde |volume=176 |issue=4 |pages=532–41 |doi=10.1163/22134379-bja10016 |s2cid=228828226 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Namun, istilah ko awalnyo digunoan untuak urang nan hiduik di utan, jo baru kamudian dipakai dek urang Barat untuak manyabuik karo tu. Kato orangutan dalam [[bahaso Malayu]] jo [[Bahaso Indonesia|Indonesia]] moderen kamungkinan dipinjam baliak dari [[bahaso Inggirih]] atau [[Bahaso Balando|Balando]] pado abaik ka-20.<ref name="mahdi">{{cite book |author=Mahdi, Waruno |year=2007 |title=Malay Words and Malay Things: Lexical Souvenirs from an Exotic Archipelago in German Publications Before 1700 |volume=3 |series=Frankfurter Forschungen zu Südostasien |publisher=[[Otto Harrassowitz Verlag]] |pages=170–81 |isbn=978-3-447-05492-8 }}</ref> Dalam bahaso Inggirih, istilah ko patamo kali tacatat pado tahun 1693 sabagai ''Orang-Outang''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=March 2022 |title=orangutan, n. |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/132186 |url-access=subscription |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Oxford English Dictionary |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bulwer |first=John |url=http://archive.org/details/anthropometamorp00jbjo |title=Anthropometamorphosis: man transform'd: or, The artificiall changling, historically presented, in the mad and cruel gallantry, foolish bravery, ridiculous beauty, filthy finenesse, and loathsome loveliness of most nations, fashioning and altering their bodies from the mould intended by nature; with figures of those transformations. To which artificial and affected deformations are added, all the native and national monstrosities that have appeared to disfigure the humane fabrick. With a vindication of the regular beauty and honesty of nature |publisher=W. Hunt |others=Internet Archive |year=1653 |edition=2nd |location=London |page=437 |language=en }}</ref> Samantaro itu, namo ilmiah genus ''Pongo'' baasa dari catatan palauik Inggirih [[Andrew Battel]] pado abaik ka-16 nan manggunoan namo Pongo untuak karo gadang di [[Afrika]]. Namo tu kamudian diadopsi sabagai namo genus urangutan pado tahun 1799.<ref name=Groves2002>{{cite book |first=Colin P. |last=Groves |author-link=Colin Groves |year=2002 |chapter-url=http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/Gorilla%20Biology.pdf |chapter=A history of gorilla taxonomy |title=Gorilla Biology: A Multidisciplinary Perspective |editor1-first=Andrea B. |editor1-last=Taylor |editor2-first=Michele L. |editor2-last=Goldsmith |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=15–34 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511542558.004 |isbn=978-0-521-79281-3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326001207/http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/Gorilla%20Biology.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 }}</ref><ref name="cribb" /> == Taksonomi == [[File:Bornean, Sumatran & Tapanuli orangs (horizontal).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|alt= Head shots of male Bornean, Sumatran and Tapanuli orangutans|Muko urangutan [[urangutan kalimantan|Kalimantan]], [[urangutan sumatra|Sumatra]] dan [[urangutan tapanuli|Tapanuli]] (dari kida)]] Urangutan patamo kali dideskripsian sacaro ilmiah pado tahun 1758 dek Carl Linnaeus dalam Systema Naturae jo namo Homo troglodytes. Pado tahun 1760, muriknyo, Christian Emmanuel Hopp, maubah namonyo manjadi Simia pygmaeus, jo pado tahun 1799 Bernard Germain de Lacépède maagiah namo genus Pongo.<ref name="cribb">{{cite book |author=Cribb, Robert |first2=Helen |last2=Gilbert |first3=Helen |last3=Tiffin |year=2014 |title=Wild Man from Borneo: A Cultural History of the Orangutan |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-3714-3 }}</ref> Pado tahun 1827, naturalis Parancih René Lesson mausuan bahwa populasi urangutan di Kalimantan jo Sumatra marupokan spesies nan babedo.<ref name="Lesson1827">{{cite book |last=Lesson |first=René-Primevère |author-link=René Lesson |title=Manuel de mammalogie ou Histoire naturelle des mammifères |url=https://archive.org/details/manueldemammalo00lessgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/manueldemammalo00lessgoog/page/n85 32] |year=1827 |language=fr |publisher=Roret, Libraire }}</ref> Hal iko kamudian dikonfirmasi pado tahun 2001 badasarkan bukti molekuler nan dipublikasian pado 1996.<ref name="XuArnason1996">{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=X. |last2=Arnason |first2=U. |title=The mitochondrial DNA molecule of sumatran orangutan and a molecular proposal for two (Bornean and Sumatran) species of orangutan |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_1996-11_43_5/page/431 |journal=[[Journal of Molecular Evolution]] |volume=43 |issue=5 |year=1996 |pages=431–37 |doi=10.1007/BF02337514 |pmid=8875856 |bibcode=1996JMolE..43..431X |s2cid=3355899 }}</ref><ref name=Payne />{{rp|53}}<ref name= "curbio"/> Populasi urangutan Kalimantan dibagi pulo manjadi tigo subspesies.<ref name=Asian>{{cite journal |last1=Bradon-Jones |first1=D. |last2=Eudey |first2=A. A. |last3=Geissmann |first3=T. |last4=Groves |first4=C. P. |last5=Melnick |first5=D. J. |last6=Morales |first6=J. C. |last7=Shekelle |first7=M. |last8=Stewart |first8=C. B. |year=2004 |title=Asian primate classification |url=http://www.gibbons.de/main/papers/pdf_files/2004asianprimates.pdf |journal=[[International Journal of Primatology]] |volume=25 |pages=97–164 |doi=10.1023/B:IJOP.0000014647.18720.32 |s2cid=29045930 |access-date=1 May 2011 |archive-date=6 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206230755/http://www.gibbons.de/main/papers/pdf_files/2004asianprimates.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Pado tahun 2017, spesies katigo, yaitu urangutan Tapanuli (Pongo tapanuliensis), dideskripsian dari wilayah Sumatra di selatan Danau Toba. Panamuan ko mangajuikan karano urangutan Tapanuli tanyato mampunyoi kakarabatan nan labiah dakek jo urangutan Kalimantan (P. pygmaeus) daripado jo urangutan Sumatra (P. abelii).<ref name= "curbio">{{Cite journal |last1=Nater |first1=A. |last2=Mattle-Greminger |first2=M. P. |last3=Nurcahyo |first3=A. |last4=Nowak |first4=M. G. |display-authors=etal |date=2 November 2017 |title=Morphometric, Behavioral, and Genomic Evidence for a New Orangutan Species |journal=Current Biology |volume=27 |issue=22 |pages=3487–3498.e10 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.047 |pmid=29103940 |bibcode=2017CBio...27E3487N |doi-access=free |hdl=10230/34400 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> == Deskripsi == Urangutan manunjuakan dimorfisme seksual nan jaleh. Batino umumnyo mampunyoi tinggi sakitar 115 cm jo barek sakitar 37 kg, sadangkan jantan dewasa mampunyoi tinggi sakiy137 cm jo barek sakitar 75 kg. Urangutan tatinggi nan parnah tacatat mampunyoi tinggi 180 cm. Dibandiangan manusia, urangutan mampunyoi langan nan sangaik panjang; rantang langan jantan dapek mancapai sakitar 2 meter, samantaro kakinyo relatif pendek. Badannyo ditutuiki dek rambuik panjang bawarna kasirah-sirahan nan pado maso mudo bawarna jingga tarang jo samakin manggalok manjadi sirah marun atau coklat tuo sairiang batambahnyo umua. Kuliknyo bawarna abu-abu kahitaman. Maskipun sabagian gadang mukonyo indak babulu, jantan dapek mangambangan rambuik muko nan manyarupoi jangguik.<ref name=Groves1971>{{cite journal |last1=Groves |first1=Colin P. |title=Pongo pygmaeus |journal=[[Mammalian Species]] |date=1971 |issue=4 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.2307/3503852 |jstor=3503852 }}</ref><ref name="MacDonald">{{Cite book |author1=van Schaik, C. |author2=MacKinnon, J. |contribution=Orangutans |year=2001 |title=The Encyclopedia of Mammals |edition=2nd |editor=MacDonald, D. |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/420 420–23] |isbn=978-0-87196-871-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/420 }}</ref><ref name=Payne>{{cite book |author1=Payne, J |author2=Prundente, C |year=2008 |title=Orangutans: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation |publisher=[[New Holland Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-262-16253-1 }}</ref> Urangutan mampunyoi talingo jo iduang ketek, jo talingo indak bacupiang.<ref name=Groves1971/> Volume rato-rato rongga utaknyo sakitar 397 cm³.<ref name="aiello">{{cite book |last1=Aiello |first1=L. |last2=Dean |first2=C. |year=1990 |title=An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy |publisher=Academic Press |page=193 |isbn=0-12-045590-0 }}</ref> Tangkuraknyo taangkek dibandiangan mukonyo, nan agak cakuang jo manunjua ka muko.<ref name=Groves1971/> Dibandiangan jo simpanse samo gorila, tunjuan alih urangutan kurang bakambang.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hilloowala |first1=R. A. |last2=Trent |first2=R. B. |year=1988 |title=Supraorbital ridge and masticatory apparatus I: Primates |journal=Human Evolution |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=343–50 |doi=10.1007/BF02447216 |s2cid=83923845 }}</ref> Batino jo urangutan mudo mampunyoi tangkurak nan relatif bulek sarato muko nan rampiang, sadangkan jantan dewasa mampunyoi jambul sagital nan manunjua, bantalan pipi gadang (flange), kantuang tangkurak nan laweh, jo gigi tariang nan panjang.<ref name=Groves1971/><ref name=Payne /> Bantalan pipi tu sabagian gadang tasusun dari jariangan lamak nan di tupang dek otot-otot muko,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Winkler, L. A. |year=1989 |title=Morphology and relationships of the orangutan fatty cheek pads |journal=[[American Journal of Primatology]] |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=305–19 |doi=10.1002/ajp.1350170405 |pmid=31964053 |s2cid=83661029 }}</ref> samantaro kantuang tangkurak bafungsi sabagai ruang resonansi untuak mahasian saruan panjang.<ref name="Utami 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Utami |first1=S. S. |last2=Goossens |first2=B. |last3=Bruford |first3=M. W. |last4=de Ruiter |first4=J. R. |last5=van Hooff |first5=J. A. R. A. M. |author-link5=Jan van Hooff |year=2002 |title=Male bimaturism and reproductive success in Sumatran orangutans |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-ecology_september-october-2002_13_5/page/643 |journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=643–52 |doi=10.1093/beheco/13.5.643 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Tangan urangutan mampunyoi ampek jari panjang jo ibu jari nan dapek balawanan arah, tapi jauah labiah pendek, sahinggo mamungkinan cangkaraman nan kuaik pado dahan katiko baaktivitas di ateh batang. Dalam posisi istirahat, jari-jarinyo malangkuang sahinggo mambantuak cangkaraman takah kaik. Jo ibu jari nan indak mahalangi, jari-jari tangan dapek mangganggam barang badiameter ketek jo kuaik, mambuek cangkaramannyo stabil.<ref name=Rose>{{cite book |author=Rose, M. D. |contribution=Functional Anatomy of the Cheirdia |editor=Schwartz, Jeffrey |editor-link=Jeffrey H. Schwartz |title=Orang-utan Biology |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-19-504371-6 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=301 }}</ref> Kakinyo mampunyoi nan hampia mirip jo jari tangan, jo ampek jari panjang sarato ciek ibu jari nan dapek balawanan arah, sahinggo mambueknyo lincah. Sandi pingguanyo mamungkinan kakinyo baputa jo caro nan sarupo jo langan sarato bahu.<ref name=Payne /> Urangutan bagarak di papohonan jo mamanjek sacaro vertikal ataupun bagalantuangan. Dibandiangan jo karo gadang lainnyo, inyo jarang turun ka tanah karano garakannyo jadi labiah lambek jo kurang lincah. Indak takah gorila jo simpanse, urangutan bukanlah pajalan buku jari sajati; inyo bajalan jo manakuakan jari-jari jo batumpu pado sisi tangan sarato kaki.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oishi, M. |last2=Ogihara, N. |last3=Endo, H. |last4=Ichihara, N. |last5=Asari, M. |year=2009 |title=Dimensions of forelimb muscles in orangutans and chimpanzees |journal=Journal of Anatomy |volume=215 |issue=4 |pages=373–82 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01125.x |pmid=19619166 |pmc=2766055 }}</ref><ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book |author=Schwartz, Jeffrey |author-link=Jeffrey H. Schwartz |title=The Red Ape: Orangutans and Human Origins |year=1987 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_0813340640_0/page/286 6–7] |isbn=978-0-8133-4064-7 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0813340640_0/page/286 }}</ref> Dibandiangan karabaiknyo di Kalimantan, urangutan Sumatra mampunyoi badan nan labiah rampiang, rambuik nan labiah panjang jo labiah tarang, sarato muko nan labiah panjang.<ref name="MacDonald"/> Urangutan Tapanuli labiah mirip jo urangutan Sumatra dibandiangan Kalimantan dalam hal bantuak badan jo warna rambuik.<ref name="curbio"/> Namun, spesies ko mampunyoi rambuik nan labiah kusuik, tangkurak nan labiah ketek, jo muko nan labiah data dibandiangan duo spesies lainnyo.<ref name="Reese_A"/> ==Ekologi jo parilaku == Urangutan tautamo hiduik di ateh batang jo maunyi utan hujan tropis, khususnyo utan dipterokarpa dataran randah sarato utan sekunder tuo.<ref name="MacDonald"/><ref name="international1" /> Populasinyo labiah takomsentrasi di habitat dakek batang aia, takah utan rawa aia tawa jo raws gambut, sadangkan utan nan labiah kariang jo jauah dari daerah taganang umumnyo mampunyoi labiah saketek urangutan. Kapadekan populasi juo manurun pado daerah jo katinggian nan labiah tinggi.<ref name="RijksenMeijaard1999">{{cite book |author=Rijksen H. D. |last2=Meijaard, E. |year=1999 |title=Our vanishing relative: the status of wild orang-utans at the close of the twentieth century |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |isbn=978-0-7923-5755-1 }}</ref> Urangutan kadang-kadang mamasuaki padang rumpuik, lahan patanian, parak, utan sekunder mudo, jo danau dangka.<ref name="international1" /> Sabagian gadang harinyo dihabihan untuak makan, istirahat, jo bapindah tampek.<ref>{{cite book |author=Rodman, P. S. |year=1988 |contribution=Diversity and consistency in ecology and behavior |editor=Schwartz, J. H. |title=Orang-utan biology |pages=31–51 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-504371-6 }}</ref> Inyo biasonyo mamulai hari jo makan salamo duo hinggo tigo jam pado pagi hari, baistirahat pado tangah hari, kamudian manggarik baliak pado patang hari. Manjalang malam, inyo mambuek sarang untuak lalok.<ref name="international1" /> Predator potensial urangutan maliputi harimau, macan dahan, jo anjiang lia.<ref name="RijksenMeijaard1999"/> Parasit nan paliang umum disobokan pado urangutan adolah nematoda dari genus ''Strongyloides'' dan siliata ''Balantidium coli''. Di antaro ''Strongyloides'', spesies ''S. fuelleborni'' jo ''S. stercoralis'' dilaporan disobokan pado individu mudo.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Foitová, Ivona |author2=Huffman, Michael A. |author3=Wisnu, Nurcahyo |author4=Olšanský, Milan |contribution=Parasites and their impacts on orangutan health |editor1-first=Serge A. |editor1-last=Wich |editor2-first=S. Suci Utami |editor2-last=Atmoko |editor3-first=Tatang Mitra |editor3-last=Setia |editor4-last=van Schaik |editor4-first=Carel P. |title=Orangutans: Geographic Variation in Behavioral Ecology and Conservation |year=2009 |url=https://archive.org/details/orangutansgeogra00wich |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/orangutansgeogra00wich/page/n198 166] |isbn=978-0-19-921327-6 }}</ref> Urangutan dikatahui pulo manggunoan tumbuahan ''Dracaena cantleyi'' sabagai ubek antiinflamasi alami.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Morrogh-Bernard HC, Foitová I, Yeen Z, Wilkin P, de Martin R, Rárová L, Doležal K, Nurcahyo W, Olšanský M |year=2017 |title=Self-medication by orang-utans (''Pongo pygmaeus'') using bioactive properties of ''Dracaena cantleyi'' |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=16653 |article-number=16653 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-16621-w |pmid=29192145 |pmc=5709421 |bibcode=2017NatSR...716653M |doi-access=free }}</ref> Samantaro itu, urangutan nan dipaliharo dalam panangkaran dapek mandarita panyakik saluran panapasan bagian ateh.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zimmermann |first1=N |last2=Pirovino |first2=M |last3=Zingg |first3=R |last4=Clauss |first4=M |last5=Kaup |first5=F. J. |last6=Heistermann |first6=M |last7=Hatt |first7=J. M. |last8=Steinmetz |first8=H. W. |year=2011 |title=Upper respiratory tract disease in captive orangutans (Pongo sp.): prevalence in 20 European zoos and predisposing factors |journal=Journal of Medical Primatology |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=365–375 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0684.2011.00490.x |pmid=21770970 |s2cid=997385 }}</ref> === Makanan === Urangutan tautamo mamakan buah-buahan, nan dapek mahabiahan 57–80% wakatu mancari makannyo. Bahkan katiko buah langka, buah tetap manyumbang sakitar 16% dari wakatu makannyo. Buah nan paliang acok dimakan adolah buah badagiang lunak, baaril, atau badindiang bijo lunak, tautamo buah ara, sarato babagai buah batu jo beri.<ref name="RijksenMeijaard1999"/> Urangutan baparan pantiang sabagai panyeba bijo bagi sajumlah tumbuhan, tamasuak Strychnos ignatii, nan manganduang alkaloid baracun striknin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rijksen |first=H. D. |title=A field study on Sumatran orang utans (''Pongo pygmaeus abelii'', Lesson 1827): Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_quarterly-review-of-biology_1978-12_53_4/page/493 |journal=[[The Quarterly Review of Biology]] |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=493–94 |date=December 1978 |doi=10.1086/410942 |jstor=2826733 }}</ref> Daun manjadi makanan pantiang lain bagi urangutan jo rato-rato mancakuik 25% wakatu mancari makannyo. Konsumsi daun maningkek katiko buah bakurang, maskipun katiko buah malimpah inyo tetap mamakannyo. Pado maso kalangkaan buah, tampaknnyo sangaik bagantuang pado daun jo batang Borassodendron borneensis. Makanan lainnyo maliputi kulik kayu, madu, talua buruang, siranggo, sarato vertebrata ketek takah kukang.<ref name="international1">{{cite journal |last=Galdikas |first=Birute M. F. |title=Orangutan Diet, Range, and Activity at Tanjung Puting, Central Borneo |url=https://archive.org/details/international-journal-of-primatology_1988-02_9_1/page/1 |journal=International Journal of Primatology |volume=9 |year=1988 |doi=10.1007/BF02740195 |pages=1–35 |issue=1 |s2cid=40513842 }}</ref><ref name="RijksenMeijaard1999"/> Di babarapo daerah, urangutan juo mamakan geofagi, yaitu mamakan tanah atau bahan-bahan bumi lainnyo. Inyo dapek mambongka tanah dari parmukaan tanah, mamakan tabuang palinduang siranggo pado batang, atau mangunjuangi tabiang jo cakuangan tanah nan kayo mineral. Parilaku ko diduga mambantu manetralan zat baracun dalam makanan lnyo karano tanah nan dikonsumsi manganduang mineral kaolinit nan basipaik anti-racun.<ref name="RijksenMeijaard1999"/> == Konservasi == === Statuih === Katigo spesies urangutan dikategorian sabagai sangaik tarancam punah manuruik Daftar Sirah IUCN.<ref name="IUCN Pongo abelii">{{cite iucn |author=Singleton, I. |author2=Wich, S. A. |author3=Griffiths, M. |year=2008 |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/121097935/123797627 |title=''Pongo abelii'' |access-date=28 January 2011 }}</ref><ref name="IUCN Pongo pygmaeus">{{Cite iucn |author=Ancrenaz, M. |author2=Gumal, M. |author3=Marshall, A. J. |author4=Meijaard, E. |author5=Wich, S. A. |author6=Husson, S. |title=Pongo pygmaeus |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T17975A17966347 |date=2016 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T17975A17966347.en }}</ref><ref name="IUCN Pongo tapanuliensis">{{cite iucn |last1=Nowak |first1=Matthew G. |last2=Rianti |first2=Puji |last3=Wich |first3=Serge A. |last4=Meijaard |first4=Erik |last5=Fredriksson |first5=Gabriella |title=''Pongo tapanuliensis'' |version=2017.3 |year=2017 |article-number=e.T120588639A120588662 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T120588639A120588662.en }}</ref> Inyo dilinduangi sacaro hukum dari panangkokan, panganiayoan, jo pambunuahan di Malaysia maupun Indonesia. Salain itu, katigonyo tacantum dalam Apendiks I CITES, nan malarang pajuabalian internasional tanpa izin rasmi.<ref>{{cite web |title=On the edge of extinction |publisher=Sumatran Orangutan Society |access-date=1 July 2020 |url=https://www.orangutans-sos.org/crisis/ |archive-date=8 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508013819/https://www.orangutans-sos.org/crisis/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Wilayah pasabaran urangutan Kalimantan kini samakin tafragmentasi, jo saketek atau bahkan indak ado populasi nan tadokumentasi di bagian tenggara pulau.<ref name="IUCN Pongo pygmaeus" /> Populasi tagadang nan masih tasiso disobokan di hutan sakitar batang aia Sabangau, maskipun habitat ko kini mahadoki ancaman.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Cheyne, S. M. |author2=Thompson, C. J. |author3=Phillips, A. C. |author4=Hill, R. M. |author5=Limin, S. H. |year=2007 |title=Density and population estimate of gibbons (Hylobates albibarbis) in the Sabangau catchment, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia |journal=Primates |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=50–56 |doi=10.1007/s10329-007-0063-0 |pmid=17899314 |s2cid=1792717 }}</ref> Urangutan Sumatra hanyo disobokan di bagian utara pulau Sumatra, jo sabagian gadang populasinyo hiduik di Ekosistem Leuser.<ref name="IUCN Pongo abelii" /> Samantaro itu, urangutan Tapanuli hanyo disobokan di Utan Batang Toru di Sumatra.<ref name="IUCN Pongo tapanuliensis"/> Urangutan mahadoki ancaman serius akibaik deforestasi, malawehnyo pakabunan sawit, patambangan, pambangunan jalan, paburuan, jo padagangan satwa liar ilegal.<ref name="IUCN Pongo abelii" /><ref name="IUCN Pongo pygmaeus" /> Konflik jo manusia juo manyababan banyak urangutan dibunuah, tautamo katiko inyo mamasuaki lahan patanian sasudah kahilangan habitat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meijaard, E. |last2=Buchori, B. |last3=Hadiprakarsa, Y. |last4=Utami-Atmoko, S. S. |display-authors=etal |year=2011 |title=Quantifying Killing of Orangutans and Human-Orangutan Conflict in Kalimantan, Indonesia |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=11 |article-number=e27491 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0027491 |pmid=22096582 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...627491M |pmc=3214049 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis, J. T. |last2=Mengersen, K. |last3=Abram, N. K. |last4=Ancrenaz, M. |last5=Wells, J. A. |last6=Meijaard, E. |year=2013 |title=It's Not Just Conflict That Motivates Killing of Orangutans |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=10 |article-number=e75373 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0075373 |pmid=24130707 |pmc=3793980 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...875373D |doi-access=free }}</ref> Induaknyo acok dibunuah agar anaknyo dapek dijua sabagai binatang paliharaan. Antaro tahun 2012 jo 2017, pihak bawenang Indonesia jo bantuan Orangutan Information Center manyita 114 urangutan, jo 39 di antaronyo dipaliharo sabagai binatang paliharaan.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jacobson, Phillip |date=29 March 2017 |title=The military family that kept a pet orangutan in Indonesia |publisher=[[Mongabay]] |access-date=11 May 2020 |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2017/03/the-ape-who-escaped-indonesias-blackmarket-trade-in-pet-orangutans/ |archive-date=14 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614055134/https://news.mongabay.com/2017/03/the-ape-who-escaped-indonesias-blackmarket-trade-in-pet-orangutans/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Salain itu, ado pulo nan mambunuah untuak dimakan atau dipajuabalian.<ref>{{cite web |author=Than, Ker |title=Hundreds of Orangutans Killed Annually for Meat |date=16 November 2011 |publisher=National Geographic Society |access-date=11 May 2020 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/11/111115-orangutans-meat-animals-environment-science/ |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003172120/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/11/111115-orangutans-meat-animals-environment-science/ }}</ref> Populasi katigo spesies urangutan taruih manurun. Pado tahun 2016, Urangutan Sumatra dipakiroan bajumlah sakitar 14.600 individu,<ref name="Wich2016">{{cite journal |volume=2 |issue=3 |article-number=e1500789 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500789 |pmid=26973868 |pmc=4783118 |year=2016 |last1=Wich |first1=Serge A. |last2=Singleton |first2=Ian |last3=Nowak |first3=Matthew G. |last4=Utami Atmoko |first4=Sri Suci |last5=Nisam |first5=Gonda |last6=Arif |first6=Sugesti Mhd. |last7=Putra |first7=Rudi H. |last8=Ardi |first8=Rio |last9=Fredriksson |first9=Gabriella|last10=Usher|first10=Graham |last11=Gaveau |first11=David L. A. |last12=Kühl |first12=Hjalmar S. |title=Land-cover changes predict steep declines for the Sumatran orangutan (''Pongo abelii'') |journal=[[Science Advances]] |bibcode=2016SciA....2E0789W }}</ref> urangutan Kalimantan sakitar 104.700 individu,<ref name="IUCN Pongo pygmaeus" /> samantaro urangutan Tapanuli tasiso kurang dari 800 individu di alam lia. Karano itu, katigo spesies urangutan tu bastatuih sangaik tarancam punah.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nater |first1=Alexander |last2=Mattle-Greminger |first2=Maja P. |last3=Nurcahyo |first3=Anton |last4=Nowak |first4=Matthew G. |last5=Manuel |first5=Marc de |last6=Desai |first6=Tariq |last7=Groves |first7=Colin |last8=Pybus |first8=Marc |last9=Sonay |first9=Tugce Bilgin |date=2 November 2017 |title=Morphometric, Behavioral, and Genomic Evidence for a New Orangutan Species |journal=Current Biology |volume=27 |language=en |issue=22 |pages=3487–3498.e10 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.047 |pmid=29103940 |bibcode=2017CBio...27E3487N |issn=0960-9822 |doi-access=free |hdl=10230/34400 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Reese_A">{{Cite journal |last=Reese |first=April |date=2 November 2017 |title=Newly discovered orangutan species is also the most endangered |url=https://archive.org/details/nature-uk_2017-11-09_551_7679/page/151 |journal=Nature |volume=551 |issue=7679 |page=151 |doi=10.1038/nature.2017.22934 |pmid=29120449 |bibcode=2017Natur.551..151R |doi-access=free }}</ref> === Organisasi jo pusek konservasi === Babagai organisasi bakarajo untuak manyalamaikan, marehabilitasi, jo malapehliaan urangutan. Salah ciek nan tagadang iolah Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation, nan mangalola pusek rehabilitasi takah Nyaru Menteng di Kalimantan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Willie Smits |url=https://masarang.nl/en/about-masarang/willie-smits/ |publisher=Masarang Foundation |access-date=11 May 2020 |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928175159/https://masarang.nl/en/about-masarang/willie-smits/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10 Years: Nyaru Menteng 1999–2009 |publisher=Orangutan Protection Foundation |url=http://savetheorangutan.org/splash/nm10.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215031751/http://savetheorangutan.org/splash/nm10.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ny projektledare på Nyaru Menteng |website=Save the Orangutan |date=26 January 2012 |url=http://www.savetheorangutan.se/about-us/news/ny-projektledare-paa-nyaru-menteng/ |access-date=2 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110175957/http://www.savetheorangutan.se/about-us/news/ny-projektledare-paa-nyaru-menteng/ |archive-date=10 January 2014 }}</ref> Babarapo kisah panyalamatan nan takenal maliputi Pony, saikua urangutan batino nan disalamaikan dari sabuah kampuang di Kalimantan Tangah pado tahun 2003 sasudah diekspoitasi jo dirantai. Sasudah disalamaikan, inyo direhab jo disosialisasian baliak ka urangutan lain.<ref>{{cite web |title=Orangutan shaved, made up and prostituted to men for six years |newspaper=[[The Week]] |date=28 November 2018 |access-date=29 April 2020 |url=https://www.theweek.co.uk/98117/orangutan-shaved-made-up-and-prostituted-to-men-for-six-years |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003151828/https://www.theweek.co.uk/98117/orangutan-shaved-made-up-and-prostituted-to-men-for-six-years |url-status=live }}</ref> Pado tahun 2017, BOS manyalamaikan saikua urangutan albino nan sangaik langka dari sabuah kampuang ketek di Kalimantan.<ref>{{cite web |author=Brady, Heather |date=18 May 2017 |title=Extremely Rare Albino Orangutan Found in Indonesia |publisher=National Geographic Society |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/05/rare-albino-orangutan-found-indonesia/ |access-date=29 April 2020 |archive-date=17 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217133615/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2017/05/rare-albino-orangutan-found-indonesia/ }}</ref> Pusek-pusek konservasi pantiang lainnyo barado di Taman Nasional Tanjuang Putiang, Sebangau, Gunuang Palung, Bukik Baka Bukik Raya, Gunuang Leuser, jo Bukik Lawang. Di Malaysia tadapek pusek konservasi Semenggoh, Matang, dan Sepilok.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sustainabletravel.org/traveler-resources/viewing-orangutans-in-the-wild/ |access-date=10 May 2020 |title=Viewing Orangutans in the Wild |work=Sustainable Travel International |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003131636/https://sustainabletravel.org/traveler-resources/viewing-orangutans-in-the-wild/ }}</ref> Salain itu, babagai organisasi internasional bakarajo samo jo industri sawit untuak maningkekan praktik nan labiah bakalanjuikan jo mandoroang pambantuakan kawasan palinduangan bagi urangutan.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=R. A. |title=Rehabilitation not enough to solve orangutan crisis in Indonesia |date=20 August 2009 |url=http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0820-orangutans.html |publisher=Mongabay |access-date=26 March 2012 |archive-date=5 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105163042/http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0820-orangutans.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Marusiak |first1=J. |title=New deal for orangutans in Kalimantan |website=Eco-Business |date=28 June 2011 |url=http://www.eco-business.com/features/new-deal-for-orangutans-in-kalimantan/ |access-date=3 April 2012 }}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Urangutan]] 7qk0c3s90lgf4f5qcxv8hyzfngqrdnp 0 477908 3351292 3347151 2026-08-05T22:29:08Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | name = Vertebrata barahang | fossil_range = <br />[[Early Silurian]]–[[Holocene]], {{fossilrange|439|0|earliest=444|latest=0|refs=<ref name="Brazeau-Friedman-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Brazeau |first1=M. D. |last2=Friedman |first2=M. |date=2015 |title=The origin and early phylogenetic history of jawed vertebrates |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=520 |issue=7548 |pages=490–497 |bibcode=2015Natur.520..490B |doi=10.1038/nature14438 |pmc=4648279 |pmid=25903631}}</ref>}} <small>(Kamungkinan catatan [[Ordovisian Akhia]], 444 juta tahun nan lampau)<ref name="Brazeau-Friedman-2015"/></small> | image = {{Multiple image | perrow = 2/2 | total_width = 280 | image1 = Dunkleosteus terrelli skull (TMP 2006.000.0062), Royal Tyrrell Museum, Drumheller, Alberta, 2025-07-13.jpg | image2 = Wikilemon Nbrevirostris1 TerryGoss.jpg | image3 = Pygocentrus nattereri - Karlsruhe Zoo 01.jpg | image4 = Nile crocodile head.jpg | border = infobox }} | image_caption = Contoh vertebrata barahang (saarah jarum jam dari kida ateh): ''[[Dunkleosteus]]'' ([[Placodermi]]), [[hiu lemon]] ([[Chondrichthyes]]), [[piranha paruik sirah]] ([[Actinopterygii]]), jo [[Buayo nil]] ([[Tetrapoda]]). | taxon = Gnathostomata | authority = [[Carl Gegenbaur|Gegenbauer]], 1874 | display_parents = 2 | subdivision_ranks = Subkalompok | subdivision = * {{extinct}}"[[Placodermi]]" * '''Eugnathostomata''' ** [[Kalompok mahkota]] Chondrichthyes *** {{extinct}}"[[Acanthodii]]" *** [[Chondrichthyes]] <small>(lauak batulang rawan)</small> ** [[Osteichthyes]] <small>(lauak batulang, tamasuak [[tetrapod]]s)</small> }} Gnathostomata (dari bahaso Yunani Kuno gnathos nan bararti rahang jo stoma nan bararti muncuang) adolah vertebrata barahang. Kalompok ko mancakuik sakitar 60.000 spesies, atau sakitar 99% dari kasadoan vertebrata nan masih hiduik. Anggotanyo maliputi kasadoan lauak batulang sajati nan masih ado (baiklak lauak basirip kipeh maupun basirip cupiang, tamasuak tetrapoda darek), lauak batulang rawan, sarato sajumlah kalompok lauak purba nan alah punah takah plakoderma dan akantodia. Sabagian gadang gnathostomata mampatahanan ciri-ciri leluhur takah gigi sajati, lambuang,<ref>{{cite journal |first1=L. Filipe C. |last1=Castro |first2=Odete |last2=Gonçalves |first3=Sylvie |last3=Mazan |first4=Boon-Hui |last4=Tay |first5=Byrappa |last5=Venkatesh |first6=Jonathan |last6=M. Wilson |date=2014 |title=Recurrent gene loss correlates with the evolution of stomach phenotypes in gnathostome history |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society]] |volume=281 |issue=1775 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.2669|pmid=24307675 |pmc=3866411 |bibcode=2014PBioS.28132669C }}</ref> jo anggota badan bapasangan (sirip dado jo sirip paruik, tungkai, sayok, jo sabagainyo).<ref name="ZacconeDabrowski2015" /> Ciri lainnyo maliputi kabaradoan elastin,<ref>{{Citation |last=Rodriguez-Pascual |first=Fernando |title=Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics |chapter=The Evolutionary Origin of Elastin: Is Fibrillin the Lost Ancestor? |date=2021-10-27 |series=Biochemistry |volume=23 |editor-last=Sashank Madhurapantula |editor-first=Rama |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |doi=10.5772/intechopen.95411 |isbn=978-1-83968-235-3 |s2cid=233943453 |editor2-last=Orgel P.R.O. |editor2-first=Joseph |editor3-last=Loewy |editor3-first=Zvi|doi-access=free }}</ref> saluran satangah lingkaran horizontal pado talingo dalam, neuron bermielin, sarato sistem kakabalan adaptif nan mampunyoi organ limfoid khusus takah limpa jo timus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Christian D. |last2=Criscitiello |first2=Michael F. |date=December 2020 |title=Comparative study of cartilaginous fish divulges insights into the early evolution of primary, secondary and mucosal lymphoid tissue architecture |journal=Fish & Shellfish Immunology |volume=107 |issue=Pt B |pages=435–443 |doi=10.1016/j.fsi.2020.11.006 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Sistem kakabalan ko manggunoan rekombinasi V(D)J untuak mambantuak lokasi panganalan antigen, bukan manggunoan rekombinasi genetik pado gen reseptor limfosit variabel.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cooper MD, Alder MN |title=The evolution of adaptive immune systems |url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2006-02-24_124_4/page/815 |journal=Cell |volume=124 |issue=4 |pages=815–22 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16497590 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.001|doi-access=free |bibcode=2006Cell..124..815C }}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Gnathostomata]] 80dij5z53vxtt864xrd2rjm6jx4o2wm 0 477983 3351235 3347798 2026-08-05T20:57:28Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351235 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Speciesbox | name = Urangutan tapanuli | taxon = Pongo tapanuliensis | authority = Nurcahyo, Meijaard, Nowak, Fredriksson & Groves, 2017{{refn|Deskripsi urangutan tapanuli marupokan hasia kolaborasi antaro 37 ilmuwan dari babagai institusi di dunia, tapu namo binomialnyo (namo ilmiah) diagiah dek limo ilmuwan nan disabuik di siko.|name=authority|group=note}} | image = Pongo tapanuliensis.jpg | image_caption = Jantan | image2 = Pongo tapanuliensis female.jpg | image2_caption = Batino<br />Dakek [[Danau Toba]] | status = CR | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Nowak, M.G. |author2=Rianti, P. |author3=Wich, S.A. |author4=Meijaard, E. |author5=Fredriksson, G. |date=2017 |title=''Pongo tapanuliensis'' |volume=2017 |article-number=e.T120588639A120588662 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T120588639A120588662.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | status2 = CITES_A1 | status2_system = CITES | status2_ref = <ref name="CITES">{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2023-03-01|website=cites.org}}</ref> | range_map = {{Location map|Indonesia Sumatra|caption=|lat_deg=1.7|lon_deg=99.0}} | range_map_caption = Lokasi sebaran di Sumatra | synonyms = }} '''Urangutan tapanuli''' ('''''Pongo tapanuliensis''''') adolah spesies [[urangutan]] nan tabateh di [[Kabupaten Tapanuli Selatan|Tapanuli Selatan]] di pulau [[Sumatera|Sumatra]].<ref name="curbio">{{Cite journal|last1=Nater|first1=Alexander|last2=Mattle-Greminger|first2=Maja P.|last3=Nurcahyo|first3=Anton|last4=Nowak|first4=Matthew G.|last5=de Manuel|first5=Marc|last6=Desai|first6=Tariq|last7=Groves|first7=Colin|last8=Pybus|first8=Marc|last9=Sonay|first9=Tugce Bilgin|last10=Roos|first10=Christian|last11=Lameira|first11=Adriano R.|last12=Wich|first12=Serge A.|last13=Askew|first13=James|last14=Davila-Ross|first14=Marina|last15=Fredriksson|first15=Gabriella|last16=de Valles|first16=Guillem|last17=Casals|first17=Ferran|last18=Prado-Martinez|first18=Javier|last19=Goossens|first19=Benoit|last20=Verschoor|first20=Ernst J.|last21=Warren|first21=Kristin S.|last22=Singleton|first22=Ian|last23=Marques|first23=David A.|last24=Pamungkas|first24=Joko|last25=Perwitasari-Farajallah|first25=Dyah|last26=Rianti|first26=Puji|last27=Tuuga|first27=Augustine|last28=Gut|first28=Ivo G.|last29=Gut|first29=Marta|last30=Orozco-terWengel|first30=Pablo|last31=van Schaik|first31=Carel P.|last32=Bertranpetit|first32=Jaume|last33=Anisimova|first33=Maria|last34=Scally|first34=Aylwyn|last35=Marques-Bonet|first35=Tomas|last36=Meijaard|first36=Erik|last37=Krützen|first37=Michael|date=2 November 2017|title=Morphometric, behavioral, and genomic evidence for a new orangutan species|journal=[[Current Biology]]|volume=27|issue=22|pages=3487–3498|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.047|pmid=29103940|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017CBio...27E3487N |hdl=10230/34400|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Iko marupokan salah ciek dari tigo spesies urangutan nan dikatahui masih hiduik, basamo jo [[urangutan sumatra]] (''P. abelii''), nan disobokan di barat lauik pulau tu, jo [[urangutan kalimantan]] (''P. pygmaeus''). Spesies ko [[Deskripsi spesies|dideskripsian]] sabagai [[spesies]] nan babedo pado tahun 2017.<ref name="Reese_A">{{Cite journal|last=Reese|first=April|date=2 November 2017|title=Newly discovered orangutan species is also the most endangered|url=https://archive.org/details/nature-uk_2017-11-09_551_7679/page/151|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=551|issue=7679|page=151|doi=10.1038/nature.2017.22934|pmid=29120449|bibcode=2017Natur.551..151R|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hinggo tahun 2018, tadapek sakitar 800 individu spesies ko jo kini ko barado dalam daftar spesies nan [[tarancam punah]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Nasution |first1=Arfah |last2=Perwitasari-Farajallah |first2=Dyah |last3=Utami-Atmoko |first3=Sri Suci |title=Declining orangutans population in the unprotected forest of Batang Toru |journal=Tropical Life Sciences Research |date=2018 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=77–87 |doi=10.21315/tlsr2018.29.2.6 |pmid=30112142 |pmc=6072730}}</ref> == Catatan == <references group="note"/> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Urangutan]] 0hppk64iwrmlyk78fo5hxdvv4hr6vmd 0 478135 3351226 3347890 2026-08-05T20:25:15Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Add 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Pamastian]] (20260805sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 3351226 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Shahbuz District in Azerbaijan.svg|thumb]] '''Distrik Shahbuz''' adolah salah ciek [[Distrik di Azerbaijan|distrik]] [[Republik Otonom Nakhchivan]] di [[Azerbaijan]]. Distrik ko babatehan jo [[distrik Julfa]], [[Distrik Babek|Babek]], dan [[provinsi Syunik]] dan [[Provinsi Vayots Dzor|Vayots Dzor]] di [[Armenia]]. Pado tahun 2020, distrik ko mampunyoi panduduak sabanyak 25.300 jiwa.<ref name="statgov">{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.gov.az/source/demoqraphy/ap/az/population_2020.zip |title=Population of Azerbaijan |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=stat.gov.az |publisher=[[State Statistics Committee]] |access-date=22 February 2021 |quote=}}</ref> Tadapek babagai versi arati namo Shahbuz. Pado sumber-sumber sijarah, patamo kali namo "Shahbuz" dapek disobokan pado peta nan manunjuakan perbendaharaan koin timbago nagara [[Eldiguziyah|Eldiguzid]] jo dalam karya sijarah [[Sharafuddin Ali Yazdi]] "''Zafarnama''", sijarawan [[Timur Lenk|Amir Timur]].<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 545014|title = The Rise of Tīmūrid Historiography|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-near-eastern-studies_1987-04_46_2/page/86|last = Woods|first = John E.|date = April 1987|journal = [[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]]|pages = 86, 99–101|volume = 46|issue = 2| doi=10.1086/373225 | s2cid=161334068 }}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Distrik di Azerbaijan]] i0vudlqh3rmza0b7six3bxwv7v4h3pq 0 478529 3351189 3350156 2026-08-05T15:46:48Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 3351189 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Stadium |stadium_name = Stadion Arrowhead |nickname = "Arrowhead" |image = [[Berkas:Arrowhead Stadium 2010.JPG|250px]] |location = 1 Arrowhead Drive<br>[[Kansas City, Missouri]] 64129 |coordinates = {{coord|39|2|56|N|94|29|2|W|type:landmark_scale:2000|display=inline,title}} |broke_ground = 11 Juli 1968<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jcsca.org/new/padmin/UserFiles/File/Januari%202010%20Newsletter.pdf|title=Truman Sports Complex Renovation Newsletter|date=Januari 2010|work=Jackson County Sports Complex Authority|publisher=Jackson County Sports Complex Authority}}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |opened = 12 Agustus 1972 |renovated = 2007-2010 |owner = Jackson County Sports Complex Authority |operator = [[Kansas City Chiefs]] |surface = Rumput sintetik (1972-1993)<br>Rumput (1994-sekarang) |construction_cost = [[United States dollar|$]]43&nbsp;juta<br>(${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|43000000|1972}}}} dollar{{inflation-fn|US}} tahun in {{CURRENTYEAR}})<br><br>[[United States dollar|$]]375&nbsp;juta (2007-2010 renovasi)<br>(${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US|375000000|2010}}}} dollar{{inflation-fn|US}} tahun n {{CURRENTYEAR}}) |architect = Kivett and Myers |structural engineer = BDC Engineers<ref>{{cite news|title=Engineering Firm's Founder Has Retired|first=Steve|last=Everly|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=KC&p_theme=kc&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF3C0832D7E320&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|newspaper=[[The Kansas City Star]]|date=Januari 13, 1991|accessdate=Mei 7, 2012|archive-date=2018-04-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429093058/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=KC&p_theme=kc&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF3C0832D7E320&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|dead-url=yes}}</ref> |general_contractor= Sharp-Kidde-Webb Joint Venture<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chiefswarpath.com/teamhistory/stadiums.htm|title=Stadium History|work=Team History|publisher=Chiefs War Path|accessdate=Oktober 18, 2011 }}</ref> |tenants = [[Kansas City Chiefs]] ([[National Football League|NFL]]) (1972–sekarang)<br>[[Sporting Kansas City|Kansas City Wizards]] ([[Major League Soccer|MLS]]) (1996-2007) |suites = 80 |seating_capacity = 76,416 (2010-sekarang)<ref>[http://www.kcchiefs.com/arrowhead/ Kansas City Chiefs - Arrowhead]</ref><br>79,451 (1997-2009)<ref>{{cite news|title=Chiefs Master the Art of Marketing in a Small Market|first=Larry|last=Felser|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BN&p_theme=bn&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF9A698348A3F7&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|newspaper=[[The Buffalo News]]|date=September 21, 1997|accessdate=Oktober 22, 2011|archive-date=January 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128072356/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=BN&p_theme=bn&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF9A698348A3F7&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|dead-url=yes}}</ref><br>79,101 (1995-1996)<ref>{{cite news|title=Chiefs Make KC's Pitch for Big 12 Football Title Game Arrowhead is Biggest of Four Stadiums in the Running Get Event|first=Randy|last=Covitz|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=KC&p_theme=kc&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF4212652DA7C5&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|newspaper=[[The Kansas City Star]]|date=September 8, 1995|accessdate=Oktober 22, 2011|archive-date=January 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128050932/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=KC&p_theme=kc&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF4212652DA7C5&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|dead-url=yes}}</ref><br>78,097 (1972-1994)<ref>{{cite news|title=Colts Rout Bills, 58-20, for Title; Steelers Playoff Foe|first=Thomas|last=Rogers|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10D17FD3C5F137B93C1A81789D95F428785F9|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=Desember 13, 1976|accessdate=Oktober 22, 2011}}</ref> |}} '''Stadion Arrowhead''' (biasanyo disabuik juo jo namo '''Arrowhead''') adolah sabuah stadion nan balokasi di [[Kansas City, Missouri]] dan manjadi kandang dek klub [[National Football League|NFL]], [[Kansas City Chiefs]]. Stadion iko mulai dibangun pado tahun 1968 dan salasai pambangunannyo pado tahun 1972. Stadion iko marupoan bagian dari [[Truman Sports Complex]] (tamasuak jo [[Stadion Kauffman]]). == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Stadion Piala Dunia FIFA 2026 di Amerika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Sipak bola]] aatf0xq0ggr0vte9un5ai1mk19kni8q 0 478666 3351187 3351135 2026-08-05T15:03:05Z InternetArchiveBot 12718 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 3351187 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Sangha-Mbaéré locator map.svg|thumb]] '''Sangha-Mbaéré''' adolah salah ciek [[prefektur di Republik Afrika Tangah]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stat-centrafrique.com/Donnees/donnees%20structurelles/demographie/population%20prefecture.htm |title=Population Prefecture |publisher=stat-centrafrique.com |access-date=27 January 2012 |archive-date=26 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626114213/http://www.stat-centrafrique.com/Donnees/donnees%20structurelles/demographie/population%20prefecture.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://statoids.com/ucf.html |title=Central African Republic Prefectures |publisher=statoids.com |access-date=27 January 2012}}</ref> Pusek pamarintahannyo barado di kota [[Nola, Republik Afrika Tangah|Nola]]. Wilayahnyo mancakuik area salaweh 19.412 km² (7.495 mil persegi). Pado tahun 2024, pakiroan rasmi manunjuakan jumlah panduduaknyo mancapai 152.675 jiwa.<ref name=2024-POP-EST>{{cite web |date=2024-10-21 |title=Population de la République Centrafricaine en 2021 et 2024 |url=https://icasees.org/rgph-4/index.php/actualites/rgph-4/207-population-de-la-republique-centrafricaine-en-2021-et-2024 |access-date=2025-01-29 |website=icasees.org |publisher=Institut centrafricain de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques et Sociales |language=fr |ref=CITEREFIcasees2024 |archive-date=2025-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250611013913/https://icasees.org/rgph-4/index.php/actualites/rgph-4/207-population-de-la-republique-centrafricaine-en-2021-et-2024 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> == Rujuakan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Prefektur di Republik Afrika Tangah]] dtg98v2yol1xhebkcc6aauv3qy38nx1 4 478677 3351184 2026-08-05T12:06:14Z Adhmi 7359 ←Mambuek laman baisi "[[File:Rasuna Said, Kami Perkenalkan (1954), p111.jpg|left|150px]] '''Hj. Rangkayo Rasuna Said''' (14 September 1910 – 2 November 1965) adolah pajuang kamardekaan dan politikus Indonesia nan dianugerahi gala pahlawan nasional Indonesia. Mode Kartini, inyo juo mampajuangan adonyo pasamoan hak antaro laki-laki jo padusi. Inyo dimakamkan di TMP Kalibata, Jakarta. '''([[Rasuna Said|salangkoknyo...]])''' <small>Artikel nan Tapiliah sabalunnyo: [[Haji]] &ndash; Baha..." 3351184 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Rasuna Said, Kami Perkenalkan (1954), p111.jpg|left|150px]] '''Hj. Rangkayo Rasuna Said''' (14 September 1910 – 2 November 1965) adolah pajuang kamardekaan dan politikus Indonesia nan dianugerahi gala pahlawan nasional Indonesia. Mode Kartini, inyo juo mampajuangan adonyo pasamoan hak antaro laki-laki jo padusi. Inyo dimakamkan di TMP Kalibata, Jakarta. '''([[Rasuna Said|salangkoknyo...]])''' <small>Artikel nan Tapiliah sabalunnyo: [[Haji]] &ndash; [[Bahaso Minangkabau]] &ndash; [[Biluluak]] &ndash; [[Michelle Yeoh]] </small> [[Kategori:Artikel nan Tapiliah 2026]] n7e92fxh22y41zich55ld8xil7atj4i 2 478678 3351337 2026-08-06T03:45:29Z Zakiyyan 24506 ←Mambuek laman baisi "Halo sanak wiki" 3351337 wikitext text/x-wiki Halo sanak wiki 8me33d3n1k6lsf96b2gbyantvcz5r3x